THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
NEW VOLUMES
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 1771.
SECOND ten 1777-1784.
THIRD eighteen 17881797.
FOURTH twenty 18011810.
FIFTH twenty 18151817.
SIXTH twenty 18231824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 1830 1842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 1860.
NINTH twenty-five 18751889.
TENTH (ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes), 1902 1903.
ELEVENTH published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
TWELFTH (eleventh edition and three new volumes), 1922 .
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BR1TANNICA COMPANY, LTD.
All rights reserved
THE
.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
THE NEW VOLUMES
CONSTITUTING, IN COMBINATION WITH THE TWENTY-NINE VOLUMES
OF THE ELEVENTH EDITION,
THE TWELFTH EDITION
OF THAT WORK, AND ALSO SUPPLYING
A NEW, DISTINCTIVE, AND INDEPENDENT LIBRARY OF REFERENCE
DEALING WITH EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF
THE PERIOD 1910 TO 1921 INCLUSIVE
THE THIRD OF THE NEW VOLUMES
VOLUME XXXII
PACIFIC OCEAN ISLANDS to ZULOAGA
ALSO SEPARATE INDEX, CLASSIFIED TABLE OF CONTENTS AND LIST OF 'CONTRIBUTORS
COVERING THE NEW VOLUMES XXX, XXXI AND XXXII
LONDON
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD.
NEW YORK
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.
1922
Copyright, in ths United States of America, 1922,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXXII. TO IDENTIFY CONTRIBUTORS, 1
WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES TO WHICH
THESE INITIALS ARE SIGNED.
Pan-Turanianism.
Roosevelt, Theodore;
United States: History.
(
w me . n f Employment:
Umted, Kingdom.
Typhus Fever.
A. A. M. ARTHUR ANTHONY MACDONNELL, M.A., PH.D., HON. LL.D., F.B.A.
Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Balliol Col-
lege, Oxford. Author of The Turanians and Pan-Turanianism; Eurasian Routes;
Vedic Mythology; A History of Sanskrit Literature; A Vedic Grammar; etc.
A. B. H. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, A.B., LL.D., LITT.D.
Professor of Government, Harvard University. Author of Salmon Portland
Chase; Slavery and Abolition; National Ideas Historically Traced: Monroe Doc-
trine; etc. Editor of the American Nation; Cyclopaedia of American Govern-
ment; etc.
A. B. W. MRS. AMBER BLANCO WHITE, O.B.E.
Director, Women's Wages Section, British Ministry of Munitions, 1917-8. Mem- I
ber of National Whitley Council for the Civil Service, 1919-20.
A. Ci. ALDO CASTELLANI, C.M.G., M.D., M.R.C.P.
Lecturer, London School of Tropical Medicine. Formerly Professor of Tropical
Medicine, Ceylon Medical School. Author (with Dr. A. J. Chalmers) of Manual
of Tropical Medicine; etc.
A. C. Ca. A. CECIL CARTER (d. 1921). f
Formerly Superintendent of Siamese Government Students at the Siamese Lega- < Siam.
tion, London. Sometime Principal of King's College, Bangkok.
A. C. D. CAPTAIN ALFRED C. DEWAR, R.N. (RET.), B.LITT. (Oxon.). ( c
Gold Medallist, Royal United Service Institution. Late of the Historical Section, \ Submarine Campaigns;
Naval Staff, Admiralty. [ Zeebrugge.
A. C. L ARTHUR CONYERS INMAN, M.A., M.B., B.Cn. (Oxon.). f
Pathologist to the Brompton Hospital for Consumption. Hon. Captain. I v . _.
R.A.M.C. Special Bacteriologist in the British Expeditionary Force during the ) vaccme inerapy.
World War. [
A. C. W. LIEUTENANT-COLONEL ARTHUR CECIL WILLIAMS, C.B.E., R.G.A.
Late Chief Instructor in Range-finding at the Ordnance College, Woolwich.
During the World War Director of Inspection of Optical Supplies for the British
Army.
A. E. A. ALGERNON EDWARD ASPINALL, C.M.G., B.A.
Secretary to the West India Committee. Author of The British West Indies;
The Pocket Guide to the West Indies; etc.
A. E. C. AGNES ETHEL CONWAY, M.B.E., B.A. (Dublin).
Hon. Curator, Women's Work Section, Imperial War Museum. Author of
Child's Book of Art; A Ride Through the Balkans.
A. E. McK. ALBERT E. MCKINLEY, PH.D. f p
Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania. Secretary, Pennsylvania War { p ni ! y} vania 5
History Commission. President, Pennsylvania Federation of Historical Societies. [ r mlaael P n i a -
A. E. T. ALFRED EDWARD TAYLOR, M.A., D.Lrrr., F.B.A. (
Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of St. Andrews. Author of The < Philosophy.
Problem of Conduct; Elements of Metaphysics; Varia Socratica; etc.
A. F. ALFRED FOWLER, F.R.S. f
Corresponding Member, Academy of Science, Paris. Professor of Astrophysics, < Spectroscopy.
Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington.
1 A complete list, showing all contributors to the New Volumes (arranged according to the alphabetical order of their surnames) with
the articles signed by them, appears at the end of this volume.
Rangefinders and Position
Finders (in part).
I West Indies, British.
f Women's War-Work
(in part).
15615
ri INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. F. B. ALDRED FARRER BARKER, M.Sc. f
Professor of Textile Industries in the University of Leeds. Author or Joint- < Wool,
author of Wool Carding and Combing; Textile Design; Cloth Analysis; etc.
A. F. G. B. AUBREY FITZGERALD BELL. /
Author of Portugal of the Portuguese; Studies in Portuguese Literature; etc. \ portu S al -
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., LITT.D., F.B.A. f
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls J World War: Political His-
College, Oxford. Chairman of the Institute of Historical Research. Author of ] tory.
A Short History of the Great War; The Evolution of Parliament; etc.
A. F. Pr. ALFRED FRANCIS PRIBRAM, PH.D. f
Professor of Modern History in the University of Vienna. Member of the < Plener, E.
Vienna Academy of Science; etc.
A. GL BRIGADIER-GENERAL SIR ALEXANDER GIBB, G.B.E., C.B., D.S.M. (U.S.A.), Com-
mander of the Order of the Crown of Belgium. M.lNST.C.E., M.I.M.E.,
A.I.N.A., F.R.S. (Edin.).
A. P. S.
Late Civil Engineer-in-Chief, Admiralty. Late Director-General of Civil En-
gineering, British Ministry of Transport. Consulting Civil Engineer, Ministry
of Transport.
Transport
A. H. S. REAR-ADMIRAL ARCHIBALD HENDERSON SCALES. / United States Naval
Superintendent, United States Naval Academy. \ Academy.
A.-K. GENERAL MORITZ AUFFENBERG-KOMAROW. / .
See the biographical article: AUFFENBERG-KOMASOW, MORITZ. \ Pnanzer-Baltin, *>
A. K. K. DR. ALLEN K. KRAUSE.
Staff of Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore. Managing Editor of the Ameri- < Tuberculosis: United Stales.
can Review of Tuberculosis. [
A. K. Y. SIR ARTHUR KEYSALL YAPP, K.B.E. f
Officer of the Order of the Crown of Belgium. Order of Wen Hu (China). I ,_ ~ A rr .. , . ,
National Secretary of the Y.M.C.A. Director of Food Economy (Hon.), Sept. 1 Y - M - c - A - : United Kingdom.
1918. Author of Romance of the Red Triangle; etc. [
A. L. Bo. ARTHUR LYON BOWLEY, Sc.D.
Professor of Statistics in the University of London. Author of Elements of ce vf
Statistics; Wages in the United Kingdom; etc. 1 Wages (m P art >-
A. L. C. COLONEL ARTHUR LATHAM CONGER, U.S. ARMY. f Western European Front
Distinguished Service Medal (U.S.A.), C.M.G. Legion of Honour. Formerly < Campaigns (in part) ;
Co-editor of The Military Historian and Economist. ( Woevre, Battles in: Part II.
A. O. R. ALEXANDER OLIVER RANKINE, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.INST.P. f
Fellow of University College, London. Professor of Physics in the Imperial ( Sound.
Colkge of Science and Technology.
ANSON PHELPS STOKES, D.D., LL.D. f v . TT . .
Secretary of Yale University. Author of Memorials of Eminent Yale Men; etc. \ Xale Umversit 7-
A. T. W. SIR ARNOLD TALBOT WILSON, K.C.I.E., C.S.I., C.M.G., D.S.O.
Late Civil Commissioner in Mesopotamia, and Political Resident in the Per- { Persian Gulf,
sian Gulf.
B. A. COMMANDER BERNARD ACWORTH, D.S.O., R.N. | Submarine Mines (in part).
B. B.-H. MAJOR-GENERAL BASIL FERGUSON BURNETT-HITCHCOCK, C.B., D.S.O. Director- / United Kingdom: Post War
General of Mobilization and Recruiting, British War Office. \ Army.
B. J.* BURGES JOHNSON, A.B. (Amherst). f
Associate Professor of English and Director of the Bureau of Publication, Vassar | Vassar College.
College. Editor of the Bulletin of the Authors' League of America.
B. K. L. BASIL KELLETT LONG. / Q ^ T
Editor of the Cape Times. Formerly Foreign Editor of The Times (London). \ a l s> J *
C. Br.* SIR CHARLES BRIGHT, F.R.S.E., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.E.E., F.S.S., F.Hisx.S. [ g bmarme Cab i e Teleirra-
Author of Submarine Telegraphs; Imperial Telegraphic Communication; Teleg- { , '
raphy, Aeronautics and War; etc. [ ^ ^'
C. C.* CARL CHRISTOPHELSMEIER, B.A., M.A., PH.D. f
Head of the Department of History and Political Science in the University of J *Vi T> t f
South Dakota. Author of The First Revolutionary Step (June 17, 1789); The
Fourth of August, 1789; etc.
C. Do. CLIFFORD DOBELL, M.A., F.R.S.
Protistologist to the Medical Research Council. Late Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge. Formerly Assistant Professor of Protistology and Cytology, Im-
perial College of Science, London.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
vn
C. E. C.
C. F.A.
C.F.CL
C. G.R.
C. H. H.
C. J. M.
C.K.*
C.Ly.
C. L. C.
C. Ma.
C. M. E. M.
C. M. L.
C.Po.
C. R. D.
C. R. F.
C. Sey.
C. T. A.
D. D. W.
D.Hy.
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR CHARLES EDWARD CALLWELL, K.C.B.
Director of Military Operations, War Office, 1914-6. Author of Small Wars;
Military Operations and Maritime Preponderance; The Dardanelles; etc.
MAJOR CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON, T.D.
Late East Surrey Regiment. Distinguished Service Medal (U.S.A.), Order of
Saint Anne (Russia). Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Staff Of-
ficer for Trench Warfare Research, 1915-7. British Instructor in Intelligence,
American Expeditionary Force, 1918. Editorial Staff of the nth edition of the
Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of Grant's Campaigns; The Wilderness and
Cold Harbor; etc.
COLONEL SIR CHARLES FREDERICK CLOSE, K.B.E., C.B., C.M.G., F.R.S.
Director-General of the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom. Author of
Text Book of Topographical Surveying.
CHARLES GARONNE RENOLD, M.E. (Cornell).
Managing Director of Hans Renold, Limited,
etc.
Staff, Military;
Turkish Campaigns:
Mesopotamia;
Ypres-Yser, Battles of:
Part III,
Rifles and Light Machine-
Guns (in part)^ ;
Serbian Campaigns; Siege-
craft and Siege Warfare ;
Signal Service Army (in part) ;
Trench Ordnance (in part) ;
Western European Front
Campaigns (in part) ;
Woevre, Battles hi (in part).
Surveying (in part).
Author of Workshop Committees; < Scientific Management.
CLARENCE HENRY HARING, B.Lrrx. (Oxon.), PH.D. (Harvard).
Associate Professor of History in Yale University. Author of The Buccaneers
in the West Indies in the XVII. Century; Trade and Navigation between Spain
and the Indies in the Time of the Hapsburgs; etc.
COURTENAY J. MILL.
Financial Editor of The Times (London).
CARL KARSTEN.
Member of the Staff of the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung.
C. LELY, C.E.
Ex-Minister of Public Works, Holland. Member of the Second Chamber of the
States General.
CHARLES LYON CHANDLER, A.B.
Curator of South American History and Literature in the Harvard College
Library. Manager of the Foreign Commercial Department of the Corn Exchange
National Bank of Philadelphia. Author of Inter-American Acquaintances.
Rio de Janeiro.
Stock Exchange.
f Saxony;
< Schleswig;
{ Silesia, Upper (in part).
Zuider Zee.
Paraguay;
Uruguay.
CUTHBERT MAUGHAN. f
Contributor on Finance, Shipping and Insurance to The Annual Register, etc. I .. . _ . .
Representative of Admiralty Section of the British Ministry of Information in ] &m PP m g : British.
North America, 1918.
GENERAL CHARLES MARIE EMANUEL MANGIN, K.C.B. , etc.
See the biographical article: MANGIN, C: M. E.
Verdun, Battles of (in part).
CHARLES MOSTYN LLOYD, M.A. (Oxon.).
Barrister-at-Law. Lecturer at the London School of Economics and Political I p .,
Science. Author of Trade Unionism; Essays on the Reorganization of Local j
Government; etc.
COURTENAY EDWARD MAXWELL POLLOCK, R.B.S., F.R.S.L.
<, Sculpture (in part).
CHARLES ROBERT DARLING, F.INST.P., F.I.C.
Lecturer in Applied Physics, City and Guilds Technical College, Finsbury. < Pyrometry.
Author of Heat for Engineers; Pyrometry; etc.
CARL RUSSELL FISH, M.A., PH.D. f
Professor of American History in the University of Wisconsin. Author of Civil < Wisconsin.
Service and the Patronage; Development of American Diplomacy; etc.
CHARLES SEYMOUR, M.A., PH.D., Lnr.D. [
Professor of History in Yale University. U.S. Technical Delegate at the Paris I Wilson, Woodrow;
Peace Conference. Author of The Diplomatic Background of the War; Woodrow \ Washington Conference.
Wilson and the World War; etc. [
ISomme, Battles of the
(in part) ;
Ypres-Yser, Battles of
(in part).
CAPTAIN C. T. ATKINSON.
Historical Section, Committee of Imperial Defense.
DAVID DUNCAN WALLACE, A.M., PH.D.
Professor of History and Economics in Wofford College, Spartanburg, S. Caro-
lina. Author of Life of Henry Laurens; The Government of England; Civil '
Government of South Carolina and the United States. [
DOUGLAS HYDE, LL.D., D.Lrrr.
Professor of Modern Irish in University College, Dublin. President of the Irish < Pearse, Patrick.
Texts Society. Author of Literary History of Ireland; etc.
South Carolina.
Vlll
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
D. R. D.
D. S. M.*
E. C. Ba.
E. C. C.
E. D. M.
E. D. S.
E. F. S.*
E. G. S.
E. J.
E. L. C.
E.N.daC.A.
E. Ru.
E. R. E.
E. S. C.
E. S. M.
E. T.
E. T. D.
E. T. d'E.
E. VL
E. v. W.
United States: Statistics.
United States: Agriculture.
Tanks.
DAVIS RICH DEWEY, PH.D., LL.D.
Professor of Economics and Statistics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Formerly Secretary of the American Statistical Association. Managing Editor
of the American Economic Review. Author of Financial History of the United
States. Editor of Francis Walker's Discussions in Economics and Statistics.
DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.Lnr., F.B.A.
Laudian Professor of Arabic in the University of Oxford. Editor of Yaquit's ( Pan-Islamism.
Dictionary of Learned Men, etc. Author of Mohammed and the Rise of Islam; etc.
EUGENE CAMPBELL BARKER, PH.D.
Professor of American History, and Chairman of the Department of History, I _,
University of Texas. Joint-author of A School History of Texas. Managing |
Editor, Southwestern Historical Quarterly.
ELLERY CHANNING CHTLCOTT, M.S.
Chief of Dry Lands Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry of the U.S. De-
partment of Agriculture.
ERIC DENVERS MACNAMARA, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.
Lecturer in Psychological Medicine in the Charing Cross Hospital Medical { Psychotherapy.
School. Physician to the West End Hospital for Nervous Diseases.
MAJOR-GENERAL ERNEST DUNLOP SWINTON, C.B., D.S.O.
Late Royal Engineers. Author of The Green Curve; The Great Tab Dope; The
Defence of Duffer's Drift. Official " Eyewitness " with the British Army in France,
1914-5. Originator of the Tank. Raiser and first commander of the Tank Corps.
EDGAR FAHS SMITH, PH.D., CHEM.D., Sc.D., L.H.D., M.D., LL.D.
Late Provost of the University of Pennsylvania, and Emeritus Professor of
Chemistry.
EMMA GURNEY SALTER, M.A., LITT.D.
Author of Franciscan Legends in Italian Art; Nature in Italian Art; etc.
MAJOR ERNST JOLY.
Late General Staff, Austro-Hungarian Army. Now of the Kriegsarchiv, Vienna.
Part-author of the Austrian Official War Chronology Tables; etc.
EDGAR LEIGH COLLIS, M.A., M.D. (Oxon.), M.R.C.P. (Lond.).
Mansel Talbot Professor of Preventive Medicine, Welsh National School of
Medicine. Late Director (Welfare and Health), Ministry of Munitions. H.M.
Medical Inspector of Factories.
EDWARD NEVILLE DA COSTA ANDRADE, D.Sc., PH.D., F.INST.P.
Fellow of University College, London. Professor of Physics in the Artillery Col-
lege, Woolwich.
SIR ERNEST RUTHERFORD, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics, University of Cambridge. Author
of Radioactivity; Radioactive Substances and their Radiations; etc. See the bio-
graphical article: RUTHERFORD, SIR ERNEST.
ERIC RUCKER EDDISON, B.A.
Controller of the Profiteering Act Department of the Board of Trade (London).
E. S. CATON.
Editor of Tobacco.
EDMOND STEPHEN MEANEY, M.S., M.L.
Professor of History in the University of Washington. Author of History of the ( Washington (State).
Stale of Washington; Vancouver's Discovery of Puget Sound; etc. [
ELIHU THOMSON, A.M., PH.D., D.Sc.
Pennsylvania, University of.
< Rio de Oro.
f Przemysl, Sieges of;
I Strypa-Czernowitz ,
| Battle of;
[ Vistula-San, Battle of the.
Welfare Work in Industry.
iRangefinders and Position-
Finders (in part).
Radioactivity.
/ Profiteering: United
\ Kingdom.
Tobacco (in part).
HU THOMSON, A.M., PH.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Engineer of the General Electric Company. Originator of Resistance j Welding, Electric.
Electric Welding (Thomson Process). I
EDWARD THOMAS DEVINE, PH.D., LL.D. f United States :
Associate Editor of The Survey, New York. Author of Misery and its Causes; < w c if are
The Normal Life; Disabled Soldiers and Sailors; etc. I
SIR EUSTACE HENRY WILLIAM TENNYSON D'EYNCOURT, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc.
Commander of the Legion of Honour. Distinguished Service Medal (U.S.A.).
Director of Naval Construction and Chief Technical Adviser to the British
Admiralty. Chief Adviser on Tanks to the Ministry of Munitions during the
World War. Vice-president of the Institution of Naval Architects.
Social and
(i n part).
Ship and Shipbuilding.
ETHAN VIALL.
Editor of American Machinist. Member A.S.M.E., A.I.E.E., A.S.T.M., S.A.E.
Author of Broaches and Broaching; Electric Welding; Gas-Torch and Thermit
Welding; United States Rifles and Machine Guns; United States Artillery Am-
munition; Manufacture of Artillery Ammunition; etc.
EDUARD VON WERTHEIMER.
Emeritus Professor of History in the University of Pressburg.
Thermit and Thermit
Welding ;
Welding: Gas Torch.
(Szell, K.;
< Szilagyi, D.;
[ Tisza.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
IX
F. B. M.
F. C. E.
F. C. S. S.
F.F.
F. H. Br.
F. H. H.
F. M. B.
F. M. R.
F.R.C.
F. T.
F.W.
F. W. Mo.
G.A.S.
G. C. S.
G. Dr.
G. D.H.C.
G. E. B.
G. E. F.
Western European Front
Campaigns (in part).
Caucasus.
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERICK BARTON MAURICE, K.C.M.G., C.B.
Commander of the Legion of Honour. Croix de Guerre. First Class Orders of
St. Stanislas of Russia. Director of Military Operations, Imperial General
Staff, 1915-6. Author of Forty Days in igi4; The Last Four Months; etc.
FRANZ CARL ENDRES. i ~ . . .
Major, late General Staff, Turkish Army. Author of a Life oj M alike; Die Ruine I 1
des Orients; etc. Member of Committee, German League of Nations Union.
FERDINAND CANNING SCOTT SCHILLER, M.A., D.Sc.
Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. President of the Society
for Psychical Research, 1914. Author of Formal Logic; Humanism; Studies in \
Humanism; Riddles of the Sphinx; etc.
FRANK Fox, O.B.E.
Author of Australia; Problems of the Pacific; "G.H.Q." Served in the World
War as British Artillery officer and as Staff officer.
FRANK HERBERT BROWN, C.I.E.
On the Staff of The Times for Indian Affairs. London Correspondent of The
Times of India. Formerly Assistant Editor of the Bombay Gazette and Editor of
the Indian Daily Telegraph, Lucknow.
FRANKLIN HENRY HOOPER.
American Editor of the Encyclopedia Britannica (i2th Edition).
_
en.
Supply and Transport,
Military.
Tilak, B. G.
Public Assistance: United
States.
MAJOR FREDERICK MARSHMAN BAILEY, C.I.E.
Indian Political Department. Gold Medallist of the Royal Geographical Society, < Turkestan, West
1916. [
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL F. M. RlCKARD. f
Royal Artillery. Chief Instructor, Artillery College, Woolwich (assisted by { Propellants.
Instructional Staff, Artillery College).
FRANK RICHARDSON CANA, F.R.G.S.
Editorial Staff, nth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Editorial Staff of
The Times. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union ; Problems
of Exploration; Africa; The Sahara in igiy, The Great War in Europe; etc.
Portuguese East Africa;
Rhodesia; Senussi; Sierra
Leone; Somaliland; South
Africa (in part) ; Sudan (in
part); Suez Canal; Tan-
ganyika Territory; Togo-
land; Transvaal; Tripoli;
Uganda; Zanzibar.
GENERAL FREDERIC THEVENET.
General of Division, French Army. Formerly Governor of Belfort.
Belfort region in the World War. Author of La Place de Belfort.
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FABIAN WARE, K.B.E., C.B., C.M.G.
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Commander of the Order of the Crown
(Belgium), etc. Vice-chairman of the Imperial War Graves .Commission.
Formerly Editor of the Morning Post.
SIR FREDERICK MOTT, K.B.E., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Director of the Pathological Laboratory of the L.C.C. Asylums. Consulting
Physician, Charing Cross Hospital. Late Member of the Royal Commission on
Venereal Diseases.
SIR GEORGE AUGUSTUS SUTTON, BART.
Chairman of the Amalgamated Press, Limited,
the British Treasury, 1917-9.
Commander < Vosges, Battles in the.
War Graves.
Shell Shock;
Venereal Diseases.
Hon. Director of Publicity to
GILBERT CAMPBELL SCOGGIN, M.A., PH.D.
Sometime Scholar of Harvard University.
Formerly Assistant Professor of
Loan
paigns.
Tennessee.
Publicity Cam-
Greek at the University of Missouri. Associate Editor of The Classical Journal.
Member of the American Editorial Staff of the Encyclopcedia Britannica.
GEOFFREY DRAGE, M.A.
President of the Central Poor Law Conference, 1906. Vice-president, Royal
Statistical Society, 1916-8. Attached to the War Office, Military Intelligence Sec-
tion, 1916. Author of The State and the Poor; Reorganization of Official Statistics
and a Central Statistical Office ; Pre-war Statistics of Poland and Lithuania ; etc.
GEORGE DOUGLAS HOWARD COLE, M.A.
Formerly Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Hon. Secretary, Labour Re-
search Department. Author of The World of Labour; Self -Government in In-
dustry; Guild Socialism Restated; Social Theory; etc. (
GEORGE EARLE BUCKLE, M.A., HON. LL.D.
Formerly Scholar, of New College and Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. I pt, J H vicrnnnt.
Editor of The Times, 1884-191 2. Author of Life of Disraeli (vols. 3, 4, 5, and 6). 1 *
See biographical article: BUCKLE, GEORGE EARLE.
GEORGE EMORY FELLOWS, A.M., PH.D., L.H.D., LL.D. f
Professor of History and Political Science in the University of Utah. President
of the University of Maine, 1902-11. Author of Recent European History; Out-
line Study of the Sixteenth Century ; etc.
Poland;
Public Assistance (in part).
Socialism;
Wage System in Industry.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
G. G. G.
G. K. S. M.
G. P. D.
G. S.
H. A. W.*
H.B.*
H. Be.
H. Ch.
H. C. P.
H. D. B.
H. E. A. C.
H. F. O.
H.LP.
H. J. G.
H. M. M.
H. O'L.
H. P.-G.
H. P. D.
H. Sa.
H. S. L. W.
H.Wf.
GEORGE G. GROAT, PH.D.
Head of the Department of Commerce and Economics, University of Vermont.
Author of Attitude of American Courts in Labor Cases; Introduction to the Study
of Organized Labor in America.
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR GEORGE KENNETH SCOTT-MONCRIEFF, K.C.B., K.C.M.G.,
C.I.E., Hon. M.Inst.C.E., Late R.E.
Director of Fortifications and Works, War Office, 1911-8. Author of The Water
Supply of Barracks and Cantonments; The Principles of Structural Design; etc.
MAJOR-GENERAL GUY PAYAN DAWNAY, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., M.V.O.
Formerly Brigadier-General, General Staff, Egyptian Expeditionary Force, and
Director of Staff Duties, G.H.Q., France.
GEORGE SAUNDERS, O.B.E., B.A. (Oxon.), HON. LL.D. (Glasgow).
Correspondent of the Morning Post in Berlin, 1888-97; and of The Times in
Berlin, 1897-1908, and in Paris, 1908-14.
COLONEL H. A. WHITE.
Judge Advocate, United States Army Department.
HERBERT BRANDE.
Formerly Editorial Writer, The Chicago Tribune.
GENERAL HENRI BERTHAUT.
Sub-Chief of the General Staff of the French Army, 1903-12. Author of La
Cartede France; Topologie;DelaMarnedla Merdu Nord; L'Erreurde 1914; etc.
HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the loth, nth
and 1 2th editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Financial Editor of The
Times, 1913-20. See the biographical article: CHISHOLM, HUGH.
HENRY CLEMENS PEARSON, F.R.G.S.
Editor and Publisher of the India Rubber World, New York. Author of Crude
Rubber Compounding Ingredients; Rubber Machinery; Pneumatic Tires; Rubber
Country of the Amazon; What I Saw in the Tropics; etc.
CAPTAIN HENRY DALRYMPLE BRIDGES, D.S.O., R.N.
HENRY EVAN AUGUSTE COTTON, C.I.E., L.C.C.
Formerly Scholar of Jesus College, Oxford, and Advocate of the High Court at
Calcutta. Author of Calcutta Old and New. Late Editor of India.
HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN, LL.D., D.Sc.
Honorary Curator of Vertebrate Palaeontology in the American Museum of
Natural History, New York City; and Vertebrate Palaeontologist, United States
Geological Survey. .
HERBERT INGRAM PRIESTLEY, M.A., PH.D. [ p anama .
Associate Professor of Mexican History and Librarian of the Bancroft Library, I g a j vador '.
University of California. Author of Jos& de Galvez, Visitor-General of New Spain ; \
etc. i
SIR HENRY GAUVAIN, M.A., M.D., M.CH. (Cantab.).
Medical Superintendent, Lord Mayor Treloar Cripples' Hospital and College,
Alton and Hayling Island, Hants. Hon. Consulting Surgeon to the Welsh National
Memorial Association. Consultant in Surgical Tuberculosis to the Essex and
Hampshire County Councils.
HAROLD MEDWAY MARTIN, A.C.G.I.
Whitworth Scholar. Member of the Nozzles Research Committee, appointed
by the Institute of Mechanical Engineers. Member of the Lubricants and Lubri-
cation Enquiry Committee, appointed by the Department of Scientific and In-
dustrial Research (London).
Vermont
Training Camps, Military
{ (in part] ;
Water Supply, Military.
Turkish Campaigns: Sinai.
Tirpitz, Alfred von.
< United States : Military Law.
| Railway Stations.
{Western European Front
Campaigns (in part).
World War: Introductory.
Rubber.
| Submarine Mines (in part}.
Tagore, R.
Palaeontology.
Tuberculosis (in part).
Turbines, Steam (in part).
MAJOR HERBERT O'LEARY.
U.S. Army. Chief of Small Army Division, Ordnance Officer, Washington.
HARRY PIRIE-GORDON, D.Sc., M.A.
Served in the World War. Deputy Governor of Jerusalem, 1918. Editor of
A Brief Account of the Advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force.
CAPTAIN HENRY PERCY DOUGLAS, C.M.G., R.N., F.R.A.S., A.M.I.C.E.
Assistant Hydrographer of the British Navy, 1919-21.
HIROSI SAITO, M.A.
Secretary of Embassy and Consul in the Japanese Diplomatic and Consular
Service. Member of the Japanese Delegation to the Peace Conference in Paris,
1919, and to other Inter-Allied and International Conferences in Europe and
America, 1919-21.
HAROLD ST. JOHN LOYD WINTERBOTHAM, C.M.G., D.S.O.
Ordnance Survey, Great Britain. Victoria Medallist of the R.G.S., 1920.
HUMBERT WOLFE, C.B.E.
f Pistol; Rifles and Light
< Machine-Guns (in part);
_[ Sights: (Rifle and Pistol).
Palestine; Syria; Trans jor-
- dania; Turkish Cam-
paigns: Palestine.
Surveying: Nautical.
Sakhalin.
Surveying (in part).
Trade Boards.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XI
H. W. C. D.
H. W. K.
H. W. M.
H. W. W.
I. M. T.
I. O.A.
J. A. F.
J. A. G.*
J. A. K.
J. A. Ro.
J. A. T.
J. B. Bi.
J. C. P.*
J. C. Van D.
J. D. P.
J. E. C.
J. E. Ha.
J.H.
HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A., C.B.E.
Professor of History at Manchester University. Fellow and formerly Tutor of , -.
Balliol College, Oxford. Sometime Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Member > * ence>
of Advisory Staff of British delegation to the Peace Conference.
J United Kingdom: Medical
H. W. KAYE, M.D. (Oxon.).
Director of Medical Services, Ministry of Pensions. Late Personal Assistant \ ,, - r , ,, .
to Chief Commissioner of Medical Services, Ministry of National Service. [ ^animation Oj the Nation.
HENRY WILLIAM MARDON, F.R.G.S. C
Commander of the Mejidieh. Formerly Lecturer in Geography and Education J TT1 _ .
in the Tewfikieh and Dar el Ulum Colleges, Cairo. Author of A Geography of | UKrame
Egypt and the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan; etc.
HERBERT WRIGLEY WILSON, M.A. f
Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Oxford. Author of Ironclads in Action. ) , . T .
Contributor to The Cambridge Modern History. Assistant Editor of The Daily } KOU !re W>r<L
Mail. {
IDA MINERVA TARBELL, M.A., LiTT.D., LL.D.
Former Associate Editor of The Chautauquan, McClure's Magazine, American
Magazine. Author of Life of Abraham Lincoln; The History of the Standard Oil
Company; The Tariff in our Times; New Ideals in Business; etc.
IRENE OSGOOD ANDREWS, A.B.
Assistant Secretary, American Association for Labor Legislation. Author of
Working Women in Tanneries; Irregular Employment and the Living Wage for
Women; Economic Effects of the War upon Women and Children in Great Britain;
etc.
JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.lNST.E.E.
Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of Uni-
versity College, London. Sometime Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge.
Author of The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy and Telephony; The Prop-
agation of Electric Currents in Telephone and Telegraph Conductors; The Ther-
mionic Valve; The Wonders of Wireless Telegraphy; etc.
JAMES ANDREW GUNN, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.).
Professor of Pharmacology, University of Oxford. Formerly Assistant in the
Department of Pharmacology, Edinburgh University.
J. A. KAY.
Editor of the Railway Gazette.
JAMES ALEXANDER ROBERTSON, Pn.B., L.H.D.
Chief of the Near Eastern Division Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce,
Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. Managing Editor of The Hispanic
American Historical Review. Co-editor of Blair and Robertson's The Philippine
Islands, I4fjj-i8ff8 (55 Vols.). Compiler of Bibliography of the Philippine
Islands; etc.
JOHN'ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A., LL.D.
Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen. Author of
The System of Animate Nature; The Wonder of Life; The Biology of the Seasons;
etc.
Women's War-Work:
United States.
Women : United States;
Women's Employment :
United States;
Women Police: United States.
Wireless Telegraphy and
Telephony.
Pharmacology.
Railways: British.
Philippines.
Zoology.
Author of The Panama { Panama Canal.
JOSEPH BUCKLIN BISHOP.
Secretary to the Panama Canal Commission, 1905-14.
Gateway.
JOHN CLAGETT PROCTOR, LL.M. f
Member of the Bar of the District of Columbia. Author of the Hines Family. < Washington (B.C.).
Historian of the Society of Natives of the District of Columbia.
JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.
Professor of the History of Art, Rutgers College.
Meaning of Pictures; History of Painting; etc.
JOHN DANVERS POWER, M.V.O.
Vice-chairman, British Red Cross Society. Editor of the Report by the British
Red Cross Society and the Order of St. John on their joint war work, 1914-9.
JANET ELIZABETH COURTNEY, O.B.E., J.P. (MRS. W. L. COURTNEY).
Author of Free Thinkers of the Nineteenth Century. Joint-author of Pillars of
Empire. Joint-editor of Index to the nth edition of the Encyclopedia Britan-
nica.
JAMES E. HALE, S.B., M.S.A.E.
Technical Development and Sales Engineer, Goodyear Tire and Rubber Com-
pany, Akron, Ohio.
JOHN HILTON.
Author of Art for Art's Sake; \ Painting: United States.
Red Cross Work: British.
Women: United Kingdom;
Women Police: United
Kingdom.
Tire.
f Strikes and Lockouts;
< Unemployment: United
{ Kingdom Statistics.
Xll
J. H. Ho.
J. H. Je.
J. J. C.
J. Mo.*
J. M. C.*
J. M.R.
J. O. P. B.
J.P.*
J.R.CO.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J.R.R.
J. S. F.
J. S.Ha.
J. S. Nc.
K.H.*
L.A.M.
L. A. W.*
L.Br.
L.H.H.
JACOB H. HOLLANDER, PH.D.
Professor of Political Economy in Johns Hopkins University. Author of David
Ricardo; The Abolition of Poverty; War Borrowing; etc. Treasurer of Porto Rico,
1900-1. Financial Adviser of the Dominican Republic, 1908-10.
JAMES HOPWOOD JEANS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
Secretary of the Royal Society. Author of The Dynamical Theory of Gases; Prob-
lems of Cosmogony and Stellar Dynamics; etc.
BRIGADIER-GENERAL JOHN JOHNSTON COLLYER, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.
Late Chief of the General Staff, Union of South Africa.
RT. REV. MGR. J. MOVES, D.D.
Canon of Westminster Cathedral. Formerly Editor of the Dublin Review.
Domestic Prelate to His Holiness Pope Benedict XV.
JAMES MORTON CALLAHAN, A.M., PH.D. [
Professor of History and Political Science and Dean of West Virginia University. 1 -nr e ^ v'rrin'a.
Author of Neutrality of the American Lakes; Cuba and International Relations; 1
History of West Virginia; etc. [
JOHN MORGAN REES, M.A., F.R.EcoN.S. f
Lecturer in Economics and Political Science in the University College of Wales, I
Aberystwyth. Author of Wages and Costs in South Africa; SoutR Wales Iron, j
Steel and Tinplate Industries as affected by the War; etc.
Porto Rico;
Santo Domingo.
Relativity.
| South Africa: Defence.
PiusX.
JOHN OTWAY
BLAND.
JM UTWAY r-EKUY BLAND. Shanehai
Author of China; Japan and Korea; Houseboat Days in China. Joint-author I j-'bt^ '
of China under the Empress Dowager. Served in Chinese Maritime Customs, ] T j arlf ^ ir ,
1883-96. Shanghai Correspondent for The Times, 1897-1910.
Tientsin.
JOSEPH PROUDMAN, M.A., D.Sc.
Professor of Applied Mathematics, and Hon. Director of the Tidal Institute, in
the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
JOHN ROGERS COMMONS, A.B., A.M., LL.D.
Professor of Economics, University of Wisconsin. Author of Documentary
History of American Industrial Society; History of Labor in the United Slates;
Principles of Labor Legislation; etc.
Tides.
Profit-Sharing and Co-
partnership: United States;
Strikes and Lockouts:
United States;
Trade Unions: United States;
Unemployment: United
States;
United States: Labor
Movement;
Wages: United States.
Sudan (in part).
RIGHT HON. SIR JAMES RENNELL ROOD, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O.
Grand Cross of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus. Commander of the Osmanieh.
Grand Cross of Polar Star. Late Ambassador to the Court of Italy. Member of
Lord Milner's Mission to Egypt, 1920. Special Envoy to King Menelek II., 1897.
Author of Customs and Lore of Modern Greece; Poems in Many Lands; etc.
JOHN SMITH FLETT, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. [
Director, and formerly Petrographer, of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. < Petrology.
Author or Part-author of many Geological reports and memoirs. [
MAJOR JULIAN SOMERVILLE HATCHER.
Ordnance Department, U.S. Army. Member of the American Institution of
Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. Life Member of the National Association
of America. Experimental Engineer at the Government Small Arms Plant,
Springfield Armory. Formerly Chief of the Machine-Gun and Small Arms Sec-
tion, Ordnance Department.
Sights (in part).
JOSEPH SINCLAIR NICHOLSON, M.A.
(Unemployment: United
\ 'Kingdom.
KARL HILDEBRAND, PH.D.
Member of the Swedish Debt Board. Chief Editor of the daily paper Stockholms < Sweden.
Dagblad, 1904-13. Member of the Swedish Parliament, 1907-18.
LIONEL ALFRED MARTIN.
Director of Henry Tate & Sons, Limited, Sugar Refiners, London and Liverpool.
Vice-president of the London Chamber of Commerce. Member of the Port of
London Authority.
Sugar.
LAURA A. WHITE, PH.D.
Professor of History in the University of Wyoming.
LILIAN BRANDT, M.A.
Author of Social Aspects of Tuberculosis; Causes of Poverty; Deserted Families;
etc.
Wyoming.
United States: Social and
Welfare Work (in part).
LEWIS HENRY HANEY, B.A., M.A., Pn.D. f
Bureau of Markets, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Formerly Director, New I Prices: United Slates;
York University, Bureau of Business Research. Member of the Economic | Profiteering: United Slates.
Advisory Board of the Federal Trade Commission, 1916-9.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Xlll
L. H. H.*
L.J.
L. M. F.
L. Si.
L.T.
L.WL
L.Wo.
M.B.*
M. G. F.
M.H.
M. I. C.
N.J.
N.M.*
H. N. G.
O. B. K.
O. J. R. H.
P.A.F.
P. A. Me.
P.A.S.
COLONEL Lucius H. HOLT, B.A., M.A., PH.D. (Yale).
Professor of English and History at the United States Military Academy, West
Point. Author of Introduction to the Study of Government. Joint-author (with
Major A. W. Chilton) of History of Europe, 1789-181 5; History of Europe,
1862-1914.
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR Louis JACKSON, K.B.E., C.B., C.M.G.
Commander of the Legion of Honour, Knight of St. Stanislas. Late Royal En-
gineers. Formerly Director-General of Trench Warfare Supply, and Controller
of Chemical Warfare Research, British War Office.
LEONARD M. FANNING. C
Director of Publicity and Statistics, American Petroleum Institute. Formerly < Petroleum.
Editor of the Oil Trade Journal.
West Point
Poison Gas Warfare.
. Zionism.
Sculpture: United States.
Vitamines.
Training Camps:
States.
United
Rumania: Literature.
Woman Suffrage.
Rovno, Battle of.
'Profit-Sharing and Co-Part-
nership (in part) ;
Trade Unions (in part).
Rumania: History.
LEON SIMON, B.A. (Oxon.).
Author of Studies in Jewish Nationalism.
LORADO TAFT, N.A., L.H.D.
National Academy of Arts and Letters. Sculptor, Lecturer, and Professorial
Lecturer, University of Chicago. Non-resident Professor of Art, University of
Illinois. Author of History of American Sculpture; Modern Tendencies in Sculp-
ture.
LEONARD WILLIAMS, M.D.
MAJOR LEONARD WOOD.
Chief-of-StafF, United States Army, 1910-4. See the biographical article:
WOOD, LEONARD.
MARCU BEZA, L. is L.
Lecturer at King's College, London. Author of Viata; Din Anglia; Papers on
the Rumanian People and Literature; etc.
MILLICENT GARRETT FAWCETT (MRS. HENRY FAWCETT), J.P., LL.D. (Hon. St.
Andrews and Birmingham).
See the biographical article: FAWCETT, M. G.
LlEUTENANT-FlELD-MARSHAL MAXIMILIAN HOEN.
Director of the Austrian Kriegsarchiv, Vienna. Part-author of the Austrian
Official History of the First Silesian War. Author of Der Krieg iSog; etc.
MARGARET ISABEL COLE (MRS. G. D. H. COLE).
Correspondence Secretary of the Labour Research Department, London,
1917-20.
NICOLAS JORGA, DR. JURIS.
Professor at the University of Bucharest. Member of the Academic Roumaine.
Correspondent of the Institut de France and of the Academic Serbe.
Author of Die Geschichte des Osmanescher Reiches; The Byzantine Empire; etc. [
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR NEILL MALCOLM, K.C.B., D.S.O. f
General Commanding British Army of Occupation in Germany. Formerly In- < Tactics,
structor in Military History at the Staff College, Camberley. (
LIEUTENANT-GENERAL N. N. GOLOVINE.
Russian Cross of St. George. British Military C.B. French Croix de Guerre.
Commander of the Legion of Honour. Formerly Professor in the Russian Gen-
eral Staff College.
O. B. KENT, B.S., M.S., PH.D.
Professor of Poultry Department of New York State College of Agriculture at
Cornell University. Managing Editor Poultry Science. Secretary Treasurer of
American Association of Instructors and Investigators of Poultry Husbandry.
OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE How ARTH, O.B.E., M.A. [Pacific Ocean, Islands of;
Assistant Secretary of the British Association. Sometime of the Geographical I Straits Settlements and De-
Section, Naval Intelligence Department. Editor of the Oxford Survey of the j pendencies;
British Empire. [United Kingdom: Statistics.
PERCY A. FRANCIS, M.B.E., N.D.A., N.D.D.
Technical Head of the Small Livestock Branch, Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, London. Late Senior Agricultural Inspector to the Board of Agricul-
ture for Scotland. Superintending Instructor in Poultry-Keeping and Dairying
to the Irish Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. County In-
structor in Poultry-Keeping to the Antrim County Council.
PHILIP AINSWORTH MEANS, M.A.
Investigator for the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Author of i p em
History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatan and of the Itzas; A Survey of '
Ancient Peruvian Art; etc.
PERCY ALFRED SCHOLES, B.Mus., A.R.C.M. f
Music Critic of The Observer, London. Editor of The Music Student. Author of ( Scriabin, A. N.
The Listener's Guide to Music; etc.
Sukhomlinov.
Poultry: United States.
Poultry (in part).
XIV
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
P. C. M.
P. de T.
P. M. H.
P. M. S.
P.YL
R. A. V.
R. B. D. A.
R. D. O.
R. E. G.
R. E. P.
R. H. P.
R. M. Wi.
R. N. R. B.
R.Po.*
R. S.R.
R.Th.
R. van O.
R. W. S.-W.
S. B. McC.
S. de M.
S.H.
Propaganda.
| Saar Valley.
Author of The Gasoline Automo- { Tractors.
Persia.
PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, C.B.E. (Military Division), F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
Secretary, Zoological Society of London. Attached to Directorate of Military
Intelligence, War Office, 1916-8. Liaison Officer with British War Mission, 1918.
Editorial Staff of The Times.
P. DE THOMASSON.
French Delegate to the Saar Commission.
PETER MARTIN HELDT.
Engineering Editor of A utomotive Industries,
bile.
BRIGADIER-GENERAL SIR PERCY MOLESWORTH SYKES, K.C.I.E., C.B., C.M.G.
Formerly British Consul-General, Persia. Late Inspector-General, South Persia
Rifles. Author of History of Persia; Manners and Customs; Glory of the Shia
World; etc. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., 1902.
SIR PAUL VINOGRADOFF, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., DR. HIST., DR. JURIS.
Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence, Oxford. Author of Villainage in England;
The Growth of the Manor; Outlines of Historical Jurisprudence; etc. See the
biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, SIR PAUL.
ROLLAND A. VANDERGRIFT, M.A.
Assistant in History in the University of California.
SIR REGINALD BRODIE DUKE ACLAND, M.A., K.C.
Judge Advocate of the Fleet. Member of the British Government Committee on , n. ,-..
the Treatment by the Enemy of Prisoners of War, and of the Committee on ' * * Wan
the Breaches of the Laws of War.
RICHARD DIXON OLDHAM, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (" . (
Author of numerous papers on various aspects of Geology and kindred subjects. \ 5>eismol gy-
Russia ;
Trotsky, Lev;
Tschaikovsky, N.V.;
Wrangel.
< San Francisco.
COLONEL R. E. GOLIGHTLY.
Volunteers.
MAJOR R. E. PRIESTLY, M.C., B.A.
Author of the Official History of the Signal Service during the European War, I Signal Service, Army
1914-8; Breaking the Hindenburg Line; The History of the 461/1, North Midland, \ (in part).
Division; etc.
ROBERT HODSON PARSONS, A.M.I.C.E.
Member of the Engineering Institute of Canada.
{ Turbines, Steam.
of:
R. McNAiR WILSON, M.B., Cn.B. f
Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine. Editor, Oxford Medical Publications. I * e " n " s !
Late Research Worker in Cardiology, Medical Research Committee. Consultant ] ^rencn iever;
to the Ministry of Pensions in Trench Fever. [ lellow *ever.
ROBERT N. RUDMOSE BROWN, D.Sc.
Member of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition, 1902-4, and of the Scot- Siberia;
tish Arctic Expeditions, 1909, 1912 and 1914. Lecturer in Geography, University Spitsbergen,
of Sheffield. Author of Spitsbergen, etc. Joint-author of The Voyage of the Scotia.
'ROSCOE POUND, PH.D., LL.D. [
Carter Professor of Jurisprudence and Dean of the Faculty of Law in Harvard I Women, Legal Status of:
University. Sometime Commissioner of Appeals of the Supreme Court of Ne- | United States.
braska.
ROBERT SANGSTER RAIT, C.B.E., M.A., LL.D. (
Historiographer Royal for Scotland. Professor of Scottish History and Litera- I .. .
ture in the University of Glasgow. Author of The Scottish Parliament; History ] B Qfl '
of Scotland; etc.
RALPH THICKNESSE. f Women, Legal Status
Barrister-at-Law. Author of Digest of Law; Husband and Wife; etc. \ United Kingdom.
CAPITAINE-COMMANDANT R. VAN OVERSTRAETEN.
Aide-de-Camp to H.M. The King of the Belgians. Graduate of the Staff Col-
lege. Order of Leopold. D.S.O. Legion of Honour.
ROBERT WILLIAM SETON-WATSON, D.Lirr. (Oxon.), HON. PH.D. (Prague and Za-
greb).
Lecturer in East European History at King's College, University of London.
Author of Racial Problems in Hungary; The Southern Slav Question; The Rise
of Nationality in the Balkans; etc. Editor of The New Europe.
SAMUEL BLACK McCpRMiCK, A.B., M.A., D.D., LL.D.
Chancellor Emeritus, University of Pittsburgh, Pa.
SALVADOR DE MADARIAGA.
Author of Shelley and Calderon, and other Essays on Spanish and English Poetry;
Romances de Ceigo; Manojo de Poesias Inglesas; etc.
SYDNEY HERBERT.
Lecturer in International Politics, University College, Aberstwyth. Author of J c .. .. ... A
Modern Europe, 1789-1914; Nationality and Us Problems; Fall of Feudalism in ]
France.
Ypres and Yser, Battles of:
Part IV.
Serbia;
Yugoslavia.
Pittsburgh.
Spanish Literature.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xv
S. L. M.
S. McC. L.
T.C.
T. G. Ch.
T. S. A.
V. L. C.
V. L. E. C.
V.L.K.
W. A. B. C.
W. A. N.
W. A. P.
W. Bn.
W. B. St.
W. C. M.
W. E. El.
W. E. P.
W.F.
W. G. C.
W. H. B.
W. H. W.
SUSAN LANGSTAFF MITCHELL.
Author of The Living Chalice; Aids to the Immortality of Certain Persons in Ire-
land; etc.
SAMUEL McCuNE LINDSAY, PH.D., LL.D.
Professor of Social Legislation in Columbia University. President of New York
Academy of Political Science. Editor of American Social Progress Series.
Author of Railway Labor in the United Slates; Financial Administration of Great
Britain; etc.
THEODORE COLLIER, PH.D.
Professor of European History in Brown University, Providence, R.I.
Russell, G. W.
Prohibition.
Rhode Island.
SIR THEODORE GERVASE CHAMBERS, K.B.E., Assoc.R.S.M., F.S.I., F.G.S. f
Vice-chairman and late Controller of the National (War) Savings Committee, < Sayings Movement.
Great Britain.
THOMAS SEW ALL ADAMS, PH.D. f TT . . .,
Professor Political Economy in Yale University. Advisor on Taxation, U.S. | ^.^ |* a ! es: P lnanc . e >
Treasury Department. [ United States: Taxation.
VARNUM LANSING COLLINS, A.M. (
Secretary of Princeton University and Clerk of the University Faculty. Author < Princeton University,
of The Continental Congress at Princeton; Guide to Princeton; etc.
GENERAL VICTOR Louis EMILIEN CORDONNIER.
See the biographical article: CORDONNIER, V. L. E.
VERNON LYMAN KELLOG, M.S., LL.D.
Permanent Secretary, National Research Council, Washington. Sometime Pro-
fessor in Leland Stanford Jr. University. Director in Brussels of Commission
for Relief in Belgium. Assistant to U.S. Food Administrator. Member of the
American Relief Administration.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A. (Oxon.), HON. PH.D. (Berne).
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Author of Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide-
books; Josias Simler et les Origincs de I' Alpinisme jusqu'en 1600; The Alps in
Nature and History; Alpine Studies; etc. Editor of the Climbers' Guide.
WILLIAM A. NEILSON, LL.D.
President, Smith College, Northampton, Mass.
< Woevre, Battles in (in part).
Red Cross Work: United
States;
Y.M.C.A.: United States.
Switzerland.
Smith College.
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. (Oxford and Dublin). fp
Lecky Professor of Modern History in the University of Dublin. Member of \ i, u Lmay T L TT
the Royal Irish Academy. Author of Modern Europe; The Confederation of 1 ?* J o1
Europe; etc.
Self-Determination.
WILLIAM BATESON, M.A., F.R.S.
Author of Materials for the Study of Variation; Mendel's Principles of Heredity; { Sex.
Problems of Genetics; etc. See the biographical article: BATESON, WILLIAM.
WALTER BARLOW STEVENS, B.A., M.A., LL.D. f
President, State Historical Society of Missouri. Author of History of St. Louis; J c* TQ
Centennial History of Missouri; M issouri's -Travail for Statehood; etc. Director of 1
Exploitation, St. Louis World's Fair of 1904.
WILLIAM CLINTON MULLENDORE, A.B., J.D.
Attorney-at-Law. Late Assistant Counsel and Liquidator, United States Food
Administration. Representative, American Relief Administration, Berlin, Ger-
many, 1920.
WALTER ELLIOT ELLIOT, B.Sc., M.B., Cn.B., M.P.
Secretary, Medical Committee, House of Commons.
W. E. PRESTON.
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL WOLFGANG FOERSTER.
Late General Staff, German Army. Chief Ober-Archivrat of the Reichsarchiv.
Formerly member of the Historical Section of the Great General Staff. During
the World War, General Staff Officer with troops. Chief of the General Staff
of the XI. Corps, 1918. Author of Prinz Friedrich Karl von Preussen; Graf
Schlieffen und der Weltkrieg.
WILLIAM GEORGE CONSTABLE, M.A.
Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge.
Wallace Collection.
Rationing: United States.
< Pensions Ministry.
(HI
Silver.
Western European Front
Campaigns (in part).
Barrister-at-Law. Lecturer at the < Painting (in part).
SIR WILLIAM HENRY BEVERIDGE, K.C.B., M.A., B.C.L.
Director of London School of Economics and Political Science. Formerly Per-
manent Secretary of the Ministry of Food. Author of Unemployment: A Problem
of Industry; etc.
Rationing (in part).
SIR WILLIAM HENRY WILLCOX, K.C.I. E., C.B., C.M.G., M.D., F.R.C.P.
Consulting Physician to the Mesopotamia Expeditionary Force, 1916-9.
cian to St. Mary's Hospital, London.
f Persia: Medical Conditions;
Physi- < Persian Gulf: Medical Con-
{ ditions.
XVI
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
w. j. c.
W. J. C.*
W. K.B.
W.K.M.
W. L. B.*
W. L. G.*
W. L. M.
W. M. B.
W. M.-Lo.
WILLIAM JAMES CUNNINGHAM, A.M.
Connected with several American railroads in operating and executive capaci- _
ties, 1900-16. Professor of Transportation at Harvard. Assistant Director of ' d
Operation, U.S. Railroad Administration, 1918-9.
W. J. CHILDS. f Straits (Dardanelles and
Late of the Intelligence Department of the British Admiralty (Geographical < Bosporus);
Section). [Turkey (Nationalist).
WILLIAM KENNETH BOYD, A.M., PH.D. f
Professor of History, Trinity College, Durham, N.C. Joint-editor of The South < Virginia.
Atlantic Quarterly. Author of A History of North Carolina, 1783-1860; etc.
WILLIAM KIRKPATRICK MAGEE. f
Second Librarian, National Library of Ireland. Pseudonym, "John Eglinton." ^ Synge, J. M.
Author of Anglo-Irish Essays; etc.
WALTER LANGDON BROWN, M.A., M.D. (Cantab.), F.R.C.P.
Physician, with charge of Out-Patients, to St. Bartholomew's Hospital (London). J Sympathetic Nervous
Physician to the Metropolitan Hospital, etc. Author of Physiological Prin-
ciples in Treatment; The Sympathetic Nervous System in Disease; etc.
System.
WILLIAM L. GRIFFITH.
Permanent Secretary, Office of the High Commissioner for Canada, London.
Author of The Dominion of Canada; article on " Canada," Oxford Survey of the
British Empire.
WINTHROP LIPPITT MARVIN, A.B., Lrrr.D.
Vice-president and General Manager, American Steamship Owners' Association.
Author of The American Merchant Marine: Its History and Romance. Former
Secretary of U.S. Merchant Marine Commission.
WILLIAM MADDOCK BAYLISS, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor of General Physiology in University College, London. Author of
Principles of General Physiology; Nature of Enzyme Action; etc.
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL WILHELM MOLLER-LOEBNITZ.
. Late General Staff, German Army. Ober-Archivrat in the Reichsarchiv. For-
merly in the Military History Section of the Great General Staff. During the
World War served on the General Staff of XII. Corps and VI. and " A " Armies,
and as a Regimental Commander. Author of Der Wendepunkt des Wellkricgs
and other monographs.
[Prince Edward Island;
Quebec;
Saskatchewan ;
Yukon Territory.
Shipping: United States.
Physiology ;
Shock.
Somme, Battles of the
(in part).
W. M. Le.
WILLIAM MATHER LEWIS, M.A.
Formerly Director of the Savings Division U.S. Treasury Department.
of The Voices of Our Leaders; etc.
A-*" re:,^.
W. M. M. R. COMMANDER WILLIAM MALCOLM MARTYN ROBINSON, R.N.
W. No.
W. R. Ma.
W. S. L.-B.
W. S. Ro.
W. v. B.
Knight of the Order of the
I Torpedo.
I Telegraph;
| Telephone.
SIR WILLIAM NOBLE.
Engineer-in-Chief, General Post Office, London.
Cross of Belgium.
WILLIAM R. MANNING, PH.D.
Economist, Latin-American Division, U.S. Department of State. Author of
Nootka Sound Controversy (Justin Winsor Prize Essay of American Historical
Association, 1904); Early Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and
Mexico (Albert Shaw Lectures, Johns Hopkins University, 1913); etc.
WALTER SYDNEY LAZARUS-BARLOW, M.D., F.R.C.P.
Professor of Experimental Pathology in the University of London. Director of
the Cancer Research Laboratories at the Middlesex Hospital. Author of General
or Experimental Pathology; Pathological Anatomy and Histology; etc.
WILLIAM SPENCE ROBERTSON, PH.D.
Professor of History in the University of Illinois. Author of Francisco de Mi- I Venezuela
randa and the Revolutionizing of Spanish America; Rise of the Spanish-American |
Republics; etc. (.
Virgin Islands.
Radiotherapy.
WILHELM VON BLUME, DR. JURIS.
Professor of Law in the University of Tubingen. Author of Familienrecht des
Burgerlichen Gesetzbuchs; Erbrecht des Burgerlichen Gesetzbuchs. Cooperated in
the drafting of the Constitution of Wurttemberg, 1919.
Initial used for anonymous contributors.
Thuringia;
Wurttemberg.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
VOLUME XXXII
THE THIRD OF THE NEW VOLUMES
PACIFIC OCEAN, ISLANDS OF. For the oceanic islands of the
Pacific see generally 20.436*, and also the separate articles on the
principal groups and islands there referred to. Supplementary
information is given below, and also under GUAM, HAWAII, etc.
The so-called Four-Power Treaty was signed Dec. 13 1921,
with prospects of early ratification, by France, Great Britain,
Japan and the United States, the contracting parties agreeing
as between themselves to respect their rights in relation to
their insular possessions and insular dominions in the region of
the Pacific Ocean." A map, showing the mandate claims and
sovereignties proposed, and zones of restricted fortification, will
be found in the article WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.
America Islands. Christmas I. was leased by a company from
the British Government and planted with coco-nuts in 1904-5, but
the working lapsed during the World War, and in Oct. 1919 Lord
Jellicoe on H.M.S. " New Zealand " found three men who had been
confined there for 18 months, ignorant of the cessation of war. The
Pacific " all red " cable station on Fanning I. was wrecked by a
German landing party from the "Niirnberg" Sept. 7 1914, but
communication was restored by the operator. Fanning and Wash-
ington Is. belong to a coco-nut company and had in 1920 populations
of a few whites and about 120 and 100 native labourers respectively.
These islands are administered under the Gilbert and Ellice Is.
Colony, of which Ocean I. is the administrative centre.
Auckland Islands. A depot of provisions and clothes has been
established here by New Zealand for shipwrecked sailors.
Caroline and Pelew Islands. Japan is mandatory for these
formerly German islands, 1 having occupied them in Sept.-Oct. 1914.
The administration of Yap, which has a pop. of about 8,000 and a
cable and wireless station, was at first in dispute between Japan and
the United States; but in Dec. 1921 these countries reached an
agreement (a formal convention to be drawn up later for signature)
whereby the United States secured the same opportunities as Japan
or any other nation in all that relates to cable and wireless service
on the island. The pop. of the group was in 1919 about 40,000.
Cook Islands. These islands, which belong to New Zealand, had a
pop. of 8,764 in 1916, including 197 whites and half-castes. Eight
Government schools were maintained in 1919. Revenue (year
1918^9) 13,847; expenditure 12,344, t> ut this latter figure excludes
certain salaries, etc., and about 7,500 has been contributed annually
by New Zealand toward the expenditure. In 1919 exports were
valued at 142,925 and imports at 127,729. Copra (to United
States) and other fruit (to New Zealand) were chief exports.
Easter Island. Pop. (1915) about 250, all native except an English
manager. The island was visited by Mr. and Mrs. Scoresby Rout-
ledge in 1914-5 for the investigation of the ancient remains. These
and other recent investigators have shown that the islanders,
formerly considered to be of Polynesian race, possess an admixture
of Melanesian (negroid) characteristics, and their culture reveals the
same influence, notably in the bird-cult with its carved figures, partly
human and partly of bird form, and in the practice of distending
the ear-lobes. A close association with the bird-cult of Easter I.
is found in the Solomon Is., far distant in the western Pacific. It is
1 Statistics of the separate ex-German possessions in the Pacific
are not available. Exports for them all, excepting Samoa but
including New Guinea, were valued in 1913 at 595,000; imports
at 450,000.
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
suggested that the Melanesian immigrants who carried this cult to
Easter I. were followed by Polynesians, who fought but did not exter-
minate them, and there remain indications of a division of the island
between the two stocks. While it is impossible to assign any date for
the Melanesian immigration, it has been suggested that the Polyne-
sian took place about the beginning of the 15th century A.D., but
the further evidence collected on Easter I. in 1910-20 has not de-
termined to which group of immigrants the megalithic remains are
to be attributed, or cleared up the origin of the ideographic script
found on tablets in the island.
Fiji. The pop. of the Fiji Is. was estimated on Dec. 31 1918 at
163,416, including 87,761 Fijians, 2,100 natives of Rotumah, 2,709
natives of various Polynesian islands, 61,745 Indians, 4,748 Euro-
peans, 2,803 half-castes and 913 Chinese. The revenue in 1918 was
371,189, and the expenditure 342,140. Exports in 1919 amounted
in value to 1,871,062, of which 882,574 wen t to New Zealand and
584,067 to the United States of America. About half the exports
(by value) consisted of sugar, most of which went to New Zealand.
There has been shortage of labour, the importation of Indian con-
tract labour having been stopped in 1916; but arrangements are
made to admit free Indian labour. Prices have ruled low in compari-
son with expenditure and planters have expressed dissatisfaction
with the fixation of the price for one year only, by the controlling
exporting company. Copra, bananas, molasses and rubber are the
other chief exports. Imports were valued in 1919 at 1,060,314, of
which 513,547 came from Australia, but the goods thus indicated
were in great part reexports and largely of British origin.
Down to 1916 the education of the natives was wholly under mis-
sionary control, save for the Government high school at Nasinu,
Suva, and the native high school at Lakeba. But in that year an
Education Act rendered all schools complying with certain condi-
tions eligible for Government aid. Suva has a high-power wireless
station, and there are four inter-insular stations.
Gilbert and Ellice Islands. These became a British colony in
1915-6, having been previously a protectorate. Estimated pop.
Gilbert I., 30,000; Ellice I., 3,000. Revenue (year 1918-9) 24,450;
expenditure 30,734. In the year 1917-8 copra of the value of 63,-
465 was exported from the colony, and 82,845 tons of phosphates,
valued at 83,000, from Ocean I. ; but this latter export was expected
to reach 200,000 tons in 1920-1. Ocean I. is the headquarters of the
Government, and a wireless station was opened there in 1916. The
administration includes the America Is. and the Tokelau (Union)
Is. between 8 30' and 11 S. lat. and 171 and 172 W. long. The
Tokelau Is., total area 7 sq. m., had a pop. of 912 natives and 2
Europeans in 1911. The Gilbert islanders have lost their warlike
reputation, and are all, at least nominally, Christian.
Lord Howe Island, belonging to New South Wales, was placed
under a board of control with office at Sydney, as the result of the
report of a Royal Commission on the trade of the island in Kentia
palm-seeds in 1912. A local advisory council assists the board.
The Lord Howe Group, also known as Ongtong Java, has a Polyne-
sian pop. estimated at 1,200 (5,000 in 1905), and produces copra.
Loyalty Islands (dependency of New Caledonia), pop. (est., 1919),
1 1 ,000.
Macquarie Island is annexed to Tasmania. In connexion with the
Mawson Antarctic expedition (see 21.968) a meteorological and
wireless station was established there.
Manihiki Archipelago. Of the scattered islands mentioned under
this heading, Caroline, Vostok, and Flint are leased from the British
Government by a coco-nut company; the rest are dependencies of
New Zealand. Suvarov has a fine harbour, though with a shallow
PADEREWSKI PAGE, T. N.
entrance, and a part of Anchorage Islet on the reef is held by the
Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The island is leased to a
coco-nut company, but producing little owing to destruction by
hurricane, and the pearl fishery has deteriorated. At Manihiki I.
(pop. in 1916, 775) the pearl beds were closed when almost worked
out, and at Penrhyn I. (pop. in 1916, 312) production fell off.
Marianas. The former German islands (excepting Guam [see
GUAM], which belongs to the U.S.A.) were occupied by the Japa-
nese in 1914, and were given to them under mandate in 1918.
Marquesas Islands. The Polynesian pop. has continued to dimin-
ish, and was estimated in 1920 to be less than 3,500. The French
administration (established at Hivaoa) was stated to neglect the
commercial development of the islands, though in 1913 a German
trading company was established there.
Marshall Islands. These islands, formerly German, were ac-
quired by Japan under mandate in 1918. From 1888 to 1906 they
were administered by the Jaluit Trading Co., of Hamburg, under
agreement with and subsidized by the German Government. The
Government itself subsequently administered them down to 1914.
A recent estimate indicates a decreasing pop. numbering 9,200.
Nauru. This island, in o 33' S. lat., l6655' E. long., was ad-
ministered along with the Marshall Is. by the Germans, but the
phosphate deposits for which it is important were worked by a
British company under agreement with the Jaluit company. The
island surrendered to a vessel of the Australian navy in Sept. 1914
and came under British mandate in 1918. Pop. (1916), 1,284 natives,
449 Caroline islanders, 278 Chinese, 90 whites. The white settle-
ment is at Yangor, where the phosphate company had its stores and
drying plant. The deposits on the high ground (78 to 88% phos-
phates) are transported by light railways worked by steam, gravity,
or electricity, and are snipped by surf-boats from two wharves.
Under the Nauru I. agreement. 1919, between the British, Aus-
tralian and New Zealand Governments, it was enacted that the
Australian Government should appoint an administrator for a term
of five years, that each of the three Governments should appoint a
member of a board of commissioners, that the phosphate company
should be bought out by the three Governments and the deposits
and their workings should be vested in the board, and that the
expenses of the administration, so far as not otherwise met, should
be paid out _of the sale of the phosphates. The island also yields
copra. A wireless station was established by the Germans in 1913.
New Caledonia. Pop. (census of 1911), 50,608, including 28,075
natives, 19,319 whites, and 3,214 Asiatic immigrants. Noum6a con-
tained 8,961 inhabitants, including 5,207 free whites, 1,245 convicts,
1,999 natives and other coloured people, and 396 troops. Among
other centres of population, Thio on the E. coast is the chief nickel-
mining centre, and Paagoumene on the W. coast the chief chrome-
mining centre. Exports from New Caledonia and dependencies
were valued in 1913 at 633,536 (copra, 67,932); imports at 708,-
316. The guano workings of Walpole I., 150 m. E. by S. of Noumea,
have been recently developed by a company.
New Hebrides. The pop. has been recently estimated at 65,000
natives and 800 Europeans. Exports in 1919 were valued at 364,000
(copra, 134,30; cocoa, 79-000); imports at 166,847. The Anglo-
French condominium is not generally regarded as successful. Accord-
ing to a report of 1918, the confusion between the operations of this
tribunal, the French and British courts, and the joint naval com-
mission for native litigation, gave rise to complaints.
French settlers are said to hold the best land as a rule, though in
the Banks and Tprr Is. British interests are the stronger; trade has
been fostered mainly by French interests. The volcano of Ambrym
Is. was in eruption on and after Dec. 6 1913, and caused damage.
Niuf. Pop. (1919), 3,664, including 20 whites and 160 half-castes.
Exports (about six-sevenths copra) were valued in 1919 at 35,977,
and imports at 21,783. The New Zealand Government contributes
about 3,000 a year to the administration. A hurricane in 1915
severelv damaged the coco-nut plantations, but 15,000 nuts were
planted in the course of peace celebrations.
Norfolk Island. Pop. (Dec. 1918), 815. The executive council
now consists of six elected members and six members appointed by
the administrator. It was reported in 1919 that the Melanesian
Mission established here in 1867 was contemplating the removal of
its headquarters. Exports were valued in 1919 at 5,238 (lemons,
passion-fruit pulp, fish and whale products); imports at 13,398.
Paumotu or Tuamotu Archipelago (the latter is the proper form,
and is used throughout this part of the Pacific). Pop. (1911), 4,581.
Makatea (pop. 866) has become the most important island, owing to
the working of phosphates, and is administered separately. It is an
elevated coral island, unlike the other coral islands, which are atolls.
From these, copra and pearl-shell are the chief exports. The de-
pendent Gambier Is. yield the same commodities, but poorly, and
their inhabitants are decreasing in numbers and physique.
Phoenix Islands. The majority have been leased to the Samoan
Shipping qnd Trading Co., for coco-nut planting.
Rotumah (to Fiji). Pop. (1918), 2,263.
Samoa. The former German islands of western Samoa were
occupied by a New Zealand expeditionary force on Aug. 30 1914.
Although it was stated that there was some feeling in the islands
against permanent administration by New Zealand, a mandate for
them was given to that Dominion in 1919. The native pop. in 1918
was 30,636 after the epidemic of influenza in that year, which caused
over 8,000 deaths. There were also 1,660 white men and half-castes,
and 1,166 labourers imported under indenture. The shortage of
labour is particularly acute. The Deutsche Handels- und Plantagen-
Gesellschaft (German trading and plantation company), which held
8,820 ac. under the German Government, went into liquidation in
1916, and its holdings and other German plantations were taken over
by the Government of New Zealand. Exports in 1919 were valued at
532,500, over four-fifths of the total value being in copra, which
went chiefly to the United States. In 1918 exports were valued at
306,640; imports (mainly from the United States and New Zealand)
at 319,521. Revenue for one year 1919-20 was estimated at 80,215,
and expenditure was expected to balance this. Apia has a wireless
station. The pop. of the American Samoan islands was estimated
in 1920 at 7,55-. Copra is practically the only export. There is
a high-powered wireless station at Tutuila.
Society Islands. The pop. of the whole of the French establish-
ments in Oceania in 1911 (including the Society, Tubuai, Tuamotu
and Marquesas groups) was 31,477, including 2,656 French, 484
British, 237 Americans and 975 Chinese: there appears to have been
a large influx of the last since that date. A later estimate ascribes
11,000 inhabitants to Tahiti alone, but 4,000 lives were lost in this
and adjacent islands in the influenza epidemic of 1918. Papeete, the
capital (pop. in 1911, 4,099), was bombarded by German cruisers
on Sept. 22 1914. Exports were valued in 191731 11,997,461 francs
(chiefly copra, pearl-shell, and vanilla), and imports at 7,806,294
francs. Papeete has a wireless station.
Solomon Islands. The native pop. has been recently estimated at
150,000, the whites at 800, and there are a few Chinese. For the
year 1918-9 revenue amounted to 29,476; expenditure to 30,205;
exports were valued at 170,125; imports at 188,408. The natives
are for the most part wild and backward, and the labour question
is serious. For the (formerly) German Solomon Is. see NEW GUINEA.
Tonga. Pop. (1919), 22,689 natives, 350 Europeans. The in-
fluenza epidemic of 1918 is said to have caused 1,000 deaths. The
native government, under the king, consists of 32 nobles and the same
number of elected members. The land is vested in the sovereign,
but all his subjects hold some of it, and there is no pauperism or
public debt. British officials assist the administration. The revenue
in 1918 amounted to 58,340, and expenditure to 35,865. The value
of exports in 1918 was 169,758, nearly the whole consisting of copra.
Imports in 1918 were valued at 177,152. The copra is chiefly
exported to America; imports are received mainly from Australia
and New Zealand.
Tubuai Islands. Pop. (1911): Ravaivai, 432; Tubuai, 543;
Rurutu, 911; Rimitara, 415; Rapa, 183. Rapa, possessing a fine
natural harbour in Ahurei Bay, has been spoken of as a possible
trans-oceanic port of call, for which purpose it was used in 1867-9.
The island is volcanic, and the bay represents the old crater. The
natives are noted sailors and are in demand for the crews of vessels.
Wallis and Home Islands. These, formerly a French protec-
torate, have been declared a colony. When this annexation was
proclaimed in 1913, opposition to the proclamation was fomented by
Roman Catholic missionaries in Fotuna (Home Is.), and even in
Uvea (Wallis), where the native chiefs had asked for the annexation,
a retention of native law was stipulated, and native law could be
only gradually replaced by French law. (O. J. R. H.)
PADEREWSKI, IGNACE JAN (1860- ), Polish pianist and
diplomat (see 20.443), after the outbreak of the World War in
1914 gave numerous benefit concerts in America for Polish suffer-
ers and delivered addresses in their behalf. He was appointed
plenipotentiary in America for the National Polish Committee,
which early had won official recognition by the Allies.
Among the Poles in America some millions there was great
dissension as to the means of gaining independence for Poland.
With rare skill he induced the stubborn factions to accept the
authority of the National Polish Committee, of which he was the
most influential member in Paris. In the words of Mr. Robert
Lansing, who, as a peace delegate, came into constant contact with
him there, he was " an able and tactful leader of his countrymen
and a sagacious diplomat." He was among the statesmen, who, in
Paris, Dec. 1918, formulated the terms of the Peace Treaty. Mean-
while discord had arisen between the Polish Government and the
National Committee. At the close of the year Paderewski returned
to Poland and was received in triumph. In Jan. 1919 an agreement
was reached with Gen. Pilsudski, whereby Paderewski headed a
new coalition cabinet as premier and minister for foreign affairs. In
this capacity he signed, June 28 1919, the Treaty of Versailles. He
resigned as premier in Dec. 1919. It was generally felt that he had
been more successful as a diplomat than as an administrator. In an
interview given*to newspaper reporters after his return to America
in Feb. 1921, he asserted that he would never again appear in piano
recitals. His last professional appearance as a pianist had been at
the Metropolitan Opera House in New York, May 9 1917.
PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- ), American author and
diplomatist (see 20.450), was appointed ambassador to Italy by
PAGE, W. H PAINTING
President Wilson in April 1913. In 1914 he announced his dis-
covery of the house, 66 Piazza di Spragna, in which Byron had
lived at Rome in 1817. In 1915 he induced the Italian Govern-
ment to raise the 'ban on the reexportation of cotton goods
routed by American shippers via Italy to other countries. He
earned the gratitude of the Italians by his relief work during
the Avezzano earthquake in 1917. After America entered the
World War he defended Italy against the charge of backward-
ness in conducting her campaign by pointing out the obstacles
confronting her soldiers in the Alps.
He resigned as ambassador in April 1918 and returned to America.
His writings after 1910 included Robert E. Lee, Man and Soldier
(1912) ; The Land of the Spirit (1913) ; Tommaso Jefferson, Apostolo
delta Liberia (1918, prepared for an Italian series); Italy's Rela-
tion to the War (1920) and Italy and the World War (1921).
PAGE, WALTER MINES (1855-1918), American editor and
diplomatist, was born at Gary, N.C., Aug. 15 1855. After grad-
uating from Randolph-Macon College, Va., in 1876, he was ap-
pointed one of the first 20 fellows of the newly established Johns
Hopkins University. He taught for a time in Louisville, Ky.,
and then accepted the editorship of the St. Joseph, Mo., Daily
Gazette. After two years (1881) he resigned to travel through the
South, having arranged to contribute letters on southern sociolog-
ical conditions to the New York World, the Springfield Repub-
lican and the Boston Post. These letters were helpful in educating
the North and the South to a fuller understanding of their mutual
dependence. In 1882 he joined the editorial staff of the New York
World and wrote a series of articles on Mormonism, the result of
personal investigation in Utah. Later in the same year he went
to Raleigh, N.C., where he founded the Stale Chronicle, but re-
turned to New York in 1883 and for four years was on the staff of
the Evening Post. From 1887 to 1895 he was, first, manager and,
after 1890, editor of The Forum, a monthly magazine; and from
1895 to 1900 was literary adviser to Houghton, Mifflin & Co.,
and for most of the same period editor of the Atlantic Monthly
(1896-99). When the house of Doubleday, Page & Co. was
organized in 1899, his duties were divided between editorial and
publishing work, for he was not only a partner in the publishing
house but also editor of its magazine, the World's Work. In
March 1913 President Wilson appointed him to succeed White-
law Reid as ambassador to England.
Mr. Page was hardly known in England when he was appointed,
but during his tenure of office he gradually established him-
self as one of the great line of American ambassadors. None had
ever worked more assiduously than he did for Anglo-American
solidarity, and his speeches though he was no orator were
always marked by absolute sincerity and by well-informed ap-
peals to history. His position was a delicate one after the out-
break of the World War, when German and Austrian interests in
England were placed in his hands. He was thoroughly loyal to
his country in his conduct, although sympathetic with the Allies.
Among the problems with which he had to deal were the British
claim of the right to stop and search American ships, including
examination of mail pouches; the commercial blockade (1915)
and the " blacklist," containing the names of American firms
with whom all financial and commercial dealings on the part of
the British were forbidden (1916). He had the satisfaction of
seeing the United States through its period of neutrality without
friction, and then representing it as a partner in the war. In
Aug. 1918, finding his strength exhausted, he resigned as am-
bassador and returned to America in September. He was
critically ill on arrival, and after a short rally died at Pinehurst,
S.C., Dec. 21 1918. No man ever served his country, or the
cause of Anglo-American friendship, more strenuously. While
in Great Britain he was honoured with degrees by the universi-
ties of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Sheffield, Cambridge, and Oxford.
He was the author of The Rebuilding of Old Commonwealths
(1902) and The Southerner, a Novel: Being the Autobiography of
Nicholas Worth (1909).
PAGET, FRANCIS (1851-1911), English divine, was born
March 20 1851, the second son of the surgeon Sir James Paget
(see 20.451). His brothers, Sir John R. Paget, 2nd Bart., the
lawyer (b. 1848), the Rt. Rev. Luke Paget (b. 1853), who was
Bishop of Stepney, from 1909 to 1919, and was then translated
to the see of Chester; and Stephen Paget, the surgeon and au-
thor (b. 1855), all became well-known men. Francis Paget was
educated at Shrewsbury and Christ Church, Oxford, where he
had a distinguished career, taking first classes in classics, winning
the Hertford scholarship (1871) and the chancellor's Latin verse
prize (1871); he was elected senior student of Christ Church
(1873) and tutor (1876), taking holy orders in 1875. In 1885 he
was appointed regius professor of pastoral theology, and in 1892
dean of Christ Church. He contributed the essay on the sacra-
ments to Lux Mundi. He became Bishop of Oxford in 1901, and
was a member of the Royal Commission on Ecclesiastical Disci-
pline 1904-6. He died in London Aug. 2 1911.
PAGET, LOUISA MARGARET LEILA WEMYSS, LADY (1881-
), was born in London Oct. 9 1881, the daughter of Sir
Arthur Henry Fitzroy Paget (b. 1851), a descendant of the ist
Marquess of Anglesey. She married in 1907 a connexion of her
own, Sir Ralph Spencer Paget, who had a distinguished career in
the diplomatic service, and was from 1916 to 1918 minister to
Denmark and from 1918 to 1920 first ambassador to Brazil. In
1915 Lady Paget organized a Red Cross hospital for service in
Serbia, and was stationed at Uskub, having to remain there when
the town was occupied by the Bulgarians, Oct. 1915. She was
allowed to use her stores for the relief of refugees, and relieved a
great deal of suffering. In Feb. 1916 she was transferred to Sofia,
and in April returned to England. In 1915 she was invested with
the order of St. Sava by the Serbian Government and in 1917
received the GB.E.
PAINTING (see 20.459). The end of the igth century saw in
painting the triumph of " impressionism " in its widest sense
and the reproduction of visual appearance as a whole accepted as
the main business of a painter. 1 But with the heterodoxy of the
igth century become the orthodoxy of the 2oth, another move-
ment has arisen in revolt against impressionism, giving to paint-
ing between 1900 and 1921 its distinctive character: and just as
the victory of impressionism was a French victory, so this new
movement is mainly French in origin, though its manifestations
elsewhere have taken colour from national characteristics. The
change in the centre of gravity of art has, however, been greater
in appearance than reality. The older academic traditions still
survive; and advances by official bodies and the public have been
met by concessions to orthodoxy among some followers of igth-
century heretics.
Across these main movements has cut the influence of the
World War. At first it threatened to limit artistic output
severely, but the check was only temporary. A huge demand
arose in the belligerent countries from individuals and public
bodies for illustrative, propagandist or commemorative work,
which bore fruit in posters and cartoons; in the formation of offi-
cial collections such as the Canadian War Memorials and a sec-
tion of the Imperial War Museum; and in decorative paintings
for memorial purposes, such as have been commissioned in France
by the State and municipalities. The chief interest of this work
is that of a document, showing what men did, felt and thought
during the war, and of giving a summary of the condition of art
at the time in various countries. The aim of the British and
Canadian official collection was definitely to preserve a pictorial
record of the war in all its aspects, and, consequently, much of
'the work is only the skilful application of a technique to a set
task, and not the expression of a new vision. The same applies to
most of the memorial decorations produced in France; only some
etchings and lithographs produced independently of official ac-
tion show any really personal emotion. Similarly, though in all
countries the posters were the work of prominent artists, little
1 Unfortunately for clarity of exposition, the term " impressionist,"
originally applied to the group of artists round Claude Monet,
painters in a high key using a palette limited to white and the spec-
tral colours, has been given a wider meaning, especially in England.
To avoid mistake, the term is here used throughout to describe
that group and their followers, and does not cover painters such
as Monet in his early period, or Whistler, whom the wider significa-
tion might include.
PAINTING
really notable work from an aesthetic point of view appeared.
Designed as they were to excite hatred, cupidity, pity and self-
sacrifice, their appeal could only in part be aesthetic, and, like
the paintings, they showed little more than the application of
familiar and matured methods to a special end. Yet by putting
the production of the poster into the hands of artists, and by
helping to revive and stimulate wood engraving and lithography,
the war has had real influence on the graphic arts. Otherwise, its
immediate effects have been small. It has quickened a move-
ment towards expression of a national spirit in art, by throwing
countries back upon their own resources, and by increasing a
desire to assert national superiority. It may also have given a
new impulse to the modern search for structure and design, by
reducing life so much into terms of machinery and organization;
and because of the depth and variety of the emotions it aroused,
may have stimulated the tendency to use form and colour for the
expression of personal feeling rather than for the reproduction of
nature. Probably, too, by making a definite breach with 19th-
century ideas, the war has cleared the way for the development of
new aesthetic standards. But the most important modern move-
ments in, art were in being before the war.
Impressionism. Of movements which attained full develop-
ment in the igth century, impressionism in its purest form was
still represented in France in later years by Claude Monet, in
Belgium by Emil Claus, and in England by Lucien Pissaro. Of
its many developments and adaptations, neo-impressionism
based on the analysis of colour in nature into its constituent ele-
ments, which are then placed by means of juxtaposed spots of
paint upon the canvas, to be recombined by the eye survived in
1921 only in modified form. Paul Signac, one of its original expo-
nents, had substituted for spots brick-like rectangles in his oil
paintings, and increased use of line in his water-colours; while its
conversion into pointillism (simply a method of applying in spots
colour already mixed on the palette) was represented by Henri
Martin and Henri le Sidaner. Paul Albert Besnard showed im-
pressionism adapted to deal with such complicated problems as
a mixture of twilight and artificial light; but with Wilson Steer
the expression of subtle tone relations with a limited palette in-
cluding black had superseded an impressionist technique. In
England, indeed, the spectral palette and high key has been
only a passing phase with most painters, and it is the impression-
ism of Whistler and the earlier Manet, with its study of tone and
decorative arrangement of silhouette, which has obtained most
adherents. This was seen in its purest form in France in the work
of Jacques Emile Blanche; but it provided a common basis for
the members of the Glasgow school, such as Sir James Guthrie,
E. A. Walton, Sir John Lavery and D. Y. Cameron; and brought
into relation with them Sir William Orpen, whose use of colour
and study of light otherwise connect him with the impressionists.
Similarly J. S. Sargent's portraits carried on one side of the
Manet tradition, though elsewhere he showed impressionist
influence. Of the group of painters who, under the influence of
Millet and Bastien-Lepage, carried the realism of Courbet and
Manet into the field and workshop, the chief survivors in 1921
were' Lucien Simon and Charles Cottet in France, Max Lieber-
mann in Germany, Joaquin Sorolla in Spain and Ettore Tito in
Italy. In England the once prominent Newlyn group had fallen
by 1921 into obscurity; in Sweden Anders Zorn, best known by
his portraits and etchings, was dead; and the Hague School of
Holland had no important living representatives.
Transition Painters. Between these representatives of the
19th-century outlook and those of the modern movement stand
many painters combining in varying degrees characteristics of
both groups, such as Sir C. J. Holmes (Director of the National
Gallery from 1916), whose landscapes are marked by simplifi-
cation and emphasis on structure. Transition to the modern point
of view is also represented by the decorative painters, who have
necessarily never fully accepted impressionism and realism. As
early as 1892 the Rose Croix group had urged that painting
should be idealist and monumental in character, with myth and
allegory as its subject. These idea survive, despite impression-
ist influences, in the balanced and harmonious compositions of
Rene Menard, whose descent is from Puvis de Chavannes, in
the mural decorations of Henri Martin, and in the work of Aman-
Jean, whose flowing arabesque relates him to the iSth-century
decorators. Akin to these painters, but closer to the modern
movement and more purely decorative in intent, is the broadly
handled work of Jules Flandrin (b.iSyi). Another group of deco-
rative painters take realism as a starting-point. Among these is
Frank Brangwyn (b.iSb;), one of the few English painters with
considerable European influence and reputation. His later work
such as the eight mural paintings, symbolizing the dynamic
forms of nature, for the 1915 Panama Pacific Exposition shows
how his dexterous and schematized art combines romantic and
allegorical treatment of material drawn from the daily life of com-
merce and industry with a sensuous materialism. A comparable
figure is Ignacio Zuloaga (b.i87o), the leader of a group of Basque
and Castilian painters, including Ramon and Valentine de
Zubiaurre, Gustavo de Maeztu and Federico Beltran-Masses,
representing the regionalist and consciously national character of
modern Spanish art. Here a romantic conception of subjects
drawn from contemporary Spanish life is given decora live form by
emphasis on silhouette, simplification of form and broad masses of
colour, often combined with a low horizon and a panoramic back-
ground; though sometimes the realism degenerates into carica-
ture and the decorative treatment into the production of card-
board figures against a stage drop-scene. Augustus John (b.iSyg)
in England is not romantic, but combines with the realism which
finds most complete expression in his portraits a strongly decora-
tive aim in the use of contour to enclose definite areas of colour,
and distortions of the human figure in the interests of design.
Similarly, the Munich decorative school, still represented in 1921
by its most important product, Franz Stuck (b.i863), inherits
from Bocklin the realistic treatment of mythological and alle-
gorical materials. Its once important and widespread influence
has waned; but it forms part of the bridge between the
archaeological and historical painting which formerly domi-
nated Germany, and more modern movements. Allied thereto
is the Swiss, Ferdinand Hodler (1853-1918), by the emphasized
contours and calculated distortions of his later work. But in
his symbolic mystical outlook he resembles another important
forerunner of the modern movement, Hans von Marees (1837-
1887), neglected in his lifetime but now the object of much
adulation, who turned from Courbet and Manet to Rubens
and Delacroix in developing a monumental decorative art based
on three-dimensional form.
Another important divergence from the main trend of later
19th-century art is represented in France by H. G. E. Degas
(1834-1917) and Pierre Auguste Renoir (1841-1919). Their close
association with the impressionists was reflected in the choice of
subjects from contemporary daily life and at times in their use
of colour; but here the connexion ends. Degas is a descendant
of the great classic draughtsmen. A convinced realist, bitterly
opposed to the romantic and symbolic, he never sought the
ideal beauty of Ingres, but turned to use the more absurd and
bizarre attitudes of everyday life. But his realism is syn-
thetic, and represents the building-up, from many sketches and
from a retentive memory, the essential character of a form or
movement ; and his vision is classic in its impersonal, almost ironic,
quality. So with his design, which, despite its apparent disre-
gard of the rules of classical composition, yet shows a complete
balance of strains and stresses round a pictorial centre, revealing
the influence of Chinese and Japanese art. Round Degas centres
a group of realistic draughtsmen, such as Henri de Toulouse-
Lautrec (1864-1901), whose fevered and excited vision has
inspired much modern work, Louis Legrand and J. F. Raffaelli.
Jean-Louis Forain (b.i8s2), chiefly known for his political and
social cartoons, has the critical and ironic spirit of Degas, but
less power of design and feeling for colour. The later work of
T. A. Steinlen (b.iSsg), likewise well known by his journalistic
work, is significant of modern tendencies in the increased empha-
sis given to the third dimension and the use of simplified forms.
In England the realism and irony of Wa4ter Sickert (b.i86o)
connect him with Degas, though his search for atmospheric
PAINTING
unity by study of tonal relations, and an incursion into the use of
the spectral palette under the influence of Spencer Gore, bring
him nearer the impressionists. He has played an important part
in English art by transmitting French influence, coloured by his
own personality, to a number of younger men. Henry Tonks
(b.i862), professor at the Slade School, London, has also played
an important part in moulding the younger generation. His
realism and draughtsmanship relate him to Degas, his choice of
subject at times to Renoir. Renoir, unlike Cezanne, to whom he
is most immediately comparable, has inspired no particular
group who call him master. He was first and last a painter,
not the exponent or founder of an aesthetic creed. Rejecting
Monet's principle of unconditional submission to nature, and
holding that the work of a painter was not to reproduce a natural
effect but to compose and construct, he grafted impressionism on
to the tradition based on the Venetians and Rubens and revivified
by Delacroix; forming an art in which solid form, simplified to
its most expressive elements, and rhythmic flow of contour unite
to give his work the plastic quality of a bas-relief. His colour,
always daring and exuberant, in his later work becomes less
naturalistic, and is dominated by the famous Renoir carnation,
which gives his canvases a radiance in accord with his vision.
Etching and Engraving. In etching and engraving, broadly,
the ipth-century tradition originating in Rembrandt and Goya
still holds the field, represented by Georges Gobo in France, Otto
Fischer in Germany, Sir Frank Short, Muirhead Bone and D. Y.
Cameron in England. Confined as a rule to landscape or archi-
tectural work, their work is chiefly notable for technical mastery.
Representatives of the modern school, on the other hand, rarely
realize the full possibilities of the medium. In Odilon Redon
(1840-1916), however, a modern aim is united with the older
craftsmanship in his search for a plastic equivalent of his emotion
and dreams. He was one of the pioneers of that revival of lithog-
raphy in which bodies such as the Senefelder Club, whose mem-
bers include Joseph Pennell and Brangwyn, played a part. A
more important revival is that of engraving upon wood, with
which Auguste Lepere (1849-1918) was closely associated. His
later woodcuts show a return from a technique imitating etching
or engraving on metal to the older method of treatment in broad
masses, the lights being obtained by cutting away the wood. In
Paris and London societies of wood engravers have been formed
whose members practise this traditional use of white upon black,
which is also much favoured by such modern artists as Derain,
Dufy, Friez, and Franz Marc in their book illustrations.
Contemporary Movements. The modern movement, some of
whose characteristics appear in the transition painters already
discussed, has been given various labels, such as post-impression-
ism and expressionism, but its manifestations are so various that
no one term can satisfactorily describe it. But these manifesta-
tions have a common origin and character, in being a reaction
against impressionism, with its aim of representing superficial
appearance as a whole at a given time, without reference to
shape or appearance as they are known to exist under the condi-
tions; and in proposing to substitute form arranged into a coher-
ent design, so making a new and independent reality and not a
reproduction of nature. In this the modern movement claims to
be a return to the tradition in painting represented by Raphael,
Poussin, David and Ingres, as opposed to the romantics and
realists; and to be breaking away from subordination to external
and visible things, which are to serve only as a means towards
expressing the artist's emotions. From this latter aspect of the
movement arises the term " expressionism "; and divergence as
to the kind and quality of emotion to be expressed is one cause of
the differences between various modern groups. This general
character of the movement helps to account for other distinctive
features. Colour becomes less naturalistic, and is either used to
emphasize the solidity of objects, is purely decorative, or assumes
a mystical and symbolic character; and anxiety to avoid a trans-
cript of nature has stimulated return to the subject picture,
which calls for constructive effort. But the modern movement
owes much to the impressionists. It was they who helped to dis-
credit the formulas and aims of academic art; put powerful
weapons in the painter's hands by applying to art scientific dis-
coveries regarding light and colour; and won recognition of the
artist's freedom to express his personal vision of things. It was on
this basis that the chief initiators of the movement built. These
fall into two groups, the one including Cezanne, Seurat and
Henri Rousseau, whose emphasis tends to be on structure and
organized design; the other including Gauguin, Van Gogh and
Gustave Moreau, in whom symbolist and expressionist elements
are more marked.
Paul Cezanne (1840-1906) gives the key to understanding of
his aims and methods by his own words, that he wished to remake
Poussin according to nature, and to make of impressionism some-
thing solid and durable like the art of the museums. His sympa-
thies were all with the later Venetians, Rubens, Poussin, and the
baroque masters such as the Caracci and El Greco, whose crafts-
manship, bravura and well-organized design he admired. These
sympathies found expression throughout his life, but are most
evident in his earlier work. In this he used little colour; but
under the influence of the impressionists, especially Pissarro,
he extended his palette considerably (though still retaining
black and the earth colours) and turned to a more intimate
study of nature. But for him nature was only a starting-point.
Contemplation of her, he held, reinforced by reflection and study
of underlying causes, creates in the artist's mind a vision of the
structure underlying the external, visible world, which to him
becomes a series of organic relations between solid forms, which
it is his business to realize on canvas. Cezanne's method was
to establish the relations between the planes enclosing an object
or group of objects by recording all the subtle differences in their
colour due to differences in their relation to the light. But it is
the form, not the light around it, which interests Cezanne. He
worked slowly and painfully; but such was his desire for keeping
every element of his work in correct relation that one alteration
would often lead to complete repainting. The legend of Cezanne's
technical incompetence is partly due to his constant self-depre-
ciation and to the amount of work he left unfinished in despair
or disgust. Though his ultimate rank as a painter is still in the
balance, his influence underlies much of modern art.
Georges Seurat (1859-1891), like Cezanne, found inthei6th-
and 17th-century masters the inspiration to recreate on canvas
a world of three dimensions rather than copy that before his eyes.
At the same time modern scientific research into colour led him to
develop his well-known neo-impressionist technique, which has
rather obscured his power of expressing structure and of welding
form into balanced and monumental design. But he has exercised
much influence, especially on the cubists, whose studio walls often
carried reproductions of " Le Chahut," one of his last pictures.
Henri Rousseau (1844-1910), " le douanier," a very different
figure was once an octroi official in Paris (whence his nickname).
He is the true type of the primitive who tries to paint things as he
knows them to be rather than as they appear. He used, for exam-
ple, to measure his sitters with a footrule, and transfer these
measurements to canvas. His work, which includes portraits,
views of the suburbs of Paris, exotic landscapes based on recol-
lections of military service in Mexico, and figure compositions, is
marked by emphasis on solidity, precision of handling, adjust-
ment of the relative size of objects according to their importance
as elements in design, and at times by a symbolic element.
In contrast to Rousseau is Gustave Moreau (1826-1898), a
strange figure bred in the strictest academic tradition, whose
romantic spirit borrowed fire from Delacroix and Chasseriau,
and who fed his imagination upon the myths of Greece and the
East. He emerged from many years' retirement to become at the
end of his life professor at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, where his
influence helped to breed a group of young painters with sym-
bolist tendencies. As a teacher Moreau always encouraged self-
expression based on close study of the old masters. In his own
work Moreau stood for the use of the plastic arts to express the
emotions, and built up a decorative art, combining sombre
rich colour and rhythmic linear arabesque.
Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) was more definitely a chef d'tcole
than any of the group now under consideration. After an impres-
PAINTING
sionist phase, he became in Brittany the centre of the famous Pont
Aven group, and there developed the theory of synthesis which
was to govern all his later work. In 1891 he went to Tahiti and,
except for a brief return to France, spent the rest of his life there.
Admiration of the primitive was at the base of Gauguin's art.
Rejecting impressionism as a mere reproduction of nature not
inspired by thought, he held that study of nature awakes emotions
in the artist which he has to express by bringing into organized
relation symbols, consisting of forms and colours, supplied by
nature. Primitive art alone, he considered, proceeds from the
spirit, and uses rather than mimics nature; and he justified going
to Tahiti on the ground that there only was his imagination
sufficiently stirred by nature. Though the colour and forms in
his pictures might not actually exist in nature, he claimed them
to be the pictorial equivalent of the grandeur, profundity and
mystery of Tahiti. His latest work most completely embodies
this conception of art in its design based on boldly simplified
contours enclosing areas of rich purples, greens, reds and oranges.
To the end Gauguin's colour showed impressionist influence.
Otherwise his art is primarily decorative, with colours keyed to
express the painter's mood, and shows a less passionate search
for solidity than Cezanne's. His symbolism, though not primarily
literary, towards the end moved somewhat in that direction.
Akin to Gauguin in his outlook and use of colour is Vincent
van Gogh (1853-1890). Born in Holland, his early work shows
the influence of the Hague School; association with the impres-
sionists in Paris led to his settling down at Aries to the use of
heavy masses of vivid colour arranged indefinite patterns, em-
phasized by black outlines and writhing arabesques of paint. A
passionate lover of nature and a mystic and idealist by tempera-
ment, Van Gogh believed that the artist's creative power was
given to him to make men happy. Vehement personal passion is
the note of his work. His colour ultimately became quite non-
naturalistic, and was solely directed towards expressing his emo-
tions; and his surface texture was designed to increase the
arresting, disquieting quality of his work. The third dimension
did not play a dominant part in Van Gogh's work. His design, in
which decorative simplification became increasingly marked,
shows very strongly the influence of Japanese art.
Symbolism and Fauvism. The characteristic elements of the
preceding group of painters rejection of naturalistic representa-
tion, emphasis on solidity and structure, organized design, and
the symbolic use of form and colour are united in varying
degrees in the work of their successors. The influence of Cezanne,
which has modified or supplanted that of others, took some time
to develop, and the first well-marked group to appear was that
round Gauguin at Pont Aven. Among these was Paul Serusier
(b.i864), who was one of the first to formulate a doctrine based
on the ideas of Gauguin, Cezanne and Odilon Redon. He drew
round him a group of symbolistes which included Maurice Denis
(b.iSyo), Pierre Bonnard, K-Xavier Roussel and Edouard
Vuillard. This doctrine declares that a work of art must aim at
the expression of an idea. Since it uses form for this purpose, it
must be symbolic; and since the form has to be organized, it
must be synthetic and decorative. At the basis of this is a belief
in correspondence between external forms and subjective states
not, however, by association but direct. Serusier and Denis
have given these ideas a mystical and religious application . largely
under the influence of the quattrocento Italians. In Bonnard
(b.i867) and Vuillard (b.i867), however, the purely decorative
element is uppermost, in a graceful and refined but over-precious
treatment of material drawn from everyday life, influenced by
Japanese art, and marked by elusive and delicate harmonies of
green, blue, rose and yellow combined with grey. Closely akin
to this symboliste group is another whose best-known members
were pupils of Gustave Moreau. The religious symbolic pictures
of Georges Desvallieres (b.i86i) are characterized by the use of
arabesque and rich exotic colour; the more realistic art of
Charles Guerin (b.i874) by its decorative aim and search for
tonal rather than linear unity. The influence of Moreau, modi-
fied only by the pupil's own temperament, is well seen in the
fantastic, savagely distorted nudes, and mysterious, sombre
landscapes of Georges Rouault. Far better known is his fellow-
pupil Henri Matisse (b.i86g), who represents the expressionist
side of symbolism in its most extreme form. Academic and neo-
impressionist phases never obscured his very personal use of
line and colour whose decorative quality relates him to the Chi-
nese and Japanese. His arbitrary distortions of the human
figure, partly based on the study of negro art, marked a stage
towards the abstract, non-representative art of the cubists.
These distortions, his apparently anarchic design and his colour
earned for Matisse the title of " Chef des Fauves," though he has
not formed the centre of a well-marked group, despite his wide
influence. It is difficult to acquit him of sometimes painting
pour epatcr les bourgeois; but his latest work, while retaining deli-
cacy and sensitiveness, shows increased discipline and restraint.
Both in his drawing and painting Matisse is notable for his use
of a pure unaccented contour, which nevertheless generates
solid form. Somewhat the same power is seen in the Italian
painter and sculptor Amedee Modigliani (1884-1920), though he
is far more mannered than Matisse and lacks his feeling for colour.
Kecs van Dongen (b.i&Tj, in Holland) mingles the influence
of Matisse with that of Toulouse-Lautrec, and mainly shows the
application of a.fauvisle recipe to the painting of fashionable Pari-
sian society. Different from the symbolistes smdfauves, but equal-
ly a reaction against impressionism, are the painters who return
to the outlook and methods of the quattrocento Italians. Among
these are Jean Frelaut (b.i879), notable for his sincere, thoroughly
realized interpretations of the country and people round Mor-
bihan in Brittany; and Felix Vallotton (b. 1865, at Lausanne),
whose angular, precise contours and definite colour pattern
relate him to the primitives, and have won him the nickname
of the Cabanel of the Salon d'Automne. This Pre-Raphaelite
tendency is represented in England by Joseph Southall, head of
the Birmingham School of Art, whose work is akin to that of
Benozzo Gozzoli; and by Henry Lamb, Stanley Spencer and Gil-
bert Spencer, who in 1921 were the most prominent of a group of
younger men in London of undoubted sincerity but inclined at
times to use a rather elementary formula. Their work is also
interesting as illustrating a tendency in British art towards deco-
rative design suitable for mural painting. Similar, though more
academic in outlook, is Eric Kennington, whose war paintings
attracted much attention, their sentimental interest obscuring
their mannered draughtsmanship and pretty colour.
Cubism. To all the manifestations of the modern movement
so far considered cubism is a marked contrast. It was a reaction
not only against impressionism but against fauvism, and stands
for the introduction of order and discipline into painting. So much
was this the case that some opponents of the movement professed
to see therein p, return offensive of the academics. It owes its
name and in part its origin to Matisse, from whose association
with Picasso and others the movement took shape in 1908. This
group coalesced with another working on similar lines, and repre-
sented by Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger, to win cubism its
first public victory in the Salon d'Automne of 1913. To the
influence of Cezanne and Seurat, which was mainly behind the
movement, was joined that of Negro and Polynesian art, in which
the cubists found a simplification of the human form emphasizing
its bulk and solidity, and 'a complete disregard of normal ap-
pearance in the effort to express a conception. The central point
of cubism is its entire rejection of the reproduction of natural
appearance, which, cubists hold, merely serves to awaken in the
artist emotions which he expresses by a series of abstract forms,
ordered and arrayed by his will. Thus cubism aims at creating
a kind of visual music. In its most austere form it avoids curved
lines and colour as pretty and sentimental; and even holds that a
picture is not a decoration since that term implies dependence
upon external objects. From the first, great emphasis was laid
on the expression of volume and its arrangement in space. This
aroused difficulties, which have separated the cubists into distinct
groups. The representation of a third dimension introduced an
element of resemblance to nature. Some painters accepted this,
so that their pictures are little more than arrangements of realis-
tically painted cubes and cylinders: others rebelled against such
PAINTING
a restricted art, and made of cubism merely an exercise and disci-
pline in the expression of three-dimensional form. The purists,
however, hold that art is not concerned with Euclidean space
but with a special pictorial space, which we feel by our whole
personality expanding or contracting before a picture; and that
it is not the painter's business to create an illusion of a third
dimension but to make live on a two-dimensional surface a
reality of three dimensions. Further difficulties have been caused
by development of a theory of simultaneity which justifies presen-
tation on the same canvas of several aspects of the same object ;
this often only comes to a mechanical arrangement of a number
of separate impressions, whose disentanglement may be a source
of interest, so that cubism is descriptive rather than pictorial.
Pablo Picasso (b.i88i, at Malaga) has been the dominating
force in the movement, but by no means typifies it. With him
cubism has been only a phase. To a realistic period, mainly in-
fluenced by Toulouse-Lautrec, succeeded a group of reddish
nudes, solidly constructed from simplified planes, which ushered
in the cubist period. The earlier work in this showed some con-
formity to natural appearance, and was mainly in grisaille. Later
the forms became more abstract, the design more arbitrary and
the colour brilliant, sand and similar substances being embedded
in the paint to give relief and variety of surface. Picasso's latest
phase shows the influence of Ingres, especially in his drawings.
Some of these show a delicate, unbroken contour, others the use
of shading; but all conform closely to natural appearance, with
only enough distortion to give flow and rhythm. The chief
characteristic of Picasso is his versatility. There is no method he
has tried which he has not mastered. But whether he has yet
achieved more than a series of exercises in different manners is
open to question. The work of other cubists is remarkable for its
sameness and impersonal quality. Georges Braque's rigid ad-
herence to abstract forms, straight lines and sombre browns and
greys make him the purist of the movement; Gleizes and Metzin-
ger, by their more graceful use of line and colour and by their
writings, are its popularizers; while Fernand Leger and Auguste
Herbin are mainly makers of attractive patterns in bright colour.
The use of colour is, however, pushed furthest by the Orphists,
such as R. Delaunay, whose rejection of all rules is really a pro-
test against the formal side of cubism, which he has translated
into terms of curves and circles decked with vivid colour.
Between the extremes of cubism and fauvism stands a consider-
able group of artists who derive something from both, but repre-
sent the direct and increasing influence of Cezanne. Of these
Albert Marquet (b.iSys) is primarily a painter of Paris and of the
Seine, whose use of well-defined planes, with their tonal relations
very accurately expressed, is apt to degenerate into an ingenious
system of notation. Jean Puy (b.i876), in his landscapes of wide-
stretching countrysides, brings many scattered elements into
harmonious relation by his feeling for subtle variations in colour
and tone. With Othon Friez (b.iSyg) the organizing constructive
instinct is uppermost, but he shows considerable power of retain-
ing fresh and unspoiled his original conception. More consciously
decorative than Cezanne, his mural paintings sometimes show
the influence of Gauguin. Jean Marchand (b.i883) and Dunoyer
de Segonzac (b.i884) represent a younger generation to whom
cubism has been a gymnastic to develop understanding of form,
but who now rely on colour and tone to give solidity and a sense
of space. Marchand, taking for his material the most ordinary
objects of daily life and the countryside, and using a simple,
sober palette, gives his work distinction by his dignified design;
Segonzac, with similar constructive power, works in a thick im-
pasto with free use of the palette-knife in colour which has become
increasingly sombre. His war paintings express a very personal
emotion awakened by experience, and are the colour of the mud
which dominated the battlefield. Andre Derain (b.i88o) is one
of the most influential of younger painters who, after a period
influenced by Van Gogh and the neo-impressionists, produced a
series of truculent nudes and landscapes, which showed cubist
and fauve influence in their simplified and distorted forms. His
recent work is more sober and severe, and reflects a study of
Ingres. At times Derain's technical accomplishment threatens
to lead him into the mannerism which marks the dramatic land-
scapes of Maurice Vlaminck (b.i876), with their heavy skies and
contrast of sombre greens with vivid reds and pinks.
Futurism. Modern art in other countries is mainly an exten-
sion or adaptation of French ideas and method. Spain, it is true,
has produced Picasso; but cubism is entirely Parisian in origin,
and so much of the modern spirit as appears in Catalan painters
such as Sunyer and Casals is derived from France. Futurism,
however, is indigenous to Italy. The term has been loosely used,
especially in England, to denote the modern movement as a
whole; but it has a definite and limited application to the doc-
trines of a group of Italian poets, sculptors and painters, first
presented to the world in 1909 in a manifesto signed by F. T.
Marinetti, the poet and high priest of the movement. These doc-
trines apply to art a general philosophy of life, with its origin in
modern scientific theories which express all matter in terms of
energy, and are based on denunciation of all that the past has
done (whence the name futurism) and on the worship of movement
and conflict as the dominant characteristics of modern life. Cub-
ism, as based on tradition and dealing only with the static as-
pects of life, it rejects; impressionism it claims to have surpassed,
but takes as a starting-point. The futurist's aim is to represent,
not the appearance of objects at some particular point in their
course, but the sensation of movement and growth itself. One
method, which connects futurism with cubism, is to combine on
one canvas not only what the artist sees, but what he knows and
remembers about an object. Another, peculiar to futurism, is the
use of " force lines." Every object, it is argued, is at a given
moment the temporary outcome of continuously acting forces,
whose character is indicated by the lines and planes enclosing it.
Thus an object becomes simply the beginning or prolongation of
rhythms conveyed to the artist by contemplation thereof; and
these he represents in his picture by lines arranged to clash,
harmonize, or interplay in order to express states of mind such as
chaotic excitement, happiness or interest. Colour the futurists
use arbitrarily to assist in conveying these sensations.
Luigi Russolo is the most logical and orthodox of the futurists.
The work of others, such as Carlo Carra, is little more than a
catalogue of information about a number of different objects;
though Umberto Boccioni, who has applied futurist theories also
to sculpture, sometimes redeems his work by an interesting de-
sign. The gaily coloured, tapestry-like patterns of Gino Severini
are among the most attractive futurist paintings; but his recent
work has been modified by cubist and academic influences. His
career typifies the fate of futurism, which has found no new re-
cruits, and has had but transient influence.
Modern English Painting. The English vorticists share some
of the futurist doctrines; but the main forces shaping the modern
movement in England are French. This movement first took shape
in the studio of Walter Sickert, and resulted in the formation of
the Camden Town group under the presidency of Spencer Fred-
erick Gore (1878-1914), which developed into the more eclectic
London group, whose first president was Harold Gilman (1876-
1919). At the same time Roger Fry (b.i866), by his writings and
by assisting to organize post-impressionist exhibitions in 1910
and 1912 at the Graf ton Galleries, did much to make known the
character of the modern movement in France, and to assimilate
more closely thereto the English movement. Gore and Gilman
represent the movement in its earlier stages. Gore's earlier im-
pressionism was modified under the influence of Cezanne and
Van Gogh by increased attention to structure and design, which
for a time obscured his charming sense of colour. This reappeared
in his latest and most important work, done mainly at Richmond.
Gilman emerged from a period influenced by Whistler and paint-
ers of the Vuillard type to one which gave increased emphasis
to the third dimension and showed the influence of Van Gogh
in the use of brilliant, clear colour and the handling of paint.
Charles Ginner, whose work is closely akin to Gilman's, describes
their art as aiming at "the plastic interpretation of life through
intimate research into nature." The emotions aroused by nature
in the artist he must express by deliberate and objective transpo-
sition of nature on to canvas, so that he reveals the qualities in her
8
PAINTING
which have moved him. The variety of line and colour in nature,
joined to the artist's personality, will produce a decorative com-
position. This neo-realism (as Ginner calls it) is based on the
attitude of Cezanne and Van Gogh towards nature; but gives
an English turn to that attitude by emphasizing the part played
by nature as compared with that of the artist. The French point
of view is more evident in the work of the London group. Some
of its members are still slaves to a French formula; others have
based on French teaching a more individual art, notably W. B.
Adeney, F. J. Porter, Roger Fry and Duncan Grant, whose sense
of colour gives his art characteristic quality. C. R. W. Nevinson,
having explored in turn impressionism, futurism and cubism,
subsequently abandoned the geometric convention which marked
his war paintings, to reveal the academic art masked by his
previous experiments.
Vorticism. Distinct in character is the vorticist movement,
with which Nevinson was once associated. This had its origin in
1913 among certain members of the Camden Town group, and
had as its leading figures the painters Percy Wyndham Lewis,
Cuthbert Hamilton, Frederick Etchells, Edward Wadsworth and
William Roberts, the poet Ezra Pound, and the sculptor Henri
Gaudier-Brzeska (1891-1915). Like futurism, it holds that
modern art must be based on the character of modern indus-
trial civilization, whose features are complexity and dominance
of the machine; and since England is preeminently the type
of the modern industrial country, this art will be an English
art. But it rejects futurism as merely the cinematographic
representation of a series of impressions; and joins the modern
movement as a whole in basing itself on tradition, and claim-
ing that the artist's work is not to copy nature, but to create new
realities. Every phase of emotion has its appropriate means
of expression in some particular form of some particular material,
whose appeal is direct and not by association or allegory. These
forms take shape and proceed out of the artist's " vortex "
(hence the name of the movement), which is a general conception
of relations in the universe through which ideas pass and take
concrete shape, just as the general equation of a circle in analyti-
cal geometry becomes one particular circle when definite quan-
tities are substituted for the algebraic symbol. In 1920 the vor-
ticist movement issued in a "secession from the London group to
form the X group. But though mainly composed of vorticists,
its first exhibition showed some modification if not in doctrine,
yet in practice. The earlier vorticist work was geometric and
abstract, and owed much to cubism. Hamilton still represented
this phase in 1921; but others had turned in the direction of ex-
pressing the structure and essential character of natural forms in
the way exemplified by the work of Wyndham Lewis. Much of
the interest of the earlier vorticist painting lies in disentangling in
sequence the elements from which it is constructed; and to this
extent it is descriptive and literary. Otherwise, though sometimes
showing new and interesting combinations of shapes and colours,
it presents only a barren world of geometrical forms.
Modern German Painting. In Germany the modern move-
ment has been mainly inspired by that side of modern French art
represented by Matisse and Derain. Cubism has not gained a
real footing there; though the Russian Jew, Marc Chagall, shows
cubist influence in the sharply defined planes and angular design
of his fantastic, vividly coloured, decorations; and Lyonel Feini-
ger has adopted the cubist method of extension and development
of planes. Arbitrary distortion and writhing arabesque are more
congenial means of expression in an art always tending towards
the romantic and symbolic; native influences, such as Hans von
Marees and the Munich decorative school, joined to the study
of El Greco and Matthias Griinewald, have paved the way for an
expressionist art in the fullest sense of the term one which
gives vent to every kind of emotion with unrestrained and brutal
vehemence. A mystical temper and a mass of confused aspira-
tions induced by the war have stimulated this development ; but
the movement was in being before the war, chiefly under the lead-
ership of Wassily Kandinsky (b.i866, at Moscow), a prominent
member of a Munich group of painters, poets and musicians,
whose aim was the expression through art of the "innerer Klang "
the soul of nature and humanity. According to Kandinsky,
colour and form have the power of producing spiritual vibrations
quite apart from their ordinary meaning and associations; and a
picture consists of an arrangement of form and colour whose
spiritual values are in harmony, and unite to express the artist's
spiritual conceptions. Thus painting ceases to have representa-
tion as its purpose, and becomes analogous to music in its rhyth-
mic arrangements of forms and colours. These may be borrowed
from nature, but must have no external associations and may be
freely adapted and distorted to suit the artist's aim. Thus
Kandinsky has points of contact both with the symbolistes and
cubists; but he criticizes the latter for reducing the construction
of a picture to rules and formulas, and for paying over-much
attention merely to representing three-dimensional form. Kandin-
sky's own work has become increasingly abstract in character
and consists of some early flat decorations, combining Russian
and Munich influences; a group of more or less direct impressions
of nature, inspired by Matisse; " improvisations " which repre-
sent spontaneous expressions of inner character; and " composi-
tions " which express a slowly formed and mature spiritual feel-
ing. His most important disciple is Franz Marc (1880-1916),
whose animal compositions boldly designed in arbitrary colour
are his most typical work. Less abstract but more brutal is a
group which has come into special prominence during and after
the war. Most prominent of these is Oskar Kokoschka (b.i886,
in Austria), whose early work showed the free distortion, sharp
contrasts of light and shade, bold contours, and thick impasto
worked into arabesques, by which he conveys his excited and
very personal vision. In his later work emphasis by these means
is even more emphatic and merciless. The heads of his figures
are balanced on tiny bodies, bizarre monsters are introduced,
and the paint is literally thrown on the canvas, with great chan-
nels made therein to mark the dominant lines of the design.
Painters of similar tendencies are Emil Nolde, Karl Hofer, and
Karl Schmidt-Rottluff. The last, under the influence of negro
sculpture, has become a coarser Matisse. The influence of an
earlier generation of Frenchmen is seen in Max Pechstein, whose
work owes much to Gauguin, and in Albert Werszgerber and
Carl Caspar, both of whom base their design and use of colour on
Cezanne. Edward Munch (b.i862, in Norway) stands somewhat
apart in his combination of realism, fantasy and power of monu-
mental design derived from Manet, Toulouse-Lautrec and
Seurat, which excited violent controversy in Berlin when first
exhibited, and led to the split in the Kunstverein there which
marks the rise of the modern movement.
Modern Russian Painting. In Russia the influence of French
art has been no less marked than elsewhere, but has taken pecu-
liar and characteristic shape. Towards the end of the igth cen-
tury Western and in particular French influence was represented
by the realistic historical painters such as Ilya and Repin and a
group of plcin-air landscape painters. In reaction against their
naturalism a decorative school developed, corresponding some-
what to the English Pre-Raphaelites, basing its work on old
Russian art, and represented by Vassily Surikov (1848-1916) and
Victor Vasnetzov. Of this reaction the modern movement is
really a development. One form it has taken is represented by
Mikhail Vrubel (d.iqio), whose mystical symbolism recalls that
of Gustave Moreau in its search to express things of the spirit in
pictorial form; while Petroff-Wodkin is nearer to the French
fauves in his simplified and distorted nudes and arbitrary use of
colour. More important is a Petrograd group, consisting of
historical painters whose aim is to reconstruct in decorative form
a past epoch, not from living models dressed in costume of the
period, but from the close study of every form of contemporary
record. Thus, the movement is primarily intellectual and literary
and has produced an art which, for all its refinement and delicacy,
is inclined to be precious and a mere rechauffe of already-used
material. Within the movement one group looks to the West.
Alexander Benois has concentrated on the age of Louis XIV.;
Konstantine Somov, the most charming and individual of all,
upon the period of 1830; and Eugene Lanceray upon the court
of Elizabeth and Peter the Great. Stelletsky and Count Koma-
PALAEONTOLOGY
rovsky, on the other hand, have gone to old Russia for their mo-
tives. Stelletsky is the purist of the group, his reconstructions of
Russian mediaeval life being based upon minute archaeological
study of ikons, service books and similar sources. Nicolas
Roerich has departed from strictly documentary methods in seek-
ing to reconstruct primeval and prehistoric Russia in his fantas-
tic flat decorations based on Russian legends, and thereby joins
hands with the group represented by Vasnetzov. Rather apart
is Boris Anrep (working in 1921 in England), who studied
Byzantine art and the ikon, not in an archaeological spirit, but
as exemplifying a means for the expression of human emotion.
His work is principally in mosaic, submission to whose lim-
itations, he holds, makes for the simplicity and directness
which are often lost amid the technical possibilities of oil paint.
The close connexion of modern Russian art with the theatre is
another important characteristic, which has grown directly out
of the decorative reaction against realism. Leon Bakst repre-
sents one side of this. Originally associated with the Petrograd
historical group, he came into touch with Serge Diaghilev and
became one of the chief designers of settings for the Russian
Ballet. His use of line and colour relates him to the East; but,
like Benois and Somov, his outlook and method are those of the
West. Distinct in character is the art of Nathali Gontcharova
and M. Larionov. Using the methods of the Petrograd group,
they took their material from Russian peasant art, as represented
in the decoration of articles in daily use and in the " lubok," the
Russian equivalent of the " images d'Epinal," which gives their
earlier work notable simplicity and directness. The West was not
to be denied, however, and Gontcharova's setting for the 1914
production of the " Coq d'Or " and Larionov's " Les Contes
Russes " of 1915 mark the invasion of the theatre by cubist
ideas. The colour scheme was still that of Russian peasant art;
but the design was based on abstract forms, and aimed at a
rhythm in harmony with the music and the dances. To this
development the name of rayonnisme has been given.
Much of the criticism levelled at the modern movement, like
that once directed against impressionism, is merely a violent
statement of personal preference. Weightier arguments point
out that the emphasis given in the modern movement to the third
dimension merely exalts one element in natural appearance, and
urge that ultimately design must be based on the play of contour
and shapes on the picture plane. Also, it is said, modern methods
of simplification and distortion tend to become formulas which
prevent sincere and spontaneous expression no less than older
conventions. But contention chiefly centres round the question
of representation. It is argued that a purely abstract art, which
takes no account of the ideas and emotions conveyed by the ob-
jects represented, is a limited and empty affair. Rhythm in the
plastic arts, no less than in literature, must emphasize some
meaning; and form takes on a significance by association, if not
with specific objects, yet with general ideas of mass, space and
movement.
See also: Maurice Denis, Theories 1890-1910 (1912); W. H.
Wright, Modern Painting (1916) ; R. Fry, Vision and Design (1920) ;
A. Salmon, L'Art Viiianl (1920); G. Coquiot, Les Independants
(1920); P. Westheim, Die Welt als Vorstellung (1918); Fritz Burger,
Cezanne und Hodler (1913) ; Ambroise Vollard, Paul Cezanne (1914) ;
Charles Morice, Paul Gauguin (1919); Vincent van Gogh, Lettres
a {.mile Bernard, (1912) ; Kandinsky, The Art of Spiritual Harmony;
A. Gleizes, Du Cubisme (1920). (W. G. C.)
UNITED STATES. Between 1910 and 1921 many of the paint-
ers mentioned in the earlier article (20.518) had passed away,
and some of their younger contemporaries had also laid down their
brushes: Ryder, Bunce, Blakelock, Duveneck, Alexander,
Smedley, Millet, Cox, Beckwith, Alden Weir. Abbey, who died
in 1911, left no followers, but La Farge and Chase wielded great
influence over a host of pupils. With the development of Ameri-
can art-schools and the increasing number of capable instructors,
the trend towards European art-centres had by 1921 grown less.
There was already promise of a school with distinctly American
characteristics. This was to be seen most clearly among the paint-
ers of landscape. Twachtman and Robinson, among the older
men who were trained abroad, brought back some of the light of
the so-called Impressionist School, and their example in raising
the colour-pitch was of great benefit. Crane, a pupil of Wyant,
and such men as Tryon, Murphy and Ben Foster, ably carried on
the tradition they received from their American masters. Dew-
ing, Metcalf and Childe Hassam developed individual ways of
looking at their subjects. Carlsen, Dougherty and Waugh found
the sea an ever-changing theme for their brushes, and they pro-
duced canvases not behind those of the landscape men.
With the passing of the Society of American Artists, the men
who made this organization a force were merged with the mem-
bers of the older National Academy and became conservatives
in their turn. Thayer, Brush, Blashfield,, Tarbell, Mowbray,
Melchers and Simmons were still in 1920 painting pictures
which showed their sound technical training and their artistic
point of view. Some of the later men who developed original
ways of doing things were Robert Henri, Jonas Lie, William
Glackens, Rockwell Kent, John Sloane, George B. Luks, C. C.
Cooper, A. B. Davies, Jerome Myers, George Bellows, Gardner
Symons, Everett Shinn, W. E. Schofield and Randall Davey.
Abundant manifestations of vorticism and cubism came to be
seen in American painting. The followers of Cezanne, Matisse,
Gauguin, Van Gogh and Picasso were many, but chiefly the
younger men whose work was still in the experimental stage.
There was a steady advance in mural painting. Sargent added
to the decorations for the Boston Public Library, and the exam-
ple set there and elsewhere was followed in many of the larger
cities, in state capitols, municipal courts, churches and theatres.
Pittsburgh, Harrisburg, Baltimore, St. Paul and Minneapolis
have important buildings decorated by such mural painters as
La Farge, Blashfield, Alexander, and others. There has been
remarkable growth at the art museums, especially at the Metro-
politan Museum of New York, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts,
the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh (whose international exhi-
bitions draw many exhibits from overseas), and the Chicago Art
Institute. No less remarkable has been the formation of impor-
tant collections in cities whose size would often afford no reason
for expecting their presence. Worcester, Providence, Cleveland
and Minneapolis have excellent museums. Washington now
possesses three collections of paintings the Corcoran Gallery,
the National Gallery and the Freer Collection. Moreover,
private collections of importance have increased in number and
quality, and native artists are often given there the high place
they deserve. Some of the universities offer courses in the His-
tory of Art and in the elements of design. In time this should
produce a body of intelligent criticism which should still further
stimulate artistic effort in America. (J. C. VAN D.)
PALAEONTOLOGY (see 20.579). During the period 1910-21
the science of extinct forms of life made remarkable progress,
especially in North America, where explorations and studies were
less interrupted by the World War. The contact of palaeontology
with other sciences even those apparently remote like as-
tronomy, physics and chemistry, less remote like comparative
anatomy, or very intimate like geology was one of the out-
standing features of the synthetic work accomplished. Of tran-
scendent interest, however, was the contact between mammalian
palaeontology and anthropology, especially through the re-
searches of William K. Gregory of the American Museum of
Natural History, and also of G. Elliot Smith of London Univer-
sity to whom is due the article on ANTHROPOLOGY in these
New Volumes.
Principal Synthetic Works of 191021. Chief among the synthetic
works in pure palaeontology are those of the Austrian palaeon-
tologist Othenio Abel, Grundziige der Palaeobiologie der Wirbeltiere
(1912), Die Stamme der Wirbeltiere (1919), and Lehrbuch der Pa-
Iceozoologie (1920), which give masterly reviews of the whole fossil
history of the vertebrates, especially in analogous and convergent
adaptation. In invertebrate palaeontology the reader is referred to
Amadeus Grabau's Principles of Stratigraphy (1913) and Textbook
of Geology (1920-1), in which are summed up the principles derived
from the teachings of Waagen and Neumayr in Germany, of Hyatt
and Beecher in America, in pure palaeontology and in application
to geology. A broad synthetic treatment of climate and time in rela-
tion to the evolution of life is that of the late Joseph Barrell (1917)
in his Rhythms and the Measurements of Geologic Time. The best
10
PALAEONTOLOGY
synthetic treatment of climate, time and geologic change in relation
to the geologic origin and the migration of the different vertebrate
groups is William Diller Matthew's Climate and Evolution (1915).
The subdivisions of geologic time and the successions of faunas and
climates are broadly reviewed in the Textbook of Geology by Louis
V. Pirsson and Charles Schuchert (1915; revised edition, vol. I,
1921). The latest summary of the geology, past physiography and
palaeontology of the world is found in the French edition of the great
work of Eduard Suess, Das A ntlitz der Erde, translated and annotated
by Emmanuel de Margerie as La Face de la Terre (1902, 1918).
The comparative evolution of the mammalia of the eastern hemi-
sphere and of North America is broadly treated in Henry Fairfield
Osborn's A ge of Mammals (1910); while the mammals of North and
South America are compared in W. B. Scott's History of Land
Mammals in the Western Hemisphere (1913). A broad treatment of
the whole subject of invertebrate and vertebrate evolution is given
in Richard S. Lull's Organic Evolution (1917) and a synthetic review
of the earth's history, from its solar beginnings to the Age of Man,
in Osborn's Origin and Evolution of Life.
Life Epochs of Geologic Time. The time scale in the accom-
panying table is taken from the work of Pirsson and Schuchert
of 1915, modified by the substitution of geologic time units for
years. There is a growing indisposition to reckon past time in
terms of years, and a growing tendency to substitute a relative
term like time units, because of the enormously wide discrepancy
between the older estimates of geologists, based on sedimentation
and the thickness of the various assemblages of rocks, which,
taken together, make up the whole geologic time scale, and the
estimates of physicists, based on the slow liberation of radium
from radioactive minerals. The radium estimates of the age of
the earth range as high as 1,400,000,000 years for the oldest
known rocks, according to Barrell, who has adopted the calcula-
tions of Rutherford and others based on the " rate of disintegra-
tion " of radioactive minerals. The contract between the two
methods is exemplified in the following table:
by palaeontologists. In the same discussion W. J. Sollas com-
ments on the expansion of time estimates proposed by physicists:
" The age of the earth was thus increased from a mere score of
millions to a thousand millions and more, and the geologist who
had before been bankrupt in time now found himself suddenly
transformed into a capitalist with more millions in the bank than
he knew how to dispose of."
In this connexion we may recall the fact that as early as 1859
Charles Darwin pointed out that the high degree of evolution and
specialization seen in the invertebrate fossils at the base of the
Palaeozoic, namely, the Cambrian, proved that Precambrian
evolution occupied a period as long as, or even longer than, that
of Cambrian to Recent time (see Table I on p. n). Poulton, the
leading disciple of Darwin in England (1896), declared that
400,000,000 years was none too long for the whole life evolution
period; this would allow 200,000,000 years for Precambrian time
and another 200,000,000 years from Cambrian to Recent time.
Walcott's Revelation of Precambrian and Cambrian Life.
Charles D. Walcott (1899, 1914) has discovered the remains of
life in the Precambrian (Proterozoic) rocks of North America
and has been able to give us a fragmentary picture of the fauna
and flora of that very ancient period. In Montana at a depth of
nearly 10,000 ft. below the earliest Palaeozoic rocks (Cambrian)
he found evidence of ancient reef deposits of calcareous algae,
which ranged upward through 2,000 ft. of strata. Above these
reefs are 3,000 ft. of shales containing worm trails and the frag-
mentary remains of large crustacean-like organisms. From rocks
of approximately the same age in Ontario, Canada, he has de-
scribed sponge-like forms (Atikokania) which are of such general-
ized structure that it is difficult to decide whether they should be
regarded as sponges or as archaic corals. These few plant and
animal remains are all that are known from remotely metamor-
Walcott (1893) Years
Barrell (1917) Years
Age of Man and of Mammals Cenozoic
3,000,000
9 ooo ooo
55,000,000- 65,000,000
140 ooo 000180 ooo ooo
Age of Amphibians, Fishes, Invertebrates Palaeozoic . ...
Precambrian Time Evolution of Invertebrates and of Unicellular Life
18,000,000
30,000,000
90000,000 (Geikie, 1899)
360,000,000-540,000,000
600,000,000-800,000,000
1 ,2OO OOO OOO
Maximum Total
doo.ooo.ooo (Geikie. 1800)
1 .100.000.000
The most original part of Barrell's contribution was the
measurement of time from the base of the Palaeozoic to Recent
time by new palaeophysiographic methods, taking into account
particularly the rhythms or cycles of dry and moist climates and
of elevations and depressions, theories which were originally
interpreted by T. C. Chamberlin and popularly treated by
Ells.vorth Huntington, the physiographer of Yale University.
A few decades ago the physicists and mathematicians, es-
pecially Kelvin and Tail, insisted that the earth could not be
more than 10,000,000 to 20,000,000 years old; now the physicists
are extending the age of the life period to 1,400,000,000 years, as
estimated by Barrell (1917). The most recent determination by
physicists, as reviewed by Lord Rayleigh (1921), takes into
consideration the transmutation of chemical elements, for
example, in the broggerite of the Precambrian rocks at Moss,
Norway: " Taking the lead as all produced by uranium at the
rate above given, we get an age of 925 million years. Some
minerals from other archaean rocks in Norway give a rather
longer age. . . The helium method is applicable in some cases to
materials found in the younger formations, and proves that the
ages even of these are to be reckoned in millions of years. Thus
the helium in an Eocene iron ore indicated 30,000,000 years at
least. . . The upshot is that radioactive methods of research
indicate a moderate multiple of 1,000 million years as the dura-
tion of the earth's crust as suitable for the habitation of living
beings, and that no other considerations from the side of pure
physics or astronomy afford any definite presumption against
this estimate." Applying this estimate to the evolution of a
familiar mammal like the horse, it might be said that the four-
toed horse (Eohippus) existed 30,000,000 years ago, a somewhat
larger estimate of the life period of the horse than that demanded
phosed rocks of Precambrian time, but the existence of annelids
and possible arthropods marks a break into the hitherto unknown
Precambrian. Walcott's most surprising discovery in Precam-
brian time is a monad or bacterium attributed to Micrococcus sp.
indet. from the Algonkian of Montana, but probably related
rather to the existing Nitrosomonas, one of the prototrophic or
primitive-feeding bacteria, which derives its nitrogen from
ammonium salts.
In 1910 Walcott discovered in the Cambrian (Burgess) shales
of Alberta, Canada, a marvellously rich fauna whose preservation
is so perfect that the setae of the worms, the jointed appendages
of the trilobites, the impressions of soft-bodied medusae and
holothurians, and even the alimentary tract and stomach of
certain of the crustaceans can be seen on the shale surfaces almost
as clearly as in living forms (Plate I.). This discovery fairly
revolutionizes our knowledge of the anatomy of the delicately
organized as well as the chitinous-armoured forms, like the
trilobites. Including the new forms contained within these
Albertan shales, the Cambrian marine fauna is now known to be
far more abundant than even imagined by Darwin, comprising
some 1,500 species, 1,200 of which occur in North America.
From Lower as well as Middle Cambrian (Burgess) faunas, it
appears that the Precambrian invertebrates had probably be-
come completely adapted to all the life zones of the continental
and oceanic waters, excepting possibly the abyssal. All the
principal phyla the jointed arthropoda (including the trilobites
among the crustaceans and the merostomes among the arachnids) ,
segmented worms (Annelida), echinoderms, molluscs (including
pelecypods, gastropods and primitive cephalopods), brachiopods,
medusae and other coelenterates, and sponges were presumably
established in Precambrian times.
PALAEONTOLOGY
1 1
TABLE I. PROGRESS IN PALAEONTOLOGY.
MILLIONS
AGE OF MAN
O
QUATER N AR Y
OF
TIME
UNITS
h
Z
<
s
oo
AGE
OF
M AM M ALS
CENOZO
TERTIARY
5-
DOMIN
LIFE
n ME
JIM ITS
|
O
U PFER
C R ETAC EOUS
l\
O
o
AGE
U
N
LOWE R
CR ETAC EOUS
*
5
< L.
o
o
REPTILES
(/)
UJ
JURASSIC
1O-
2 L
U
2> u
-ao
0)
I
TR1ASSIC
Q <z
UJ Q u
U) -, n
PER M IAN
15-
00>
UjOu
?SH
AG E
OF
OIOZ03W1V
PEN N SYLVAN-
IAN
(U PPER
CARBON 1 FEROUS)
OR PHC
EOUS
DIREC
UNIT;
O
M ISSISSI PPJ AN
(LOWER
CARBONIFEROUS)
2O-
I^tfl
<OJ
6":
ui
2
AGE
OF
N
O
DEVONIAN
2
Z LL
3 Q
h
O
LJ
<
X
SILURIAN
25-
CS CHIEFLY
ENTOMBE
o
o"
o
o
00
AGE
OF
INVERTE-
BRATES
<
Q.
PALAEOZOIC
OROOVICIAN
ROCK
K
<
UJ
CAMBRIAN
MILLIONS
OF
U1
..>-
h -
U
o _.
KEWEENAWAN
TIME
UNITS
IN AN
RAPI-
CE.
O
II
II
ANIMIKIAN
35-
a
OQ<
Q z
UjZ(n
10
h
EVOLUTION
OF
1 NVERTE-
N
O
or
<
HURONIAN
IT^O)
D.J- 1
inir. in
DO U)
z
D
UJ
T
LJ
h
Q;
JTEROZOIC
ALSO MIAN
O-
IGN EC
1 RON
FE. FC
h
o
n
a
I
O
<
SUDBURIAN
45-
50-
t METAMORPHOSED:
NDARY. LIMESTONE
ENCE OF FORMER LI
BRIAN," 3O.OOO.O
EVOLUTION
; (ARGHEAN)
LAURENTIAN
55
6O
1 ROCKS GENERALU
SEDIMENTARY SECO
IN DIRECT EVIC
"PRECAM
U N 1C E t_l_U L_AR
LIFE
ARCHAEOZOIC
GRENVII_1_E
(KEEWATI N)
(COUTCHICHINO)
TABLE I. Life Epochs and Geologic T.me Units of Europe and North America
(After Pirsson and Schuchert, 1915; Usued by Osborn in 1918)
The Cambrian fauna has been made known to us in large
measure through the field discoveries and monographic studies
of Philip Lake (1906) for Great Britain, of Walcott (1909-21)
for North America, and of Cowper Reed (1915) for India. The
great variety and high specialization of the Cambrian marine
forms, including representatives of all the known marine in-
vertebrate phyla, is in harmony with the trend of discovery
among the vertebrates, which is to put the origin of existing
families very far back into the Age of Mammals and even into
the Age of Reptiles (Mesozoic). In fact, the antiquity and per-
sistence of modern types, as distinguished from modern genera
and species, is an illustration of a very far-reaching principle,
namely, that the most stable form of energy in matter known is
that of the heredity chromatin on which this extraordinary pres-
ervation of the main features of the ancestral type depends.
Next to the stability of the properties of the chemical elements,
which are now known to pass into each other by transmutation,
the most stable physicochemical properties are those which form
the heredity basis of life.
Freshwater and Terrestrial Origins. The eurypterids appear
as contemporaries of the Cambrian trilobites and traces of them
are found in Precambrian rocks; they attain to their acme in
Silurian time and develop into the eight-foot giants of the fauna
of the Devonian of Scotland and eastern North America, suffering
extinction at the close of the Palaeozoic. In 1916 appeared
Marjorie O'Connell's memoir, entitled The Habitat of the
Enryptcrida, giving as the summation of her studies that through-
out their entire phylogenetic history the eurypterids lived in the
rivers, a conclusion accepted in the main by Schuchert (1916),
with the modification that they also appeared to have lived at
times in the brackish waters of more or less large bays and possi-
bly in limited numbers even in the seas. Many other origins
formerly traced to the sea have more recently been traced to
fresh water. T. C. Chamberlin (1900) proposed the hypothesis
of a prevailing freshwater origin both for the ancestral backboned
animals known as chordates as well as for the much more ancient
arthropods, the eurypterids. His strong influence was needed to
overcome the widespread notion that all forms of life originated
in the sea; and, one after another, theories of freshwater and
terrestrial origin have replaced the theory of marine origin.
Early in 1916 Barrell pointed out the influence of Silurian-
Devonian climates on the rise of air-breathing vertebrates and
freshwater origin in Devonian time under seasonal rainfall.
Schuchert continues that the probable freshwater life of the
eurypterids opens a vista into continental life as far back as the
Upper Cambrian. Other merostomes related to the eurypterids
radiated out from the fluviatile faunas of Cambrian, Ordovician
and Silurian time, while in the Devonian rivers dwelt great
spider-like eurypterids together with forms so similar to scor-
pions that they might be called river scorpions, and others that
were active swimmers. O'Connell's argument regarding the
freshwater eurypterids applies equally to Limulus, the horse-
shoe crab. In brief, the existence of freshwater faunas no less
varied than the marine faunas is beginning to be traced back
to Lower Cambrian time. O'Connell shows that the entire
phylogeny of the eurypterids, which includes about 160 species
from the Precambrian to the end of the Palaeozoic, dis-
tributed in 78 geologic horizons throughout the world, points
to migrations like those of fishes from the headwaters of inter-
lacing river systems, and, taken with other evidence, strongly
supports the theory of Predevonian river life as opposed to the
general assumption of marine life of all early faunas.
It now appears that beginning in Precambrian time the
trilobites, by wide adaptive radiation, reached the acme of their
development in the Cambrian, displaying a high degree of articu-
lation and specialization of appendages, suffered a marked
decline after the Silurian, and became extinct at the end of the
Palaeozoic. James Perrin Smith, who has made a very ex-
haustive analysis of cephalopod evolution and especially of the
Triassic ammonites, observes that the evolution of form con-
tinues uninterruptedly even where there is no evidence whatever
of environmental change.
12
PALAEONTOLOGY
Principal Literature, Cambrian to Pleistocene.-^- A few of the major
contributions to our knowledge of the life of the Palaeozoic are:
Cambrian Geology and Palaeontology (1910) and Cambrian Brachiop-
oda (1912) by Charles D. Walcott; Cambrian Fossils of Spiti
(1915) and other papers on the Palaeozoic of India by Cowper Reed;
A Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites (1906) by Philip Lake,
and A Monograph of British Graptolites (1901) by Gertrude Elles
and Ethel Wood. The foraminifera have been treated by E. Schell-
wien, Monographic der Fusulinen (1908-12); the bryozoa by R. S.
Bassler, Early Paleozoic Bryozoa of the Baltic Provinces (1911) and
G. W. Lee, British Carboniferous Trepostomata (1912); the echino-
derms by R. T. Jackson in his memoir on the Phytogeny of the
Echini with a Revision of Palaeozoic Species (1912), and by Frank
Springer in his monograph Crinoidea Flexibilia (1920) and in
numerous shorter contributions. The ancient arthropods, including,
besides the trilobites, merostomes and other arachnids and also
insects, have been described by J. M. Clarke and R. Ruedemann
in their memoir on The Eurypterida of New York (1912), by Alexander
Petrunkevitch, A Monograph of the Terrestrial Palaeozoic Arachnida
of North America (1913), by R. I. Pocock, A Monograph of the Ter-
restrial Carboniferous Arachnida of Great Britain (1911), and by F.
Meunier, Nouvelles recherches sur quelques insectes du terrain houiller
de Commentry (Allier) (1906-12). The literature on the Mesozoic
contains more references to ammonites than to other groups, be-
cause of their abundance and palaeontological importance. The
ammonite faunas of the Triassic have been described by James P.
S,mith, The Middle Triassic Marine Invertebrate Faunas of North
America (1914) and by Carl Diener, The Trias of the Himalayas
(1912), Japanische Triasfaunen (1915), and other papers on the
Triassic of the Himalayas and southern Europe (1915).
For the Jurassic there are the classic volumes by S. S. Buckman,
Yorkshire Type Ammonites (1909-19) continued in the Type Am-
monites (1920) and the memoir by C. Burckhardt, Faunes Juras-
siques et Cretaciques de San Pedro del Gallo (1912) for Mexico. The
studies on Cretaceous ammonites have been more local in character
and include: E. Stolley's Beitrdgezur Kenntnissder Cephalopoden der
norddeutschen unteren Kreide (1911-2), D. N. Sokolov's Zur Am-
moniten Fauna des Petschoraschen Jura (Russian) (1912), H. Yabe
and S. Shimizu's, Notes on Some Cretaceous Ammonites from Japan
and California (1921), and numerous papers by A. de Grossouyre,
W. Kilian and E. Haug for France and the Mediterranean region.
The silicious sponges which are so well represented in the Mesozoic
have received the most careful microscopic study by the students
and followers of Zittel. Pioneer work was done in England by the
late George Jennings Hinde, A Monograph of the British Fossil
Sponges (1887-19127, and this work was followed in Germany by
A. Schrammen's Kieselspongien der oberen Kreide von Nordwest-
deutschland (1910) and R. Kolb's Die Kieselspongien des schwdbischen
weissen Jura (1911). Special works on other groups are: A Mono-
graph of the Cretaceous Lamellibranchia of England (1899-1912)
by Henry Woods, Synopsis des Spirobranches (Brachiopodes)
Jurassiques Celto-Souabes (1915-^) by the Swiss palaeontologist
Louis Rollier, and Clarke and Twitchell's The Mesozoic and Cenozoic
Echinodermata of the United States (1915). Among the major con-
tributions to Mesozoic stratigraphy and entire faunas or floras may
be mentioned: Victor Uhlig s The Fauna of the Spiti Shales (1903),
Carl Renz's Die mesozoischen Faunen Griechenlands (1911), G. R.
Wieland's American Fossil Cycads (1906-16), and E. W. Berry's
The Upper Cretaceous Floras of the World (1916).
For the Tertiary life especial reference should be made to the con-
tributions on different groups made by Thomas Wayland Vaughan
(corals), E. W. Berry (plants), J. A. Cushman (foraminifera),
R. T. Jackson (echinoderms), Mary Rathbun (crustaceans), A.
Pilsbry (cirripedia), and others in Contributions to the Geology and
Paleontology of the Canal Zone, Panama, and Geologically Related
Areas in Central America and the West Indies (1919). The bryozoa
have been carefully described and beautifully illustrated by Ferdi-
nand Canu and Ray S. Bassler, North American Early Tertiary
Bryozoa (1920), while the foraminifera have' been described in equal
detail by Joseph A. Cushman in numerous contributions, and by H.
Yabe (1921) and H. Douville (1911). For other groups we may note:
J. Lambert's Description des Echintdes des terrains neogenes du bassin
da Rhone (1911-6), F. W. Harmer's The Pliocene Mollusca (1914-20),
and papers by W. H. Dall on the mollusca. A general resume of the
Pleistocene vertebrate and invertebrate life is embodied in F. C.
Baker's The Life of the Pleistocene or Glacial Period (1920). Stimulat-
ing general reviews of the progress of invertebrate palaeontology are
the presidential addresses by F. A. Bather, Fossils and Life,
British Association (1920), by Ruedemann, The Palaeontology of Ar-
rested Evolution (1916), and by Clarke, The Philosophy of Geology
and the Order of the State (1917).
PROGRESS IN VERTEBRATE PALAEONTOLOGY
Personnel: Advent of the Fourth Generation. The principal
feature of the decade has been the advent of a new generation of
explorers and workers in vertebrate palaeontology who, in a
sense, constitute a fourth or " 2oth century " group. Beginning
with Cuvier (1760-1832) as founder of the science and leader
of the first group, the second group embraced the British anato-
mists Richard Owen (1804-1892) and Thomas Henry Huxley
(1825-1895), the French leader Albert Gaudry (1827-1908), the
Swiss palaeontologist Ludwig Rutimeyer (1825-1895), and the
three great Americans, namely, Joseph Leidy (1823-1891),
Edward Drinker Cope (1840-1897), and Othniel C. Marsh
(1831-1899). These men marshalled the first positive proofs of
vertebrate evolution in Europe and America; they worked more
or less independently as pioneers and laid the entire foundation
of the modern classification of the Vertebrata. The leader of the
third group was the Russian, Waldemar Kovalevsky (1842-
1883), who instituted intensive investigation of mechanical adap-
tation in relation to natural selection. Still productive members
of the same period are Arthur Smith Woodward (b. 1864) and
Charles W. Andrews (b. 1866) in England, Marcellin Boule
(b. 1861) and Charles Deperet (b. 1854) in France, Louis Dollo
(b. 1857) in Belgium, Max Schlosser in Germany, Giovanni Ca-
pellini(i833- ) in Italy, and in America William B.Scott (b. 1858)
and Henry Fairfield Osborn (b. 1857). This group includes also
Samuel Wendell Williston recently deceased (1852-1918), and
Ramsay H.Traquair (1840-191 2). Scott treated chiefly mammals,
Williston chiefly reptiles and amphibians, Osborn both mammals
and reptiles. The principal accomplishment of this third school
has been (i) to conduct world-wide exploration, (2) to correct, co-
ordinate and firmly establish the great classifications proposed by
the second school and (3) to fill out the details and principles of
phylogeny or lines of reptilian, avian and mammalian descent.
The leading explorer of this period was John Bell Hatcher (1861-
1904), who brought together a large part of the materials for two
great monographs of the United States Geological Survey, Os-
born's TitanotlicrcsanA the Hatcher-Lull C<TO/0/>"a,' he also made
the wonderful collection of South American fossils which forms the
basis of Scott's monumental memoirs of the Princeton University
Expeditions to Patagonia during the years 1896-9. Osborn's
monograph The Titanothcres (an Eocene-Oligocene family of
mammals), twenty-one years in preparation, has been completed
but not published; others of his memoirs are the Equidac of
the Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene of North America (1910)
and Camarasaurus, Amp/iicoelias, and other Sauropods of Cope
(1921). Williston's monographs are chiefly on the Cretaceous
mosasaurs and the archaic Reptilia of the Perm-Trias, to which
he made most notable contributions. Of this period were Flor-
entine Ameghino (1854-1911), the distinguished vertebrate
palaeontologist of Argentina, and Eberhard Fraas (1862-1915)
of Stuttgart. Oliver P. Hay (b. 1846) is also of this group,
author of the monograph of the Fossil Turtles of North America
(1008) and of the invaluable Bibliography and Catalogue of the
Fossil Vcrtebrala of North America (1902).
To the fourth group of vertebrate palaeontologists belongs the
school trained by Professor Osborn in the American Museum of
Natural History, of which the senior is William Diller Matthew
(b. 1871), Walter Granger (b. 1872), Barnum Brown (b. 1873),
William K. Gregory (b. 1876), Richard S. Lull (b. 1867), of Yale
University, Lawrence M. Lambe (1863-1919), late of the Cana-
dian Survey, and C. Forster-Cooper, Cambridge University.
The chief intensive work of Matthew and Granger has been on
the American Eocene mammalian faunas and in aiding Osborn to
establish sixteen Eocene-Oligocene life zones of North America
very closely coordinated with corresponding life zones of west-
ern Europe. Brown's explorations have added greatly to our
knowledge of Cretaceous dinosaurs. Of the same group are the
pupils of Williston, of whom the leader is Ermine C. Case
(b. 1871), who has contributed treatises on Permian life. At the
same time John C. Merriam (b. 1869) has led explorations on the
Pacific coast of America and inspired a school of younger workers
both in vertebrate and invertebrate palaeontology. In Great
Britain D. M. S. Watson (b. 1886) has taken up the work of Owen
and Huxley in primary groups of fishes, amphibians and reptiles;
in Austria Othenio Abel, a pupil of Dollo, is the great exponent
of vertebrate evolution; in Germany Friedrich von Huene and
Ferdinand Broili are leaders in sauropsidan palaeontology, other
notable palaeontologists of recent years being Franz Dre-
PALAEONTOLOGY
PLATE I.
'
Ifii/j t
Middle-Cambrian invertebrate fossils, showing the diversity of
the animal life of that period and the similarity of many of the types
to recent forms. The specimens from which the photographs were
taken are in the U.S. National Museum. (Illustrations reproduced
by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C.)
FIG. i. Choia carleri Walcott, a silicious sponge.
FIG. 2. Ottoia prolifica Walcott, a gephyrcan annelid.
FIG. 3. Ottoia minor Walcott, another gephyrean annelid.
FIG. 4. Ayslicaia pedunculata Walcott, a TomoplerisAikc annelid.
FIG. 5. Canadia spinosa Walcott, a polychaete annelid.
FIG. 6. Amiskwia sagitliformis Walcott, a chaetognath.
FIG. 7. Waptia fieldensis Walcott, a Mysis-likc crustacean.
FIG. 8. Opabinia regalis Walcott, a Branchipus-like crustacean.
FIG. 9. Another specimen of Opabinia regalis Walcott.
FIG. 10. Burgessia bella Walcott, an Apus-like crustacean.
FIG. n. Marrella splendens Walcott, a simple trilobite.
FIG. 12. Naraoia compacta Walcott, a curious crustacean.
PLATE II.
PALAEONTOLOGY
Notable vertebrate fossils, complete remains of which have been
discovered during the last decade. The mounts from which the
photographs were taken are in the American Museum of Natural
History, New York. (Illustrations reproduced by permission of the
President of the American Museum of Natural History.)
FIG. i. Deinodon or Gorgosaurus, a mid-Cretaceous carnivorous
dinosaur from Alberta, Canada, mounted in running position.
FIG. 2, 2a. Struthiomimus, the " ostrich mimic,' a mid-Creta-
ceous browsing dinosaur, from Alberta, Canada, a toothless offshoot
from the carnivorous dinosaur stock. Fig. 2 shows the complete
All the figures are
skeleton in rigor mortis, while fig. 2a represents the same skeleton
partly restored from fig. 2.
FIG. 3. Diatryma, a gigantic mollusc-eating bird, from the Lower
Eocene of Wyoming.
FIG. 4. Moropus, an okapi-like herbivore, from the Lower Mio-
cene of Dakota, related to the chalicotheres of Europe and Asia.
FIG. 5. Pliohipfus, direct one-toed ancestor of the modern horse,
from the Lower Pliocene of Nebraska.
FIG. 6. Trilophodon, direct descendant of Mastodon angustidens
of Europe and North Africa, Lower Pliocene of northern Texas,
on the same scale.
PALAEONTOLOGY
vermann, Ernst Stromer (b. 1871) and Otto Jaekel (b. 1863). At
Upsala in Sweden Carl Wiman has inspired a remarkably pro-
gressive group of workers, while in Switzerland Hans Georg
Stehlin (b. 1870) has continued in the great field of Riitimeyer.
For the principal contributions by palaeontologists of the
third and fourth groups above described, the reader is referred
to the Memoirs and Bulletins of the American Museum of
Natural History, of the university of California, of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington, to the Contributions from the
Palaeontological Laboratory (Peabody Museum) of Yale Uni-
versity, to the Memoirs and Catalogues of the British Museum
(Natural History), to the Palaeontographica, and to the Me-
moirs of the Societe Paleontologique Suisse. It is upon the
researches of these workers in field and laboratory that the
great synthetic volumes referred to earlier are chiefly founded,
and that the following generalizations of modern vertebrate
palaeontology are chiefly due.
ORIGINS OF THE GREAT VERTEBRATE STOCK AND ITS BRANCHES
Origin of Chordates. No discovery has thus far lessened the
gap between the modern Protochordates (Amphioxus, tunicates,
etc.) and any of the known phyla of invertebrates. Some of the
cephalaspid ostracoderms have been cited by Patten as favouring
the view that the chordates have been derived from certain
arthropods, but such resemblances are ascribed to convergence
by Dollo and many others. The earliest ostracodcrm remnant
actually known is a dermal plate of a genus named Astraspis
from the Upper Ordovician near Canyon City, Colorado; this
represents a new family Astraspidae allied to the Psammosteidae
of the Silurian and Devonian (C. R.Eastman, 1917). These chord-
ates, heavily shielded and hence known as ostracoderms, were dom-
inant in the Upper Silurian, radiating into six families and many
genera, abundant in the Lower Devonian, diminishing in the
Middle Devonian and becoming extinct in the Upper Devonian.
Origin of Fishes. The earliest fish remnant actually known is
the fin-spined Onchus from the Upper Silurian of Scotland, which
appears to represent the group of acanthodian sharks, covered
with fine quadrate scales like those of ganoids and with a skull
structure distinctly elasmobranch. The elasmobranchs (shark
and ray types) are still the oldest known gnathostomes or true
jaw-bearing vertebrates, constituting (a) one of the four primary
gnathostome groups, i.e. jawed groups, the others being (b)
the fringe-finned ganoids (Crossopterygii), (c) the ray-finned
ganoids and teleosts collectively known as Actinopterygii and
(</) the lungfishes (Dipnoi). The fossil ancestors of the fringe-
finned ganoids have not yet been discovered; so these animals
are theoretically traced to unknown cartilaginous fishes of
Silurian times. The oldest Crossopterygian actually known is
the Osleolcpis macrolepidotus of the Middle Old Red Sandstone
of Scotland. There were two principal periods of adaptive radia-
tion among the Crossopterygii, the first in Middle and Upper
Devonian times, the second in Mesozoic times which produced
the family Coelacanthidae, from which may have sprung the
existing fishes Polypterus and Calamoichthys as degenerate off-
shoots. From the earlier Devonian radiation of the Crossoptery-
gians is traced the theoretic origin of the Dipnoi or lungfishes,
on the one hand, and of the oldest known amphibians on the
other. The Devonian Crossopterygian skull and fins appear to
be " archetypal," to the lungfish type, on the one hand, and to
the amphibian type on the other. Cope's genius in separating
the Actinopterygii is sustained, for there is as yet no fossil evi-
dence of the connexion of this group with the Crossopterygii,
other than the supposed community of origin in Silurian times.
Here the reader should consult the writings of Smith Woodward,
Joseph F. Whiteaves, Bashford Dean, William K. Gregory and
the synthetic reviews of Osborn (1918) and Lull (1917).
Origin of Amphibians and First Tetrapods. In this epoch-
making transition from the fringe-finned fish type to the tetrap-
odal amphibian and terrestrial type, the prophecies of Huxley,
Cope and Baur and other great anatomists of the second and
third groups of palaeontologists appear to be fulfilled. The
Silurian period marked the parting of the ways among the great
primary groups of fishes and the first steps towards the frame of
the terrestrial amphibians. Not until the Upper Devonian of
Pennsylvania do we find a footprint ( Thinopus antiquus Marsh) ,
which may be referred to an amphibian tetrapod. The first
known actual skeletons occurred in the Coal Measures (Upper
Carboniferous) of Europe and America and represented four
widely radiating groups. The structural gap separating the
earliest tetrapod amphibians and fishes is perhaps the greatest
known in the whole range of vertebrate evolution, but all modern
authorities agree that the amphibians were probably derived
from a Silurian or early Devonian type of fringe-finned fish. Even
as far back as the Upper Carboniferous and even in the Lower
Carboniferous the Amphibia were adaptively radiating into
several orders and numerous families comprising highly special-
ized forms. During the Carboniferous we find numerous inde-
pendent phyla of eel-like or burrowing, and of compressed,
swimming, as well as of large-bodied, predatory forms. The
latter culminate in the gigantic labyrinthodonts of the Triassic.
The exact connexion of any of these forms with the modern
Amphibia (urodcles and Anura) is doubtful. The Anura first
appear in the Jurassic, and at the present time they retain many
characters reminiscent of such Palaeozoic Amphibia as the
branchiosaurs and the Eryops group. The urodeles are first
known in the genus Hylaeobatrachus of the Lower Cretaceous of
Europe. Both groups, especially the Anura, appear to have gone
through a wide adaptive radiation during the Tertiary. The
connexion of the modern caecilians with the ancient types is
obscure. The reader is referred especially to the contributions of
Williston, Case, Watson, Gregory, Broili, and the synthetic re-
views of Osborn (1918) and Lull (1917).
Origin of Reptiles. The oldest-known reptiles, solid-headed
Cotylosauria of Cope, are regarded as amphibians which had
eliminated the aquatic stages in development, the oldest reptile
actually known being the genus Eosauravus from the Coal
Measures of Ohio. In other words, the cotylosaur reptiles are
traceable to solid-headed stegocephalian amphibians, which, in
turn, are traceable to solid-headed unknown Crossopterygians
of Silurian times. The oldest and most primitive reptiles (Coty-
losauria} occurring in the Upper Carboniferous and Permian, are
thus structurally very close to certain contemporary stegoce-
phalian amphibians. The first great adaptive radiation of the
reptiles into the two grand divisions, the solid-headed (Coty-
losauria} and the temporal-arched (Pelycosauria}, began in the
Upper Carboniferous and still more widely diverged in Permian
times. As early as the Permian, occurs a mammalian-like series
of reptiles which exhibits an extensive adaptive radiation and
gives off one branch, the Cynodontia, which, in turn, survives
into Triassic times and clearly approaches the mammalian grade
of organization. From the primary temporal-arched also appear
the forerunners of the Mesozoic reptiles, the plesiosaurs, ichthyo-
saurs, dinosaurs and pterosaurs, widely separated from each
other in the Triassic and thus having their branches deep
down in the Permian and Carboniferous, each grand division
giving rise to an adaptive radiation of its own. These have been
traced in detail by such authorities as Andrews, Dollo, Abel,
von Huene, Williston and Osborn.
Here the reader is referred to the writings of Williston, Hatcher,
Osborn, Merriam, Lambe, Lull, and especially during the past
decade to those of Charles W. Gilmore of the United States
National Museum, Washington, and of Dr. Robert Broom of
South Africa, as well as to the synthetic reviews of Osborn (1918)
and Lull (1917).
The two greatest achievements of the decade are the clearing
up of the relationships of the primitive South African terrestrial
Reptilia of the Perm-Trias, beginning with the solid-headed
types (pareiasaurs) and ending in their highest expression,
the mammal-like types known as Cynodonts and Theriodonts.
The field explorations of Robert Broom and the profound compar-
ative researches of D. M. S. Watson and of William K. Gregory
have given us a clear comprehension of the habits and relation-
ships of this first terrestrial radiation group. Williston and Case
have covered the same great period in America.
PALAEONTOLOGY
Origin of Birds. Palaeontologists still agree in endorsing
Huxley's opinion that birds are " glorified reptiles." The origin
of birds, according to recent reviewers such as Osborn and
Gregory, brings us cjose to the two-temporal-arched (i.e.
Diapsida) reptiles, namely, to the stem which also gave off the
dinosaurs, the pterosaurs and the smaller parasuchians (Eu-
parkeria). Fossil bird remains are extremely rare. The earliest
bird known is the famous Archaeopteryx of the Jurassic of Soln-
hofen, Germany. This is largely a bird, excepting in the tail,
the simplicity of the feather arrangement and the possession of
teeth. According to the four-winged hypothesis of origin ad-
vocated by Beebe, we should some day discover a bird with
parachute-like action in both fore and hind limbs. Recent con-
tributions of note on this subject are those of Gerhard Heilmann
(1913) and of William Beebe (1915), and the synthetic reviews of
Osborn (1918) and Lull (1917).
Origin of Mammals. Evidence has been accumulating rapidly
in favour of the theory that the origin of the mammals should be
traced to the more progressive terrestrial mammal-like reptiles
(the Cynodonlia) of the Permian and Triassic of South Africa
and Europe, as described in the studies of Broom, Watson,
Haughton, Osborn and Gregory. Structurally related to these
Cynodonts are the so-called Protodonls of Osborn, e.g. Droma-
Iherium and Microconodon of the Triassic of North Carolina.
But of equal antiquity are the multituberculates, e.g. Plagiaulax
and Microlestes, widely spread over Europe and North America.
No substantial additions have been made during the decade to
our knowledge of this vague period; readers are referred to the
reviews of Osborn (1918) and Lull (1917), also to the recent
works of Gregory, The Orders of Mammals (1910) and The
Origin and Evolution of the Human Dentition (1921).
Origin of Primates and of Man. Combined palaeontological
and anatomical evidence indicates that the source of the Primates
is to be looked for among tree-living insectivorous mammals
more or less closely similar to the modern tree shrews ( Tupaiidae)
of Africa. This view advanced with ability by Gregory is in
general accord with the opinion that during the phase of arboreal
life many of the psychic and anatomical characters of the Pri-
mates were acquired. It was not until the Lower Eocene of
North America and of Europe that there appeared undisputed
Primates of lemuroid affinity, e.g. notharctids and tarsioids in
America, adapids and tarsioids in Europe. At this time the
zoological relation of the two continents was close and it would
appear that while the primitive horses were acquiring their
cursorial characters on the ground, these primitive lemuroids
were acquiring their distinctive characteristics in the trees.
Actual ancestors of the existing Tarsius of Madagascar have
been found in France (Pseudoloris). The attempt of Ameghino to
trace the higher Primates to South American types, e.g. Homun-
culus, appearing in the Lower Miocene of Patagonia, is not sup-
ported, because these animals from the first are the true broad-
nosed, i.e. platyrrhine, type still characteristic of South America.
The Old World division of the catarrhines or narrow-nosed true
Primates has been traced to the Parapithecus, described by Max
Schlosser from the Lower Oligocene of Egypt. Propliopithecus is
possibly ancestral to the true anthropoid apes and thus possibly
related to the ancestors of man himself. Darwin's broad con-
clusion that man was derived from " some ancient member of
the anthropomorphous subgroup of Old World Primates " is
fully sustained by anatomical evidence, but the precise lines of
descent are still in dispute. Some hold that the human line came
from Middle Tertiary anthropoid apes allied to Dryopithecus
of France and Sivapithecus of India, while others (including the
present writer) regard the Hominidae as a widely distinct family
separated especially by its upright walking gait, by the non-
divergence of the great toe, and by the retention of its tool-making
thumb. A series of masterly reviews of this whole question has
appeared in the American Museum publications from Gregory,
whose recent memoir On the Structure and Relations of Noth-
arctus, an American Eocene Primate (1920) sums up our present
knowledge of this whole subject. (See also ANTHROPOLOGY.)
The Dinosaur Fauna of Alberta, Canada. The greatest new
achievement in exploration is the revelation of the dinosaur
fauna of Alberta in the fossil beds extending along the Red Deer
river, which were first made known to science by explorers of
the Canadian Geological Survey in 1897, 1898, 1901. The first
general review of this wonderful fauna was that of Osborn and
Lambe, On Vetebratra of the Mid-Cretaceous of the North West
Territory (1902), based chiefly on the collections in the Ottawa
Museum. The American Museum explorations under Barnum
Brown, which extended over ten years, have resulted in the
discovery of the entire fauna of the middle portion of Upper
Cretaceous time, a complete revelation especially of the dinosaur
world as it approached the height of its adaptive radiation into
herbivorous and carnivorous, armoured and defenceless, swift-
moving and slow-moving types, which severally imitate more or
less fully the long subsequent adaptive radiation of the mammals.
In 1914 the Canadians renewed exploration, so that at present
the Ottawa and Toronto Museums have rich collections, part
of which has been described by the late Lawrence M. Lambe,
while Osborn, Barnum Brown and W. A. Parks have also made
known a part of this wonderful fauna. Two of the greatest
extremes of adaptation, namely, Dcinodon or Gorgosaurus and
Strulhiomimus, are figured in the accompanying Plate II. In
the same plate appear some of the outstanding American dis-
coveries of the decade.
NEW DISCOVERIES AMONG FOSSIL VERTEBRATES
Fossil 'Fishes. Dr. A. Smith Woodward's Fossil Fishes of the
English Wealden and Purbeck (1915-8) is a beautifully illustrated
memoir of the most thorough, systematic type, well sustaining
the traditions set by Traquair and by the author himself in
earlier works. The period dealt with affords an interesting cross-
section of the stream of piscine evolution, at a time when many of
the old Mesozoic ganoids were dying out and the telcost fishes
were beginning their remarkable expansion. Other important
systematic memoirs are those by Stolley on the ganoids of the
German Muschelkalk (1920) and by Stensio (1921) on Triassic
fishes from Spitzbergen. The latter memoirs contain a wealth
of material of great morphological interest concerning the early
stages in the evolution of the skull of the fringc-fmned and ray-
finned ganoid fishes; this discussion also throws light on the origin
of certain elements in the skull of higher vertebrates. In this
connexion should be mentioned the brief but highly important
paper on Eusthenopleron by W. L. Bryant (1919). This fringe-
finned ganoid is of particular interest because the construction of
its skull and paired limbs approaches the type which may be
expected in the piscine ancestors of the land-living vertebrates.
The arrangement of the elements on the under side of the skull
of this fish raises morphological questions of wide general interest.
Papers by Watson and Day (1916) and by Gregory (1915, 1920)
deal with the ancestral relations of these fringe-finned ganoids
with the land-living vertebrates (tetrapods).
The swarming fauna of Devonian arthrodires, ptyctodonts,
cladodonts and other archaic fossil fishes from the vicinity of
Buffalo, N.Y., is ably described by Bryant and Hussakof in
their Catalog of the Fossil Fishes in the Museum of the Buffalo
Society of Natural Sciences (1918). A serious difficulty encoun-
tered by all students of recent and fossil fishes is the getting in
contact with the vast and scattered literature of the subject.
The great Bibliography of Fishes by Bashford Dean and his
associates Eastman and E. W. Gudger (1917) will undoubtedly
stimulate research in this field.
Fossil Amphibians. The outstanding publications in this
field are The Coal Measures Amphibia of North America by R. L.
Moodie (1916) and a memoir on The Structure, Evolution and
Origin of the Amphibia by D. M. S. Watson (1919). Moodie 's
memoir is a valuable description and compilation of the extensive
and varied fauna of swamp-living amphibians of the American
Coal Measures. Watson's memoir is a brilliant and highly
original contribution to the classification and phylogeny of the
labyrinthodonts. Much detailed work on fossil amphibians ap-
pears in papers by von Huene, Broom, Williston, van Hoepen,
Haughton and others.
PALAEONTOLOGY
Stem Reptiles. In the field of the oldest reptiles, those of the
Carboniferous and Permian, perhaps the most important con-
tributions are those by S. W. Williston and D. M. S. Watson.
The former, in his paper on The Phylogeny and Classification of
the Reptiles (1917), traces the rise of the common amphibian-
reptilian stock through the " Protopoda," which are so far known
only from certain footprints of Upper Devonian age. According
to Williston, who built on Osborn's system of 1903-4, the primi-
tive reptilian stock early divided into the following series:
Anapsida (Cotylosauria and their specialized descendants, the
modern tortoises and turtles).
Synapsida (Theromorpha or pelycosaurs, etc. ; Therapsida, or
mammal-like reptiles, the latter giving rise to the mammals ; plesio-
saurs).
Diapsida (reptiles with two temporal arches, such as crocodiles,
dinosaurs, rhynchocephalians; this stock gave rise to birds).
Parapsida (including the proganosaurs, ichthyosaurs, lizards,
mosasaurs, snakes).
Watson (1917), in his Sketch Classification of the Pre-Jurassic
Tetrapod Vertebrates, assigns a high value in classification to the
characters of the brain-case. A general and conservative classifi-
cation of the early reptiles is given by W. K. Gregory (1920).
The most primitive known reptile, Seymouria, from the Permo-
Carboniferous of Texas, almost bridges the gap between the
Amphibia and the Reptilia. Watson (1919) gives a morphological
description of this reptile, accompanied by valuable figures and
reconstructions of the skull and skeleton.
The habits and environments of the teeming reptilian and
amphibian faunas of the Permo-Carboniferous of North America
are intensively considered in a memoir by E. C. Case (1919), which
also deals with the stratigraphy, climatology and palaeogeog-
raphy of the late Palaeozoic.
Mammal-like Reptiles. In no other field of fossil reptiles has
the progress of discovery been more satisfactory than in that of
the mammal-like reptiles of South Africa, as set forth in numer-
ous papers, especially by Watson (1913-4), Haughton (1918),
Broom (1913-4), van Hoepen and others. The relationships of
these animals with other reptiles and with the mammals have
been reviewed by W. K. Gregory (1920-1).
Marine Reptiles. These have always been of great interest on
account of their secondary adaptations to aquatic life which have
been ably discussed by Abel (1912, 1919). One of the outstanding
contributions of new material in this field is the British Museum
Catalogue of Marine Reptiles of the Oxford Clay by C. W. Andrews
(1910-3). The origin and relationships of the plesiosaurs and
their allies are treated by von Huene (1921).
Dinosaurs. The Triassic dinosaurs of Europe are of particular
interest because some of them tend to connect the very diverse
carnivorous and herbivorous saurischian dinosaurs of later ages.
Here the leading author is F. von Huene, in a long series of papers
and memoirs. Plateosaurus, perhaps the most primitive of these
reptiles, has been fully described both by von Huene and by
Jaekel (1913-6). Primitive dinosaurs from the summit of the
Karroo series in South Africa (Gryponyx, Massospondylus, etc.)
are described by Broom and Haughton. During the long ages of
the Jurassic the gigantic sauropodous dinosaurs attained their
maximum in size and specialization. The leading feature in this
field is the description of the strange and monstrous dinosaurs
of the Tendaguru fauna of East Africa in the collections of the
Berlin Museum, by Janensch (1914). One of the most remarkable
of the North American sauropods is the genus Camarasaurus,
which has been intensively described by Osbornand Mook (1921).
Barosaurus, a gigantic relative of Diplodocus, with a tremendously
heavy neck, has been described by R. S. Lull (1919). Tyranno-
saurus, the greatest carnivorous reptile of all time, and Struthi-
omimus, a contemporaneous ostrich-like dinosaur, have been
described by Osborn (1912-9). The highly varied and grotesque
armoured dinosaurs, namely, the Ceratopsia and related groups,
have been the subject of numerous papers by Gilmore, Brown,
Lambe and others.
Pterosaurs. The pterosaurs, or flying reptiles, have continued
to excite the interest of students of flight, such as Abel (1912),
Watson and Hankin (1914), Arthaber (1921). The greatest
flying reptile, Pteranodon, is the subject of a memoir by Eaton
(1910) of Yale University.
Chelonians. An important memoir by O. Jaekel (1913-6)
describes the skull, skeleton, carapace and plastron of Triasso-
chelys dux from the Upper Triassic of Germany. Although
widely differentiated from all other orders this reptile was the
most primitive of all known chelonians. Of even greater interest
is the Eunotosaurus from the Permian of South Africa which
Watson (1914) describes as a veritable " Archichelone."
Fossil Birds. Dialryma, a gigantic ground bird from the
Lower Eocene of Wyoming, has been described by W. D. Matthew
and W. Granger (1917) from a nearly complete skeleton, which
is a most rare and valuable fossil. This bird, which has no near
relatives, was about seven feet high and of massive proportions,
with an enormous head and great compressed beak. The wings
were vestigial. This high degree of specialization at such an early
epoch indicates that the modernized groups of birds were differ-
'entiated during the latter part of the Age of Reptiles.
Monographs on Special Groups of Tertiary Mammals. The
fossil mammals of the basal and Lower Eocene of the western
United States are represented in the American Museum of
Natural History by collections numbering many thousands of
specimens which are being described jointly by Matthew and
Granger (1915). Besides describing many new or little known
forms these authors also deal with the relationships and mor-
phology of the various groups of early placental mammals. In
the paper dealing with the edentates and their relatives, the
" palaeanodonts," Matthew (1918) advances the view that the
modern Pholidota (Pangolins) are an offshoot of the primitive
" palaeanodonts " of the Lower Eocene. Other papers of the
same series cover the Creodonts, Insectivores, Primates and
Condylarths.
Several mid-Tertiary mammalian groups, such as chalicotheres,
entelodonts and the diceratheres, have been revised in the publica-
tions of the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, by W. J. Holland and
by O. A. Peterson.
Baluchitherium, perhaps the most gigantic land mammal of
all time, has been described by C. Forster-Cooper (1913) from a
huge atlas, astragalus, cervical vertebrae and limb bones from
the Upper Oligocene deposits of the Bugti Hills of Baluchistan.
The evolution of the Sirenia is treated by Abel (1921) and by
Deperet (1920); that of the Cetacea by Abel (1919) and by
Winge (1918-21). The phylogeny and evolution of the Pro-
boscidea are considered in the researches by Schlesinger (^917),
Matsumoto (1915) and Osborn (1918-21). The Eocene and
Oligocene titanotheres have been dealt with in numerous papers
by Osborn in preparation for his monograph on these extinct
animals. The revision of the mid-Tertiary Equidae by Osborn
(1918) affords an exceptionally full document on the exact course
of evolution in the multitudinous phyla of a typical mammalian
family. A most valuable expansion of our knowledge of the
anthropoid apes of the mid-Tertiary is found in the work of
Pilgrim (1915) on the fossil apes of India of the genera Dryopi-
thecus and Sivapithecus.
South American Fossil Mammals. The strange offshoots of
the ungulate and edentate orders which swarmed in Patagonia
during the mid-Tertiary and Pleistocene times are treated in the
excellent memoirs of the Princeton University Patagonian expedi-
tions by W. B. Scott. Herluf Winge has admirably monographed
the fossil and recent edentates of Brazil. The mammalian fauna
of the Deseado formations is described by F. B. Loomis of Am-
herst College. These and other investigations are correcting the
erroneous correlations by Ameghino, in which the older mammal-
bearing horizons of Patagonia were assigned to the Cretaceous.
This more modern work indicates that the Pyrotherium beds are
not older than Upper Eocene and that the Santa Cruz formation
is of Lower Miocene Age.
The Pleistocene fauna of Tarija, Bolivia, is the subject of a
beautiful memoir by Boule and Thevenin (1920), in which the
anatomy and relationships of " Mastodon " andium and of the
highly specialized horses Hippidium and Onohippidium are
treated.
i6
PALESTINE
Pleistocene Mammalian Faunas (North America, Europe).
The Pleistocene represents the climax of the Age of Mammals in
point of differentiation and richness of mammalian faunas. In
Europe the Pleistocene faunas have been the subject of memoirs
by Boule, Schoetensack and many others. In North America we
have the teeming fauna of the Rancho La Brea, California, de-
scribed'by Merriam, Stock and their colleagues of the university
of California. The correlation of the American Pleistocene faunas
has been treated especially by Osborn and by Hay.
In the preparation of this article the writer is especially indebted
for the entire invertebrate section to the cooperation of Miss Mar-
jorie O'Connell, who has summarized the chief discoveries in Pre-
and Postcambrian time and given a review of the outstanding
literature in the invertebrate field. He is also indebted to Charles
D. Walcott, chief authority on Cambrian and Precambrian life of
the world, 'for the type figures assembled in Plate I.; to Curators
Matthew and Gregory of the American Museum for a revision of the
text relating to the evolution of the vertebrates; and to the President
and Trustees of the American Museum for permission to reproduce
the photographs which are assembled to the same scale on Plate II.'
(H. F. O.)
PALESTINE (see 20.600). During the earlier years of the
decade 1911-21 little of importance occurred in that country.
Afflicted by the economic stagnation and financial strain which
affected the whole Ottoman Empire in consequence of the war
with Italy (191 1-2), and the war with the Balkan States (191 2-3),
Palestine was unable to develop herself in any way before the
outbreak of the World War in 1914. Yet to a section of her
population the decision of the Palestinian Jews, in the autumn
of 1913, to reject German and insist upon Hebrew as the language
of instruction and to secede from the Hilfsverein and set up
schools of their own, was momentous. The outbreak of the
World War, besides leading to a renewed blockade of the coast,
and fresh military requisitions, also involved the expulsion or
internment of numerous ecclesiastics and laymen of Entente
nationalities and the deportation of numbers of Jews. It was
followed at the beginning of 1915 by one of the most destructive
visitations of locusts recorded for a generation. Thereafter until
the arrival of the British army in the autumn of 1917 the pros-
perity of the whole country slowly withered under the crushing
burden of the war.
At the time of the British occupation of Jerusalem in Dec. 1917
the economic situation of southern Palestine was bad. Not only
had the Turks requisitioned far and wide without repayment, or
against inadequate payment, but they had cut down numbers of
olives and revenue-producing trees and carried off the greater
part of the agricultural and draught animals. The paper cur-
rency had depreciated some 84% and was no longer accepted by
the producing, classes mostly outlying Moslem peasants who
would only discover their concealed stores of grain for gold.
The civil population of Jerusalem, dependent ordinarily upon
the pilgrim traffic or upon the offerings of pious Jews for its
livelihood, was emaciated and reduced by starvation. The only
products which Jerusalem had to sell were designed for the
pilgrim trade and were unmarketable; consequently at the
beginning of the occupation many shops were able to offer only
cigarettes, picture-postcards and wild radishes for sale.
In view of this it was urgently necessary to provide food for the
exhausted inhabitants of Jerusalem and Palestine, to provide
work for the purpose of enabling them to earn money with which
to pay for the food, and to re-start trade in order that the mer-
cantile community should have something to barter against the
gold hoarded by the peasantry and thus make it worth the
peasant's while to cultivate and market his produce as he had
for some time past realized that his gold was unable to buy the
trade goods he required. But there were grave difficulties the
single line of railway by which alone food or trade goods could
be brought from Egypt was very fully occupied with the para-
mount needs of the army. The daily tonnage of supplies alone
not including munitions or transport of men or guns varied
from 800 to 2,300. Ammunition was of ten. 2 50 tons per day.
The civilian population was unaccustomed to the Egyptian
currency and more than suspicious of paper money, and Egyptian
silver put into circulation was at once hoarded against the prox-
imate return of the Turks, which was confidently predicted by
enemy sympathizers who further assured every one that the
Egyptian paper pound at par was worth no more than the de-
preciated Turkish paper lira and offered to prove it by readily
exchanging Turkish for Egyptian pounds whenever possible
at a profit to themselves of 173. 7d. on each deal. Yet without
money the civilians could not buy food, without food they could
scarcely walk from weakness, and there was every prospect
of the establishment of a vicious circle.
Brig.-Gen. G. F. Clayton (afterwards Sir Gilbert Clayton),
chief political officer to Gen. Allenby, was appointed chief ad-
ministrator and began to construct such a form of government
as is provided for in " The Laws and Usages of War " laid down
by international agreements embodied in the Hague Convention.
Transport for a few truck-loads of foodstuffs per week was
secured from the military railway, and lorries brought it to
Jerusalem until the army was able to reopen the narrow-gauge
line from Ludd to the Holy City. Then a small consignment of
trade goods came up from Egypt and merchants were permitted
to import small quantities from Egypt independently of the
over-burthened railway. The labour corps employed numerous
civilians, paying them at first daily in Egyptian silver and paper,
and then weekly in cash or kind at the choice of the labourer.
In this way the new currency came to its own, helped by the
stringent measures taken by the military administration to
suppress trafficking in or artificial depreciation of Egyptian
paper. With the arrival of trade goods in the towns the peasants
began to spend their gold and sell their produce so freely that it
became unnecessary to import so much food and more accom-
modation thus became available for other merchandise. But
even so, 900 tons of cereals had to be imported monthly for the
use of refugees alone. Gen. Clayton took other steps to restore
public confidence and reestablish the amenities of civilization.
Bazaar gossip and rumour which for some weeks was hostile
to the British was counteracted by the publication of Arabic
and Hebrew editions of the newspaper, The Palestine News,
which had been started by the army in March 1915, and inter-
course with the greater part of the world was rendered possible
by the restoration of the postal service, for which special stamps
for the use of the civilian population began to be issued on Feb. 16
1918. Steps were taken to reassure the Moslems, who were much
alarmed at reports sedulously propagated by the enemy, that all
land was to be given to the Jews, and resident British officers
were appointed to administer the various kazas of the old Turkish
regime. Thus military governors were established at Gaza, with
a deputy at Mejdel; at Jaffa, with a deputy at Ramleh; at
Beersheba; at Hebron, with a deputy at Deir Aban; and at
Jerusalem, with deputies at Bethlehem, Jericho and Ramalla.
At first the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (" O.E.-
T.A.") was at Bir Salem, near Ramleh, the general headquarters
of the army, but later when it became impossible for Gen. Clay-
ton any longer to combine O.E.T.A. with the work of the political
mission, Maj.-Gen. Sir Arthur W. Money was appointed chief
administrator in April 191 8, and he removed the administration to
the imposing and convenient Empress Victoria Hospice built
by the Germans on the Mount of Olives just before the war.
In March the country had so far recovered that it became possible
to collect taxes once more, in May public confidence was greatly
increased by the skilful and tactful handling of the great Moslem
religious festival of the Nebi Musa pilgrimage, invented by the
Turks as an artificial check on the great Christian gathering at
Jerusalem for the Orthodox Easter^ with which it always coin-
cides regardless of the Moslem calendar, and by the successful
way in which the dangerous, and often fatal, ceremony of the
Holy Fire on the Orthodox and Gregorian Easter was conducted
by Col. Storrs the military governor of Jerusalem, and Haddad
Bey the Syrian chief of police.
During the summer the administration was able to resume
the payment of revenues appropriated by international agree-
ment to the service of the Ottoman debt, but the income of the
Moslem Waqfs (pious foundations) was used for the benefit
of Moslem beneficiaries in Palestine instead of being drained
PALESTINE
away to Constantinople. A local police force was built up,
schools and law courts reopened and the country benefited largely
not only by the roads and bridges built by the army, but from
the wages paid locally by the army for labour and the transport
system established by the army for the use of civilians. In the
absence of the ordinary pilgrims the army furnished excellent
substitutes, and Jerusalem began once more to flourish on the
money freely spent by military visitors.
In April 1918 the Royal Engineers undertook a work of permanent
utility to Jerusalem by way of compensating the inhabitants for the
use made by the army of their carefully stored water supply. At
that time the city depended upon an aqueduct yielding 1,650 gal. per
hour and upon rain-water storage of about 360,000,000 gal. A new
reservoir containing 200,000 gal. was built above the town and fed
from the Wadi 'Arrub springs 12 m. S. (used for the same purpose
in the days of Herod and Pontius Pilate by the Romans) at the rate
of 12,500 gal. per hour. This system, opened on June 18, was
subsequently improved by the British administration.
The visit of the Zionist commission under Dr. Chaim Weisz-
mann and the careful abstention from controversial topics of the
only Palestine newspaper did much to abate the alarm of the
Moslem population caused by Mr. Balfour's declaration. A
further useful function was performed by the army in its sales
of young camels and cast army beasts by public auction at
Ramleh. According to local standards a " cast " army animal was
in more than the prime of life and buyers came from the Hejaz
and other parts of Arabia to buy the baby camels which had been
born of unusually well-fed and healthy parents and had them-
selves been nourished on a scale of efficiency entirely unknown to
native camel masters.
Later in the year when the Sept. advance had finally driven
the Turks out of Palestine the O.E.T.A. was divided into three
sectors South (Jerusalem) East (Damascus) and North (Bei-
rut). A little later, after the Armistice of Nov. n 1918 and
the subsequent occupation of Cilicia, O.E.T.A. North became
O.E.T.A. West, and a new north sector was formed at Adana.
In O.E.T.A. South, of which Gen. Money continued as chief
administrator, British military governors were established at
Nablus with a deputy at Hable; Jenin with a deputy at Beisan;
Tul Keram; Haifa, with deputies at the Jewish colony of Zimmarin
and Acre; and Nazareth with deputies at Tiberias and Safed.
On August 15 1920 the system of governorships for Palestine
was revised, Hebron was added to Jerusalem, Tul Keram was
added to Jaffa, Nazareth and Tiberias were amalgamated to form
Galilee, Haifa district became Phoenicia, and Nablus and Jenin
were amalgamated to form Samaria. Thus Palestine is now
administered by five district governors at Ei,2oo a year each,
with the help of assistant governors and by two district governors
at 850 each (Gaza and Beersheba) .
In the spring of 1919 Sir Arthur Money was succeeded as
chief administrator of O.E.T.A. South by Maj.-Gen. Sir Louis
Bols, formerly General Allenby's chief of staff, who had to con-
tend with a difficult situation. As no peace settlement had been
arrived at, he still had to administer the country on Turkish
lines in conformity with the " Laws and Usages of War,"
while on the one hand eager Zionists complained that nothing
was being done to carry out the Balfour declaration as interpreted
by its most extreme partisans, and on the other the Moslems
protested against what they considered to be Jewish aggression,
and various foreign powers sought to establish or revive their
influence among the various Christian communities in the coun-
try. The Arab tribes beyond Jordan were not under proper con-
trol, as the Sherifian government in Damascus was not strong,
and parties of desert freebooters revived the time-honoured
custom of raiding the settled lands. This combined with the
anti-foreign agitation which arose out of the difficulties and
delays caused by the contradictory assurances given at one time
and another on behalf of the British Government to the French
and the Arabs led to serious trouble which was brought to a head
soon after the Emir Faisal had been declared King of Syria in
Damascus (March 10 1920). In Jerusalem the Moslem pro-
cession at the Nebi Musa celebrations was exploited as a mani-
festation of Arab Nationalist sentiment against the Zionist
Jews, many of whom had excited the animosity of the Moslems
by unwise and tactless propaganda. Public statements had been
made which Moslems could easily misunderstand and represent
as threats against their own undisturbed possession of their
ancestral properties and sacred sites, and a counter-propaganda
directed towards a general agreement of Moslem land-owners to
refuse to sell or lease land to non-Moslems had played its part
in inflaming the crowd against Jewish immigrants. Riots took
place on April 4 and 5, and, as the Moslem police in many cases
preferred to yield to religious enthusiasm instead of doing their
duty impartially, order had to be restored by British and Indian
troops. The casualties were 5 Jews and 4 Moslems killed, 211
Jews, 22 Moslems and 2 Christians wounded. A number of
persons were arrested and among the Jews sentenced for " pos-
sessing firearms, instigation to disobedience by arming the
populace, conspiracy and preparing means to carry out acts
of riot " was Mr. Vladimir Jabotinsky who had played a dis-
tinguished part in helping to raise a Jewish battalion for the
British army. Several Moslems were sentenced to long terms
of imprisonment for rape or for possessing firearms. Mr. Ja-
botinsky's sentence was shortly afterwards reduced and he was
released on July 8 under the amnesty which followed the intro-
duction of civil government. Later in April, the Ghazzawiye
Arabs raided Beisan on several occasions and carried off 119
head of cattle and 259 sheep and goats, and on April 24, 2,000
Arabs attacked the British garrison at Semakh, but had to
retreat leaving 100 casualties behind them. Raids were also
made further down the Jordan valley, and in the N. some 2,700
refugees, Christians and Jews, fled into Palestine in May to
avoid the Metawali who were massacring in the hills above Tyre.
On July i 1920 the Rt. Hon. Sir Herbert Samuel became first
high commissioner of Palestine under the mandate which was in
principle accorded to Great Britain at the San Remo conference
in April, although the text of the document was not drafted until
1921 and its precise terms had not yet actually been confirmed
by the council of the League of Nations. Civil Government was
introduced, and for the first time, the British flag was hoisted
over Jerusalem. An amnesty was granted (July 8), the censor-
ship was abolished (July 19), and on August 31 an advisory
council composed of seven Moslems and Christians and three
Jews was created to sit with the high commissioner. At the
same time Hebrew was declared an official language together
with English and Arabic, and made obligatory for public notices
in areas inhabited by 20% or more of Jews (Jerusalem City,
and the kazas of Jaffa, Tiberias, Safed, Ramleh and Haifa).
Drinking-bars were suppressed throughout Palestine, and the use
of stucco and corrugated iron for new buildings or repairs within
the walls of Jerusalem was prohibited.
At the end of 1920 the payments of various dues to the ac-
count, of Ottoman Regie and the prohibition against the culti-
vation of tobacco in Palestine came to an end.
Frontier. On Dec. 23 1920 the frontiers of Palestine towards
French Syria were fixed in such a way as to include a small additional
area, comprising Kades, Metulla and Dan, in Palestine, but retain-
ing the whole of the Litani-Leontes watershed for Syria. In April
1921 the visit of Mr. Churchill, Secretary of State for the Colonies,
to Jerusalem, afforded an opportunity for interview with the Emir
'Abdalla, brother of the Emir Faisal, which resulted in the recogni-
tion of Arab authority over the territories to the east of Jordan
(see TRANSJORDANIA), thus fixing that river as the eastern bound-
ary of Palestine except at Semakh on the Sea of Galilee.
Immigration. During 1920, as transport became available, a
number of expatriated Jews began to return to Palestine, as well
as new Jew immigrants, many of whom (Halutzim) were employed
by the Zionists in the work of opening up and reconstructing waste
lands, for additions to which the Jewish National Fund raised
160,000 during the year. On Oct. 22 1920 the deported German
colonists, chiefly from the Haifa district, were allowed to return.
Some of the new immigrants seem to have adopted communistic
views before leaving Russia, and on May I 1921 a party of these
disturbed a Jewish labour meeting at Tell Aviv ('AM), near Jaffa.
A struggle ensued in which Moslems became involved, and this
developed into a racial riot of so formidable a nature that the local
police were unable to suppress it, and British troops had to be called
in. Although the riot was stopped that evening, there was further
trouble for two or three days. At no time, however, did the troops
have to open fire in Jaffa, but the rioters killed 30 Jews and 10
Arabs and injured 170 Jews and 57 Arabs, before order was restored.
i8
PALESTINE
The police arrested 66 rioters, and the leading notables of both
religions concerned cooperated with the authorities in calming the
population. An inquiry was subsequently held by the Chief Justice
of Palestine and two British officials, while Jewish immigration into
the Holy Land was suspended for two months (until July 8).
Jewish Agricultural Colonies. For many years past the piety of
Jews all the world over has prompted them to contribute towards
the support of the large numbers of Jews resident in or immediately
outside Jerusalem on the understanding that the constant prayers
and wailfngs of these the Jews of the Haluka should benefit also
their benefactors. A more modern development of this system led
to the foundation of a number of agricultural colonies in other parts
of Palestine, which also were for many years dependent upon outside
benevolence. With the growth of experience the agricultural colon-
ists, unlike their brethren of the Haluka, tended to become more and
more self-supporting under the guidance of Baron Hirsch's founda-
tion, the J.C.A. (Jewish Colonization Association), which first began
to treat the colonies as a commercial rather than a charitable or
sentimental proposition. The earlier colonies had devoted them-
selves exclusively to viticulture and were embarrassed alike by the
attacks of phylloxera and the difficulty of marketing their wine.
After the introduction of almonds and oranges and other fruits
prospects improved, but until the end of the Turkish period the
colonies were much hampered by legal difficulties connected with the
purchase and tenure of land, the status of the colonists and the lack
of a definite policy. During the war the colonies suffered owing to
the deportation of many of the colonists, the requisitions of the
military, and the cutting down of large numbers of trees, as well as
from the loss of all their foreign markets.
After the war the Zionist Commission greatly improved the pros-
pects of Jewry in Palestine, which, under the Balfour Declaration
of 1917, was to become once more a national home for the children of
Israel, by organizing a new national life and arranging for the immi-
gration of the Halutzim, or Pioneers, young and zealous workers from
all parts of Jewry, who began to prepare the country for future
arrivals. In 1920 the influx of Jews into Jerusalem was shown by the
Immigration Department of the Zionist Commission as follows:
Jan. 122, Feb. 139, March 124, April 122, May 98, June 105, July
107, Aug. 178, Sept. 237, Oct. 197, Nov. 218, Dec. 233; total 1,860, of
whom 1,251 were men and 609 women, of whom again 1,169 were
new immigrants and 696 returning refugees. Jaffa is the principal
port of entry, 1,400 Jews having landed there in Sept. 1920. It is
estimated that between Dec. 1919 and March 1921 some 11,000
Jews entered Palestine, of whom 3,000 were returning refugees.
On the other hand some 3,000 persons emigrated from Palestine
during the same period, among whom were many Jews.
The bulk of the new immigrants, up to the end of March 1921,
came from Poland, Russia, Morocco, Austria, Syria, Bulgaria,
Rumania, Egypt, Hungary, Persia, France, Greece, Germany and
England. Each immigrant is provided with a certificate of origin
from the Zionist Emigration Office (Palestine Office).
The table shows the area and population of the Jewish colonies
founded before the British occupation:
Land Transfer. During the whole of the military administration
and until Oct. 1920 the sale or transfer of land in Palestine was
forbidden, partly because the Turks had removed all official land
registers to which appeal could be made for the settlement of dis-
puted titles, and partly to avoid internal trouble which might arise
from the transfer of land from a vendor of one religion to a purchaser
of another. When this order was rescinded there was no great activ-
ity in the estate market in Palestine as a strong movement had been
set on foot among Moslems to retain land already owned by Moslems
in Moslem hands, and also because the delay in issuing the Mandate
and the world-wide financial crisis militated against the economic
development of Palestine in general, and land purchase there in
particular. Some small parcels of land belonging to Moslems were
sold to Jews, but, apart from that, the Jews have acquired no land
since the war, with the exception of the university site on Mt. Scopus
from the executors of Sir John Grey-Hill.
Ecclesiastical. In matters ecclesiastical the British authorities
were able to steer a careful course between the various conflicting
interests, and Col. Storrs, the governor of Jerusalem, was so far able
to abate the customary tension between the representatives of the
different creeds that the Orthodox at Bethlehem voluntarily removed
the unsightly wall which had been built across the nave of the
Church of the Nativity chiefly for the purpose of causing annoyance
to the Latins; and the Gregorians invited the Anglican bishop,
Dr. Maclnnes, who had succeeded as bishop in Jersualem after the
resignation of Dr. Blyth in Oct. 1914, to take an important part in
their Easter ceremonies in 1918. After the final defeat of the Turks
the Orthodox and Latin patriarchs who had been held prisoners in
Damascus returned to Jersualem, when Mgr. Damianos, who had
had difficulties with his Holy Synod, was reinstated by the chief
administrator. Mgr. Camassei, the Latin patriarch, how-ever, with-
drew soon afterwards to Rome, where he became a cardinal, and in
April 1920 Mgr. Louis Barlassina was appointed to succeed him in
Jerusalem, while on Oct. 9 1920 Father Paschal Robinson was sent to
Palestine as apostolic visitor. On March 20 1921 His Eminence
the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Kamil Huseini Effendi, died, and
after some delay his brother, Hajj Amin, was appointed (May 1921)
to succeed him.
Population. On March 31 1919 the pop. of O.E.T.A. South was
647,850, of whom 515,000 were Moslems, 65,300 Jews and 62,500
Christians. There were 150 Samaritans and 4,900 others. The
present area of Palestine is larger than O.E.T.A. South.
The 1919 census figures for the pop. of various towns, showing
Ruppin's 1914 estimate in each case in brackets, are as follow:
1914 Estimate of
Ruppin
Census of 1919
Jerusalem
Jaffa ....
Nablus ....
(80,000?)
(40,000?)
(30,000)
60,000
40,000
28,000
Haifa ....
(20,000)
20,000
Hebron
(20,000)
18,000
Gaza
(30,000)
Nazareth
(12,000)
15,000
Safed ....
(24,000)
12,500
Acre ....
(12,000)
10,000
Tiberias
( 8,000)
8,000
Bethlehem .
(12.000)
15.000
Gaza, credited with 30,000 inhabitants in 1914, was entirely
depopulated during the war as a military measure by the Turks.
The inhabitants were beginning to return slowly to the completely
ruined town in 1921.
Of the three divisions of the pop. of Palestine 69 % of the Moslems,
46% of the Christians and 19% of the Jews were engaged in agri-
culture in 1919. In 1918 taxes were paid on 139,000 domestic
animals (Southern Palestine only), in 1919 on 531,000 animals
(Northern Palestine as well) and in 1920 on 543,000.
Finance. The budget for Palestine for the first year under
British occupation, ending Oct. 1918, showed a revenue from direct
taxes 160,000, from customs and excise 122,000 and from other
normal sources 54,000. The artificial revenue of 324,000
drawn from the operation of the services of relief for refugees failed
to balance their cost, 331,000, thus the revenue for purposes of
ordinary expenditure amounted to 337,000 and the expenditure
to 407,000, which included 141,000 of revenues mortgaged by
the Turks .for the services of the Ottoman Debt and to meet the
kilometric guarantee on railways in other parts of the Empire. It
should also be remembered that, while the cost of administering
northern Palestine for six weeks is contained in the budget, no
revenue at all was collected in that area, as the taxes had all been
exacted in advance by the Turks. On the other side, however, it
must be noted that the private charity of the American Red Cross
and other funds contributed more than 40,000 per mensem
towards the maintenance of refugees and destitute civilians, which
would otherwise have been a charge upon the Treasury.
In 1918-9 the actual receipts were 748,000 from all sources
and the estimated expenditure 738,000. For 1919-20 the esti-
mated figures were 735,000 for both, exclusive of 284,000 of
revenue and 162,000 of expenditure in the " Excluded Funds "
assigned to municipalities, Waqf administration, the Ottoman
Debt and railway guarantee outside Palestine. For the first nine
months of civil administration ending March 31 1921 the total
.revenue, excluding that from railways and post-office, was estimated
at 776,000 and the expenditure at 731,000, while the railways
and post-office were expected to yield a net profit of 30,000, thus
showing a surplus of 75,000. For the first complete financial year
under civil administration, 1921-2, the total revenue including
railways and post-office was estimated at 2,214,000, and the
expenditure at 2,286,000.
The following table shows the detailed revenue from direct .taxa-
tion and State domains for the two financial years 1919-20 and
1920-1 :
House
and
Animal
Tax
Tithe
State
Do-
Stamp
Duty
Total
Land
E
mains
c*
TaxE
E
E
*
Jerusa-
1919-20
29,089
7,399
28,173
i,437
2,743
68,841
lem
1920-21
29,500
8,000
36,000
2,000
4,000
79,500
T tt i
1919-20
27,261
2,150
57,733
499
3,'34
90,777
Jalta S
1920-21
26,000
1,200
60,000
600
4,700
92,500
r 1
1919-20
15,781
3,348
52,401
848
36i
72,739
Gaza <
1920-21
16,000
I,9OO
60,000
2,000
500
80,400
Beer-
1919-20
338
5,020
1,556
171
187
7,272
sheba
1920-21
370
6,700
39,000
500
400
46,970
Samariaj
1919-20
1920-21
15,190
14,500
4,214
4,300
28,158
40,000
6,837
2,000
633
1,200
55,031
62,000
Phoeni-
1919-20
26,499
6,975
39,753
452
1,517
75,196
cia
1920-21
22,000
7,700
80,000
i, 600
3,200
114,500
Galilee /
1919-20
1920-21
12,643
11,630
3,68o
4,200
36,555
60,000
4,160
15,300
534
1,000
57,572
92,130
Totalsj
1919-20
1920-21
126,801
1 20.000
32,786
34.000
244,329
375.000
14,404
24..0OO
9,109
15,000
427-428
568,000
PALESTINE
Names
Area in 1913
Population
Hebrew
Arabic
Dunams*
Acres
Hectares
1913
1921
(i) JAFFA DISTRICT:
PETHAH TIQWAH
MULEBBIS .
35,036
8,091
3,276
2,722
2,555
Divisions :
(a) Yehud
El Yehudiye
(b) Kefar Saba
Kefr Saba .
'96
(c) 'Ein Hai
Bir 'Adas .
30
(rf) 'Ein Gannim ....
El Fejja
194
(e) Mahane Yehuclah.
RlSHON LE-SlYON
'AvuN QARA
12,342
2,771
1,122
I,2OO(?)
i, 068
Divisions :
(a) Nahalath Yehudah .
(6) Be'er Ya'aqob ....
Bir Ya'qub
H5
NAHALATH RE'UBEN OR NES LE-SIYONAH
WADI HANIN
2,794
627
254
199
199
REHOBOTH
KHIRBET DEIRAN
.14,19
3,186
1,290
731
348
(a) Ezra ......
EKRON OR MAZKERETH BATH- YAH
'AgiR ....
12,716
2,855
1,156
316
960
(a) Na'amah
Na'ane
(&)
Mansura
GEDERAH
QATRA
5,632
1,244
5"
167
182
(a) Sukkoth
BE'ER TOBIYAH
QASTINE
5,621
1,242
5"
I5o(?)
170
JEMMAME
"i.SOO
i. 21=;
soo
7J.
BEN SHAMEN
jO" u
2,343
* , O J
526
J*"""'
213
I20(?)
OT"
I2O
Abu Shushe
6,996
1.570
636
EL KHULDE
1,969
4.4.2
I7Q
JO
QlRYATH MOSHE
KEFR URYE
4,785
T^
i f i97
4 / 7
435
O^
30
MIQWEH ISRAEL
2,612
590
237
150
153
Agricultural School (near Jaffa) .
(2) JERUSALEM DISTRICT:
HAR TOB
'ARTUF
4.664.
i 0^7
4.2J
1 2 A.
I4.Q
MOSA .......
QALONIYE .
tfguulf
1,078
* t o /
24.2
*T*T
98
i^H
40(?)
**t7
A.O
'AlN ED DlLBE
**f
i r v *\ l /
W
2OO
(3) PHOENICIA:
ZIKERON YA'AQOB
ZlMMARIN .
30,668
6,886
2,788
1,034
(a)
Shefeya
50
(b)
Umm el Tut
(c) Bath Shelomoh ....
Umm el Jemal .
'80
(d)
Khirbet Menshiye .
M
El Burj
(/)
El Marah .
DOR ....
TANTURA
2Q7
66
27
16
Athlit . . _.
*3F/
7,293
1,637
663
50
108
Kerkur and Beidus .
U,396
2,558
1,036
20
KHEDERAH
EL KHUDHEIRA .
39,556
8,882
3,596
459
300
(a) Hefsi-bah
(b) Nahli-el
(c)
KHUDHEIRA ZEITA .
(4) GALILEE:
ROSH PlNNAH
JA'UNE
41,987
9,427
3,817
501
501
(a) Mahanayim
30
MISHMAR HAY-YARDEN AND GESHER
HAY-YARDEN
7,59
1,704
690
93
93
YESUD HAM-MA'ALAH
KHIRBET ZUBEID
12,221
2,744
I, III
198
200
(a)
'Ain el-Mellaha .
'EiN HAZ-ZEITHIM
'AiN ZEITUN
5,599
1,257
509
30(?)
30
METULLAH
EL MUTALLE
16,907
3,796
1,537
241
241
SHEZERAH
SHEJERA
17,710
3,976
1,610
192
235
KEFAR TABOR
MESH A
16,016
3,596
1,456
235
289
YABNI-EL . . . . ' .
YEMMA
32,505
7,298
2,955
330(?)
1,125
(a) Poriyah
.
(b) Beth Can
Beit Jan
80
(c) 'Atshi-yah
87
MELHAMIYEH
9,471
2,126
86 1
86
128
DEGAN-YAH
UMM JUNYE
3,069
689
279
I30(?)
40
KlNNERETH
9,273
2,082
843
7o(?)
IOO
MlSPAH . .
'AiN KATEB
3,421
768
3"
37
38
(a) Tiberias
Tabariye
MAGDALA"
MEJDEL
4,950
i,ni
450
50
MERHAB-YAH
EL FULE .
9,416
2,114
856
TEL ADOS
<o
SHARONA
o
II
*Dunam = 1,075-2 sq. yd.
2O
PALESTINE
The customs revenue collected at various ports of entry and rail-
way and caravan centres for the same two years was as follows :
1919-20
/E
1920-1
E
Acre
214
534
Beersheba ....
463
3'4
Gaza
10,092
6,695
Haifa
164,391
169,031
Jaffa
146,204
186,336
Jerusalem ....
93,779
71,161
Khan Yunis
645
586
Ludd
1,893
5,255
Tul Keram ....
5,094
5,642
Qantara ....
5,375
3,446
Total ....
428,150
449,000
Municipalities. There are 22 municipalities in Palestine: Jeru-
salem, Ramalla, Beit Jala, Bethlehem, Hebron, Jaffa, Ramleh,
Ludd, Gaza, Khan Yunis, Mejdel, Feluje, Beersheba, Nablus, Tul
Keram and Jenin in Samaria; Nazareth, Tiberias and Safed in
Galilee; and Haifa, Acre and Shefa 'Amr in Phoenicia. In 1919-20
their total revenue amounted to 89,000 (Jerusalem 29,500,
Jaffa 14,700) and their ordinary expenditure to 89,000. They
had a balance of 9,000 from the previous year and obtained loans
and grants from Government amounting to 10,000, repaying debt
to the amount of Ei 1,000.
Education. Palestine before the British occupation contained
numerous schools supported by religious bodies and charitable
organizations abroad, some of which were undoubtedly supported
more in the political interests of the countries concerned than for
strictly religious or educational purposes, and it is possible that in
the future certain institutions may suffer financially from the decay
of that political driving-force. For the year 1919-20 the Military
Administration granted 46,000 for Moslem education, and for
1921-2 the Civil Administration has allotted 103,000, and
employs 443 teachers. In addition to this the Zionist Organization
in 1920-1 provided for 135 educational institutions with 523
teachers and 12,830 Jewish pupils at a cost of about 110,000.
Christian schools in 191920, generally open to pupils of all denomi-
nations, provided for some 7,000 children, but many of these institu-
tions had been adversely affected by Turkish requisitions during the
war and had not recovered.
Defence. Under the final rearrangement of the Ottoman army
before the World War Palestine formed part of the recruitment area
of the VIII. (Damascus) Army Corps, and after the war was held
by a considerable army of occupation composed of British and
Indian troops. This, consisting of three Army Corps with a ration
strength of over 460,000 men and some 163,000 beasts at the time
of the Armistice, was reduced to 23,000 men on April I 1920, and
to 7,700 men on April I 1921. The scheme of local defence provides
for the formation of two battalions of troops to be recruited in
Palestine, and a police force has already been raised consisting on
April I 1921 of 78 officers and 1,392 other ranks, divided into four
categories :
Mounted
Foot
Railway
Prisons
N.C.O.s .
Men .
47
397
72
712
4
50
16
85
and Swardresses
Total
444
784
54
109
Railways. Although several schemes for railway construction
in Palestine were proposed during the period 1910-4, nothing was
done. On Oct. 14 1913 a Franco-Turkish agreement provided for
an extension of the standard-gauge line from Rayak in Syria to
Ludd in Palestine, where it would join the then existing narrow-
fiuge line from Jaffa to Jerusalem. By the same agreement a
rench firm was to obtain concessions for building harbours at
Haifa and Jaffa, and a little later a concession was granted to the
Perrier Bank to run a tramway from Jerusalem to Bethlehem.
None of these proposals was carried out, but during the war the
Turkish Government built an extension of the Hejaz railway from
Jenin on the plain of Esdraelon through Messudiye (56 km.) to
Nablus (15 km.) on the one hand, and on the other to Tul Keram
(20-5 km.) and thence to Ludd (42-5 km.), and from Junction Sta-
tion to Beersheba (83 km.), whence the line was taken on to El
'Auja (66 km.) for the attack on Egypt. A narrow-gauge branch
line was run from Tine on the Junction Station-Beersneba railway
to Beit Hanun (39 km.), near Gaza, with a branch from Deir Sineid
to Huj (12 km.), and another from Tul Keram to the forest near
Caesarea (24 km.), which was cut down for fuel. Owing to the
shortage of railway material the lines between Damascus and
Mezeirib (63 km.), Haifa and Acre (18 km.) and Jaffa and Ludd
(20 km.) were stripped and the rails sent south to be used for the new
extensions. Later the Beersheba El 'Auja extension was stripped
in its turn and the Tine-Beit Hanun-Huj branch was removed after
the arrival of the British.
The British-built standard-gauge line laid across northern Sinai,
Qantara-Romani (41 km.), opened July 1916; Romani-El 'Arish
(114 km.) Jan. 1917, El 'Arish-Rafa (45 km.) Mar. 1917, reached
Deir el Belah (219 km.) from Qantara in June 1917, and a branch
from Rafa to Karm (34-5 km.) was opened Oct. 28 1018. This was
later continued to Beersheba (24-5 km.) and opened May 3 1918.
The metre-gauge railway from Ludd to Jerusalem, much damaged
during the military operations in the autumn of 1917, was restored
and reopened Jan. 27 1918. Meanwhile, the standard-gauge from
Belah had been opened to Deir Sineid (28 km.) Nov. 28 1917, and to
Deiran (43 km.) Jan. 8 1918. On Feb. 4 1918 it was opened to Ludd
(15 km. or 305 km. from Qantara) and carried on to Rantie (9 km.) a
little later in readiness for the next forward move. While waiting for
this, the standard-gauge was opened to 'Artuf (31 km.) on March 31
and to Jerusalem (29 km.) June 15. This last section was laid by
day, while the narrow-gauge which it superseded continued to work
by night. The Turkish narrow-gauge between Junction Station
and Irgeig (72 km.) on the Rafa-Beersheba line was converted to
standard gauge between May 18 and July 8; thus Gen. Allenby was
able to dispose of a double line of standard gauge from his advanced
base at Ludd to Rafa, to which point the railway from Qantara had
been double-tracked by April 17 1918. Later, in 1919-20, the sector
Junction Station-Irgeig was dismantled. A number of narrow-
gauge lines were laid benind the front between Dec. 1917 and Sept.
1918 : Ludd to Jaffa (20 km.), Ludd to Ras el 'Ain (22 km.), Sarona
(on the Jaffa line) to near Jelil (14 km.), Kefr Jinnis on the Ras el
Ain line to Lubban (18 km.), Sheikh Muannis on the Sarona line to
Carrick Hill (3 km.), and from Jerusalem to Eire (28 km.). The
standard-gauge started north once more on the heels of the Sept.
advance, and was superimposed on the Turkish line from Ras el 'Ain
to Tul Keram (32 km. from Rantie) which was reached on Oct. 15.
The extension to Haifa (66 km. ; 413 km. from Qantara) was opened
early in Jan. 1919 and soon afterwards the narrow-gauge Acre branch
(18 km.) was restored. On Oct. 5 1920 the standard-gauge was
opened between Ludd and Jaffa (20 km.).
Agriculture. The crop returns for 1920-1 show the following
figures in kilogrammes:
Kgm.
Wheat 62,897,017
Barley 27,233,948
Beans 2,061,306
Peas . 3,441,525
Lentils 2,724,635
Kersenneh (Jilbaneh) 4,599,944
Durra 3,352,9i6
Sesame 2,488,229
Olive Oil 6,706,059
Grapes ' 5,490,306
Figs 5,419,878
Melons 16,351,022
Almonds 238,090
Total Kgm. 170,004,875
Oranges, Lemons, etc. 537,43 boxes
Of this total of 170,004,875 kilogrammes the production according
to districts was as follows:
Kgm.
Jerusalem 27,589,480
JaTa 40,866,228
Gaza 11,170,179
Phoenicia 35,852,954
Beersheba 9,005,058
Samaria 17,686,452
Galilee 27,834,524
Of the 537,000 boxes of oranges and lemons the Jaffa district
produced 498,000, Phoenicia being second with 36,000.
Trade. The bulk of the sea-borne commerce of Palestine passes
through its three chief ports of Gaza, Jaffa and Haifa. Of these
Haifa, before the war, had begun to supplant Beirut to a certain
degree as the port of Damascus, the Hauran and Gilead and, in
virtue of its connexion by rail with Medina, handled goods in
transit for that area as well ; consequently its trade was Syrian rather
than Palestinian and recovered sharply after the end of the Italo-
Turkish War in 1912. Gaza was concerned almost entirely with
an export trade of barley, chiefly used for making beer in England,
while Jaffa, with all its drawbacks, served as the chief port for
exports and imports of purely Palestinian origin and destination.
The standard-gauge railway leading to Egypt is also a great trade
route, more particularly for passengers and those classes of goods
which suffer from the delays still inevitable in bad weather at Jaffa.
The total trade of Palestine for the first complete year during
which the whole country was under British administration and at
peace, April 1919 March 1920. was:
Imports
Exports
April-June 1919 .
July-Sept. " .
Oct.-Dec. " .
Jan.-March 1920
1,098,938
861,869
984,926
1,296,334
130,463
129,719
196,552
236,968
4,242,067
693,702
PALGRAVE PANAMA
21
Of this the respective shares of Jaffa and Haifa as compared with the
last complete year before the war both calculated in E were :
Imports
Exports
Jaffa
E
E
1913 ....
1,279,785
726,775
1919-20 .
1,408,238
169,308
1920-21 (first 7
months)
1,186,079
127,360
Haifa
1913 ....
516,750
338,033 (1912)
1919-20 .
1,627,381
270,057
1920-21 (first 7
months)
95. 1 55
1 16,795
From this it is apparent that while Palestine had to buy largely
and at enhanced prices of those goods of which she was unable to
procure adequate supplies during the war, she had not yet recovered
her capacity for production after the dislocation of trade and ruin of
agriculture caused by the war, with the consequence that the balance
of trade was against her. It has been pointed out, however, that her
exports are bulkier than her imports, and that had tonnage been
available the exports would have been greater.
The deficiency of available tonnage is well shown in the following
shipping figures for ports of Palestine:
Flag
Number of
Ships
1913
Number of
Ships
1919-20
Tonnage
1913
Tonnage
1919-20
British
Russian
French
Italian
Austrian ' and
Other
307
237
IOI
97
496
97
55
41
99
65
464,674
4 5,987
262,512
170,227
658,302
123,116
27,244
71,904
176,504
67,946
1,238
357
1,961,702
466,714
Currency. The currency in Palestine, formerly Turkish, became
Egyptian at the time of the occupation as the accounts of the
Egyptian Expeditionary Force were kept in that medium. A vast
quantity of British, Australian and Indian silver, however, came
into circulation at fixed rates to supply the deficiency of Egyptian
silver of which a large consignment sent from the London mint for
use in Palestine was sunk by enemy action at sea and a good deal
of gold, chiefly British, came into the country from Arabia where a
large amount of the gold coin paid as subsidy to the king of the
Hejaz passed into circulation. French silver, generally taken at full
value in the larger towns before the war, is now seldom seen, and
Turkish silver and billon money has also nearly disappeared,
although legal tender at fixed rates. Turkish paper was never legal
tender after the occupation.
Weights and measures still vary locally according to immemorial
custom, but the civil administration is taking steps to introduce a
standard system on European lines in order to facilitate trade.
Archaeology. On Aug. 9 1920 the British School of Archaeology
in Jerusalem was opened and participated in the excavations which
were being conducted at Ascalon, with happy results, by the Pales-
tine Exploration Fund. Important discoveries were made also in
the Garden of Gethsemane, where the complete foundations of a
4th-century church were brought to light, and near Tiberias.
The duty of maintaining historical buildings in the Holy City has
been entrusted to the Pro-Jerusalem Society a pan-denominational
body founded by the governor, Mr. Ronald Storrs. At Acre medi-
aeval crypts have been cleared of ddbris, the Tower of Ramleh
has been strengthened and arrangements have been made for a
resumption of the excavations at Tell Hum (Capernaum) by the
Franciscans. Three universities in the United States have agreed
to undertake important archaeological researches, that of Penn-
sylvania at Beisan (Beth Shan), that of Harvard at Samaria and
that of Chicago at Megiddo (for which Mr. John D. Rockefeller,
Jr., gave 860,000). Unauthorized excavations by persons unquali-
fied as archaeologists are forbidden. In the Budget for 1921-2 a
grant of Ei,ooo was made for the conservation of historical monu-
ments, and 750 provided for the redemption of antiquities out of
a total estimate for the Department of Antiquities of 6,500.
(H.P.-G.)
PALGRAVE, SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS (1827-1919),
English banker and economist, was born at Westminster June
ii 1827, the son of Sir Francis Palgrave, the historian (see 20.-
629). He was educated at Charterhouse and entered Barclay's
Bank at Yarmouth. There he rose to a position of such impor-
tance that in 1875 he was one of three representatives of the
English issuing country bankers chosen to give evidence before
the select committee of the House of Commons on Banks of
Issue. He edited the Economist from 1877 to 1883, and pub-
lished many works on banking, as well as The Local Taxation of
1 Much tonnage formerly Austrian was in 1921 Italian.
Great Britain and Ireland (1871). He also edited the Dictionary
of Political Economy (1894-1906). He was knighted in 1909.
He died at Bournemouth Jan. 25 1919.
PALLES, CHRISTOPHER (1831-1920), Irish lawyer, last chief
baron of the Irish Court of Exchequer, was born Dec. 25 1831.
He was educated at Clongowes Wood school, and Trinity
College, Dublin, where he graduated in 1852. He was called to
the Irish bar in 1853, and became a Q.C. in 1865. In 1872 he
became a solicitor-general for Ireland, and from 1872 was
attorney-general. In 1874 he was made chief baron of the Court
of Exchequer. The Exchequer division was in 1898 merged in
the Queen's Bench division of the Irish High Court of Justice,
and the chief baron from that time sat as one of the judges of
the Queen's Bench division, and also as a judge of appeal.
Palles retired from the bench at an advanced age in 1916. He
was a great lawyer, of remarkably wide learning and power of
argument. He died in Dublin Feb. 14 1920.
PALMER, ALEXANDER MITCHELL (1872- ), American
politician, was born of Quaker parentage at Moosehead, Pa.,
May 4 1872. After graduating from Swarthmore College in 1891
and admission to the bar in 1893 he practised law at Strouds-
burg, Pa. He was a member of Congress from 1909 to 1915,
was then appointed judge of the U.S. Court of Claims, but re-
signed four months later. In 1912 and 1916 he was a delegate-at-
large from Pennsylvania to the Democratic National Conven-
tion, and from 1912 a member of the executive committee of
the Democratic National Committee. At the convention of
1912 he was " floor leader " of the Wilson supporters, and the
next year declined the post of Secretary of War in President
Wilson's Cabinet. In 1917 he was appointed alien property
custodian under the " Trading with the Enemy Act," and
within 1 8 months was administering 32,000 trusts, valued at
$503,000,000. In March 1919 he was appointed to the President's
Cabinet as Attorney-General. The Senate refused to confirm
the appointment until his record as alien property custodian
had been investigated, on the ground that he had made his
office a " political machine." It was furthermore charged that
he was in contempt of the Senate in having failed to submit on
request a complete report of the management of his office. A
filibuster at the end of the 65th Congress caused the Senate to
adjourn without confirming the appointment, but the President
made him a " recess " appointee. Not until Aug. 30 1919 did
the Senate Judiciary Committee hand in its report recommend-
ing the appointment. This was followed by confirmation. His
career as Attorney-General was widely, and it was generally felt
justly, criticized by the public at large and by competent legal
authorities as being both arbitrary and inefficient. At the
Democratic National Convention in 1920 he had strong support
for the presidential nomination, standing second on the first six
ballots. After a prolonged deadlock, extending through 38
ballots, he released his delegates, who swung to James M. Cox,
nominated on the 44th ballot.
PALMER, SIR WALTER, IST BART. (1858-1910), English
manufacturer, was born at Reading Feb. 4 1858. He was the
son of George Palmer (see 20.644), founder of the firm of Huntley
& Palmer, biscuit manufacturers, of Reading, and was educated
at University College, London, and also at the Sorbonne,
Paris. He became a director of the firm and was also the first
chairman of University College, Reading. He sat in the House
of Commons for Salisbury during 1900-6. In 1904 he was created
a baronet, and he died at Newbury April 16 1910. His elder
brother, GEORGE WILLIAM PALMER (1851-1913), was chairman
of the firm and sat in the House of Commons for Reading from
1892 to 1895 and from 1898 to 1904. He was made a privy
councillor in 1906. He died near Newbury Oct. 8 1913.
PANAMA (see 20.664). The pop. of the South American
republic of Panama at the end of 1911 was estimated at 336,742
for the area exclusive of the Canal Zone. The latter contained
in that year 71,682 persons, the number decreasing to 31,048 in
1916 and to 21,707 in 1918. In the estimate made in 1911, whites
and mestizos, those of mixed blood, numbered 238,200, and ne-
groes and Indians 96,600. Foreigners included 3,500 Chinese
22
PANAMA CANAL
and 55,000 British subjects from Caribbean islands. The cities of
Panama and Colon in 1917 contained 61,369 and 26,076 inhab-
itants respectively; the estimated total pop. then being 401,554.
A general census taken in 1920 gave a total pop. of 434,015.
Vital statistics for 1916, 1917 and 1918 showed respectively 11,593,
10,898, and 11,283 births, of which in each year respectively 7,827,
7,511 and 7,700 were illegitimate. Deaths in the same years num-
bered 6,218, 6,107 and 5,649 respectively. There are eight provinces,
Herrera having been added in 1915. The area as determined by the
White boundary award is 87,480 sq. km. (33,776 sq. miles).
In 1917 there were 398 Government-supported schools with an
enrolment of 22,000, besides 1,721 pupils in Canal Zone schools. The
Instituto Nacional, dedicated in 1911 with handsome buildings at
Panama costing $1,500,000, gives instruction in high-school subjects,
commerce and languages. A school of Law and Political Science
offers a three-year course to graduates of the Instituto. Travelling
scholarships to Europe and the United States are provided by the
Government.
Finance and Economics. Panama receives all the import duties
collected, but the United States imports all canal materials and
supplies for Government use duty free. Panama's revenues and
expenditures 1915-20 were as follows:
Revenues
Expenditures
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919-20
675,057
729,802
793,882
646,752
1,490,385
635,820
1,164,600
732, i-t
707,464
1,490,385 (estimated)
Public finance is managed by a fiscal agent appointed with the
approval ot the United States. For nine months ending in March
1921, revenues received were $4,012,023, and expenditures $2,767,-
146; balance $1,244,877; of this sum $739,349 was set aside for road
construction. The debt, begiw early in 1915 with a loan of $3,000,000
from the United States, chiefly for railway construction, amounted in
1919 to $7,101,000.
Commerce is chiefly with the United States; but that with the
United Kingdom, France, and Spain is important.
The totals for the years 1910-20 were:
Imports
Exports
Kgm.
Balboas *
Kgm.
Balboas*
1910
128,647,313
'0,043,395.11
126,333,609
1,769,330.15
1911
128,331,874
9,896,987.85
165,180,189
2,863,425.30
1912
"5,822,532
9,871,653.73
166,232,433
2,064,647.55
1913
153,057,605
11,060,088.24
187,330,063
5,101,960.45
1914
140,472,718
9,891,552.78
182,625,216
3,800,517.18
1915
126,244,629
9,032,977-I7
152,594.343
3,422,455-10
1916
107,191,027
9,397,596-27
137,438,898
5,706,724.38
1917
82,798,113
9,223,170.00
177,484,046
5,624,176.00
1918
45.085,659
7,821,660.00
150,497,870
2,909,557-00
1919
48,960,768
11,406,880.15
162,476,039
3,757,028.24
1920
59,678,802
17,092,270.35
150,3/0,225
3,640,453.15
*A balboa is worth a dollar.
About 80% of the exports go to the United States. The chief
articles are bananas, coconuts, hides, tortoise shell, cacao and lagua
(vegetable ivory). All international commerce moves through Cris-
tobal and Balboa, Bocas del Toro being reserved for local business.
The Panama railway across the Isthmus, 47 m. long, is U.S. property.
The United Fruit Co. has 150 m. of banana railway in Bocas del
Toro province, running to Limon in Costa Rica. Only a small part
of the territory is occupied, and little is under cultivation. The only
highly organized industry is the banana business of the United Fruit
Co., which exports over $2,000,000 worth of bananas yearly. In
1906 cattle numbered 65,000; in 1916, 200,000; there were then also
15,000 horses, 2,000 mules, 30,000 hogs, and 5,000 goats. Coffee
grows in Chiriqui province, and in Code province a concern of Ger-
man origin has raised cacao, coffee and rubber since 1895. Tobacco
and sugar are increasing; the first sugar exported to the United
States was in 1920. Other crops are corn, rice, yams and ivory nuts.
The tropical woods of the forests are exported, as are medicinal
plants. The pearl fisheries are famous. Metals are scantily repre-
sented. The Sinclair Oil Corp. of New York has concessions on
Columbus I., and has drilled wells at Bocas del Toro.
History. The successful candidate of 1908 for the four-year
presidential term, Domingo de Obaldia, died in 1910, and Pablo
Arosemena completed his term. In 1912 Belisario Porras, a
Liberal, was elected. Ramon M. Valdez was elected in June 1916
amid riots and intervention by the United States. He died in
1918, and Giro L. Urriola completed his term. Ernesto Lefevre
was inaugurated Jan. 30 1920, but Belisario Porras soon succeeded
him, being elected in Aug. of the same year, and inaugurated
Nov. i for a four-year term. There are three vice-presidents
(designados) , and a Cabinet of five members. The constitution
was amended Dec. 26 1918 so as to provide for a Chamber of 33
members, one for each 10,000 inhabitants. The president is
chosen by direct vote, and is ineligible to succeed himself. Be-
ginning in 1924 deputies of the Chamber are to be chosen by
direct vote. Provincial governors became elective in 1920.
Capital punishment is prohibited. Foreigners may not mingle
in politics, and may be ejected for criticizing public officers or
institutions. The independence of the republic was recognized
by Colombia April 6 1914 by a treaty between the latter and the
United States, ratified by Colombia in the same year and by
the U.S. Senate April 20 1921. Panama ratified the Treaty of
Versailles Jan. 8 1920, and is an original member of the League
of Nations.
Boundary Dispute. The constitution of Colombia of 1886
declared that its boundary with Costa Rica should be that which
had existed between the viceroyalty of Nueva Granada and the
captaincy-general of Guatemala in 1810, but that boundary lines
might be located by treaties which might be negotiated without
reference to the uti possidetis of that year. Colombia and Costa
Rica endeavoured, by treaties negotiated in 1825, 1856, 1865 and
1876, to fix the line without success. In 1876 arbitration was
agreed on, and Alfonso XII., King of Spain, was asked in 1880
to make an award, but he died before doing so. It was agreed in
a treaty of Dec. 25 1880 that the arbitral award must lie within
the specified limits of the conflicting claims. This provision was
included in a treaty made at Paris dated Jan. 20 1886, and in
another made at Bogota on Nov. 4 1896. Under the last-named
instrument, President Loubet of France rendered on Sept. n
1900 an arbitral award which was accepted by Colombia and
Costa Rica as final. Its demarcations were in general terms.
The state of Panama, which had been created by Nueva
Granada in 1855 and made a department of Colombia in 1886,
became independent on Nov. 3 1904, at which time it inherited
the boundary controversy with Costa Rica. The Loubet line
had not been made effective because of Colombian revolutions.
On March 7 1905 Costa Rica and Panama by convention adopted
a line interpretative of the Loubet award, but Costa Rica still
considered the award unfair to her in respect of the valleys of the
tributaries of the Sixaola river above the Yorquin. In fact, the
treaty gave to each republic de facto right over territory belong-
ing dejure to the other. Costa Rica considered, because of inter-
pretations of the Loubet award by Panama, that the treaty of
1905 had lapsed, Panama not having ratified it. Through the
good offices of the United States, which was interested in Ameri-
can land claims in the Sixaola region, the two republics agreed in
1910 to submit the Loubet award, which both had accepted, to
the interpretation of Chief Justice White of the U.S. Supreme
Court. In 1914 he rendered a decision adverse to Panama, and
the latter refused to accept it, claiming that it went beyond inter-
pretation, and gave territory not asked for to Costa Rica.
On Feb. 21 1921 Costa Rica forces seized Goto, in ChiriquI
province, for the purpose of enforcing the White award, which
favoured her there. Panama forces composed of volunteers and
police at once moved to recover the territory invaded. Panama
on Feb. 24 asked the good offices of the United States to prevent
bloodshed. During late Feb. and early March the invasion,
moving toward Bocas del Toro, was marked by light engage-
ments and there were anti-American disorders in Panama. On
March 5 President Harding requested both nations to cease
hostilities and provide for an agreement based on the White
award. They acceded, and on March 9 an armistice was an-
nounced. Panama had reiterated her dissatisfaction with the
White award, and had made representations to the League of
Nations denouncing the invasion of her territory by a fellow-mem-
ber of the League. While withdrawing her military forces from
Goto, as Costa Rica had done, Panama announced that she was
leaving civil and police forces, and would demand reparation
from Costa Rica. The U.S. Government insisted that Panama
should acquiesce to the terms of the White award.
(H. I. P.)
PANAMA CANAL (see 20.666). The construction period of the
Panama Canal covered about 10 years, but the actual work of
PANAMA CANAL
construction was accomplished in about seven years. The first
three years were devoted mainly to the task of getting ready to
work. During that time the thorough sanitation of the Canal
Zone was accomplished, yellow fever was permanently banished,
an operating plant was assembled, a working force gathered,
living quarters erected and a food supply provided. Reservoirs
were built which furnished an ample supply of pure water to
the canal force, and to the cities of Colon and Panama, in which
water and sewer-systems were built. An out-of-date railway-
system was converted into an adequate one with a thoroughly
modern equipment of rails, locomotives and cars. The first
commission was in office only a year (1904-3) and accomplished
little beyond formulating plans and ordering necessary supplies.
The second, under the expert direction of John F. Stevens as
chief engineer and afterwards as chairman also, reconstructed
the railway-system, assembled the operating plant, collected an
efficient working force and provided for it quarters, food and all
necessary supplies. It also constructed wharves and docks at
both terminals, and machine-shops in which the locomotives, cars,
steam-shovels and other elements of the operating plant, which
were shipped in parts from the United States, were put together.
President Roosevelt paid a visit of three days to the Isthmus in
Nov. 1906, inspecting the canal works at all points. His visit was
notable as the first instance in which an American president had
passed out of the U.S. territory while in office. Col. Goethals, of
the Engineer Corps of the U.S. army, was appointed chairman
and chief engineer of the third commission on the resignation
of Mr. Stevens, and entered upon his duties April i 1907.
This commission was composed of four army engineers, one navy
engineer and two civilians. It had been in office only a few
months when President Roosevelt, who had from the outset of
the work been convinced that the best results could not be
attained through an executive body of seven members, issued an
executive order placing supreme power in the hands of Col.
Goethals, abolishing the commission as an executive body, and
making its members, who were heads of departments, subordi-
nate to him. By this order Col. Goethals became the absolute
autocrat of the Canal Zone, holding in his hands all civil,
military and other powers. For issuing the order President
Roosevelt was sharply criticized in Congress, on the ground that
he had exceeded the authority conferred upon him by law, but
his course was subsequently approved in the Act of 1912 for the
government and operation of the canal after its completion.
Excavation and " Slides." Through the power thus given him,
Col. Goethals pressed the work of construction forward with such
vigour during the five years following the issue of the order that
during that period nearly 75 % of the entire excavation of the canal
was accomplished. The original plans of the canal contemplated a
channel with a bottom-width of 200 ft. through the nine m. of the
Culebra (afterwards called Gaillard) Cut section and estimated the
excavation in the Cut at 54,000,000 cub. yd., and that of the entire
canal at 95,000,000 cub. yards. The entire cost of construction, ex-
clusive of $40,000, ooo paid to the French Canal Co., $10,000,000 paid
to the Panama Republic, and the cost of sanitation and civil adminis-
tration, was placed at about $190,000,000. The original plans also
provided for locks 900 ft. long and 100 ft. wide. In 1906 President
Roosevelt increased the length to 1,000 ft. and in 1908 the Canal
Commission recommended and President Roosevelt approved
changes in the plans which increased the bottom-width of the Cut
channel to 300 ft. and the width of the locks to 1 10 feet. These and
other changes increased the estimate of total excavation to nearly
175,000,000 cub. yd. and the estimate of total cost, including pay-
ments to the French Canal Co. and to the republic of Panama, to
$375,210,000. In this estimated excavation there was included
an allowance of about 8,000,000 cub. yd. for " slides " or breaks
in the walls of the Cut. These had been active during the French
operations, and had begun to be troublesome to the Americans in the
wet season of 1905. In Oct. 1907 a movement occurred which car-
ried about 500,000 cub. yd. into the canal prism, completely filling
it and stopping the movement of dirt trains for a month. In Jan. 1913
another movement occurred carrying about 2,500,000 cub. yd. into
the prism. One in Feb. i92OcarriecVin about 2,ooo,ooocub. yd. more.
During the period of construction and subsequently there were
about 30 slides of different kinds, covering an area aggregating 220
ac., and compelling an additional excavation of about 30,000,000
cub. yards. Because of this and other developments, revised es-
timates of the total excavation were made in 1912, 1913 and 1914,
the last one placing it at nearly 240,000,000 cub. yd., or about 65,-
000,000 more than the amount on which the estimated cost of $375,-
000,000 had been based. When the canal was thrown open to com-
mercial traffic on Aug. 14 1914, a total of 224,000,000 cub. yd. had
been excavated, and when it was declared formally completed and
opened by President Wilson July 12 1920, a total of about 240,000,-
ooo cub. yd. had been excavated and yet the total cost of the canal
up to that date was only $366,650,000, exclusive of expenditures
for its military and naval defence. The excavation of slides alone
cost about $10,000,000.
Gatun Dam. The Panama Canal is a huge water bridge rather
than a canal, for its surface for the greater part of its length is 85 ft.
above sea-level and is held in place by dams at either end. Of these
dams the largest and most important is that at Gatun on the Atlan-
tic side. It spans the northern and lower end of a deep valley through
which the Chagres river formerly flowed to the sea. It is nearly ij
m. long measured on its crest, nearly half a mile wide at the base,
about 400 ft. wide at the water surface, about too ft. wide at the top ;
and its crest is at an elevation of 105 ft. above sea-level. It is really
two dams in one, for in its centre there is a natural hill of rock about
no ft. in height. In this the spillway of the dam is constructed, and
against its two sides rest the two sections of the great dam. The dam
itself contains about 21,000,000 cub. yd. of material. Its outer
portions are composed of rock and earth, mainly from the Cut, and
its centre or core of material drawn by hydraulic process from pits
above and below the dam. This material is a natural mixture of sand
and clay which in a watery condition flowed into the interstices of
the rock and clay of the structure, making the whole at the centre a
rubble-wall firmly cemented together and thoroughly impervious to
water. Of the entire length of the dam only 500 ft. are exposed to the
maximum waterhead of the lake, which is 85 to 87 feet. In 1919,
after an exceptionally light rainfall, the maximum level of the lake
was 87-16 ft. in Dec.; and in May 1920, 81-65 feet. The spillway is a
concrete-lined channel, 1,200 ft. long and 285 ft. wide, the bottom
being 10 ft. above sea-level, sloping to sea-level at the lower end.
Across the lake-opening of the channel is a concrete dam in the form
of an arc of a circle, making its length 805 ft., although it closes a
channel with a width of only 285 feet. The crest of this dam is 69
ft. above sea-level, or 16 ft. below the normal level of the lake. On
the crest are 13 concrete piers with their tops 115-5 ft- above sea-
level and between these are regulating gates of the Stoney type which
move up and down on roller trains in niches in the piers. The gates
permit a discharge of water greater than the maximum known dis-
charge of the Chagres river during a flood. Near the N. wall of the
spillway is a hydro-electric station capable of generating, through
turbines which are supplied with water from the lake through a fore-
bay, sufficient electricity to meet all demands, including the lighting
of the canal and all Canal Zone towns and buildings; the machinery
of the locks, the machine shops, dry-dock and coal-handling plant;
and the telephone and telegraph systems. There is an emergency
electric plant at Pedro Miguel, operated by steam.
Dams on the Pacific Side. Dams much smaller than that at
Gatun were erected on the Pacific side, one with one lock at Pedro
Miguel and one with two locks at Miraflores. In both instances the
lock structures themselves form the main portion of the dam. That
at Pedro Miguel maintains the level of the water in Gatun Lake and
in Culebra Cut, and is placed at the lower or southern end of the
channel through the Cut. That at Miraflores holds back the water
of a small lake which furnishes the supply of the locks at that point.
The Pacific dams are constructed in part like that at Gatun and
in part of concrete. That at Miraflores has a small spillway in it.
The Locks. All locks of the canal are in duplicate, are constructed
in the same manner, and their chambers, with walls and floors of
concrete, have the same usable dimensions 1,000 ft. long and no
ft. wide. There are six pairs, making 12 in all. The side walls are
from 45 to 50 ft. wide at the surface of the floor, are vertical on the
chamber side, and narrowed on the outside from a point 24$ ft.
from the floor, by means of a series of steps each 6 ft. long, to a width
of 8 ft. at the top. A culvert 254 sq. ft. in area of cross-section, about
the area of the Hudson river tunnels of the Pennsylvania railway,
extends the entire length of each middle and side wall, and from each
of these large culverts, smaller culverts, 33 to 44 sq. ft. in area, ex-
tend under the holes in the floors. Fifteen ft. above the top of the
culvert in the middle wall there is a space much like the letter U in
shape, 19 ft. in width at the bottom and 44 ft. at the top. This space
is divided -into three storeys or galleries: the lowest for drainage;
the middle for wires that carry the electric current to operate the
gates and valve machinery installed in the centre wall ; and the upper
a passage-way for the operators. All lock walls are approximately 81
ft. high, except in the lower pair of locks at Miraflores, where they
are 82 ft. to meet the requirements of the extreme tidal oscillation of
about 21 ft. in the Bay of Panama. In the walls at Gatun there are
about 2,000,000 cub. yd. of concrete, and in those on the Pacific
side about 2,400,000 cub. yards. All lock walls rest on rock founda-
tions. The approach wall at the N. entrance at Gatun, 1,031 ft.
long, rests upon piles driven from 35 to 70 ft. into the earth ; that at
the S. or lake entrance, 1,009 ft- long, rests on piles reaching to rock,
in some places over lop ft. below sea-level. Cellular form of rein-
forced concrete is used in all approach walls except those of the lower
locks at Gatun and Miraflores where mass concrete is used because
of the effect of salt water on steel reinforcement.
2 4
PANAMA CANAL
Lock Gates. The lock gates, each composed of two leaves, are 65
ft. wide, from 47 to 82 ft. high, 7 ft. thick and weigh from 90 to
730 tons. There are 92 leaves in all and their combined weight is
60,000 tons. They were carried in parts to the Isthmus and put
together there. They are constructed to float like a ship. Each is a
huge webbed steel box, the girders of which are covered with a steel
sheathing. All portions of the interior are accessible, with water-
tight compartments providing for the adjustment of the buoyancy
so as to control within limits the dead load on the bearings, making
the leaf practically float in the water. This watertight compartment
is subdivided vertically into three sections, each independently
watertight, so that if the shell should be broken in any way, or begin
to leak, probably only one section would be affected. An air-shaft,
26 in. in diameter, runs from the bottom compartment up to the
top of the gate, and this also is watertight where it passes through the
upper half of the leaf. The girders are made with manholes through
the webs, providing communication from the top to the bottom of
the leaf, and are connected by several sets of vertical transverse
diaphragms of solid plates, running from top to bottom of the leaf,
thus making a cellular construction, and dividing'the spaces between
the horizontal girders into small pockets, all of which are accessible
through manholes. Each leaf rests at the bottom of its heel-post
upon a hemispherical pivot of forged nickel steel, and is hinged at
the top to the masonry of the lock wall. It swings free on the pivot
like a door, without wheels or other support beneath it. Intermediate
gates are used in all except one pair of locks, and are so placed as to
divide the space into two chambers, one 600 and the other 400 ft. in
length. This makes possible a saving of water and time in locking
small vessels through, for about 95% of the vessels navigating the
high seas are less than 600 ft. in length. The highest gates and the
highest lock walls on the canal are those of the lower locks at Mira-
flores, and these locks are the only ones which have no intermediate
gates. The total lift from mean sea-level to the level of Miraflores
lake, 54! ft., is divided equally between the upper and lower locks.
The depth of water on the mitre sills is 40 feet. The locks are filled
and emptied through the large and smaller culverts. The large cul-
verts are controlled at points near the gates by large valves, and
each of the small culverts feeds in both directions through the
laterals, thus permitting the passage of water from one twin lock to
another, effecting a saving of water if desired. The average time in
filling and emptying a lock is about 15 minutes. The time to pass a
vessel through all the locks is about two hours, one hour at each end
of the canal. The time of passage of a vessel from ocean to ocean
is from 8 to 10 hours, according to the ship's size and speed.
Passage of Locks. No vessel is permitted to enter or pass through
the locks under its own power. On arrival at Gatun or Miraflores,
it is tied up to the approach wall and turned over to the absolute
control of the canal authorities. These place a representative of
their own on the bridge and another in the engine-room. They then
connect the towing locomotives, or " electric mules," with the ship.
These locomotives operate on cog tracks on the lock walls, and proceed
at the rate of 2 m. an hour. The number of locomotives varies with
the size of the vessel. The usual number required is four: two ahead,
one on each wall, imparting motion to the vessel; and two astern,
one on each wall, to aid in keeping the vessel in a central position
and to bring it to rest when entirely within the lock chamber. They
are equipped with a slip drum, towing windlass and hawser, which
permit the towing-line to be taken in or paid out without actual mo-
tion of the locomotive on the track. The locomotives run on a level,
except when in passing from one lock to another they climb heavy
grades. Before a lock can be entered, a fender chain, stretched
across the walls of the approach, must be passed. If all is proceeding
properly, this chain is dropped into its groove to the bottom of the
channel. If by any chance the ship is moving too rapidly for safety,
the chain remains stretched and the vessel runs against it. The
chain, which is operated by hydraulic machinery in the walls, then
pays out slowly by automatic release until the vessel is brought to a
stop. The chain, which weighs 24,098 lb., and is stronger than any
previously made, is capable of stopping a lo,oop-ton ship running
at 4 m. an hour within 73 ft., or less than the distance between the
chain and the first gate. If the vessel by a remote possibility gets
away from the towing locomotives and, breaking through the chain,
rams the first gate, there is a second gate 50 ft. away, protecting the
lock, which is certain to arrest further advance. When the leaves of
this gate swing open, the vessel is towed in, and the gate is closed
behind it. Then, from openings placed at regular intervals in the
lock floor, water pours in, lifting the vessel to the level of the lock
above. This inflow, coming equally from all points, does not move
the ship from a stable position. The gates are never opened or closed
with a head of water on either side of them. The process of lifting is
repeated until the vessel reaches the lake level. At all times the
vessel is in full view of the men who are controlling it and as safe as
if tied to a wharf. The gates are opened and closed by a powerful
machine invented by Edward Schildhauer, an electrical engineer in
the employ of the Goethals Canal Commission. It consists of a
crank gear or wheel moving through an arc of 197, placed hori-
zontally in the lock wall. To the outer rim of the wheel is attached a
strut or connecting-rod which is fastened to the top of a lock gate
17 ft. from the pintle or hinge. When the wheel turns in either direc-
tion the gate leaf is opened or shut, the operation taking two minutes.
The crank gear, constructed of cast steel, is 19 ft. 2 in. in diameter
and weighs approximately 35,000 pounds. It is connected with an
electric motor, and a small electric switch sets it in motion. Every
operation in the passage of a vessel through the lock, except the
movements of the towing locomotives, is controlled by a single man
so placed in a building at the top of the centre wall as to command
an unobstructed view of every part of the locks. He has before him a
control board table about t> ft. long and 5 j ft. wide which is a com-
plete model of the locks in duplicate with switches and indicators in
the same relative positions the machines they control occupy in the
lock walls. Standing by this board the operator throws the electric
switches, and in response to his action he sees in the model the fender
chains rise and fall, the gates open and close, the water rise and fall
in the locks, and knows the exact position of the vessel at every stage
of its progress. Each gate, each valve for letting in the water to the .
culverts, each fender chain, is operated by a separate motor mounted
near the machinery in chambers in the lock wall. In each machinery
chamber there is a starting panel containing contractors by which
current is applied to the motor, and these panels in turn are controlled
from a main unit in the central control-house. Some of the machinery
chambers at Gatun are 2, 700 ft. distant from the point of control, 90%
of them are within 2,000 ft., and 50% within 1,200 feet.
Thf Canal Voyage. The length of the canal from shore-line to
shore-line is about 40 m. and from deep water in the Atlantic to deep
water in the Pacific about 50 miles. The canal does not, as is gener-
ally supposed, cross the Isthmus from E. to W. It runs due S. from
its entrance in Limon Hay, through the Gatun locks to a point in the
widest portion of Gatun lake, a distance of about 1 1 J m. ; it then
turns sharply toward the E. and follows a course generally south-
eastern till it reaches the Bay of Panama. Its terminus near Panama
is about 22\ m. E. of its terminus near Colon. In passing from the
Atlantic to the Pacific a vessel enters the approach channel in Limon
Bay, which has a bottom width of 500 ft. and extends to Gatun a
distance of seven miles. At Gatun it enters a series of three locks in
flight which lift it 85 feet. It then enters upon Gatun lake, the water-
bridge of the Isthmus. The lake covers an area of 164 sq. m. with a
ilc'plh varying from 45 to 87 ft., and contains 183,000,000,000 cub. ft.
of water. It has a channel varying from 500 to 1,000 ft. in width, for a
distance of about 24 m. to Bas Obispo, where the Cut passage begins.
Through the lake a vessel may steam at full speed. The channel
through the Cut, a distance of about nine m., has a bottom width of
300 ft. and a depth of 45 ft., and extends to the locks at Pedro
Miguej, the Pacific end of the water-bridge. At Pedro Miguel the
is lowered in the single Iock3oj ft. to a small lake, at an eleva-
tion of 54! ft. above sea-level, through which the vessel passes, ij
m. to the two locks at Miraflores. These drop it to sea-level, and
through an approach passage 8} m. long, with a bottom width of 500
ft., it passes into the Pacific. The Cut has eight angles and at these
the channel is widened sufficiently to allow a i,ooo-ft. vessel to make
the turn. The smallest angle is 70 36' and the largest 30. In the
whole canal there are 22 angles, the total curvature being 600 51'.
The sharpest curve is 67 10'. The canal is lighted from end to end
by electricity and gas. There are concrete lighthouses for range
lights on the" hillsides, and beacons in the Cut, in which electricity is
used. The channel through Gatun lake is marked with floating buoys
lighted with compressed acetylene dissolved in acetone. The most
powerful electric lights are those of the approach channels which are
visible for from 12 to 18 nautical miles. The beacons and gas-buoy
lights have about 850 candle-power. White lights are used throughout;
and in order to eliminate the possibility of confusing the lights with one
another, and with the lights on shore, all range-lights, beacons and
buoys have individual characteristics, formed, by flashes and com-
binations of flashes of light and dark intervals. The electric lights
on the locks are suspended from brackets on concrete columns about
34 ft. high and are clustered under concrete hoods in such a way as to
light the lock chambers and not penetrate along the axis of the canal.
Breakwaters. Long breakwaters have been constructed near
the approach channels in both oceans. One in Limon Bay, or Colon
harbour, called the West Breakwater, extends into the bay from
Toro Point at an angle of 42 53' northward from a base-line drawn
from Toro Point to Colon light, and is 11,526 ft. in length, 15 ft.
wide at the top and 10 ft. above mean sea-level. A second, also in
Limon Bay, known as the East Breakwater, is without land connex-
ion, is about one m. in length and runs in an easterly direction at
nearly a right-angle with the canal channel. It has a lighthouse on
the channel end. The purpose of the West Breakwater is to protect
the harbour against " northers," very severe gales which are likely
to blow from Oct. to January. The purpose of the East Breakwater
is to prevent silting in the canal channel. The breakwater at the
Pacific entrance extends from Balboa to Naos Is., a distance of about
17,000 ft., or a little more than three miles. It lies from 900 to 2,700
ft. E. of, and for the greater part of the distance nearly parallel to.
the axis of the canal prism, varies from 20 to 40 ft. in height above
mean sea-level, and is from 50 to 3,000 ft. wide at the top. It was
constructed for a twofold purpose; first, to divert cross-currents that
would carry soft material from the shallow harbour of Panama into
the canal channel; second, to furnish rail connexion between the
islands and the mainland.
Permanent Canal Buildings. All permanent canal buildings, for
civil or military use, are of concrete, replacing the temporary struc-
PANAMA CANAL
tures which were of wood. The headquarters of the canal force are
in the large three-storey administration building, situated on a bluff
about 75 ft. above sea-level and overlooking the Pacific entrance to
the canal. Near this are the governor's residence and the dwellings
of the other officials. On the plain below, which was formerly a
swamp and was raised to an elevation of 20 ft. above sea-level by
material from the Cut and hydraulic fill from excavation for ter-
minal structures at Balboa, there is a town composed of concrete
buildings erected after the canal had been completed. The buildings
are arranged on either side of a central avenue. They include dwell-
ings for different types of employees, a police station, post-office, fire
station, chief sanitary office, dispensary, telephone building, club-
house, hotel, lodge hall, schoolhouse and playground, church and
commissary. All are of concrete blocks with roofs of red tiles, and
of the same general style of architecture, and are connected with one
another by a continuous arcade as protection against sun and rain.
Terminal^ Facilities. In both oceans have been constructed ter-
minal facilities adequate for the naval, military and commercial
needs of the United States and attractive to the shipping of the world.
Systems of concrete piers 1,000 ft. inlength, withdocksand wharves
and sheds of concrete, have been built. On the Pacific side is a con-
crete dry-dock on a rock foundation, with a usable length of 1 ,000 ft.
and an entrance width of 1 10 ft., and a subsidiary dock for vessels of
a smaller type with a usable length of 350 ft. and an entrance width of
80 feet. There are also large repair shops of ample capacity to meet
all demands. Dry-docks and machine shops are situated behind
Sosa Hill and thus protected against naval bombardment. Basins
of concrete for the storage of coal have been constructed below the
water-line on both oceans, some of which are available for leasing to
private coaling companies, all handling to be done by the U.S.
Government plant. A fixed supply of coal for the United States
naval use is maintained. From a single plant supplies of oil, food
and other necessities are furnished to all vessels desiring them, as
well as to the canal forces. A high-power wireless telegraph station
is situated midway of the Isthmus, under the jurisdiction of the Navy
Department, but open to the public under Government regulations.
Fortifications and Military Occupation: The Canal Zone is a
military reservation by Act of Congress. Fortifications have been
built in the oceans at both ends of the canal, and a military force of
about 10,000 men is maintained. Concrete barracks have been
erected at both terminals, and adjoining the locks.
Canal Administration. Under an Act of Congress, approved
Aug. 24 1912, the Panama Canal is governed and operated and the
Canal Zone is governed through a governor of the Panama Canal,
appointed by the president, with the advice and consent of the
Senate, for a term of four years, and until his successor shall be
appointed and qualified, at a salary of $10,000 a year. In addition
to the operation of the canal, the governor has official control and
jurisdiction over the Canal Zone and performs all duties in connexion
with its civil government, it being held, treated and governed as an
adjunct to the canal. There is one U.S. District Court in the Canal
Zone, with the same jurisdiction and procedure as the same courts
in the United States, the j udge of which is appointed by the president.
Appeals are made to the Circuit Court of Appeals of the Fifth Circuit
of the United States. In each town there is a magistrate's court, the
judges being appointed by the governor. They have jurisdiction
only within their towns and over minor cases. General Goethals was
the first governor and served till Jan. II 1917, when he resigned and
was succeeded by Col. Chester Harding, U.S.A., who held the office
till Jan. II 1921, when he was succeeded by Col. Jay J. Morrow,
U.S.A.
Canal Zone Population. \ census of the Canal Zone, taken in
1920, showed a total pop. of about 30,000 of which 21,650 were
civilians and the remainder military. There were 3,434 male and
360 female American citizens; 5,652 male and 74 female aliens; the
remaining 12,000 were mainly natives and transient West Indians.
Canal Force. The average working force of the canal was in 1920
about 21,000, of which about 3,500 were Americans, chiefly in official
and clerical positions, and the others alien labourers, mainly West
Indian negroes. The apparent discrepancy between these figures and
those of the Canal Zone census is due to the fact that many of the
labourers live in the cities of Panama and Colon, which are not
within the Canal Zone.
Tolls. The Hay-Pauncefote treaty between Great Britainand the
United States, abrogating and succeeding the Clayton-Bulwer
treaty, was ratified on Dec. 16 1901. It contained this clause:
"The canal shall be free and open to the vessels of commerce
and of war of all nations observing these rules, on terms of entire
equality, so that there shall be no discrimination against any such
nation, or its citizens or subjects, in respect of the conditions or
charges of traffic or otherwise. Such conditions and charges of
traffic shall be just and equitable."
In 1912 Congress passed an Act for the operation and government
of the Panama Canal, which was approved by President Taft on
Aug. 24 of that year, and which contained the provision that " no
tolls shall be levied upon vessels engaged in the coastwise trade of
the United States." A formal protest against this exemption was
made by Great Britain on the ground that it was a violation of the
Hay-Pauncefote treaty. In June 1914, under a special appeal from
President Wilson, Congress passed a bill which repealed the Exemp-
tion Act of 1912. This was approved by President Wilson on June
15 1914. Under authority given to him by the Panama Canal Act
of Aug. 24 1912, President Wilson issued a proclamation on Nov. 21
1913, fixing the canal tolls at $1.20 per net ton of net capacity as
determined by the United States national rules of measurement.
On Feb. 15 1915 President Wilson issued supplementary instructions
that where application of the $i.2o-per-net-tonrate produced a sum in
excess of the sum produced by the application of the $1.25 rate on
net registered tonnage as determined by the United States rules of
measurement, the excess amount should be uncollectable. The
effect of this ruling was to reduce by approximately 14% the revenue
from tolls paid by ships of all nationalities using the canal. During
the first six years of operation there was a marked increase in traffic
through the canal notwithstanding the fact that the World War
everywhere prevented the normal development of ocean-going
commerce. After the entry of the United States into the war there
was a decrease in commercial traffic, due to the diversion of certain
lines of ships to trans-Atlantic service, which was more than offset
by the increase in traffic growing out of the war, chiefly on account
of the development of the nitrate trade with the Pacific coast of
South America.
Canal Traffic. The number of commercial transits, the amount
received from tolls and other collections, and the current expenses
of maintenance and operation for the fiscal years ending June 30
1915-20 are shown in the following table:
Fiscal Year
Number
of com-
mercial
transits
Tolls and
other
revenues
Current ex-
penses of
operation and
maintenance
1915
1916 . . .
1917 . . .
1918 . . .
1919 . . .
1920 . . .
1,072
760
1, 806
2,068
2,028
2,478
?4,343,383-69
2,558,542-38
5,808,398.70
6,411,843.28
6,354,016.98
8,035,871-57
$4,123,128.09
6,909,750. IS
6,788,047.60
5,920,342.94
6,112,194.77
6,548,272.43
For the same period the number of canal transits by government
vessels exempted from tolls and the total tonnage of cargo carried
were as follows for each fiscal year :
Fiscal
Year
Number
of
Vessels
Cargo
Tons
Fiscal
Year
Number
of
Vessels
Cargo
Tons
1915
1916
1917
16
43 '
IOO
43,647
76,675
147,405
1918
1919
1920
112
179
267
36,746
93-641
351,332
Over 25 % of the cargo handled through the canal, from its opening
to the end of the fiscal year 1920, was in transit between the United
States and South America, and -14-1 % was between the Atlantic coast
of the United States and the Orient. Among nations the chief users
of the canal were the United States and Great Britain. The number
of vessels passed each year for these nations and for all other nations
was as follows:
Fiscal Year
United States
Great Britain
All other
nations
1915 . . .
1916 . . .
1917 . . .
1918 . . .
1919 . . .
1920 .
470
238
464
628
786
1,129
465
358
780
699
602
753
153
191
632
803
637
596
The following is the saving, in nautical miles, effected by the
Panama Canal from European ports to ports on the W. coast of
America, to Hawaii and to New Zealand.
From
To
Liver-
Ham-
Ant-
Bor-
Gibral-
pool
burg
werp
deaux
tar
Sitka, Alaska .
5,666
5,528
5,528
5,376
4,950
Port Townsend, Wash. .
5,666
5,528
5,528
5,376
4,950
Portland, Ore.
5,666
5,528
5,528
5,376
4,950
San Francisco, Cal. .
5,666
5,528
5,528
5,376
4,950
San Diego, Cal.
5,676
5,538
5,538
5,386
4,960
Acapulco, Mexico .
5,874
5-736
5,736
5,584
5,158
San Jose, Guatemala
6,128
5,990
5,990
5,838
5,412
Honolulu, Hawaii .
4,43
4-?65
4.265
4, 1 13
3,687
Guayaquil, Ecuador
5,198
5,o6o
5,060
4,908
4,482
Callao, Peru . .
4,043
3.905
3,905
3,753
3,327
Valparaiso, Chile
1,540
1,402
1,402
1,250
824
Wellington, N.Z. . .
1,564
1,409
1,409
1,257
489
The following is the saving, in nautical miles, effected by the
Panama Canal in length of all-water routes between ports of the
Atlantic-Gulf U.S. seaboard and various Pacific ports.
26
PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCES PAN-ISLAMISM
From
To
Bos-
ton
New
York
Nor-
folk
New
Orleans
Gal-
veston
Sitka, Alaska .
7,676
7,873
8,020
8,868
8,940
Portland, Ore. .
7,676
7,873
8,020
8,868
8,940
San Francisco, Cal.
7,676
7,873
8,020
8,868
8,940
San Diego, Cal.
7,686
7,883
8,030
8,878
8,950
Acapulco, Mexico .
7,884
8, 08 1
8,228
9,076
9,148
San Jose, Guatemala
8,138
8,335
8,482
9,330
9,402
Honolulu, Hawaii
6,413
6,610
6,757
7-605
7,677
Guayaquil, Ecuador
7,208
7,405
7,552
8,400
8,4/2
Callao, Peru
6,053
6,250
6,397
7-245
7,317
Valparaiso, Chile
3,55
3,747
3-894
4-742
4,814
Yokohama, Japan .
3-435
3,768
4,n6
5,705
5,777
Shanghai, China
1,543
1,876
2,224
3,8i3
3,885
Hong-Kong, China .
351
18
330
I,9'9
1,991
Manila, P. I. .
292
41
389
1,978
2,050
Adelaide, Australia .
1.483
1-746
2,000
3.258
3-330
Melbourne, Australia
2,507
2,770
3.024
4,282
4.354
Sydney, Australia .
3,669
3,932
4,186
5-444
5.516
Wellington, N. Z. .
2,296
2,493
2,640
3488
3.56o
See Joseph Bucklin Bishop, The Panama Gateway (1913, revised
edition 1915); George VV. Goethals, Government of the Canal Zone
(1915); W. L. Sibert and John VV. Stevens, The Construction of the
Panama Canal (1915); W. C. Gorgas, Sanitation in Panama (1915);
Joseph A. Le Prince and A. J. Orenstein, Mosquito Control in Panama
(1916) ; Annual Reports of the Governor of the Panama Canal.
(J- B. Bl.)
PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCES (see 20.671). The fourth
Pan-American Conference was held July 12 -Aug. 30 1910 in
Buenos Aires. Many questions involving the common interests
of all the American republics were discussed, including steam-
ship service, sanitation, copyright, patents and trade marks.
It was decided that the International Bureau of the American
Republics should henceforth be called the Pan-American Union.
The same year the Pan-American Union building in Washington
was dedicated; it had been erected through a gift of $750,000
from Andrew Carnegie and additional funds provided by the
various republics. During the three weeks following Dec. 25 1915
the second Pan-American Scientific Congress met in Washington.
Eduardo Suarez, Chilean ambassador to the United States,
presided. Among the speakers was President Wilson, who urged
friendly settlement of international disputes' by arbitration. The
Congress appointed an International High Commission, which
met at Buenos Aires in April 1916. Improvement and extension
of cable, telegraph and railway service between the countries
was urged. A permanent International High Commission was
estabh'shed to promote uniform commercial laws throughout Pan-
America. In Nov. 1918 a Pan-American Federation of Labor
Conference met at Laredo, Tex. Delegates were present from
the United States, Mexico and Central America. An influenza
epidemic interfered with South American attendance, Colombia
alone being represented. A permanent federation was organized.
Pan-American Child Welfare Congresses met at Montevideo,
Uruguay, in Dec. 1918 and in May 1919; at the second meeting
provisions were made for establishing at Montevideo an Inter-
national Bureau of Child Welfare. In June 1919 a Pan-American
Commercial Congress was held in Washington, and in the same
city in Jan. 1920 a Pan-American Financial Congress.
PAN-ISLAMISM. One of the results of the World War was
to bring into new prominence, in connexion with Turkey and the
Middle East, the movement known as Pan-Islamism, for unit-
ing the peoples who profess the Mahommedan religion under
one banner. The history of Pan-Islamism from 1910 onwards is
analyzed below.
i. Before the Italian War. The proclamation of the Ottoman
Constitution in 1908 seemed to cut at the root of Pan-Islamism,
since the idea of the former was to substitute for preexisting re-
ligious and national divisions an Ottoman nationality, wherein
the different communities of the empire should equally share.
Writers of the year 1909 show many reasons why the "Young
Turks" could never favour Pan-Islamism, which indeed they had
officially repudiated. It was pointed out that the more conserva-
tive Moslem nations of Africa would never approve a Sultan in
whose eyes all creeds were to be equal. By 1910 it was realized
that this prospect was chimerical; Tal'at Bey, Minister of the
Interior, in a speech delivered at Salonika on Aug. 6 of that year
at a private meeting of the Committee of Union and Progress,
asserted that, though according to the Constitution all Ottoman
subjects were equal before the law, such an order of things was
clearly impossible; this equality was in defiance of the Shariah
(religious code), and the Christians themselves had no desire to
become Ottomans. At the Salonika Congress of 1911 a definite
scheme of Pan-Islamic propaganda was adopted, and it was re-
solved that a congress of delegates from all the Moslem countries
of the world ought to meet annually in Constantinople to dis-
cuss questions of interest to all Moslems. Emissaries appear to
have been actually sent out during these years to win or to con-
firm adherents to the Ottoman Caliph wherever Moslems were
subject to Europeans, even to remote parts of Africa, including
Morocco; others worked among the Moslems of China. These
missions seem to have been fairly effective, as a Pan-Islamic writer
asserts that the khulbah (Friday sermon) continued to be pro-
nounced in the name of the Ottoman Caliph in Tunis in spite of
French objection; and that when, in 1912, a republic was pro-
claimed in China the Chinese Moslems signified their adhesion
on condition that the rights of the Ottoman Caliph were not
infringed thereby.
Attempts were also made to deal with the old difficulty which
had confronted Pan-Islamism, the schism between Sunnah and
Shi'ah. Early in 1911 a letter was published by a number of
Ottoman and Persian jurists assembled at Nejef, asserting that
there was no difference of principle between the two sects and
urging cooperation between the two empires, Persia being at
that time, it was supposed, menaced by England and Russia.
The Agha Khan, head of a sect so heretical that 'Abdul Hamid II.
had declined to admit him to an audience, made a tour in India
to advocate the claims of a Moslem university. Articles advocat-
ing union appeared in various Sunni and Shi'i journals; indeed,
the Moslem press as a whole was Pan-Islamic.
Nevertheless, as early as 1910 prominence had been given to a
new antithesis, which may be said to have ultimately wrecked
the schemes for reunion of the Moslem communities. In that
year the Constantinople journal Iqdam, an organ of the Commit-
tee, adopted a tone unfriendly to the Arabs, whom it charged
with readiness to sell their honour for gold- an accusation vehe-
mently resented in the Arabic-speaking countries. But in fact
the seeds of dissension between the Turkish and Arab elements
in the Ottoman Empire had been sown in the Constitution, in
Art. 68, par. 10 of which it is enacted that after the expiration
of a period of four years a condition of eligibility to the Chamber
of Deputies shall be ability to read and write Turkish. This rule
definitely aimed at making Turkish the language of the empire;
and in the resolutions in favour of Pan-Islamic propaganda the en-
couragement of the study of Turkish was recommended. The
true Pan-Islamic view was that Arabic should be the common
language of Islam; some, indeed, suggested that the empire
should be bilingual, with Turkish for its secular and Arabic for its
religious language; in any case, that every Moslem should learn
Arabic in addition to any idiom which happened to be his mother
tongue. Journals were started in the Turkish and Arabic inter-
ests respectively ; the latter were represented in Constantinople
by one called at first Sirat Mustaqim, afterwards Sabil al-Rashad.
The Committee of Union and Progress more and more inclined
to the Turkish side and to the substitution of Pan-Turanianism
for the Ottoman nationality. In the races subject to the Russian
Empire and speaking different varieties of Turkish they found
their natural allies; and for these the Ottoman literature could
count as classical, being in any case far superior to anything of
their own. This policy of Turkification involved the Committee
in wars in Albania, the Hauran and S. Arabia; they planned
treating the Arab parts of the empire as colonies, to be ruled from
Constantinople without the right of sending deputies to the Cham-
ber; and they were charged with the design of disarming all
Moslems in the empire except the Turks, and with advocating
neglect of the ritual of Islam. Where military exercises interfered
with religious the latter were to give way; devout officers were,
it is said, dismissed and replaced by free-thinkers.
PAN-ISLAMISM
2. The Italian War. To some extent this split was retarded
by European aggression, which may be said to have culminated
in 191 1. The interference of Great Britain and Russia in Persia
and the French scheme for governing Morocco as a protectorate
had made it clear that Turkey was the only Islamic state which
could compete with the European Powers on anything like equal
terms. The Italian attack on Tripoli in Sept. of that year evoked
widespread sympathy with Turkey among the Islamic commu-
nities. The Javanese press, e.g., made no secret of its desire to
see Turkey triumph, and the Mahommedan press of Egypt
warmly espoused the side of Turkey. At a meeting held in Kabul
the Amir of Afghanistan took part in a demonstration in favour
of the Turks, and in India money was collected for their assist-
ance. Care, indeed, had been taken by Italy to avoid all ap-
pearance of an attack on Islam itself, and the Pope himself
warned Christian soldiers against considering the campaign as a
crusade; but to the Moslem, Christian and European are not
very clearly distinguished, and it was plausibly argued that Eu-
rope was not now satisfied with protecting Christians within the
Ottoman Empire, but had resolved on partitioning that empire
among non-Moslem Powers. In proclamations issued in Con-
stantinople the Sultan whose dominions were thus attacked was
described as the legitimate ruler of 300 million Moslems (swelled
by some journalist to 400 million), and a demand was raised for
the restoration of his arbitrary powers.
Islam was not united on this occasion in the defence of the
Ottoman Caliph, for while the Iman of San'a ceased hostilities,
the Idrisi chieftain in Asir favoured the Italians. On the other
hand, the Turks had the cooperation of the Senussis, who in the
preceding century had kept aloof from their quarrels. The Com-
mittee of Union and Progress is said to have been astonished at
the amount of sympathy which the cause of Turkey had evoked,
having expected, e.g., that the Tripolitans would be indifferent
to the change of rule, whereas they in fact stubbornly resisted
the invaders. The Committee in consequence proceeded to
make certain concessions to Arab sentiment, without, it is said,
actually altering their policy. A beneficent Islamic society was
founded in Constantinople, under the patronage of the heir appar-
ent, chiefly with Egyptian money; and an attempt was made to
found a Moslem university in Medina. Schemes were started
for promoting the study of Arabic under efficient instructors;
and there were authoritative pronouncements that racial differ-
ences in the Ottoman Empire need not be suppressed.
3. The Balkan War and its Consequences. This war, which
broke out in Oct. 1912, demonstrated the military weakness of
Turkey, though the recovery of Adrianople after the Armistice
was greeted with telegrams of congratulation from all parts of the
Moslem world. Clearly, however, up to this point Pan-Islamism
had failed in its original design, that of arresting the progress of
European aggression and eventually restoring Islamic rule in
Asia and Africa. It had, however, aroused fairly general sym-
pathy with Turkey and perhaps brought home to many Moslems
the idea that someone claiming to be their Caliph existed. Sub-
scriptions to the national defence fund of the Ottoman Empire
flowed in from various quarters; owing to the efforts of a deputy
of the Duma, Tas-pula 'Abdul Jalil Oghlu, the Moslems of Sam-
arkand sent a handsome subscription in Aug. 1913; and in Bos-
nia, which had quite lately formed part of the empire, the opinion
was said to be general that the ruin of Turkey would be an im-
mense disaster from the religious point of view. From this
region, too, sums of money were sent to the Red Crescent and the
national defence fund. In May the Moslems of Delhi sent the
sum of 1,600 to the Ottoman Minister of Finance for the hous-
ing of immigrants who had lost their homes in the recent war.
Subscriptions were also promised from Java and the Malay
States. The talk about the need for union between Moslems
was renewed in the Moslem press throughout the world; notably
in the Habl al-Matin, a Pan-Islamic journal in the Persian lan-
guage published in Calcutta; and societies with the object of
either spreading Islam or producing unity among Moslems were
founded in different regions; e.g. a jam'iyyat al-itlifaq, "Society
of Concord," founded in Muscat, a khariji state. An anjuman-
i-himaya-i-Islam, " Society for the Defence of Islam," of Auck-
land, California, is also mentioned.
The language used by journalists caused some apprehension
to the European governments responsible for great numbers of
Moslems, and complaints were made that in the Islamic terri-
tories of Russia the charge of Pan-Islamism was easily leveled and
resulted in frustrating the efforts that were being made for spread-
ing education. The Islamic reactionaries, who dreaded the
modern learning, obtained the imprisonment of modernisr teach-
ers by informing the authorities that the latter were engaged
in Pan-Islamic propaganda. Any Moslem who took in the jour-
nals of Cairo or Constantinople, or had studied in either of those
cities, was suspected of pursuing these schemes. On the other
hand, the plan pursued by the imperial government in its scheme
for enforced education was the Russification of all its subjects.
One member of the Duma, Sadr ad Din Maqsudoff, had some
years before defended his co-religionists from the charge of Pan-
Islamism which the Moslem schemes for education had incurred;
while claiming that the Russian Moslems were loyal to the
Government, he maintained that their nationality was Islam.
In Syria and Mesopotamia nationalism at this time was de-
veloping, and Pan-Islamism making little way.
Two works issued in Constantinople in the year 1913 illustrate
the ideas of Moslem publicists on the phase which the question
had now assumed.
One of these is the Ittihad al-Islam (" Unity of Islam " or " Pan-
Islamism ") of Jalal Nuri Bey, of sufficient importance to be
translated into Arabic in 1920, seven years after its first appear-
ance. In the face of the weakness displayed by Turkey in her
last wars it was no longer advisable to demand a general uprising
of Islamic peoples to free themselves from European oppression;
hence the author, while anticipating yet further defeats and
losses, substitutes for a plan of cooperation a vague hope, to
which Moslems should cling. This hope is not confined to pro-
ceedings in Islamic areas.
He hopes that China and Japan will become cordial friends
and so prevent the further spread of European domination in
Asia; and thinks that the republican Government of China will
be better for the Moslems there than the imperial Government
had been. He thinks that the Arabic-speaking people of Africa
and Asia will one day form -a single state, without indicating what
the relation of that state to the Ottoman Empire is to be; the
older Pan-Islamism had on the whole favoured " decentralization,"
i.e., a confederation of Moslem countries under Ottoman hege-
mony. He advises the English to bestow on their Asiatic posses-
sions the status of Canada or Australia, as in that case the inhab-
itants will cooperate cordially against their enemies.
In the matter of the sectarian divisions of Islam, which from
the first have rendered Pan-Islamism impracticable, this writer's
method is to some extent drastic: the minor sects in the Otto-
man Empire (i.e. probably the Zeidis, Isma'ilis, Nuseiris, etc.)
should be wiped out. In the case of the more important Shi'ah
sect his advice is that the Moslem should forget that he is a
Sunni or a Shi'i and remember only that he is a Moslem. This
probably means that the Shi'is, who are in a minority, should
abandon their system in favour of the other.
While asserting the superiority of Islam morally to Christian-
ity as practised in Europe, he is anxious that European science
should be adopted and its methods assimilated; and he advises
the adoption of the distinction between the civil and the religious
code, to the unification of which he attributes the decadence of
Islam. Education should, he holds, be taken out of the hands of
religious authorities and be secularized ; thus mediaeval scholas-
ticism will be abolished. What concerns the conscience should be
left to religion, whereas commercial affairs should be regulated
by codes which admit of improvement. These doctrines are so
unorthodox that his Arabic translator has occasionally to register
a protest. They look like Pan-Islamism with the Islam omitted.
This writer repeatedly speaks of the Moslems as a nation of
300 million individuals attached to each other by a bond of
unique strength ; indeed, the phrase Union of Islam is, he thinks,
tautologous, as the word Islam of itself implies union. Whatever
28
PAN-ISLAMISM
may be the truth of this as a theory, it is confirmed neither by
ancient nor by modern practice. Some writers, in general favour-
able to Islam, speak of dissension and civil war as unavoidable in
Moslem communities; and doubtless this has led to that loss of
political power which gave rise to the Pan-Islamic movement.
The work called Qaum Jadid (" The New Nation "), by Ubaid-
alla Efendi, formerly member for Aidin, and at one time editor
of an anti-Arabian journal in Arabic, which appeared about the
same time, perhaps in the main advocated the same ideas, only
it was far more outspoken. It demanded that every Moslem
should give half his wealth to the Ottoman treasury in order to
enable it to muster forces capable of recovering its lost provinces;
anyone who declined to make this sacrifice was to be considered
an apostate. Its idea of Islam was somewhat loose there was
no occasion to study Arabic, as the Friday sermon might be de-
livered in Turkish, and the Qur'an and other sacred books might
be translated. The Sacred War was a duty incumbent on all
Moslems, and such of them as lived contentedly under non-
Moslem rulers were apostates, for by pleasing unbelievers they
offended God. All Moslems in Ottoman countries who failed
to enlist under the banner of the party of Union and Progress
were to be regarded as apostates; as such the Albanians were to
be branded. To follow the ritual prescribed in the books of
the orthodox jurists was unlawful, for the new school had de-
duced five principles from the Qur'an. These were: i, reason;
2, the Moslem formula of faith; 3, good character; 4, the duty
of fighting with person and wealth; 5, that of striving to furnish
the requisites of war by uniting under the banner of the Caliph.
Little could in fact be hoped from attempts to rouse men to
make great sacrifices in the cause of Islam when all which consti-
tutes Islam to the ordinary believer is abandoned; and Mr. Wy-
man Bury, in his acute analysis of the causes which militate
against Pan-Islamism, gives the first place to the contempt shown
by the Turks for the ordinances which Islam holds sacred. " Even
before the war," he says, " Yemen Arabs talked of Turks and Mos-
lems, a distinctly damning discrimination." The Turkish procliv-
ity towards European dress and civilization, which he regards as
another source of weakness, is scarcely to be distinguished from
this, though the antithesis between civilization and its absence
is to be found in other Moslem countries; and the Pan-Islamic
encouragement of education as Europeans understand it, while
in appearance rendering the movement formidable, has also
rendered it suspect to large multitudes who would gladly emulate
the ancient Islamic heroes. For the Islamic cult, which is thus so
altered as to be unrecognizable, the Pan-Turanians endeavour to
substitute a national ideal with a set of heroes, largely pagan,
who are to displace the Prophet's family and the Four Pious
Caliphs as objects of general reverence. This disrespect is nat-
urally resented by Arab and other non-Turkish Moslems.
The former of the works described is far more characteristic
than the latter of the general tone of Pan-Islamic journalism. It
is full of accusations against the European Powers in control of
Islamic territories, charging them with oppressing the Moslems,
depriving them of elementary human rights, sowing dissension
among them, and the like; yet rarely able to bring evidence jus-
tifying these charges, and compelled to ignore the fact that the
Moslems prosper far more in countries protected by Europeans
than where they are left to themselves. Its great hero is the
Ottoman Sultan Selim I., whose chief title to fame is that he
fought against and overthrew another Islamic sultanate, that of
Egypt, and forcibly incorporated various Islamic countries in the
Ottoman Empire. In places it is asserted that the unity of Is-
lam is an undeniable fact wherewith Europe is confronted; in
others, that the troubles of Islam are all due to its divisions.
Hence the vagueness of both aim and method which character-
ized the earlier Pan-Islamism is conspicuous in this statement;
and many a prophecy is uttered with regard to the future of
European states which the years following its publication have
falsified. To the latter work the term Pan-Islamism can scarcely
be applied. Its programme is indeed clear enough a general
revolt of all Moslems against their European rulers in order to
swell the armies of the Ottomans, the Ottomans meanwhile
practically abandoning Islam. The summing-up of the situation
in Arabia by Mr. Wyman Bury in 1914 would hold good of many
other Islamic lands: " The Arab still acknowledges the Sultan
as Caliph, but repudiates the Ottoman Government and all its
works." Some Moslems of Java threatened to abandon the
khutbah to the Sultan if the ideas of the Turkish extremists
materialized. And indeed Pan-Islamism at this stage contained
no practical formula which any but Turks would adopt.
4. Pan-Islamism during the World War (/p/^-ip/S). Shortly
after the Turkish Empire entered the war on the side of the
German alliance the Grand Mufti declared & jihad, summoning
all Moslems to arms in defence of their faith. General Liman
von Sanders asserts that this call was absolutely without response ;
the reason, he holds, being that the pretext was obviously false,
inasmuch as Turkey was itself in alliance with non-Moslem
Powers and, indeed, fighting for their benefit and under their
command. He quotes an Itajian minister for the statement that
the call was absolutely neglected by the Moslems of Tripoli.
Further, the French Government issued a counterblast in a
collection of expressions of loyalty from Moslem authorities of
the French African Empire (Collection de la Revue du Monde
Musulman, 1915, 1916, called Le Salut au Drapeau, in the Eng-
lish edition Honour to the Flag), wherein all Moslems are called
upon to fight for France. The call seems to have been issued
half-heartedly, even within the Ottoman dominions. When the
official at the Mosque of Damascus had to proclaim the Sacred
War from its pulpit, seeing a group of German officers among the
congregation he said: " I am ordered to proclaim jihad. A. jihad
is, as you know, a Holy War to protect our Holy Places against
infidels. This being so, what are those infidel pigs doing in our
mosque ? " This story is told by Mr. Wyman Bury (Pan-Islam,
1919, p. 81), who adds: " Those who forged the blade of this
counterfeit jihad could not temper it in the flame of religious
fervour, and it shattered against the shield of religious tolerance
and good faith."
Doubtless the most serious blow which the unity of Islam re-
ceived during the war was the entry into it of the Sherif of Mecca
on the British side in 1916. The Sherif in his proclamations
(published in his organ, the Qihla, and reprinted in the Manar,
vol. xix.) made it clear that his quarrel was not with the Ottoman
Empire, but only with the Party of Union and Progress, who had
reproduced the worst atrocities of the Umayyads by firing at the
House of God and slaughtering worshippers. As, however, this
party represented the Ottoman Government, this act produced
a definite division in Islam which is unlikely ever to be repaired.
Uncertain as the sense to be attached to the title Caliph has or-
dinarily been, the idea has on the whole prevailed that he should
have control of the sanctuaries and the access to them; there
seems no means of devising a formula which should combine a
Turkish Caliphate with an independent Hejaz. On the other
hand, the removal of Turkish rule from Arabia, to which the
events which followed the secession of the Hcjaz led, has done
little or nothing to realize the dream of Jalal Nuri of an empire
embracing all the speakers of Arabic. The establishment of the
Hejaz kingdom probably on the whole accentuated the sectarian
differences which were already rife in the peninsula. A mission
was indeed sent by the Emperor of Morocco to the Sherif of
Mecca to congratulate him on his assertion of independence; but
the legal authority who accompanied it gave it as his opinion
that where Islamic countries were at a great distance from each
other there was no objection to their being subject to different
Imams; Morocco had at no time recognized the Eastern Cali-
phate, in whosesoever possession it happened to be; the indepen-
dence of the Sherif therefore in no way affected the Moroccan
Caliphate. Moreover, the history of Islam attested the frequent
coexistence of numerous Caliphs (Revue du Monde Musulman,
xxxiv., 1917-8, p. 140). The rise of this new power in the sanc-
tuaries was not therefore to furnish a new principle of unity for
Islam; it only helped to get rid of that round which the old Pan-
Islamic ideas had been grouped.
In lieu of this there is some Pan-Arabian agitation; such at
least is the purpose of a violent diatribe reprinted in the Manar
PAN-TURANIANISM
29
for August 1919 from an Arabic newspaper appearing in Brazil
called Suriyyah al-J adidah ("New Syria "), for the preceding
May, wherein the author urges the Arabs to unite and emulate
the exploits of the early heroes of Islam. Apparently he contem-
plates an Arab federation, to be governed by an assembly which
is to meet at one of " the great Arabian cities," with home rule
for the separate states. This orator names the Turks with the
English and the French among the oppressors of the Arabs,
whence his proposed confederation is evidently not intended to
include any who are not Arabs by race or adoption; and indeed
he traces the servitude of the Arabs to the practice of the Abbasid
Caliphs, who relied on Persian and Turkish retainers in lieu
of depending on Arab forces exclusively. In addition to this he
traces their downfall to the personal ambition of the Arabs, each
one of whom aspires to be chief. Probably this is in the main in-
tended as anti-French propaganda; but it would seem that quite
early in the war some persons had aimed at establishing a union
between the various states in Arabia itself, to be extended into
the neighbouring countries with a view to resist the enforced
Turkification with which they were threatened. It failed to
materialize because the Sherif of Mecca had reasons for refusing
to join it, and the course of the war by no means tended to allay
divisions between the states of Arabia; indeed, in July 1918 the
King of the Hejaz issued a proclamation declaring the Wahabis
infidels and urging his subjects to resist them with force. This
conflict " wounded the heart of every Arab who desired the unity
of his race and every Moslem who disliked discord between his
co-religionists."
The attempts that have been made during these years in other
Islamic countries to propagate the idea of a Moslem union seem
to have been ordinarily similar to those which preceded the Otto-
man Constitution. They consist largely in the encouragement of
education, and the founding of societies and journals whose pur-
pose is to keep the Moslems together, and to maintain some sort
of relations with their co-religionists in other parts of the
world. Certain countries, indeed, appear to have been outside
the reach of such efforts; and there are some wherein if attempted
they have been unsuccessful. The general result of the war
would seem to be to show that the Pan-Islamic idea was doomed
to disappointment from the first. The European Powers against
whom it was directed England, France, Russia and afterwards
Italy received during the course of it great proofs of loyalty
and attachment from their Moslem subjects; and even if we
do not take every protestation at its face value, it seems clear
that there was little sense of unity with the Turks on the ground
of common religion on the part of these populations, in which,
on the contrary, the sense of patriotism to the empires within
which they are incorporated had been developed. The proc-
lamation of a jihad with no response shows that the time for
the employment of that instrument has passed, if indeed it
was ever effective; the insertion of the Ottoman Sultan's name
in the khutbah of so many peoples, to whom he was unknown,
no more made him their real ruler in this century than that of
an Abbasid in the loth or isth century secured for the Caliph
any real power. Possibly the call attracted attention to the
nature of and qualifications for the Caliphate, a subject which
the Ottomans were imprudent in bringing to the forefront.
This is not, indeed, the view of some Moslems in India, who
have established an All-India Caliphate Committee, with a
series of publications on the Question of the Caliphate. The first
of this series contains the presidential address of " Maulana Abul-
Kalam," purporting to have been delivered at the provincial
Caliphate Conference held in Calcutta Feb. 28 and 29, 1920.
This treatise presents the most bellicose aspect of Pan-Islamism,
and differs little from the Qaum Jadid described above. The jihad,
according to it, is the primary duty of the Moslem; if the Turks
are apt to be lax in their ritual, it must be remembered that for
centuries they alone maintained the jihad, at a time when the
Indian Moslems were enjoying peace and security. An endeav-
our is made to show that ever since the time of Sultan Selim I.
the Caliphate of the Ottoman Sultan has been generally recog-
nized. It is argued that there can be only one Caliph, and that
it is the duty of every Moslem to be his obedient subject; and
in particular to aid him in repelling invasions by unbelievers of
Islamic territory and expelling them where they are already in
possession; Islamic territory would appear to include the whole
inhabited world. At the least the author claims that Arabia,
Palestine and Iraq are the property of the Ottoman Sultan,
which must be restored to him if the sentiments of the Moslems
are not to be wounded. The Indian Caliphate Delegation sent
to London went so far as to demand the cession of all the Euro-
pean lands which the Ottomans had ever occupied.
Ideas of this sort not always carried to these lengths are
expressed by various authors and journalists in India, few of
whose names are known in Europe. The best known of those
who are claimed as advocates of them is probably the poet and
philosopher Mohammed Iqbal, M.A., Ph.D. See this writer's
Secrets of the Self, transl. R. A. Nicholson, London, 1920.
5. After the War. To what extent we can speak of Pan-Islam-
ism since the Armistice is not clear. On the one hand it is evident
that the occupation of Constantinople by foreign forces and
the redaction of the Ottoman Empire to a comparatively small
area have produced a feeling of depression among the Islamic
peoples, who can no longer look with confidence to a great Islamic
Power as the natural leader in some scheme for the recovery
of hegemony in Asia and Africa; on the other hand, the feud
between Sunnah and Shi'ah shows no signs of healing, and
though an Arabian Caliphate may not yet have been formally
proclaimed, the severance of the Arabs from the Turks appears
to have been definitely concluded. Even within the Ottoman
system there is at this moment a schism, since the authority in
power at Angora acts independently of the Caliph of Constanti-
nople, and appears to rely on Turanian support, so far as it ob-
tains any from Islamic peoples; while its endeavour to obtain
support from Bolshevism is calculated to wound the sentiment
of orthodox Islam, which is far removed from the principles of
that system. Further, it would appear that the tendency of
recent events has been to emphasize nationalism, and create a
desire in the various Arabic-speaking countries for complete
independence rather than for absorption in an Islamic empire,
even on the condition of decentralization, which was the catch-
word of the old Pan-Islamism. A Pan-Islamic tendency may per-
haps be found in the Indian Caliphate agitation, but, even if it
be taken at its face value, it is clear that it is making demands
for the Ottoman Caliph which his former subjects do not back,
and many who have made sacrifices for this idea have found no
encouragement from Islamic rulers who at one time were sup-
posed to recognize this title.
Conjectures are indeed at times put forward concerning the
existence of agencies organizing simultaneous outbreaks in
different Islamic countries against their European protectors;
such may certainly exist, but the results hitherto achieved indi-
cate little in the way of cooperation or clearness of aim; and in-
deed 'Abdul Hamid II., who gave some encouragement to the
Pan-Islamic idea, which was that Turkey should lead a jihad
against the European possessors of Islamic countries, does not
appear himself to have entertained such a project, though he
thought the fear of it might help him in checking European in-
terference with his internal government. The governments which
have followed have probably hoped for greater results, but have
obtained very much less, being unable either to maintain the
independence of Moslem states outside their empire or to pre-
serve the integrity of that empire itself. It would seem then that
Pan-Islamism, should it again acquire importance, must seek
some other point d'appui than the Ottoman Empire; but only the
future can tell whether such a point d'appui will be found.
AUTHORITIES. Revue du Monde Musulman (1911-1919); al-
Manar (Cairene monthly) (1328-1338 A.H.); G. Wyraan Bury,
Arabia Infelix (London, 1915) and Pan-Islam (1919); R. Pinon,
L'Europe et la Jeune Turquie (Paris, 1911). (D. S. M.*)
PAN-TURANIANISM. Only a few years before the outbreak
of the World War in 1914, a new political movement came into
prominence in Constantinople. The awakening of a Turkish
national consciousness began to aim at the purification of the
PAN-TURANIANISM
60
FINNO-UGRIAN!
SAMOYEDS
TUFKO-TATARS
TUN6US
MONGOLS
DISTRIBUTION OF TURANIAN PEOPLES
I C I D
J_
Turkish language by the expulsion of all foreign elements,
especially Persian anU Arabic, and the establishment of a civiliza-
tion based entirely on old Turkish traditions. In this movement
Ziya Bey, Shinassi Bey, and Namik Kemal Bey were particularly
active. The researches of the Academy of Turkish Science,
established after the Young Turk revolution, dealing with the
original home and the pre-Mahommedan history of the Turks,
were then artificially utilized greatly to widen the scope of the
Turkish national movement. The goal was now the formation of
a powerful and independent union of all the peoples of the world
kindred to the Osmanli Turks and alleged to embrace a popula-
tion of 50,000,000 (about double the actual number of those
speaking Turkish dialects). For the national designation " Turk"
was now to be substituted the more comprehensive " Turanian,"
and the Mahommedan crescent was to be abandoned for the pre-
Mahommedan Turkish wolf as a racial emblem. Turkish writers
began to speak of their ideal fatherland, their Turania, the
cradle of their nation, and the home of their race. The poet
Ziya Gok Alp, called by a countryman " the great Apostle of
Turanianism," celebrates Attila, Jenghiz and Oghuz Khan as
heroic figures that stand for the proud fame of his race, and
describes the fatherland of the Turks not as Turkey or Turk-
estan, but as the "broad eternal land of Turania." This wider
movement involves a policy of Irredentism which aspires not
only to stimulate by moral and intellectual propaganda a feeling of
racial unity among the kindred peoples, but under favourable cir-
cumstances to free those peoples from foreign rule. Curiously
enough, the circumstances since the conclusion of the war seem
to be more favourable to the realization of this ideal than they
were before its outbreak. It is an ideal that is not likely to disap-
pear, for its fulfilment is the only remaining prospect for Turkey
of expansion as compensation for the great territorial losses that
empire has sustained in recent times.
It now becomes necessary to inquire what possibilities this
somewhat vague term Pan-Turanianism implies. The earliest
form of the name " Turanian " occurs perhaps about 800 B.C. in
the Avesta, the sacred book of Zoroastrianism, as Tura, to desig-
nate a country which was contiguous to Iran (Persia) and the
inhabitants of which were in constant conflict with the Iranians.
It is met with again about A.D. 1000 in the Shahname or Book of
Kings, of the Persian poet Firdusi as Turan, the country beyond
the Oxus (now the Amu Darya). Persian sources show that the
ancient Turan (Turania) corresponded roughly to the Russian
Turkestan of to-day. In the second half of the igth century
" Turanian " came to be used as a loose designation of Asiatic
languages that were neither Aryan nor Semitic, and to be simi-
larly applied in a racial sense to the nomadic peoples speaking
those languages, as opposed to the agricultural Aryans. The
term has more recently become synonymous with " Altaic " or
"Ural-Altaic." "Turanian" is here treated in this definite sense.
Having spread in prehistoric times from the Altai mountains
in the centre of Asia, this ethnic family at the present day occu-
pies a broad belt of territory extending from Thrace across Asia
to the sea of Japan and reaching from about 35 N. lat. to the
coast of the Arctic Ocean. It consists of five main branches, the
Samoyeds, the Finno-Ugrians and the Tunguses constituting the
northern, and the Mongols and the Turks the southern division.
The countries inhabited by the Turanians are Siberia, Mongolia,
Manchuria, Chinese and Russian Turkestan, Asia Minor, parts of
Persia and Afghanistan, the Caucasus, the Crimea, the Volga
and Pechora regions of eastern Russia, Lapland, Finland, Hun-
gary, and portions of the Balkans.
Down to the outbreak of the World War all the Turanian
peoples* were subject to foreign (Russian, Chinese, Persian,
Afghan) domination except the Magyars and the Osmanli Turks.
Only those sections of the Turanians that have come into close
contact with the Aryans of Europe have succeeded in rising from
their primitive state to a comparatively advanced degree of civil-
ization: the Finns, the Magyars and the Osmanli Turks.
The Turanians in Europe number in round figures 22,000,000:
10,000,000 Magyars; 6,000,000 Samoyeds and Finns; and 6,000,-
ooo Turks. In Asia there are 26,000,000: 115,000 Finns, Samo-
PAN-TURANIANISM
yeds. and Tunguses, all in Siberia; 6,000,000 Manchus, Mongols
and Turks, all until recently under Chinese rule; 8.200,000 Turks
in Asiatic Russia; 3,500,000 in Persia and Afghanistan; and
8,000,000 Osmanli Turks in Asia Minor. The Turks in Russia
are usually called Tatars, and those elsewhere outside the Turk-
ish Empire, Turco-Tatars. Their language is the most charac-
teristic feature of the Turanians. As contrasted with the highly
inflexional Indo-European and Semitic linguistic families on the
one hand, and the monosyllabic Chinese on the other, the Tura-
nian languages are typical examples of the agglutinative form of
speech. Here unchangeable roots are combined with suffixes by
means of what is called progressive vowel harmony, in such a way
that the vowels of the endings are assimilated to that of the root.
Thus the infinitive element mak, which appears in Osmanli Turk-
ish yaz-mak, " to write," becomes mek in sev-mek, " to love."
The Mongolians best represent the Turanian physical type.
They have broad faces, small, slanting eyes, high cheek-bones,
broad, flat noses, thick lips and low foreheads: their complexion
is yellowish brown, their hair straight, and their beards scanty.
The various branches of the Turanians have intermingled to a
considerable extent, but it was only on their western con-
fines that they mixed much with aliens, expecially Slavs. Thus
many Finnish tribes have been absorbed by the surrounding
Russians: the Magyars and the Osmanli Turks, though they have
retained their Turanian speech, have lost most of their physical
Turanian characteristics; while the Volga Bulgars have no trace
of their original Turanian language and physique left, their name
alone having survived among the Bulgarians of to-day.
The primitive religion of the Turanians is called Shamanism
because its distinctive feature is the agency of the Shaman, a
wizard priest, whose services are required to influence the super-
natural powers. Witchcraft predominates in this religion, it be-
ing the function of the Shaman to master all that in nature is
hostile to man, to curb the elements, to conjure spirits, to pro-
duce health or disease, fortune or misfortune. The Shamanist
operates mainly against demons, but he also believes in higher
gods, whom he calls to his aid by means of prayer and sacrifice.
Ancestor worship is, moreover, a characteristic feature of Sha-
manism. An important instrument in the rites of the Shaman is
the drum, by means of which he can summon spirits, and compel
them to give active assistance. Shamanism is still found in all
the Asiatic branches of the Turanian family. But it is only gen-
eral among the Tunguses, all the tribes of whom (except the Man-
chus) are devoted to their old faith. The Samoyeds, too, are
still largely Shamanists. Among the Mongols, the Buryats on
Lake Baikal are the only tribe in which Shamanism prevails.
Among the Turks, the old religion survives only in the tribes
that remained behind in the Altai range. From the rest of the
Turkish peoples it has been extirpated by Islam, though single
tribes of Turkish nomads show clear traces of their original beliefs.
On the other hand, the Magyars and the Finns adopted Christi-
anity many centuries ago.
The very primitive stage of civilization which the Turanians
had attained when they first appear in history, has remained on
much the same level, with the few exceptions caused by Euro-
pean contact, down to the present day. As the cultivable soil of
the ancient world had already been occupied by the Chinese, the
Aryans and the Semites, the Turanians, when driven by the ex-
pansion of population to migrate from their ancient homes in the
Altai mountains, were compelled to wander in barren steppes in
order to maintain themselves. Their civilization thus acquired
the stamp of nomadism, in which the isolation of small communi-
ties caused by their mode of life prevented the patriarchal system
of government from advancing to any higher stage of political
organization. The struggle for existence naturally brought them
constantly into predatory conflict with their settled and more
prosperous neighbours, while boundary disputes tended to per-
petual internal strife. The unsettled habits thus produced have,
since the adoption of Islam by the Turkish branch, made that
branch for many centuries the main cause of unrest in the history
of the world, because the directing force of fanaticism has been
added to their unorganized restlessness.
The above account of the various branches of the Turanians
will supply the material on the basis of which the prospects of
Pan-Turanianism may be judged. The movement in its wider
aspect having in the years preceding the war been the product
of the German-educated Intelligentsia of Constantinople, was,
after Turkey joined the Central Powers, much used in support of
the alliance between Turkey and Hungary on the strength of
racial kinship, and as a lure for the Tatars of the Russian Empire.
In the summer of 1918, Halil Pasha, an uncle of Enver Pasha,
had an interview, reported in a Berlin journal in 1920, with a Ger-
man commanding officer in Anatolia, to whom he expounded the
aims of the Pan-Turanian movement. Placing the national policy
in the foreground, he said it was necessary to unite all Turk-
ish-speaking peoples. The beginning must be made with the
conquest of Turkestan, the cradle of the Turkish Empire. The
next step would be to establish a connexion with the Siberian
Yakuts, the farthest outpost of the Turkish Turanians in the
north-east of Asia. After that, the Tatars of the Caucasus were
to be included. This nationally exclusive Turkish Empire must,
he continued, as a Mahommedan supreme power, have a great
attraction for the Turks of Afghanistan and Persia. The incor-
poration of Azerbaijan, the richest Persian province, might thus
be hoped for in the near future. When, on the conclusion of the
war, Constantinople had been occupied by the Entente Powers,
Halil Pasha was thrown into prison there by them, but, manag-
ing to escape, he continued his activities in favour of a Pan-Turk-
ish Empire. Enver Pasha had previously been emphasizing the
Pan-Islamic policy and been using Arabs as Turcophil propa-
gandists in the Caucasus. The general plan of this double pro-
cedure was by fusing the religious movement of Pan-Islamism
with the racial movement of Pan-Turanianism to establish a
great Turkish Empire, with Constantinople as the centre of both.
Pan-Turanianism, from the point of view of practical politi-
cians, does not go beyond the ideal of a Turkish Empire compris-
ing all the divisions of the Turkish race, the numbers of which
do not really exceed about 26,000,000. As the Ottoman Empire
contains no more than 10,000,000 Turks within its present limits,
the Irredentism of the Pan-Turanian movement embraces a pop-
ulation of 16,000,000. Before the war, 12,000,000 of these were
under Russian and 4,000,000 under Chinese, Persian and Afghan
rule. At that period Russia could scarcely be regarded as a very
promising field for Pan-Turanian propaganda; for generally
speaking the Russian Mahommedans had been loyal, conserva-
tive, and somewhat narrow in their political outlook. Had Rus-
sia emerged intact from the conflict, her Turkish territory could
have been wrested from her only at the price of another war, which
the Ottoman Empire would hardly have been willing to face.
But the whole situation has been transformed by the Russian
Revolution and the consequent break-up of Russia. The Irreden-
tist ambitions of Pan-Turanianism have now been brought ap-
preciably nearer the possibility of realization. A warmer sympa-
thy has been developed among the Russian Mahommedans with
the Mahommedans abroad. Russian Turkestan and the two
Khanates of Khiva and Bukhara have asserted their indepen-
dence; the Tatars of the Caucasus have become republics. These
new conditions might render the voluntary incorporation of all
these outside Turkish populations in the Ottoman Empire not
unlikely. For the important unifying elements of general identity
of language, religion, and civilization, besides contiguity of terri-
tory, are all present. The speech of the Turkish branch of the
Turanians has changed so comparatively little that all the divi-
sions may be said to speak one single language, Turkish, differing
only to the extent of dialects. Islam is the religion of all the divi-
sions of the Turkish branch, which, though it only adopted this
religion, has been its main protagonist. The Turkish-speaking
peoples, again, have a common civilization which, based on their
primitive nomadism, has as its superstructure the ethics and the
culture of the Koran. Finally, with the exception of the Yakuts
in the north-east of Siberia, the Turkish peoples are practically
in continuous geographical contact from Thrace eastward to the
frontier of Mongolia and northward into south-eastern Russia.
The connexion of eastern Asia Minor, by way of the Caucasus,
PARAGUAY
with Central Asia, which was closed by Tsarist Russia, is now
open for the union of the Turks. This road to the East is of great
importance both on political and economic grounds.
If the spirit of independence among the Turks of Central Asia,
the Caucasus, and Azerbaijan could be overcome by the unify-
ing power of common language, race, religion, and culture, Tur-
key might become a formidable political power based on the com-
bined moral force of the Caliphate and of Turkish nationalism.
Pan-Turanianism, however, if pushed to extremes, is an arti-
ficial and a retrograde movement, and would then come into
irreconcilable conflict with Pan-Islamism. Thus the attempt to
carry out the proposal of some of the Turks of Constantinople to
renounce the religion of Mahomet, or even to substitute Turk-
ish for the sacred language of the Koran, would incense the
fanatical Moslem. Again, the Turkish peoples outside the Otto-
man Empire do not form coherent populations, containing as
they do large nomadic elements. On the other hand, the Otto-
man Turks, indolent by nature, have never displayed any ability
or energy in state-building. It is therefore not likely that they
will develop enough statecraft and driving-power to succeed in
welding together the different Turkish peoples into a single strong
united empire containing perhaps 25,000,000 of the Turkish
race. The extension of Pan-Turanianism so as to include other
branches of the Turanians can only be pronounced to be a purely
visionary idea. The only connecting link between them and the
Turks at the present day is the descent of their various languages
from a single parent speech that existed in remote antiquity: but
Lapp and Manchu are to-day farther apart than English and
Sanskrit. The other four branches now differ from the Turks in
religion and civilization, besides being separated from them by
great and often immense distances. The Samoyeds are nominally
Christians, but really Shamanists. The Tunguses, who inhabit
a vast tract of north-eastern Asia as Shamanists and reindeer
nomads, are slowly dying-out in Siberia while their most prom-
inent tribe, the Manchus, are being entirely absorbed by Chi-
nese civilization. The Mongols, who are the eastern neighbours
of Turkish tribes, and were many centuries ago politically asso-
ciated with the Turks as warlike invaders of the West, are nomads
and for the most part adherents of Buddhism, which has trans-
formed them into a peaceful and unenterprising people that at
the present day has hardly anything in common with the Turks.
The Finno-Ugrian branch, for the most part separated by long
distances from the Turks, have with very slight exceptions been
thoroughly Europeanized and Christianized for many centuries.
The Magyars, conquered by the Turks in the i6th and I7th cen-
turies, fought on the side of the Turks during the World War
owing to the pressure of the German alliance; but there seems to
be no permanent prospect of political association between these
two racially and linguistically related races. It thus seems clear
that at least 2o,ooo,ooo'Turanians will never have the slightest
inherent tendency to be drawn into union with the Islamic
religion and civilization of the Turkish Empire.
AUTHORITIES. Sarron, La Jeune Ttirquie et la Revolution (1912);
Tekin Alp, The Turkish and Pan-Turkish Ideal (1916); La Turquie
et la Guerre (1916); " Islam and the War," Quarterly Review (April
1918); Macdonell, Turanians and Pan-Turanianism (1918); Eura-
sian Routes (1920); Berliner Tageblatt (Jan. 24 and 28 1920).
(A. A. M.)
PARAGUAY (see 20.756). The pop. of Paraguay in 1920 was
supposed to be about 800,000. At least 60% of the inhabitants
were illiterate, though President Franco during 19 16-9 made an
attempt toward educational progress. The school registration
for 1916 was 80,142.
Of the imports of Paraguay 81%, and of the exports 40%, pass
through the Asuncion custom-house. The total foreign trade of
Paraguay varied little between 1907 and 1918 though the proportion
of imports to exports differed, as will be seen from the following
table, showing the official customs values in Paraguayan gold pesos,
equal to 45. or 80.96 each :
Imports
Exjxirts
Total
1907
1917
1918
7,512,502
5,098,581
5,201,726
3,236,110
6,494,802
-,1/1,319
10,748,612
",593,383
12,373,045
The United Kingdom had first place in imports until 1908, when
Germany passed her, supplying 29% of the total imports as against
Great Britain's 21 per cent. A close competition followed. In
1913 the United Kingdom supplied 28-6% of Paraguay's imports
as compared with 27-6% from Germany, but in 1914 the situation
was reversed, Germany supplying 27 % to the United Kingdom's
22-7 per cent. In 1915 and 1916 the proportion of imports from
the United Kingdom rose to 33% and 38-5% respectively. There
was in 1921 only one strictly British mercantile house, and only one
American, as compared with five German houses.
History. Manuel Gondra became President on Jan. 18 191 1
but was overthrown by a revolution headed by Col. Albino Jara
in July of that year. Jara was succeeded in turn by Liberate
Rojos, who was overthrown Jan. 14 1912 by another " alteration
of the legal order," as a consequence of which Pedro Pena was
placed in the presidential chair Feb. 29. Considerable bloodshed
accompanied these changes, which cost the country at least 400,-
ooo. On March 25 Emiliano Gonzalez Navero became Presi-
dent, retaining office until Aug. 15, when Eduardo Scherer suc-
ceeded him. Scherer actually completed his term of office, the
first time this had occurred in Paraguay since 1870. His firmness
prevented several outbreaks and disturbances, especially one at
the beginning of 1915, which might have been most serious under
a weaker executive. Scherer's successor was fortunately another
able man, Manuel Franco, who retained his position from Aug.
15 1916 until his death on June 3 1919. Franco not merely
forestalled revolutions, but brought Paraguayan finance to the
best condition it had reached for years. During his administra-
tion the meat-packing industry became fully established in
Paraguay. This was the greatest step forward that had occurred
since 1870. By encouraging an industry which more than almost
any other improves the lot of the individual farmer in a rather
isolated agricultural country, the three United States packing-
houses that established themselves in Paraguay during Presi-
dent Franco's administration were of great service. They caused
a thorough survey of Paraguay's cattle-raising possibilities to be
made and also studied the different grasses and areas of pasturage
and their suitability for different breeds of cattle. In 1918 37%
of the total exports of Paraguay consisted of the products of
stock-raising and meat-packing as against 32-4% for the prod-
ucts of the forest industries (lumber, quebracho, etc.) and 30-2%
for agricultural products.
Jose P. Montero filled the remainder of Franco's presi-
dential term, from June 3 1919 to Aug. 15 1920, when Manuel
Gondra again became President, having been elected while
minister to the United States. The lessened demand from
Europe and the United States for the chief exports of Paraguay
at the close of the World War caused a decided setback to Para-
guay's prosperity. On Jan. i 1921 Paraguay was unable to
meet the payments due on her foreign debts, and the largest
banks in the country became seriously involved, further aggravat-
ing the commercial crisis. An American financial adviser was
assisting the Paraguayan Government in 1921. On Nov. 17 1913
through rail communication was inaugurated between Asunci6n
and Buenos Aires. This has done much to lessen the isolation of
the country, for under normal conditions the journey between
the two cities is made in 50 hours. Paraguay renewed direct diplo-
matic relations with the United States in 1913, sending a minis-
ter to Washington for the first time in eight years, while the
United States created a separate mission for Paraguay in the same
year, accrediting a minister to Paraguay alone, instead of to
Uruguay and Paraguay jointly as formerly. Great Britain in
1921 still accredited one minister to both countries. The United
States and Paraguay signed an extradition treaty on July 30
1913. In Nov. 1921, Pres. Gondra was ejected from office as the
result of a revolution.
The Government remained neutral during the World War,
though Congress adopted a resolution of sympathy with the
Allies and of approval of the action of the United States in de-
claring war on Germany. The Government dismissed some of
its German employees, and maintained a pro-Ally attitude.
The best recent book on Paraguay is: W. L. Schurz, Paraguay,
a Commercial Handbook, published by the Government Printing
Office at Washington, D.C., 1920. (C. L. C.)
PARAVANE PARKER, SIR G.
33
PARAVANE, a naval device used in the World War first for
attacking submerged submarines and subsequently for protect-
ing vessels against mines and for cutting up hostile minefields.
The name of Acting-Comm. C. D. Burney is especially associated
with its design and development.
The explosive paravane in its final form consisted of a torpedo-
shaped body carrying near its head a large steel plane which was
set at a small angle to the centre-line of the body, and was in an
approximately vertical position when the paravane was being
towed. The thrust of the water on the plane carried the paravane
away from the towing vessel, and with two paravanes, one on
each side, a spread of sweep of about 200 ft. was obtained, i.e.
the two paravanes were that distance apart. Horizontal and
vertical fins near the tail increased the stability, and in the tail
was fitted a depth-keeping mechanism consisting of a horizontal
rudder actuated by a hydrostatic valve which responded to any
difference in the water-pressure caused by a change of depth.
The paravane carried a heavy charge of high explosive which
could be detonated, by means of an electric current passing
through the core of the towing-wire, in any one of three ways. If
the paravane hit the hull of a submarine, striking-gear on its nose
operated a switch which closed the firing circuit. This impact
method would not become operative should the towing-line be-
come entangled in the external fittings of a submarine, but in that
case an extra load would be put on the line; apparatus was there-
fore provided such that when the load on the line exceeded a pre-
determined value a switch was tripped and the circuit closed.
Finally a hand-switch on the bridge of the towing vessel en-
abled the charge to be detonated at will should the presence of
a submarine be suspected.
It was soon seen that the explosive paravane could be adapted
to protect vessels against moored mines. For this purpose the tow-
ing-lines were attached, not at the stern as with the explosive
paravanes, but at & point as far forward and as low down as possi-
ble. Their outboard ends being kept about 100 ft. away from the
central fore and aft line of the ship by the paravanes to which
they were attached, they swept a wedge-shaped track in a hori-
zontal plane at the level of the keel or slightly below it, and
fouled the mooring-wires of any anchored mines lying in or near
the course of the vessel. When this happened the mooring- wire was
deflected along the towing-line until it reached the head of the
paravane, where it was guided into the jaws of shears or scissors
made of special high-grade steel, by which it was severed. The
mine then floated to the surface and was exploded by rifle-fire.
It was found that with a pull of about 7 cwt. the shears would
cut a ij in. mooring-wire. The normal length of the towing-lines
was 56 yd. ; three-strand wire ropes were used, each consisting of
37 galvanized wires, 0-049 i n - i n diameter, with an ultimate
breaking strength of between 100 and 120 tons per sq. in. There
were three types of protector paravanes: (i) The merchant-
vessel type, known as " otters," for ships with speeds below 16
knots; (2) the fast-liner type; and (3) the battleship type.
The mine-sweeping paravanes were towed from the stern of
high-speed destroyers. As the point of attachment had to be on
deck, an arrangement called a " depressor " was used to bring
the virtual point of tow down to the required depth at the stern.
Wide paths could be swept at speeds of 26 to 30 knots.
PARDO BAZAN, EMILIA (1851-1921), Spanish author (see
20.800), died in May 1921.
PARIS (see 20.804). The population of the French capital,
2,847,229 at the census of 1911, was 2,906,472 at the census
of 1921. In view of the rapid German advance on Paris after
the outbreak of war in August 1914, steps were quietly taken to
evacuate as many as possible of the civilian population; and on
the night of Sept. 2 the President and ministers left the city
for Bordeaux, where the Government was temporarily trans-
ferred. But the victory of the Marne removed the peril from
Paris, and in December the Government returned there.
Paris during the World War was bombarded by aeroplane,
Zeppelin, and artillery; 746 bombs were dropped from the air,
killing 266 persons and wounding 603; German long-range ar-
tillery fired 303 shells into Paris, killing 256 persons and wound-
XXXII. 2
ing 620. The first air raid was made on Aug. 30 1914, by
aeroplane and in daylight. The first Zeppelin raid took place
by night on March 21 1915. The worst air raid was made on the
night of Jan. 30-31 1918, when 91 bombs fell upon the city itself
and 178 on the suburbs. The long-range bombardment began
on March 23 1918, and continued until Aug. 9, with many in-
tervals of calm, there being only 44 days upon which the Berthas
were active. The existence of such long-range artillery being
unknown when the first shells fell at an early hour of the morn-
ing, it was imagined that German aircraft, hidden high behind
the clouds, must be engaged. All work in the city was at a
standstill until noon, when the regularity with which the
projectiles exploded at intervals of about 20 minutes, and an
examination of some of their fragments, showed that a new
engine of war was at work. The first two days of bombardment
were the heaviest from the point of view of the number of shells
fired, but from the number of casualties caused, March 29,
when only one shell fell in Paris, was the most costly. That one
shell fell during Good Friday service on the church of St.
Gervais, bringing down with it a large portion of the roof; 88
people were killed and 68 wounded.
The air defences of Paris were not properly organized until
March 1918. In fact organization had not been necessary, as
German air services concentrated all their bombing raids upon
England during the years 1916-8. The results obtained by the
Paris system of air defences were as follows: on 13 different occa-
sions, on which 107 aeroplanes all-told were employed, no single
raider was able to reach Paris; of the 483 planes sent by the
enemy to Paris in 1918, only 37 reached the city, and 13 were
brought down; and only 11,680 kgm. of bombs were thrown
upon the city.
The war being over, the work of demolishing the fortifications
encircling the city was begun in 1919, in accordance with a
grandiose scheme which would give Paris another ring of
boulevards nearly 30 m. in length. It was intended that some
of the ground thus made available should be used for building
purposes, in the hope of solving the acute housing problem.
It was proposed to keep much of it as garden, and to build
numbers of well-equipped playing-grounds, and air stations
round the city. One portion of the available space, S. of the
city, was to be set apart for " University City," where accom-
modation would be provided for students of all nationalities;
to include recreation and sports grounds, swimming-baths, etc.
The site chosen is near the Pare Montsouris.
PARKER, ALTON BROOKS (1852- ), American lawyer,
was born at Cortland, N.Y., May 14 1852. He studied at the
local academy and normal school, taught for a short time, read
law in an office, and in 1873 graduated from the Albany Law
School. He was admitted to the bar and began to practise law
at Kingston, N.Y. In 1877 he was elected surrogate of Ulster
co., and was reelected in 1883. He resigned in 1885 on being
appointed by the governor justice of the N.Y. Supreme Court
to fill a vacancy, and the following year was regularly elected.
He was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in
1884 and in 1885 declined President Cleveland's offer of the first
assistant postmaster-generalship. He was appointed a member
of the second division of the N.Y. Court of Appeals in 1889
and a member of the general term in 1893. In 1898 he was
elected chief justice of the N.Y. Court of Appeals. In
1904 he resigned on being nominated by the Democrats for
president, but he was defeated by Theodore Roosevelt, the
electoral vote being 336 for Roosevelt to 140 for Parker, the
popular vote 7,623,486 for Roosevelt to 5,077,971 for Parker.
He then resumed the practice of law in New York City. He was
a delegate-at-large from New York to the National Democratic
Convention in 1912. In 1913 he was counsel for the managers
of the trial leading to the impeachment of Governor Sulzer of
New York.
PARKER, SIR GILBERT, BART. (1862- ), English novelist
and politician (see 20.827), was created a baronet in 1915 and a
privy councillor in 1916. During the first two and a half years
of the World War he was engaged on the work of publicity in
34
PARKER, H. W. PARSONS
British interests in the United States, and he published The
World in the Crucible (1915) and The World for Sale (1916).
Amongst his later works of fiction are The Judgment House
(1913); The Money Master (1915); Wild Youth and Another
(1919) and No Defence (1920). He retired from Parliament in
1918 and did not seek reelection.
PARKER, HORATIO WILLIAM (1863-1919), American com-
poser and musician, was born at Auburndale, Mass., Sept. 15
1863. His talent for composition manifested itself early; before
he was 15, for example, in less than two days he set to music the
verses in Kate Greenaway's Under the Window. He studied first
in Boston, but later attended for three years the Royal Con-
servatory in Munich. After his return to America in 1885 he
was for two years professor of music in the Cathedral School of
St. Paul in Garden City, Long Island. From 1888 to 1893 he
was organist of Trinity church, New York City, and from 1893
to 1901 organist of Trinity church, Boston. In 1894 he was
appointed professor of the theory of music at Yale. Cam-
bridge University bestowed on him the degree of Mus. Doc. in
1002. Before leaving New York City he had completed his
oratorio, Hora Novissima, which was widely performed in
America. It was also given in England in 1899 at Chester and
at the " Three Choirs " festival at Worcester, the latter an
honour never before paid an American composer. While carry-
ing out the duties of his position at Yale he composed much.
His opera Mona (libretto by Brian Hooker) won the Metro-
politan Opera Company's $10,000 prize in 1911, and in 1914
his opera Fairyland (also with Hooker) was awarded another
prize of the same amount offered by the National Federation
of Women's Clubs. His cantata Morven and the Grail was
written in 1915 for the centenary celebration of the Handel
and Haydn Society of Boston. His other works include the
cantatas King Trojan and The Kobolds, the oratorios St.
Christopher and A Wanderer's Psalm, besides numerous sacred
and secular pieces. He died at Cedarhurst, Long Island, Dec.
18 1919.
PARKER OF WADDINGTON, ROBERT JOHN PARKER,
BARON (1857-1918), English lawyer and lord of appeal, was born
at Claxby Rectory, Alford, Lines., Feb. 25 1857. He was
educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, where he
took his degree in 1880. In 1883 he was called to the bar and
built up a large and important connexion, largely dealing with
Government work. In 1000 he was appointed junior counsel to
the Treasury, and was raised to the bench in 1006. As a judge
he earned a high reputation for great shrewdness and learning,
and in 1913 was made a lord of appeal in ordinary, being at the
same time given a life peerage over the heads of the five sitting
lords justices. In 1916 a special second division of the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council was constituted for dealing with
Prize Court appeals, and over this Lord Parker presided until
within a short time of his death at Haslemere July 12 1918.
PARKIN, SIR GEORGE ROBERT (1846- ), British educa-
tionalist (see 20.831), published ifl 1912 The Rhodes Scholar-
ships, an account of his work as organizing representative of the
Rhodes Trust (see 23.257). He was knighted in 1920. He retired
from the secretaryship of the Rhodes Trust in 1921, being suc-
ceeded first by Sir Edward Grigg, and then, on the appointment
of the latter to be private secretary to Mr. Lloyd George, by Mr.
Geoffrey Dawson, formerly (1912-9) editor of The Times.
PARMOOR, CHARLES ALFRED CRIPPS, IST BARON (1852-
), English lawyer, was born at West Ilsley, Berks., Oct.
3 1852, the son of Henry William Cripps, Q.C. He was educated
at Winchester and New College, Oxford, where he had a dis-
tinguished career. He was called to the bar of the Middle
Temple in 1877, in 1890 became a Q.C. and in 1893 a bencher.
In 1895 he was appointed attorney-general to the Prince of
Wales (being reappointed in 1901 and 1912). He sat as Con-
servative member for the Stroud division of Glos. 1895-1900,
for the Stretford division of Lanes. 1901-6 and for the Wycombe
division of Bucks. 1910-4. In 1908 he was made K.C.V.O.
Sir Alfred Cripps was well known as a strong High-churchman.
He was appointed chancellor and vicar-general to the province
of York in 1900 and vicar-general to the province of Canterbury
in 1902. He was chairman of the Canterbury House of Laymen
and a member of its committee in 1910, and chairman of the
House of Laity in the National Church Assembly of 1920. In
1914 he was appointed a member of the Judicial Committee
of the Privy Council and raised to the peerage, and in 1917 he
became treasurer of the Middle Temple. He was the author
of two important works, Law of Compensation (1881, 5th ed.,
1905), and Law Relating to the Church (6th ed., 1886).
PARRATT, SIR WALTER (1841- ), English organist, was
born at Huddersfield Feb. 10 1841. He was educated privately
and at College School, Huddersfield. After some years as
organist and choirmaster to various churches, he became in
1872 organist of Magdalen College, Oxford, and in 1882 organist
of St. George's Chapel, Windsor. From 1908 to 1918 he was
professor of music at Oxford, and in 1916 was appointed dean
of the faculty of music in London University. He was knighted
in 1892, was created M.V.O. in 1901, and C.V.O. in 1917. He
wrote various important articles on musical subjects for Grove's
Dictionary of Music, and other works.
PARRY, SIR CHARLES HUBERT HASTINGS, BART. (1848-
1918), English composer (see 20.865), retired from his pro-
fessorship at Oxford in 1008. He acted during the World War
as chairman of the Music in Wartime Committee, and did much
to relieve the prevailing distress among poorer musicians. He
died at Rustington Oct. 7 1918, and was buried in St. Paul's
cathedral.
PARSONS, ALFRED (1847-1920), English painter, was born
at Beckington, Som., Dec. 2 1847. He was educated privately,
and in 1865 entered the General Post-Office as a clerk, but after
two years his taste for painting decided him to adopt an artistic
career. He was preeminently a painter of flowers and gardens.
He was also interested in the designing of gardens, and was a
judge at the Chelsea flower show. His picture of an orchard,
" When Nature Painted All Things Gay," was purchased by the
Chantrey fund in 1887, and he was a frequent exhibitor not only
at the Royal Academy but at the Grosvenor and New Gallery
exhibitions. Among the various special exhibitions held of his
work was one of scenes from the Warwickshire Avon (1885).
As an illustrator Parsons took a very high place, much of his
work appearing in Harper's Magazine, while among the books
he illustrated are She Sloops to Conquer, Herrick's Poems (with
E. A. Abbey), and The Danube, from the Black Forest to the
Black Sea (with F. D. Millet). He died at Broadway, Worcs.,
Jan. 16 1920.
PARSONS, SIR CHARLES ALGERNON (1854- ), British
engineer, was born in London June 13 1854, the fourth son of the
3rd Earl of Rosse. He was educated privately and at St. John's
College, Cambridge, graduating nth wrangler in 1876, and being
elected in later life (1904) an hon. fellow of the college. In 1877
he entered the Armstrong Works at Elswick, having previously
worked as a boy in his father's workshops at Birr Castle, King's
co., Ireland, where the Rosse telescope was constructed (see
2 3-74S)- In J 883 he served for a year on the experimental
staff of Messrs. Kitson of Leeds, and in 1884 entered into part-
nership with Messrs. Clarke Chapman & Co. of Gateshead.
The partnership was dissolved in 1889, and Charles Parsons,
whose invention of the Parsons steam-turbine was bringing him
into continually greater prominence in connexion with the
progress of shipbuilding, then built his own works at Heaton,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, for the making of steam-turbines, dyna-
mos, searchlight reflectors and other electrical apparatus (see
25.845 seq.). Besides his chairmanship of C. A. Parsons & Co., he
became managing director of several electric supply companies,
notably at Newcastle, Scarborough and Cambridge, and also
of the Marine Steam Turbine Co. which became the Parsons
Marine Steam Turbine Co. of Wallsend-on-Tyne, owners of
the turbine patents, with ramifications throughout the engineer-
ingworld. Hewaselected F.R.S. in 1898, won the Royal Society's
Rumford Medal in 1902, was president of the Institute of Marine
Engineers 1905-6 and of the British Association 1919-20. In
1911 he was created K.C.B. During the World War Sir Charles
PASCAL PEACE CONFERENCE
35
Parsons served on many Government committees connected
with scientific research, electric power, aircraft, fuel research
and the construction of tanks.
PASCAL, JEAN LOUIS (1837-1020), French architect, was
born in Paris June 4 1837, and his architectural education was
begun at the age of 16 when he became a pupil of Gilbert.
Later, when in the studio of Questel, he entered the ficole des
Beaux-Arts, where, amongst other distinctions gained, in 1866
he won the Grand Prix de Rome. On his return to Paris in 1870,
after his four years at the Villa Medici, he was appointed in-
spector of works at the Louvre and the Tuilleries. In 1872 he
became patron of his atelier, and thereafter was appointed
assessor in public competitions, and subsequently received many
distinctions. Amongst these was his election to the council of
the Beaux-Arts and president of the jury, and to membership
of the Institut de France, and finally he became commandeur
de la Legion d'Honnenr. In his 'long career the private, as apart
from official, work of Pascal was of a very diversified nature, and
covered a wide area of ground, domestic and civil, and partic-
ularly a long series of artistic memorial monuments such as
those commemorating Col. d'Argy at Rome, Henri Regnault at
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and President Carnot at Bordeaux.
Among his buildings are the Chateau du Doux, Correze, that for
the Faculte de Medecine, Bordeaux a design with much
dignity and calm the painter Perrault's house and studio,
Paris, and several villas and chateaux in the provinces at
Pau, Beaulieu, Avignon and elsewhere. He lived long enough
to see, at the close of his busy career of over 50 years, the
completion of the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, a fine building
characteristic of his learning and ingenuity, but speaking none
of the modern note of a too conscious individuality. A man of
untiring energy, Pascal's application to his atelier work and his
many professional calls did not prevent his finding time for the
literary side of architecture and he, with M. Gaudet, is respon-
sible for the splendid edition of BlondePs Architecture FratiQaise,
published under the auspices of the French Government. The
celebrated atelier of which he was for so many years the greatly
respected patron, was responsible in his time for the training
of many architects to be found later on in every country in
Europe, in the United States and in Canada. Among them
were Sir John Burnet, Thomas Hastings of New York, Signor
Beltrani of Milan and Henri Nenot of Paris. In 1914 he was
awarded the gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Archi-
tects but his great age and state of health prevented his receiving
this in person. He died in Paris in 1920.
PASCOLI, GIOVANNI (1855-1912), Italian poet, was born at
San Mauro, Romagna, Dec. 31 1855. His first volume of verse,
entitled Myricae, appeared in 1891, and his Primi Poemetti in
1897. His other volumes include Odi ed inni (1906) ; Le Canzoni
di Re Enzio (1908) and Nuovi Poemetti (1909). He wrote also
much elegant Latin verse, and was well known both as a prose
essayist and for his Dante studies, which led to his appointment
as professor of Italian literature at the university of Bologna.
He died at Barga April 6 1912.
PASSY, FREDERIC (1822-1912), French economist and
pacifist, was born in 1822 and was a nephew of the economist
Hippolyte Passy, finance minister to Louis Philippe and to Louis
Napoleon's Republican Government. Under his uncle's influence
Frederic devoted himself to economic studies, and to that end
gave up the appointment as auditor of the Conseil de Droit,
which he had held during 1846-49. In 1860 he began to teach
political economy both in Paris and in the provinces. His first
work on the subject, Melanges economiques, appeared in 1857.
True to his republican principles, he refused to be reconciled to
the Second Empire, and remained, therefore, ineligible for any
Government post. He was an ardent free-trader and an admirer
of Cobden. In 1867 he founded the Ligue Internationale de la
Paix, afterwards known as the Societe Francaise pour 1' Arbitrage
entre Nations, and for the rest of his life he devoted himself to
the promotion of international peace. From 1881 to 1899 he was
deputy for the Seine department. In 1901 he received the Nobel
T'rize, sharing it with M. Dunant. His published works include
De la Propriele Inlellecluelle (1859); Lemons d' economic poliliqtie
(1860-61); La Democratic et I'Instruction (1864); L'Histoire
du Travail (1873); Malthus et sa Doctrine (1868); La Solidarity
du Travail et du Capital (1875) and Le Petit Poucet du icjieme
Siecle: George Stephcnson (1881). He died in Paris June 12 1912.
PATIALA, SIR BHUPINDAR SINGH, MAHARAJA OF (1891-
), head of the Sikh community in India, was born Oct. 12
1891, to the soldier-sportsman Maharaja Sir Rajendra Singh,
whose death in Nov. 1900, at the age of 28, brought him to the
gad i. He was carefully trained, and on receiving full ruling pow-
ers at the close of 1910 maintained and greatly developed the pro-
gressive policy of the council of regency, applying himself with
great assiduity to the moral and material welfare of his people.
Inheriting sporting and soldierly qualities, he was a skilful polo-
player and batsman, becoming well known to British crowds
when he captained the Indian cricket eleven in 1911. He also
inherited the conspicuous loyalty of his house to the paramount
Power. In the autumn of 1914 he set out with the Indian Expe-
ditionary Force to France, but serious ill-health compelled his
return to India after reaching Aden. The contribution of Patiala
to the Indian army, including Imperial Service troops, was in-
creased from about 4,000 men to 28,000, and as the recognized
head of the Sikh race the Maharaja exercised an enormous influ-
ence in promoting recruitment from other parts of the Punjab.
His subjects saw active service in nearly all the theatres of war,
and won 125 battle distinctions. His gifts in material and money
were constant and generous. He visited his troops in France,
Palestine and elsewhere when deputed to England in the summer
of 1918 with Sir S. P. (Lord) Sinha on selection as a member of
the Imperial War Cabinet, being the second Indian prince to be
called to Empire councils. In the Punjab disturbances in the
spring of 1919 important responsibilities were assigned to him by
the British authorities, and tranquillity was maintained through-
out his state and adjacent British districts. In the third Afghan
War which immediately followed he volunteered his personal serv-
ices as well as the loan of his troops, and held a staff appointment
in a trying hot-weather campaign, not returning from the frontier
until an armistice was granted the Amir Amanulla. He took a
prominent part in promoting the inauguration of the Chamber
of Princes in 1921 and was elected to the small standing committee.
He was raised to the rank of major-general, his permanent local
salute was raised from 17 to 19 guns, and he held the grand crosses
of the Star of India, the Indian Empire and the British Empire.
PATON, FREDERICK NOEL (1861-1914), British explorer
and Anglo-Indian official (see 20.930*), died July i 1914.
PATON, JOHN BROWN (1830-1911), British Nonconformist
divine (see 20.930), died at Nottingham Jan. 26 1911.
PATTI, ADELINA JUANA MARIA [BARONESS CEDERSTROM]
(1843-1919), English singer (see 20.937), d ied at Craig-y-Nos
Castle, Wales, Sept. 27 1919.
PAYNE, JOHN BARTON (1855- ), American public official,
was born at Pruntytown, Va., Jan. 26 1855. He was educated
at Orleans, Va., read law, and was admitted to the bar in 1876.
He moved to West Virginia and practised law at Kingwood
from 1877 to 1882, during the same period serving as chairman
of the county Democratic committee. In 1882 he was elected
mayor of Kingwood, and the following year went to Chicago,
where he was engaged in law practice until 1893. Then he was
appointed judge of the Superior Court of Cook Co., 111., but
resigned after five years to resume the practice of law. In Nov.
1917 he was appointed counsel of the Emergency Fleet Corpora-
tion and also legal adviser to the Commissioner of Internal
Revenue. In 1918 he was appointed counsel of the Director-
General of Railroads and in 1919 chairman of the U. S. Shipping
Board. In Feb. 1920 he was appointed Secretary of the Inte-
rior, to succeed Franklin K. Lane, and he served to the end of
President Wilson's term.
PEACE CONFERENCE (1919). The first plenary session of
the Conference of the Powers assembled in Paris to settle the
terms of peace after the World War was held on Jan. 18 1919,
more than two months after the conclusion of the Armistice
with Germany; and the Conference remained in being from
* These figures indicate (he volume and page number of the previous article.
PEACE CONFERENCE
that date until Jan. 21 1920, when the Supreme Council met for
the last time. Even then the work of the peace settlement was
incomplete. What remained to be done was partly delegated
to a council of ambassadors at Paris, partly left to the Premiers
of the principal Powers, who continued to meet in consultation
at irregular intervals during 1920 and 1921. The Conference
separated before the Hungarians had decided to sign their
treaty, and before the terms of the partition of the Ottoman
Empire were finally agreed upon. It left the Adriatic question in
such a state that 10 months elapsed before Italy and Yugoslavia
could compose their differences. The total sum to be demanded
from Germany in the name of reparation had not yet been settled,
nor had the principal Powers finally agreed in what proportions
this sum should be divided between them. But the events of
1920 showed that most, if not all, of these questions could be
arranged without the cumbrous mechanism of a conference. An
even more momentous uncertainty, the problem of the future
attitude of the United States towards the treaties, w,ould
obviously be solved at Washington and not at Paris. But the
most urgent difficulties of the transition from war to peace
had been met, so far as diplomacy could meet them, before the
Conference was six months old; and, after the German treaty
had been signed, the doings of the statesmen at Paris no longer
excited the same interest as before. The most important of
these statesmen, except the French Premier, M. Georges Clemen-
ceau, soon made their exit. In the last days of June 1919 Mr.
Wilson returned to the United States, Mr. Lloyd George to
London. Sig. Orlando had fallen from power before the signing
of the treaty, and his successor, Signer Nitti, abstained from
visiting Paris. In July Mr. Lansing, the American Secretary
of State, withdrew, leaving Mr. Polk, his under-secretary, to
act for him. In Sept., after the signing of the Austrian treaty,
Mr. Balfour departed and Sir Eyre Crowe became the chief
British plenipotentiary. By June 28 the main outlines of the
new map of Europe were drawn; the principles which were to
govern all the treaties had been laid down; Germany had been
rendered powerless for evil, and the Austro-Hungarian Mon-
archy had ceased to exist.
The Secret Treaties and the Pre-Armistice Terms. The Allied
and Associated Powers entered the Conference with a load of
previous commitments. 1 The three chief European Allies had
to consider many secret undertakings given at critical periods
of the war. In April 1915 France and Great Britain had pur-
chased Italy's cooperation by the Treaty of London, which gave
very definite pledges regarding Istria, Dalmatia, Cisalpine Tyrol,
the Dodecanese and Adalia. In May 1916 France and Great
Britain had mapped out their future spheres of influence in the
Ottoman Empire; and in 1917 there had been consequential
arrangements with Italy. In Aug. 1916 all three Powers had
given pledges to Rumania regarding her claims on Hungarian
territory, pledges which Rumania at least did not regard as
invalidated by her subsequent Treaty (of Bucharest, May 1918)
with the Central Powers. In Feb. 1917 all three had agreed
with Japan to uphold her claims on Shantung. Finally there
were agreements of a less definite character with Serbia and with
Greece. It remained to be seen how far these compacts could
be reconciled with each other and with the views of the United
States, who had not endorsed any of them and was officially
unaware of them up to the opening of the Conference. There
remained the pre-Armistice terms which were binding on all the
parties to the Conference, and which indisputably must prevail
wherever they came into conflict with treaties of prior date.
Drafted at Washington, on the basis of a separate correspondence
between Mr. Wilson and the German Government, they had
nevertheless been considered and adopted (with certain amend-
ments) by the Supreme War Council of the Allies as the founda-
tion of the future peace. This meant that (with the exceptions
which they or Mr. Wilson had specified in Oct. and Nov. 1918)
the Allies were bound to impose no terms which clashed with
'For the preliminaries leading to the Armistice of Nov. n 1918,
see under WORLD WAR. See also, for points unsettled at the Peace
Conference, SILESIA and other appropriate headings.
Mr. Wilson's Fourteen Points (of Jan. 8 1918), his Four Prin-
ciples (of Feb. n), his Four Ends (of July 4) and his Five
Particulars (of Sept. 27).
This peculiar obligation was the outcome of an offer, made
by Germany on Oct. 4 1918, " to accept the programme set
forth by the President of the United States in his message to
Congress of Jan. 8 1918, and his later pronouncements, especially
his speech of Sept. 27," as a basis for peace negotiations. A
similar offer was made by the Austro-Hungarian Government
on Oct. 7. From Germany the President required, as a condi-
tion precedent to negotiations, that " the military masters
and monarchical autocrats of Germany " should be irrevocably
deposed. To Austria-Hungary he intimated that in one par-
ticular he could no longer stand by the Fourteen Points. It
was no longer sufficient that the Czechoslovaks and the Yugo-
slavs should be guaranteed autonomy within the Austro-
Hungarian state. These peoples must now decide what action
on the part of Austria-Hungary would satisfy their aspirations.
A republican Germany and a partition of Austria-Hungary
were thus indicated as fundamental conditions of the peace.
The Central Empires accepted the fiat; and the European Allies
then agreed to make peace with Germany " on the terms of peace
laid down in the President's Address to Congress and the
principles enunciated in his subsequent addresses," with two
qualifications. They reserved judgment on the second of the
Fourteen Points " relating to what is commonly known as the
freedom of the seas." They pointed out that, in their opinion,
the President's demand for the " restoration " of territories
invaded by Germany should be understood to include " com-
pensation for all damage done to the civilian population of the
Allies and their property by the aggression of Germany by land,
by sea and from the air." The President accepted explicitly this
meaning of " restoration," and accepted ex silentio the de-
murrer as to the " freedom of the seas." After the Conference
had begun, he stated to some American journalists (Feb. 14 1919)
that the freedom of the seas was no longer needed, as in future
(with a League of Nations in existence) there would be no
neutrals. It will be noted that the reply of the Allies to the
President only committed them with regard to the German
treaty. The armistices signed by Austria (Nov. 3 1918) and
Hungary (Nov. 13) were unconditional, and the Italian Govern-
ment afterwards held that neither of these countries was en-
titled to the benefit of the Wilsonian terms. But the legal
point was not pressed by the Allies in general, even against
Bulgaria and Turkey with whom Mr. Wilson had not negotiated
at all. The general view was that Germany had negotiated on
behalf of both herself and her Allies; and indeed the Wilsonian
terms which Germany accepted made explicit references both
to Austria-Hungary and to Turkey.
Purport of the Wilsonian Terms. The general principles
contained in Mr. Wilson's manifestoes were not all of the kind
that a Peace Conference could enforce or promote. Some were
principles of international morality; others could hardly be
realized in a world which was still convulsed by national and
racial animosities, by the sense of intolerable wrongs and of
crushing disillusionments. The time was not yet ripe for in-
sisting that the victors, equally with the vanquished, should
abstain from " private international understandings of any
kind," should throw down all " economic barriers " and should
guarantee " equality of trade conditions " (most favoured
nation treatment) to their former enemies. Still less could the
Allies agree at that date to give " adequate guarantees " that
their armaments should be " reduced to the lowest point con-
sistent with domestic safety " within any definite period of
time. It was easier for the Allies to accept some other prin-
ciples which made a strong appeal to the moral sense of man-
kind: as, for instance, that nations ought to be governed in their
foreign policy by the rules of private honour and by respect
for the common law of civilized society; that " every part of
the final settlement must be based upon the essential justice of
that particular case, and upon such adjustments as are most
likely to bring a peace that will be permanent"; and that "no
PEACE CONFERENCE
37
special or separate interest of any single nation, or any group
of nations, can be made the basis of any part of the settlement
which is not consistent with the common interest of all." These,
and other similar rules, were valuable as a statement of the spirit
in which the wiser heads of the Conference would approach their
work. But the Conference could hardly do more for the propa-
gation of Mr. Wilson's ideals than it did in approving the
Anglo-American scheme of a League of Nations " formed under
specific covenants " to ensure that " the combined power of
free nations will check every invasion of right." When it pro-
vided that the Covenant of the League should form an integral
part of each of the new treaties, and when it made the League
responsible for supervising and revising many parts of the peace
settlement, the Conference loyally accepted the conception of
the League which Mr. Wilson had explained in his address of
Sept. 27 and in several speeches of his European tour (Dec.
igiS-Jan. 1919). The League was planned to be, as he had
said at the Guildhall in London on Dec. 28, a permanent con-
cert of Powers for the maintenance of the peace terms. It is
easy now to blame the Allies for assuming that the Covenant,
drafted by Lord Robert Cecil and Gen. Smuts in consultation
with Mr. Wilson and Col. House, would be accepted without
demur by the U.S. Senate. But their attitude towards the proj-
ect of the League, when it was under discussion at the Con-
ference, at least proves them honestly desirous of realizing Mr.
Wilson's aspirations.
The territorial terms which Mr. Wilson had formulated
were comparatively simple, though not always easy to reconcile
with his principle of self-determination, which required that
" every question whether of territory or of sovereignty, of
economic arrangement or of political relationship " should be
settled on the basis of " the free acceptance of that settlement
by the people immediately concerned." Mr. Wilson himself
subsequently confessed that, when he put self-determination
on his programme (in spite of Mr. Lansing's fruitless objections,
since revealed), he did so in ignorance of the very existence of
some of the nationalities which afterwards invoked his aid.
Literally and unconditionally applied, the principle of self-
determination would have reduced eastern Europe to a chaos
of privileged enclaves and economically helpless states; nor
was it easy to see how it could be applied with any useful
results to the German colonies or to the non-Turkish portions
of the Ottoman Empire. The first of these two difficult cases
was hardly met by Mr. Wilson's demand (in the Fourteen
Points) that colonial questions should be settled with equal
regard to the interests of the populations concerned and to
the equitable claims of the Government whose title was to be
determined. The solution eventually applied to both cases
was that of mandates, a device first suggested by Gen. Smuts
in Dec. 1918, and readily endorsed by Mr. Wilson when it was
brought to his notice. As for the minor European nationalities,
Mr. Wilson himself had already, before the Conference, in-
dicated that their aspirations could not in every case be satisfied
" without introducing new or perpetuating old elements of dis-
cord and antagonism that would be likely in time to break the
peace of Europe and consequently of the world." This at
least made it clear that a plebiscite would not be assumed to
be in every case the one unfailing criterion of the justice of
national claims.
The following is a brief summary of the territorial terms to
which the Allied and Associated Powers were committed by
the pre-Armistice negotiations: (i) Germany was to evacuate
all Russian territory, and (2) to recognize the independence of
all territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations.
(3) Belgium and the occupied territories of France, Rumania,
Serbia and Montenegro were to be evacuated. (4) Belgium was
to be left in the position of a sovereign state. (5) Alsace and
Lorraine were to be returned to France. (6) Poland and Serbia
were to be given free and secure access to the sea. (7) The in-
dependence and territorial integrity of Poland and the Balkan
states were to be assured by international guarantees. (8) The
Turkish portions of the Ottoman Empire were to be allowed
to form a sovereign state; but the Straits were to be placed
under international control, and the non-Turkish nationalities
were to be allowed " an absolutely unmolested opportunity of
autonomous development." (9) The Czechoslovaks and the
Yugoslavs within the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy were to deter-
mine their own political destiny. We may further mention Mr.
Wilson's Ninth Point, demanding a readjustment of the fron-
tiers of Italy along " clearly recognizable lines of nationality."
To this limitation of Italy's ambitions Sig. Orlando had
never agreed. But his protest was not, unluckily, made public
till May 1919.
Opening of the Conference. The invitations to the Conference
were issued by the five principal and associated Powers, whose
chief plenipotentiaries held consultations in Dec. and the early
days of Jan. 1919, before they formally assembled at Paris.
Mr. Wilson was in Paris from Dec. 13 to Dec. 25, in England
from Dec. 26 to Dec. 31, in Italy from Jan. 3 to Jan. 6. M.
Clemenceau, Sig. Orlando and Baron Sonnino visited London
early in December. Finally, on Jan. 12, there took place at the
Qua! d'Orsai a meeting of the Supreme War Council (a body
constituted in Nov. 1917) which was attended by Mr. Wilson
and Mr. Lansing, M. Clemenceau and M. Pichon, Mr. Lloyd
George and Mr. Balfour, Sig. Orlando and Baron Sonnino.
On this occasion it was decided that only the representatives of
the five chief Allied and Associated Powers (the fifth being
Japan) should be entitled to attend all meetings of the Con-
ference, and that other members should be summoned only
when their special interests were involved in the discussion.
The decision was taken without the other Allied and Associated
Powers being consulted, but was in harmony with the practice
of the Congress of Vienna (1815), and was defended on the
ground that the five were "Powers with general interests."
Membership of the Conference was accorded to 32 Powers in
all. Enemy Powers were not admitted, and neutral Powers
were only to attend, when specially summoned by the five, at
sessions specially appropriated to the discussion of their claims.
But all belligerents, and all Powers who had severed diplomatic
relations with Germany, were entitled to. appear at every
plenary session. It had been originally proposed to put all
" new states in process of formation " on the same footing as
the neutrals with special interests. But the right of Poland and of
Czechoslovakia to be represented in the Conference was con-
ceded before the rst plenary session. Croatians and Slovenians
were in fact represented by the Serbians, but the enlarged
kingdom of Serbia, owing to the opposition of Italy, was not
officially recognized until the end of May. The five principal
Powers settled the number of plenipotentiaries by whom each
state might be represented, with special regard to the military
importance of each Power and to the part which it had played
in the war. The number of plenipotentiaries was a question of
sentiment only, since no Power exercised more than one vote;
but the question was not settled without some bickering.
Finally five plenipotentiaries were assigned to each of the
principal Powers; three apiece to Belgium, Brazil and Serbia;
two apiece to Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, China,
Czechoslovakia, Greece, the Hejaz, Poland, Portugal, Rumania,
Siam; one apiece to New Zealand, Bolivia, Cuba, Ecuador,
Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama,
Peru, Uruguay. All the Powers were allowed to make use of
the panel system in choosing their plenipotentiaries, and the
representatives of the British Dominions did important work on
more than one occasion by virtue of their position on the panel
of the British Empire. These arrangements were complete
before the first plenary session (Jan. 18), which was merely
asked to transact some formal business, on lines settled in ad-
vance by the Five. It elected M. Clemenceau as president of
the Conference; it sanctioned the appointment of a secretariat,
and also of a drafting committee on which the Five alone were
represented. At the second plenary session (Jan. 25) certain
of the minor Powers, Belgium and Canada amongst them, pro-
tested against the degree of control which the Five had assumed
over the proceedings of the Conference. These protests were
PEACE CONFERENCE
bluntly answered by M. Clemenceau; but they could not be
altogether ignored. The smaller Allies were by degrees allowed
a larger representation on some of the commissions and com-
mittees; and in this way a use was found for the abilities and
experience of some highly distinguished statesmen, such as
M. Venizelos.
Organization and Procedure. The original rules of procedure,
drafted by M. Berthelot, do not throw much light on the
methods of transacting business which were actually employed,
and in some points they were quickly modified. 1 The conduct
of affairs, until March 25, was in the hands of the Council of
Ten, a body composed of two plenipotentiaries for each of the
five Powers; it was simply the Supreme War Council adapted to
new purposes. The plenipotentiaries were allowed to bring their
expert advisers with them, and made free use of this permis-
sion; but the Council from the first availed itself of the power,
accorded under rule 13, to refer technical questions to com-
mittees of experts. The proceedings of the Ten were secret;
rule 8 provided for the publication of official communiques,
but these were usually so worded as to convey the minimum
of information. Owing to the large numbers present at each
session, the secrecy of the proceedings was seldom respected;
and, while the unofficial reports published in the French press
were severely censored, the correspondents of English and
(more particularly) American papers were often successful in
acquiring and transmitting important information. On Jan. 17
the Ten promised, in answering a protest from the correspond-
ents, that the plenary sessions should be open to them, except
in special cases. But these sessions were infrequent and, when
they were open to the press, only transacted formal business.
Those of May 6 and May 31, at which important differences of
opinion became manifest, were held behind closed doors. The
secrecy of the deliberations grew more complete after March 25,
when the Council of Ten was superseded by the Council of
Four (Mr. Wilson, M. Clemenceau, Mr. Lloyd George, Sig.
Orlando). Thenceforward experts were merely summoned to
answer questions; for over three weeks the only official con-
tinuously present was the interpreter (M. Mantoux) ; but in
April Sir Maurice Hankey was admitted as secretary. The
Four delegated certain questions to a council of five foreign
ministers (Mr. Lansing, M. Pichon, Mr. Balfour, Baron Sonnino,
Baron Makino), but this body did not become prominent until
the end of June wh -n the Four dispersed and left all current
business to be transacted by the Five.
Each of the principal Powers, except France, provided its
plenipotentiaries with a large staff of officials and other experts.
These " delegations " served as panels from which was drawn
the personnel of the innumerable commissions and committees
appointed from time to time by the plenary sessions or by the
Supreme Council. 2 Most of the earlier commissions were
large and imposing bodies; each of the principal Powers con-
tributed two or three representatives to each commission,
while the other Powers were allowed to send, between them,
five or ten. This was the constitution of the commissions on
Reparations, on the Responsibility for the War, on the League
of Nations, on International Labour Legislation, on Ports,
Waterways and Railways, all of which were sanctioned by the
second plenary conference (Jan 25). In Feb. and March five
territorial commissions were constituted. On these only the
principal Powers were represented. The subjects referred to them
were the territorial claims of: (i) the Czechoslovaks, (2) the
Poles, (3) Rumania and the Yugoslavs, (4) Greece and Albania,
'English was recognized at the Conference as of full equality with
French as the official language, so that all the proceedings were
bilingual. The British Dominions were recognized not only as an
integral part of the British Empire delegation (being, for instance,
part of the panel from which British representations on the Supreme
Council were chosen), but also as states on an equality with other
small independent states. Thus Gen. Botha and Gen. Smuts
sometimes sat in the Supreme Council in one capacity and some-
times in the other.
2 " Supreme Council " was the generic name applied to whatever
body the Ten, the Four or the Five happened to be in control of
the proceedings.
(5) Belgium and Denmark. On Jan. 27 the Supreme Council
appointed a large economic commission to draft the articles of
the German treaty which related to such subjects as commercial
relations, shipping, industrial property, pre-war contracts, and
the liquidation of enemy debts. On Feb. 12 a naval and military
committee, under Marshal Foch, was created to draft the terms
relating to disarmament and the surrender of naval and military
material. The Council of Four, like the Council of Ten, con-
stantly employed expert committees, but showed a preference
for comparatively small bodies which could be trusted to work
with expedition.
For business not immediately connected with the making
of treaties the Supreme Council made considerable use of the
Armistice Commission at Spa, of the military staff of the old
Supreme War Council at Versailles, and of the Supreme Econom-
ic Council at Paris. The last named of these bodies was in-
stituted, at the instance of Mr. Wilson (Feb. 8) to advise the
Conference on any economic measures of a temporary character
which might be necessary to ensure: (a) that the devastated
areas were duly supplied with the raw materials and other
commodities required for purposes of reconstruction; (b) that
the economic life of other countries which had suffered from the
war was promptly revived; (c) that the pressing wants of
neutral and ex-enemy countries were satisfied without detriment
to the Allied and Associated Powers. The Supreme Economic
Council absorbed many of the functions of those inter-Allied
councils which, during the later stages of the war, had been
charged with special problems of food supply and relief work,
finance, shipping and blockade. It also formed special sub-sec-
tions to advise on the reorganizing of inland communications
by rail and water, and on the control of the raw materials
required for reconstruction. Lord Robert Cecil, representing
Great Britain, usually presided at meetings of the Supreme
Economic Council. Mr. Hoover, who was one of the American
representatives, made himself responsible for the Food and
Relief section, which had to deal with the most urgent of all
the duties referred to the Council. From Feb. 17 to the end of
June the activity of the Supreme Council was unremitting. It
was expected to see to the revictualling of Germany under the
terms of the Armistice Convention. It organized relief work
among the starving populations of eastern Europe. It reor-
ganized the derelict transport systems of Austria-Hungary and
Poland. Its German duties involved negotiations with a German
finance commission, and the arranging of the Brussels agree-
ment (March 14) under which Germany was supplied with
foodstuffs up to the end of Aug. 1919. It was by successive
recommendations of this council that the commercial blockade
of Germany was partially relaxed in Feb., March and April;
the most striking of these recommendations was that subjects
of Allied countries should be free to trade with Germany,
subject to any restrictions which their respective Govern-
ments might desire to maintain (April 24). In April the Council
undertook to supervise the economic life of the left bank of the
Rhine, during the period of occupation. After the German
treaty had been signed the Supreme Economic Council was
still utilized by the European Allies as an agent for the pur-
chasing of foodstuffs in America and supplying Austria with
coal. The last meeting was at Rome in Nov. 1919.
The Council of Ten, Jan. i8-March 25 1919. The first
section of the German treaty to be drafted in something like
its final form was the Covenant of the League of Nations, which
Mr. Wilson consistently regarded as " in a sense the most
essential part of the peace settlement." By the end of Jan.
the American and British delegates had agreed upon a draft.
This was carefully discussed in the first fortnight of Feb. by
the League of Nations Commission, on which were represented
not only the five Great Powers, but also Belgium, Brazil, China,
Portugal, Serbia, Greece, Rumania, Poland and Czechoslovakia.
The most prominent personages who served on the commis-
sion, after Mr. Wilson who was its president, were Col. House
(U.S.A.), Lord Robert Cecil and Gen. Smuts (British Empire),
M. Bourgeois (France), Sig. Orlando (Italy) and M. Venizelos
PEACE CONFERENCE
39
(Greece) . The Covenant passed its first reading at the third plen-
ary session (Feb. 14), but was amended in details before it was
finally approved by the fifth plenary session (April 28). The
amendments were chiefly inspired by the wish to meet American
criticism. One provided that members of the League might
withdraw on giving two years' notice; another expressly guarded
the Monroe Doctrine from attack. Among amendments which
were considered but rejected it is enough to mention: (a) a
Japanese proposal that there should be a clause declaring all
members of the League, without respect of race or colour, to
be equal; (b) an American proposal to forbid any discrimina-
tion " in fiscal and economic regulations " between one nation
and another (which would have put an end to Zollvereins and
to imperial preference) ; (c) a French proposal to endow the
League with a general staff and with powers to supervise the
process of disarmament. (See LEAGUE OF NATIONS.)
To the same period belongs the main work of the Labour
Commission, which began to draft the Labour Convention on
Feb. i. The Convention was intended to convince the world
that the interests of labour would be better served by supporting
the Allies at Paris than by helping German Socialists to draft
their Labour charter in the International Conference which sat
at Berne in Jan. and February. The Commission, first proposed
by M. Clemenceau, had an American chairman (Mr. Gompers);
among the other prominent members were Mr. Barnes (Great
Britain) and M. Vandervelde (Belgium). It contained no
elected representatives of labour, but conferred with a number
of labour leaders who were specially invited to Paris for the
purpose. Its work proceeded smoothly and swiftly. The Con-
vention enumerates nine fundamental principles, for drafting
which Mr. Gompers was responsible; but otherwise it refrains
from any attempt at remedial legislation. It is mainly con-
cerned with outlining the organization, powers and procedure
of a Labour Conference (an international labour parliament)
and a Labour Office (a bureau of experts). The Convention
links up the Labour Conference with the League of Nations,
and provides that the original members of the League shall also
be the original members of the Conference. The German delegates
proposed (in May 1919) that the Convention should be revised
by a conference of trade unions, in the light of the German
Labour charter and of the Berne resolutions. This proposal was
however rejected; the Convention in its final form owes nothing
to German amendments. It forms section 13 of the Treaty of
Versailles, and appears in all the other treaties with enemy
powers. The Labour Conference met for the first time at Wash-
ington in the autumn of 1919, but was attended by no American
delegates, owing to the fact that the U.S. Senate had not yet
ratified the Treaty of Versailles. (See INTERNATIONAL LABOUR.)
The Labour Convention was not presented to the Conference
until April i, and for some weeks after the third plenary session
(Feb. 14) it seemed as though the Ten and their satellitic com-
missions were making little progress. This impression was
strengthened by the temporary absence of Mr. Lloyd George
(Feb. 7-March 5) and of Mr. Wilson (Feb. i4-March 14), who
departed on urgent business of different kinds to London and to
Washington respectively. For a time the Supreme Council
was also robbed of M. Clemenceau; he was wounded on Feb. 19
by a French anarchist and was not seen again in public until
March 10. But in any case the Supreme Council was at this
stage burdened with a mass of formal duties which could not
be avoided or postponed. It was necessary, under the rules of
procedure, to hear the views of the " members with special
interests." Late in Jan. audiences were given to the claimants
for the German colonies, among whom the British Dominions
were conspicuous. Then came the turn of the minor Powers
and the oppressed nationalities: Rumania, Greece, Czecho-
slovakia, the Hejaz, Belgium, the Syrians, the Druses, the
Zionists, the Yugoslavs, Denmark, the Albanians, the Arme-
nians and the Montenegrins. The ceremonial interviews rarely
added anything to the case which had been already presented in
writing; and all the claims, except those involving considerations
of high policy, were referred, as the interviews concluded, to
the five territorial commissions, and to a central commission
which was appointed (Feb. 27) to coordinate the conclusions
of the territorial experts. On a few questions there was sub-
stantial progress. A provisional agreement was reached as to
the future of the German colonies. A Financial Drafting
Commission defined the questions of finance and reparation
which must be settled by the experts. Between Feb. 12 and
March 3 the Military and Naval Drafting Committee prepared
the first draft of the naval and military terms, and early in
March Mr. Lloyd George persuaded the Supreme Council to
accept the principle that all the enemy Powers should be obliged
to abolish compulsory military service. By March 10 the
naval, military and air terms were practically complete and on
March 17, when Mr. Lloyd George was contemplating another
visit to London, Mr. Wilson, M. Clemenceau and Sig. Orlando
sent him a joint letter, begging that he would remain in Paris
for the fortnight which, in their opinion, was the time required
for completing the German treaty. Mr. Lloyd George agreed,
but on condition that a more expeditious and more secret
procedure than that of the Ten was adopted. He carried his
point; on March 25 an official notice was issued that informal
discussions by the delegates of the principal Powers would be
substituted for the methods hitherto adopted. With this
announcement began the period of the Council of Four. The
Marquis Saonji, who might have claimed a seat in this conclave,
abstained from doing so, except when Japanese interests were
involved, on the ground of his ignorance of European languages.
Council of Four, March zy-May 7. The Four worked at
high pressure to complete the German treaty. They met two
or three times a day; they confined their discussions to matters
of principle and high policy; they left questions of detail and
all technical subjects to the experts. But there were delicate
and urgent problems, not all vitally connected with the treaty,
which came up at many sessions, and some of these were never
finally settled at Paris. The Four could never concentrate on
one subject, to the exclusion of all others, until a definite agree-
ment was reached; for each stage in a particular discussion
involved a further, reference to the experts, and a longer or
shorter delay until the experts were ready with their report.
Hence a chronological record of their debates, if such were
available, would be a bewildering document. But it is known
what were the more contentious topics debated in these six
weeks, and what were the main issues in each case.
(a) The guarantees for Germany's compliance with the treaty
were a special anxiety to France. She asked that there should
be a prolonged occupation of the left bank of the Rhine by
French, British and American forces; that the Rhine bridge-
heads (Cologne, Coblenz and Mainz) should be included in the
zone of occupation; that the left bank should be permanently
detached from Germany to form a neutral and autonomous
state (" Rhineland Republic "). Great Britain and America
had offered France defensive treaties (the " Three Power
Treaty ") in lieu of these cumbrous precautions (March 14).
M. Clemenceau accepted the treaties, but also pressed for the
adoption of the French scheme. His colleagues would not hear
of a Rhineland Republic; but they agreed that the left bank,
and a deep belt on the right bank, should be denuded of fortifica-
tions (Art. 180) ; and, more reluctantly, that there should be
joint occupation for 15 years. Still another concession was
extracted from them the last clause of Art. 429, which provides
that, even at the end of 15 years, the occupation may be con-
tinued if in the opinion of the Allies France is insufficiently
guaranteed against an unprovoked attack. This clause was in-
tended to provide for the contingency of the British or the
American defensive treaty being still unratified at that date.
(b) The Saar valley was claimed by France in compensation
for her ruined mines. At first she had asked for complete political
sovereignty on historical grounds; but this solution, which in-
volved the subjection of 650,000 Germans to French rule,
was rejected by her Allies, who would not even restore the
French frontier of 1814 in this region. But they conceded to
her the Saar coal-mines in full ownership, and, not without some
4 o
PEACE CONFERENCE
hesitation, agreed that for 15 years the Saar valley should be
withdrawn from the control of Germany and placed under the
League of Nations. At the end of that time the inhabitants were
to decide between three alternatives the status quo, union with
France, union with Germany. If they voted for Germany,
then France was to receive the price of the mines from Germany
or from the Reparations Commission.
(c) The Reparations Clauses were also of special interest to
France. Her representatives insisted passionately on " integral
reparation," the assessment of the damage actually done by
Germany and by her allies, and the exaction of the utmost
farthing. How otherwise, they asked, could France escape
bankruptcy? Many English and American experts were im-
pressed by the exhaustion of Germany, the danger of driving
her to desperation, the unwisdom of leaving her liability inde-
terminate for the many months which would pass before a com-
plete bill for damages could be presented; and they pressed
for taking in final quittance whatever sum (20 or 40 milliards
of marks at most) Germany could be compelled to pay at once.
The French view prevailed, but there was another battle over
the categories of damage, and Mr. Wilson was persuaded only
with great difficulty to admit that pensions and allowances to
combatants and to their families came within the terms of his
pre-Annistice conditions. There were further debates on the
capacity of Germany to pay and on the sum for which she might
conceivably be liable. In the end the extent both of her legal
liability and of the sum to be actually paid wai left for future
definition. Germany was to pay 20 milliards of gold marks in
cash and kind by May i 1921; and out of this sum the Allies
would pay for any foodstuffs or raw materials which they
considered indispensable to Germany. Two further sums,
each of 40 milliards, were to be exacted later, bringing the total
to 100 milliards; but this, in the words of the treaty, was only
" a first instalment." The final account would be presented by
the Reparations Commission before May i 1921, and would be
paid off by degrees over a period of 30 years, with interest at
5 per cent. On Sept. 5 1919 the French Minister of Finance
encouraged the Chamber to expect that 300 milliards might be
extracted from Germany. In Jan. 1921 the European Allies
agreed to exact one-third of this sum, payable with interest over
40 years, and supplemented by a tax of 12 per cent ad valorem
on German exports. This was rejected by Germany, but at the
end of April the Allies presented an ultimatum which was
accepted.
(d) The delimitation of the western frontier of Poland was
not effected without serious debates. France desired to treat
Poland liberally. Great Britain was impressed with the risk
of creating a new Germania irredenta to trouble the peace of
eastern Europe. The experts were anxious that due weight
should be given to Mr. Wilson's Thirteenth Point, which
stipulated that Poland should have a free and secure access to
the sea. Poland (supported by France) asked for full sovereignty
over Danzig and the approaches to that city. But the popula-
tion of Danzig was almost wholly German, and the frontier
demanded by Poland would have left 2,000,000 Germans under
Polish rule a solution which Mr. Lloyd George considered
inadmissible. Thanks to Mr. Lloyd George a compromise was
at last arranged which left Danzig a free city under the protection
of the League of Nations with a very exiguous degree of freedom.
The Polish frontier, in this compromise, was still drawn with
more regard to the economic interests of Poland than to the rights
of nationalities. But, before the German treaty was signed,
the frontier was again modified, and other changes were intro-
duced, in deference to the expostulations of the German dele-
gates; in particular it was determined that in Upper Silesia a
plebiscite should be held.
(e) Shantung was demanded by the Japanese plenipoten-
tiaries under the treaties which China had concluded with
Japan in 1915, but which, according to the Chinese plenipoten-
tiaries, had been extorted by force majeure; also under a secret
agreement of 1917 with the European Allies, to which the
United States had never adhered. For a long time Mr. Wilson
resisted the Japanese claim, but he finally accepted (April 30
1919) a compromise which the Chinese regarded with so much
disfavour that they declined to sign the German treaty. The
Japanese were allowed to keep the town of Kiaochow with the
adjacent district, and the right of exploiting the mines and the
railways in the Shantung peninsula; but they gave an oral under-
standing that they would restore the sovereignty of the penin-
sula to China " as soon as possible." Mr. Wilson subsequently
(Aug. 19) told a committee of the American Senate that he
would have preferred a different solution. But the Japanese
claim was pressed at a time when Italy seemed on the point of
seceding from the Conference; and a second secession would
have made it difficult to conclude any treaty with the Germans.
(/) The Italian claims to Austro-Hungarian territories were
continually under discussion during April. They were primarily
founded on the Treaty of London; but Sig. Orlando claimed
Fiume also, taking his stand in this case on the right of self-
determination which he otherwise repudiated. Mr. Wilson
at first argued that the Treaty of London was incompatible
with the principle, enunciated in the Fourteen Points, that
" a readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected
along clearly recognizable lines of nationality " (Point Nine).
But Sig. Orlando objected that Italy was not bound by this
principle, against which he himself had twice protested in the
Supreme War Council, when the terms of the German Armistice
were under discussion. His protests had been overruled at that
time, on the ground that they were irrelevant to the discus-
sions with Germany; but he had reserved the right to dispute
Point Nine, and he asserted this right to the fullest extent in
April. On April 14 Mr. Wilson gave way to the extent of in-
timating that he would accept the northern (Brenner) frontier
assigned to Italy by the Treaty of London, and would admit
Italy's claim (based on the same treaty) to Lissa and Valona;
but he required that Fiume, as the natural outlet for the trade
of Yugoslavia and Austria, should be made a free city within the
Yugoslav customs area, and he held that, as regarded Dalmatia,
Italy ought to be content with guarantees for the rights of the
Italian minorities living in that province. Subsequently he
rejected a proposal, made by M. Clemenceau and Mr. Lloyd
George, that Italy should be awarded Fiume in exchange for
a renunciation of her treaty claims upon Dalmatia; on April
20 he declined to discuss the Adriatic problem any further; and
on the 23rd he created a sensation by publishing a statement of
the grounds on which he resisted the Italian pretensions. Next
day Sig. Orlando left the Conference, and Baron Sonnino fol-
lowed him within 24 hours. On April 29 the Italian Chamber,
after hearing Orlando's account of the negotiations, reaffirmed
his definition of the Italian claims by an overwhelming majority.
On April 30 the German delegates arrived at Versailles and the
Council of Four (now reduced to three) had to face the possibil-
ity that Italy would not sign the treaty; at this time was drafted
the ratification clause which stipulates that the treaty shall come
into force as soon as ratified by Germany and any three of the
principal Powers. But on May 4 Orlando relented. He and
his colleagues reached Paris on May 7, a day too late for the
sixth plenary session which approved the draft treaty, but a few
hours before the draft was handed to the Germans at Versailles.
The Council had not surrendered to Italy on the Adriatic ques-
tion, but it was left open for future discussion.
The Draft Treaty and the German Delegates. Two considerable
sections of the treaty, the Covenant of the League and the
Labour Convention, had been finally approved on April 28 by
the fifth plenary session without much debate; the chief feature
of the proceedings was that Baron Makino and M. Bourgeois
expressed regret that the commission had not seen fit to accept
the Japanese and French amendments. The sixth plenary ses-
sion (May 6), which was held in secret to approve the treaty as
a whole, revealed more serious differences. The Chinese pro-
tested against the Shantung clauses, the Portuguese against the
African settlement, and Marshal Foch argued that the military
guarantees for the submission of Germany were inadequate.
His objection was met, to a certain extent, by the announcement,
PEACE CONFERENCE
on May 7, that the United States and Great Britain were pre-
pared to sign treaties with France, guaranteeing her against
German aggression. But the session of May 6 was remarkable
for the strong undercurrent of dissatisfaction among the minor
Powers "with special interests" (including the British Domin-
ions) who felt that their views had not been sufficiently con-
sidered. On May 7 at the Trianon the Conference saw the draft
treaty handed to Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, the principal
German delegate, and heard him deliver, without rising from
his chair, a sharp attack upon their dilatory methods. He
stated that, in the past six months, the blockade had been
responsible for hundreds of thousands of deaths in Germany.
" Think of that when you speak of guilt and punishment." He
and his countrymen accepted the liabilities to which they were
committed by the Armistice and Mr. Wilson's terms. They
were prepared to play their part in restoring Belgium and the
devastated areas of France. But he intimated that Germany
did not hope for a just peace. " We are under no illusions as to
the extent of our defeat and the degree of our helplessness; .
we know the power of the hatred that we encounter here."
Fifteen days were allowed the Germans for preparing their
reply, but the term of grace was eventually extended to May 29.
The German delegates, to expedite the negotiations, trans-
mitted their criticisms by instalments, each dealing with one
topic (League of Nations, Labour Charter, Saar Valley, etc.);
in some cases they tendered several notes successively on the
same subject. The Supreme Council had arranged that these
notes should be considered by 13 committees, each of which was
specially responsible for one section of the treaty, and interim
replies were returned to the Germans very promptly. Conse-
quently much of the disputed ground had been covered in pre-
liminary correspondence before the German counter-proposals
were presented as a whole; and M. Clemenceau was able to
dispatch the reply of the Allies on June 16. Both documents
were polemical in character. The Germans, besides criticising
many particular articles of the draft treaty, argued that its
general tenor was inconsistent with the terms of the pre-Armis-
tice agreement; and the Allies repudiated this imputation with
some heat. The main criticisms of the Germans are noted
below. Their counter-proposals were numerous, and only the
more striking can be given here: (a) Reparation. They offered
to pay a sum not exceeding 100 milliards of gold marks, partly
in gold but mainly in commodities and services; but they
claimed the right of appeal from the assessment of the Repara-
tions Committee to a neutral arbitrator. They would pay the
first 20 milliards by May i 1926; but they claimed credit for all
war material surrendered under the Armistice conditions, for
state railways and state property ceded along with Alsace-
Lorraine and the colonies, and for the share of the German
public debts which, as they maintained, these territories ought
to bear. No definite period was fixed for the payment of the
remaining 80 milliards, though it was stated that Germany would
allocate to this purpose annually a sum equal to the average
net peace budget of the empire before the war and it was stip-
ulated that no interest should be paid, (b) Territorial. They
demanded a plebiscite in Alsace-Lorraine which should give
the inhabitants an option between union with France, union
with Germany and complete independence. In lieu of the Saar
valley they offered to France fixed annual supplies of coal,
pending the reconstruction of the French mines. In lieu of ceding
West Poland, Danzig and Memel they offered to make Danzig,
Konigsberg and Memel free ports (under German sovereignty).
They demanded that Germany's claim to keep her colonies should
be referred to arbitration, (c) Commercial. They offered to
the Allies " most favoured nation " treatment in German
markets for a restricted number of years, upon condition of
complete reciprocity; and " national " treatment to Allied goods
passing over German railways (without a time limit) on the
same condition, (d) League of Nations. They offered to nego-
tiate on this subject, taking the Allies' draft covenant as a basis.
But, as conditions precedent to negotiation, they demanded
that Germany should be admitted immediately to the League;
that members of the League should be pledged to abstain from
waging economic war; that the Allied Powers should, within
two years, abolish compulsory military service and themselves
disarm, (e) Occupied Territory. They proposed that the armies
of occupation should be withdrawn within six months after
the signing of the treaty.
These proposals constituted a manifesto addressed to the
public outside the Conference; but in some particulars they
agreed with proposals which had been forcibly argued in the in-
most circles of the plenipotentiaries. M. Tardieu and Mr.
Wilson Harris have both stated, apparently on good authority,
that the idea of mitigating the treaty in essential details was be-
fore the Supreme Council at various dates from May 23 to
June 13, and that one reason for these discussions was a doubt
whether the treaty, as it stood, could be enforced on a recal-
citrant Germany. Mr. Lloyd George was now the spokesman
of the critics; among these were counted the leading members
of his Ministry, who, together with Dominion representatives,
had been summoned to a special meeting at Paris on June r.
He protested against the idea of maintaining a large army of
occupation for a considerable time. He was now (for a short
while at least) in favour of a fixed indemnity; he advocated re-
vision of the Polish frontier and the early admission of Germany
to the League of Nations. But it was hardly possible to rewrite
the treaty at this stage; the dangers of further delay were too
serious to be lightly accepted. On June 13 the movement for
revision came to an end. Its only consequences were some con-
cessions on secondary points. On Reparation and Military-
Occupation the Allies stood by their original draft. They con-
ceded some slight changes in the Polish frontier with the object
of bringing it " into closer harmony with the ethnographic
division." They agreed to a plebiscite in Upper Silesia. They
intimated that they were opening negotiations at once for an
eventual reduction of their own armaments. They withdrew a
provision for internationalizing the Kiel canal. They promised
that Germany, if she complied with the terms of the treaty,
should be admitted to the League of Nations " in the early
future." They invited Germany to offer, within four months
of the signing of the treaty, a lump sum in settlement of the whole
bill for reparation, but this suggestion was not accepted.
Signing of the Treaties of Versailles, June 28. All arrange-
ments had been made for a general advance of the Armies of
Occupation in case the German Government refused to sign the
treaty, and there were a few days of suspense while Count
Brockdorff-Rantzau was conferring with his colleagues at
Weimar. On June 20 the Scheidemann Cabinet resigned,
ostensibly because it would not consent to sign, but actually
from a well-founded consciousness that it no longer com-
manded the confidence of the German Labour party. On June
21 a new Premier, Herr Bauer, offered to sign on conditions:
he stated that the articles requiring the surrender of war crim-
inals and those declaring Germany to be the sole author of the
war must be omitted. He was told that conditions could not be
accepted, and on June 22 obtained the leave of the Weimar
National Assembly to sign unconditionally. Formal assurances
to this effect were given on June 23 at Versailles, through Herr
Haimhausen who, on the previous day, had succeeded Brock-
dorff-Rantzau as head of the German delegation. During the
last days of suspense the German warships interned at Scapa
Flow were sunk by their commanders, acting, it was stated, on
orders from the German Admiralty (June 21).
The new German Minister for Foreign Affairs, Herr Hermann
Mtiller, and his colleague Dr. Bell signed the treaty on June 28
in the Salle des Glaces at Versailles in the presence of all the
plenipotentiaries, except those of China, who absented them-
selves to emphasize their protest of May 6 against the Shantung
articles. Before and after this ceremony several subsidiary
treaties were signed: (a) Defensive treaties with France, by
Great Britain and the United States, undertaking to defend
France against unprovoked aggression. The British treaty
was ratified by Great Britain on Nov. 20 1919, but it was not
to become binding until the American treaty should be ratified;
PEACE CONFERENCE
and since American ratification was subsequently refused (see
UNITED STATES: History), the British treaty became a dead let-
ter, (b) A protocol defining certain ambiguous conditions in
the German treaty, (c) An agreement between the United
States, Belgium, the British Empire, France and Germany,
which defines the nature of the military occupation of the
Rhineland. (d) The Polish minorities treaty by which Po-
land contracts with the Allies and with Germany to respect
the civil and political rights of racial and religious minorities
within her jurisdiction. The idea of imposing such a treaty
was first laid before the Conference by Jewish associations,
whose fears were excited by the reports of Polish pogroms
in the winter of 1918-9; but it was also of great importance
for the protection of German and other non-Polish minorities.
Similar treaties were afterwards concluded by the principal
Powers with Czechoslovakia, with Rumania and with Yugo-
slavia. The main Treaty of Versailles was ratified by Presi-
dent Ebert, on behalf of Germany, on July 10; by the
King of Italy, by King George V. and by President Poincare
in Oct. 1919. But it was not till Jan. 10 1920, when Germany at
last signed a protocol agreeing to give compensation for the
ships which had been scuttled at Scapa Flow, that the final
exchange of ratifications took place at Paris, and the state of
war between the European Allies (but not the United States)
and Germany was formally terminated.
Treaty of Versailles Territorial Terms. Germany surrenders
Alsace and Lorraine to France, free and quit of all public debts
(Arts. 51, 55), and accepts the arrangements regarding the
Saar basin which have been described above (Art. 45-50).
Luxemburg ceases to form part of the German ZoUverein, and
Germany renounces all rights over the railways in Luxemburg
(Art. 40). Belgium receives Moresnet neutre and part of Prussian
Moresnet (Arts. 32, 33); also Eupen and Malmedy (Art. 34)
subject to the result of a plebiscite, which was held in Sept.
1920 and resulted in the final reunion of these districts to Bel-
gium, by whom they had been continuously claimed since 1815.
These acquisitions give Belgium some valuable forests and rail-
way stations and a population of about 70,000 souls. The frontier
between Germany and Denmark is to be settled in accordance
with the wishes of the population (Art. 109); these were ascer-
tained by plebiscites held in North Schleswig (Feb. 10 1920)
and in Central Schleswig (March 14 1920) when the former
district voted for reunion with Denmark and the latter voted
for Germany. Under Art. 87 Germany recognizes the complete
independence of Poland and surrenders Danzig together with
the territories received by Prussia under the partitions of
Poland (Posnania, W. Prussia) and part of Middle Silesia;
in 1910 these districts had a population of 2,931,000 souls of
whom 1,087,000 were Germans. Article 88 provides for the
plebiscite in Upper Silesia which had been conceded on June
16 1919; the voting (March 21 1921) seemed to prove that
this clause was a concession of substance, and the subsequent
award of the League of Nations (Oct. 1921) , in favour of Poland,
was correspondingly disappointing to Germany. By Arts. 94 and
96 plebiscites are ordered for the Masurenland region of East
Prussia, and the West Prussian Kreise of Stuhm, Marienburg,
Marienwerder and Rosenberg; in July 1920 both plebiscites pro-
duced substantial majorities for Germany. By Art. 99 Memel
with the adjacent territory (total pop. 122,000 souls) is detached
from East Prussia and put at the disposal of the principal
Powers, who intended that Memel should be the port of Lithu-
ania but had not, up to May 1921, given effect to that intention.
Article too similarly assigns Danzig (pop. 200,000) to the prin-
cipal Powers, who (in accordance with this Article) have recog-
nized Danzig as a free city with an elected legislature under a high
commissioner appointed by the League of Nations. But Poland
will control the Vistula and the main railways within the terri-
tory of Danzig, and will be responsible for the foreign rela-
tions of the city, which is also to be brought within the
Polish customs area (Art. 104).
Under Art. 156 Germany abandons to Japan her rights in
the Shantung peninsula; she also renounces her concessions in
Hankow and Tientsin (Art. 132), her privileges in Egypt under
the Capitulations (Art. 147) and all her treaty rights in Morocco
(Art. 141). By Art. 119 she renounces in favour of the principal
Powers all her overseas possessions. These, in accordance with
Art. 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, will be ad-
ministered by mandatories of the League. The Supreme Council
made, on May 6 1919, a provisional distribution of mandates for
the German colonies. German E. Africa was allotted to Great
Britain, by whom it was renamed Kenya Colony (July 8 1920);
but on May 30 1919, Great Britain resigned the districts of
Urundi and Ruanda, which border on the Belgian Congo, to
be held by Belgium under a separate mandate. German S.W.
Africa went to the Dominion of South Africa. France and
Great Britain received a joint mandate for Togoland and
Cameroon, with permission to delimit their respective juris-
dictions by mutual agreement. German New Guinea was en-
trusted to Australia, German Samoa to New Zealand, the
island of Nauru (a rich source of phosphates) to Great Britain,
the German islands in the North Pacific to Japan. But the
United States subsequently announced (Feb. 21 1921) that Mr.
Wilson did not agree to the island of Yap, an important cable
station, being included in the Japanese mandate, and this
question was one of the matters considered at the Washington
Conference. (See WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.)
Treaty of Versailles Reparations and Financial and Com-
mercial Terms. The articles of the treaty which define the
sums to be paid by Germany have been epitomized above.
The annexes to the Reparations section specify some of the pay-
ments in kind which Germany is to make immediately on
account of reparation: (a) She is to surrender all her merchant
ships of i, 600 tons gross and upward; one-half of her merchant
ships between 1,600 and 1,000 tons gross; also one-quarter of her
fishing fleet and a proportion not exceeding one-fifth of her river
craft. By Feb. 10 1920 she had surrendered vessels of over
1,000 tons amounting to 1,824,828 tons gross, (b) She is to fur-
nish live stock, machinery, equipment, tools and building ma-
terials for the reconstruction of devastated areas, (c) During
the next 10 years she is to find annually 7,000,000 tons of coal
for France, 8,000,000 tons for Belgium, and for Italy deliveries
amounting on the average to 8,000,000 tons per annum. Also
she is to make good the difference between the actual output
of the French pits in the Nord and Pas de Calais and their pre-
war average output. But, since May 1920, her total liability
for coal has been reduced to 2,000,000 tons a month. According
to the Conference note of June 16 1919, the Germans might
terminate this system of payment in kind as soon as they pleased
after May i 1921. " If Germany raises the money required in
her own way, the Reparations Commission cannot order that it
shall be raised in some other way."
The Reparations Commission is a body appointed, under Art.
233, with the duties of estimating Germany's liabilities and her
capacity to pay, of insisting on the due performance of her
obligations to pay in gold and in kind, and of seeing that the
German scheme of taxation " is fully as heavy proportionately
as that of any of the Powers represented on the Commission."
The Commission is to consist of seven delegates representing
the principal Powers, Belgium and Yugoslavia; but no more
than five of these may vote at any meeting. The United States,
Great Britain, France and Italy have a vote on every occasion;
Japan and Yugoslavia only vote when their special interests
are concerned; Belgium votes when neither Japan nor Yugo-
slavia is entitled to do so. On certain questions the unanimous
vote of the meeting is required to make the decision valid; as,
for instance, on the question of cancelling the whole or any part
of the debt or obligations of Germany. The powers assigned to
the Commission were severely criticised at the Conference by
the German delegates, who said that they were greater than
those which any German emperor had ever possessed in Ger-
many. It remained, however, to be seen how those powers
would be utilized afterwards. The Commission has consider-
able powers under the other treaties, being made responsible,
directly or indirectly, for the execution of the Reparations
PEACE CONFERENCE
43
clauses in each; and it was conceivable that it might remain in
existence for the next 42 years, or even longer.
The financial clauses provide that Germany shall pay the
costs of the armies of occupation (Art. 249). They safeguard
the right of the Allied and Associated Powers to dispose of
enemy assets and property within their respective jurisdictions
(Art. 252) a clause of great importance since the German
assets held by Great Britain exceeded 120,000,000 sterling,
and those held by the United States exceeded $500,000,000.
On the other hand, ceded German territories, other than
Alsace-Lorraine and the German colonies, are to be burdened
with a due proportion of the German pre-war debt (Arts. 254,
255, 257). Germany transfers to the Allies any claims she may
have to payment or repayment by Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria
and Turkey (Art. 261).
The most striking feature of the commercial terms is that they
impose on Germany a number of unilateral obligations for limited
periods of time. For five years she must grant " most favoured
nation " treatment to the Allies, in respect of both her imports
and her exports (Arts. 264-7). F r fi ye years goods imported
into Germany from Alsace-Lorraine, up to the average quanti-
ties of the years 1011-3, are to be free from German import
duties; and imports from the ex-German provinces of Poland
are similarly privileged for three years (Art. 268). The Allies
may impose a special customs regime on the occupied territories
" to safeguard the economic interests of the population " (Art.
270). For three years Germany may not raise the import duties
an certain commodities (chiefly produced by Belgium and Italy)
above the lowest rates to which these commodities were liable
before July 31 1914 (Art. 269).
Treaty of Versailles Military, Naval and Air Clauses.
iermany is required to abolish universal compulsory military
ervice (Art. 173) ; her army is to be reduced, by a fixed date
which was originally March 31 1920, but subsequently altered
to Jan. i 1921 to a maximum total of 100,000 officers and
men (Art. 160). The great general staff and all similar organiza-
tions are to be dissolved (ib.), and associations of all kinds are
forbidden to instruct or exercise their members in the use of
arms (Art. 177). The standing army is to be composed of
volunteers recruited on a long-service system (Arts. 173-5).
The stock of arms, munitions and military equipment which
Germany may provide for this army is strictly limited; and the
manufacture of such materials may only be carried out in
factories approved by the Allies (Art. 168). All such materials
excess of Germany's legitimate requirements are to be sur-
rendered within two months after the treaty comes into force
(Art. 169). Germany is required to destroy all fortifications
on the right bank of the Rhine within a distance of 50 km. from
the river, and in the whole of her territory on the left bank
(Art. 180). The size of her navy is defined; she may not keep
more than 6 battleships, 6 light cruisers, 12 destroyers and 12
torpedo-boats; no submarines are allowed (Art. 181). She is to
surrender 8 battleships, 8 light cruisers, 42 destroyers and 50
torpedo-boats (Art. 185), all her submarines (Art. 188), all
military and naval aeroplanes and dirigibles (Art. 202). War-
ships and submarines still under construction are to be broken
up. Germany's air forces are to be entirely disbanded by Oct.
i 1919 (Art. 199). The personnel of her navy, including officers,
is not to exceed 15,000, and is to be recruited on a long-service
system (Arts. 183, 194). The execution of these terms will be
supervised by inter-Allied Commissions of Control armed with
full powers of inspection and investigation (Arts. 203-210).
Criticisms of the Treaty. One of the earliest critics was Gen.
Smuts, who signed the treaty on behalf of South Africa, and on
the same day issued a statement in which he spoke of " terri-
torial settlements that will need revision " and " indemnities
stipulated which cannot be exacted without grave injury to the
industrial revival of Europe." He said that he had signed
" because the real work of making peace will only begin after
this Treaty has been signed." Mr. J. M. Keynes, till June 10
the chief finance expert of the British delegation, has argued
(in his book on Economic Consequences of the Peace, published
in Nov. 1919) that the claims of the Allies to reparation have
been unjustifiably inflated by claims for separation allowances
and pensions to the families of combatants, and for pensions
and for compensation money paid to the wounded and disabled ;
and that the demands made on Germany are out of all relation
to her capacity to pay. These points are naturally taken in the
German counter-proposals of May 29, which accuse the Allies
of desiring to fasten " a system of slave labour " upon Germany.
" If," says this document, " they impose upon Germany a
debt which robs her of every possibility of a future; if as a con-
sequence every improvement of Germany's economic condition,
which the German people might achieve by tireless diligence
and Spartan thrift, would lead simply to this, that even greater
payments for the discharge of this debt would be imposed
upon us, then any delight in creative work, any spirit of initia-
tive, would perish for all time in Germany." The experience of
1920 and 1921 showed that this prophecy was overdrawn, but
it has suggested to more recent critics the reflection that the
Allies might have obtained more, if they had demanded less.
Experience has also shown the unreality of the terrifying picture
which the Germans, and also Mr. Keynes, presented of the
Reparations Commission as a despotic tribunal created " to
exploit the labour of the German people for the benefit of the
creditor states." Another subject which frequently recurs in
the German note is that of the treatment accorded to German
private property in the dominions of the Allies, in Alsace-
Lorraine and in the German colonies. They objected to the
general policy of liquidation and of referring the expropriated
persons to the German Government for compensation. They
argued that, by international law, private property ought to
have been respected even during the war. They complained
that the Allies reserved the right to liquidate German property
in their own territories for an indefinite period after the war.
They pointed out that Germany could only compensate the suf-
ferers by printing more and more paper money, in which case
" Germany with her currency constantly depreciating would be
forced to flood the world market with goods at ridiculously low
prices." But the greatest emphasis of all is laid on the com-
plaint that the Allies, by the terms of their treaty, are violating
the " innate rights of nation." The right of sovereignty is said
to be infringed by the powers of the Reparations Commission
and of the International Commission appointed to control the
navigation of the Elbe, the Oder, the Niemen, the Rhine and
the Upper Danube. The seizure of her colonies is represented
as meaning that Germany is denied " the right and the duty
to cooperate in the joint task which devolves upon civilized
mankind of exploring the world scientifically and of educating
the backward races." It is further alleged that the right of self-
determination has been consistently overridden in the territorial
settlement, inasmuch as the fate of the Saar valley (for 15
years), of Alsace-Lorraine, of Danzig and Memel, has been
settled without a plebiscite, and Austria is virtually forbidden
to throw in her lot with Germany, however greatly the popula-
tions concerned desire this union. On the topic of self-deter-
mination the Allies showed themselves particularly sensitive in
their reply of June 16 1919. This principle, as we have seen;
had already caused them some embarrassment; they had not
all interpreted it alike; and Mr. Wilson himself had reluctantly
waived its application in certain cases which were complicated
by economic or strategical considerations. On the other hand
the Allies absolutely declined to discuss the categories of damage
for which they were demanding reparation, and merely asserted
that this part of the treaty had been drafted " with scrupulous
regard to the correspondence leading up to the Armistice of
Nov. ii 1918."
The Austrian Treaty Negotiations. The drafting of the
Austrian treaty was begun some time before the German treaty
had been signed, and the Austrian delegates arrived at St.
Germain-en-Laye on May 14 1919. But there were unexpected
delays in completing the first draft, which could not be sub-
mitted to the seventh plenary session until May 29. Even then
the military, financial and reparation terms and part of the
44
PEACE CONFERENCE
political terms were reserved; and in this incomplete form the
draft was handed (on June 2) to Dr. Renner, the principal
Austrian delegate. On the same day the Serb-Croat-Slovene
state (Yugoslavia) was formally recognized by France and
Great Britain, who thus at length followed the example set by
Mr. Wilson nearly four months before (Feb. 5). Even in its in-
complete state the draft showed the great concessions which
had been made, at Austria's expense, to Italy and to Czecho-
slovakia. By May 29 Mr. Wilson had withdrawn his opposition
to the Italian claim (under the secret Treaty of London) for
a frontier which touched the crest of the Brenner Pass and gave
Italy 200,000 German subjects. The draft showed this frontier.
It also showed that the 3,000,000 Germans living within the
historic boundaries of Bohemia, Moravia and Slovakia were to
be included in the Czechoslovak state. Against these arrange-
ments the Austrian delegates protested in vain. They were
more successful when they claimed the German districts of
western Hungary as being not only German in sentiment but
also economically indispensable to Austria (" the kitchen gar-
den of Vienna ") and her natural bulwark against unprovoked
attacks from the side of Hungary. This claim was granted
on July 20, perhaps the more readily because of the defiant
attitude of Bela Kun, the leader of the Hungarian Bolsheviks,
who was still in possession of Budapest. The Austrian delegates
asked the permission of the Conference for a plebiscite in western
Hungary, but were told that this formality was needless, the
sympathies of the population being unmistakable. Nevertheless
western Hungary was still in the hands of the Hungarian Govern-
ment till the autumn of 1921. A smaller, but still valuable
concession, was that which restored to Austria the important
railway junction of Radkersburg, originally assigned to Yugo-
slavia. The draft ordered a plebiscite to be taken in the Klagen-
furt basin, which was claimed on ethnological grounds by the
Yugoslavs and had been forcibly occupied by Yugoslav troops.
Though the administration of the basin was provisionally
assigned to Austria, the Austrians appear to have assumed that
the plebiscite would be so managed as to ensure the victory of
their rivals at the polls; and they lodged some protests on this
assumption, which in fact was falsified. When at last the
plebiscite was held (Oct. 10 1920), it was found that the whole
of the disputed area preferred to remain under Austrian rule.
In the course of the negotiations with the Austrian delegates
it became clear that the principal Powers as a whole were far
more leniently disposed to Austria than the form of the Austrian
draft treaty appeared to suggest. The draft had been con-
structed on the same lines as the German treaty, and the effect
of the Austrian reparation clauses was to convey an impression
of greater severity than was in fact intended. As in the German
treaty, so in the Austrian, the total sum to be demanded was left
uncertain. Austria was required to pay, by May i 1921, " a
reasonable sum " which would be assessed by the Reparations
Commission (Art. 181); and her remaining liability was to be
defined by that body after that of Germany had been fixed
(Art. 179). But, out of the " reasonable sum " to be paid in the
first instance, the commission were to pay for any supplies
of food and raw material which it deemed essential to Austria;
and the Conference soon discovered that Austria was quite
incapable of paying, either in gold or in kind, for the relief that
she required and received. Austria was obliged to resign all
claims to the merchant shipping owned by her nationals. She
was required to find a quantity of live stock for the devastated
areas of Italy, Yugoslavia and Rumania. But, in 1921, the
Allies decided to waive all their outstanding claims against her
on account of reparation. This act of grace makes it unnecessary
to dwell upon the insistence with which the Supreme Council
in 1919 emphasized their right to treat the new Austria a
' state of 7,000,000 souls as the legal heir to the liabilities of the
Austrian Monarchy. The chief advantage which the principal
Powers derived from this attitude was that of a legal title to
dispose of the severed lands of the Austrian Monarchy. These
lands the new Austria renounces (under Arts. 36, 47, 53, 59, 89
of the treaty) in favour of the beneficiaries appointed by the
Conference. Similarly she renounces the interests of the old
Austria outside Europe (Arts. 95-117).
Several concessions, other than those enumerated above, were
notified to the Austrian delegates between June 2 and the date
of signature, (i) The Supreme Council promised to support
Austria's claim to membership of the League of Nations as
soon as she possessed a responsible Government which had both
the will and the' power to fulfil its international obligations.
This promise was fulfilled, and Austria was admitted to the
League late in 1920 at a session held in Geneva. (2) The
Council also conceded that the property of Austrian nationals
in the former territories of the Dual Monarchy should not be
liable to detention or confiscation by the Governments of those
territories (Art. 267). (3) They sanctioned a temporary system
(to last for five years) of preferential customs duties between
Austria on the one side and Hungary and Czechoslovakia on the
other (Art. 222). (4) They reduced from five to three years the
period during which the new states could claim " most favoured
nation" treatment in Austria without reciprocity (Art. 232).
The second draft of the treaty was handed to the Austrian
delegates on July 20 and was practically complete. The Austrians
presented their final observations on Aug. 6; the Supreme Council
gave its final reply on Sept. 2. On Sept. 8 the Austrian National
Assembly, while protesting against the terms, authorized its
delegates to sign; and this ceremony took place at St. Germain-
en-Laye on Sept. 10. But Rumania and Yugoslavia refused to
sign because by doing so they would have pledged themselves
to accept Minorities Treaties, similar in character and intention
to that which Poland had signed at Versailles on June 28, under
the terms of the German treaty. The argument which the
principal Powers stated in defence of the Minorities Treaties
was forcibly put by Mr. Wilson at the eighth plenary session
(May 31). These Powers could not be expected to guarantee
the independence and integrity of the new states, unless the
latter would on their side guarantee equality of rights to the
minorities, racial or religious, which, under the terms of the
peace settlement, were being transferred from the allegiance
of ex-enemy Governments. But this argument did not fit the
case of Rumania or of Yugoslavia so completely as that of
Poland or of Czechoslovakia. Rumania and Yugoslavia were
old states, and (though greatly enlarged by the peace settle-
ment) denied the right of the Conference to limit their sov-
ereignty by special stipulations. They might have accepted
minority treaties applying exclusively to new territories ac-
quired under the peace settlement; but the Minorities Treaties
presented for their signature applied indifferently to old and new
territories alike. Eventually they were obliged to give way;
but they did not sign the Austrian treaty and the Minorities
Treaties until Dec. 10 1919, after receiving an ultimatum from
the Conference. The final ratification of the Austrian treaty
took place on July 16 1920.
Summary of Austrian Treaty. The new Austria includes the
provinces of N. Tirol and Vorarlberg, Salzburg, Carinthia,
Styria (N. of the Drave), a strip of western Hungary and
Upper and Lower Austria. The treaty reserves for future deter-
mination considerable sectors of the frontier on the E. and S.E.,
but the Klagenfurt plebiscite has settled the most important
of the doubtful points in Austria's favour. Unlike Germany,
Austria has been obliged to give explicit guarantees of the rights
of her minorities; these guarantees may, however, be modified
with the assent of a majority of the Council of the League of
Nations (Arts. 62-9). Under the military clauses the Austrian
army may not exceed a total of 30,000 officers and men, and is
to be constituted and recruited by voluntary enlistment (Arts.
119, 120). Stocks of guns, munitions and equipment are re-
stricted as in the German treaty, and surplus stocks are to be
surrendered, and no air forces may be maintained. A special
section of the Reparations Commission is constituted to assess
and to collect the payments due from Austria (Art. 179); it is
to include representatives of the United States, Great Britain,
France, Italy, Greece, Poland, Rumania, Yugoslavia and Czecho-
slovakia; but the four first named Powers have two votes apiece,
PEACE CONFERENCE
45
and thus constitute a majority. Besides the " reasonable sum "
to be paid before May i 1921 (Art. 181), Austria is required to
hand over all merchant ships and fishing-boats owned by
nationals of the former Austrian Monarchy, and up to 20% of
her river fleet; also animals, machinery and equipment, up to
the limits of her capacity, for the restoration of devastated
territories. Immediate delivery is required of specified quantities
of live stock for Serbia, Rumania and Italy. Austria is made
liable for so much of the Austrian war debt as is held outside
the boundaries of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy; but she is not
liable for war debt bonds which are held by other states, or by
their nationals, within those boundaries (Art. 205). All trans-
ferred territories of the monarchy are to be liable for their fair
share of the pre-war Austrian debt (Art. 203). Austria re-
nounces all claims to the state property, including royal prop-
erty, lying within the transferred territories; but the states
acquiring such property will be debited, and Austria will be
credited, with its value by the Reparations Commission (Art.
208). The commercial clauses are similar to those of the German
treaty. In the clauses relating to ports, railways and rivers,
it is provided that the old Danube commission shall be revived,
and that the Upper Danube (from Ulm downwards) shall be
controlled by a new commission on which Great Britain, France,
Italy, Rumania and the riparian states will be represented
(Arts. 301, 302). Austria is guaranteed free access by railway
to the Adriatic through the territories and the ports which
have been severed from the monarchy (Art. 311).
The Austrian treaty is supplemented by two special agree-
ments which were signed at St. Germain-en-Laye on Sept. 10
1919. By the first of these Poland, Rumania, Yugoslavia and
Czechoslovakia agree with the other Allied and Associated
Powers to make separate payments, not exceeding in the aggre-
gate 1,500,000,000 gold francs, as a contribution to the costs
of liberating the territories which have been transferred to them
from the monarchy. By the second Italy agrees to make a
similar payment, in consideration of the provinces assigned to
her. None of these payments was to be made before 1926.
The Bulgarian Treaty, Nov. 241919. The Bulgarian delegates,
headed by M. Theodoroff, the Prime Minister, arrived in Paris
on July 26, but did not receive the draft treaty until Sept. 19.
The terms were not altogether unexpected, for M. Theodoroff
had lodged objections against some of them on Sept. 2. But five
weeks elapsed before the formal observations of the delegates
were presented to the Supreme Council (Oct. 24). The Bul-
garians demurred to the terms of the territorial settlement,
which were thought by critics on the side of the Allies to be too
lenient; they also complained that Bulgaria was harshly treated
in not being immediately admitted to the League of Nations.
They protested that Bulgaria could not afford to abolish con-
scription and maintain an army of volunteers, even on the small
scale prescribed by the draft treaty. The Supreme Council in
their reply (Nov. 3) promised speedy admission to the League,
but made no other concession of substance. Further remon-
strances from the Bulgarians merely led M. Clemenceau to
intimate (Nov. 5) that the treaty as it stood must be either
accepted or rejected within ten days. By this time M. Theo-
doroff had resigned office. His party had been severely defeated
at a general election held in Aug., and he shrank from the
invidious responsibility of signing the treaty. A new Govern-
ment was formed by the leader of the Agrarian party, M.
Stambolisky; and, on Nov. 13, Bulgaria's acceptance of the
inevitable was notified to the Supreme Council. The treaty was
signed at Neuilly-sur-Seine on Nov. 27, M. Stambolisky acting
as the sole signatory for Bulgaria.
The general principle of the territorial terms is to restore the
frontiers of 1914; but Bulgaria cedes to the principal Powers
the share of Thrace which had been left to her by the Treaty of
Bucharest; the Powers undertake to provide (by arrangement
with Greece) outlets for Bulgarian trade on the Aegean. Certain
districts are transferred (for strategic reasons) from Bulgaria
to Yugoslavia; the most important of these districts contains
the town of Strumitza. It is stated that further transferences of
territory to Yugoslavia were considered at the Conference, but
were rejected on ethnological grounds as they would have
affected districts in which the Bulgarian nationality prepon-
derates. The reparation terms are more definite than those of
the German and Austrian treaties. Bulgaria is required to pay
2,250,000,000 gold francs by half-yearly instalments extending
over a period of 37 years. An inter- Allied commission of three
members (representing France, Great Britain and Italy) will
remain in Bulgaria to see that the reparation terms are duly
honoured. This body will decide how the half-yearly payments
are to be raised. It will prepare a list of the taxes and other
revenues which are to be appropriated to reparation. If Bulgaria
makes default in respect of any instalment, the commission
may assume the duty of collecting the appropriated revenues.
The commission may also recommend the Central Reparations
Commission to give a time of grace for any particular instal-
ment, or to reduce Bulgaria's liability. Such a recommendation
will take effect if it is endorsed by a majority of the Reparations
Commission. Bulgaria must provide, by way of restitution,
specified quantities of live stock for the devastated areas in Greece,
Rumania and Yugoslavia. She must also supply Yugoslavia
with 50,000 tons of coal annually for five years. The maximum
size of the Bulgarian army is fixed at 20,000 officers and men,
raised by voluntary enlistment; but Bulgaria may maintain
gendarmes, customs officials, forest guards and some other kinds
of police and frontier guards (all armed with rifles) up to the
number of 13,000. All Bulgarian war-vessels (including sub-
marines) are to be surrendered or broken up, except four tor-
pedo-boats and six motor-boats. No air forces may be main-
tained, no submarines may be built or otherwise acquired. The
importation of arms and munitions is prohibited; only one
munitions factory is permitted. No new fortifications may be
constructed in Bulgaria.
The Hungarian Treaty, June 4 1920. The Hungarian delegates
did not appear in Paris until Jan. 7 1920, and over six months
elapsed before the Treaty of the Trianon was signed. But the
main features of this treaty had been settled long before the
Peace Conference dissolved. Except in the territorial terms it
was closely parallel to the Austrian treaty. The Supreme
Council had informed Bela Kun on June 13 1919 what territories
would be transferred to Czechoslovakia and Rumania; and on
July 20 1919 the German districts of western Hungary were prom-
ised to Austria. But some time elapsed before Hungary acquired
a Government which commanded the confidence of the Allies.
Late in July 1919 Bela Kun was overthrown by the Rumanians,
whom he had attacked on the line of the river Theiss. The
Rumanians then occupied Budapest, and permitted the Arch-
duke Joseph to assume the title of Administrator, with the
support of a number of ex-officers (Aug. 6). The Archduke
applied to the Supreme Council for recognition; but the Council
insisted that he should resign, and that steps should be taken
to form a coalition Government (Aug. 22). The Archduke then
effaced himself, but his Premier, M. Friedrich, remained in
office until the Rumanians evacuated Budapest in November.
At last on Nov. 24 a coalition Government was formed under
M. Huszar, and M. Friedrich joined the new Cabinet as Minister
for War. M. Huszar was promptly recognized by the Supreme
Council (Dec. i), in spite of the fact that the strength of his
position had not yet been tested by a general election. This,
however, took place early in 1920 and produced a National
Assembly whose sentiments were comparatively reasonable.
The draft treaty was handed to the Hungarian delegates on
Jan. 15 1920, a week before the termination of the Conference;
the negotiations were left to be conducted by the Council of
Ambassadors. On Feb. 12 the Hungarians presented counter-
proposals and observations which were the reverse of con-
ciliatory. They argued that the position of the Magyars in
Hungary was an exact parallel to that of the Czechoslovaks in
Bohemia, and asked why the principle of self-determination
had been differently applied to the two cases. They asked that
the Szeklers of E. Transylvania should be left under Hungarian
rule; that all the territories which Hungary was required to
4 6
PEACE CONFERENCE
surrender should remain within the Hungarian customs regime
for a period of years; that no territories should be transferred
without a plebiscite, or, alternatively, that better safeguards
should be provided for the rights of Magyar minorities. These
requests came too late for serious consideration. All the am-
bassadors would promise was that the League of Nations should
be free to consider any minor rectifications of boundaries which
the frontier commissions might recommend on ethnological or
economic grounds. It is remarkable that this reply, which only
involved small alterations in the draft treaty, was not trans-
mitted until May 6. There was one Hungarian pretension with
which the Allies dealt more promptly. The Huszar Government
claimed that Hungary was still a monarchy, though the royal
dignity was in suspense; it was no secret that many Hungarians
still desired a Habsburg dynasty. But on Feb. 2 1920 Great
Britain, France and Italy declared that a Habsburg restoration
in Hungary would violate the fundamental principles of the
peace settlement. The Hungarian royalists did not even then
abandon all hope; the monarchical character of the constitution
was reaffirmed by the Government on March 23. But since the
signature of the Treaty of the Trianon the three states of
Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Rumania have combined in a
" Little Entente " which avowedly exists to defeat any Hun-
garian project for a Habsburg restoration.
The only parts of the Hungarian treaty which call for com-
ment are those which fix the future boundaries of Hungary and
the allocation of the transferred provinces. On the N. the new
frontier gives to Czechoslovakia the southern slopes of the Car-
pathians, mainly though not entirely populated by Slovaks.
To provide Czechoslovakia with a frontage on the Danube and
to secure the economic unity of the Carpathian territories, the
frontier line has been so drawn as to place large Magyar popula-
tions under Czechoslovak rule. Similarly Rumania receives not
only Transylvania, in the E. of which there is a compact Magyar
(Szekler) minority, but also a broad strip of the Hungarian
plain to the W., in which the chief towns are Magyar, in order
that Transylvania's railway communications with the Danube
may be adequately secured. The Banat, which is divided
between Rumania and Yugoslavia, has a mixed population, pre-
dominantly Slav in the western and predominantly Rumanian
in the eastern half of the province. The German element in the
eastern Banat is considerable and would no doubt have pre-
ferred to remain under Hungarian rule. But the chief difficulty
which the Conference experienced in dealing with the Banat
was the adjustment of the conflicting claims of Yugoslavia and
Rumania. For the Allies, in their secret treaty of Aug. 1916
with Rumania, had promised her the whole of the Banat,
without regard to the historic claims of Serbia. At the Con-
ference M. Bratianu pressed for the fulfilment of the secret
treaty. He was met with the reply that Rumania herself had
cancelled it by making peace with the Central Powers in May
1918; but he continued to reiterate his demands until the terms
of the partition of the Banat were irrevocably settled by the
Conference and announced to the world (June 13 1919). To
this incident were due the Rumanian occupation of Budapest,
the intrigue with the Archduke Joseph (which seems to have
included a plan for the union of the Rumanian and Hungarian
crowns) and the delay of Rumania in signing her Minorities
Treaty.
Like Austria, Hungary is precluded from alienating her in-
dependence, except with the consent of the Council of the
League of Nations (Art. 73). She is required to pay a reasonable
sum, fixed by the Reparations Commission, before May i 1921;
her total liability will be fixed by the same body (Arts. 163, 165)
and the balance is to be paid in half-yearly instalments over a
period of 30 years, unless payment is respited or remitted by
the Allies. She is to surrender all her merchant shipping, up to
20% of her river fleet, and an indefinite quantity of live stock
(at the discretion of the Reparations Commission) for devastated
countries.
The Adriatic Question. When the Italian plenipotentiaries
reappeared at Paris in May 1919 they were offered by the
American delegation the so-called Tardieu Compromise, under
which Fiume and its hinterland would have constituted an inde-
pendent state for 15 years, and a plebiscite would afterwards
have been taken to ascertain the views of the inhabitants. To
this compromise, it is alleged, Sig. Orlando gave his consent;
but the Yugoslav delegates insisted on unacceptable amend-
ments, and the American attempt at mediation was dropped at
that time. Subsequently the Italian poet D'Annunzio, at the
head of a band of volunteers, occupied Fiume (Sept. 12) while
fresh negotiations were in progress (at Washington) between Mr.
Wilson and the Italian Government. In spite of this coup d'etat,
which was disavowed by Italy, the American negotiations con-
tinued; by Oct. 27 Italy had agreed that Fiume should be a free
state under the protection of the League of Nations and had
resigned her claims on Dalmatia, while Mr. Wilson was pre-
pared to recognize Italy's sovereignty over the Pelagosa group,
Lissa, Lussin, Unie and the port of Valona. The Adriatic posi-
tion was then examined more minutely at Paris by M. Clemen-
ceau, Sir Eyre Crowe and Mr. Polk. These three proposed that
Italy should be offered a protectorate over the Dalmatian city
of Zara, but that she should be asked to abandon her demands
upon the isle of Lagosta and the eastern part of Istria, and also
her proposal that the city of Fiume should be made independent
of the free state of Fiume. The offer did not satisfy Sig. Nitti,
who intimated that Italy, in default of a more acceptable scheme
for a compromise, would take her stand on the secret Treaty of
London. To this Mr. Lloyd George and M. Clemenceau replied
that they too were willing in the last resort to abide by that
treaty, but on Jan. 14 1920 they offered new terms which were
distinctly more favourable to Italy than those of Dec. 9 1919.
The new terms were drafted after Mr. Polk had left Paris for
Washington, and were presented to Sig. Nitti before the U.S.
Government had been consulted regarding them. Accordingly
Mr. Lansing intimated, on Jan. 20, that Mr. Wilson could not
admit the right of France and England to modify, on their own
responsibility, the only terms of compromise to which an
American representative had subscribed. The French and
British Prime Ministers argued, in reply, that their new pro-
posals were actually more favourable to Yugoslavia than those
of Dec. 9, and were intended to save France and England from
the necessity of honouring the Treaty of London, to which, as
was notorious, Mr. Wilson had always objected. But on Feb.
10 Mr. Wilson stated precisely his objections to the terms of
Jan. 14. They gave to Italy the whole of Istria and the prospect
of a future protectorate over Fiume. They also provided for
the partition of Albania between Yugoslavia, Italy and Greece.
Mr. Wilson stated that he could not cooperate with the European
Allies if they allowed the admitted principles of justice to be
overborne " by the country possessing most endurance in
pressing its demands." The upshot of the controversy was that
Italy and Yugoslavia were left to settle their differences, if they
could, by separate negotiations, with the proviso that they must
not come to terms at the expense of Albania. It took some
time to reach this consummation. But on Nov. 12 1920 Italy
and Yugoslavia concluded the Treaty of Rapallo, and on Jan. 2
1921 D'Annunzio's garrison at Fiume surrendered to the Italian
Government. Albania, thanks to Mr. Wilson's intervention,
has established an independent Government and has been ad-
mitted (Dec. 17 1920) as a member of the League of Nations.
The Adriatic question was thus provisionally settled, nearly a
year after the close of the Conference, but still on lines which
the Conference had suggested.
The Turkish Treaty. The Turkish question was discussed
at Paris in May and June 1919, but the drafting of the Turkish
treaty was not seriously taken in hand until the London Con-
ference of Feb. 1920. This delay was due partly to the hope
(unhappily falsified) that the United States would join in the
treaty; but also to difficulties arising out of the allocation of
mandates for the non-Turkish portions of the Ottoman Empire.
The twelfth of the Fourteen Points provided that these ter-
ritories should receive " unmolested opportunity of autonomous
development." Article 22 of the Treaty of Versailles indicated
PEARCE PEARSE
47
that some at least of them would be recognized as independent
nations, under such mandatories as they were willing to accept.
The principal claimants for these mandates were France and
Great Britain, who in May 1916 had come to an understanding
about their future spheres of influence (the Sykes-Picot agree-
ment), on the basis that the French sphere should include
Cilicia, Southern Armenia and Syria (with autonomy under
French protection for Damascus, Aleppo, 'Urfa, Deir and
Mosul); that Palestine should be an international territory; and
that Haifa and Mesopotamia should be in the British sphere.
But Greece claimed the whole of Turkish Thrace, Smyrna (which
she occupied with the approval of the Supreme Council in May
1919) and the Aegean Is.; while Italy claimed the Dodecanese
(of which she had retained possession at the end of the Libyan
war in 1912) and a sphere of influence on the adjacent main-
land. There were difficulties connected with all these claims.
The most notorious conflict of interests was that between France
and the Hejaz (over the Arab districts of Syria), which came
to a head in March 1920 with the proclamation by a " Syrian
National Congress " of an independent Syria (to include the
Lebanon, Palestine and Mesopotamia) and of Faisal, the heir
apparent of the Hejaz, as the king of this state; but there were
also doubts as to the wisdom of allowing Greece to assume re-
sponsibility for Smyrna, and as to the possibility of reconciling
the French and Italian claims with Mr. Wilson's promise to
respect the political unity of the Turkish race. The future of
Constantinople was long in doubt. At last on Feb. 16 1920 the
Conference of London announced that it would remain the
Turkish capital; but, a month later, the Allies informed the
Turkish Nationalists that this concession was conditional on
their good behaviour, and Constantinople was temporarily
occupied by Allied troops under the command of Gen. Milne.
On April 24 the Conference of San Remo gave mandates to
France for Syria, Cilicia and the Lebanon; to Great Britain for
Palestine and Mesopotamia; a mandate for Armenia was de-
clined first by the League of Nations (April 27) and afterwards
by the United States Senate (May 27). At last on May n the
draft treaty was handed to the Turkish delegates at Sevres.
Its terms produced considerable excitement among the National-
ists, and it was necessary for the Allies to call upon the Greeks
to make armed demonstrations both in Asia Minor and in
Thrace. But at the Conference of Spa (July) the last touches
were put to the treaty and on Aug. 10 it was duly signed by
the Turkish delegates.
Under the treaty Constantinople is left to the Sultan, with the
proviso that it may be forfeited if Turkey violates the terms of
settlement, especially those by which she guarantees the rights
of minorities in her territory. In accordance with the Fourteen
Points the Straits are neutralized and placed under the control
of an international commission. Smyrna, with about half its
vilayet, is left under Turkish sovereignty, but this sovereignty
will be exercised by the Greek Government, and Smyrna may
be incorporated in the Greek customs area. There is to be a
local legislature, which may, if it so desires, petition the League
of Nations (within five years) for the incorporation of Smyrna
in the Greek kingdom. Greece also receives, in full sovereignty,
Thrace outside the zone of the Straits, Imbros, Tenedos, Lemnos,
Samothrace, Mytilene, Chios, Samos and Nikaria. But she may
not fortify the first five of these islands (owing to their proximity
to the Straits); and she engages to sign a minorities treaty.
Armenia is declared a free and independent state; the boundary
between Turkey and Armenia is to be referred to the arbitration
of the President of the United States. Syria, Mesopotamia and
Palestine are recognized as independent states; their boundaries
will be fixed by the principal Powers, and they are to be ad-
ministered by mandatories, on terms formulated by the prin-
cipal Powers and submitted to the Council of the League of
Nations for approval. The Hejaz is recognized as a free and
independent state. Turkey cedes to Italy the islands of Astro-
palia, Casso, Scarpanto, Rhodes, the Dodecanese and Castel-
loryzo. The British protectorate over Egypt and the British
annexation of Cyprus are confirmed. The chief feature of the
military clauses is the proviso that Turkey may maintain no
military forces except the Sultan's bodyguard, and gendarmes
and frontier guards not exceeding 50,000 in number. The
Allies waive their claims for reparation. But Turkey is to pay
the costs of the armies of occupation ;ince the Armistice of Oct.
30 1918, and to compensate civilian nationals of the Allies for
loss or damage suffered in the war through the action or neg-
ligence of the Turkish authorities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. All the treaties have been published by the Sta-
tionery Office. Supplementary documents are printed in the His-
tory of the Peace Conference, vols. i.-iii., ed. H. W. V. Temperley
(i92O-|-i), which also comments exhaustively on the German treaty,
and gives an account of proceedings up to June 28 1919. Three
more volumes are in preparation ; these will deal with the remaining
treaties. A few more documents will be found in the American
Journal of International Law (and supplements) for 1919 and 1920.
The German Comments^ on the Conditions of Peace of May 29 1919
is published (in English) by the Amer. Assoc. for International
Conciliation (Oct. 1919); the Reply of the Allied and Associated
Powers, of June 16 1919, is published by the Stationery Office:
Cmd. 258 (1919). For the question of Fiume see documents
published by " Adriaticus " ,in La Question Adriatique (1920),
and the Stationery Office paper: Correspondence relating to the
Adriatic Question, Cmd. 586 (1920). Of books describing or criticiz-
ing the Conference the following are useful: Sir M. Hankey,
" Diplomacy by Conference " (Proc. Brit. Inst. of International
Affairs, 1921); H. Wilson Harris, The Peace in the Making (1920);
T. M. Keynes, Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919); C. H.
Thompson, The Peace Conference Day by Day (1920). Of capital
importance is the series of articles by M. Andre Tardieu in L'lllus-
tration for 1920, reprinted in his book La Paix (1921). See also
R. Lansing, The Peace Negotiations {1921) and The Big Four and
Others (1921). .(H. W. C. D.)
PEARCE, CHARLES SPRAGUE (1851-1914), American
painter (see 21.24), died in Paris, France, May 18 1914.
PEARS, SIR EDWIN (1835-1919), British lawyer and man of
letters, was born at York March 1 8 1835, and educated privately
and at the London University where he took first-class honours
in Roman law and jurisprudence. He was called to the bar at
Middle Temple in 1870 and for a time was private secretary to
Frederick Temple, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, and
secretary to various associations connected with social work in
London. In 1873 he settled in Constantinople, practising in the
consular courts and becoming president of the European bar
there. He acquired in this way an intimate knowledge of the
East which he turned to account in 1876 when, as correspondent
of The Daily News, he sent letters home describing Moslem
atrocities in Bulgaria which aroused popular demonstrations in
England led by W. E. Gladstone (see 12.71). He was knighted
in 1909. His works include The Fall of Constantinople, a Story
of the Fourth Crusade (1885) ; The Destruction of the Greek Empire
(1903) and, his most distinguished book, Turkey and its People
(1911) in which he displayed his expert knowledge of Byzantine
Constantinople. He died Nov. 27 1919 at Malta as the result
of an accident on his journey home from Constantinople.
PEARSE, PATRICK HENRY (1870-1916), Irish educationist,
author, and Sinn Fein leader, was born in Dublin on Nov. 10
1879. His father was an Englishman, a sculptor and worker in
stone, who was himself the author of a pamphlet on England's Duty
to Ireland as it appears to an Englishman. It is likely that it was
from his father Pearse derived his Icrve of liberty; and from his
mother, whose people came from county Meath, he drank in
memories of '98 and of the Fenians. He was educated at the
Christian Brothers schools and graduated before he was 24 at the
Royal University of Ireland as a B.A. and B.L. His first serious
work was when he became editor of the Claidheamh Soluis, the
weekly organ of the Gaelic League. When engaged on this work
he made a tour through Belgium to study bilingual methods, and
edited several Fiona tales from Irish manuscripts. He was a
hard worker on the Coisde Gnotha or Executive of the League,
and secretary to its publication committee. He was more inter-
ested in education than in any other subject, and it is remarkable
that he was in favour of accepting Mr. Birrell's Irish Council
bill (see 14.788) in 1907, because it gave the Irish control over
their own education. In this attitude he stood almost alone. His
first book was a slender volume containing Three Lectures on
PEARSON PENNSYLVANIA
Gaelic Topics, published when he was otily 19, dedicated to the
New Ireland Literary Society (an ephemeral body which he him-
self had founded) by its President. This little book contained
the germs of much later and better work, including a plea for
enthusiasm, and a prophecy that the Gael would " become the
saviour of idealism in modern intellectual and social life." In
order to carry out his educational schemes he founded a school
at Cullenswood, in Dublin, which prospered. The idea was to
give an Irish education such as he assumed would be given in a
free Ireland. Much stress was laid on the Irish language and on
religion. In 1910 he removed this school to the Hermitage, Rath-
farnham, a few miles out of Dublin, and continued to run it un-
til his death. He travelled in America collecting money for his
schemes, and on his return threw himself into the Irish Volunteer
movement. He was high up in its councils, and led in the revolu-
tion of 1916, of which he was commander-in-chief. At the same
time he proclaimed an Irish Republic. After a week's fighting
in Dublin he saw that further resistance was useless, and ordered
the Volunteers to lay down their arms. He and Thomas Mac-
Donagh, who had formerly been one of his assistant masters at
the Hermitage, and other leaders were tried by court-martial
and shot soon after their surrender. Pearse was an excellent
orator, with a fine resonant voice. He was a pious Catholic, of
irreproachable life, a great lover of children and of nature.
After his death appeared The Collected Works of Padraic H.
Pearse (3 vols. 1917). containing plays, poems and stories in Irish,
and one volume of English writing. (D. HY.)
PEARSON, SIR (CYRIL) ARTHUR (1866-1921), English
newspaper proprietor and philanthropist, was born at VVookey,
near Wells, Feb. 24 1866, and was educated at Winchester. He
early founded the business of C. Arthur Pearson, Ltd., news-
paper proprietors and publishers; and after having made large
profits with Pearson's Weekly and other periodicals he founded
in 1900 the Daily Express, a halfpenny rival to the Daily Mail,
and in 1904 purchased the Standard (see 19.560, 561). He was a
strong supporter of Mr. Chamberlain's tariff-reform movement.
In 1910 increasing later complete failure of sight obliged
him to retire from the active direction of newspapers. Hence-
forth he devoted himself and his fortune with whole-hearted
industry to efforts to ameliorate the condition of the blind.
During the World War he established at his house, St. Dun-
stan's, in Regent's Park, London, a hospital for blinded soldiers,
and became chairman of the Blinded Soldiers and Sailors Care
Committee (1914). He also became president of the National
Institution for the Blind. He was created a baronet in 1916
and G.B.E. in the first gazette of the new Order of the British
Empirein 1917. He died in London Dec. 9 1921. Havingbeen
eager to encourage those among the blind who cannot command
attendance, he had made it his practice to have his bath un-
aided, but on this occasion he accidently slipped, was stunned
by striking his head on a tap and suffocated while unconscious,
his face under water.
PEARY, ROBERT EDWIN (1856-1920), American Arctic
explorer (see 21.30), died in Washington, D.C., Feb. 20 1920.
Because of his discovery of the North Pole (1909) he was pro-
moted rear-admiral in 191 1 and received by special Act the thanks
of Congress. The same year he was U.S. delegate to the Inter-
national Polar Commission in Rome. During his later years he
was much interested in aerial navigation and delivered many
addresses in which he urged coast patrol by aeroplanes. In 1913
he was made Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour (France).
He was the author of The North Pole (1910) and Secrets of
Polar Travel (1917).
PEEL, ARTHUR WELLESLEY PEEL, IST VISCOUNT (1829-
1912), English statesman (see 21.39), died at Sandy, Beds.,
Oct. 24 1912.
He was succeeded by his son, WILLIAM ROBERT WELLESLEY
PEEL, who in 1916 was chairman of the Committee on Detention
of Neutral Vessels, in 1919 became Under-Secretary for War,
and in 1921 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.
PEKING, China (see 21.61). During the first decade of the
new Chinese Republic, great improvements were made in the
matter of the maintenance, lighting and sanitation of the
principal thoroughfares of the capital; the police were reor-
ganized on western lines, and instructed in traffic control; and,
as the result of the introduction of metalled roads, the old-
type mule cart was rapidly replaced by carriages, motor-cars
and jinrikishas. Many of these changes were due to the in-
itiative of Chu Chi-chien, Minister of the Interior in 1913.
The conditions of railway traffic between the city and the outside
world were also greatly .improved by the location of the termini of
the Peking-Moukden and Peking-Hankow lines at the Chien Men,
the great southern gate of the Tatar city, which lies between the
palace and the Temple of Heaven. The wall adjoining this gate
has been pierced with new passages for general traffic and broad
thoroughfares thrown open to the public in the Forbidden City.
A large number of buildings in foreign style have been erected
for Government offices, banks and business premises. In spite of
these changes, however, chiefly conspicuous in the official and busi-
ness quarters in the vicinity of the legations, the general features
of the scene which the traveller sees from the walls remain much the
same as in former times, a vast enclosure within which the yellow-
tiled roofs of palaces and temples emerge here and there above the
trees; and in the less frequented parts of the city, notably the
Manchu quarter, there is but little outward evidence of change.
The poverty-stricken appearance which the Chien MSn district
and other business centres presented as the result of the destruc-
tion wrought by the Boxers in 1900 has gradually disappeared.
The trade of the city remains local as of old, and generally un-
concerned with industrial enterprise, but during the first ten years
of the Republic the citizens of the capital were able to recover a
considerable measure of comfortable prosperity, because of the
freedom with which money was circulated by the various political
and military parties.
New macadamized roads running from the city in several direc-
tions (to the western hills, to Tongshan and to Tungchow) are
amongst the most conspicuous manifestations of the Peking
municipal council's activities. The number of foreigners resident
at the capital has increased considerably in recent years, and, al-
though the city has not been opened by treaty to foreign trade, a
number of business houses have been established with the tacit
consent of the Chinese authorities.
See E. Backhouse and J. O. P. Bland, Annals and Memoirs of
the Court of Peking (191^); D. Mennie and P. Weale, The Pageant
of Peking (1921) ; P. H. Kent, The Passing of the Manchus (1912) ;
J. O. P. Bland, China, Japan and Korea (1921).
PELISSIER, HARRY GABRIEL (1874-1913), English come-
dian, was born at Finchley in 1874. His father was a Frenchman
living in England a descendant of Marshal Pelissier and his
mother was English. In 1911 he married Fay Compton, the
daughter of Edward Compton, the actor. He became an
"entertainer" and author of musical sketches and organized a
troupe known as " The Follies," who gained a very great success
in a special genre of musical entertainment, half song, half witty
parody, at the Apollo theatre, London. He died in London
Sept. 25 1913.
PELLETAN, CHARLES CAMILLE (1846-1915), French poli-
tician and journalist (see 21.69), died June 4 1915.
PENLEY, WILLIAM SYDNEY (1852-1912), English actor
(see 21.99), died at St. Leonards-on-Sea Nov. n 1912.
PENNSYLVANIA (see 21.105). During 1910-20 there was a
great increase in the industrial developments of Pennsylvania,
largely as a result of the World War. From 1914 until American
participation in 1917, the Allied Governments expended many
millions of dollars among the steel, ammunition and other estab-
lishments, bringing to the state a period of prosperity the extent
of which was apparent when the Liberty Loans and war taxes
disclosed the accumulated wealth. The state maintained its
rank as the second state in population and in industry.
The pop. of the state in 1920 was 8,720,017, an increase of
1,054,906 over 1910. The rate of increase, 13-8%, was con-
siderably lower than that of the preceding decade, 21-6%.
In 1920 the pop. of the 15 largest cities of the state was: Phila-
delphia, 1,823, 158; Pittsburgh, 588,193; Scranton, 137, 783; Read-
ing, 107,784; Erie, 93,372; Harrisburg, 75,917! Wilkes-Barre, 73,-
833; Allentown, 73,502; Johnstown, 67,327; Altoona, 60,331;
Chester, 58,030; Lancaster, 53,15; Bethlehem, 50,358; York,
47,512; and McKeesport, 46,781.
Agriculture. A decrease of nearly $100,000,000 in the value of
crops from 1919 to 1920 was reported by the state department
of agriculture, but the state's farms showed an improvement in
PENNSYLVANIA
49
production during the preceding decade. The contrast is shown in
the following table:
1969
1920
Wheat ....
Indian Corn .
Oats ....
Buckwheat .
26,265,000 bus.
48,800,000 "
25,948,000 "
5,665,000 '
26,774,760 bus.
65,755-66o '
44,858,325 '
4,952,860 '
The depreciation in the value of crops from 1919 to 1920 was due
in part to reduced acreage, but chiefly to the heavy decline in prices.
The average farmer in 1920 lost $434.20 as a result of depreciation.
The price of the average dairy cow during the year dropped from
$96.75 to $75.50, the dairy industry alone depreciating $20,890,774.
Sheep depreciated $3.75 a head, falling from $10.25 to $6.50, and
the total loss to sheep- raisers was $4,000,000. Hogs declined from
$30.90 to $16.15 and farm horses from fin to $102. The potato
production for the entire state for 1920 was 29,158,435 bushels. The
state department of agriculture valued the total fruit production of
1920 (20,825,000 bus.) at $18,742,500.
Mineral Production. The following table shows the figures of
the coal and coke industry during 1910-8, in tons:
Bituminous
Anthracite
Coke
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
148,770,858
142,189,329
160,830,492
172,965,659
145,884,530
157,420,068
169,123,814
171,074,411
177,217,294
83,683,994
90,917,176
84,426,869
91,626,964
91,189,641
89,377,706
87,680,198
100,445,299
99-445-794
23,722,944
19,984,320
24,682,474
24,718,238
17,164,124
22,012,945
26,428,926
23,240,777
27,157,373
During these years an average of 190,000 persons were engaged in
mining bituminous coal and 170,000 in mining anthracite.
Manufactures. In the absence of final industrial figures for the
U.S. census of 1920, not yet available in Dec. 1921, comparisons
between the industries of 1909, 1914 and 1919 must be drawn from
U.S. census figures for the first two periods and the survey made by
the state department of internal affairs for the latter. In 1914
Pennsylvania became the foremost state in the value of silk produc-
tion, displacing New Jersey. Her 1914 production was valued at
more than one-third of the total for the United States, and the state
had more than two-fifths of all the employees in the industry. In
1909 226 silk-producing establishments, with 36,469 employees, had
a production valued at $62,061,000. In 1914 284 establishments,
with an average of 44,755 wage-earners, produced material valued at
$86,938,554. In 1919 347 establishments, with 57,079 employees,
produced material valued at $238,422,600. Pennsylvania was the
leading state in 1914 in hosiery manufacture, reporting 39-7 % of the
national quantity and 41-2% of the national value. In 1909 464
establishments manufacturing hosiery, employing 38,206 hands,
produced a value of $49,658,000; in 1914 498 establishments, with
41,130 employees, produced a value of $64,163,449; in 1919 328
establishments, with 35,400 employees, $130,167,800. In the iron
and steel industry in 1909 66 blast furnaces, with 14,521 employees,
yielded $168,578,000, and in 1914, 52 with 11,518 employees a prod-
uct valued at $135,806,067. Notwithstanding the decrease the state
in 1914 employed 39-2 % of all the wage-earners and produced 42-8 %
of the total product of the country. Steel works and rolling mills in
1914 also showed a decrease from 1909. In 1909 189 establishments,
with 126,911 employees, produced $500,344,000, and in 1914 178
establishments, with 131,955 employees, produced $488,106,324.
In the manufacture of tin-plate, Pennsylvania in 1914 led the nation.
Comparative figures show :
Establishments
Employees
Product
1909
1914
1919
17
13
8
2,346
2,368
12,311
$ 25,234,066
36,795,990
115,642,300
The state census of 1919, for all industries, shows a total of 20,888
establishments in the state divided as follows: buildings and con-
tracting, 2,895; chemicals and allied products, 768; clay, glass and
stone, 583; clothing, 1,398; food and kindred products, 2,404;
leather and rubber goods, 395; liquors and beverages, 453; lumber
and its remanufacture, 1,114; paper and printing, 1,740; textiles,
1,024; laundries, 273; metals and metal products, 3,432; mines and
quarries, 1,564; public service, 1,005; tobacco and its products, 709;
and miscellaneous 1,131. The total average number of employees
was 1,691,171 (167,562 salaried employees, 1,523,609 wage-earners);
the total wages, $2,176,449,100, and the total value of products,
$8,853,047,600. The highest valuation was placed on metals and
metal products, $3,675,971,500, more than 40% of the whole value
of production. Employees in this industry numbered 508,311.
Next was a product of $722,515,300 from the mining industries,
which employed on an average 329,179 men in 1919. The textile
industry maintained third place with 125,291 employees and a pro-
duction valuation of $646,683,000. The figures from 1915-9 are as
shown in the following table.
Establishments
Average No.
Wage-Earners
Value of
Production
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
22,359
20,961
22,101
21,158
20,888
1,503,188
1,735-543
1,802,813
1,827,101
1,523,609
$4,180,790,500
6,419,410,000
8,336,984,800
9,403,306,600
8,853,047,600
Education. Two progressive steps a decade apart mark the de-
velopment of the public schools. The first was the adoption of the
School Code of May 18 1911 ; the second the enactment of what is
known as the Finegan programme (named after the State Superin-
tendent of Public Instruction) by the Legislature of 1921. The
School Code of 191 1 was virtually a codification of all the laws govern-
ing the public-school system and a general unification, with many
new features, of administrative measures. Its most important sec-
tions provided for independent control of taxation and borrowing
by school boards with minimum and maximum tax rates varying
according to the size of the school district ; reduction of the number
of members in school boards so as to simplify official business;
establishment of a State Board of Education; establishment of a
state school fund, and general provisions for the better selection of
text-books and for the development of higher education. The meas-
ures of 1921 (the Finegan programme) are as follows: (i) Providing
that after Sept. I 1927 those persons who enter the teaching service
must show evidence of graduation from a state normal school or an
equivalent education and training; (2) requiring fourth-class dis-
tricts to maintain schools for 150 days in 1921-2 and 160 days in
1922-3; (3) increasing the qualifications of county superintendents
by providing that no one except college-trained persons or normal-
school graduates with certain school experience shall be qualified for
the position ; (4) increasing the salaries of all assistant county super-
intendents from $1,800 to $2,500 per year and giving most of the
county superintendents an increase in salary of $500 or $1,000;
(5) establishing a state-wide salary schedule for teachers, fixing the
minimum at $1,200. In cities annual increments are required, and
proportionately higher salaries are provided for high-school teachers;
(6) increasing the state aid to schools for each biennial period from
$24,000,000 to $36,000,000 and establishing a new basis of appor-
tionment; (7) encouraging consolidation by providing that for each
school closed the district shall be entitled to receive an annual allot-
ment of $200 ; (8) making sufficient appropriations for normal schools
so that they may be supported without tuition fees and providing
a salary schedule for the faculties; (9) creating a State Council of
Education to consist of nine business and professional men and women,
replacing the State Board of Education and the college and univer-
sity council; (10) standardizing the elementary courses in public
and private schools and requiring that they be taught in the English
language and from texts written in English; (ll) strengthening the
compulsory attendance laws.
Finance. The revenues of the state more than doubled from 1909
to the end of 1920. The receipts in 1909 were $28,945,210; in 1920,
$62,071,293.97. This does not include $11,800,000 derived from the
sale of state road bonds, a fund kept separate from the regular state
moneys. Governor Sproul recommended to the 1921 session of the
state Legislature an increase of about 10% in the tax on manu-
factures and a small tax on mined coal, a combination which would
add more than $30,000,000 to the treasury annually. The treasury
disbursements in the fiscal year 1920 were $7^,960,1 12.20, the highest
ever known. The total was $18,000,000 higher than in 1919, the
increase being due to road construction. During the 1920 season
approximately 410 m. of concrete state road were built, and 350 m.
were under construction in 1921. In two years, 660 m. of i8-ft.
concrete roadway, some of which had a brick wearing surface and
some asphalt, were constructed by the state. In 1920 a total of 337
m. of macadam highway were resurfaced and 1,400 m. of highway
had surface treatment. The maintenance force of the State Highway
Department in March 1921 was keeping up 9,503 m. of roadway, of
which 463 m. were in boroughs and on state-aid roads. The total
resources in 1919 of all the banking institutions within the state,'
whether organized under national or state laws, were $4,529,919,000.
Of these the state banks had resources in 1920 of $3,615,244,850,
divided as follows: savings banks, $314,256,637; banks of deposit,
$331,759,257; trust companies: banking resources, $1,380,919,028;
trust funds, $1,578,424,021 ; trust funds in banks, $9,885,906.
Constitutional Changes. The first two constitutional amendments
of the decade ending 1920, adopted in 1911 and 1913 respectively,
had to do with the courts, the one of 1911 increasing the number in
Philadelphia county and merging those in Allegheny county, the
one of 1913 altering the judicial and municipal terms to conform with
an amendment of 1909 which changed the date of the elections from
Feb. to November. Another amendment of 1913 enabled munici-
palities, except Philadelphia, to embark upon the construction or
acquisition of waterworks, subways, etc., even though their cost
brought the indebtedness above the limit allowed, and permitted
arrangement whereby the interest and sinking-fund charges were paid
from the principal until the properties should have been completed
and in operation for one year. A limit of 10% of the assessed valua-
tion of taxable property in a municipality was fixed for such indebted-
PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF
ness, three-fifths of the electors of the municipality having first to
give their assent to the increase. On Nov. 2 1915 the people voted
on four proposed amendments and adopted three of them. The first
and the most important prepared the way for workmen's compen-
sation. The second enabled Philadelphia to increase its borrowing
capacity under conditions similar to those set forth in the amend-
ment of 1913. The third enabled the general assembly to enact laws
providing a system of registering, transferring, insuring and guaran-
teeing land titles by the state or the counties. Amendments passed
by the Legislature in 1915 and 1917 were approved by the voters
in 1918, one enabling the state to issue bonds to the amount of $50,-
000,000 for the improvement of highways, and the other enlarging
Philadelphia's borrowing capacity by removing the previous re-
strictions which confined its increased indebtedness to the construc-
tion or acquisition of waterworks, subways, etc. An amendment
approved at (he general election in 1920 enabled the assembly to
levy " graded or progressive taxes." The result of these numerous
amendments was manifest in the session of 1919, when a bill was
passed authorizing the governor to appoint a commission to study the
constitution with an eye either to general revision or to amendment
by sections. This commission hela public hearings during 1920 and
prepared a report to be placed before the session of 192 1 .
Legislation. The number of boards, commissions, etc., function-
ing under the state government was greatly increased between 1919
and 1920. The Legislature in 1911 created a Bureau of Professional
Education under the State Department of Public Instruction, its
purpose being to regulate the education of physicians, dentists and
pharmacists. The same year a State Board of Education was cre-
ated, composed of six members, to report and recommend legislation
needed to increase the efficiency and usefulness of the public-school
system, to equalize educational advantages in all sections of the
state, to inspect schools supported in part or in whole by the state,
to encourage vocational training, to improve sanitary conditions
and to promote physical and moral welfare. A Bureau of Medical
Education and Liccnsure, under the Department of Public Instruc-
tion, was also created by Act of 1911, to examine into conditions in
the medical schools and conduct the examination of students apply-
ing for state licences. In 1911 the office of state fire marshal was
created, with general powers of investigation over all fires in the state
and means of fire prevention. Another important change of 1911
was the reorganization by legislative enactment of the State High-
way Department and the undertaking of an extensive system of
highways to be built and maintained entirely from state funds.
In 1913 the Department of Labor and Industry was created,
with the power to enforce the " laws relating to the safety, health
and prosperity of employees and the industries." Under it were
formed the bureaus of Inspection, Hygiene and Engineering, Statis-
tics and Information, Mediation and Arbitration, Employment, and
also an Industrial Board. A Workmen's Compensation Board was
created, the state was divided into districts and the administration
of compensation carried on through referees and members of the
board. A State Workmen's Insurance Board was created the same
year for the purpose of administering the insurance fund provided in
the Workmen's Compensation Act. In the meanwhile the Legis-
lature in 1913 did away with the old State Railway Commission and
substituted a Public Service Commission, with powers far greater
than those of its predecessor, and having jurisdiction over " alt
railroad, canal, street railway, stage line, express, pipe line, ferry,
common carriers," etc., companies " doing business within the state."
The year 1915 saw the reorganization of the Department of
Agriculture with the creation of a Commission on Agriculture to
appoint all officers and employees of the department and prepare the
budgets of the department and of the State Live Stock Sanitary
Board. Other new boards of that year were the one on vocational
training under the Department of Public Instruction; the Board of
Censors, upon all motion pictures; the Prison Labor Commission, to
supervise the manufacturing industries of inmates of penal institu-
tions; and the Veterinary Medical Examining Board. The Bureau of
Municipalities under the .Department of Labor and Industry was a
development of 1917 intended to classify and make available statis-
tics and other information tending to improve the government of
municipalities. Five boards were created the same year: the State
Military Board which has the power to grant pensions not exceeding
$12 per month to widows or minor children of national guardsmen
killed on active duty while under the direction of the governor; the
Board of Pharmacy ; the Board of Optometrical Education, Exami-
nation and Licensure ; the Board of Commissioners on Uniform State
Laws and the Public School Employees' Retirement Board. The
Legislature of 1917 also created a Commission on Public Safety
and Defense, to which was appropriated $2,000,000 and which
functioned during the two years of American participation in the
World War, partly independently and partly through the State
Committee of Public Safety and Council of National Defense. The
Commission on Public Safety and Defense was succeeded in 1919
by the Commission on Public Welfare, which received an appro-
priation of $500,000 to carry on the work of reconstruction, Ameri-
canization, and collection of the records of the state's part in the
World War. The session of 1919 also created a Bureau of Statistics
and Information under the State Department of Internal Affairs,
transferred the Bureau of Municipalities from the Department of
Labor and Industry to the Department of Internal Affairs, and
created a Bureau of Rehabilitation under the Department of Labor
and Industry. The year 1919 witnessed the adoption of two Federal
amendments, Pennsylvania ratifying the prohibition amendment,
as the forty-fifth state, on Feb. 25, and the woman suffrage amend-
ment, as the seventh state, on June 24.
More recent governors were John K. Tener, Republican, 1911-5;
Martin G. Brumbaugh, Republican, 1915-9; William C. Sproul,
Republican, 1919- .
War Period. Pennsylvania sent 297,891 men into the U.S.
army, of whom 53,419 were regulars, 21,350 national guardsmen,
and 223,122 drafted. There were 31,063 Pennsylvanians in the
navy, 16,872 of whom enlisted in the naval reserve, 13,772
in the regular navy, and 419 in the national naval volunteers.
The state was represented by 5,422 men in the marine corps,
making a total of 334,376 men and women in the national armed
forces. In addition it had 1,600 Y. M.C.A. workers, 147
Knights of Columbus secretaries, and 129 welfare workers under
the Society of Friends. In the army Pennsylvania suffered
35,042 casualties, of which 7,898 were deaths. Financially,
559>936 Pennsylvanians subscribed $315,834,950 to the First
Liberty Loan; 881,207 subscribed $549,963,700 to the Second
Loan; 2,026,973 subscribed $467,758,550 to the Third Loan;
2,349,252 subscribed $812,217,400 to the Fourth Loan; and
1,289,764 subscribed $564,173,200 to the Victory Loan, making
a total of $2,709,947,800 for the five loans, a per capita of
$312.92 as compared with the per capita throughout the United
States of $232.31. The war taxes of the state were: 1917,
$589,056,143.20; 1918, $446,811,191. The American Red Cross
in its two campaigns in Pennsylvania raised $27,283,990.90 or
10% of the total for the whole country. The Red Cross member-
ship in the state at the close of 1918 was 1,669,758 adults and
1,451,057 juniors, the latter being 86-12% of the school popula-
tion. Pennsylvania gave approximately $3,000,000 to the war
welfare work of the Knights of Columbus. The two Y.M.C.A.
drives in the state netted $6,562,516.23.
More than 85,000 men and women were employed in the six
Pennsylvania shipyards on the Delaware river in 1918. The
Hog I. plant near Philadelphia built no cargo vessels of 7,500
dead-weight tons apiece and 12 transports of 8,000 tons. The
Harriman yard at Bristol, of the Merchants' Shipbuilding Corp.,
built 32 cargo vessels of 9,000 tons apiece; William Cramp &
Sons at Philadelphia built four tankers of 10,000 tons apiece and
nine steel ships, all but one of which were of more than 9,000 tons.
Likewise it launched 35 destroyers during the war period and 13
subsequently. The Chester yard of the Merchants' Shipbuilding
Corp. built 28 cargo ships and tankers averaging 8,000 tons
apiece and several small naval vessels. The Sun Shipbuilding Co.
at Chester built 14 ships averaging 11,000 tons apiece and four
cargo ships of 10,000 tons apiece. It also constructed nine mine-
sweepers for the navy. The yard for wooden ships of the
Traylor plant at Cornwells Heights built eight vessels of 3,500
tons each. The Federal Government spent $46,396,266.80 in
housing war workers in the state, $23,021,000 being spent by the
Emergency Fleet Corp. for shipbuilders, and $23,375,266.80 by
the U.S. Housing Commission.
The Remington Arms Co. at Eddystone manufactured 1,181,908
rifles up to two days before the Armistice, or 47 % of the American
rifles supplied to troops at home and abroad. The Baldwin Locomo-
tive Works at Philadelphia and Eddystone contracted for 470 steam
locomotives for the U.S. Railroad Administration and nearly 4,000
steam locomotives for the A.E.F. and the Allies. The Aluminum
Co. of America, at Pittsburgh, manufactured 3,385,955 meat cans
for mess kits, or two-fifths of the total made in America. The Ed-
ward G. Budd Co., Philadelphia, pressed and stamped 1,150,775
steel helmets, while a total of 2,707,237 helmets were painted and
assembled in the Ford Motor Co. plant in Philadelphia. The entire
cannon-forging output of the country during the war was 8,440 before
Armistice Day, and Pennsylvania's contribution was 2,960, or al-
most two-fifths. One of the three American powderbag loading
plants was located at Tullytown, Pa. ; it employed 7,000 persons and
had reached a capacity of 40,000 bags a day at the date of the
Armistice. The Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co. at Pittsburgh had a total
output of 81,845 optical lenses when the end of the war caused a
general cancellation of contracts. (A. E. McK.)
PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF (see 21.114). In 191
the Henry Phipps Institute for the study, treatment and preven-
PENSION
tion of tuberculosis was transferred to the university. In 1912
the college was divided into three separate departments the
college, the Towne scientific school, and the Wharton school of
finance and commerce. In 1914 the school of education was
established, with a four-year course leading to the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Education; since then there has been held
every spring at the university " Schoolmen's week," and teachers
from all over the state assemble to take part in conferences
and discussions. By a merger in 1916 the Medico-Chirurgical
College of Philadelphia became an integral part of the university
as its graduate school of medicine, and in 1918 another merger
was effected with the Philadelphia Polyclinic and College for
Graduates in Medicine. In 1917 a course in military science was
established to qualify students for commissions as reserve officers.
In 1920 the laboratory of hygiene and public health became
the school of hygiene and public health.
During the decade 1910-20 there were many developments in the
widening of the university's usefulness to the community through the
establishment of extension schools. In 19201 the university had
964 officers of instruction, of whom 302 were in the college, and 213
in the department of medicine. The enrolment was 1 1,182 students,
including 2,652 women, of whom 753 were in the college (arts and
science); 29 in biology; 780 in the college course for teachers; 1,281
in the summer school; 638 in the Towne scientific school; 2,277 > n
the Wharton school of finance and commerce; 1,439 > n the evening
school of accounts and finance; 996 in the extension schools; 760
in the school of education; 218 in the school of fine arts; 657 in the
graduate school; 191 in the law school; 433 in the medical school;
101 in the graduate school of medicine; 735 in the school of dentistry;
30 in the school of veterinary medicine, and 6 in the school of hygiene
ami public health (duplications, 142).
Beginning with 1920 the tuition fees were raised from 8200 to
$250 in the college, the Towne school, the Wharton school, in educa-
tion, law, dentistry, and hygiene; from 200 to $300 in medicine;
and from Sioo to 8150 in veterinary medicine. In 1920-1 the income
from tuition fees was $1,425,000; the payment for " educational
salaries " amounted to 1,425,000, and for other salaries and wages
8678,000. In June 1920 the excess of the university's assets over its
liabilities was 26,000,000, and the donations for the year were
$278,000. The total value of real estate (including the university's
buildings) was $11,486,000; and libraries, museums, apparatus and
furniture were valued at 83,645,000. The university library, in-
cluding numerous special collections, contained about 500,000 bound
volumes and 50,000 pamphlets. A question of paramount importance
concerning the future policy of the university was settled in 1921,
when the trustees, in accordance with the overwhelming sentiment
of the alumni, resolved that the university should continue as a
private institution and not surrender its independence, as had been
proposed, by becoming a state university with consequent super-
vision by the official representatives of the state Government.
In 1921 Gen. Leonard Wood (q.v.) was elected " head of the uni-
versity under such appropriate title as may be hereafter agreed
upon." Later in the year Gen. Wood was appointed governor-gen-
eral of the Philippines, and was granted a year's leave of absence
before assuming his duties at the university. During the World War
9,204 students and alumni of the university saw service, of whom
7,41 1 were in the army, 856 in the navy, 827 in auxiliary service, and
no in the armies of America's Allies. Of these 212 died for their
country's cause. (E. F. S.*)
PENSION (see 21.118). The following summary shows the
chief pension legislation in the United States during 1908-20.
Legislation in Great Britain regarding pensions is described in
tb.2 article following this: PENSIONS MINISTRY. An Act of March
4 1909 provided that under direction of the Commissioner of
Pensions the expenses of last sickness and burial of deceased
pensioners should be reimbursed. An Act of May 1 1 1912 granted
$30 per month to honourably discharged men who had served
60 days or more in military or naval service during the Mexican
War. An Act of Feb. 19 1913 granted $20 per month thereafter to
survivors of Indian wars named in earlier Acts. An Act of
March 3 1915 provided double pension in case of death of an
officer or enlisted man of the navy or marine corps, or for disa-
bility of an enlisted man, resulting from an aviation accident.
An Act of April 27 1916 granted a special pension of $10 per
month for life to persons whose names are entered on the "Army
or Navy Medal of Honor Roll." An Act of Aug. 29 1916 granted
double pension for disability or death of a student-flyer of the
navy or marine corps due to an aviation accident. This Act also
repealed Section 4716 of the Revised Statutes, which made disloy-
alty in the Civil War a bar to a pension. An Act of Sept. 81916
granted $20 per month to the widow of a Civil War veteran who
was his lawful wife during the period of his service, and the same
rate to the widow of a veteran of the Civil War, Mexican War,
and War of 1812, on reaching the age of 70 years. An Act of Oct.
6 1917 provided a payment of $2 5 per month thereafter for wid-
ows of officers or enlisted men of army, navy, or marine corps,
who served in the Civil War, in the Spanish-American War or
in the Philippine insurrection; this Act was amended June 25 1918
making existing pension laws inapplicable to persons in active
service on Oct. 6 1917, or entering it thereafter, except in so far
as rights under any such law had theretofore accrued. An Act of
July 16 1918 granted widows of officers or enlisted men, volun-
teers and regulars, who served 90 days or more in the Spanish-
American War, Philippine insurrection, or Chinese Boxer rebel-
lion, if without means of support other than daily labour and an
actual net income not exceeding $250 per year, $12 per month
and $2 per month additional for each child under sixteen. In case
of death or remarriage of the widow, the whole pension goes to
any child or children under 16 years of age. An Act of Dec. 24
1919 provided that no one should draw both pension and com-
pensation under war risk insurance (see below). The War
Risk Insurance Act was made effective as of April 6 1917. An
Act of May I 1920 granted $50 per month from that date to
persons on the roll because of Mexican War or Civil War service;
and $72 to those so nearly blind or helpless as to require personal
aid and attendance; also increasing rates of pension for certain
permanent specific disabilities. This Act granted $30 per month
to widows of men who served in the War of 1812 or the Mexican
War, also to widows, married prior to June 27 1905, of men who
served in the Civil War and to certain remarried widows, with $6
per month additional for each child under 16 years. In case of
death or remarriage of widow, the whole pension goes to any
child or children under 16 years. This Act also increased the
pension to army nurses of the Civil War, and dependent parents
of Civil War soldiers, to $30 per month. An Act of June 5 1920
granted pensions ranging from $12 to $30 to soldiers and sailors
who served 90 days or more in the Spanish-American War,
Philippine insurrection, or China Relief Expedition, under cer-
tain conditions as to service, the rate depending upon degree
of disability or age attained; this Act also increased rates of pen-
sion for certain permanent specific disabilities.
The following table, furnished by the Commissioner of Pen-
sions, shows the number of pensioners on the roll at the close of
the fiscal year, June 30 1921, together with disbursements of
pensions for that year:
Sol-
diers
Wid-
ows.etc.
Total
Disbursements
Civil War . _ .
Spanish-American War
War of 1812
Mexican War .
Indian Wars . . .
Regular Establishment
World War .
218,775
31,066
109
3,784
13,832
63
281,327
8,216
64
2,135
2,569
4,081
32
500,102
39,282
64
2,244
6,353
17,913
95
$246,584,639.64
6,171,569.82
24,160.21
888,024.64
1,565,862.41
3,456,191.45
25,394-37
Total
267,629
298,424
566.053
8258,715,842.54
By an Act of May 22 1920 provision was made for the retire-
ment of Civil Service employees and for payment to them of
certain annuities based on amount of salary, length of service
and age or disability. The annuity fund is created in part by the
deduction of 2%% from the salaries of employees. The minimum
annuity is $180 per year, the maximum $720. This law is ad-
ministered by the Commissioner of Pensions. On June 30 1921
there were 6,471 annuitants on the roll, to whom had been paid
$2,913,547.
War Risk Insurance. Soon after the outbreak of the World War,
at the request of the Secretary of the Treasury, there was created,
Sept. 2 1914, a bureau of marine insurance, under the Treasury
Department, for protecting American vessels and cargoes against
loss or damage. After America entered the war further legislation,
enacted June 12 1917, enlarged the scope of the marine bureau to
make provision for insuring against loss of life or injury masters,
officers, and crews of American vessels. Under date of Jan. 4 1919,
seven weeks after the signing of the Armistice, right to application
was withdrawn and no further insurance issued to seamen. From
PENSIONS MINISTRY
June 12 1917 to Tune 30 1919, the end of a fiscal year, the number
of policies issued was 6,150; net insurance written, $322,429,408;
net premiums received, $842,348; losses paid, $124,724.
By Act of Oct. 6 1917 further amendment made provision for
granting allowances by the Government to the families and depend-
ents of all enlisted men. To secure this allowance the enlisted man
was required to make an allotment from his pay. Two classes of
allotment were established: A. compulsory allotment to a wife,
child, or divorced wife awarded alimony; B. voluntary allotment
to parent, sister, brother, grandchild, or grandparent. To these
allotments the Government added allowances, not exceeding $50
per month, as follows. Under Class A. $15 per month was deducted
from the enlisted man's pay and addition made by the Government
to bring the monthly payment up to $30 for a wife; $40 for a wife
and one child; $47.50 for a wife and two children; and $5 for each
additional child. Under Class B. the Government added monthly
$10 for one parent, $20 for two parents, and $5 for each dependent
sister, brother, grandchild or grandparent. If a man, in addition to
the compulsory allotment, desired an allowance under Class B. he
was required to make an additional allotment of $5 per month. In
case of no compulsory allotment, the voluntary allotment under
Class B. was $15. Class A. took precedence, and, if the entire Gov-
ernment allowance of $50 was required for this, no payment was
made under Class B. From Oct. 6 1917 to June 30 1920 requests
for allotments and allowances numbered 1,666,607; during the same
period 2,807,093 application blanks were returned without such
requests. For the fiscal year ending June 30 1920 allotments paid
beneficiaries amounted to $20,748,709; Government allowances,
$32,819,927.
The Act of Oct. 6 1917 also provided compensation for death or
disability of all persons in service, including women in the army and
navy nursing corps, in line of duty. The recognized beneficiaries
include a widow until remarriage, dependent widower, children
under 18 years, and dependent mother or father. Death compensa-
tion allowed was as follows: widow, $25 per month; widow and one
child, $35; widow and two children, $42.50; widow and three chil-
dren, $47.50; widow and four children, $52.50, with no further allow-
ance for additional children. If the deceased were a woman, $20
per month was granted for the first fatherless child, $iq in addition
for the second, $10 in addition for the third, $5 in addition for the
fourth, and $5 in addition for the fifth, with no further allowance
for others. A mother or father was allowed $20 per month, and, if
both were dependent, $15 each. The maximum death compensa-
tion was $75 per month. Compensation for disability depended upon
its seriousness and duration. For a man totally disabled it was as
follows: unencumbered, $30 per month; if he had a wife, $45; if he
had a wife and one child, $55; $10 additional each for a second and
third child, with no further allowance; and $10 additional for each
dependent father or mother. At the close of the fiscal year, June 30
1920, compensation was being allowed on 42,945 death claims, and
on 134,408 disability claims, the latter involving a monthly payment
of $5,036,103. In the case of disabled persons provision was also
made that the Government furnish free medical service and sup-
plies, including artificial limbs so far as "reasonably necessary."
A novel feature of the Act of Oct. 6 1917 was the provision for
granting insurance at peace-time rates to any person, man or woman,
in active military or naval service. Such insurance was wholly vol-
untary, and could be taken out, in multiples of $500, for any amount
from $1,000 to $10,000 inclusive, at a monthly premium rate vary-
ing from 63 cents per $1,000 at the age of 15 to $3.35 at the age of 65.
All persons in service Dec. 14 1917 were given until April 12 1918 to
apply for policies, and those entering later were given 120 days.
Among the beneficiaries allowed were wife, husband, child, grand-
child, sister, brother, stepbrother, stepsister, adopted brother or
sister, parent, grandparent, and step-parent. A man's fiancee could
not be named as beneficiary. This insurance was issued on the yearly
renewal basis, to be continued as term insurance for five years after
the proclamation of peace, when it would automatically expire.
Privilege, however, was granted for converting this temporary
insurance, in whole or in part, into one of the permanent forms of
Government insurance, including ordinary life, 2O-payment life,
3O-payment life, 2O-year endowment, 3O-year endowment, and
endowment maturing at the age of 62. Premiums on converted
policies may be paid monthly, quarterly, semi-annually, or annually.
In the case of monthly premiums, 31 days of grace are provided.
If term insurance is allowed to lapse, reinstatement may be secured
within 18 months after discharge from service or 12 months after
lapse, but health of the applicant must be as good as it was at the
time when the premium was first withheld. Never before was insur-
ance on such a large scale undertaken. The cost of administration
was assumed by the Government and not included in the computa-
tion of the premiums for term insurance. The hazards of war were
ignored and peace-time terms offered, such as no commercial com-
pany could have undertaken. The inevitable loss to the Govern-
ment was regarded as part of the cost of the war. All converted
insurance was to be administered by the Government and not han-
dled through commercial companies. At the time of the Armistice,
Nov. ii 1918, there were on file 4,152,787 applications for insur-
ance. Between Oct. 6 1917 and June 30 1920 there were filed
4-631,993 applications for term insurance, requesting a total insur-
ance of $40,284,892,500, an average of about $8,697. O" 1 tne last-
mentioned date there had been issued 4,610,185 certificates for term
insurance. The amount involved exceeded that in all commercial
life insurance companies and fraternal organizations of the United
States combined. About 98 % of the enlisted personnel had taken
advantage of this unprecedented opportunity. Every effort was
made to induce policy-holders to convert their war-risk insurance
into some form of permanent Government insurance, but by far the
greater number allowed their policies to lapse. In 1921 all the
activities concerning the welfare of ex-service men were consoli-
dated in the Veterans' Bureau.
PENSIONS MINISTRY (Great Britain). Before the World
War the Admiralty and the War Office were responsible in the
United Kingdom for the award and payment of service and
disability pensions. The commissioners of the Royal Hospital,
Chelsea, acted for the War Office in respect of pensions to
warrant officers, N.C.O.'s and men. Pensions to privates and
N.C.O.'s were paid quarterly by the regimental paymaster,
those to officers and warrant officers by the paymaster-general.
In the financial year 1913-4 there were in round numbers 60,000
service and 25,000 disability pensions for the army (men), and
for the navy 33,000 and 7,700 respectively. The total annual
cost to the State was 3,695,000. In the subsequent changes the
disability pensioners were transferred to the new organizations,
the service pensions remaining unaffected.
The first war alteration was made in Sept. 1914. A Central
Army Pension Issue Office was set up and weekly instead of
quarterly payment of pensions was authorized. Next, by the
War Pensions Act 1915, the local war pensions committees
were set up, under a statutory central committee " for the
purpose of administering supplementary assistance in case of
hardship and providing for the after-care of disabled officers and
men." These committees were appointed under schemes of
local authorities, more than half the membership being nomi-
nated by these authorities. The Ministry of Pensions was
subsequently set up by the Act of Dec. 1916. This transferred
to a minister responsible to Parliament the powers and duties of
the Admiralty, the War Office, and the Chelsea Commissioners
" in respect of the administration and payment of pensions and
grants to officers and men, to their widows, children and depend-
ents and to persons in the nursing service of the Naval and
Military forces," the administration of service pensions being
left with the service departments. It was provided that the
powers and duties of the statutory committee above referred to
should be continued under the control of the minister, who
should communicate through it with the local committee. This
arrangement proved unworkable, and in 1917 a new War
Pensions Act dissolved the statutory committee and transferred
its powers to the minister. A pensions appeal tribunal was set
up. In 1919 a further Act conferred a statutory title to pension,
subject to the conditions of the royal warrant. Previously it
had been, in theory, only an act of grace. Independent statutory
appeal tribunals were also appointed.
In the Ministry of Health Act (1919) provision was made for
the transfer by order in council of " all or any of the powers and
duties of the Ministry of Pensions with respect to the health of
disabled officers and men after, they have left the service " to the
Minister of Health, at a date " not earlier than one year or
later than three years after the termination of the present war."
A further addition to the series of the Pension Acts was made in
1920, when an Act was passed providing that after the termina-
tion of the present war fresh cases were not to be transferred to
the Ministry of Pensions, but were to remain, as in pre-war days,
under the care of the War Office and Admiralty respectively,
to whom the Air Ministry must now be added. Finally under the
War Pensions bill of 1921, it was proposed that the large propor-
tion of temporary awards should be converted into permanent
awards, a right of appeal being granted to the pensioner. The
period was to be within four years of his discharge from the
service or after the first award of a pension to him. The admin-
istrative functions of the local war pensions committees were
also to be limited and the numbers of these bodies reduced.
Award of Pensions. Pension finance, generously revised at the
outbreak of the World War, was reorganized from time to time in
PERCIN, ALEXANDRE
53
accordance with the changing type of recruits and the rise in the
cost of living. The scales of 1917 and 1918 were again considered in
1919 by a select committee of the newly elected House of Commons,
which settled the rates governing payments till 1923. The principle
of payment is that of compensation for disablement attributable to
or aggravated by war service. " Disablement " is assessed by purely
medical opinion, in terms of a percentage reduction from the stand-
ard of a normal healthy man. The pension is on a flat rate graded
from 20% to 100%; below 20% only a lump sum is awarded payable
usually in weekly allowances. Pensions are in the first instance
awarded temporarily usually for 12 months andremain temporary
till the disability has reached its final and stationary condition, when
they are made permanent. The patient is subject to periodical
medical examination during this time, and at each " board " his
disability is reassessed for the next period. In addition the principle
was laid down in 1917 that no account was to be taken of the earnings
of disabled men. The " alternative pension " was also provided
whereby a man might obtain a pension (within certain limits) running
up to his full pre-war earnings, which by the Warrant of 1919 were
further loaded up by 60 % on account of the increased cost of living.
Widows, also, may choose alternative pensions (husband's earnings
plus 60%), and this right has been exercised in a large number of
cases. The new pension scales were not to be subject to revision be-
fore April 1923.
The following figures may be quoted from the Warrant of 1919 :
(1) Totally disabled (privates) :
Man 405.
( + attendance allowance up to 203. if helpless)
Man and wife 503.
Man, wife and one child 575. 6d.
Man, wife and two children .... 633. 6d.
For each additional child 6s.
(2) Widows :
Childless 2Os.
(+ 6s. 8d. if aged 40).
With one child . 363. 8d.
With two children 443. 2d.
For each additional child .... 6s.
Although the assessment of disablement is a purely medical
matter, the question of entitlement (i.e. whether due to war service)
is decided by medical and lay opinion combined. The claimant has
an appeal against the assessment of a medical board to a medical
appeal tribunal; he may similarly appeal against refusal of entitle-
ment to one of eleven statutory pensions appeal tribunals set up
under the 1919 Act. These are appointed by the Lord Chancellor
and are independent of the Ministry of Pensions.
Constitution. In 1918 the Ministry consisted of the following
branches: (i) Finance (including pensions issue office) ; (2) awards
(men) ; (3) awards (men's widows and dependents) ; (4) awards (offi-
cers and officers' widows and dependents, and medical treatment and
training of officers); (5) local administration; (6) medical services;
(7) vocational training; (8) artificial limbs; (9) surgical appliances;
(10) chief inspector; (il) special grants committee. The only im-
portant change in these divisions has been in the case of vocational
training, which in 1919 was transferred to the Ministry of Labour
(save for convalescent centres associated with medical treatment).
In April 1919 a scheme of regional decentralization was begun, and
during the following 12 months II regions were set up. Each is
governed by a director, assisted by a commissioner of medical serv-
ices, a regional administration officer, an awards officer, a finance
officer, a registrar, and staff. These regional offices carry on (i)
medical examination; (2) awards of pensions; (3) control of Ministry
hospitals; (4) supervision of the local war pensions committees.
The Ministry itself, whose staff had numbered at its inception in
1917 2,296, expanded with its work to 5,754 in its first year, and in
1921 had reached 26,000, which included 8,000 hospital staff. (Of
the male staff at this date 94 % were ex-service men.) The local war
pensions committees then numbered 349, with nearly 1,000 sub-
committees. They had 27,500 members and a paid staff of 6,200
in addition to many voluntary workers. Space precludes more than a
mention of the special grants committee, the chief function of which
is to make supplementary and special grants where need exists, under
regulations approved by the Ministry of Pensions.
Duties. The machinery was great, but the burden was gigantic.
By 1917 (when the Ministry came into being) 262,000 pensions in
all had been granted. The number was doubled in the following 12
months. The increase continued rapidly ; at one time as many as
35,000 new awards were made in a week. The pressure was greatest
in the first six months of 1919, when demobilization was at its height.
It was estimated at the beginning of 1921 that the crest of the curve
had been reached ; cessation or reduction of temporary pensions had
begun to balance new awards, and medical treatment to be com-
mensurate with the demand.
The subjoined figures have been taken as exemplifying the business
of State pensioning at its maximum. (The figures are approximate
and are taken from the estimates for 1920-1.)
Cost of administration 19201, including medi-
cal services, and local war pensions commit-
tees 5,000,000
Cost of local war pensions committees (admin-
istration) 1,150,000
Money disbursed through local war pensions
committees 1920-1 (recoverable advances,
treatment allowances, etc.) . . . 20,000,000
Estimated total cost of pensions including
medical services and administration ex-
penses 123,000,000
From these sums were treated or maintained, partially or wholly,
both the World War and pre-war disability pensioners (the awards
of these last by the Royal Warrant of 1917 had been levelled up to
the corresponding war scale). The total number of awards had
increased from 262,000 in 1917 to 1,849,000 at Dec. 31 1920, made
up as follows :
Disabled men 1,216,000
Widows 226,000
Dependents 384,000
Children 23,000
The pensions, temporary and permanent, actually in payment
on Dec. 31 1920 were:
Disabled men 1,180,000
Widows 169,000
Dependents 362,000
Children 16,900
In addition the following first awards of disability retired pay or
pension had been made:
Officers 56,487
Officers' widows 10,408
Officers' children 11,302
Officers' other dependents 7iO77
Nurses 2,045
Nurses' dependents 22
In payment on Dec. 31 1920 (approx.) : ,
Officers 38,850
Officers' widows 9.7OO
Officers' children 9,100
Officers' other dependents 6,500
Nurses 1,45$
Nurses' dependents 22
Including wives' allowances, and children's allowances the total
number of beneficiaries was nearly 3,500,000.
Medical treatment was being carried on in 84 hospitals and con-
valescent centres and 150 clinics. The Ministry controlled 14,000
beds in its own institutions and 10,000 in civil institutions (cf. the
whole voluntary hospital system of the country, which has not more
than 40-50,000 beds). There were under treatment at any given
time 158,000 cases. The cost of this, including allowances to men
under treatment, in excess of pension, amounted to 16,000,000 per
annum. The doctors directly employed were 464, the hospital staff
numbered 7,600; in addition, for assessment purposes, there were
450 medical boards, each of three members, examining over a con-
siderable period from 21,000 to 25,000 men every week.
Special Features. In addition to the mere mass of the task, many
most baffling problems demanded solution. The Ministry, in addi-
tion to pensions work and medical treatment, had for example to
undertake the supply and repair of artificial limbs and surgical ap-
pliances (a special division of the Ministry was organized to deal with
this). There were in Dec. 1920 23,932 officers and men pensioned on
account of amputations of the leg, and some 64,000 cases of wounds
of the upper extremity involving amputation of arm or part of the
hand. There were 8,000 cases of epilepsy, 114,000 cases of "heart
disease" and 69,000 cases of nervous disease (under which are included
both "shell shock" and "neurasthenia").
There was no medical staff in existence to cope with such numbers.
In the case of the "nervous diseases" a special training school for
psycho-therapy and other forms of treatment was established in
London, where a four months' course was given. The problem of
"heart disease" demanded specialist attention; a system of special
cardiological boards and clinics for examination and diagnosis was
started in London, and extended throughout the country.
For the concurrent treatment and training of the broken men six
large centres had been opened by Jan. 1921, and it was intended to
open two more, giving accommodation in all to between 3,000 and
4,000. The effects of concurrent treatment and training upon the
health and prospects of the patients were extremely beneficial.
Difficulties were experienced in their absorption in industry, and
efforts were made to overcome this by the institution of a national
Roll of Honour by which firms pledged themselves to employ a cer-
tain proportion of disabled men, while special treatment for the
permanently unfit was being considered. (W. E. EL.)
PERCIN, ALEXANDRE (1846- ), French general, was born
at Nancy (Meurthe) on July 4 1846. He entered the Ecole Poly-
technique on Nov. i 1865, and two years later was appointed
a sub-lieutenant of artillery. He was promoted lieutenant in
1869 and captain in 1870. He took part in the Franco-German
54
PERCIVAL PERISCOPE
War and the commune fighting and was twice wounded in
Dec. 1870, at the battle of Patay, and again in April 1871
before Paris. He was made a major (chef d'escadron) in Jan.
1883, lieutenant-colonel in 1890, colonel in 1895, general of
brigade in 1900, and general of division in 1903. In the period
between 1900 and his retirement, Gen. Percin was a very
active reformer and innovator in the tactics of the artillery
arm. The typical field-artillery tactics of 1914, based on time
shrapnel covering fire, and on the intimate liaison of infantry and
artillery, were largely due to his work, and after his retirement
he continued a very active student and critic of artillery opera-
tions. His marked personality, and his political opinions as a
radical, however, made him many enemies. At the outbreak of
the World War he was recalled to service, but only as commander
of the Lille region, and he was involved in the controversies con-
nected with the evacuation of Lille. Later he was employed for
a short period as inspector-general of artillery units. In Jan. 1915
he was placed in the reserves. He was given the Grand Cross of
the Legion of Honour in June 1917.
Amongst his more important works are La Manoeuvre de Lor-
langes, L'Artillerie aux Manoeuvres de Picardie (English translation,
War Office, 1912) anda psychological study of battle under the title
Le Combat (1914).
PERCIVAL, JOHN (1834-1918), English divine, was born in
Westmorland Sept. 27 1834, the son of William Percival, of a
yeoman family. He was educated at Appleby and Queen's
College, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1858. In 1860 he
was ordained, and went to Rugby as an assistant master. In
1863 he went to Clifton College as first headmaster, remaining
there for 1 5 years. He was elected president of Trinity College,
Oxford, in 1878, and while in this position took much interest
in the foundation of Somerville College for women. In 1887
he became headmaster of Rugby, and in 1895 was appointed
to the bishopric of Hereford. His broad churchmanship placed
him in opposition to the dominant tendency in the Church of
England, and he was also a strong and militant Liberal in poli-
tics, being an ardent advocate of the disestablishment of the
Church in Wales. He died at Oxford Dec. 3 1918.
PEREZ CALEBS. BENITO (1843-1920), Spanish novelist (see
21.139), died Jan. 4 1920. The final series of his Episodios
Nacionales contained Espana sin rey (1908); Espaiia Trdgica
(1909) ; Amadeo /. (1910) ; La Primer a Reptblica and De Cartago
& Sagunto (1911); and Canovas (1912). He also published
various plays and novels, including El Caballero encantado (1909),
and Santa Juana de Castilla (1918).
See L. Olmet and A. Carraffa, Los Grandes Espanoles, vol. i.,
Galdos (1912).
PERIODICALS: see NEWSPAPERS.
PERISCOPE. An optical instrument used in land warfare
and in submarine navigation, enabling an observer to see in all
directions while remaining under cover or submerged. Essen-
tially it consists in an optical system of lenses and mirrors, or
mirrors alone, the upper part of which projects from cover, or
from the deck of a submarine, while the observer looks into the
lower end, receiving an image of the surrounding country or
sea by reflection down a tube.
The use of reflecting mirrors for the purpose of observing
from cover is no novelty, and during the trench warfare of the
Crimean War 1854-5 a device was patented which scarcely dif-
fers from the simple mirror periscope of the World War. From
the beginning of the 2oth century, however, the practical intro-
duction of submarine navigation brought about the develop-
ment of new elaborate periscopes of great length and provided
with an optical system of lenses, which were built into the
structure of the submarine. At the same time, on land, the
new necessities imposed on field artillery by the growing use of
covered positions led to the development of scissors-telescopes
(see RANGEFINDERS) and panorama-telescopic sights (see SIGHTS),
in which the optical system was arranged with the tube of the
telescope vertical and the object-glass and eyepiece systems at
right angles to the axis of the tube. And in the World War,
while optical instruments of this kind were elaborated and
improved, the periscope as such came into use for the infantry
garrisoning trenches. Manufactured in large quantities it soon
became an essential part of infantry as well as
of artillery and machine-gun equipment. In the
present article, periscopes for land service and
those forming part of the equipment of sub-
marines will be described in turn.
(i) Land-service Periscopes vary much both in
design and size, some being only a few inches long
while others are as much as 80 ft. in length. The
simplest form of periscope, and that most generally
used by troops, consisted of a tube, rectangular in
section, provided with two mirrors, the upper of
which, inclined at an angle of 45 to the axis of the
tube, reflected the image of the foreground verti-
cally downwards to a second mirror, also inclined
to the axis at 45 into which the observer looked.
But in order to obtain an adequate field of view,
the mirrors, and therefore the box, had to be made
somewhat large, and in the close-quarters conditions
of trench warfare even the few inches by which
they projected over the parapet or other cover
made them sufficiently obvious to draw fire. Less
conspicuous periscopes were therefore designed, and
these, in order to take in enough of the foreground,
had to be provided with a magnifying as well as a
reflecting system. In the British service half of
the stereoscopic scissors-telescope used in range-
finders was frequently employed as a periscope. Its
lower end was fitted with a ball-and-socket joint
to enable it to be laid in any direction, and be-
neath this is a screw which can be screwed by
means of a small lever into a piece of wood embed-
ded in the side of a trench.
In an ingenious periscope designed by Messrs.
R. & J. Beck of London (fig. i) the upper prism
is supported above the telescopic system on a flat
strip of metal which can be slid through side sup-
ports on the body of the pcrisco[>e. When in use,
the prism is supported some inches above the body
and is the only part that can be seen by the enemy.
If it is shot away, it Ccin be replaced in a few
seconds. When the periscope is not in use, the
prism is lowered and protects the upper lens in the
body.
Small German periscopes were usually I metre
or J a metre in length and had two eyepieces
giving magnifications 10 and 15 diameters. The
optical system is shown in fig. 2. They could be
either held in the hand or attached to a direction
stand.
A neat rainguard made of sheet metal, to the
same curve as the body of the periscope and al-
most 8 inches long, is attached to the upper prism
box by two spring straps. When in use, it is held
at right angles to the periscope above the upper
window by a bayonet catch ; when not in use, it is
lowered and sprung round the body of the periscope just below
the upper prism box.
Many periscopes of considerable length
and special design have been used, to en-
able observations being made in compara-
tive safety from behind large objects, e.g.
houses, trees, etc., or from folds in the
ground. Of these the most remarkable
is the German Giant Periscope, two speci-
mens of which exhibited in the collection
of trophies in the Imperial War Museum,
Crystal Palace, have excited considerable
popular interest. This periscope is con-
siderably larger than any others, and was
designed for observing over obstacles of
between 9 and 26 metres in height. It
can be rapidly erected or taken down and
transported on its carriage. It consists
mainly of 3 parts, viz. a steel telescopic
mast and upper and lower optical sys-
tems which are attached to it.
The telescopic mast is carried in trun-
nions on the carriage, and travels closed
and in a horizontal position. Gears are
provided for elevating, levelling, aligning
the upper and lower optical systems, ad-
justing the inclination of the reflector and
rotating the mast around a vertical axis
so that observations may be made and azi-
muth angles taken in all directions. The
FIG. I
-H
PERISCOPE
55
telescopic mast consists of 8 tubes. The lower one is attached to
the carriage, and the upper one is pulled out as far as it will go
and retained in position by catches before the mast is raised. The
other six are connected to each other and to the lowest one by wire
cables and pulleys in such a way that when the cable which con-
nects the two lowest tubes is wound in by means of a winch, each
of the tubes except the fixed one will rise within the next one
FIG. 4
through the same distance. When erect, the mast is steadied by
means of three guy ropes.
The details of the optical systems are as follows : The rays from a
distant object after passing through a protecting window A (fig. 5)
are reflected by a mirror B down the centre of the conical casing
which contains the upper optical system and is attached to the top
of the mast. The two achromatic lenses, C and D, bring the rays to
a focus on the plane surface of the large lens, E, forming an image
there. Immediately above this plane surface and almost touching it
is a system of wires which enables angular distances from the centre
of the field to be read at the eyepiece below. The mirror can be
elevated and depressed by means of a flexible shaft which passes up
the centre of the mast and actuates gear attached to the mirror frame.
From the large lens, E, the rays pass through the open air for a
considerable distance, depending upon how much the mast has been
raised, to the lower optical system. Here they pass through the
lenses and prism shown into one of the eyepieces, F. By moving the
lens G up and down the image can be formed in the correct position
for the eyepiece at all extensions of the mast.
There are three eyepieces which are mounted on a revolving sleeve
in such a way that any_ one of them can be quickly brought into use,
to give the magnification suitable to the height of the mast. (Low
power from 3 to 8; medium from 5 to 14; high from 7 to 21.) Each
eyepiece is provided with a dummy eyepiece which comes opposite to
the eye which is not observing and permits of it being kept open.
This lessens eyestrain. Coloured anti-glare glasses are provided.
(2) Submarine Periscopes. When a submarine is completely
submerged the occupants are not able to see through the water
except under very exceptional conditions. In the Mediterranean on
a sunny day it is possible to see for several yards
through the water at about 25 ft. below the surface.
In the North Sea, and usually, it might be said that
once the boat is submerged, direct observation
through the water is impossible. In the very ear-
liest submarines a cupola was built on the top of
the hull, which was kept just above the surface
when it was desired to take observations. To re-
ducBj resistance, these cupolas were made tele-
scopic in the French submarines "Gymnote"and
the " Gustave Z6d6, " but the arrangement proved
unsatisfactory. An optical tube replaced this cu-
pola in the "Gustave Z6de," and comprised a short
tube (on top of the submarine) with a lens to close
the top end, which was kept just above the sur-
face when running submerged. Horizontal rays of
light entering at the top were reflected by a prism
down the tube and focussed on to a sheet of paper
in front of the helmsman inside the submarine.
This gave him a limited view of what lay directly
ahead. The word "periscope" was first applied
to this instrument.
The modern submarine periscope consists essen-
tially of a long tube, the top of which is just
above the water when diving, while the lower end
passes through a stuffing box on the shell of the
boat into the control-room. The top is closed by a
pressure-tight window, inside of which is a prism
which reflects the light rays vertically down the
tube to a prism at the bottom end, where they are
reflected in a horizontal direction and focussed in
an eyepiece attached to the bottom of the tube.
Thus the commander can see what is happening on
the surface when navigating the submarine some
2O ft. or mere below it.
The greater the depth of submergence the less
the disturbance made by the submarine on the
surface of the water, and the greater the immunity
from gun-fire, ramming, etc.; also in a sea-way
the deeper the submarine the more readily is it con-
trolled. For these reasons the length of the peri- 5Jr7 FIG. 6
scope has steadily increased, and the dimensions **,*.
of the upper end have as steadily decreased. In-
creased length necessitated an increase in the diameter of the main
tube to limit the amplitude of the vibrations caused by being
pushed through the water. A typical instrument in the British
navy was 30 ft. long, with a 5-9 in. diameter main tube, and the
top 3 ft. of the upper tube 2 in. diameter. For the German " U "
boats Messrs. Zeiss made a periscope 7 metres long, main tu^e 150
mm. (5-9 in.), and about 2 ft. 6 in. of the top tube 30 mm. (1-2 in.)
diameter.
The main tube must be accurately machined as it has to be readily
trained in its stuffing-box as well as be water-tight in all positions,
through a considerable range of vertical travel. The modern practice
is to take rapid observations rather than to keep the periscope above
the water all the time. To facilitate this mechanical lifting, gear is
provided which is readily controlled, and can raise or lower the
periscope at a speed approaching 25 ft. per minute.
The field of view is usually about 40 at a magnification of 1-5.
It is therefore necessary to train the periscope round when taking
observations on different bearings. This can be done in two ways,
either by rotating the optical train inside the main tube, or, as is
more usually the case, rotating the whole periscope. With the
increase in weight and size the effort required has increased, and
power training has sometimes been necessary. Where possible,
PERKIN PERSHING
however, by refinements in workmanship, etc., efforts are made to
keep the torque required so low as to be within the power of the
operator. Usually a revolving scale round the edge of the field shows
the direction of the view. If the whole instrument moves, the
operator also moves round with it in the boat, and knows at once in
which direction he is lookirig.
Owing to proximity to the magnetic compass the whole of the tube
must be non-magnetic. High-strength bronze was used in the earlier
practice in the British navy. A special nickelchrome steel was
manufactured and machined by Messrs. Krupp for use for the
outer tube of the German navy periscope used before the war, and a
similar steel was developed and used in the British service, but it is
costly and more difficult to machine to the required accuracy than
is the case with bronze.
The use of aircraft for anti-submarine work led to the demand for a
periscope which could be used for looking overhead. In the sky-
searching periscope the upper prism can be rotated by mechanism
inside the periscope, so that aerial observations can be readily made
before the submarine " breaks surface."
To enable a distant ship or other object to be examined more
closely it is possible in some periscopes to change the magnification
from a normal power of 1.5 to a power of 6. This, and the sky search-
ing previously mentioned, means increased internal gearing and a
larger upper tube. As a rule every submarine has at least two peri-
scopes, one unifocal with a small upper tube and the other bifocal
and sky-searching with a larger upper tube.
Whilst in the British service sky searching up to right overhead
was arranged for, German periscopes as a whole are limited to 20
above the horizontal. In each case 10 depression is allowed for to
follow the roll of the submarine.
For special purposes other features are added, such as range-
finding attachments, etc. A " night " periscope for use at dusk has
been developed. It is much shorter than the typical instruments
described, so that the maximum brightness of image is obtained.
The periscope when installed in. the submarine is used for two
purposes: (a) general observation for submerged navigation; (b)
for correctly aligning the submarine when firing a torpedo at a target.
In connexion with (a) the principal requirement is clearness of field.
Continuous use of a periscope is very trying for the observer's eyes,
and for use in bright weather light-filter screens are provided to
reduce the glare. It has also been found that in foggy and misty
weather suitable colour screens are of assistance. These screens are
usually embodied in the eyepiece. For purposes of torpedo attack the
periscope is used as a range-finder to determine the distance the
target is away, and also in connexion with tables to determine the
correct time to fire the torpedo, allowing for the speed of the enemy,
course, etc. Officers of submarines have devised various mechanical
devices to avoid calculations, and these have been added to the
periscope. Although two periscopes are provided when attacking,
one only would be shown for short periods to get check observation
so as to prevent the wash of the upper tube revealing the proximity
of the submarine.
PERKIN, WILLIAM HENRY (1860- ), English chemist,
was born at Sudbury, England, in 1860, eldest son of Sir William
Perkin, founder of the aniline dye industry. He received his
general education at the City of London School, and his scientific
education at the Royal College of Science, South Kensington,
and at the universities of Wiirzburg and Munich. During 1883-6
h; held the position of Privatdocent in the university of Munich.
In i83; he returned to England and became professor of chemis-
try at the Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh. In 1892 he accepted
the chair of organic chemistry at the Victoria University,
Manchester, which he held until 1912. During this period
his stimulating teaching and brilliant researches attracted stu-
dents from all parts, and he formed at Manchester a school of
organic chemistry famous throughout Europe. In 1912 he suc-
ceeded Prof. Wm. Odling as Waynflete professor of chemistry
at Oxford. He soon made his influence felt there new and more
extensive laboratories were built, and for the first time in Eng-
land a period of research became a necessary part of the aca-
demic course in chemistry for an honours degree. Prof. Perkin
was president of the Chemical Society from 1913 to 1916. He was
awarded the Longstaff medal of the Chemical Society in 1900,
and the Davy medal of the Royal Society in 1904. The main
results of his work are embodied in a very numerous and brilliant
series of papers in the Transactions of the Chemical Society.
The earlier papers deal chiefly with the properties and modes of
synthesis of cloud chain hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
This work led naturally to the synthesis of many terpenes and
members of the camphor group; also to the investigation of
various alkaloids and natural colouring matters. In addition to
purely scientific work Prof. Perkin always kept in close touch
with chemical industry. His text-books on practical chemistry,
inorganic and organic chemistry, written in conjunction with
Prof. Kipping, are in general use.
PERNERSTORFER, ENGELBERT (1850-1918), Austrian poli-
tician, was born on April 27 1850 at Vienna, the son of a small
master tailor. While still a lad at the Gymnasium he had to earn
his living by giving lessons. At the Schollengymnasium he struck
up a close friendship with Viktor Adler, and became interested in
the Pan-German political movement. While still at the Gymna-
sium he gave courses of lectures at the Workmen's Education
Union. At the university he came into contact with Schonerer,
to whose intimate circle he belonged. He collaborated in the
preparation of the so-called Linz programme of the Left National
party, and for a quarter of a century, from 1 88 1 onwards, he edi ted
the periodical Deutsche Worle. He separated from Schonerer
as the latter adopted an increasingly reactionary and anti-Sem-
itic attitude. He was also the inspirer and one of the founders of
the German School Union. In 1885 he was elected to the Aus-
trian Parliament as independent candidate for the manufactur-
ing centre of Wiener-Neustadt. From that time, with the excep-
tion of the electoral period 1897 to 1901, he sat in Parliament
until his death, and from 1907 onwards was its vice-president.
In 1907 he became president of the parliamentary Social Dem-
ocratic party, which had in the meantime increased in number
to 87 in consequence of the adoption of universal suffrage. He
died, after a rather long illness, in Vienna on Jan. 7 1918.
PERRY, JOHN (1850-1920), British mathematician, was
born in Ulster Feb. 14 1850 and educated at Queen's College,
Belfast. Though he took a post as a schoolmaster in 1870, he
also qualified as an electrical engineer and devoted much of his
time to turning mathematics to practical account. He served for
a time as assistant to Lord Kelvin. Later he was associated with
Prof. Ayrton and together they were responsible for many inven-
tions in electrical apparatus (see 3.76, 8.782 and 783, 9.236, etc.).
In 1881 he became professor of engineering and mathematics at
the City and Guilds of London Technical College and in 1896
professor of mathematics and mechanics at the Royal College of
Science, retiring in 1914. He published many books on applied
mathematics and did much to further scientific engineering,
especially by his lectures to operatives and by such works as
The Steam Engine (1874), Spinning Tops (1890), The Calculus
for Engineers (1897), etc. During the World War he was an ad-
viser on gyroscopic compasses. He died in London Aug. 41920.
PERSHING, JOHN JOSEPH (1860- ), American soldier,
was born near Laclede, Mo., Sept. 13 1860. He studied at the
Kirksville (Mo.) Normal School (B.A. 1880); graduated from
the U.S. Military Academy in 1886; was commissioned second-
lieutenant and immediately assigned to the 6th Cavalry in a
campaign against the Apaches in Arizona. His conduct won the
praise of General Nelson A. Miles, and in 1890, during an up-
rising of the Sioux, he was sent to Dakota, in charge of the
Indian scouts.. In 1891 he was appointed military instructor at
the university of Nebraska, remaining there four years. He
entered the law school and received the degree of LL.B. in
1893, having been made first-lieutenant the preceding year. In
1897 he was appointed instructor in tactics at the U.S. Military
Academy, but on the outbreak of the Spanish-American War
(1898) asked to be assigned to active duty. He served in Cuba
through the Santiago campaign, was appointed chief of ordnance
with the rank of major of volunteers, and in June 1899 assistant
adjutant-general. He organized in Cuba the Bureau of Insular
Affairs of which he was head for several months. In Nov. 1899
he was sent to the Philippines as adjutant -general of the Depart-
ment of Mindanao, and in 1901 was honourably discharged from
volunteer service. The same year he was made captain in the
regular army and later conducted a campaign against the Moros,
which he completed with success in 1903. The same year he
returned to America and was appointed a member of the General
Staff. In 1905 he went to Japan as military attache to the Ameri-
can embassy, and during the Russo-Japanese War spent several
months as military observer with the Japanese army in Man-
churia. As a reward for his success in the Philippines President
PERSIA
57
Roosevelt in 1906 finally secured his promption from captain to
brigadier-general, passing him over 862 senior officers. Soon
after he returned to the Philippines as commander of the Depart-
ment of Mindanao and governor of the Moro Province. Here
again he was engaged in quelling the insurbordinate Moros until
his decisive victory at Bagsag June 12 1913. He was then placed
in command of the 8th Brigade at San Francisco. While he was
temporarily absent in 1915 on duty at the Mexican border his
wife and three young daughters lost their lives in a disastrous
fire, but his son was rescued. In March 1916 he was put in
command of the punitive expedition into Mexico against Fran-
cisco Villa, and the same year was made major-general. After
the death of Maj.-Gen. Funston in 1917 he succeeded him as
commander of all the American troops on the Mexican border.
This position he held until America's entrance into the World
War, and was then chosen to command the A.E.F. in Europe.
With his staff he reached England June 9 1917, and four days
later landed in France to prepare for the coming of the American
troops. In Oct. 1917 he was made general, U.S.A. In some quar-
ters it was felt that as the American detachments arrived they
should be hastily trained and then distributed among the Allied
forces already in the field, but from the start General Pershing
insisted upon the integrity of the American army, though willing
in cases of emergency to place detached American units in the
different Allied armies. He was convinced that the presence of
an independent American army would be a serious blow to Ger-
man moral. In Dec. 1917 he forbade American soldiers the use
of alcoholic drinks, excepting light wines and beer, allowing
these only in deference to French customs. As Commander-in-
Chief of the A.E.F. he planned the American attack at the
Marne salient in 1918, as well as American operations at St.
Mihiel and in the Meuse-Argonne. His management of the
A.E.F. is clearly described in his succinct Final Report (less
than 100 pages), issued by the Government Printing Office,
Washington, Dec. 1919. His nomination by President Wilson to
the permanent rank of general was confirmed unanimously by the
U.S. Senate Sept. i 1919, a grade held previously by only four
Americans Washington, Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan. In
1921 he was appointed Chief-of-Staff. By King George V. he
was given the decoration of G.C.B.
PERSIA (see 21.187). The autumn of 1909 was a turning
point in Persian history. The despotic Shah had abdicated, thus
ending the bad old order. Great Britain and Russia were sympa-
thetic to Persia, the latter Power not only appointing a minister
with liberal ideas, but withdrawing her troops gradually from
Kazvin and Tabriz. In other words the field was clear and Persia
had every chance of setting her house in order. The new Assem-
bly met in Nov., when Sipahdar read a speech from the throne,
full of good intentions. Nor did his Cabinet fail at the first diffi-
cult task. When the question of disbanding the mujahidin or
" warriors of the Holy War " arose, these soldiers of fortune, for
the most part, assumed a menacing attitude and threatened to
mutiny unless their exorbitant demands for pay were granted,
but the matter was finally settled without bloodshed. Far more
dangerous was the discord that raged among the Nationalists,
who again broke up into two parties, the " Revolutionaries " (now
mis-named " Democrats ") being bitterly hostile to the Mod-
erates. Unfortunately the former party, by its activity, its
violence, and its secret organization, gained the ascendent. Nor
were the leaders any better, Sardar-i-Assad, the Bakhtiari chief,
intriguing with the " Revolutionaries " against Sipahdar. The
raising of a joint loan of 500,000 from the two Powers, mainly
to provide the pay due to the police and soldiers, encountered
stormy opposition in the Assembly and was not carried through.
The " Revolutionaries " forced their way into the Cabinet, with
the result that no progress of any kind was made.
Sipahdar ultimately resigned and a " Democrat " Cabinet was
formed under the influence of Sardar-i-Assad, whose nominee for
the premiership was a Kajar prince, Mustaufi el Mamalik. It
was hoped that office would sober the " Democrats," but little
sense of responsibility was shown, together with an intense crav-
ing for the sweets of office. Generally speaking the Majlis made
Cabinet rule impossible. It was broken up into several parties
swayed by passion, intrigue or greed for money, and would lightly
pass votes of censure whenever an incident which appeared
to be unfavourable to Persia was reported, without giving the
minister concerned the chance of explaining matters. Moreover,
the hostility of the Majlis and of the Cabinet towards Russia
was exasperating to the northern Power.
Chronic Disorder. In the autumn of 1909 M. Passek, Russian
consul-general, was attacked by tribesmen, when travelling to
Shiraz with an escort of Cossacks. A few months later, the Brit-
ish consul was attacked near Abadeh and two Indian sowars of
his escort were killed. The authority of the governor-general of
Fars was threatened by the Kashgais. In the N., adherents of
the ex-Shah drove the governor from Ardebil, and Russia was
suspected of being implicated in this plot probably with justice.
Elsewhere in northern Persia there was little disorder compared
with the unsatisfactory state of affairs in Fars, which gravely
threatened British commerce and other interests. So much was
this the case that Great Britain began to consider the situation
as one that might demand British intervention, and, in the
autumn, the Persian Government was notified that, failing the
restoration of order within three months, Persian levies under
British officers would be raised to guard the trade routes.
In the autumn of 1910, Nasir el Mulk was elected regent in the
place of the deceased 'Azud el Mulk, and reached Teheran at a
critical time. Mustaufi had been obliged to resign; Sipahdar
again formed a Cabinet and Sardar-i-Assad had left for Europe.
The new Cabinet was settling down when the ex-Shah, who had
passed across Russia with munitions labeled " Mineral Waters,"
suddenly landed near Asterabad. At first, there was a panic at
Teheran. Sipahdar, whose loyalty to the constitution was sus-
pect, was induced to resign, his place being taken by the Bakhti-
ari chief Samsam es Sultaneh. The ex-Shah marched on Teheran
while Salar ed Dauleh simultaneously advanced on the capital
from Kermanshah. The Russians undoubtedly favoured the ex-
Shah, but his troops were defeated, as was the horde of tribesmen
under Salar. Finally the ex-Shah retired to Russia, mainly
because Great Britain declined to consider the question of his
return to the throne.
American Financial Mission, IQII. The financial troubles of
Persia were mainly due to the all-pervading corruption and irre-
sponsibility of the governing class. It is to the credit of the " Demo-
crats " that an effort was made to deal with the situation by engag-
ing the services of Mr. Morgan Shuster, an American, as financial
adviser. Upon examining the situation, Mr. Shuster realized that,
without extraordinary powers, he could do little. He therefore
demanded the powers of a dictator, which were granted him by the
" Democrats," with whose views he found himself in sympathy.
Russia regarded his actions with hostility. He was advised by the
regent to reorganize everything else before interfering with the com-
paratively model organization of the customs under its Belgian
officials. Instead of following this sound advice, he began work with
the customs, exciting deep animosities. Indeed, in many ways, he
ignored the realities of the situation. To take an important instance,
Shuster wished to organize a Treasury gendarmerie and offered the
task to Maj. C. B. Stokes of the Indian army, whose appointment as
military attache was expiring. Stokes was a Russophobe, owing to
his strong pro-Persian proclivities, and Russia firmly objected to an
appointment which would give him control over men stationed in
every part of Persia. The matter caused much stir and was finally
settled by Maj. Stokes being ordered to leave Persia and return to
India. This was a rebuff to Shuster, but worse was to follow. The
Russian Government was determined to oust him, but took action
on a weak case. The Treasury gendarmes seized the principal
property of Shu'a es Sultaneh, the young Shah's uncle, who had
taken part in the ex-Shah's attempt. Actually he was a Turkish
subject. However, the Russian consul-general, under the flimsy
pretext that Shu'a owed money to the Russian Bank, sent some
Russian Cossacks, who ordered the Treasury gendarmes to retire
under threat of opening fire on them. A guard of Persian Cossacks
was subsequently posted by orders of the Russian consul-general.
On the following day Shuster dispatched a much stronger body of
Treasury gendarmes who ejected the Persian Cossacks. Russia
regarded this foolish act as a challenge and presented an ultimatum
demanding an apology for the insult offered to her consul-general.
When this had been accepted, she demanded the dismissal of
Shuster. The Majlis at first refused with cries of " Death or Inde-
pendence," while at Tabriz and Resht attacks were made on the
Russians, who dealt sternly with the incidents, hanging the leading
ecclesiastic and other notables at Tabriz. Russian troops supported
PERSIA
the ultimatum by marching on Teheran, and the Persians, recover-
ing from their fond illusions, submitted. The failure of Shuster
was disappointing. His selection was, perhaps, unfortunate, but,
in any case, Russia would hardly have permitted him to succeed.
Bombardment of the Meshed Shrine, March IQI2. There were few
acts more discreditable to Russia or more harmful to her true
interests than the bombardment of the shrine of the Iman Riza, the
chief centre of pilgrimage in Persia. The Russian consul-general at
Meshed, who was determined to play a hostile rdle in Persia, had
taken advantage of local disturbances to bring in a large Russian
force under a major-general. There was no need for this, and the
population, cowed by its arrival, was peaceful. This state of affairs,
however, was not allowed to continue, as it meant no honours and
no loot for the Russians. A notorious agent, provocateur was sent to
the shrine, where he soon collected large crowds to listen to his
incendiary speeches. This was all that was necessary and the shrine
was bombarded by the Russians, nominally to expel the agitators.
Actually they were taken away by night in a waggon under a
Russian escort. Many innocent men and women were killed and
wounded; the sacred tomb-chamber in which lie the remains of
Persia's saint, close to those of Harun al Rashid, was repeatedly
struck by the shell-fire; and the treasury, which contained the rich
gifts of countless pilgrims, was removed, but was afterwards restored,
although by no means intact. The outrage excited intense feeling in
Persia and, to a lesser degree, throughout the Moslem world. It
demonstrated beyond all doubt the sinister policy of Russia, and was
the chief cause of the hatred with which the northern Power was
regarded. In England the bombardment passed almost unnoticed,
as it occurred simultaneously with the disaster to the " Titanic,"
which entirely absorbed public attention.
Persia in 1913. The year before the outbreak of the World
War found Persia in a miserable plight. Russia was constantly
strengthening her hold on the N. by seizing on, or creating, pre-
texts for further intervention. Great Britain was bound by the
Anglo-Russian Agreement to cooperate with the northern Power,
but did her best to help Persia to maintain her independence, a
task which native incapacity, intrigue and corruption rendered
very difficult. In her sphere of influence in the S. she supported
the organization and development of the Swedish gendarmerie
by advances of money and by other means, and tried to secure
capable governors for Pars and Kerman. The position in Pars,
the storm-centre of southern Persia, remained thoroughly unsatis-
factory. The Kashgai tribe, the most powerful in southern Per-
sia, defied the governor-general and raided in Pars as did the Boir
Ahmadis; the Khamseh Arabs raided the caravan routes in the
Kerman province; and other tribes raided in the Pars, Yezd or
Kerman provinces from time to time. It was generally realized
that the evil was beyond the powers of the Persian Government
to cure, but in pursuance of the British determination to avoid
any increase of commitments a decision that was eminently
sound action in the form of unsatisfactory palliatives was alone
taken. Throughout this period, no Persian Cabinet would as-
sume office without applying for a considerable advance of money
from the two Powers. Money was given, the question of repay-
ment was arranged, and there were practically no results. Much
of the money was embezzled and the balance was spent to small
advantage. The case of Capt. Eckford, who was killed by a raid-
ing party of Boir Ahmadi tribesmen between Shiraz and Dasht-i-
Arjan, is typical. The' governor-general of Pars, Mukhbir es
Sultaneh, who played a sinister r61e in the World War, took ad-
vantage of the incident to press for large sums of money, with
which he proposed to raise a force of over 1,000 men, and expressed
his confidence that he would be able to punish the Boir Ahma-
dis and other evil-doers without difficulty. The Swedish gen-
darmerie was already being organized in the province, but had
the fatal defect from the point of view of a Persian governor-gen-
eral that the money for their pay did not pass through his hands.
At Teheran the Treasury was empty. A Cabinet bent on reform
was being constituted with a programme which entailed a loan of
about 5,500,000. Meanwhile, in order to support the governor-
general of Pars in his unsuccessful attempts to restore order and
punish the Boir Ahmadis, the British legation advanced a sum
of 15,000 for three months and, later on, 100,000 for twelve
and a half months. In Feb. 1913, the two Powers advanced Persia
400,000. The negotiations for a larger loan were connected with
that of railway concessions of which some account is given below.
Salar ed Dauleh. Among the many difficulties of the Persian
Government, that of Salar ed Dauleh was particularly irritating.
That troublesome prince had rebelled against his brother Mahom-
med 'AH Shah, had been defeated and had been kept under honour-
able arrest. When Mahommed 'AH Shah made a bid to regain the
throne in 1911, Salar had, as mentioned above, organized a move-
ment from the S.W. and proclaimed himself Shah but, again, had
been decisively beaten. In 1912, the irrepressible prince reappeared
on the scene and, after occupying Kurdistan, threatened Hamadan.
Farman Farma, appointed governor-general of Kurdistan, held
Kermanshah against him, inflicting a repulse which drove Salar to
take to flight. He then proceeded to lead the life of a brigand chief,
fomenting local troubles and blackmailing any wealthy landowner
or merchant who was unfortunate enough to fall into his hands.
After the. formation of the Cabinet of 'Ala es Sultaneh in 1913, it
was decided to make terms with the prince who, mainly through
Russian support, was nominated governor of Gilan. The regent
realized the danger of appointing this " stormy petrel " to a post
where he controlled the main route between Russia and the capital,
and refused to sanction the appointment. The Russian Government,
for a while, declined to permit it to be cancelled, but finally at the
repeated request of the British, induced Salar to accept a pension
and leave Persia. During the same period there was considerable
anxiety as to the movements of the ex-Shah who, it was feared, was
intending to make another bid for the throne, but the enquiries
made by the British Government tended to show that there was no
real cause for anxiety on the subject.
The Swedish Geiularmerie. The general condition of Persia is one
of chronic anarchy which is more intense the nearer any particular
locality may be to the powerful raiding tribes. This anarchy the
Persian Government is impotent to stop until there is a radical
change of character and a movement towards virility and honesty
in the governing class. A study of the Blue Books from one point
of view is a summary of outrages and of ineffectual measures taken
for their punishment, the British minister making the best of an
almost hopeless situation and staving off a total collapse by a ham I-
to-mouth policy of doles, warnings and good advice. In view of the
fact that Russia had organized a Persian Cossack brigade in the N.,
it would have been only befitting that Great Britain should organize
a force for the restoration of order in the S., but so afraid of increased
commitments was the British Foreign Office that it agreed to the
Persian Government engaging Swedish officers for the formation of
a gendarmerie and, in the summer of 191 1, a mission composed of 20
officers reached Persia under Col. Hjalmarson. The Swedes had no
knowledge of the country, the Moslem people, the language or orien-
tal intrigue. The Russians eyed their mission unfavourably and
would have rejoiced at its failure. They considered that, if success-
ful, the gendarmerie would certainly become a dangerous rival to
the Cossack brigade, which was only nominally controlled by the
Persian Government and was actually under the orders of the
Russian legation. The Persian Cabinet, although anxious for die
success of the gendarmerie, was generally apathetic and also irregular
in making payments. The British legation, on the contrary, helped
and supported the new force in every way, realizing that unless it
succeeded in its very difficult task of restoring order, Persia might
well break up into a number of robber-infested provinces. The
Swedish officers who were drawn from the regular army, worked
hard to train their men. At first, they enlisted the riff-raft" of Teheran
but gradually recruited a better class of men. Their ignorance of
how to deal with Moslems led them to make many mistakes, but this
was after all only natural. Generally speaking, they made good
progress at the capital and in its neighbourhood.
The British legation, which was watching the dwindling of trade
in Fars and the increasing lack of law and order, constantly urged
the necessity for sending a force of gendarmes to that province and,
in Feb. 1913, the first detachment left for Shiraz. Col. Hjalmarson's
scheme for Persia was to place 1,500 men as road guards in Fars
supported by a mobile column of 1, 800 men. A contingent at Isfahan
would form a link with headquarters at Teheran. He also intended
to organize stations for the Qum-Sultanabad, for the Hamadan-
Kermanshah, and the Samnan-Damghan routes. These schemes
would require about 8,000 men and would bring up the number of
instructors to twenty-eight. The cost would have been about
400,000 for the first year and, later on, considerably more. The
problem of Fars was very difficult, owing both to the power and dis-
position of the Kashgais, Boir Ahmadis and other tribesmen, and the
rugged nature of the terrain. The Swedes made an unfortunate start
at Bushire where they enlisted 168 men locally, many of them noted
bad characters. These men, owing to two of their number being
stripped naked and flogged, all resigned. Probably it was fortunate
that they did so, for had they escorted a caravan of arms and
ammunition to Shiraz, as was the original intention, it is hardly likely
that it would have reached its destination with its contents intact.
The gendarmerie marched into Fars and on the way made a success-
ful attack on some Arab robbers, recovering a certain amount of
looted property. Owing to the men belonging to N. Persia it was
found impossible to take over the route near the coast, as the heat
overpowered them, but they occupied it as far as Kazerun. At first
the newcomers were not attacked, although the petty chiefs, who
lived by blackmailing caravans, realized that if they remained their
profits would cease. They were however afraid to move and the
gendarmerie gradually established themselves and engaged a num-
PERSIA
59
her of tribesmen as levies. In the vicinity of Shiraz, a detachment
was taken out to attack the Kashgais before it was sufficiently
trained, with the result that the men behaved badly and allowed
themselves to be disarmed. However, they had constructed posts
along the route and these they held at the outbreak of war.
The Bakhtiari Domination. The chief role in the Persian revolu-
tion had been played by the Bakhtiari tribe which, entirely owing
to the influence of Sirdar-i-Assad, had marched on Teheran and
secured the abdication of Mahommed 'Ali Shah. During the years
that followed, not only had they held the chief posts but their
tribesmen had been the mainstay of the constitution. Whenever an
expedition had been sent out, they drew money, arms and ammuni-
tion, most of which ultimately reached the Bakhtiari country.
Sirdar-i-Assad had undoubtedly cherished the ambition of founding
a new dynasty, but while events were favouring his designs, he be-
came blind. However, his tribe continued to dominate Teheran and
assumed a provocative attitude towards the gendarmerie. The
Swedish officers took prompt action, surrounded the Bakhtiari
quarter with machine-guns and artillery, and put an end to an
intolerable state of affairs from which Europeans as well as Persians
had suffered. The chiefs, perforce, agreed to dismiss the greater part
of their contingents and felt the humiliation so keenly that they
never again attempted to dominate the capital.
German Activity before the World War. For some 20 years before
the war, Germany had made strenuous efforts to increase her
influence and interests in Persia. Perhaps the most definite success
gained at the capital was the opening of a college staffed by German
professors, to which the Persian Government was induced to con-
tribute a handsome annual grant.
But to realize the persistence with which her policy was conducted,
attention must be turned to the Persian Gulf. Before 1896 Germany
had no representative or trade in that torrid region but, in that
year, the campaign opened by the firm of Wonckhaus establishing
itself at Lingeh where it began dealing in mother-of-pearl; and, in
1897, a German vice-consulate was founded at Bushire. Three years
later Germany made great efforts to purchase a site for the terminus
of the Bagdad railway at Kuwait, but the astute Sheikh Mubarak
had previously concluded a secret treaty with Great Britain by the
terms of which, in return for protection, he agreed not to sell or
lease any of his territory without the consent of that Power. Ger-
many did not accept this rebuff as final and induced Turkey, mem-
bers of Mubarak's family, and the Wahabis to take a hand in the
game, but all direct attacks were foiled by British sea-power. A
more successful plan was to induce the Turks to establish posts in
Khor 'Abdalla, an inlet running from behind Bubiyan Is. to within
30 m. of Basra. The fact that the creek was situated in Mubarak's
territory mattered nothing, and these posts were occupied until the
outbreak of the World War. Five years after its foundation at
Lingeh, the firm of Wonckhaus, supported by German subsidies,
opened its headquarters on the Bahrein Is. with branches at Basra
and Bandar 'Abbas. The reason for the change of headquarters was
soon evident as the islands are situated among the pearl banks, of
which Germany attempted to gain control through a lease derived
from the Sultan, whose claims in the Persian Gulf were shadowy.
The little island of Halul, which is situated in the centre of the banks,
was particularly aimed at, but Great Britain intervened and spoilt
the new scheme. Germany was indefatigable in her efforts. Foiled
entirely as regards the pearl fisheries, she attempted to control the
working of the red oxide deposits "ol Abu Musa. The Sheikh of
Sharja, a Trucial chief, bound by treaty with Great Britain not to
enter in an agreement with any other Power, had granted a con-
cession for working these deposits to three Arabs, two of whom lived
at Lingeh, while the third partner was his own subject. Wonckhaus
acquired the concession which the Sheikh promptly cancelled, send-
ing a large body of his subjects to expel the concessionaires. This
action raised a storm in the German press, but the case was too weak
to be supported and merely a formal protest was made. The last
attempt to be recorded was to secure a large piece of land along the
river bank at Mohammerah, with the object of creating a German
settlement, quays, etc., but again British vigilance was too strong.
Much credit is due to Sir Percy Cox, the British Resident, for foiling
every German attempt. In spite of these failures, in 1906 the Ham-
burg-Amerika Co. started a service to the Persian Gulf. The first
steamer created a sensation, lavish hospitality being dispensed to all
comers, who also welcomed the novelty of a band. Trade was small
at first and native passengers were not encouraged, but shipments
of railway material helped matters and ultimately a flourishing
trade was established. Great Britain, at the actual outbreak of war,
was engaged in negotiations with Germany and Turkey. So far as
the former Power was concerned, but for the war she would have
secured a strong position at Basra, the destined terminus of the
Bagdad railway. The suzerainty of Turkey over Kuwait was also
acknowledged. In other words British predominance in the Persian
Gulf would have been weakened. So far as this important problem
was concerned, the results of the war have been beneficial.
Persia at the Outbreak of the World War. The regent left Per-
sia for more than a year in 1912, merely returning to arrange the
coronation of the young Shah. This took place with due pomp
and circumstance in July 1914 and, as Nasir el Mulk left Persia
again after the ceremony, the young monarch had hardly taken
up his duties when the war broke out. His Majesty summoned
the Majlis and duly proclaimed the strict neutrality of Persia.
The position was, however, very difficult. The grandees were, in
many cases, only anxious to receive money from one or more
sides; the masses hated the Russians and disliked and mistrusted
the British for being friends of their enemies. There was sympa-
thy in some quarters for the Turks and " let the Christians devour
one another " was frequently heard. But the outstanding feature
was the powerlessness of Persia. Her military forces included the
Cossack brigade 8,000 strong, the Swedish gendarmerie 7,000
strong, and the useless Persian troops under Persian officers.
At first sight it would seem unlikely that remote Persia should
become a war theatre, but actually this was bound to be the case,
unless she could defend her neutrality. A reference to the map
will show that Azerbaijan, the N.W. province of Persia, marches
with Turkey on the W. and with Russia to the N. Furthermore
an advance by either belligerent through Persian territory would
enable that Power to outflank the other and operate in open
country, whereas a direct attack could only be made across the
very high range which runs from the shores of the Black Sea to
Mount Ararat. This strategical fact had been realized by Russia
and Turkey before the outbreak of the World War, and both Pow-
ers, taking advantage of the impotence of Persia, had established
themselves in Persian territory in the vicinity of Lake Urmia, the
Turks holding the chief passes on the Perso-Turkish frontier
which was only finally delimitated just before war began.
Russo-Turkish Operations in Azerbaijan. At the outbreak of
hostilities the Russians, in this section of the war theatre, as-
sumed the offensive and drove the Turks back on Van. However,
the Kurds on both sides of the frontier rallied to the Turks and,
finding Tabriz undefended, entered it in Jan. 1915. They then
moved northwards along the road to Julfa, only to be repulsed by
a Russian detachment which subsequently reoccupied Tabriz. At
Urmia the Kurds, driving in front of them the Christian tribes-
men of Targavar, assaulted the town, hoping to massacre its
Christian inhabitants. But, aided by a small Russian detach-
ment and the tribesmen of Targavar, the townspeople drove off
the enemy. The Russians, in view of the Turkish invasion of the
Kars province, were obliged to draw in their outlying detach-
ments, and this was followed by the exodus of 10,000 Christians.
In the spring of 1915, after the crushing defeat of the Turks at
Sarikamish, the Russians reoccupied Urmia and advanced to Van.
They were joined by the Assyrian Christians of Kurdistan, who,
when left alone to bear the brunt, actually migrated with their
families and flocks to the neighbourhood of Urmia, whence they
raided their enemies the Kurds and generally did good service
to the Russians, until the disintegration of the Russian army.
Operations in S.W. Persia. Before war was declared by Tur-
key, the Government of India took the wise precaution of des-
patching a brigade of Indian troops to the Bahrein Islands. At
the outbreak of hostilities, this force pushed up the Shatt al 'Arab
to protect the important refineries of the Anglo-Persian Oil Co. on
the island of Abadan. This brigade was rapidly increased to a
division which, after defeating the Turks at Sahil, a few miles
above the oil refineries, occupied Basra on Nov. 23. The occu-
pation of Basra effectually protected the oil refineries, but these
works in their turn depended on the oil-fields at Maidan-i-Naftun
and the vulnerable pipe-line which was laid through Ahwaz and
was 150 m. in length. The neighbouring tribesmen, partly
through propaganda and partly through fanaticism, had breached
and fired the pipe-line in several places. The Bakhtiari tribe, with
which the British had maintained friendly relations for many
years and which owned the ground on which the oil-wells were
being worked, was generally hostile, the arrangement sometimes
being that the fathers professed pro-British sympathies while the
sons were fighting for the enemy. To protect the pipe-line, a
brigade was despatched to Ahwaz, where it was faced by a con-
siderable number of Turks supported by thousands of tribesmen.
A reconnaissance in force found the enemy much stronger than
was expected and was obliged to retreat with heavy losses, but
6o
PERSIA
the enemy showed no inclination to attack the main body of the
British who, for some time, maintained a defensive attitude.
In the spring, Maj.-Gen. Sir G. Gorringe was ordered to attack
the Turks with the i2th division. The enemy retreated and
Gorringe, after dealing with the hostile Beni Tauf, drove them
back on Amara, which had meanwhile been captured by Maj.-
Gen. Sir Charles Townshend. As a result of these operations,
Persian soil was cleared of the enemy, the local tribes made their
submission, the pipe-line was repaired, and the valuable oil
again flowed along it.
German Activity in Persia. It is interesting to study the policy of
Germany in the Middle East after the outbreak of the World War.
Its object was to embarrass Russia and, still more, Great Britain, by
forcing Persia and Afghanistan into the war on their side, and by
creating disturbances on the frontiers of India and inside India.
The scheme was sound, for, if Persia alone had declared for the
Central Powers, the claim that Islam was on their side might have
brought in Afghanistan. As it was, with comparatively small forces
and at a relatively small cost, Germany certainly drew forces to
Persia, which would otherwise have been available for other fronts.
Had it been possible to march a Turkish brigade across Persia to
Afghanistan, the Amir would probably have been obliged to join in an
invasion of India or would have been killed. India at that time
was weakly held, while the " Emden " had cut her sea communica-
tions. In the many arguments shown for and against the advance on
Bagdad, this important question is apt to be neglected.
The plan of operations in Persia was two-fold. Agents well-
furnished with arms and money were sent to enlist levies and to
march across central and southern Persia, murdering British and
Russian officials, and plundering and driving out the small English
colonies. These groups were to form supports to missions destined
for Afghanistan and Baluchistan. These latter bore letters on vellum
written to the address of the Amir of Afghanistan and the ruling
princes of India, and signed by the German Foreign Secretary. They
also had various German decorations for distribution. They carried
on a propaganda which was anti-Christian, giving out that the
Kaiser and his people had become converts to Islam and that the
former was now known as Hajji Wilhelm. The most successful
German agent and the earliest in the field was Wassmuss, who
before the war was consul at Bushire. He succeeded in organizing a
strong anti-British confederacy in Tangistan, Dashti and Dashtistan,
although there was also a pro-British party in these districts. The
attacks on Bushire forced the British to increase the small number
of troops that normally sufficed to guard the important wireless
installation and the cable. Its defence suffered from the fact that the
cable station was at Reshire, six m. distant, while the residency and
other houses occupied by the British covered a large area outside the
town. The Tangistanis made several daring raids, in one of which
two British officers were killed. The strongly anti-British attitude
of the Persian Government, which made no effort to protect the
British colony, resulted in the temporary occupation of Bushire
by the British, a step that afforded German propaganda a real chance
that was fully exploited. Generally speaking, the activity of Wass-
muss detained troops at Bushire, which were sorely needed else-
where. In Pars, too, Wassmuss was equally successful. He found
Mukhbir es Sultaneh, the governor-general, strongly pro-German
owing to his education at Berlin. He also found the Swedish officers
of the gendarmerie equally friendly and, through their instrumental-
ity, he won over that force to his side. As a result, in the autumn,
the British vice-consul was murdered and, shortly afterwards, the
consul and the entire colony were arrested and taken to the coast,
the men being held prisoners by the Tangistanis, while the women
were sent to Bushire. Qawam el Mulk, chief of the Khamseh Arabs,
who was acting governor-general, was driven out and retired to
Lingeh, thus leaving the German consul supreme in Fars.
The main route by which German parties entered Persia from
Bagdad was through Kermanshah and Hamadan. In April 1915,
the Turks advanced on Kermanshah with a force mainly composed
of levies which expelled the British colony. The German consul at
Kermanshah engaged levies and carried on a vigorous propaganda ;
he also drove back the British and Russian consuls when they sought
to return under Persian escort. At Isfahan, Pugin, dressed as a
Persian, with the profession of Islam on his lips, persuaded the
credulous citizens and their religious leaders that the Kaiser was
indeed a hajji or pilgrim to Mecca. Assassination was deliberately
employed. First the Russian vice-consul was murdered and, later,
the British consul-general was wounded and his Indian orderly
killed. A letter from a German official, Seiler, was subsequently
intercepted, in which he gloried in having arranged this cowardly
stroke. Farther E. at Yezd, enemy parties looted the treasury of the
Imperial Bank of Persia, a British company, and drove out the
colony; and, at Kerman, similar action was taken, together with
the assassination of a prominent British subject. At the end of 1915,
seven out of the seventeen branches of the Imperial Bank were in
enemy hands and the British colonies had been expelled from central
and southern Persia. Only the Gulf ports remained safe, thanks to
British sea-power and garrisons.
In the N. the position was very different. Owing to the danger
to which the Allied legations were exposed, Russian troops had
landed at Enzeli in May and had marched to Kazvin whence, as the
situation grew more menacing, they had advanced to the Karaj
river, some 25 m. W. of Teheran. This movement produced a crisis.
The enemy ministers perforce had to leave Teheran and, as the
Persian Foreign Minister was on their side, they felt sure of persuad-
ing the young Shah to follow them. Indeed, the dilemma of Sultan
Ahmad was painful. On the one side, the enemy ministers warned
him that Teheran would be stormed by the Russians, who would
seize and probably kill him; on the other side the British and
Russian representatives pointed out to His Majesty that if he left
the capital and broke his neutrality by joining the ministers of the
Central Powers, he might lose his throne. Finally the Shah decided
to remain at Teheran. The enemy ministers retired to Qum, where
they employed their forces in somewhat aimless raiding. This was
soon stopped by Russian columns, and, before the end of the year,
Russian troops had occupied Kashan and were threatening Isfahan.
German Mission to Afghanistan. One of the dangers to be guarded
against was that of German missions to Afghanistan and Baluchistan.
Efforts were made to intercept such parties, but it took time to make
the necessary arrangements, and it was not until 1916 that the
eastern Persian cordon was in working order with the Russians
patrolling the frontier as far S. as Kam, from which centre the
British, with some regular troops and a number of locally raised
levies, were responsible to the borders of Baluchistan. Persia being a
land of vast distances, it is not surprising that a German mission was
able, by means of very long marches, to reach Herat in safety. It
was received with every honour, but displayed extraordinary lack
of tact by openly decrying everything of Afghan manufacture, the
arms manufactured at the arsenal at the capital, for instance, being
criticized contemptuously. At Kabul too, the same behaviour
brought the mission into trouble. The Amir, who had received it
courteously, delayed matters by summoning a council representative
of all the tribes and by lengthy meetings with the mission and his
own advisers. The Germans gradually realized that, without a
Turkish force, their efforts were wasted. They were finally dis-
missed, the Amir pointing out that he could hardly break with the
Government of India until a large, well-equipped army reached
Kabul from the west. The mission broke up into small parties, most
of which successfully evaded the cordon. Other missions travelling
farther S., including one to Bahram, Khan of Bampur, had no
success whatever, the greedy Baluch in the last-named case strip-
ping the enemy agents who were glad to escape with their lives.
Russo-Turkish Struggle in Western Persia. In 1916 the ebb
and flow of the struggle were very marked in western Persia. At
first the Turks, shortly after the retreat of the British from Ctesi-
phon, occupied Kermanshah and pushed forward towards Hama-
dan. The Russians in their turn, justly elated at their astounding
feat of arms at Erzerum, advanced and drove the enemy off the
plateau, while a second force swept the hostile Bakhtiaris out of
Isfahan and brought back the British and Russian communities.
The capture of Kut again transformed the military situation and,
in the summer, the Turks, 16,000 strong with 54 guns, gradually
drove back the Russians who could only oppose them with 1 2,000
men and 19 guns. Kermanshah was evacuated and then Hama-
dan, the retreat continuing as far as the Sultan Bulak range
which covered Kazvin and threatened a force marching on Tehe-
ran. This situation remain unchanged until the end of the year.
Raising the South Persia Rifles. In 1916, it was decided, in
consultation with the Persian Government, to organize a force
of Persian troops to restore order in southern Persia and take the
place of the Swedish gendarmerie. This force was to be 11,000
strong and the Cossack brigade was to be raised to a similar
strength. Brig.-Gen. Sir Percy Sykes, who had spent many years
in S. Persia, was appointed to undertake this task and landed at
Bandar 'Abbas in March, with three other British officers and a
few Indian instructors. The state of affairs was most unfavour-
able as, apart from the defeat of Qawam, the British agent and
his escort were assassinated at Lingeh and two British officers
were assassinated in Makran about the same time, both murders
being due to German instigation; and finally this terrible month
of April saw the grave disaster of Kut al Amara. Many experienced
men expected a wave of fanaticism to sweep across Persia
and there was certainly cause for deep anxiety, especially in
Makran, but British coolness undoubtedly saved the situation.
Recruiting operations at Bandar 'Abbas were started immediately
after landing and, in spite of a strong anti-British party, men
were rapidly enlisted and, before the end of a month, the Persian
flag was hoisted with ceremony over a camp. The force, handled
with much tact and patience by its British and Indian instruc-
PERSIA
61
tors, never looked back and was soon able to protect Bandar
"Abbas and an important section of the caravan route from the
raiding tribesmen.
The Success ofQmvam el Mulk and his Sudden Death. Qawam
was aided by the British with money and munitions, and an ex-
aggerated report of the means placed at his disposal led to the
rebel Arab headmen kissing his feet. With their aid he defeated
the Swedish gendarmerie, and was marching in triumph to Shiraz
when he was killed by a fall from his horse. His son, a man of 28,
was however able to restore Persian authority in Pars.
The March of Sir Percy Sykes to Kerman. The success of
Qawam and the landing of the mission at Bandar 'Abbas made
the position of the German parties at Kerman decidedly insecure.
The governor-general became hostile to them and they decided
to retire westwards to Pars, the route farther N. being dangerous
owing to the Russian advance southwards. They fled in two par-
ties, and after suffering some losses from attacks on the road,
were all captured by Qawam and imprisoned at Shiraz to the
number of 60 Germans and Austrians, a dozen Turks and a few
Afghans. A small force of Indian troops, consisting of a section
of mountain guns, a squadron of cavalry and 500 rifles, was sent
to Bandar 'Abbas and Sir Percy Sykes marched inland a distance
of 280 m. to Kerman, where he was received with much cordiality.
The various pro-German elements who had created a state of
insecurity fled, the bank and telegraph offices were reopened, and
the normal state of affairs was very quickly reestablished. At
Kerman, recruiting for a brigade of the S. Persia Rifles was started
with much success, and, before long, it was dealing effectively
with the robber bands which were destroying life and property in
the province. The column, after halting for some weeks, marched
on to Yezd, where the British colony had only recently returned.
News being received of the Turkish advance and of a probable
attack on Isfahan, the column, instead of marching direct to
Shiraz as originally intended, proceeded to Isfahan and joined
the force of 600 Russian Cossacks at the ancient capital of Persia.
The Turkish force had reached Dunbeni, 60 m. to the N.W. of
Isfahan, but had not advanced any further, and it appeared that
exaggerated rumours as to the size of Sir Percy Sykes's force had
been the cause of this change of plan. During the halt at Isfahan,
the column marched out for 50 m. along the Ahwaz route, at-
tacked Jafar Kuli, a noted brigand, who was holding it, and pro-
vided an escort for loads of British merchandise that had been
lying at Kava Rukh for many months. Altogether 16,000 loads
were brought in, and incidentally several merchants were saved
from bankruptcy. When it finally became evident that the
Turks would not advance on Isfahan, the column marched S. to
Shiraz, which it reached in Nov., thereby completing a march
of 1,000 m. through the heart of Persia.
Taking over the Swedish Gendarmerie in Pars. At Shiraz the
question of the gendarmerie had to be settled. The Persian Govern-
ment had not actually given its consent to it being incorporated in
the S. Persia Rifles, but was unable to pay or equip the force. Spread
over the route for a distance of 300 m. from the borders of Pars m the
N. to Kazerun in the S. and numbering some 3,000 men, the problem
which confronted Sir Percy Sykes was one of extreme difficulty. He
had no staff to administer or train such large numbers and he was
aware that it was this force which had seized the British consul only
a year previously and that many of the officers were pro-German in
sentiment. But he also realized that, if the gendarmerie broke up
into well-armed bands of robbers and devastated the country, few
supplies would reach Shiraz. He consequently addressed the officers,
explained to them that they were to be absorbed into the S. Persia
Rifles, and expressed the hope that they would serve Persia loyally
by helping to put down the brigandage that was slowly but surely
extirpating the sedentary population. In March 1917, this action
was indirectly approved by the Persian Government, which officially
recognized the S. Persia Rifles. The men were in rags, half-starved
and undisciplined. It was impossible to take them off the road
immediately, as there were no barracks for them at Shiraz. It was a
case of feeding, clothing and paying the men at first and of gradually
restoring the discipline that appeared to be almost lost. With only
three or four British officers available, much was done, and when a
proper staff reached Shiraz in the spring of 1917, rapid progress was
the order of the day.
The Restoration of Order in Southern Persia. Since the assas-
sination of Nasir ed Din in 1896, the authority of the Persian
Government had weakened year by year, and in Pars the gover-
nor general had been at the mercy of the powerful Kashgai tribe.
Under their capable chief, Solat ed Dauleh, these powerful nomads
numbering 130,000 tribesmen, and moving in their migrations
from the Persian Gulf to Qumisheh, dominated the province, of
which Solah (Solat) was the " uncrowned king." They were armed
with Mausers, had plenty of ammunition and displayed great
bravery in the field. Solah collected the revenue in full from his
tribesmen, but paid nothing to the Persian Government. He
also sent powerful raiding parties throughout the greater part of
the province, which looted and levied blackmail. If a governor-
ge.neral attempted any opposition to Solah, the latter promptly
prevented supplies and goods from reaching Shiraz. The result
was scarcity in the bazaars arid discontent, followed by riots, and
the governor-general returned to Teheran. It was obvious that
Solah would be hostile to the British. The Kashgais considered
that raiding was their right and would combine against anyone
who attempted to put an end to it. Generally speaking, they
held western Pars at their mercy and, farther E., lay the territory
of the Khamseh Arabs, who were 70,000 strong. Under their
chief, Qawam el Mulk, they ranged from the neighbourhood of
Bandar 'Abbas and Lar to the vicinity of Niriz and Dehbid. The
Arabs were less well-armed than the Kashgais but were equally
brave. They were also equally addicted to looting. The marked
difference between the two chiefs was that Qawam was a polished
Shirazi, anxious to improve the state of Pars, although he could
not immediately stop looting, whereas Solah lived with his tribes-
men all the year round and had the same mentality. Sir Percy
Sykes met Solah, with whom an agreement was made to prevent
his tribesmen from looting, and, although it was realized that he
was thoroughly untrustworthy, he refrained from attacking the
British during 1917, and allowed them time to open up commu-
nications and construct forts at Saidabad (Sirjan) and Niriz.
With Qawam good relations were maintained throughout.
In the summer of 1917, a force of Indian troops was stationed
at Dehbid which, by the infliction of a single salutary punishment,
made the main route safe, and caravans once again began to pass.
In the autumn, combined operations against tribes marked down
for punishment were undertaken by the Pars and Kerman col-
umns. So successful were they that, had there been no interrup-
tion, S. Persia would have rapidly settled down to comparative
prosperity. But the reaction of the World War was destined to
be felt still more strongly than before in remote Pars.
Successful Russian CampaigninWestern Persia. The saddest
year in Russian history opened with military success in Persia.
As already mentioned, at the end of 1916, the Turks were occu-
pying Hamadan and facing the Russians at Kazvin. During the
winter, however, the position in Mesopotamia entirely changed.
Instead of weak, ill-equipped columns, severely handicapped by
unfavourable climatic conditions, failing before Kut al Amara,
there was the pleasant picture of overwhelming forces under the
inspiring leadership of Gen. Sir Stanley Maude recapturing Kut
in Feb. 1917 and following this up by the signal success of the
surrender of Bagdad to the British. The position of the Turks in
Persia became more and more difficult as the British advanced.
On the day Bagdad was occupied they evacuated Kermanshah
and, pursued by the Russians, reached the Persian frontier at
Qasr-i-Shirin on March 31, worn out and hungry but not wholly
demoralized. Meanwhile the British had despatched two bri-
gades to the Jebel Hamrin, but found the range occupied in great
force by the Turkish i8th corps, which did not retire until the 13 th
corps had evacuated Persian soil intact, when the united forces
moved northwards. On April 2, a squadron of Cossacks met the
British at Qizil Ribat, but marched back the same night. There
was no question of maintaining contact, but the British helped
their allies to establish themselves firmly on the Diala river.
The Russian Collapse in Persia and its Results. March 1917,
which witnessed the capture of Bagdad, also saw the abdication
of the Tsar. Gradually the Russian troops in Persia became de-
moralized and, during the winter of 1917-8, the rot had set in and
hordes of Russians made for home, plundering the villages for
food, pulling down houses to secure timber for fuel and selling
62
PERSIA
arms, ammunition and equipment for a meal. Horses went for a
few shillings, but this movement had completed the denudation
of western Persia, already suffering from serious scarcity of for-
age, so that there were few buyers. Briefly, famine conditions
prevailed in W. and N.W. Persia, and indeed in the other prov-
inces. Such was the local position, but the world-results were
still more serious. While Russia was fighting on the side of the
Allies, her army stretched southwards from the European front
across the Caucasus and N.W. Persia until, as we have seen, its
extreme left flank, in 1917, touched the right flank of the British
army in Mesopotamia, and thereby effectually prevented our
enemies from approaching the frontiers of India. The ambitions
of Germany to reach the Persian Gulf and India by that potent
instrument, the Bagdad railway, had been rendered nugatory by
the capture of Basra, but the collapse of Russia opened up a com-
pleted line of northern advance across the Caucasus and the Cas-
pian Sea to "Ashqabad, Merv (the junction for Kushk, within
striking distance of Herat), Bukhara, Samarkand, and Tashkent,
the administrative centre of Russian Turkestan. Over 100,000
German and Austrian prisoners were in Central Asia and, when
through communication had been established, it would have been
easy to reorganize these veterans and march on Kabul, with an
invitation to the Afghans to share in the plunder of India.
When the Russian Empire proved to all the world its utter
rottenness, Georgia and Armenia decided to claim their indepen-
dence, and a third state came into being under the title of the
republic of Azerbaijan, with Baku as its capital. In connexion
with efforts made to ward off this terrible threat to India, Brit-
ish troops entered western Persia.
The Dunsterville Mission. It was out of the question to dis-
patch large bodies of troops to support the Georgians or Arme-
nians, as Bagdad was 800 m. distant from Baku. The authori-
ties therefore decided to dispatch a military mission to reorgan-
ize the sound elements of the country into a force that would
prevent the Turks and their German masters from reaching
Baku. It was hoped that these small states would fight for their
homes, but the Armenians absolutely failed to do this. Maj.-Gen.
L. C. Dunsterville was appointed to command this mission, and,
in Feb. 1918, he started off from Bagdad with a party of officers
in 40 cars to cross N.W. Persia. Enzeli was his objective, and he
hoped from that port to be able to proceed to Baku and Tiflis.
He reached Enzeli only to find that the port and its shipping were
in the hands of hostile Bolshevists, while the neighbourhood was
dominated by Mirza Kuchik Khan, an ambitious brigand who
had recruited some 4,000 followers, nicknamed Jangalis or
"Forest Dwellers," to the cry of "Persia for the Persians" and who
robbed his countrymen if they refused to join him. Dunsterville
quickly realized the situation, and, before his opponents had con-
certed their plans and had overcome their fear of the armoured
motor-car, the mission had retired to Kazvin and Hamadan, which
latter city became its headquarters. During this period, Dun-
sterville was brought into close relations with the Russian gener-
als Saratov and Bicherakov. The former had commanded the
Russian troops in northern Persia and was now helplessly watch-
ing their disintegration. The latter, on the contrary, had kept
his command of 1,200 men practically intact. By March, the
last of Saratov's men had left, but Dunsterville had been able to
keep Bicherakov's command at his side. Without its aid, the
Jangalis, elated by the retirement of the mission which was mag-
nified into a great victory over a British army, would have been
able to march on the capital. There they would probably have
introduced a reign of anarchy and have forced Persia into the war
on the side of the Central Powers, with whom Kuchik Khan had
close relations, and also German, Austrian and Turkish instruc-
tors, well supplied with machine-guns. When the Jangalis
marched on Kazvin, Bicherakov forestalled them and drove
them back to the forests with heavy losses. He then embarked at
Enzeli. Dunsterville, who had received reinforcements consist-
ing of a regiment of cavalry, a battery and two regiments of in-
fantry, followed behind Bicherakov and took over the road. The
Jangalis, under their European officers, attacked a detachment
at Resht, but suffered heavy losses, and Kuchik Khan made
terms and became a contractor for supplies. About this
time, the Bolshevist Government at Baku was overthrown and
replaced by the Central-Caspian Dictatorship, which asked for
British assistance. Dunsterville took his force to Baku, held it
for some weeks against overwhelming Turkish numbers, denying
the use of the oil wells to the enemy, whom he also kept away
from the Caspian Sea, and finally evacuated the town and re-
turned to Enzeli, thus ending a very gallant episode of the war.
During the early autumn of 1918, more troops were moved up
into N.W. Persia to prevent the threatened Turkish advance
from Azerbaijan, the plan being to hold the Sehneh Bijar-Zen-
jan-Enzeli line. Actually the threat came to nothing, but a bri-
gade of British troops was kept at Kazvin to protect Persia
against the Bolshevists and to prevent the main route into Persia
being dosed. In March 1921, it was under orders to withdraw.
The Flight of the Assyrian Christians from Urmia. Among the
picturesque incidents of the World War, the rallying of the Assyrian
Christians to the Russians, their migration to Urmia and their
determined bravery in the face of enemies threatening to overwhelm
them, have already been described. In the summer of 1918, an
attempt was made by the British to help them with munitions and
money, and a party of the refugees broke through the weak Turkish
lines to receive the proffered aid. Unfortunately, false rumours of
a disaster reached the main body of tribesmen who, collecting their
families and flocks, fled panic-stricken to Bijar, pursued by Persians,
Turks and Kurds. Every effort was made by the British to aid the
refugees, but many fell on the road, by the sword and from hunger
and fatigue, before the tribe, reduced to half its original number, was
in safety. This flight eclipsed in dramatic interest that of the
Torgut Mongols, so vividly described by De Quincey.
Military Mission of Maj.-Gen. Sir Wilfrid Malleson. Not
content with trying to head off the Turks at Baku, a second mis-
sion was despatched along the newly completed Nushki-Duzdab
railway and then through Scistan and Meshed to Transcaspia to
support the Turkoman and Russians who, under the title of
Menshevists, were attempting to stem the flood of Bolshevism.
Eastern Persia constituted part of the lines of communication of
the mission, and there were no hostilities with the inhabitants,
who, on the contrary, appeared to have realized the advantages
of having a good route opened up through their country by a force
which paid fair prices for everything it bought. Many gallant
deeds were done by the small British detachments fighting along
the Central Asian railway, and also by the force under Commo-
dore D. T. Norris who, operating from Krasnovodsk, drove the
Bolshevist flag off the Caspian Sea.
The Investment of Shiraz by the Kashgais. In the spring of
1918, the Persian Government, in reply to a British note, de-
nounced the S. Persia Rifles as a foreign force and a threat to
Persian independence and integrity. It also expressed the hope
that the British Government would withdraw its troops and al-
low Persia to commence her cherished reforms. Characteristi-
cally enough, while denouncing the conditions, it readily accepted
the proffered financial help. The Cabinet was under the impres-
sion that Germany was winning the World War or else such a
curt note would have never been penned. This reply was pub-
lished all over southern Persia to the discouragement of our
friends and the elation of our enemies. The results were speedily
shown in serious desertions from the S. Persia Rifles and culmi-
nated in the formation of a confederacy under the Kashgai chief
to annihilate the British in southern Persia. The date of an at-
tack on the Indian troops at Shiraz was fixed by the grazing which
would allow the nomads to keep their flocks in the neighbourhood,
and, as there was a month to spare, Sir Percy Sykes despatched a
column to deal with some raiding tribes in the vicinity of Niriz,
which were known to have joined the Kashgai confederacy.
These operations were successful and the small Indian detach-
ment at Niriz was unmolested when the storm broke.
The day the column returned to Shiraz, Solah wrote that, by
the orders of the Persian Government, he was about to take ac-
tion for the defence of Islam against the " unauthorized force "
of the S. Persia Rifles. He had at his disposal 4,500 Kashgais
and 1,500 Kazerunis and this number was reinforced by contin-
gents from Dashti, Dashtistan and elsewhere, and reached about
8,600 fighting men. The tribesmen were well armed with Mau-
sers, had plenty of ammunition, and fought both bravely and
PERSIA
cunningly. The British force at Shiraz was 2,200 strong, one-
third being recruits. The S. Persia Rifles slightly outnumbered
the Indian troops and, owing to propaganda and the proclaimed
hostility of the Persian Government, were a danger to the Brit-
ish. The detachments in the outposts mutinied and surrendered
or deserted. Qawam had collected 2,000 Arabs in and about Shi-
raz, who were ready to attack the beaten side. On May 24, the
day after the return of the column, it marched out under Col.
E. F. Orton, 1,600 strong, and attacked the Kashgais in the hilly
country to the W. of the city. The resistance of the enemy was
obstinate, but the Indian troops gradually moved forward, de-
feating rush after rush and, after 14 hours' fighting, occupied
Solah's camp on the bank of the Qara Aghach river. The Kash-
gais fled headlong at the end of the action, in which they had suf-
fered some 700 casualties, as against 51 in the British column.
About ten days later the enemy returned in still larger numbers,
and the Kazerunis occupied the garden quarter, which almost
touched the fortified perimeter constructed by the British out-
side Shiraz. In June, the investment became closer, as the Brit-
ish withdrew an outpost which was dangerously isolated. The
inhabitants of Shiraz were incited against the British by the
mullas, some of whom preached jihad or Holy War. Sir Percy
Sykes learned that the Kashgais were preparing to unite with
the townspeople in a combined attack on June 17, and he deter-
mined to forestall them. Accordingly, on June 16, the column
sallied out for 4 m. and then slowly retired drawing the Kashgais
down on to the plain where they offered good targets to the guns.
The column then returned to Shiraz. On the following day, Shi-
raz rose, its inhabitants attacking everyone suspected of being
friendly to the British. But the Kashgais, whose losses had again
been heavy, did not come to the support of the townspeople, who
were overawed by the seizure at midnight of various key-positions
by the British. The tide then turned. The governor-general ap-
pointed a new Ilkhani or " paramount chief " in place of Solah,
whose followers began to break away, influenced by the heavy
losses they had suffered. Qawam declared in favour of the new
Ilkhani, and his example was followed by a brother of Solah who
was followed by perhaps one-quarter of the tribe. The column
marched out again, and Solah fled a broken man, pursued by Qa-
wam, the new Ilkhani, and most of the Kashgai tribe.
The Siege and Relief of Abadch. Meanwhile the S. Persia
Rifles at Abadeh, a town situated between Shiraz and Isfahan,
had mutinied. The British officers took refuge with a company of
i6th Rajputs, who held the small fort against overwhelming
numbers. Within 36 hours of the final defeat of Solah, the victo-
rious column marched northwards and, after a forced march of
1 80 m. in 169 hours, relieved Abadeh.
The Final Defeat of the Kashgais, Oct. 1918. The new Ilkhani
had no easy task in establishing his position and was besieged in
his fort by the fickle tribesmen, who changed sides whenever it
appeared to be to their interest to do so. The column rapidly
marched S. and gave the Kashgais a final overthrow, the Burma
Mounted Rifles counting 103 corpses. Solah fled weeping, and
has been a refugee ever since. The night after this final success,
both victors and vanquished were prostrated by the deadly in-
fluenza epidemic. The losses were appalling, 18% of the Shiraz
force dying. The inhabitants of the city lost even more heavily.
Indeed, the country generally suffered terribly, the scourge carry-
ing off the young and able-bodied and sparing the old.
The Opening of the Bushire-Shiraz Route. When Sir Percy Sykes
was invested at Shiraz, the small force of Indian troops at Bushire
was strengthened and arrangements were made for organizing a
base with a view to an advance in October. In the autumn, influ-
enza broke out, but the type was fortunately mild, the losses being
only 2 %. The force engaged in opening up the road included no
fewer than 20,000 fighting men and followers and, as there was no
fear of serious opposition after the final defeat of Solah, the operation
was mainly one of constructing a good camel track up the infamous
passes and of feeding the force. A railway was laid to Borazjan, 37
m. distant, across the level plain and thence carts plied to the foot
of the passes. Kazerun was finally reached on Jan. 27 1919, the
Shiraz column cooperating by marching over the passes to within a
few miles of that town. The beneficent activity of the British was
continued, and, when the troops withdrew in the spring of 1919, a
good track, over which a car could run, albeit with great difficulty in
a few places, had been constructed from Bushire to Shiraz. Unfortu-
nately this route will require constant repair to keep it in good order,
and it is unlikely that the Persian Government will do this. The
result of these operations was entirely beneficent to the Persian
Government. The Kashgais, who had had each successive governor-
general at their mercy, were cowed and dispirited and it would have
been easy to control S. Persia. But the Persian Government, as at
present constituted, cannot maintain law and order.
Persian Delegation to the Peace Conference. In 1919, a Persian
delegation reached Paris in order to lay its claims before the
Peace Conference. These claims were divided into three parts,
dealing respectively: (a) with political, juridical and economic
independence; (b) with right to territorial restorations; and (c)
with right to reparations. Heading part (a) was the Anglo-Rus-
sian agreement of 1907, the abrogation of which was rightly de-
manded and was conceded so far as concerned Great Britain.
Other demands, such as the abolition of consular courts and the
withdrawal of consular guards, are entirely out of the question
until Persia sets her own house in order and can guarantee order,
security, and a pure administration. The territorial claims were
extravagant, including Transcaspia, Merv and Khiva to the E.,
the Caucasus as far N. as Derbent and, westwards, Kurdistan,
Diarbekr and Mosul. The claims for reparation stood on a differ-
ent footing, as the W. and N.W. provinces of Persia undoubtedly
suffered terribly from the ebb and flow of the contending armies,
the retreat of the demoralized Russians and the flight of the As-
syrian Christians. It is to be regretted that the delegation could
not be permitted to lay its case before the Peace Conference, even
though its claims were extravagant. Actually the Cabinet, which
had despatched the delegation, fell and a representative of the
new Cabinet laid the case of Persia before the Supreme Council.
The Anglo- Persian Agreement 1919. In the summer, after
negotiations extending over a period of nine months, two Agree-
ments were signed at Teheran, the first of which was as follows:
PREAMBLE: In virtue of the close ties of friendship which have
existed between the two Governments in the past, and in the con-
viction that it is in the essential and mutual interests of both in
future that these ties should be cemented, and that the progress and
prosperity of Persia should be promoted to the utmost, it is hereby
agreed between the Persian Government on the one hand, and His
Britannic Majesty's Minister acting on behalf of his Government on
the other, as follows:
I. The British Government reiterate, in the most categorical
manner, the undertakings which they have repeatedly given in the
past to respect absolutely the independence and integrity of Persia.
2. The British Government will supply, at the cost of the Persian
Government, the services of whatever expert advisers may, after
consultation between the two Governments, be considered neces-
sary for the several departments of the Persian Administration.
These advisers shall be engaged on contracts and endowed with
adequate powers, the nature of which shall be the matter of agree-
ment between the Persian Government and the advisers.
3. The British Government will supply, at the cost of the Persian
Government, such officers and such munitions and equipment of
modern type- as may be adjudged necessary by a joint commission of
military experts, British and Persian, which shall assemble forth-
with for the purpose of estimating the needs of Persia in respect of
the formation of a uniform force which the Persian Government
proposes to create for the establishment and preservation of order
in the country and on its frontiers.
4. For the purpose of financing the reforms indicated in clauses 2
and 3 of this agreement, the British Government offer to provide or
arrange a substantial loan for the Persian Government, for which
adequate security shall be sought by the two Governments in con-
sultation in the revenues of the Customs or other sources of income
at the disposal of the Persian Government. Pending the completion
of negotiations for such a loan the British Government will supply
such funds as may be necessary for initiating the said reforms.
5. The British Government, fully recognizing the urgent need
which exists for the improvement of communications in Persiai with
a view both to the extension of trade and the prevention of famine,
are prepared to cooperate with the Persian Government for the
encouragement of Anglo-Persian enterprise in this direction, both
by means of railway construction and other forms of transport;
subject always to the examination of the problems by experts and
to agreement between the two Governments as to the particular
projects which may be most necessary, practicable and profitable.
6. The two Governments agree to the appointment forthwith of
a joint Committee of experts for the examination and revision of the
existing Customs Tariff with a view to its reconstruction on a basis
calculated to accord with the legitimate interests of the country and
to promote its prosperity.
Signed at Teheran, August 9, 1919.
6 4
PERSIA
The second Agreement defined the loan, which was fixed at
2,000,000 at 7%, redeemable in 20 years. There were two let-
ters, in the first of which the British Government promised co-
operation in securing a revision of the treaties actually in force
between the two Powers, compensation for damage suffered dur-
ing the war, and any justifiable rectification of frontiers. In
the second it was laid down that Great Britain would not claim
from Persia the cost of maintaining British troops in Persia for
the defence of her neutrality, and asked Persia, in return, not to
claim compensation for any damage done by her troops.
The Agreement was signed, but no immediate steps were
taken to elect a new Majlis and submit it for ratification. In
consequence, everything was held to be in suspense.
Finance. In 1920 a British Financial Adviser was engaged
by the Persian Government, a member of the Treasury staff be-
ing selected for the post. To a certain extent he could occupy
himself with superintending the payment of money in connexion
with the Cossack brigade and other matters in which help was
given to the Persian Government, but his office was in suspense
and the loan of 2,000,000 could not be made until the Agree-
ment was ratified. With all overdue instalments paid up, the
total debt of Persia as at Dec. 31 1920 was as follows:
Loans
Original
Amount
Outstand-
ing
I. Russian 5% Loan of 1900, 1902
(Rubles)
2. Russian Consolidated 7% Loan
32,500,000
31,223,170
1911 . . . (Krans)
3. Indian 5 % Loan
60,000,030
314,281 i6s.4d
31,524,501
180,421
4. Imperial Bank of Persia 5%
Loan of May 8 1911
1,250,000
1,223,061
5. British Advances of 1912-4,
7%
490,000
490,000
6. Russian Advances (Rubles)
1,891,500
1,576,250
7. British Advances 1915-7 .
817,000
817,000
8. (Krans)
1,000,000
1,000,000
9. 1918 (Krans)
92,500,000
10. British Loan, Aug. 9 1919 .
2,000,000
? Not yet
1 received.
The Anglo- Persian Military Commission. Among the impor-
tant questions was the formation of a uniform force for Persia.
An Anglo-Persian Commission was appointed and recommended
a total strength of 60,000 men. As funds for such a force were
not immediately available, it was decided to absorb the S. Per-
sia Rifles, 6,000 strong; the Cossack division, 8,000 strong; and
the Swedish gendarmerie, 8,400 strong. The total force would
be gradually raised to 40,000 and all other troops would be dis-
banded. The Chief Military Adviser would be British and the
Chief of the General Staff a Persian, although there was no Persian
officer who possessed the qualifications. This scheme was in
abeyance in 1921, pending ratification of the Agreement.
The Bolshevist Invasion of Persia. In May 1920 the Bolshe-
vist fleet from Baku bombarded Enzeli, took possession of the
remnants of Denikin's squadron and leisurely occupied Resht,
where a Provisional Government was formed under Kuchik
Khan. The British detachment at Enzeli was withdrawn to
Kazvin. At Teheran there was a panic and the British were
blamed for not protecting Persia. The Cossack brigade recap-
tured Resht some months later, but finally retreated in a demor-
alized condition and took refuge inside the British lines. In
March 1921 there was a considerable Bolshevist force in the pro-
vince of Gilan, but it was thought unlikely to prove a serious
threat to Persia until the brigade of British troops should be
withdrawn from Kazvin.
Railways. The question of railways has loomed large in Persia
partly from the political and strategical and partly from the com-
mercial point of view. For many years Teheran had been the
unsuccessful hunting-ground of seekers for concessions, who had
finally been replaced by the representatives of Great Britain and
Russia. It may be readily granted that the only satisfactory solution
of the problem of transport in Persia lies in the construction of rail-
ways. Their influence would probably help the country to pass
quickly from the methods of transport used by the patriarch Job to
those of the aoth century. But there are many difficulties to be
surmounted before railways can be constructed in Persia, the chief
obstacles being financial and political.
Persia is a vast but miserably poor country with a scanty popula-
tion living in isolated villages, generally lying many miles apart.
The towns are small and do not increase, and there is very little
trade. In the N. the country is more fertile, owing partly to a
heavier rainfall, and there are important exports as well as imports,
whereas in the S., if we except oil, there are practically no exports,
carpets, pistachio nuts, opium, hides and wool making a small total
compared with the large imports. In other words, unless minerals
are found which it is profitable to export, Persian railways, con-
structed in the S. or W., cannot pay.
Had the Russian Government continued on the old lines it is
probable that money would have been found for the construction of
a railway" across Persia. The grandiose scheme appealed to the
Tsar, while his ministers considered that it would secure their hold
on the Russian sphere and also bring them closer to the Indian
Empire, thereby enabling them to exercise pressure on Great Britain.
These facts were fully realized by the British Government, which
was, however, unable to refuse to discuss the scheme and, in 1912, a
Spciete d'tudes, including British, Russian and French representa-
tives, was formed, with the object of constructing a Trans-Persian
railway. It was intended, in the first instance, to build a line to
Teheran, starting from Alyat, a station to the S. of Baku. Negotia-
tions in connexion with this, the first section of the Trans-Persian
railway, were carried on until the outbreak of the World War. In
addition to this important scheme the Russian Government in 1913
obtained a concession for the construction of a line to Tabriz, starting
from the terminus of the Trans-Caucasus system at Julia. This
concession included rights for a service of steamers on Lake Urmia
to which a branch was to be run, and also a concession for an exten-
sion to Kazvin. The line to Tabriz was opened in 1916.
Meanwhile the British had not been idle, and a syndicate, of
which Messrs. Greenway & Lynch were the leading members, sub-
mitted to the Persian Government a scheme for the construction of
a network of railways in southern Persia: (a) from Mohammerah or
Khor Musa to Khurramabad and Burujird; (ft) from Bandar
'Abbas to Kerman; (c) from Bandar 'Abbas to Shiraz; and (d) from
Bandar 'Abbas to Mohammerah. This far-reaching scheme for a
monopoly of railway construction in S. Persia included the right to
develop ports where necessary. It also involved the issue by the
Persian Government of bonds secured on the railways and their
earnings and on any other available sources of revenue.
The syndicate decided to begin work on part (a) of the scheme.
The base would probably have been Khor Musa, an inlet of the sea,
which ran inland for many miles towards the Karun river and
possessed remarkable advantages in the way of deep water and safe
anchorage. The alternative was Mohammerah. The line would have
been constructed across the level plain of Arabistan to Dizful and
would then have risen through the hills to Khurramabad. Survey
operations were attempted in the hills in 1913, but the greedy tribes-
men attempted to levy such enormous sums for protecting the
parties that the work came to a standstill. The results of the World
War have entirely changed the position and it seems that this
scheme will be allowed to fall into abeyance.
There is no doubt that if railways are constructed into the interior
from the Persian Gulf, the port of Bandar 'Abbas, or perhaps a new
port some miles to the W., will be selected. The route running across
the Rudbar district and thence to Rigan and Kerman, over the low
Gishu pass, avoids the very high passes to the S. of Kerman and,
once the plateau is struck at Rigan, the country is ideally suitable for
railway construction right across Persia. Upon the whole, this is the
most satisfactory alignment. The route from Bandar 'Abbas to
Shiraz and thence to Mohammerah would violate the principle that
lines should be built into the interior and not run parallel to the
coast, where they could not compete with sea transport.
After the World War the question of railways was again taken up
by a strong group, which included Sir Charles Greenway, the chair-
man of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. The scheme included a
railway to Teheran from the Persian frontier at Kuraitu, at which
point was the terminus of a metre-gauge line from Bagdad. A
survey was commenced via Kermanshan, Hamadan, Kazvin and
Teheran. Surveys to Enzeli and Tabriz were also contemplated. It
was agreed that, upon the completion of the surveys, the Persian
Government would have the right to call on the group to construct
the railway line or lines either as a Persian State railway or as a
private company. No agreement as to terms was drawn up.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. H. R. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East
(1913) ; Sir Percy Sykes, History of Persia (2nd ed. 1921) ; Prof. E. G.
Browne, The Persian Revolution (1910); Maj.-Gen. Dunsterville,
The Adventures of Dunsterforce (1920) ; Prof. Williams Jackson,
Persia, Past and Present (1906); Lt.-Col. Sykes, The Glory of the
Shia World (IQIO). (P. M. S.)
Medical Conditions. Persia is divided up into a great elevated
plateau which occupies the chief part of the area of the country and
which is separated from the Caspian Sea in the north by a low-lying
narrow strip of land from 20 to 60 m. broad, and from the Persian
Gulf in the south by a strip of land little above sea level and about
40 m. in width. The strip of country bordering the Caspian Sea has
a very high rainfall, its climate is damp and very relaxing, the tem-
perature being moderate. Marshy and swampy areas with luxuriant
forests and vegetation occupy a considerable portion of this part
PERSIAN GULF
of Persia. Mosquitoes, including the Anopheles varieties, are very
numerous, and insect life is abundant. Malaria is very common,
and few residents escape infection. The medical conditions prevail-
ing here are those which are found in other damp relaxing climates
with no great extremes of temperature. Tuberculosis is fairly com-
mon, and respiratory diseases such as bronchitis, pneumonia and
influenza are prevalent. There is great overcrowding in the towns,
and owing to the lack of adequate sanitation water-borne diseases
such as dysentery, enteric fever and cholera are prevalent. Typhus
and smallpox and the ordinary infectious fevers are common. Heat
stroke does not occur, but owing to the high humidity the climate is
very oppressive and trying to European residents.
The plateau region of Persia, occupying almost the whole area of
the country, is divided into a mountainous portion which covers the
whole of the western half of Persia, the general level being from
3,000 to 6,000 ft. above the sea, while the remaining portion of the
plateau is chiefly desert and its general level is from 2,000 to 3,000 ft.
above the sea. The climate of the Persian plateau is temperate, the
summer temperatures not exceeding those of England. The winter
temperature depends largely on the altitude, and extremes of cold
are experienced. The atmosphere is invigorating and healthful, but
in spite of this diseases of various kinds are prevalent owing to the
lack of sanitary precautions. Water-borne diseases such as enteric,
dysentery and cholera are prevalent, and this is largely due to the
extraordinary fondness of the Persians for conveying water through
numerous channels both above and underground in the towns and
villages. The water usually comes from mountain springs and is
clear and sparkling, but becomes contaminated in the course of
distribution. No water should ever be drunk from these channels
without previous boiling or chlorination; the remarks made in the
article on MESOPOTAMIA relating to protection from water-borne
diseases apply with equal force to Persia. Prophylactic inoculation
with T.A.B. vaccine is essential as a protection against enteric.
Malaria is very common owing to the breeding of mosquitoes in
the various streams and water channels. The malaria is very
frequently of the malignant type, and is often not controlled by the
oral administration of quinine. The intramuscular or intravenous
administration of the drug should always be adopted in such cases
for the first few days of treatment, after which a full course of
treatment by the mouth should be given. It is very remarkable to
find malaria so prevalent and of so malignant a type at such a high
altitude as that of the Persian plateau.
Overcrowding and herding together of the poorer classes of the
population occur especially in the cold months, for housing accom-
modation is very insufficient. In consequence of this the common
jnfectious fevers and smallpox are prevalent. Tuberculosis and
influenza are rife, and the lice-borne diseases, typhus and relapsing
fever, are of common occurrence.
A special type of relapsing fever occurs along the Zenjan-Tabriz
route, which is spread by a large tick (Argas Persicus) known as the
" Mianeh bug," which has a great predilection for foreigners; this
disease is very common at Mianeh and resembles clinically the lice-
borne relapsing fever.
Eye disease is as common in Persia as Mesopotamia, and is due to
the same causes. Sand flies are common and sand-fly fever is of
frequent occurrence. Oriental sores are very common and are
known by the Persian name " Salek," meaning a year, which is an
average time for their duration. Venereal diseases such as gon-
orrhoea and syphilis are common amongst the natives.
Diarrhoea! diseases are very common in Persia, being spread by
contaminated water, and food infected by dust and flies. These
cause a very high infantile mortality amongst the natives. Neuras-
thenia and mental breakdown sometimes affect residents in Persia,
the high altitude of the plateau being probably a causative factor.
In consequence of the Civil War and the Turkish and Russian
Invasions of 1914-7 much destruction of the dwellings of the poorer
inhabitants occurred, and the animal transport so essential for the
conveyance of food was greatly reduced. The food supplies were
largely used up, and a serious famine occurred in 1917-8. Starvation
carried off large numbers of the poorer inhabitants, and those debili-
tated by lack of nourishment and insufficient clothing became
ready victims to such diseases as malignant malaria, dysentery,
typhus, etc. (W. H. W.)
PERSIAN GULF. The term " Persian Gulf " is, strictly speak-
ing, restricted to the landlocked sea which extends in a south-
easterly direction from the mouth of the Shatt al 'Arab 460 m.
to the mountain mass of the promontory of Oman, terminating
in Ras Musandam, but, for the purpose of this article, it will be
considered to include the Gulf of Oman to which it is joined by
the Strait of Ormuz, 29 m. wide. The Gulf itself has an average
width of 1 20 miles. It is tidal, spring tides rising about 9 ft. ; the
water is somewhat salter than the Indian Ocean, and seldom
exceeds 10 fathoms in depth; with the exception of the Shatt al
'Arab, the Jarrahi and the Hindiyan rivers, which mingle their
waters with those of the sea at the W. end of the Gulf, all the
streams that flow into it are so salt as to be undrinkable. The
xxxn.-j
Euphrates and Tigris have within historical times silted up their
mouths to an extent that has materially altered the coast-line of
the Gulf and these rivers seem destined in the future to unite
El Hasa to Fao, just as in the past they produced the fertile
plains of Mesopotamia. The Persian Gulf is lacking in good
harbours, anchorage being mostly shallow and exposed.
N. Coast. 'From the Indian Ocean the Gulf of Oman is entered
approximately where Persian territory begins at the tiny port of
Gwattar. From Gwattar the coast-line, running W., first to the
Strait of Ormuz, next along the N. shore of the Persian Gulf, and
finally to the mouth of the Shatt al 'Arab, 1 is nominally under the
exclusive control of the Persian Government. The inhabitants of
this tract are Persians or Arabs who by domicile and intermarriage
with Persians have lost nearly all their racial and most of their social
characteristics, but retain a dialect of Arabic as their mother tongue.
5. Coast. The S. coast on the Gulf of Oman may be regarded as
commencing from Ras el Hadd; it extends to the Ras Musandam.
This coast is under the nominal suzerainty of the Sultan of Muscat,
the principal ports from E. to W. being Sur, Muscat, Matra,
Khabura and Sohar. From Ras Musandam westwards the Arabian
shore is inhabited by tribes of Arab origin, which are independent
and in treaty relation with Great Britain.
Up to 1913 the Turks exercised the right of suzerainty over
the maritime districts of El Hasa and Hofuf, and claimed it in
Qatar and Kuwait. The Emir of Nejd, 'Abd el 'Aziz ibn Sa'ud,
ejected them from the first-named districts; the war has put an
end to their claims elsewhere in the Gulf. The Trucial chiefs of
the Arabian coast hold sway between the peninsulas of Musan-
dam and Qatar. From E. to W. their headquarters run as fol-
lows: Ras el Kheima, Umm el Qaiwein, 'Ajman, Sharja, Dibai,
Abu Dhabi, Qatar. The Sheikh of Bahrein exercises no authority
over the mainland, which from the S. extremity of the bay in
which Bahrein lies to Jebel Manifa N. of Qatif is recognized as
within the territories of the Emir of Nejd (see ARABIA).
The friendly attitude of Ibn Sa'ud on the outbreak of war with
Turkey made it imperative that the British Government should
come to a definite understanding with him, and he was recognized
by a treaty dated Dec. 28 1915, as independent ruler of Nejd and
El Hasa, and given a limited dynastic guarantee, with a promise
of support in case of foreign aggression. Great Britain assumed
control of his foreign relations outside Arabia. He on his part
undertook not to alienate any territory to a foreign Power, except
with the consent of the British Government.
Shortly afterwards a treaty was made with the Chief of Qatar,
whereby his position was assimilated to that of the Trucial
chiefs. The British Government undertook in addition to afford
their good offices to the Sheikh in the event of unprovoked ag-
gression by land.
Climate. The prevalent winds in the Gulf follow the configuration
of the coast, i.e. N.W., known as the shamal, and S.E., known as the
qaus. The former wind, rising often to a gale in a few hours and
falling as suddenly, is foretold by no change in the barometer. With
the qaus the reverse is the case. This wind is much dreaded by native
manners as it strikes nearly all the sheltered anchorages.
Rainfall varies from 6 in. to 9 in. at the W. end of the Gulf to a
negligible quantity at Muscat. As is to be expected, the rainfall on
the peninsula is somewhat greater than on the Arab coast. The
influence of the S.W. monsoon, which is marked at Muscat, is
scarcely noticeable in the Persian Gulf proper, though recent upper-
air investigations conducted at Bagdad give some reason to think
that the effects of the monsoon can be observed even there.
The temperature at the W. end of the Gulf varies from a minimum
of 4 or 5 F. below freezing point at night in winter to a maximum
of 1 15 F. in the shade during a few days in summer; the humidity
of the air at Muscat is greater and the climate is, in consequence,
much more trying, but even here a maximum of 109 F. has been
recorded, the lowest minimum being 55. Snow has been known to
fall at Bushire. (A. T. W.)
Medical Conditions. The medical conditions prevailing in the
Persian Gulf are largely determined by the peculiarly trying
climatic influences to which the inhabitants are exposed. The
Arabian desert forms the W. and S. shores, which are almost
uninhabited except for the small centres of population around its
few widely separated towns, Kuwait, noted for its pearl fisheries,
in the N.W. corner, being the most important of these. The E.
J The W. frontier of Persia was finally demarcated in 1914, a few
months before the outbreak of war, by a mixed Anglo-Russian Perso-
Turkish commission.
66
PERSIAN GULF
and N. shores are formed by the desert country of southern Per-
sia, and are similarly very sparsely populated, Bushire, in the
N.E. part of the Gulf, the port for the Shiraz district of southern
Persia, and Bandar 'Abbas, at the entrance of the Gulf, being the
chief centres of population. The hot season of the year is from
May to October, July and August being the hottest months. The
Persian Gulf has an unenviable reputation for its dangers from
heat-stroke, and the sun's rays seem to have a peculiar deadly
power in this region, for the risk of exposure is greater than in any
part of the world, though other countries have a temperature which
is equally high. The explanation is to be found in the extreme
flatness of the country and the absence of trees or vegetation.
The clear atmosphere is in its upper strata free from clouds and
dust, so that the sun's rays undergo scarcely 'any absorption and
strike down with full force on the light-brown desert soil, from
which they are radiated and reflected to a great extent. The
relative humidity of the air along the shores of the Gulf is high,
so that exposure to the direct and reflected rays of the sun and
radiation from the hot soil are encountered in a moist atmosphere.
So trying is the heat that some parts of the Persian Gulf
are almost uninhabitable to natives in the hotter months. The
greatest care requires to be taken by white races to avoid
exposure to the sun and heat. Dwellings require careful construc-
tion, with thick walls and roofs of non-conducting material to
keep out the heat-rays, and fans and punkahs are essential for
the promotion of currents of air in the inhabited rooms. Per-
sonal protection, in the shape of thick pith topees, or cork helmets,
and spinal pads, is necessary in the hot months, the clothing
being light and loose and not too thin. Fatigue from physical ex-
ertion is a predisposing cause of heat-stroke, and constipation
and alcoholic indulgence should be avoided.
Should a person be infected with latent malaria, heat exposure is
very likely to induce an acute malarial attack and the combination is
almost certain to lead to hyperpyrexia. On this account malarial
subjects living in the Persian Gulf should take especial care to have
an effective course of treatment in order to eradicate the disease as
far as possible. The frequent association of heat-stroke with malaria
is to be borne in mind in the treatment of heat hyperpyrexia, for,
should the temperature of the patient not subside rapidly after
treatment with cold sponging in a current of air or cold baths and
ice, an intramuscular or intravenous injection of 10 grains of quinine
bihydrochloride should be given without delay. In the case of white
people exposure to heat of itself frequently causes heat-stroke, but
probably in almost all cases of heat hyperpyrexia amongst natives
the malarial complication is the exciting cause and therefore with
them quinine treatment is all-important. Natives are generally
immune to thr effects of heat apart from other complicating causes
of high temperature, such as malaria, etc., whereas white races may
be affected with heat-stroke from heat exposure even if in perfect
health. If a white person suffers in the hot months from any disease
causing fever, e.g. enteric or sand-fly fever, etc., there is always a
serious danger of hyperpyrexia, and this has to be guarded against.
The Effects of Heat. The effects of exposure in the case of white
races are not only manifested by the acute attack of heat-stroke,
but, if this is avoided by proper care, it is nevertheless certain that
long residence in the Persian Gulf causes a certain amount of tissue
degeneration, owing to the exposure of the body cells to abnormal
conditions of temperature. The highly specialized cells, viz. those
of the nervous system, suffer most ; and nerve-cell fatigue is shown by
manifestations of neurasthenia. I^ack of the power of brain con-
centration and severe inability to undergo the mental strain of
arduous work are often the penalty which white races pay.
Beri-beri is a dietetic deficiency disease which manifests itself by
cardiac weakness with shortness of breath, swelling of the legs and
peripheral neuritis with numbness of the limbs and weakness. The
climatic conditions of the Persian Gulf particularly seem to predis-
pose to this disease, for it very frequently attacks white persons
resident there, especially if they are exposed to dietetic hardships.
Residents in the towns along the Persian Gulf are exposed to the
same dangers from disease as are experienced in similar places in
Mesopotamia and Persia (see MESOPOTAMIA and PERSIA). Thus
malaria and sand-fly fever, dysentery, typhoid and paratyphoid
fever, cholera, smallpox, and occasionally typhus fever, eye diseases,
oriental sores and indeed any disease conveyed by impure water,
flies, contaminated dust or the contagion of sufferers from infectious
diseases, are prevalent in the inhabited places along the Persian Gulf,
and precautions must always be taken to guard against them.
(W. H. VV.)
Geology. Large portions of the littoral had not up to 1921 been
examined geologically. Of the numerous islands that dot the Gulf
many are partly at least of volcanic origin, notably Qishm and
Ormuz.
The geological formations represented are the following in descend-
ing order:
Recent or sub-recent Shelly conglomerates and dead coral
reefs of the littoral; red sandhills of
the coast of Trucial Oman; alluvium
of Turkish Iraq; river and lake
deposits of Oman and the interior of
Persia.
Pleistocene Foraminiferal oolite or " Miliolite."
Pliocene Bakhtiari scries; grits and conglomer-
ates.
Miocene. Pars series; marls, clays and sand-
stones with limestones and inter-
bedded strata of rock gypsum.
Lower Miocene Clypeaster beds of the Bakhtiari
mountains.
Oligocene and Eocene Nummulitic limestones of Persia;
Muscat series; and Bahrein series.
Upper Cretaceous or Ormuz series; lavas and tuffs with
Lower Eocene interbedded clavs and sandstones.
Upper Cretaceous
Jurassic or Lower
Cretaceous
Carboniferous to Trias
A rchaean
Hippuritic limestones of Persia and
Oman.
Serpentinous and other igneous rocks
of Oman.
Oman series ; limestones and slates with
beds of chert.
Hatat beds; schists and quartzites.
The latest movement to which the Gulf has been or is now being
subjected is one of gradual elevation, of which traces are found in
recent littoral concretes, now as much as 450 ft. above present level,
and in the flat ledge which surrounds Muscat harbour.
Numerous " shows " of petroleum exist along a broad belt run-
ning N.W. and S.E. through Mesopotamia and down the Persian
Gulf. These are the most abundant at the foot of a chain of hills
where the oil wells of Daliki, Bebehan, Ramuz and Shushtar, Diz-
ful, Pusht-i-Kuh, and Qasr-i-Shirin are situated. Oil has, however,
been struck in paying quantities hitherto only at a point 30 m. E. of
Shushtar. Experimental boring on Qishm I. in 1916 had not given
any result up to 1921.
Among othef mineral products, asphalt is found at Bahrein ; coal
30 m. inland from Sur, and some seams of good coal in newer strata;
sulphur occurs in a fairly pure state at Khamir and Bustaneh near
Lingeh, and on Qishm I.; copper, as copper glance and malachite,
occurs in the interior of Oman; copper-mines are said to have been
worked in the neighbourhood of the coast near Lingeh by the
Portuguese, but all trace of them has been lost. Red ochre, for
which there is only a limited market, is mined on Ormuz, Abu Musa
and other islands in the Gulf; salt, as deposits, on Ormuz and
Qishm I., and by evaporation, near Mohammerah, Kao and else-
where on both sides of the Gulf; gypsum is widely distributed
throughout the Gulf; iron, as haematite and pyrites, widely found
through the Ormuz series.
Earthquakes are frequent and sometimes severe in the Persian
Gulf proper, especially on Qishm I. and on the coast in the neigh-
bourhood. In 1865 an earthquake levelled the villages of Darveh
Asul near Mugam; in 1880 an earthquake caused 120 deaths in
Basra; in 1883 severe shocks were felt from Bushire to Tahiri; in
1884 an earthquake caused 132 deaths on Qishm I., which was in
consequence deserted ; in 1897 an earthquake destroyed Qishm town
and caused over 1,000 deaths; further shocks were experienced at
Qishm and Bandar 'Abbas in 1902 and 1905.
Agriculture. Cereals are produced in considerable quantities in
the hinterlands of Mohammerah and Bushire and in the intervening
coastal strip; the rest of the Gulf largely depends on imports from
this part of Persia or from India. Dates are grown for the European
market at Muscat and for local consumption on both sides of the
Gulf, but not in considerable quantities. The Muscat date reaches
maturity sooner than the Basra crop, and is commercially valuable.
Live Stock. ^-Came\s are abundant on the Arabian side of the
Persian Gulf littoral and are also found on the Persian coast, espe-
cially where the country is open. Horses are scarce in Oman and
few are kept in Trucial Oman or in Bahrein or El Hasa. But they
are more common in Qatar and Kuwait. Nejd, or Central Arabia, is
the principal horse-breeding country adjacent to the Persian Gulf,
and is the only one in the world, except the adjacent Syrian desert,
where the genuine Arab is produced on any considerable scale.
Sailing Craft. The Persian Gulf is by tradition the home of
sailing craft, for their skill in handling which the Phoenicians after-
waros became famous in the Mediterranean. There are some 14
types of native craft which belong to the Persian Gulf proper. The
same principle of construction applies to nearly all; as a general
rule these vessels are remarkable for the beauty of their lines. They
sail well and are weatherly craft. The principal shipbuilding centres
in the Persian Gulf are now Kuwait, Sur in Oman and Lingeh.
Fisheries. Few seas are more prolific in fish than the Persian
Gulf and the Gulf of Oman ; the great proportion of known species
are edible and many have a commercial value for the isinglass or oil
PERSIAN GULF
extracted from them. Fish are extensively used for manure, espe-
cially in Muscat, where they are also fed to cattle without unpleasant
results. Sharks are caught in enormous numbers with hook and
harpoon; the flesh is considered by some to have aphrodisiacal
properties ; the dried fins and tails are exported to China ; the oil is
used for smearing boats. The turtle is also found, the carapace being
exported as tortoiseshell, the animal being gently roasted or boiled
alive over a slow fire to facilitate the separation of the shell from the
flesh. The whale is often seen in the Gulf of Oman; porpoises and
swordfishes are common.
Pearling Industry. The pearling grounds of Bahrein are in over
six fathoms of water, mostly beyond the three-mile limit. The
geological formation of the bottom of the Persian Gulf and the
temperature and shallowness of its waters appear to be favourable in
a high degree to the growth of the pearl oyster. The pearl banks
which are known ana actually worked occupy a very considerable
proportion of the whole area of the Gulf, chiefly upon the Arabian
side. The pearl banks on the Persian side are found chiefly on the
coast between Lingeh and Tahiri, and again in the neighbourhood of
Kharag Island. The largest and most productive of all the banks are
situated on the Arabian side of the Gulf and are fished annually;
the banks of the Persian coast are poor as well as small and are
fished at infrequent intervals. The total value of pearls exported
was estimated in 1905 at about 1,500,000, the value at current
prices of the 1919 outturn was probably about 2,500,000. Mother-
of-pearl was exported before the World War to the value of 20,000 ;
after the war high freights and absence of demand from Hamburg,
the principal market, killed the trade for the time being. Some 4,500
boats employing some 75,000 men are employed in the pearling
industry during the season, which lasts for almost three months, and
can do little else but fish for the rest of the year.
Commerce. A summary of import and export values of trade in
the Persian Gulf, excluding Mohammerah and Basra, is appended.
It is, however, not possible to make reliable deductions from these
figures taken by themselves. The normal value, for example, of the
post-war exports of Bahrein should be more nearly 3,000,000 than
1,000,000, owing to the enhanced value in terms of money of pearls,
and the export trade of Bandar "Abbas should likewise be more in
a normal post-war than in a pre-war year. Of the total imports
from 19123, one-half come direct from India and a quarter from
the United Kingdom direct, the balance from foreign countries,
European and Asiatic, in about equal proportions. For the latest
post-war statistics up to 1921 the proportions were respectively two-
thirds, one-sixth and one-sixth, owing primarily to the almost com-
plete cessation of direct shipments from Europe to the Persian Gulf.
Mail Communications. The Persian Gulf was at the end of the
i8th century the most rapid route between Europe and India, and
it was not until 1833 that the Red Sea route was adopted by the East
India Co.; from this date until 1862 the Gulf fell into an extraordi-
nary state of inaccessibility letters for India being sent from Bag-
dad and Basra via Damascus, and correspondence from Bushire for
Bagdad via Teheran. In 1862 the British India Steam Navigation
Co. undertook their first mail contract for the Persian Gulf, and
simultaneously the Euphrates-Tigris Steam Navigation Co. agreed
to run a subsidized line of mail steamers from Basra to Bagdad.
The British India Co. maintain weekly and fortnightly services
between Basra and the Persian Gulf. The fast weekly steamer
stops only at Karachi, Bushire and Mohammerah on its way to
Basra. The slow mail steamers stop at every port in the Gulf, either
on the upward or the downward voyage.
Posts. The reopening in 1862 of direct communications between
India and the Persian Gulf gave rise to a demand for properly organ-
ized post-offices, and the Indian Postal Department accordingly
opened branches in 1864 at Muscat and Bushire. Every port of
importance on both sides of the Persian Gulf has an Indian post-
office transacting all classes of business.
The existence of these offices on Persian soil has occasionally been
the subject of complaint by the Persian Government. The justifica-
tion for their continued existence has been found in the climatic
conditions of the Gulf, which make it difficult for the Persian
Government to staff their own offices adequately, and in the fact
that the rupee is the only currency common to all ports of the Gulf
and to India, while the trade of these ports is mainly with India.
Telegraphs. The inception of the Persian Gulf telegraphs, which
formed the first links in an intercontinental chain, was dictated not
by local interests, but by broad considerations of national advantage.
The Crimean War of 1856 brought home to the Porte the slowness of
communication between the Persian Gulf and the outlying provinces
of the Turkish Empire, while the Mutiny of 1857 taught the British
Government a similar lesson in regard to India. In 1857, after some
unfruitful preliminary attempts, the Turkish Government agreed
to the construction of aline from Scutari to Bagdad on their behalf;
this was finished in 1 86 1 and was extended to Fao by 1864, after
further lengthy negotiations, when it was linked up with the cable
from Karachi which had been laid meanwhile. The route of the cables
has been several times altered. They now run from Karachi to Jask,
whence a cable runs to Muscat ; from Jask one cable runs to Hanjam,
and thence to Bushire ; another cable runs direct to Bushire. Hanjam
is connected by cable with Bandar 'Abbas. A double cable connects
Bushire with Fao. Bushire, Hanjam, Bahrein, Abadan and Basra
Summary showing Import and Export Values of Trade in the Persian Gulf (excluding Iraq and Arabistan) in two pre-war years and in
the latest post-war year available.
Imports
Exports
Total
Arab Side
Kuwait ....
Bahrein Is
Muscat ....
1912-3
438,298
2.239-527
463-551
I9I3-4
370,817
1,877,630
407,768
Post-WarYear
1,061,300
1,414,423
289,964*
1912-3
132,260
2,295,136
301,477
I9I3-4
114,421
1 ,740,008
27L536
Post-War Year
276,092
946,344 t
242,188*
Post-War Year
1,337,392
2,360,767
532,152
Total ....
3,141,376
2,656,215
2,765,687
2,728,873
2,125,965
1,464,624
4,230,311
Persian Side
Bushire
Bandar 'Abbas .
Lingeh
951-720
3H.877
164,325
825,767
459,000
180,120
2,723,357
997,6iot
159,283
637,091
283,942
193,895
601,765
266,700
126,381
917.655
279,945
99,858
3,641,012
1,277,555
259,141
Total ....
1,430,922
1,464,887
3,880,250
1,114,928
994,846
1,297,458
5,177,708
Grand Total
4,572,298
4,121,102
6,645,937
3,843,801
3,120,811
2,546,264
9,408,019
* 1918-9 in the case of
f Reckoning 55 Krans
Muscat, 1919-20 in other cases,
to the .
Banks. The Imperial Bank of Persia, in addition to branches all
over Persia, has branches at Bushire, Bandar 'Abbas and Moham-
merah. The Eastern Bank has a branch at Bahrein.
Currency. Persian currency alone is legal in Persia, but the rupee
is freely current in Persian ports. On the Arab coast the rupee is legal
tender, and is almost exclusively used for commercial transactions,
but the Maria Teresa dollar circulates freely, and is preferred by the
inhabitants of the interior of Arabia. Persian currency is also in
use, principally in Bahrein.
Lights and Buoys. In view of the difficulties attending navigation
in the Gulf, and the impossibility of arranging with the Govern-
ments of the littoral for the provision of lights and buoys except on
terms which would have greatly hampered shipping, the British
Government, in view of the great preponderance of British shipping
in the Gulf, has established since 1912 a very complete system of
lights and buoys, the cost of which is shared in equal moieties by
the Government of India and H.M. Government in accordance
with the recommendations of the Welby Commission. Lighthouses
exist on one of the Quwain group of islands off Ras Musandam and
on Tunb I. ; light-buoys have been placed at Bushire in the outer and
inner anchorages, at Bahrein and on the Shatt al 'Arab bar. Shore
lights and unlighted buoys have also been provided where necessary.
There is a lightship in the Shatt al 'Arab bar, which is very com-
pletely buoyed and lighted throughout its length from the lightship
to Fao, where there is a fixed light.
are provided with wireless stations. Kuwait is connected by land
line with Basra; Jask is connected by a land line to Karachi. Mo-
hammerah is connected by land line and cable with Basra and
Abadan and via Ahwaz with Bushire and with the inland Persian
system. Bushire has its own telephone system; Mohammerah is
connected by telephone with Basra. The whole system is under the
control of the Indo-European Telegraph Department, whose director-
in-chief is responsible to the Secretary of State for India. The
Department, which also controls the principal international lines in
Persia, is amply self-supporting.
Population cmd Religions. In all the countries of the Persian
Gulf, Islam in one or another of its forms prevails, almost to the
exclusion of other religions. The Mahommedans of the Persian
Gulf region belong to the following denominations: Sunni, Shiah,
Ibadhi, Wahabi and Khojah. The Wahabis may be regarded as
a branch of the Sunnis and the Khojahs as a branch of the Shiahs.
Shiahs predominate on the Persian coast except in the districts
ofRudHilleh, Shibkuh, Lingeh, Bastak,Biyaban, Jask, and on the
islands of the Persian Gulf. The Persian province of S. Arabistan,
which is under the hereditary government of the Sheikh of Moham-
merah, is exclusively Shiah. The Sunnis are estimated at 100,000
out of a total population in the maritime districts of 300,000.
68
PERSIAN GULF
Persian Makran is exclusively Sunni except for the district of
Jask. At Gwadar, Sunni, Khojah and Ibadhi rub shoulders. The
Oman sultanate is predominately Ibadhi. In the territory con-
trolled by the Emir of Nejd the official religion is Wahabi, but
a few Shiahs are still to be found in the districts of El Hasa and
Hofuf. Bahrein is Sunni, but has a large Shiah population of
Persian origin. Kuwait is Sunni, with Wahabi leanings.
The Khojahs number some 2,000 souls and are distributed
over the ports of the Gulf, mainly on the Arab side. They are
descended from Hindus of Sind and Kach, who were converted
from Hinduism to the Isma'ili form of the Shiah faith in the
15th century of the Christian era.
Hindus total about 1,500 and are to be found in all the princi-
pal ports of the Gulf, especially at Gwadar, where their presence
gives rise to occasional fanatical disturbances. Panislamic ideas
have obtained h'ttle hold in this region; in Persia and wherever
people are Shiahs the pretensions of the Sultan of Turkey to the
headship of the Mahommedan world are rejected, as also in
Oman, where the bulk of the population are Ibadhi.
Missions. Roman Catholic missions have at intervals worked in
the Persian Gulf, on the Persian side since the beginning of the iyth
century; they are still represented at Bushire. The first Protestant
mission to the Gulf was initiated by Henry Martyn in 1811; his
Arabic New Testament appeared in 1816. The American Arabian
mission was founded in 1889 in the United States; the first agents of
the mission were the Rev. J. Cantine and the Rev. S. Zwemer, who
established a branch at Bahrein in 1892 and later at Muscat. Politi-
cal complications arising out of the work of the Arabian mission
have been singularly few, a happy circumstance which must be
attributed chiefly to the missionaries themselves, whose general
opinion is that for a Mahommedan country the Persian Gulf and
eastern Arabia are peculiarly free from religious fanaticism.
Historical. The Persian Gulf has figured in history from the
earliest times. A myth (preserved by Berosus) records that Oannes
(Hea) the fish-god came up from that part of the Erythraean
Sea which borders on Babylonia, to teach the inhabitants of that
country letters and sciences and arts of every kind. This seems to
indicate the arrival, in ships, of strangers of a higher grade of
civilization. These strangers may have come from China, but
Sir H. Rawlinson considers they were a dark race not belonging
to the Semitic family. Rawlinson also suggests that the Phoe-
nicians may have originally come from the Bahrein Is. and ex-
tended westwards to the settlements on the Mediterranean at least
5,000 years ago. Though there is no direct evidence of this con-
nexion, enormous numbers of tumuli, probably of Phoenician
origin, exist on the Bahrein Is., which also contain tumuli of
Babylonian age. Babylonian tumuli have also been found at
Bushire. Col. Yule, from Chinese annals of the 7th and 8th cen-
turies, says that Chinese ships came as far as Siraf (Tahiri) and
the Euphrates, where they lay at Hira near Kufa, and adds that
this trade fell off in A.D. 878 owing to civil war in China. From
the records of Fa-Hian of the 4th century it is clear that ships
from China exchanged merchandise with Arab vessels at Ceylon,
and this is confirmed by the account of Cosmas, who wrote be-
tween 530 and 550 A.D. Along the shores of the Persian Gulf in
326 A.D. came Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander, on his way
from the Indies to the Tigris delta; from Basra sailed Sindbad in
the pth century in one of the many Arab craft which traded thence
to India, Ceylon and Zanzibar. Thousands of years before
Christ the pearls of Bahrein were sold in Egypt; Bahrein still
supplies 80% of the world's output of pearls. After the Phoe-
nicians, Babylonians, and Arabs came the Persians; though they
never aspired to command of the seas and are indeed not a mari-
time race, the Persian Gulf was no obstacle to them, and at one
time or another they occupied Muscat and parts of Oman and
Bahrein, and penetrated into the greater part of Arabia.
Commerce between East and West had from early times
followed this route in preference to that of the Red Sea, and when
during the I5th century Genoa and Venice successively lost
their positions in Oriental commerce, through the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks and by the hostility of the Mame-
lukes of Egypt respectively, the country which most earnestly
devoted itself to the quest of a new way to India was Portugal.
Albuquerque seized several towns on the coast of Oman, including
Muscat in 1507, and soon afterwards established his authority on
the I. of Ormuz, at the N. of the Gulf. Towards the end of the
i6th century the Dutch made their appearance in Indian waters
as rivals of the Portuguese; and in 1616 the first British " fac-
tories " of the East India Co. were established on the Persian
coast. In 1622 the Portuguese were expelled from Ormuz by joint
efforts of the British by sea and of the Persians by land; in 1650
they finally left Muscat. In 1664 the French made their ap-
pearance on the scene, but did little trade. It is, however, of in-
terest to note that in 1698, in consequence of a nominal agreement,
from which nothing resulted, among the principal Europeans
in the East, the French undertook the policing of the Persian Gulf
against pirates. The Dutch, who had played no part in expel-
ling the Portuguese, now became increasingly predominant, and
the wars that were waged in Europe between England and Hol-
land had their counterpart in the Persian Gulf.
In 1674 hostility between Holland and England ceased, but
the position was radically unsatisfactory owing to the prevalence
of piracy, from which both England and other nations suffered
heavily. At the beginning of the i8th century the improved state
of affairs in India began to have an effect on the Company's
branches in the Persian Gulf and by the middle of the i8th cen-
tury the Dutch settlements had disappeared.
Henceforward the bulk of the trade was in British hands, but
piracy was rife, the slave trade flourished, and the coast towns
and islands of the Persian Gulf had fallen from their ancient
prosperity to a lower level than they had experienced for some
centuries. To restore this prosperity had for about a century before
1921 been the secular mission of Great Britain in these lands, the
British resident in the Persian Gulf, acting as the representative
of the Government of India, being the umpire to whom by long
custom all parties on both coasts appealed and who had by trea-
ties been entrusted with the duty of preserving peace.
Students of international politics are familiar with the claims
of nations to a position of preference in certain regions, based
upon historic, economic or geographical considerations. The
claims of Great Britain to such a position in this region are unique.
But beyond two brief occupations of the I. of Kharag, and the
continuous possession of a few square miles of desert land at Bas-
idu, the S.W. end of the I. of Qishm, she has at no time acquired
territory in that region, although she has for generations borne an
honourable burden there which no other nation has ever under-
taken anywhere, except in the capacity of sovereign. British in-
fluence kept the peace amongst peoples who were not subjects of
the King-Emperor; Great Britain lighted, buoyed, charted and
patrolled for over a century waters over which it claimed no for-
mal lordship ; and kept in strange ports an open door, through which
traders of every nation might have equally free access to distant
markets. On the other hand, a steady and increasing market was
gained for the products of the British Empire, and in particular
for those of India; the ports of the Gulf were made safe, not so
much for the British as for the Indian trader; nearly 75 % of
the trade of the Gulf ports was in 1921 with India, and an even
greater proportion in the hands of Indians, Persians and Arabs.
A good market had been created for Indian products, particularly
yarns and cereals. But more than this, Great Britain had gained
a reputation for patient and persevering efforts to promote the
spread of civilization in these regions, a prestige which yielded
profit during the difficult years of the World War, and was not with-
out its effect in India. With the exception of local disturbances of old
standing at Muscat, and at Bushire (where they were fomented
by German gold), the Arab and Persian population of both shores
maintained a friendly attitude to Great Britain throughout the
war, although British gunboats were seldom, if ever, seen at that
time in waters which in peace they had regularly patrolled.
The peculiar interests, strategic, political and commercial,
of Great Britain in the Persian Gulf have never been denied;
they are intimately connected with the welfare of India, with the
security of its communication with the outside world, and of its
internal tranquillity. The considered policy of the British Govern-
ment was embodied in 1903 in Lord Lansdowne's declaration in
the House of Lords that " we should regard the establishment of
PERTAB SINGH PERU
69
a naval base or a fortified port in the Persian Gulf by any other
Power as a very grave menace to British interests, and we should
certainly resist it by all the means at our disposal." This declara-
tion was formally reaffirmed in 1907 by Sir E. Grey, in a despatch
to the British ambassador at St. Petersburg, which further stated
that " H.M. Government will continue to direct all their efforts
to the observance of the status quo in the Gulf, and the maintenance
of British trade; in doing so they have no desire to exclude the
legitimate trade of any other Power." These declarations were
never openly challenged, and in 1912-4 the British Government
entered into far-reaching negotiations with the Turkish and
German Governments with the object of regularizing the posi-
tion. The resulting agreements had not, however, been ratified
before the declaration of war in 1914.
The Arms Traffic. During the 3rd Afghan War the trade in
modern arms and ammunition in the Persian Gulf attracted the
attention of the British and Indian Governments for the first
time. In 1880 the Government of India took preliminary steps
in the matter within its own borders; in 1881 the importation of
arms and ammunition into Persia was made illegal, but with little
effect. In Far Eastern countries firearms are widely possessed
and used. In 1890 the General Act of the Brussels Conference
struck a blow at the arms trade in Africa and diverted it 'to the
Persian Gulf, which was not subject to the Brussels Act.
The stream of arms flowing from Zanzibar to Muscat continued
to increase in volume, and in 1892 no less than 11,500 firearms
were landed at Muscat, of which more than half were at once
reexported. The figure was doubled by 1895 and trebled in 1897;
in spite of prohibitions, imports into Persia continued on a large
scale. Moved at last by the great quantity of military material
that was being found in the Gulf, the British Government
urged the Persian Government to enforce the actual law and to
confiscate the stores of arms which had accumulated at Bushire.
The Persian Government, thoroughly alarmed, took action,
but with only temporary effect. Somewhat similar action was
taken at Bahrein. These seizures created much indignation and
anxiety among firms in England whose interests were involved.
From 1898 to 1908 the attitude of the British Government
towards the question was one of regular attention without the
power to intervene directly or effectually. In 1900 the con-
signment of arms and ammunition to the Persian Gulf through
Indian ports with or without transhipment was made illegal. This
was reinforced by an Act of Parliament empowering the sover-
eign to prohibit by proclamation the export of arms and ammuni-
tion from the United Kingdom to countries or places where they
might be employed against British troops and subjects.
The trade, blocked at Persian ports and later at all Gulf
ports except Muscat, continued to flourish, in spite of a naval
blockade of the Makran coast by Great Britain in 1910-1. At
length, however, in 1912 the Sultan of Muscat issued a proclama-
tion requiring all arms imported into Muscat to be placed in a
special warehouse from which they could not be removed except
on production of an import permit from the competent authority
at their destination. This killed the trade at Muscat; the French
Government, who had claimed that the Sultan's proclamation was
inconsistent with his treaty engagements with them, accepted the
accomplished fact with good grace after lengthy diplomatic
negotiations, and the trade was by 1913 almost dead, except at
the N. end of the Gulf, where it still flourished on a small scale.
The arms traffic has been responsible for much of the prevailing
anarchy of the Middle East and indeed of Arabia. The posses-
sion of firearms places irresistible temptations in the path of un-
sophisticated and quick-tempered tribesmen. For this result
the European Powers signatories of the Brussels Act of 1892 are
to blame for lack of foresight and to some extent of goodwill.
Joint Anglo-French action at any time during 1902-12 would
probably have been effective in stopping the traffic.
Slave Trade. On board the fleet which in 1626 conveyed Sir
Dodmore Cotton, a British ambassador, with his staff, from
Surat to Bandar 'Abbas, there were more than 300 slaves
ought of Persians in India, and the only remark which this
circumstance suggested to Sir T. Herbert was that " ships, be-
sides the transporting of richer varieties from place to place,
consociate the most remote regions of the earth by participation
of commodities and other excellencies to each other." In 1772
it was decided by the English courts that a slave as soon as he set
foot on the soil of the British Isles became free; the slave trade,
however, continued actively until 1807, when an Act was passed
to prevent British subjects dealing in slaves; in 1811 the traffic
in slaves was declared to be felony; in 1833 the status of slavery
was abolished throughout the British Dominions. In defiance of
her commercial interests and of her popularity with the Moslem
population of the Gulf, Great Britain set herself to suppress the
trade, and executed a series of agreements with the chiefs of the
Arabian littoral with this object. The arduous task of enforc-
ing the observance of these treaties fell upon the Government
of India and involved great sacrifice of lives and money.
In subsequent years over 700 slaves were rescued at sea and
more than 2,000 otherwise released; the traffic was by 1920 vir-
tually dead in the Gulf, but slavery as an institution seemed likely
to continue for many decades to come to flourish inland in Mus-
cat, in Central Arabia, and in a modified form in part of Persia.
AUTHORITIES. The chief source of information is the late J. G.
Lorimer's Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, published confidentially by
the Government of India in 1908. See also Lord Curzon's Persia
(1892); papers by T. J. Bennett, of The Times of India (Royal
Society of Arts, 1902), and the late Comm. A. W. Stiffe, Indian
Navy (Jour. R.G.S. 1897) ; and handbooks prepared during the war
of 1914-8 under the direction of the Historical Section of the Foreign
Office. (A. T. W.)
PERTAB (or PARTAB) SINGH, SIR (1844- ), Indian
soldier and statesman (see 21.259), relinquished his position as
Maharaja of Idar in 1911 in favour of his adopted son Daolat
Singh, in order to resume the regency of Jodhpur which he had
previously held on the death of his brother in 1895, but this
time for his grand-nephew Summair Singh, then 13 years of age.
When the World War broke out Sir Pertab, in the words of Lord
Hardinge the Viceroy, " would not be denied his right to serve
the King-Emperor in spite of his 70 years." He came to France
for service in the field with his young ward, then only 16, and
commanded the famous Jodhpur Lancers. In the later stages of
the war he served with them in Egypt and Palestine. Sir Sum-
mair Singh died in 1918, two years after receiving ruling powers,
and Sir Pertab again became regent, assisted by a council.
PERU (see 21.264). No accurate statistics for the pop. of
Peru exist, but probably there are between 3,500,000 and
4,000,000 inhabitants besides the savage tribes, still partly
independent, who inhabit the remoter montana or eastern forest
region. The racial proportions are approximately:
Negroes, pure-blooded or predominantly African . 6 %
Various (including Asiatics, African-Indian mixture, etc.)
Indians, pure-blooded or nearly so . ....
Mestizos (mixed Indian and white blood) . . .
Whites (entirely of Caucasian blood) ....
The negroes are either descendants of slaves of colonial times or,
in fewer cases, people who have drifted in during recent years from
the Barbados, Trinidad, Panama, etc. Though the negroes of colo-
nial times were notorious for their brawls and riots, those of to-day
seem to be reasonably law-abiding. They are addicted to many
vicious practices which are gradually causing the population of Lima
and other coast cities to decrease in physical strength and intel-
ligence. Most of the negroes live on the coast. The Indians fall into
two groups: those who dwell in the highlands or sierra in the in-
terior and still preserve their ancient language and customs, and those
who live on the coast and speak Spanish, dressing more or less after
the European fashion and observing but few customs that can be
called pre-Spanish. The lot of the highland Indians is, in many
districts, very bad. This is due to three chief causes : the abuse meted
out by the great landed proprietors ever since the conquest (1531)
and continued with some abatement to the present day ; the use of
far too much alcohol and coca; the lack of even rudiments of public
or personal hygiene. There is much evidence, however, that the lot
of the Indians will improve within a generation or two. The younger
generation of the land-holding class are beginning to see that it will
be to their advantage to improve the material and social condition
of the Indians on their estates; there is an increasing agitation in
favour of suppressing the sale of sugar-brandy and other harmful
liquors to the Indians and of regulating the consumption of coca; at
the present time the Peruvian Government is beginning to take
serious measures for the sanitation of the country. The mestizos
compose the middle class, the artisans, small shopkeepers, clerks,
10%
52%
30%
2%
PERU
petty politicians, etc. They tend to congregate in the cities. They
are mostly unintelligent, though a small percentage of them enjoy
an improved social status, won usually by the exercise of an intel-
lectual calling, the law, medicine or literature. The whites, though
few in number, were, until the revolution of July 1919, the dominant
class in Peru. They owned most of the land and controlled all the
more important political posts. For the most part they are thoroughly
modern-minded and progressive people, intellectual and agreeable.
It is to be regretted that few of the older generation recognized their
responsibilities with regard to their Indian tenantry, but the younger
men, according to observations in 1921, were beginning to take an
interest in sociological problems.
Since 1890 all the Government railways then in existence,
and additions to them made later, have been administered by
the Peruvian Corporation, chiefly owned by foreign investors,
which took over the railways and a number of other national
resources. In 1920 the railways administered by the Peruvian
Corporation were the following:
Length
Gauge
(miles)
(meters)
Central railway
Pisco to lea railway
248
46
44
44
Southern railway
535
44
Pacasmayo railway
Paita to Piura railwa
y
82
60
44
44
Chimbote railway
35
91
Trujillo railway
64
91
North-western railway
"32
91
Lima-Lurin railway
22
91
.
Besides these important lines there are a number of others neither
owned by the Government nor administered by the Peruvian Cor-
poration. Chief of these are the Cerro de Pasco railway from Oroya
to Cerro de Pasco and a few local lines in various coast valleys.
In the 10 years, 1910-20, a certain amount of road-building was
done. In many parts of the coast comparatively little has to be
done to make the surface of the desert a good road-bed for motor
traffic. During the rubber boom of the previous decade there was a
considerable development, in the forest region, of river traffic. But
since 1910 that has slowly been diminishing, and in 1920 the Peru-
vian reaches of the Amazon were served by but one steamer which
made one round trip per month.
Coastwise traffic by steamers is well organized and efficient. Two
companies, one British and the other American, maintain direct
sailings from New York to Callao, through the Panama Canal, the
run being made in 12 days. There is also good direct service with
England, the Mediterranean and Japan. The smaller ports_ of the
Peruvian coast are served by the steamers of the Peruvian line, the
Chilean line, the British line and a number of less important steam-
ers. A direct service for freight only was in Feb. 1921 about to be
inaugurated between the Peruvian coast and California. The
telegraphs, wireless included, were in 1921 owned and administered
by the Government. Experiments were then being made with the
wireless telephone, also under Government. Two privately owned
cable companies give coast and foreign service.
Industries and Commerce. The chief exports of Peru are sugar,
cotton and copper. There should be many other articles. Petroleum
is already produced in considerable quantities, but Peru could attain
a production of vegetable oil fully as important. Castor oil, linseed
oil, cottonseed oil and rapeseed oil are a few of the possibilities.
Meats, hides and wool could easily be exported on a large scale.
Lumber, in the lower or easterly parts of the country, might well be
made to take the place of the lost rubber trade. Peru suffers from
the unimaginative ultra-conservatism of her landowning class and
of her business men. The fundamental need is capital, and the only
people in the country who have sufficient initiative to undertake
these developments lack capital. Vanadium mining has been under-
taken with unusual energy, and it is said that Peru to-day produces
95 % of the world's vanadium.
Imports and Exports.
(In Peruvian pounds, equal to sterling.)
Imports
Exports
Excess of Exports
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
4,980,697
5,438,245
5,140,^38
6,088,776
4,827,930
3,095,544
8,683,150
13,502,851
9,705,113
7,974,076
7,422,027
9,438,581
9,137,780
8,767,790
11,521,807
16,541,063
18,643,414
19,972,595
2,093,379
1,983,782
4,298,243
3,049,003
3,939,860
8,426,263
",857,913
5,140,563
10,267,482
The effect of the World War upon Peruvian trade with Great
Britain and the United States is displayed by the following table (in
Peruvian pounds equal to sterling) :
Imports
from G.B.
Imports
from U.S.
Export s
to G.B.
Exports
to U.S.
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
,367,976
,598,605
,338,552
662,546
,496,304
.934,665
1,248,880
1,755,251
1,570,723
1,488,264
5,116,582
8,792,710
3,237,564
3,403,109
3,274,097
3,621,624
2,961,841
3,792,750
3,599,851
3,033,259
3,046,892
6,390,282
10,404,334
10,942,407
Government. The Government of Peru is one of the most
highly centralized in the world. Every question has to be decided
in Lima, by the supreme Government, and often by the president
in person. Directly or indirectly the president appoints all the
prefects, sub-prefects and governors who administer the provin-
cial subdivisions of the country. All of these officers are remov-
able at his will. The Legislature (Chamber of Deputies and
Senate) controls the purse-strings of the nation and acts as a
check on executive extravagances.
From 1860 to 1919 the supreme law of the land was the
Constitution of 1860. That constitution embodied all the lead-
ing principles of the extreme centralization already referred to.
There was, however, a pronounced movement toward " regional-
ism " in the southern departments between 1910 and 1019.
That movement aimed not only at liberalizing the administrative
machinery, but also at a systematic improvement of the condi-
tion of the Indians.
In Jan. 1920 President Legufa's Government brought into
being the Constitution of 1919, prepared chiefly by Senator
Mariano H. Cornejo and Don German Leguia y Martinez.
That constitution makes concessions to the demand for re-
gionalism by creating " Regional Congresses," three in number,
one for the north, one for the centre and one for the south.
History. From 1908 to 1912 was the first term of Augusto
B. L'eguia y Salcedo as president of Peru. A number of internal
reforms and improvements were planned by him, but the collapse
of the rubber market caused great fipancial stringency and had
the indirect result of curtailing the Government's reforming
activities. It was during this first term of Leguia that the
Yale Peruvian expedition, headed by Prof. Hiram Bingham of
Yale, conducted extensive geographical and archaeological ex-
plorations in Peru. The results were published and did much
to direct the attention of foreign capitalists and others to Peru.
Other Yale expeditions continued their work in Peru until 1915
when, as a result of misunderstandings, Prof. Bingham and his
followers were ordered out of the country. Between 1912 and
1915 Guillermo Billinghurst and Oscar Benavides were presidents,
each for a short term of revolutionary character. During this
period there were diplomatic conflicts between Peru and Bolivia
and Peru and Ecuador, neither of them going so far as to become
military in character.
The outbreak of the World War in Aug. 1914 found Peru
in an exceedingly bad state financially and economically. Until
well into 1915 financial depression of the most acute kind con-
tinued. But about the middle of 1915 a great demand for Peru-
vian cotton, sugar, copper and other products came into being,
with the result that exportations, at war prices, attained propor-
tions never known before.
From July 1915 to July 1919 Jose Pardo y Barreda was
President. In his time came the question which side was to be
favoured by Peru in the World War. The then ruling class
was inclined, at first, to be pro-German, partly because they
were not fond of England (due to conflicts with the Peruvian
Corporation), partly because they did not like the " democratic "
atmosphere of President Wilson's various documents, and also
partly because they had personal, financial and sentimental
ties with Germany. On the other hand, many members of that
class and the mass of the thinking element of Peru as a whole
were strongly in favour of the Allies. Consequently, soon
after the declaration of war by the United States in 1917, the
Government of Peru severed diplomatic relations with Germany.
On July 4 1919 Don Augusto B. Leguia, who had been elected
president to succeed Don Jose Pardo y Barreda (president
1915-9), seized the person of President Pardo by means of a re-
PETAIN PETERSON
volutionary movement and himself became provisional President,
being again duly reflected to the presidency some time after.
This movement caused profound consternation in Peru, where
people were beginning to assure themselves that the day of
revolutions was over. Leguia inaugurated an ambitious scheme
of internal reform, including the sanitation of 31 Peruvian cities,
the reorganization of the army by a French Military Commission,
the reorganization of the navy by an American Naval Com-
mission, the reconstruction of the educational system by
American experts, and huge irrigation works built under the
direction of an American engineer, C. W. Sutton.
The most important reforms brought about by the Government
of President Leguia were those calculated to modernize the
country. President Pardo had inaugurated the practice of calling
in foreign expert advice by inviting to Peru Dr. Henry Hanson,
of the department of public health of the Panama Canal zone.
Dr. Hanson was first invited to study the malarial fevers in the
vicinity of Lima, but in July 1919 a serious yellow-fever epidemic
broke out in Piura, the northernmost coast department of Peru,
and he was sent thither with full authority to stamp it out.
He continued in Peru as director of sanitation, and his work was
much widened so as to include the general sanitation of Callao
and the stamping-out of a bad epidemic of yellow fever which
broke out in the department of Lambayeque in Jan. 1921. The
late Gen. William Gorgas was also invited to Peru in 1919 in
order to supervise extensive projected improvements to be
carried out by the Foundation Company of New York. Those
improvements were to include the resewering of Lima, the
repaving of many chief streets of Lima and the sanitation of 31
Peruvian cities. There was much opposition to the contract made
between the Peruvian Government and the Foundation Com-
pany Congress, for example, being largely of the opinion that
the contract was derogatory to the dignity and probity of Peru.
This, together with the death of Gen. Gorgas, practically nullified
the projected improvements.
A French Military Aviation Commission, headed by Gen.
Vassal, came to Peru soon after President Leguia assumed
office. It was intended to instruct officers of the Peruvian army
in the use of various types of aeroplanes, and a school was
founded at Maranga, near Lima. Proper financial support was
not forthcoming, however, and in the middle of Feb. 1921 the
French mission resigned, complaining that the situation in
which they found themselves was intolerable. An American
Naval Commission, headed by Capt. Frank B. Freyer, U.S.N.,
was called to Peru in July 1920 for the purpose of reorganizing
the sea forces of Peru. In Jan. 1921 Capt. Freyer was made
chief of staff with powers practically equal to those of the
minister of marine.
Educational improvements under the general supervision
of the minister of justice and instruction were undertaken.
A large number of American educational experts, under the
leadership of Dr. H. Erwin Bard, went to Peru, and Dr. Bard was
made director-general of instruction (1921). The National
Museum of Archaeology, likewise dependent upon the minister
of justice and instruction, was also placed under an American
expert from the Smithsonian Institution. (P. A. ME.)
PETAIN, HENRI PHILIPPE BENONI OMER JOSEPH (1856-
), French soldier, was born on May 241856. He was com-
missioned from St. Cyr 1878, passed in due course through the
Ecole de Guerre, filled various staff appointments, including
that of instructor at the Ecole de Guerre, and was promoted
colonel in 1910. At the outbreak of the World War he was
commanding an infantry regiment, but he was immediately
given a brigade and then a division, and he acquitted himself
so well during the opening weeks of the struggle that he was
advanced to the command of an army corps in Artois in Oct.
1914. He greatly distinguished himself on the occasion of the
French offensive near Arras in May 1915, where his corps com-
pletely broke through the German position, though exploitation
proved to be impossible for want of reserves. Soon afterwards
he was given command of the II. Army. When preparations
were being made in the summer for the contemplated offensive
in Champagne, he was called upon to aid Gen. Castelnau in
framing the plans and in carrying them out. Then, when the
Germans in the following Feb. were gaining ground very rapidly
before Verdun and the safety of the place of arms hung in the
balance, Castelnau was sent to stabilize the defence. A few
days later, having provided for the indispensable, Castelnau
handed over control of affairs to Petain, who took the battle
in hand with method and energy, fought the attack to a stand-
still and saved Verdun. He was rewarded by being made a
Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour and was placed in com-
mand of the group of armies of the Centre.
During the following winter Gen. Nivelle succeeded Gen.
Joffre as commander-in-chief. Petain's group of armies was
not embraced in Nivelle's offensive scheme, but it was known
that he was thoroughly doubtful of its success, and after its
failure Petain was appointed, first oa April 27 chief of the
general staff of the army, and then on May 15 commander-in-
chief of the French armies on the western front. This position
he took up at a moment when his troops were discouraged and
mutinies were breaking out owing to severe losses, disillusion-
ment following on over-sanguine hopes, and war-weariness,
when the effects of the Russian revolution and those of America's
intervention were alike difficult to discern, and when his own
country was losing heart. He saw clearly that, in view of the
wastage in man-power caused by three years of devastating
war, an offensive project on a great scale, such as his prede-
cessor had adventured, was impossible for the time being, and
he therefore resolved first to nurse back the army to a healthy
state of moral and then to restore its offensive powers by one or
two battles with limited objectives in which victory was made
certain by careful and abundant preparations. It was in ac-
cordance with this policy that he fought the Aug. battle at
Verdun and that of Oct. on the Chemin des Dames, for which
he was given the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. He
established and maintained a close understanding with Sir D.
Haig, and when the British V. Army was virtually rolled up
near St. Quentin in March 1918, his promptitude in despatching
reinforcements to the point of danger did much to relieve the
critical situation. After Foch became generah'ssimo, portions of
Petain's forces played the leading part in the decisive counter-
stroke near Soissons which first turned the scale, and during
the subsequent victorious operations of the Allies, the French
commander-in-chief was most successful in coordinating the
advance of his forces at all points along a very extended front,
maintaining his liaison with the British on the one flank and
the Americans on the other, and in the case of the latter taking
an active part in the preparation of their two offensives. He
was created marshal of France on the conclusion of hostilities,
in recognition of his brilliant services during the war, and he
was the recipient of many high honours from the Allied Govern-
ments. He subsequently held the position of vice-president of
the Conseil Superieur de la Guerre.
PETERS, KARL (1856-1918), German traveller (see 21.300).
In 1907-8 Peters, who had again taken up residence in Germany
brought actions for libel against a Munich journal and the
Cologne Gazette, seeking to clear his character in regard to his
administration in E. Africa. These actions wrought no change
in public opinion in Germany and Peters remained on the retired
list. However, in April 1914, at the instance of the Imperial
Colonial Office he was granted a pension. During the World
War he supported the extreme pan-German programme. In
Feb. 1918 he published an autobiography, and he died at
Woltorf, Brunswick, on Sept. 10 of the same year. He had lived
to see German E. Africa, which he founded, conquered by British
and Belgian troops.
PETERSON, SIR WILLIAM (1856-1921), British educational-
ist, was born at Edinburgh May 29 1856, the son of John Peter-
son, a merchant. He was educated at Edinburgh high school and
University, and after being for a short time at Gottingen, in 1876
obtained the Ferguson classical scholarship and entered Corpus
Christi College, Oxford. On leaving Oxford he was at first an
assistant master at Harrow, but in 1879 became assistant pro-
PETROLEUM
fessor of classics at Edinburgh. In 1882 he was made first princi-
pal of the newly founded University College at Dundee, but in
1895 he was appointed principal and professor of classics at
McGill University, Canada. During his 24 years' tenure of this
important position the university greatly progressed, and the
scientific faculties in particular advanced considerably. In 1915
he was made K.C.M.G. In 1919 he was incapacitated by a
stroke, and resigned his position, and being taken to England
died at Hampstead Jan. 4 1921.
Sir William Peterson was for some years chairman of the Carnegie
foundation for the advancement of teaching in America. His pub-
lished works include editions of Quintilian's Institutes of Oratory
(1891); the Dialogue on Orators of Tacitus (1893 and 1914); the
Speech of Cicero for Cluentius (1895 and 1899); the Cluni MS. of
Cicero (1901) and Cicero's Verrine Orations (1907); besides Cana-
dian Essays and Addresses (1915).
PETROLEUM (see 21.316*). Under the stimulus of increased
consumption and many new uses for petroleum products, the
search for petroleum both in the older producing countries and
in new territories, often remote from civilization, was rewarded
by important extensions and discoveries and, in many instances,
by subsequent development, with the result that between the
years 1908 and 1920 the world's petroleum production more than
doubled. The increase is shown in the following table from the
U.S. Geological Survey:
World's Production.
Barrels of 42
U.S. Gal.
1908
285,552,746
1915
427,740,129
1909
298,616,405
1916
459,4 ".737
1910
327,937,629
1917
508,687,302
1911
344. '74-355
1918
514,729,354
1912
352,446,598
1919
544,885,000
1913
383,547.399
1920
694,854,000
1914
403,745,652
In the period 1908-21 many prolific fields in the United
States were developed, enabling that country to keep its preemi-
nent position; Mexico grew from unimportance to second posi-
tion; Argentina, Venezuela, Trinidad, Egypt and Persia devel-
oped production of commercial importance; Russia added the
Maikop and Ural-Caspian fields, and Japan the Akita prefec-
ture. In 1920 the United States produced 63-8% of the world's
output, and up to the end of that year had produced 62-1 % of
the world's total commercial yield. The rank of the vari-
ous petroleum-producing countries is shown in the table given
below:
NORTH AMERICA
United States. Petroleum production in the United States in
1920 totalled 443,402,000 barrels. The following table from the
U.S. Geological Survey gives the production of the important divi-
sions in 1920 and in 1908, stated in bar. of 42 U.S. gallons :
1920
1908
Appalachian
30,511,000
24,945,517
California .
Lima-Indiana
Rocky Mountain
105,668,000
3,059,000
I7,5i7,ooo
44.854,737
10,032,305
397.428
Illinois
Mid-Continent
10,772,000
249,074,000
33,686,238
48,823,747
Gulf
26,801,000
15,772,137
Others
15,246
Total ....
443,402,000
178,527,355
The Appalachian area extends across the Appalachian Plateaus
from south-western New York to Tennessee. It includes Kentucky,
W. Virginia, Pennsylvania, New York and eastern Ohio. Oil and
gas sands occur throughout a long stratigraphic interval, including
rocks ranging in age from Ordovician to Carboniferous. Petroleum
from the Appalachian area is a high-grade paraffin oil, the average
gravity being about 45 Baum6 (0-8,000 sp.gr.). The average for
Kentucky is not quite so high. The Appalachian district is the oldest
oil-producing area in the United States (see 21.317), and while a
gradual decrease in its production from 1912 was shown, high prices
and great demand resulted in substantial increases in 1919 and 1920.
That the rate of decline was so slow is due to the remarkable thrift
of small producers who have found it profitable to operate leases
where production is one-sixth of a barrel a day and sometimes even
less. A factor which has tended to revive and increase production in
certain Pennsylvania districts is the so-called "water drive," by
which water pressure is put on the rock to supplement the exhausted
gas pressure. An instance of the result of the water drive is shown by
figures of an eastern pipe-line attached to nearly 18,000 wells in the
Bradford and Allegheny pools; this line in 1909 ran 1,531,000 bar. ;
in 1913 1,267,000 bar., a decrease of over 17%; and in 1920 the
amount had risen again to about 1,568,000 bar., showing an increase
in eight years of 23-8 per cent.
The Lima-Indiana field covers north-western Ohio and north-
eastern Indiana, the oil being obtained from lenses or discontinuous
layers in Trenton limestone. The average gravity is about 39
Baumd (0-8,285 sp.gr.), although some of the oil is much heavier.
The Lima-Indiana field is steadily declining.
The principal productive area in the Illinois field is in the south-
eastern part of the state, but there are also small scattered pools in
central and western Illinois. Most of the oil is obtained from beds
of sandstone in the Pennsylvania and Mississippian series of the
Carboniferous system. In gravity the oils range from 27 to 37
Baum6 (0-8,917 to 0-8,383 sp.gr.). This field is also declining.
In the period between 1908 and 1921, the greatest increases in
production in the United States occurred in the mid-continent field,
embracing Oklahoma, Kansas, northern and central Texas, northern
Louisiana and southern Arkansas. In 1920 the mid-continent field
United States Geological Survey World Production of Petroleum.
Country
Production, 1920
Total production, 1857-1920
Barrels of
42 U.S.
gal.
Metric
tons
Cubic
meters
Per cent
of total
by
volume
Date of
First
Produc-
tion
Barrels of
42 U.S.
gal.
Metric
tons
Cubic
meters
Percent
of total
by
volume
United States .
443,402,000
62,188,000
70,492,000
63-8
1859
5,429,693,000
729,640,000
863,213,000
62-1
Mexico
163,540,000
24,410,000
26,000,000
23-5
1901
536,524,000
80,047,000
85,287,000
6-1
Russia
25,429,600
3471.130
4,042,800
3-6
1863
1,904,021,000
252,072,000
302,701,000
21-8
Dutch East Indies .
17,529,210
2,365,347
2,786,840
2-5
1893
219,584,000
29(690,000
34,910,000
2-5
Persia
12,352,655
1,685,219
1,963,825
1-8
1908
48,070,000
6,558,000
7,642,000
5
India ....
7,500,000
1,000,000
1,192,000
i-i
1889
122,583,000
16,343,000
19,488,000
1-4
Rumania .
7.435.344
1,034,123
1,182,110
i-i
1859
165,462,000
23,013,000
26,305,000
1-9
Poland (Galicia)
5,606,116
764,818
891,260
8
1874
171,263,000
23,700,000
27,228,000
2-O
Peru ....
2,816,649
373,280
447,797
4
1896
29,797,000
3,968,000
4,737,000
Japan and Formosa
2,139.777
285,076
340,180
3
1875
42,810,000
5,708,000
6,806,000
Trinidad . . t
2,083,027
289,712
33i,i6o
3
1908
11,356,000
1,580,000
i ,805,000
Argentina .
1,665,989
242,502
264,859
2
1911
7,225,000
i ,043,000
1,149,000
Egypt
i ,042,000
152,120
165,660
2
1907
6,990,000
1,017,000
1, 111,000
British Borneo
(Sarawak)
1,015,949
146,285
161,516
2
4,052,000
584,000
644,000
Venezuela .
456,996
69,539
72,653
1913
1,335,000
203,000
212,000
1-7
France (Alsace)
388,700
54,900
61,800
1880
723,000
102,000
115,000
Germany .
212,046
29,950
33,7"
1880
17,120,000
2,318,000
2,722,000
Canada
196,937
26,258
31,310
2
1862
24,864,000
3,315,000
3,953,000
Italy ....
34,180
4,750
5,434
1860
1,042,000
148,000
166,000
Algeria
3.916
609
623
1915
37,000
6,000
6,000
England
Other Countries
2,909
382
462
1919
5,000
416.000
\ 56,000
67,000
,
Total ....
694.854.000
98,594.000
1 10.468.000
IOO-O
8,744,972,000
i , 1 8 1 , 1 1 1 ,000
1,390,267,000
IOO-0
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
PETROLEUM
73
accounted for 249,074,000 bar., or 56-2 % of the total U.S. produc-
tion. Pools are scattered throughout the area and new pools are
constantly being discovered. Most of the oil produced in Kansas,
Oklahoma and northern Texas is obtained from beds of sandstone
in formations of the Pennsylvanian series (Upper Carboniferous).
The oil produced in southern Oklahoma is mainly from several pools
in beds of sandstone of the Pennsylvanian series, though some oil is
found in the " red beds " of the Permian series (latest Carbonif-
erous). The oil found in northern Louisiana and central Texas is
obtained from sandstone or other porous rocks of the Cretaceous
and Tertiary systems. The average oil from the mid-continent field
is of about 35 Baum6 (0-8,485 sp.gr.), ranging from the thick black
oil of some of the Louisiana fields, which has a gravity of 21 Baum6
(0-9,272 sp.gr.), to the high-grade Gushing oil of above 55 Baum6
(0-7,568 sp.gr.). The Glenn pool discovery in Creek county, Okla.,
in 1907 led to a great petroleum development in that state. This
pool reached a maximum production of 125,000 bar. a day, sustained
from Aug. 1907 to Feb. 1908. In 1912 the famous Gushing pool, also
in Creek county, was discovered. In the latter part of 1913 a well in
the Gushing pool was drilled to the Bartlesville sand at 2,600 ft.,
and resulted in a large gusher and the inauguration of an unprece-
dented drilling campaign. The oil was the highest-grade crude yet
discovered W. of the Appalachian fields. Gusher wells were brought
in with frequency, and the production of the pool, which at the end of
1913 averaged about 25,000 bar. a day, was averaging at the end of
1914 over 225,000 barrels. There was a temporary decline early in
1915, but in April production had increased to almost 300,000
barrels. Subsequently it reached a maximum of 320,000 bar., sus-
tained for a 6o-day period. The Gushing production was of such
high grade and so large that it broke the oil market. In June 1915
the flush production of the field had been exhausted and a decline
began. Gushing in 1915 yielded 17% of the total quantity of oil
marketed in the United States. The Gushing pool early in 1921 was
producing about 27,000 bar. a day.
In 1914 the rich Augusta pool in Butler county, Kan., was opened
up, and in 1915 the El Dorado pool, also in Butler county, was
discovered. In 1916-7 the Towanda extension of the El Dorado pool
resulted in the district increasing its output from an average of
between 15,000 and 20,000 bar. in the first five months of 1917, to
80,000 bar. in June and to nearly 100,000 bar. for a few days in
September. The wells in the Towanda extension were of large capac-
ity but proved to be short-lived, and the El Dorado-Towanda pool
declined to about 50,000 bar. before the end of the year. The pool
early in 1921 was producing about 29,000 bar. a day.
Late in 1917 the discovery of oil in a well 3,450 ft. deep, a mile and
a half S. of the town of Ranger in central Texas, stimulated a most
sensational development, covering possibly the widest " boom "
area in the history of petroleum in the United States. This was gen-
erally termed a " deep sand " development, and opened up exten-
sive pools in Eastland county, Stephens county and a portion of
Comanche county in 1918. Oil in the deep sand pools is obtained
from several different horizons in the so-called Bend series, which is
of Pennsylvanian and Mississippian age. In July 1918 a prolific well
was drilled in at 1,735 ft. in the Burkburnett field in Wichita county,
northern Texas, and Burkburnett was the scene of another great oil
boom. The Ranger field reached a maximum capacity of about
75,000 bar. a day in the middle of 1919, but declined thereafter. It
was producing 57,000 bar. on Jan. I 1920 and 14,000 bar. on Dec.
31 1920. The Stephens county pool (where development was slower)
was producing about 37,000 bar. daily at the beginning of 1920 and
had increased its production to close to 130,000 bar. at the end of
that year, subsequently declining to about 90,000 bar. in May 1921.
The Burkburnett pool, following the opening up of the Burkburnett
extension, reached a maximum yield of over 100,000 bar. daily in
1919, from which peak it gradually declined in 1920. Early in 1921
it was producing about 60,000 bar. daily.
Another important development in the mid-continent field was
the discovery in Sept. 1918 of oij in a shallow well near Homer,
Claiborne parish, in northern Louisiana. A large gusher at greater
depth was brought in in Aug. 1919, and the boom scenes of Ranger
and Burkburnett were transferred to Shreveport, La. (the head-
quarters of the Claiborne parish development), where late in 1919
and early in 1920 other large wells yielding as high as 30,000 bar.
daily were brought in in the Homer pool. From a production of about
25,000 bar. at the beginning of 1920 the Homer pool reached a pro-
duction of over 100,000 bar. in a few months. This output declined
rapidly because of the quick decrease in production of the larger
wells, but an average output of about 50,000 bar. daily was main-
tained during the latter part of 1920 and the early months of 1921.
Geologically the northern Louisiana producing area is in what is
known as the Sabine Uplift, an uplift of considerable magnitude in
the Coastal Plain sediments, the nature and age of which have
not been definitely determined. One of the most important develop-
ments of the early part of 1921 was the discovery of oil in commercial
quantity in southern Arkansas. The discovery well was brought in
near El Dorado in Union county, and rapid drilling of subsequent
wells increased the potential production of the new pool to between
40,000 and 60,000 bar. a day by April 1921.
Several important pools were opened up in the Gulf coast field,
which first came into prominence in 1901 when the Spindletop pool
in Jefferson county, Texas, was developed. The Gulf coast field
includes southern Texas and southern Louisiana, and the petroleum
is associated with masses of rock salt and gypsum in domes. The
age of the oil-bearing strata ranges from Cretaceous to Quaternary.
The field includes a great number of small scattered pools, some of
which have developed wells of enormous productivity. The gravity
of the oil ranges from 15 to 30 Baume (0-9,655 to 0-8,750 sp.gr.),
an average of about 22 Baume (0-9,211 sp.gr.). Among the more
important pools of the Gulf coast are the Goose Creek, Hull, Hum-
ble, W. Columbia and Damon Mound pools. West Columbia at-
tracted attention in 1920 when on July 20 the pool was extended by a
well flowing at the rate of 26,000 bar. daily. This flow was practi-
cally sustained until Aug. 28, when the well rapidly declined.
The Rocky Mountain field, which embraces the areas of produc-
tion in Colorado, Wyoming and Montana, as well as prospective
production in Utah and New Mexico, was stimulated by the drilling
in of a large well in the Salt Creek pool, Natrona county, Wyo., in
April 1912. This started a general boom in Wyoming, which state
supplies the bulk of the Rocky Mountain production. Petroleum in
the Rocky Mountain field is obtained from strata of the Carbonif-
erous and Cretaceous age. Oils from older strata range in gravity
from 18 to 24 Baume (0-9,459 to 0-7,865 sp.gr.) and are of paraf-
fin base. The development of the richest part of the Wyoming
fields was restricted until 1920, pending passage of legislation and
issuance of regulations with respect to Federal public lands. The
Wyoming field includes a large number of small pools, and the great-
est production is obtained from the Salt Creek pool, which early
in 1921 was producing about 50,000 bar. daily.
The California field, one of the most prolific in the United States,
is divided into two geographic groups, one occupying two sides of
San Joaquin Valley and commonly known as the valley fields, and
the other occupying a large area along the coast and commonly
known as the coastal field. All the valley fields, except one, lie on the
west side of San Joaquin Valley, and the oil in most of them is ob-
tained from porous Tertiary sandstone. The conditions in the coastal
fields are in many respects similar. A very small part of the oil
produced in California is obtained from Cretaceous formations.
The oils range in gravity from 9-09 to 54 Baume (i-ooo to 0-7,609
sp.gr.), and heavy oils, containing little sulphur, predominate. A
fair average gravity is about 21 Baume (0-9,272 sp.gr.). California
for many years was the leading oil-producing state. It was sup-
planted by Oklahoma in 1907 and 1908 but regained first place in
1909. California held this position until 1915 when its production
declined, while Oklahoma's output, because of the Gushing produc-
tion, greatly increased, Oklahoma again taking first place. Oklahoma
held first place through 1920 with California a close second. The
principal producing districts of California are: the Kern River,
McKittrick, Midway-Sunset, Lost Hills and Belridge districts, all
in Kern county; the Coalinga field, in Fresno county; the Lompoc
and Santa Maria fields in Santa Barbara county; the Ventura and
Newhall fields in Ventura county; and the Los Angeles and Salt
Lake and Whittier-Fullerton fields in Los Angeles county. The larg-
est production is obtained from the Midway-Sunset field, which in
1920 produced 37,917,010 bar., a daily average of 103,598 barrels.
The Los Angeles and Salt Lake field produced 28,694,163 bar., a
daily average of 78,399 bar.; the Coalinga field 15,464,198 bar.,
a daily average of 42,252 barrels. Important addition to production
in the Midway-Sunset field was made in 1920 and 1921 by the de-
velopment of the Elk Hills district, where large wells ranging from
2,000 to 6,000 bar. were brought in. Production of this district
increased from 25,000 bar. per month during Dec. 1919 to 1,500,000
bar. during Dec. 1920.
Oil shale deposits are found in Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Nevada,
Montana, California, Texas, Kentucky and W. Virginia in the
United States, but while extensive experimental work has been done
on retorting and much chemical investigation has been conducted as
to the nature, properties and behaviour of oil shale, the establish-
ment of the industry on a commercial scale has not yet been accom-
plished in the United States. By far the greatest attention has been
paid to the oil shales of the western states.
Alaska. Oil has been found in several localities in Alaska, not-
ably in the district between Icy Cape and Cape Yatag, 400 m. N. W.
of Sitka; in the Kayak field, several miles inland from Cape Suckling;
in the Gook's Inlet field, between Itimma Peak and Itimma Lake;
and in the Cold Bay field, opposite Kodiak Islands. Wells were
drilled in the early 'nineties in the Kayak, Cook's Inlet and Cold Bay
regions, but oil was not found in commercial quantity. In 1920
interest in Alaskan fields was revived, but no important drilling
operations were reported. Production was 56,000 barrels.
Canada. Canada's petroleum production declined steadily from
1908 to 1920. In 1920 the output totalled 198,425 bar. compared with
241,000 bar. in 1919 and 528,000 bar. in 1908. Virtually all of Cana-
da's petroleum is produced in Ontario, and occurs in sandstone and
limestone of Silurian and Devonian age. The gravity is about 30*
Baume (0-828 sp.gr.). A small production is obtained in New Bruns-
wick and Alberta. In Aug. 1920 oil was discovered on the Mackenzie
River, 150 m. S. of the Arctic Circle in the Canadian North-west
Territory. The well was located N.W. of Fort Norman, and on Aug.
23 1920 it began to flow over the top of the mast from a depth of 783
feet. After an uninterrupted flow of 40 minutes the well was capped.
74
PETROLEUM
The oil was analyzed as 38 Baume (0-8,333 sp.gr.). This develop-
ment attracted prospectors, the Dominion Government promul-
gating new regulations to apply to the unorganized districts affected
by the discovery. Drilling in the Peace River district of the North-
west Territory also attracted attention in 1920 and 1921.
Mexico. Mexico's petroleum development has been sensational
in its rapid growth. Although yielding oil as early as 1901 it was not
until 1910 that the production became a commercial factor. In the
latter part of that year the famous Juan Casiano No. 7 well was
drilled S. of the Dos Bocas well, the latter an uncontrolled gusher S.
of Tampico, struck July 4 1908, which went to salt water several
months later. The equally famous Potrero del Llano No. 4 well came
in Dec ; 27 1910 with an estimated initial flow of 10,000 bar. daily,
increasing to 160,000 bar., and establishing itself as the largest
producer up to that time. Both the Casiano and del Llano wells were
in the so-called southern field as distinguished from the northern or
Panuco field, these two fields being part of the Tampico-Tuxpam
region. This lies in the northern part of the state of Vera Cruz and
the southern part of the state of Tamaulipas. Oil in the Tampico
region occurs in the Oligocene, Eocene and Cretaceous formations
and is found in numerous pools. Before striking the big wells men-
tioned a considerable production had been developed at Ebano,
40 m. W. of Tampico, in the northern part of the Tampico-Tuxpam
area and in the Tehuantepec area. The Tehuantepec-Tobasco area
extends along the Gulf coast in southern Vera Cruz and the state of
Tobasco. _ Its oil-bearing rocks are of the Pliocene and Pleistocene
age, and it had not developed a large production up to 1921. Mex-
ican crude oil ranges from 10 to 43 Baume (i -ooo to 0-8,092 sp.gr.),
and generally becomes lighter from north to south. In the Panuco
(northern) field it is from loto 14 Baume (1-000100-9,722 sp.gr.),
and from 15 to 29 Baume (0-9,655 to 0-8,805 sp-gr-) in the
southern districts. Oil in the Tehuantepec field has a gravity of 32
Baume (0-8,642 sp.gr.).
Generally speaking, Mexico's petroleum has been found in a
succession of great gushers. Where these wells are isolated they
have produced for long periods and in great volume. Where there is
close and competitive drilling the exhaustion of the pools comes as
a natural consequence. The explanation of the great gushers seems
to lie in the very great porosity of the rock. Oil collects in a net-work
of caves and channels previously dissolved out of a bed of thick
limestone. This condition allows the petroleum to move about freely,
while still underground. Furthermore, the petroleum generally lies
over water under an artesian head, and as a consequence the field
pressure is largely hydrostatic, causing the oil to flow. In 1908 the
country was credited with an output of 3,932,900 bar.; in 1920,
163,000,000 barrels. The following table shows the production dur-
ing that period :
Petroleum Production of Mexico, 1908 to 1920*
Barrels
Metric Tons
1908
3,932,900
624,968
1909
2,713.500
431,175
1910
3,634,080
577.455
1911
11-552,798
1,994,640
1912
16,558,215
2,631,100
1913
25,696,291
4,083,141
1914
26,235,403
4,168,805
1915
32,910,508
5,229,480
1916
40.545,712
6,445.957
1917
55,292,770
8,790,583
1918
63,828,327
10,147,587
1919
87,072,954
13,843,077
1920
163,000,000
22,638,888
*Boletin del Petroleo; 1920 estimated.
In Jan. 1914, in the Panuco pool, a well with an estimated initial
flow of 100,000 bar. daily was brought in, and further attention was
attracted to this district in 1915 by the completion of an offset well
estimated at 60,000 bar. daily. Political disturbances in Mexico
from 1914 to 1917 seriously interrupted operations in the southern
field. On Feb. 10 1916, however, Cerro Azul No. 4 well in the south-
ern district was completed. This well was credited with having
flowed 260,858 bar. on Feb. 19 of that year, being estimated the
largest producer ever drilled, and in May 1921 was continuing its
steady yield. In Aug. 1914 seepages from Potrero del Llano were
ignited by lightning, and the fire was not extinguished until March
1915. The completion of a good-sized well in 1915 in the Tepetate
pool, a short distance N.W. of Casiano, was the precursor of the
intensive lot-drilling campaign which this district saw in 1918 and
1919. In those years about 20 wells of large initial capacity were
completed in this pool. The Alamo pool, the southernmost producing
area in the Tampico-Tuxpam region, came into prominence in Oct.
1914, when the famous Alamo No. 2 well was brought in with an
estimated potential production of 50,000 barrels. This well has
probably produced 27,000,000 bar. of oil. The oil in the Alamo pool
is from 16 to 22 Baume (0-9,589 to 0-9,211 sp.gr.). Large wells
of low-grade oil have been developed in the Molino field, just N. of
Alamo. In 191920 large gushers were completed in the so-called
Naranjos pool in the southern field. It was estimated that this pool
produced 90,000,000 bar. in 1920, possibly the largest output in
history. Potrero del Llano No. 4 suddenly went to salt water in
Dec. 1918. This occurrence caused wide comment, as it was the first
instance of the approximate exhaustion of any of Mexico's prolific
pools, if Dos Bocas is to be excepted. This well had produced up to
that time about 100,000,000 bar. of oil, including seepage oil. The
Juan Casiano No. 7 well went to salt water in Nov. 1919, having pro-
duced about 80,000,000 bar. of oil. Many of the large wells in the
Tepetate pool were affected by salt water in 1919 and 1920. Salt-
water invasion was also reported as serious in the Panuco field.
The Zacamixtle pool in the southern district was discovered in 1920,
yielding several large wells. In 1921 important wells were brought in
in the Toteco district of the southern held between Zacamixtle and
Cerro Azul. In 1920 it is estimated that this field produced 120,000-
ooo bar., all in a strip of land 42 m. long and less than a mile wide.
Central America. No petroleum production has been developed
in Central America, but prospecting has been done and some drilling
was under way in 1920. Test wells have been sunk on Columbus I.,
east coast of Panama, and in the Estrella Valley of Costa Rica.
Exploration work has been done in Honduras and Guatemala.
SOUTH AMERICA
Argentina. Argentina's commercial production dates from 1908,
when petroleum was found in a well being drilled for water by the
Government near Comodoro Rivadavia, Chubtit province, on the
coast of Patagonia. The Government immediately reserved part
of the oil-bearing land for a monopoly, and Argentina's petroleum
development has been almost entirely in the hands of the adminis-
tration. Oil occurs in nearly horizontal, supposedly Cretaceous,
beds which are covered by Tertiary beds. The oil is heavy and of
asphalt base and ranges in gravity from 18-9 to 21-8 Baume
(0-940 to 0-922 sp.gr.). Much attention was attracted to Argentina
in IQ2I, when in Feb. the first large gusher to be opened in the Co-
modoro Rivadavia field came in with an estimated initial flow of
25,000 bar. daily. Argentina's oil production was 1,665,989 bar. in
1920, compared with 1,183,000 bar. in 1919.
Venezuela. Active prospecting in Venezuela began in 1910, and
during the next four or five years wells were drilled in several areas
with varying success. A well in the Mene Grande field, on the east
coast of Lake Maracaibo, Sucre district, drilled in 1913, established
the occurrence of oil in paying quantity, and by 1915 the field had
developed a considerable production, furnishing up to 1921 practi-
cally all the Venezuelan output. Drilling in the district of Colon,
state of Zulia, commenced in 1914. Four wells credited as good
Eroducers in the Rio Oro and Rio Tacra sections had been completed
y 1916 and were shut in. Two wells reported as proven in the
Bolivar district, state of Zulia, were also capped. Operations in
Venezuela in 1920 and 1921 were active, particularly in the Lake
Maracaibo district. Venezuela's production in 1920 amounted to
456,996 bar., compared with 425,000 bar. in 1919. In 1920 the Mene
Grande field was credited with having seven flowing wells, the oil
being of about 16 Baume (0-9,589 sp.gr.). The capped wells in
the Rio Oro district are said to produce a high-grade, paraffin-base
oil of about 36 Baume (0-8,433 sp-gr-)-
Colombia. Although not ranking as an oil-producing country, in
1920 Colombia was credited with three wells of potential commercial
importance. These were completed in 1918 and were shut down
awaiting marketing facilities. The wells were drilled on a concession
in the Rio Colorado region in Santander del Sur. They are located
about 30 m. S. of Barranca Bermeja, which is 350 m. from the mouth
of the Magdalena river. Oil from these wells is reported to test 26
to 31 Baume (0-8,974 to 0-8,696 sp.gr.). Preparations for opening
the wells had been made early in 1921 upon the completion of a pipe
line and refinery. Drilling was accomplished in 1920 and 1921 on
other concessions along the Magdalena river in the vicinity of the
pioneer Colorado development. Development work was also under-
taken in 1920 on a concession in the Venezuelan boundary regiotl
in Santander del Norte, on the Rio del Oro, opposite drilling work in
the Colon district of Venezuela. Considerable interest was attached
to Colombia petroleum development in 1911 when drilling was
undertaken near Cartagena. In 1913 and 1914 wells were drilled in
the Lorico district near the Sinu river, but production was not
encountered in commercial quantity. The Magdalena-Santander
field occurs in the Cretaceous limestone and sandstone and the coal-
bearing Lower Tertiary (probably Oligocene) beds. The rocks of the
Caribbean fields are similarly described.
Peru. Peru has the distinction of being the oldest oil-producing
country in S. America, first being credited with production in 1896.
Its production has been steadily maintained, the principal fields
being Negritos, Lobitos and Zorritos. Another petroliferous dis-
trict near Lake Titicaca has not developed any considerable
production. Oil is found chiefly at the north end (Pacific coastal
district) of Peru, and occurs in several horizons of soft sandstone
and shale of early Tertiary age. Theoilranges from32tO48Baum6
(0-8,642 to 0-7,865 sp.gr.). Peru's production in 1920 was 2,816,-
649 bar.; 1919, 2,616,000 bar.; 1908, 1,011,180 barrels.
Bolivia and Ecuador have been actively prospected for oil, but oil
in commercial quantity has not been developed. Chile had several oil
booms, particularly those based on the oil deposits of the province of
Punta Arenas, N.W. of Tierra del Fuego, without successful results.
Prospecting has been undertaken in Brazil and Uruguay.
PETROLEUM
75
WEST INDIES
Trinidad. The oil fields of Trinidad are mainly in the southern
part, and the oil is obtained from lenses of sandstone of Tertiary
age. 'Trinidad first appeared as an oil producer in 1908, although wells
were known to exist N. of the famous Pitch Lake at Guayaguayare,
in the extreme S.E. of the island, in 1902. This district came into
real prominence in 1908 when a well at 700 ft. spouted oil over the
derrick. A rapid development followed. Oil in the Pitch Lake dis-
trict varies in density from 14 to 25 Baum6 (0-9,722 to 0-9,032
sp.gr.). In the latter part of 191 1 regular oil shipments from Brighton
began. In that year several large gushers were brought in, but
immediately clogged, owing to sand. In 1913 a well came in rated
at 40,000 bar. daily, but sanded up, and in subsequent years other
large producers have been reported, the initial production of which
has soon fallen off on account of sand. Trinidad's production in
1920 totalled 2,083,027 bar., compared with 1,841,000 in 1919.
An oil boom in Cuba in 1917 failed to yield any considerable pro-
duction. The principal development was in a field near Havana.
Prospecting and a little drilling work have been done in Santo Do-
mingo. There was exploration work in Barbados and in Haiti.
EUROPE
Russia. While Russia, as a result of the World War and the revo-
lution that followed, dropped in world rank as regards petroleum pro-
duction, it remained the largest European producer. Production is
found in Tertiary clays and sands. Baku oils are of about 27
Baume (0-8,917 sp.gr.), while in the Suraghany district of Baku
province the oil is as high as 48 Baum<5 (0-7,865 sp.gr.). The pro-
duction in 1920 was estimated at 25,429,600 bar.; 1919, 25,498,000;
1918, 40,456,182; 1917, 69,960,000; and in 1908, 62,186,447. The
relatively small area comprising the Baku field supplies the bulk of
Russia's production. Other productive fields are the Grosny, Mai-
kop, Ural-Caspian (Emba) and Tcheleken fields. The Maikop field in
the province of Kuban on the north flank of the Caucasus, N.E.
of the Black Sea, was discovered in 1910. The finding of high-grade
oil in a well flowing at the rate of 37,500 bar. daily caused an extra-
ordinary rush. In 1915 the sensation in this field was the completion
of a gusher credited with an initial flow of 60,000 bar., which main-
tained a large, steady production from March 23 to the close of the
year. Maikop oil is about 40 Baum6 (0-8,235 sp.gr.). The Ural-
Caspian field, covering a large area in the Emba-Uralsk region round
the north end of the Caspian Sea, first became a commercial factor
in 1913. The district came into prominence on the completion of a
well in May 1911, which at a depth of 732 ft. gushed with great vio-
lence. It began to flow in Feb. 1912, was closed down and reopened
in Oct. 1912, producing 120,000 poods (1,944 tons or 14,480 bar.),
and then settling down to 50,000 poods. (One pood equals 36-U2lb.)
This famous gusher is estimated to have produced from 8,500,000 to
9,000,000 poods. Emba oil is about 28 Baum6 (0-8,861 sp.gr.).
For many years the I. of Tcheleken, off the Asiatic coast of the
Caspian Sea near Krasnovodsk, was the scene of moderate opera-
tions, but from 1911 onwards large yields were obtained from wells
sunk in the Ali Tepe district in the south-western part. Tcheleken
oil is about 22 Baumd (0-9,211 sp.gr.).
Galicia. No new pools of importance were discovered in Galicia
during the period 1908-20. Galician production showed a declining
tendency beginning in 1910, and during the World War this condition
was aggravated, as the fields were battlegrounds. Galicia's largest
output is obtained from Eocene beds. The chief producing districts
are: in eastern Galicia, Boryslaw-Tustanowice, Bitkow; in western
Galicia, Bobrka, Potok and the Gorlice district. The bulk of Gali-
cia's production comes from the Boryslaw-Tustanowice district.
Boryslaw oil is 32 to 34 Baum6 (0-8,642 to 0-8,537 sp.gr.), and is
the standard market grade for Galicia. Bitkow oil is about 53
Baum6 (0-7,650 sp.gr.) ; Bobrka, about 31 Baum6 (0-8,696 sp.gr.);
Potok, 34 to 45 Baumfi (0-8,537 to 0-8,000 sp.gr.). Galicia's
production in 1920 totalled 5,606,116 bar.; 1919, 6,054,000. The
eak of production was in 1909, 14,932,799 barrels.
Rumania, like Galicia, a battleground during the World War,
suffered in petroleum production. Most of the oil is obtained from
Miocene and Pliocene beds, but part is obtained from Eocene and
Oligocene and possibly from Cretaceous beds. The principal fields
are Bushtenari, Campina, Moreni, Filipeshti, Baicoi and Bauzau.
The oil is from 25 to 45 Baumd (0-9,032 to 0-8,000 sp.gr.). Pro-
duction in 1920 was 7,435,344 bar.; 1919, 6,614,000; and in 1908,
8,252,157. The peak was reached in 1913, 13,554,768 barrels.
Yugoslavia. In 1921 drilling began on concessions in Croatia.
Germany. Oil is obtained largely at Hanover, where it occurs
in domes associated with rock salt. The rocks are chiefly limestone
and sandstone of upper Jurassic age. Oil at shallow depths is heavy,
gravity from 17 to 19 Baum6 (0-9,524 to 0-9,396 sp.gr.); at
greater depths the oil is lighter. The production is not large, and in
1920 was 212,046 bar. ; in 1919, 234,000.
France. Production in Alsace occurs in sandstone of Eocene
and Oligocene age and is comparatively small. The gravity ranges
from 25 to 29 Baum6 (0-9,032 to 0-8,805 sp.gr.). In 1920 the out-
put was about 388,700 bar. ; in 1919, 344,000.
Italy. Italy's production, relatively small, is chiefly in the
Emilia district of Lombardy on the north-eastern slope of the
Apennines. Oil occurs in sandstones of Eocene and Miocene age,
and ranges from 31 to 48 Baum6 (0-8,696 to 0-8,187 sp.gr.).
Production in 1920 amounted to 34,180 bar.; in 1919, 35,ooo; and
in 1918, 50,966.
Great Britain. Apart from the shale-oil industry of Scotland and
Wales, Great Britain took its place as a petroleum-producing country
in 1919, when the Hardstoft well was brought in in Derbyshire.
This was one of n drilling locations, seven of which were in Derby-
shire, two in N. Staffordshire and two in the Midlothian district
of Scotland. The Hardstoft well was started in Oct. 1918, and struck
oil in May 1919 at 3,078 ft. At 3,100 ft. it produced 10 or n bar.
daily. The well was still overflowing naturally at the end of 1920.
Up to that time its production totalled 4,575 bar. or 590 tons, of
which 2,909 bar., or 375 tons, were produced in 1920. At the end
of that year progress on the other prospecting wells stood as follows:
six wells had reached 3,000 ft. or over, the deepest, Ironville No. 2
in the Derbyshire area, being shut down at 4,500 ft. pending results
of Ironville No. I. One new well was started in 1920, Apedale No. 2
(Staffordshire), to replace Apedale No. I, which had to be aban-
doned. This development is undertaken by the British Govern-
ment, although the operations are managed by a private company.
Oil from the Hardstoft well tested 40 Baume (0-8,236 sp.gr.).
Considerable production of petroleum is derived from the Scottish
shale-oil fields in the territory from Dalmeny and Abercorn on the
Firth of Forth southward to the district of Cobbinshaw and Tar- .
brax. The oil-shale industry in Scotland has been in commercial
operation since 1850, and in 1920 there were 25,000 persons regularly
employed in this enterprise. In 1917 3,116,529 long tons of oil were
produced from Scottish oil-shale. There is a small oil-shale produc-
tion in England and in Wales.
AFRICA
Egypt. Prospecting in Egypt resulted in the discovery of oil on
the borders of the Red Sea and the development of small production
in 1911. In 1913 several large wells were brought in in the Gemsah
district on the west shore of the Red Sea, near the junction of the
Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez. In Oct. 1914 oil was struck in the
Hurghada district, S. of Gemsah, and up to 1921 Egypt's produc-
tion had been confined to these districts. The oil occurs in sandstone
and in cavernous, dolomitic limestone, associated with thick beds
of gypsum of Miocene (Tertiary) age, accompanied in some places
by thick beds of salt. The underlying Nubian (Cretaceous) sand-
stone also contains some oil. Egyptian oil is about 40 Baum6
(0-8,235 sp.gr.). Difficulties from salt-water flooding have been
encountered in the fields, shortening the life of the large wells.
Exploitation has been restricted to a comparatively small area.
While Egypt's production almost doubled in 1918 as a result of
increased activities that year it fell off in 1919, and in 1920 showed a
sharp decrease. Production in 1918 was 2,079,750 bar.; in 1919
1,501,000; and in 1920, 1,042,000.
French Colonies. Some oil has been obtained in the Cheliff river
area in the district of Oran, Algeria. Over 30 wells have been drilled
in the M'Sila and Medjila districts, but during the World War
operations were practically discontinued. Interest in Algeria revived
after the war. The oil-bearing formation is probably Upper Miocene
and its structure is complex.
Prospecting has been active in Angola and Ashanti (Gold Coast),
in the Tertiary coastal plain formations. Tests have been drilled in
Angola and the Alto Daude district near Loanda and at Ambrizette.
Showings of oil were reported in test wells drilled in the Betsiriry
Valley, Madagascar, but no commercial production developed.
ASIA
Persia is looked on as a new petroleum-producing country of
unusual importance. Development has been virtually confined to the
Maidan-i-Naphtun field in northern Arabistan, about 100 m. N.
of the head of the Persian Gulf, where the first wells were completed
in 1908. In 1914 10 wells were reported as being operated, and 20
more were shut down at the top of the sand. In the neighbouring
Maidan-i-Naphtek field one well had been drilled and capped and a
second begun. One test well had started in the White Oil Springs
district. The following year a total of 12 wells had been completed
in the Maidan-i-Naphtun field. The wells were reported to be pro-
lific, with a combined capacity of 5,000,000 tons a year. Early in
1920 it was stated that the wells still maintained their high rate of
yield. One well, which has been continuously flowing since Nov. 1911,
was giving a larger production than ever, maintaining a steady daily
average of 11,000 bar. with the well only partly opened. Persian
production in 1920 was 12,352,655 bar.; m 1919, 6,412,000; in
1918, 6,856,063. Oil in the chief producing area occurs in the Mio-
cene series. The gravity of the oil is about 21 Baume (0-9,272
sp.gr.). In addition to the Maidan-i-Naphtun field, theAhwaz-Pusht-
i-Kuh and Gishon I. and the Persian Gulf regions are expected to
yield petroleum.
Mesopotamia. There are several petroliferous areas in Mesopo-
tamia in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Primitive development has
yielded some oil in the Kirkuk-Mendali-Kasr-i-Shirin area north of
Bagdad, in the Middle Tigris belt and in the Euphrates belt. Large-
scale development of the Mesopotamian fields was interrupted by
the war, but interest in them revived in 1920 and 1921.
PETROLEUM
Palestine. The first drilling for oil in Palestine, S.W. of the
Dead Sea, was interrupted by the war. Prospecting had previously
been active in the area between the river Jordan and Deraa, adjacent
to the Hedjaz railway.
India. The principal source in India is the Yenangyaung field
in Burma, about 272 m. N. of Rangoon on Yenangyaung creek. Other
important districts are the Singu, Minbu, Pakokku and Upper Chind-
win. The oil is in rocks of Miocene age and is about 30 Baume
(0-8,750 sp.gr.). Deep drilling was a feature of the development in
this field after 1914. Some wells come in with a large initial flow but
fall off rapidly as the territory has been intensively developed. Coal-
bearing rocks of Eocene age have yielded oil in small quantities in
Assam and in the Punjab. India's production in 1920 was 7,500,-
ooo bar.; 1919, 8,735,000; 1908, 5,047,038.
Japan and Formosa. Japan's principal oil production is found in
the Echigo Province field. Since 1908 the most important develop-
ment has been in Akita prefecture. The first gusher was drilled in
this field in May 1914, flowing at the rate of 12,000 bar. daily. Many
other large wells have been developed. The Akita gushers have
declined rapidly. Oil is obtained from coarse sandstone layers,
interstratified with sandy shale of Tertiary age. The oil is about
25 Baume (0-9,032 sp.gr.). A small production is also obtained in
Formosa. Production of Japan and Formosa in 1920 was 2,139,-
777 bar.; in 1919, 2,175,000; and in 1908, 2,070,145.
China. A joint ^investigation of petroleum resources in the
provinces of Shen-si and Chih-li was undertaken in 1914 by the
Chinese Government and a private corporation. Drilling of six
wells began in the Yen-chang field, Shen-si, where previously a
number of primitive wells had been put down and a small produc-
tion obtained. In 1916 the abandonment of the enterprise was
announced. No oil in commercial quantity was struck.
OCEANIA AND THE EAST INDIES
Dutch East Indies. Production of petroleum in the Dutch East
Indies has shown a steadily increasing tendency. Production is
obtained in Sumatra, Borneo and Java. Most of the oil-bearing
rocks are associated with beds of coal and lignite of Miocene age.
Oil of the Langkat district of Sumatra has a gravity of 33 to 55"
Baume (0-8,589 to 0-7,692 sp.gr.). Java oil is heavier, ranging be-
tween 23 and 40 Baume (0-9,150 to 0-8,235 sp.gr.). Borneo oils
from shallow wells have a gravity of about 14* Baume (0-9,722 sp.
gr.), and from the deeper wells a gravity of from 27 to 33 Baume
(0-8,917 to 0-8,589 sp.gr.). Production of the Dutch East Indies,
including a small production from British Borneo, totalled 17,529,-
210 bar. in 1920; 15,428,000 in 1919; and 11,041,852 in 1908.
Papua. Test drilling has been undertaken in Papua, and, while
oil has been struck, difficulty has been caused by mud clogging.
Philippine Islands. Prospecting and drilling work started in the
Philippine Is. in 1920 in the Bondoc Peninsula district.
New Zealand and Australia. Extensive prospecting and drilling
work have been done in New Zealand, especially in the vicinity of
New Plymouth ; South Australia, in the Robe district, and in Queens-
land, in the Roma district. Exploitation in these districts has failed
to develop petroleum production in commercial quantity. New
South Wales has developed an oil-shale production amounting in
1918 to 32,395 long tons.
Oil in the World War. Petroleum was a major essential in
industrial, military and naval operations in connexion with the
World War. Industrial plants required abnormally large quanti-
ties of lubricating oils and fuel oils. There was a rapid expansion
in oil-burning fleets, and a new demand on petroleum was made
by air craft, by the introduction of petrol-burning motor launches,
by tanks used in military operations, and by the creation of the
motor transport, which became a chief factor of a mobile army.
Petroleum was a contraband of war, and German submarine
warfare was largely directed against petroleum tank steamers.
Military operations in Galicia and also in Rumania were dictated
to a considerable degree by the condition of petroleum supply
in the Central Powers. Galicia changed hands several times
during the war, and after Rumania's entrance into the war in
Sept. 1916 the oil fields of that country fell into the hands of
the Austro-German armies. Considerable damage to the Galician
and Rumanian fields was caused by military operations, and the
output of these countries was reduced during the war. Before
the capture of the Rumanian fields a systematic destruction of
wells, derricks and oil supplies had been undertaken by an Allied
military mission, and the Germans immediately installed a
military commandant with trained assistants to rehabilitate the
fields. The operations of Turkey against Russia had the Baku oil
fields as their objective, and the early British operations in
Mesopotamia were chiefly intended as a precautionary measure
for the protection of the Persian oil fields.
In all the warring countries special Governmental departments
were organized to handle petroleum problems, and in almost every
country drastic restriction of home consumption was enforced.
In England the Mineral Oil Production Department had
jurisdiction over all questions of production of oil from home
sources. The Pool Board attended to the distribution of oil in
the British Is., and the Petrol Control Department acted on mat-
ters of petrol economy. The Petroleum Executive was formed
in Aug. 1917 to handle matters of general policy. In France
jurisdiction of petroleum matters was placed in the hands of a
Commissioner-General of Petroleum, and a Petroleum Importing
Consortium was created. During the last year of the war a
Government commission for petroleum was formed in Italy, and
throughout the war restrictions were placed on the importation
and sale throughout that country. In Germany and Austria price
and distribution were under control somewhat similar to that of
food, and strict rationing was adopted. After the United States
entered the war in 1917 a voluntary organization of the American
industry was effected under the name of the National Petroleum
War Service Committee, and in 1918 the Oil Division of the
Government Fuel Administration was established. Restrictions
on home consumption in the United States were confined en-
tirely to voluntary methods. The Inter-Allied Petroleum Coun-
cil, consisting of representatives of Great Britain, the United
States, France and Italy, was formed in 1917. This Council
arranged for the requirements of each of the Allies and for the
transportation of the petroleum allotted.
America supplied 80% of the Allied petroleum requirements.
The problem of transporting these great quantities was only
secondary to the problem of production. Large additions were
made to tanker fleets, principally of Great Britain and the
United States, but as there was an inadequate supply of tankers
early in the war, and as the German submarines sank many, this
feature of the transportation problem was particularly serious.
It became necessary to use the double bottoms of cargo vessels
for transporting oil, and it is estimated that from 1917 to the close
of the war 1,100,000 tons of fuel oil were so transported. The
total quantity of fuel oil brought to British bases during the war
exceeded 10,000,000 tons, of which 9,100,000 tons were issued to
the British Admiralty. In addition American naval tankers
imported 560,000 tons, which were distributed by small British
craft to U.S. naval units along the British coast. The tanker-
building programme, projected by the British Admiralty in the
early stages of the war, resulted in the addition of 52 cargo
tankers of 380,000 tons' capacity and 49 fleet auxiliaries of
95,000 tons' capacity. In 1918 there were 2,628,961 tons of fuel
oil alone shipped from the eastern seaboard of the United States
for the use of the Allied navies. In the same year more than
1,000,000 tons of distillates and other petroleum products also
crossed the Atlantic, entailing more than 500 tank steamer
loadings. The figures made public after the war showed that
48% of the British fleet was depending on oil for fuel. The
maintenance of the blockade round the Central Powers involved
the steady consumption of petroleum products. In the patrol
around the British Is. the steaming of the fleet and other vessels
averaged not less than 7,000,000 m. a month. At one time the
situation as regards tank steamers was so serious that a single
day's delay in any of the vessels caused considerable anxiety.
In May 1917 stocks of oil were so low because of heavy shipping
losses, due to submarines, that the fleet was unable to exercise
properly and the army was frequently on a hand-to-mouth
basis. At that date total stocks of oil in Great Britain amounted
to only 900,000 tons, and the absolute minimum of safety was
considered 1,500,000 tons. After 17 months stocks had been
increased to 1,800,000 tons, and on cessation of hostilities the
stock was considered satisfactory.
A campaign of intensive development in the petroleum fields,
particularly of the United States and Mexico, brought about large
increases in petroleum production, but requirements were so great
that despite this increase stocks had to be drawn on heavily. At
the close of the war American tankers afloat had increased 635,507
gross tons, and 51% of the total gross tonnage of tankers in
PETROLEUM
77
service between America, Great Britain, France and Italy was
American owned, while 49% was British owned. Because of
the increased tonnage at the close of the war the United States
was exporting each month for war purposes 2,200,000 bar.
of fuel oil, 750,000 of motor gasoline, 500,000 of kerosene and
175,000 of aviation naphtha. The country's exports of fuel
oil to Great Britain, France and Italy in 1918 represented an
increase of 200% over 1914 and 23% over 1917. At the beginning
of 1917 the total requirements of petroleum products for all
British services reached a figure of about 3,500,000 tons per
annum, nearly double pre-war requirements. By the end of 1918
the figure had increased to nearly 5,500,000 tons per annum. It
is estimated that the maximum requirements of the Allies if the
war had continued would have occurred in the spring of 1919,
when 12,000,000 tons per annum (of which some 8,000,000 tons
would have been absorbed by Great Britain) would have been
required. During the last 18 months of the war the Inter- Allied
Council dealt with between 12,000,000 and 13,000,000 tons of oil.
The British army in France used about 23,000 tons of motor
spirit a month during the greater part of the war. The French
army's monthly consumption of gasoline was 35,000 tons,
of which 30,000 tons came from the United States. In Dec. 1917
the Allies had a scant month's supply of gasoline on hand, and
between Dec. 25 1917 and Jan. 31 1918 90,000 tons of petroleum
products were shipped to France from the United States, making
possible the shifting of troops into threatened areas by motor
lorries. Oil stocks in France, before the large shipments early
in 1918, had gone down to 25,000 tons, less than the average
held in France in normal times. During the days of most
active fighting consumption reached as much as 2,000 tons a day.
The British Ministry of Shipping was mainly responsible for the
transporting of overseas supplies, and the Tanker Division of the
Emergency Fleet Corps, U.S. Shipping Board, and a section of the
War Trade Board had jurisdiction of the allocation of cargoes
and of shipping belonging to the United States. The difficulties
of getting production were accentuated by various specifications
which each Government required as regards its oil supplies, and
steps were taken by the Inter-Allied Council to effect some de-
gree of standardization. In the United States the Committee
of Standardization of Petroleum Specifications was formed to
standardize petroleum products, requirements of the various
Government departments, and also to recommend adoption by the
states of standard specifications.
The war opened the eyes of all countries to the value of
petroleum products. The Allied countries and the Central
Powers conducted extensive investigations to provide substitutes.
In Great Britain the Alcohol Motor Fuel Committee was formed
to consider the fields of production of alcohol fuel, and its
utilization either alone or in conjunction with fuels such as
petrol and benzol. Efforts were successfully made to extract
crude oil from cannel coal on a commercial scale at certain
large gas works. The use of coal-tar oils as fuel oil was also
considerably increased. Alcohol substitutes for petroleum were
extensively experimented with in Germany and in the United
States. In the latter country important experiments were made
with colloidal fuel. The actual work of petroleum development
in the British Is. was undertaken as a war measure, and, as
already stated, the drilling of wells was started in Derbyshire,
Staffordshire and the Midlothian district of Scotland on behalf
of the British Government. Another war achievement was
the construction of an 8-in. pipe line, 35 m. long, across Scotland
from the vicinity of Glasgow to Grangemouth on the Firth of
Forth. This pipe line was built so that tank steamers could
discharge fuel oil for the Allied navies at Old Kilpatrick, near
Glasgow. The pipe line then conveyed the oil to the Firth of
Forth, where it was required by the navies. Tanker transporta-
tion to the Firth of Forth was very dangerous. The work of
building the stations and ditching for the line was conducted by
the British Admiralty, and the line laid by a U.S. naval unit.
It was completed shortly before the Armistice was signed. The
war also probably hastened the building and completion of the
British navy's great oil reservoir at Rosyth. This was con-
structed of reinforced concrete, and is capable of storing
60,000,000 imp. gal. of liquid fuel. Concrete work on the first
section began in July 1916, was completed in Aug. 1918, and oil
was run into the tanks in Sept. 1918. Construction of the second
section began in Aug. 1917, and was completed early in 1919.
Certain important producing and potentially productive oil
areas changed nationality as a result of the World War, including
parts of Galicia, formerly in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, now
a part of Poland ; Alsace, now French; Mesopotamia and Pales-
tine, lost by Turkey, and placed under British mandate.
Financial and Industrial Progress. The expansion of petro-
leum activity has involved a great increase in financial re-
quirements. While the tendency has been toward consolida-
tion and the perfecting of organizations of great size, there has
also been, particularly in the United States, an extraordinary
springing up and expansion of companies embracing one or two
branches of the business, or often operating in almost every
branch. The chief petroleum companies own or lease oil-bearing
properties, work their own production, have pipe-line affiliations,
own and operate refineries, own and lease tank cars and other
marketing equipment, and own and operate tank steamers.
The nationalization of oil-bearing lands the retention or
vesting of ownership of subsoil rights in the hands of the State
has been a pronounced tendency in certain countries. In Russia
petroleum lands were nationalized and were operated in part of
1919 and in 1920 by the Soviet Government. Argentina's
petroleum development has been almost entirely in the hands of
the Government since its inception. In May 1917 a new Mexican
constitution provided for the nationalization of petroleum, and
various decrees have been promulgated attempting to carry out
the nationalization principle. In other Latin-American countries
nationalization of petroleum lands is generally adhered to in
working out new petroleum codes. Direct Government interest
in petroleum development was brought about in Great Britain by
the action of the British Government in becoming a majority
shareholder in an oil company developing the Persian fields and
active in other countries.
The importance of petroleum with respect to national security
and industrial prosperity became generally recognized during the
World War and resulted in intense investment and speculative
interest in oil companies. Statistics compiled for 250 repre-
sentative American oil companies showed capital invested as of
Dec. 31 1919 to be $2,501,939,914. Of this group 142 companies
were organized after 191 2. The 108 companies in existence prior
to 1912 showed a capital investment of $717,098,563 on Dec. 31
1911. The compilation showed that of the total increase in
capitalization between 1912 and 1919, amounting to $1,784,841,-
351, $707,004,521 was added in one year, 1919. New oil com-
panies formed in the United States in 1917, 1918, 1919 and 1920
represented an amazing capitalization. The records show that
in 1920 1,712 companies were organized with an authorized
capitalization of $2,787,000,000; in 1919, 1,629 companies with
$3,786,000,000 capital; 1918, 820 companies with $1,430,000,000
capital; and in 1917, 512 companies with $840,000,000 capital.
Capital-borrowing by oil companies in the United Kingdom
in 1919 totalled 15,852,600; in 1920 13,004,600. The total
capital of oil and kindred companies registered in the United
Kingdom during 1920 was 33,105,050.
Four companies in Germany, classified under the head of
" Petroleum, Mineral Oil, etc.," increased their capital in 1920
101,850,000 marks. There was a boom in the oil business in
Rumania in 1919 and 1920. In the former year 128 new companies
were organized with a total capitalization of 449,000,000 lei
(nominal value g^d. or $.19, but at that time much depreciated).
Up to Oct. 1*920 168 companies had been organized with an
issued capital of 1,640,206,900 lei.
Well-drilling and Field Improvements. Production is maintained
and increased only by the constant drilling of new wells. A territory
becomes " proven " after it has been demonstrated by test wells and
by active development to have petroleum deposits. The search for
oil in unprpven territory is generally termed " wildcatting." The
wildcatter is sometimes a small operator but more often in recent
years a large company, for the operation entails large expenditure.
PETROLEUM
In the United States, which in 1920 supplied 65% of the world's
production, it is generally estimated that from 25% to 40% of
current output is " flush " production; that is, production from the
large initial flow of new wells, which subsequently would decline to
moderate " settled " production or become exhausted. There were
about 35,000 new wells completed in the United States in 1920;
24,000 of them were rated as oil producers. At the end of that year
there were 7,200 wells drilling and 2,100 rigs erected or building for
drilling. The number of wells producing oil in the United States,
Oct. 31 1920, was 258,600. The average per well was 4-9 barrels.
The principal drilling systems are: (l) percussion, which includes
the standard cable tool (American system) and the pole tool (Cana-
dian system); (2) hydraulic rotary system; (3) combination system;
(4) hydraulic circulating system (see 21.319). In the Appalachian
region of the United States wells are sunk by the standard or churn
system, with a modified light rig, and range in depth from a few
hundred feet to 3,*oo or 4,000 feet. In many sections groups of
wells are pumped from the central station. The yield of wells in the
Appalachian field is small, the average for Pennsylvania being about
0-3 bar. per well; New York, p-2 bar.; Kentucky, 3-1 bar.; W. Vir-
ginia, I-l bar. ; and eastern Ohio, 0-8 barrels. Wells in the mid-conti-
nent field are generally drilled by standard tools. The cable system is
used in central Texas, and the rotary system in northern Texas and
in some districts of Oklahoma. The rotary system exclusively is used
in northern Louisiana. The depth ranges from 200 ft. to 3,500- ft.,
drilling in recent years averaging more than 2,000 ft. Recoveries per
acre from mid-continent pools have been generally higher than in the
eastern fields, but less than in the Gulf coast and California. The
average production per well in Oklahoma and Kansas is 6 bar.;
northern Texas, 31-6 bar.; central Texas, 22-9 bar.; and northern
Louisiana, 31-6 barrels. The rotary method is used exclusively in
the Gulf coast field, the depth of wells ranging from 1,000 to 3,500
ft., and the production per well being 34-6 bar. in coastal Louisiana
and 49-7 bar. in coastal Texas. In the Rocky Mountain field the
standard and rotary systems are used, the shallow districts of this
field also being largely drilled by the standard cable system with the
portable rig. The depth of the wells ranges from 1,000 to 3,500
feet. The average production per well is 55-9 barrels. In California
drilling is about evenly divided between the standard and rotary
systems. The combination rig is also extensively used, and there is
some drilling by the hydraulic circulating system. Well-depths
range from 1,000 to 3,500 ft. and the average production per well is
about 32-3 barrels. A well of average depth in the mid-continent
field could be drilled and equipped for less than $13,000 in 1913. In
1915 the cost increased to about $14,000; in 1918 to $24,000; and in
1920 to about $32,000. A factor in the advance in cost was the
increased depth of the average well. Drilling cost of an average well
in central Texas in 1920 was from $44,000 to $68,000 ; in certain Gulf
coast pools, $39,000; while in the Rocky Mountain and California
fields it has risen above $100,000 per well.
In Mexico, where the wells usually have a great initial production
and where the yield of individual wells is often restricted only because
of inadequate marketing facilities or as a precaution against water
inroads, the percentage of current production that might be termed
" flush " is much higher than in any other producing country. Mex-
ico's production is obtained from comparatively few wells. The
country was credited on Jan. 31 1921 with 367 producing wells, but
it is estimated that the bulk of the 1920 production of 163,000,000
bar. was obtained from about 200 wells. The wells average about
2,000 ft. in depth. In the Tehuantepec field the wells have been of
shallow depth and short-lived. Drilling in Mexico is about evenly
divided between the rotary and standard cable system, and the
hydraulic circulating system is used to some extent.
The Canadian pole tool system is used in Canada, while the
deeper drilling in the Calgary district has been done by the standard
cable system and there has also been some rotary drilling. Wells
in the Petrolia district, Ontario, are about 500 ft. in depth and yield
from 5 to 25 bar. a month. The standard cable system is principally
used in Venezuela, although there has been a good deal of drilling
with the rotary method, and a combination of both. Wells in the
Mene Grande fields range from 600 to 1,700 feet. Wells in Colombia
have been drilled by the cable system and combination cable and
rotary, the depth being 1,700 to 2,300 feet. In Peru most wells
in the Zorritos field are between 600 and 2,000 ft. in depth; in
Labitos from 2,000 to over 3,000 ft.; and in Negritos the average
is about 2,500 feet. The standard cable system of drilling is gener-
ally used in Peru, but there has been some rotary drilling in the
Zorritos field, where a total of 920 wells had been drilled up to 1919,
the greatest number of producing wells at any one time being about
50. In Lobitos a total of 1 18 wells were producing in 1919; in Negri-
tos 732 were active. Drilling in Argentina has been done by prac-
tically all methods, but the one in most general use is the Galician
pole tool system, which is a modification of the Canadian pole tool
system, the equipment providing for a larger and heavier rig. The
American standard cable system is also in use in Argentina and there
is some rotary and also hydraulic circulating drilling. Production in
1919 was obtained from about 72 wells. In Trinidad wells range from
700 to 1,740 ft. in depth. Rotary drilling is used almost exclusively.
The Russian free fall system, a modification of the Canadian pole
tool system, is used in Russia. In this, there is a free fall of the tools,
which are then picked up. The diameter of some of the Russian wells
is unusually large, the starting diameter being in many cases 36-40
inches. In the Baku field the depth of the wells ranges from 2,000
to 2,500 feet. Baku wells are famous for their large initial flow and
large total yield. In Galicia, as well as in Rumania, the Canadian
pole tool system, modified and adapted, is generally used, but the
hydraulic circulating system is also used. Galician fields require
deep drilling, many wells in Boryslaw-Tustanowice being over 4,000
feet. The pole tool system is also extensively used in Rumania.
Wells range from 1,000 to 2,500 ft. in depth, and in the Moreni
district wells of great capacity have been brought in. The standard
cable system with portable rig is used almost exclusively in Italy.
The same system, without portable rig, is used in Persia, India and
Egypt. The Galician pole tool system is used in the Dutch East
Indies. Persian- production is obtained at from 1,100 to 1,400 feet.
Deeper drilling was resorted to in the Yenangyaung field of Burma
with good results, previous drilling not having exceeded 300 or 500
feet. Wells more than 2,000 ft. deep are drilled in the Singu field
of India. Wells in Japan range from 600 to 2,000 ft., and the rotary
system, introduced in the Akita field in 1913, is used almost exclu-
sively. The diamond drill, a " core " drill used in prospecting for coal,
iron and copper deposits, has been introduced as a geological aid in
oil-field work. Another means recently employed for drilling test
holes and shallow wells is a combination rotary, core and churn drill.
Petroleum development of recent years has entailed deeper drilling
with consequent heavier demand on oil-field materials. In the United
States and in other countries the shallow fields have become ex-
hausted. Drilling to 2,500 and 4,000 ft. has demanded sturdier
equipment, heavier and larger casing and improved designs in drilling
machinery. Better methods of handling heavy wrenches and bits
and of dressing bits have been adopted.
New mechanical devices to aid in well-drilling are constantly
being introduced. In electrical rotary drilling, an electric device
keeps a check on the drilling crews, indicating when and how long
the rotary was shut down. A register giving the weight of pipe resting
on the bit is being perfected by experimental tests. It is designed
to enable the driller to determine the amount of speed to use in
certain formations, with a view to lessening " twist-ons " and thereby
lessening the number of fishing jobs. While derricks in most oil-
producing countries are chiefly of timber, the all-steel derrick has
appeared in certain fields of the United States, Rumania, Galicia,
Trinidad, England and South America. Electric power has become
a factor in field work and has been adopted for the pumping of wells
and for drilling, for driving slush, water, oil and vacuum pumps and
for air compressors, gas extractors, machine shops, field lighting and
dehydration of oil. Electric power has made advances in Texas, in
California and in the mid-continent fields. It has been adopted in
Rumania and in the Balakhany-Saboontchy-Romany-Surakhany
area and the Bibi-Eibat field of Russia. Electrification of the Yenan-
gyaung field of Burma has also been undertaken. The use of com-
pressed air to increase oil extraction has been introduced recently in
certain producing areas. The process consists of pumping compressed
air or gas into some wells while others are pumped for oil. The advent
of the internal-combustion engine has brought about the extended
use of belt, chain and gear driven pumps, while previously single or
duplex driven reciprocating steam pumps were mainly used. The
turbine pump has also developed oil-field possibilities.
TRANSPORT AND STORAGE
Pipe Lines. With its large crude-oil production obtained from
fields often far from refining and consuming centres, the petroleum
industry of the United States has developed pipe-line systems of
great mileage and capacity (see 21.320). In the fields themselves
there are networks of gathering lines connecting the wells with main
trunk lines and railways, the trunk-line systems connecting the
fields with the refining centres. It is estimated that pipe lines in the
United States totalled about 35,000 miles. Practically all of the
crude oil produced (1,300,000 bar daily) is transported by pipe line,
some of it only a few miles and some of it as far as 1 ,700 miles. About
150,000 bar. a day are taken from the eastern and mid-continent
fields to the Atlantic seaboard through a connecting system of pipe
lines. Mid-continent crude is also piped to the Gulf coast. It is
estimated that the total U.S. production moves by pipe line an
average of more than 500 miles. Pipe lines in Mexico have been
constructed from the Panuco and Topila fields to Tampico and
from the southern fields to Tampico and directly from the southern
fields to the Gulf coast, where sea loading lines are installed. There
is an international trunk line running into Canada connecting with
lines in Ohio. In Venezuela the production in the Mene Grande
field is run by pipe line about 35 m. to a refinery at San Lorenzo
where there is also a terminal from which crude oil is barged to a
refinery on the I. of Curacao. A pipe line of about 25 m. has been
constructed from wells in the Colorado district of Colombia to a
refinery at Barranca Bermeja on the Magdalena river. The Lobitos
field in Peru is connected by pipe line to the port of Talara, 16
m. distant, where there is a refinery and a terminal for export ship-
ping. Argentina has short field pipe lines. In Trinidad there are
pipe lines from the Pitch Lake district to refineries at La Brea and
Port Fortin and also from this field and the Tabaquite district to
Claxton's Bay, where they extend into sea loading lines. Pipe lines
PETROLEUM
79
run from the Galician fields to refineries located in and near the
fields. Rumania's pipe-line system leads from the fields to refineries
near and around Ploeshti. A few days before Rumania's declaration
of war a Government-owned pipe line was completed from Baicai to
Constantza on the Black Sea. Oil from the Balakhany-Saboontchy-
Romany-Surakhany oil field is piped to refineries on the outskirts of
Baku. Oil from the Bibi-Eibat field is barged to the same place.
A kerosene pipe line from Baku to Batoum on the Black Sea was
completed in 1905. Grosny oil is piped to refineries near the town
of Grosny. The Ural-Caspian fields are connected by pipe lines with
Bolshaya Rakushka, where refineries are located. Tcheleken oil is
shipped to Baku refineries. Oil from the Maikop field is piped to
Ekaterinodar and to the port of Tonapse on the Black Sea.
Oil from the Gemsah and Hurghada fields of Egypt is transported
by pipe lines to a refinery at Suez. Pipe lines connect the Maidan-i-
Naphtun field of Persia to a refinery at tidewater located at Abadan.
Oil from Singu and Yenangyaung fields is piped to refineries near
Rangoon, a distance of about 275 miles. Oil from the Langkat dis-
trict of Sumatra is piped to refineries at Pangkalan on the Bay of
Aroe. Southern Sumatra fields are connected by pipe lines to re-
fineries at Pladjoe and Bagoes Koenig, both near Palembang. Java
production is transported to refineries at Wonokrono and Tjepoe,
Borneo oil by lighters to a refinery on the harbour of Balik Papan.
Pump Stations. In the United States, pump stations are usually
30 to 40 m. apart in the eastern and middle states, but there are
cases of long-continued operation of 120 m. with one pump station.
A steam pump station usually consists of a pump house, boiler house,
gate house, office and tanks. Diesel engines are being installed
extensively in pumping stations.
Sea Loading Lines. Sea loading lines have been installed and are
operating in Mexico, Peru, Trinidad, Russia and other places. These
lines make possible the loading of vessels several miles at sea and are
usually installed where no deep-water harbours exist and where,
because of the shallow water, the building of piers would entail
prohibitive expenditure. The lines are submarine and are usually
coupled ashore, stretched out on rails and drawn into the water by
vessels. When it is impossible to couple the pipe ashore, this is
usually done on barges or rafts and the line deposited as the work
proceeds. The first sea loading line in Mexico was pulled in 1913 by
the use of wooden dollies on a wooden track. At present numerous
companies have sea lines along the strip of island beach between the
Panuco and Tuxpam rivers.
Storage. Crude-oil storage facilities, where steel tanks or reser-
voirs, are grouped together on what are generally known as tank
farms, some of which in the United States have a capacity in excess
of 24,000,000 barrels. Steel tanks are usually of 37,000 or 55,000
bar. capacity, placed about 500 ft. apart from centre to centre. Each
tank is surrounded by a levee of sufficient height to hold the entire
content of the tank and enclosed for the purpose of isolating fires.
Crude oil is stored in steel tanks, concrete tanks and earthen reser-
voirs, while many of the lease tanks are wooden. There were held in
the United States in pipe line and tank farm storage, at the end
of 1920, 138,000,000 bar. of crude oil. In addition, 21,000,000 bar.
of crude oil were stored at refineries. Tanks are installed at refineries
for holding oil during the running at the plantsand for storage prepar-
atory to shipment to markets. Stocks of refined products held at
U.S. refineries at the close of 1920 totalled 2,433,700,000 gallons.
Investigation and experimentation are constantly directed to the
reduction of evaporation losses of crude oil and refined products
during storage. An investigation by the U.S. Bureau of Mines
showed that in just one stage of handling of crude production in
the mid-continent field, the volume of gasoline lost by evaporation
equaled one-thirtieth of the total gasoline production of the United
States. The loss occurred during a few days when oil was stored on
leases before being taken by pipe line, and amounted in 1919 in the
mid-continent field alone to 122, 100,000 gallons. Insulated storage
tanks of about 10,000 bar. capacity are being experimented with bya
few mid-continent casing-head gasoline manufacturers.
Tanks are usually protected from fire by steam lines from the
boiler house so that free steam can be turned into the tanks on the
approach of a thunderstorm. This steam displaces the explosive
mixture in the tanks. The water spray method is also used. At
pipe-line stations, and tank farms and refineries where there is a
large number of tanks, a fire protective system which utilizes a
frothy or foam mixture is often installed. This mixture has as its
ingredients water, aluminium sulphate (crystal), sulphuric acid,
ground glue, glucose, sodium bicarbonate and arsenious oxide. The
system entails a piping and pumping system and the equipment
includes solution tanks and foam-mixing boxes. Each storage tank
has a mixingbox into which pipe lines leading from the solution tanks
discharge. The boxes are outside the tanks and the foam is admitted
to the tank through a raised hatchway. The substance spreads over
the surface of the oil. To insure the foam reaching the surface of the
blazing oil at whatever depth without the bubbles being destroyed
by the impact of the drop, a series of baffles is used retarding the
descent. Tanks covered with a jacket of asbestos supported by steel
framework are being experimented with. Submarine storage tanks,
which if required can be rested on sea bottom, have been devised.
Tank Vessels. The tank vessel plays a large part in the modern
petroleum industry. It is used for transporting crude oil from produc-
ing countries and districts to refining countries and centres and for
carrying refined products in bulk to the markets of the world. The
world's tonnage of tank vessels (including steam, gas, sail and barge)
increased from 1,525,000 gross tons in 1914 to about 4,000,000
tons at the end of 1920, with 1,100,000 tons under construction.
Great advances have been made in tanker construction and the
loading and unloading of oil from tank vessels. The typical modern
tanker carries 16,000 tons of oil, is equipped with quadruple expan-
sion engines and boilers fired with liquid fuel, has a complete shelter
deck the whole length of the vessel, oil-tight hatches and two pump
rooms with pumps capable of discharging 1,200 to 1,500 tons per
hour. The Diesel engine is also used for propulsion in some tankers,
while the oil-fired steam-driven turbine is gaining headway. Oil
cargoes are now loaded and discharged in a few hours. Devices have
been perfected enabling vessels to take on a supply of fuel oil from
tankers while under way on the high seas.
REFINING
Refinery Operations. The rapid expansion -of the internal-com-
bustion engine which, as developed in motor vehicles, began to be
of importance as a consuming agency of petroleum products in
1907, has elevated gasoline (petrol) to the ranking by-product of
crude oil. More recently the conversion of coal-burning vessels and
industrial plants to the use of oil and the extension of utilization of
the Diesel engine (an internal-combustion engine which does not
demand so volatile an oil as gasoline) in the marine and in the indus-
trial fields has placed fuel oil in a position of great prominence. Even
so great an increase in crude-oil production as was recorded between
1908 and 1920 could not have supplied these consuming agencies
had not refining methods been improved, new processes developed,
and refinery capacity greatly expanded. As in the case of crude-oil
production, the greatest refinery expansion has been in the United
States, where in 1915 it is estimated there were 302 refineries with a
crude-oil capacity of 1,043,245 bar. daily. On Jan. I 1921 there
were 415 refineries with a daily capacity of 1,888,800 barrels. The
types of plants represented in this total were: 35 complete, 302
skimming, 60 wax and lubricants, 7 asphalt and 1 1 topping.
United States refineries in 1920 ran 434,000,000 bar. of crude oil,
and produced 4,882,000,000 gal. of gasoline; 2,320,000,000 gal. of
kerosene; 8,861,000,000 gal. of gas oil and fuel oil; 1,047,000,000
gal. of lubricating oil ; 541,000,000 Ib. of wax; 576,000 tons of coke;
1,290,000 tons of asphalt; and 1,492,000,000 gal. of miscellaneous
oil. The principal refining centres in the United States are in the mid-
continent territory, in the Pennsylvania region, and along the Atlan-
tic, Gulf and Pacific coasts. Every large producing area has developed
a refining industry, while the seaboard plants, in most instances,
owe their location to strategic advantages respecting large domestic
and export markets. Mexico has built up a substantial refining
industry, although the largest proportion of its crude-oil production
is transported to the United States for topping and refining, in most
part by Atlantic and Gulf coast plants. Most of the Mexican plants
are topping plants (that is, they divide the crude into tops, distillates
and gas and fuel oils), but there are a few more complete refineries.
All the refineries are located along or adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico
or the eastern seaboard, comparatively near the producing fields.
In 1920 there were 12 refineries reported in operation in Mexico with
a daily capacity of 19,600 cub. metres of refined products. Four of
these refineries were classified as complete plants, six as topping
plants and two as natural-gas gasoline plants. There were five plants
under construction, two complete refineries, one a topping plant and
one a natural-gas gasoline plant. In 1920 61,000,000 bar. of Mexican
crude oil were run by U.S. refineries. Canada has developed a sub-
stantial refining industry, these refineries operating on Canadian,
United States, Mexican and Peruvian crude oil. There are one or
more refineries or topping plants in Venezuela, the I. of Curacao,
Colombia, Trinidad, Peru and Argentina, these operating on
domestic oil or oil from nearby territories. Galician crude oil is
handled by refineries located within a radius of about 150 m. from
the city of Lemberg, in and near the oil fields, and also by the Con-
tinental refineries in Hungary, Austria and Germany. It is estimated
that Galician refineries are capable of handling about 40% of the
crude production. Rumania's refineries are mainly located in the
Prahova district and also in the Bacau, Dambovita, Constantza and
Neamt districts. In 1920 Rumanian refineries used 988,000 tons of
petroleum, and produced 212,000 tons of benzine, 197,000 tons of
lamp oil, 30,000 tons of lubricants and 473,000 tons of fuel oil. The
output of the different refined products by Russian refineries in 1916
(last figures available) totalled 56,917 million poods of fuel oil,
6,926 million poods of lubricating oils, 135 million poods of solar
oils, 944 million poods of benzine and 57 million poods of paraffin.
Russian refineries are located at Blacktown, suburb of Baku, these
running oil from the Baku fields, at Grosny and Bolshaya Rakushka
and at Ekaterinodar and Shirvansky. There are local refineries in
Egypt, Persia, India, the East Indies and Japan, and Persian oil is
also being handled by a refinery at Swansea, Wales. _
Continuous Distillation. Continuous-process stills were first
introduced by Norman Henderson, a British chemist, in connexion
with the distillation of shale-oil. This system was subsequently
adopted by jnany refiners of petroleum. A modification of Hender-
son's benches of stills was the addition to each member of the series
8o
PETROLEUM
of a fractionating column, endeavouring to carry out the fractionat-
ing in one stage so that the one-bench stills would provide finished
products. Similar considerations led to the development in Califor-
nia of theTrumble process, introduced by M. J. Trumble, a California
chemist, consisting of an elaborate series of heat interchanges. In
this process, oil is heated in a tubular furnace. It is dropped down
a tower where, by means of distributors, it is brought in contact with
the hot side of the column still and so gives a film evaporation. A
recent modification of stills is the Allan system, introduced by Hugh
Allan, a British chemist, whereby the oil is vaporized in the ordinary
kind of Henderson still, but in place of being subsequently redistilled,
or being collected via a column, vapours are blown into a series of
vertical pipes, getting a fractional condensation from member to
member, the latent heat of the high boiling components being used to
reeyaporate any condensed volatile oil, thus obtaining the fractions
desired. Topping and skimming plants to raise the flash point and
to dehydrate heavy oil have multiplied rapidly, particularly in the
United States. The skimming industry is represented in all the major
oil fields and has other purposes which give the plants practically a
universal field in the oil industry, namely, to remove the lighter con-
stituents of the oil for storage for a long period, thus reducing the
losses from evaporation, to dehydrate or clean the oil and, in con-
junction with a complete refinery, to remove the lighter fractions
cheaply and quickly, leaving a residue to be re-run for lubricants,
coke and other products.
Cracking Processes. The commercial development of the crack-
ing process subsequent to 1913 marked an epoch in the petroleum
industry. The growing importance of the internal-combustion engine
made necessary a higher yield of motor fuel from the limited crude-
oil supply, if the demands of this consuming agency were to be met.
Modern cracking dates back to the patent obtained in 1889 by the
late Sir Boverton Redwood and Prof. Dewar, British chemists
(see 21.322), but commercial development followed the first patent
of Dr. W. M. Burton, an American chemist, in 1913.
The following classification of oil cracking processes (represen-
tative patents) is made by the Kansas City Testing Laboratory (Bul-
letin No. 15) :
I. Cracking in the vapour phase.
A. Atmospheric pressure.
Oil gas plants, very high temperature.
Pintsch gas plants, very high temperature.
Blaugas plants, i,ooo-i,2ooF.
Parker (W. M.) process at 1,000" F. with or without
steam.
Greenstreet Cherry red with steam.
B. Wjth increased pressure.
Rittman process above 950 F. and 200-300 Ib. pressure.
W. A. Hall process i,iooF. and about 75 Ib. pressure.
II. Cracking in the liquid phase.
A. With distillation.
1 . At atmospheric pressure.
Luther Atwood (1860).
McAfee process with aluminium chloride.
Russian and American practice for ilium, oils.
2. Above atmospheric pressure.
Dewar and Redwood (1889).
Bacon and Clark at 100-300 Ib.
Burton (Standard Oil Co.) 650-850 F. and 60-85 Ib.
Dubbs, J. A., over 10 Ib. and over 300 F.
3. Very high pressure (over 27 atmospheres).
B. Without distillation and with high pressure.
1. Without vapour space for equilibrium (continuous
processes).
Benton (1860) 700-1,000 F. and 500 Ib.
Goebel-Wellman.
Mark (English).
2. With vapour space,
(a) Intermittent.
Palmer (below 27 atmospheres for aromatics).
(6) Continuous.
Dr. Burton's process is now extensively used in the United States.
The development of this patent and the large-scale adaptation of the
cracking process marked an era in the history of petroleum refining.
The following is a summary of an address made by Dr. Burton
in May 1918, on the occasion of the presentation to him of the
Wm. Gibbs medal by the American Chemical Society.
Dr. Burton pointed out that in 1910 the demand for gasoline
created by automobiles began to grow so rapidly that it was obvious
that something would have to be done to increase the supply of
naphtha products. In those days the average yields of various
products of petroleum were about as follows : naphtha products 1 8 %,
kerosene or illuminating products 30%, lubricating products 10%,
loss 3 %, leaving about 40% which was sold for gas-making or fuel in
lieu of coal. The problem was to convert the high-boiling fractions
existing in fuel and gas oil into low-boiling fractions needed by the
internal-combustion engine. Dr. Burton and his associates worked
for almost two years trying to devise a practical method, first by
superheating and dissociation at high temperatures, but at atmos-
pheric pressure; and, secondly, by the employment of various re-
agents, but their efforts were not successful. Having tried everything
else that suggested itself these engineers decided to attack the prob-
lem from the pressure distillation standpoint. In view of the fact
that distillation must take place at temperatures ranging from 35OC.
to 45OC., at which the tensile strength of steel begins to diminish
very rapidly, and in view of the fact that steel at such temperatures,
in the presence of carbonaceous matter (and even of free carbon, which
often comes as the result of pressure distillation), is likely to absorb
such carbon, become crystalline and lose its tensile strength, the
practical refiner doubted the success and safety of this method.
The first large still built had a charging capacity of 6,000 gal. of
heavy oil. Serious leaks were encountered, but this problem was
finally solved, as the oil carbonized under the influence of the high
temperature and the carbon deposits stopped the leaks. There were
many puzzling problems to be solved, such as the devising of a safety
valve that would operate freely in spite of the intense heat and the
presence of carbonaceous matter. The entire apparatus had to be
constructed in such a way as to insure ease of operation and freedom
from excessive repairs. The production and disposition of the so-
called " fixed gases " were troublesome. It was found that in some
cases the heavy oil with which the operation began evolved more gas
than was needed to maintain the desired pressure, whereas other oils
evolved an insufficient amount of gas for this purpose. This ob-
stacle was converted into an aid by arranging a large number of stills
in parallel so that the superfluous gases from some stills were con-
ducted to others that needed them. The plan gave a perfect method
of securing uniform pressure and control.
By starting with fuel-oil products having boiling points ranging
from 200 C. to 350 C., it was possible to secure a very substantial
yield of a product having boiling points ranging from 50 C. to 200
C., and it was found that losses thus incurred were trifling, averaging
less than 3 per cent. It was found that the high-boiling residues thus
produced yielded a product almost identical with the natural asphalt.
Developed from the single 6,000 gal. still there were then (1918),
Dr. Burton stated, over 500 stills of a larger capacity. During the
preceding five years more than 20,000,000 bar. of gasoline or naphtha
products had been produced by these stills in the United States.
It is estimated that cracked gasoline probably accounts for about
'5% of all gasoline manufactured in the United States. Casing-
head gasoline, manufactured from natural gas, the development
of which ranks with cracked gasoline as one of the most important
refining advances, is perhaps the source of from 12 % to 15 per cent.
Natural Gas. The United States and Canada produce all but a
small fraction of the natural gas output of the world (see 21.321).
The main areas of Pennsylvania, W. Virginia and Ohio have developed
remarkable staying qualities, and these three states produced
virtually two-thirds of the total production of the continent. The
mid-continent field has shown a great increase in the natural gas
production and the Wyoming field has proved productive. There is
some natural gas production in Russia, Rumania, Persia, Galicia,
India, Japan and "Mexico. The total production of natural gas in
the United States in 1918 was 721,000,000,000,000 cubic feet. It is
estimated that no less than 14,000,000 inhabitants of the United
States are enjoying this fuel as a source of heat, light and power.
Natural Gas Gasoline. Although the foundation of the natural
gas gasoline industry in the United States was laid in 1903 and 1904,
the real expansion of this important phase of gasoline production
began in 1909. In 1911, the first year for which statistics on the
subject are available, 132 plants produced 7,425,839 gal. of raw gaso-
line from natural gas. In 1918 the industry included 1,004 plants
which produced 282,535,550 gal. of raw gasoline. Of the total,
865 were compression plants producing 219,767,207 gal. and 139
absorption plants producing 62,768,343 gallons. A canvass made in
1921 showed a total of 444 casing-head gasoline plants in Kansas,
Oklahoma and northern and central Texas, having a daily output of
1,101,155 gal. of raw gasoline. Prior to 1916 the greatest proportion
of gasoline production from natural gas was obtained from casing-
head gas, oil-well gas or " wet " natural gas by the compression and
condensation method. The development of the absorption process
has extended the field of the natural gas gasoline industry to include
practically all of the natural gas production in the United States, for
there is but little gas production that does not contain an appreciable
percentage of pentane and hexane, the hydrocarbons of the paraffin
series that are the principal constituents of gasoline. Much of the
so-called " wet " gas obtained from oil wells when they are first
opened and from gas wells that produce no petroleum, has been
sufficiently rich in gasoline vapours to warrant treatment by the
absorption process, though excluded from successful treatment by
compression and condensation. The following extracts are from
Handbook of Casinghead Gas, by Henry P. Westcott :
" Casing-head gas received its name from the casing-head on the
top of the casing through which it flows. It is the gas that flows from
oil wells, coming out between the casing and the tubing. The volume
varies from a few hundred cubic feet to several hundred thousand
cubic feet per day. Invariably the gas becomes richer in gasoline
content as the wells grow older. Generally a gasoline plant or
property consists of a number of oil leases grouped around a main
compressor station in which the actual making of gasoline takes
place. The gas lines from different wells on each lease run to a main
line in which is placed a meter to measure the gasoline from that
PETROLOGY
81
lease. The main line runs to the compressor station or plant. There
are a few plants extracting gasoline from a volume as small as 5,000
cub. ft. of gas per day, while some of the large plants are extracting
gasoline from a volume of two and three million cub. ft. per day.
The amount of gas necessary to make a profitable proposition is not
only dependent upon the volume of gas but also on the quality of
the gas. To further assist in the production, a vacuum pump or
compressor is installed in the same building with the booster com-
pressor. The object of the vacuum pump is to pump the gas from
the wells and create a vacuum which materially increases the flow
of the gas. Vacuum has been used in oil wells to increase the produc-
tion even when gas could not be used for making gasoline.
" There are two processes for extracting gasoline. The one most
commonly used is that of compression. The other is the absorption
process, which is not only used with casing-head gas but also with
natural gas, commonly called " lean gas," which carries as low as
one-tenth of a gallon or less of gasoline per one thousand cubic feet.
This process is used with gas at high as well as low pressure.
" In the compression process, the equipment consists of one or
more two-stage compressors, coils, accumulating tanks, electric
generator and other accessories. The casing-head gas is compressed
to a pressure of from 50 to 300 pounds and then passed through a
system of coils on which cold water is constantly dripping. This
cools the gas, condensing the gasoline from it, the liquid being sepa-
rated into respective accumulating tanks and the residue gas passing
off to be used for power or heating purposes. After the gasoline is
collected in the accumulating tanks, it passes into blending tanks,
where it is blended with naphtha and other blending mediums to
lower the gravity so as to permit of shipping without severe loss
through evaporation and to make the shipping of it a safe matter.
" The absorption process is a method of passing the gas through
oil and separating the gasoline vapour from it by absorption of
gasoline into the oil. There are two general designs in absorption
plants, one of which uses the horizontal and the other the vertical
absorbers. With either system the oil is used over and over again."
Work of experimentation has been done on a process for extracting
gasoline from natural gas by a method whereby natural gas is passed
through absorbers containing charcoal, the gasoline absorbed by the
charcoal and then distilled out.
Marketing of Products. -Expansion of the use of petroleum prod-
ucts has resulted in many improvements in marketing methods
and great additions to marketing equipment and facilities. In the
United States a large number of tank cars is used in transporting
products from refineries to consuming centres and to ports for export
shipment. The tank car is still usedto some extent to carry crude
oil from the field to refineries, but chiefly this is when a new field is
opened up and before pipe-line connexions have been made. Tank
cars are widely used in Europe for petroleum products.
There were 49,901 petroleum tank cars in the United States
and Canada on Jan. I 1914, and in 1921 the number had increased
to 137,493. Rigid requirements are enforced in tank-car construc-
tion in the United States. Cars must be of steam boiler quality,
and exceptional strength is prescribed for the frame. The insulated
tank car to handle highly volatile casing-head gasoline has been
successfully introduced and is also being adopted for transporting
straight-run gasoline because it reduces loss by evaporation. The
growth of motor-vehicle gasoline demand, particularly extensive and
rapid in the United States, has created new distributing methods and
devices. In that country and Canada gasoline filling installations
for motor cars have been established in the cities and on every road
of any importance. Thousands of filling stations have been built.
Gasoline is delivered from tank wagons or steel barrels to the tanks
built underground at the filling stations. The oil is lifted from these
tanks by pumps (which measure the amount given by each stroke
of the pump) and delivered through a hose into the automobile's
tank. Lubricating oil at some stations is delivered in much the same
way. An innovation is the visible pump at filling stations.
Fuel-oil bunkering stations have been established along the ocean
routes to meet the increase in the oil-burning naval and merchant
fleets of all countries. These stations include large storage tanks and
berth and loading facilities in some cases, while in many instances
they are simply storage reservoirs and oil is loaded on steamers
from barges supplied from these stations. It is estimated that the
number of fuel-oil stations for steamships located on trading routes
approaches 300.
AUTHORITIES: Manual for the Oil and Gas Industry (1918);
David T. White, John D. Northrop, E. Russell Lloyd, Mineral
Resources of the United States; World Atlas of Commercial Geology
(1921) ; Statements on Mexico by E. de Golyer; Frederick G. Clapp,
Review of Present Knowledge Regarding the Petroleum Resources of
South America; Ralph Arnold, Conservation of the Oil and Gas Re-
sources of the Americas; A. Beeby Thompson, Oil Field Development
and Petroleum Mining and Oil Fields of Russia; Victor Ross, Evo-
lution of the Oil Industry; R. F. Bacon and W. A. Hamor, The Ameri-
can Petroleum Industry; G. B. Richardson, U.S. Geological Survey
Reports; V. F. Marsters, Geology of the Peruvian Fields; R. H.
Johnson and L. G. Huntley, Oil and Gas Production; C. P. Bowie,
Oil Storage Tanks and Preventing Oil and Gas Fires; J. H.
Wiggins, Evaporation Loss of Petroleum in the Mid-Continent Field;
H. Barringer, Oil Storage, Transport and Distribution; H. F. Mason,
U.S. Bureau of Mines Reports; J. M. Wadsworth, Removal of the
Lighter Hydro-Carbons . . . by Continuous Distillation; Roy Cross,
Handbook of Petroleum, Asphalt and Natural Gas; I. C. White,
The Rapid Exhaustion of Ohio's Natural Gas Resources; V. C.
Alderson, Oil Shale Industry; Albert Lidgett, Petroleum.
(L. M. F.)
PETROLOGY (see 21.323). During 1910-21 there was a
steady advance in all departments of petrology, and new develop-
ments occurred which were not only interesting in themselves
but gave promise of being important in the future. Up to a com-
paratively recent time petrology was in the main a descriptive
science. The discovery of the application of the microscope to
the study of very thin sections of rocks opened up a new field of
investigation and showed how defective had been the means
employed by the older geologists. It became possible to identify
even the smallest mineral grains and to ascertain their relations
to one another and the manner in which they were built together
from the rock mass. For many years the description of the
microscopic characters of minerals and rocks was held to be, if
not the only, at least the most important, part of petrographical
literature. The processes by which rocks are altered by atmos-
pheric agencies and by underground water were revealed in detail.
A great body of literature was accumulated, and a great diversity
of rock types soon came to be recognized, some of them occurring
in abundance in many parts of the world and others rare and
exceptional either in their mineral composition or in their minute
structures. Textbooks of petrography were in general a de-
scription of the recognized rock types, their composition, struc-
ture and the stages of their decay, with notes on their geographi-
cal distribution and their geological age. Chemical analyses were
used principally as a means of identifying the classes to which
individual rocks belonged and as a guide to the minerals of which
the rocks consisted.
In time it came to be recognized that this aspect of the subject,
if not unscientific, was at least incomplete. More attention of
recent years has been directed to other problems connected with
rocks such especially as the conditions of their origin, their
chemical classification and the physical laws which determine
what minerals shall be formed, in what order they will crys-
tallize and through what stages they will pass when subjected
to cooling, pressure and metamorphism. In fact, the effect of the
laws of physics and chemistry on the mineral composition and
structure of rocks had become by 1921 a branch of petrology
which was rapidly developing. It would be a mistake to regard
this as wholly a new development, for many of the older geolo-
gists such as Hall Gregory Watt, Daubree, Fouque and Levy,
Sorby, Morozewich had carefully studied these problems and
had made some notable discoveries. Essentially, however, it was
necessary to attack these questions by experimental methods.
The old charcoal furnace was very unsatisfactory and difficult
to regulate; the gas furnace in all respects was much superior;
but the advent of the electric furnace has placed in the hands of
the experimentalist a weapon of enormously greater power and
far more manageable. There is no difficulty now in attaining
temperatures such as occur in the deeper parts of the earth's
crust and in the interior of volcanoes and in maintaining these
temperatures quite steady for several days or weeks if necessary.
The electric pyrometer has replaced the gas thermometer and
the older Seger and Wedgwood cones, and has reached such
precision that an error of one or two degrees is all that need be
expected in measuring temperatures up to 1600 Centigrade.
By means of the electric arc, temperatures can be obtained
which are beyond those which exist in the upper parts of the
earth's crust, but furnaces of this type have been little used in
these researches. Very high pressures can be easily obtained
provided the temperature is low and there is no necessity to
study the action of compressed gases. It is less easy, however,
to perform experiments by which the action of steam and other
gases on molten rock magmas at temperatures about 1000 and
under pressures over too atmospheres can be exactly determined.
More than one investigator has now been able to attain this, and
a very correct reproduction of the conditions under which igneous
rocks crystallize is consequently possible in the laboratory.
82
PETROLOGY
Descriptive petrology has been by no means in abeyance,
though the five years of war turned the activities of many
geologists to other fields. Exploring expeditions, such as those
of Scott, Shackleton and Bruce in the Antarctic, have brought
home large collections of rocks which have been examined and
described, and the constant activities of geological surveys in all
parts of the world, together with the researches of geological
specialists, have added largely to our knowledge.
Igneous Magmas. Of the three great groups into which
rocks are naturally subdivided, the sedimentary, igneous and
metamorphic, the first is on the whole best understood and
presents the smallest number of unsolved difficulties. The man-
ner in which sediments are laid down on the bottoms of seas and
lakes, in river deltas and valleys and on land surf aces, at the pres-
ent time is open to investigation by simple means, and, except
in the case of the deposits of the deeper parts of the oceans, is
reasonably clear. Igneous magmas, on the other hand, are
essentially obscure in their origin and history, and they have
been the subject of much investigation in recent years. The
origin of magmas is a problem belonging to geology rather than
petrology. They have been regarded as unconsolidated rem-
nants of the primeval molten globe, which by geological changes,
such as the secular contraction arising from cooling and the
pressures by which mountain chains have been upheaved, have
been afforded an outlet to the surface, where they appear as
volcanoes, or have been forced between the rocks of the upper
layers of the earth's crust where they may be laid bare by subse-
quent denudation as " bosses " of granite or gabbro or intrusive
sills of porphyry or dolerite. Others have held that magmas may
arise in whole or in part by the fusion of solid rocks (of any of the
above three classes) ; the agencies producing fusion being rise of
temperature, either through crushing and movement or by de-
pression into those regions where a high temperature naturally
prevails, or through penetration of gases from the earth's interior
which are not only intensely hot but are capable of combining
and setting free large quantities of energy. It is conceivable also
that deep within the earth's crust masses of rock occur at tempera-
tures so high that, if pressure be relieved by the vaulting-up of
the overlying crust or by fissures opening to the surface, they
may become liquid and rise through any available channels.
Hardly less obscure than the origin of magmas is the question
of their variety or differentiation. The outstanding fact in this
connexion is that no large developments of igneous rock are really
homogeneous and even in small masses it is frequent to find that
a great number of varieties or rock-species occur, differing in their
chemical composition and their minerals. Granite, diorite, gab-
bro, norite and peridotite may all occur within a small outcrop
not more than one or two square miles in area. The origin of
differentiation has been much discussed. Some have ascribed it
to diffusion or to a principle by which the heavier atoms in the
molten mass will be concentrated either towards the bottom or
towards the cooler edges or surfaces of contact with thesurround-
ing rocks. Along these lines no satisfactory explanation has
been found. More recent speculations have followed three lines:
(a) subsidence or flotation of crystals; (b) absorption of sedi-
mentary or other foreign rocks; (c) concentration of vapours.
(a) Subsidence or Flotation of Crystals. When crystals form in a
liquid they will, if heavier than the liquid, tend to subside and be
collected near the base; and if lighter, they will tend to rise. If
the crystals differ in composition from the liquid, as they usually do,
consolidation will result in a mass which is not homogeneous. Thus,
for example, olivine crystallizes early in a basic magma and, being
heavy, will tend to sink; consequently magnesia ana iron will be in
excess (and silica will be less abundant) at the base, while felspar
will predominate towards the top of such a mass. Instances occur
showing this arrangement, but they are very exceptional; it is not
the case that dolerite and gabbro masses as a rule have a pale-
coloured felspathic top and a dark base rich in olivine and the oxides
of iron. For such cases as do occur another explanation is often
available. If now it were possible at an advanced stage in crystalliza-
tion to drain away or force into another position the still liquid part
of the magma a type of rock different from the original magma would
be produced, because most of the heavy ferromagnesian minerals
would have been abstracted.
The explanation is so simple and so well justified by experiment
that it is difficult to believe it has no application in the differentiation
of rock types. There is much evidence, however, that forbids us to
accept it as important. For example, the study of great dolerite in-
trusions by means of bores shows that they are generally nearly
homogeneous throughout. Top and bottom are very much the
same as a rule; yet these masses must have cooled and crystallized
with extreme slowness; and every chance was afforded for the
accumulation of heavy crystals in their deeper parts. Again, it is the
case that where many varieties of rock occur in one mass the densest
are not generally in the lowest horizons. Still more important is the
fact that field evidence often shows clearly that the more basic
members of a complex intrusion have been injected in a liquid state
into an earlier less basic mass already in position. In that case, if
the more basic member was produced by the gravitational sinking of
heavy crystals these must have been subsequently melted up, a
process for which it is very difficult to suggest an explanation.
(b) Absorption of Foreign Rocks. A second method of differentia-
tion which has received much attention of recent years is by absorp-
tion of country rock. A gabbro mass, for example, may be sup-
posed to dissolve a felspathic sandstone with which it is in contact
and thus give rise to a more acid magma which might be represented
by quartz-dolerite or even by granite. Intrusive masses of igneous
rock, as they ascend from beneath, break across the overlying strata
and may shatter them into many small blocks. On these and on the
surrounding walls a solvent action is likely to take place. If the
invaded rock is heavier than the intrusive magma its fragments will
tend to sink, and as they are warmed up they will slowly disappear.
There can be no doubt that this action is by no means unusual and
many good instances of it are known, but there is little reason to
believe that it is an important cause of differentiation. Where
igneous rocks have absorbed sediment in any quantity they present
in general an abnormal facies. Granites, for example, which have
dissolved clay, slate or mica-schist usually contain andalusite, silli-
manite, cordierite, garnet or corundum, minerals which do not
normally occur in such rocks. The magmas are said to be " con-
taminated." Gabbros under similar conditions contain cordierite,
garnet and an excess of hypersthene (forming cordierite norites) and
are easily distinguished from normal gabbros. Absorption of lime-
stone by some nepheline syenites is indicated by the presence
of crystalline calcite in the igneous rock, and peridotites may con-
tain corundum. Perhaps the diamond is an accessory of this type in
olivine rocks which have dissolved graphitic matter. Even when
igneous rocks are absorbed the result willasa rule be an abnormality.
This is fairly evident in the majority of cases merely by a study of
the analyses of true igneous rock types and ordinary sediments.
It is to be remembered, however, that a study of the crystallized
igneous rocks exposed by denudation of the earth's surface reveals
to us merely the last stages in their history when the upward propul-
sive force was spent, the fluid mass had come to rest, its temperature
had fallen to such a point that crystallization had begun, part of its
gases had escaped and the whole mass was encased in a solid envelope
which had resulted from the rapid chilling of its external parts in
contact with the cold surrounding rocks. At an earlier stage the
magma was at a higher temperature and was in active movement.
Constant stirring was going on and dissolved matter rapidly scat-
tered through the whole mass. In the deeper parts of the crust the
solid rocks may be mostly gneisses or old intrusive rocks different
in character and in their relative abundance from the sediments of
post-Archaean times, richer in alkalis and more nearly akin in com-
position to the igneous masses. These conditions would favour ab-
sorption and mask the consequences; and if it took place on a very
large scale and time were given for diffusion a magma might be
produced which would closely mimic a purely igneous magma. It
has also been suggested that the absorption of foreign matter might
upset the equilibrium of the original magma and give rise to partial
magmas incompletely soluble in one another. It would be very
difficult in such a case to determine the original nature of the rock or
the amount and composition of the material dissolved.
(c) Concentration of Vapours. The theory that differentiation of
magmas arises from the formation of partial magmas during cooling,
which separated because they became insoluble in one another (as
phenol does with water), is favoured by many geologists, but a
recent examination of the physical laws determining the production
of such magmas has led to the conclusion that nothing is known that
would make this process appear likely. Many geologists, however,
who have a wide knowledge of igneous rocks in the field, hold that
there is evidence to show that differentiation took place before crys-
tallization began, and that the various types of rock were already
distinct when they were injected in liquid form into the positions
they now occupy.
It has been suggested, though it has not been clearly explained,
that the gases dissolved in magmas determine the sequence of
crystallization and may exert a powerful influence in differentiation.
A magma rich in gases when it begins to crystallize yields crystals
of anhydrous minerals. The gases, if they do not escape, must in-
crease in relative amount in the liquid residuum. The early minerals
are those like olivine and augite, which can be crystallized without
difficulty from anhydrous melts; the later minerals, such as the
alkali felspars and quartz, crystallize readily only in presence of
steam and other gases (or of solvents of a nature not usually present
in rocks). In some respects the crystallization of an igneous rock
PETROLOGY
resembles the cooling and evaporation of a saline solution, the gases
playing the part of solvent. The minerals appear in the order of their
insolubility. It is probable that the history of magmas will never be
clearly understood^ till a very careful study is made of the consolida-
tion of rock-making silicates under high pressures of steam and
other gases such as are known to abound in natural volcanic magmas.
Classification of Magmas. The igneous rocks of one geological
period and province have often so many peculiarities in common
that they can be regarded as having resulted from the consolida-
tion of a single reservoir of molten matter. The chain of volcanoes
that fringes the shores of the Pacific Ocean from Tierra del Fuego
to Alaska, and thence by Japan and the Philippines to Java and
Sumatra, is characterized by rocks which have so much similarity
in many important characters that they are certainly of allied
origin, even if they have not proceeded from the one source.
These rocks are all of Tertiary and recent age; their eruptions
began in Eocene or Miocene time and have continued, with more
or less frequent intermissions, up to the present day. For another
example of this we may take the igneous rocks of the western and
mid-Atlantic area, from Jan Mayen, through Iceland, the Heb-
rides, Canaries, Cape Verde Is., etc. All these volcanic centres
have many rock types in common, and the whole assemblage is
strikingly different from the Pacific igneous rocks. Each of these
magmas has been taken as a type, and it has been found that in
the older geological periods they are also represented; for exam-
ple, the early Devonian eruptions in Scotland are distinctly of
the Pacific type, while the Carboniferous eruptions in the same
district are of the Atlantic type. If we seek for a precise defini-
tion of their respective characters it is not easy to give a com-
plete answer. It may be said, however, that the Pacific suite has
a great prevalence of hypersthene andesites, and andesites of all
kinds. The Atlantic lavas, on the other hand, are predominantly
olivine basalts, with trachytes and phonolites. Another feature
which is especially striking is that practically all the rocks carry-
ing nepheline and other felspathoids or "alkali minerals "are
found in the Atlantic suites. This has been regarded as proving
that the Atlantic magmas are richer in alkalis and the Pacific in
lime, but it is by no means certain that this is the explanation.
In fact, a full chemical discussion of the relations of these rock-
series to one another has yet to be undertaken, but from the work
of Becke it seems that the Pacific are essentially richer in silica,
and in the " light " elements generally, while the Atlantic con-
tain more of the " heavy " elements, such as magnesia, iron,
chromium, titanium. Several authors have pointed out that the
rocks of the Pacific group are associated with a folded mountain
chain and consequently have appeared in a region undergoing
lateral compression and upheaval ; the Atlantic, on the other hand,
are associated with a region of subsidence, with vertical disloca-
tions along lines of fissure and faulting in other words, a region
subjected to lateral tension and depression. A third group of
igneous rocks, very well characterized and distinct in many
respects, is the pillow lavas or spilites, which are perhaps the most
abundant volcanic rocks of the earlier geological periods and are
very widespread in the Lake Superior district, middle Europe,
Wales and Scotland. Among these lavas types rich in soda are
common and albitization is a frequent pneumatolytic change.
These rocks seem to accompany depressions formed in conse-
quence of folding.
The attempt to classify volcanic magmas in groups which
accompany definite types of earth movements, folding and fault-
ing, is exceedingly fascinating. A general survey of the world's
volcanics from this standpoint has been undertaken by Iddings
and Stark, but the results are by no means conclusive. A great
deal has yet to be done before we understand the full range of
variation of many local magmas, their relation to one another and
the approximate age of the intrusive types. It seems, however,
that Atlantic, Pacific and spilitic suites are not in all cases sharply
distinct. Harker believes, for example, that the Hebridean
Tertiary magmas of Scotland are Atlantic with some Pacific
affinities. He had formerly classified them as Pacific. Bailey
and Clough have found in the same district a group of pillow
lavas occupying a central volcanic subsidence or " caldera." In
that case, accordingly, all three types occur in one narrowly cir-
cumscribed area. If so, they cannot be regarded as distinct types
of magma, but rather as facies which may be developed or may
appear as offshoots of a magma. Their connexion with definite
types of telluric movement becomes doubtful. American petrol-
ogists also, from a study of the Tertiary magmas of the Western
States, are by no means satisfied that the alkali rocks, such as
phonolites, tephrites and leucitic lavas, may not belong to a
definitely Pacific assemblage. In Australia, Atlantic and Pacific
magmas seem to be intermixed, but in Africa Atlantic igneous
rocks accompany fault-fissuring, and this extends into Arabia
and Palestine. There is no doubt that on a broad scale the Atlan-
tic and Pacific types have appeared again and again in the earth's
history, and have maintained their distinctive characters. The
distinction, however, is not absolute, and the rule has many
exceptions. Recognition of a number of additional types has
recently been proposed, and along this line it is probable that
there may be considerable advance in the near future.
Experiments on Constitution of Binary Magmas. A molten rock
magma may be regarded as a liquid composed principally of oxides
(mostly silicates). It crystallizes from a variety of causes, of which
cooling is the most important, though relief of pressure and escape of
gases may also play a part.
The laws followed in such a case have been very carefully in-
vestigated, not only for metals, salts and organic compounds but
also for many minerals. It is generally true that a mixture of two
substances will have a lower consolidation point than one of the pure
substances, and, if mixed in certain proportions, they will consolidate
at lower temperatures than either of the components. Thus salt
and ice, if mixed in the solid state at temperatures a little below the
freezing-point of water, will melt, forming a liquid which is colder
than the ice originally taken; and aqueous solutions of salts have
always a freezing-point lower than that of pure water. For each pair
of substances there is a definite mixture which has the lowest tem-
perature of consolidation and this is known as the eutectic mixture.
In the diagram (fig. i) the
horizontal coordinate repre-
sents composition, the ver-
tical representstemperature.
A mixture of any given com-
position is represented by a
vertical line and different
points in that line represent
different temperatures of
the mixture. The two slop-
ing lines AE and EB divide
the diagra m into two regions,
of which the uppermost in-
dicates substances in a pure-
ly liquid state; below the
line the substance is in part
or wholly in a solid condition.
A vertical (composition)
line, accordingly, when it
cuts these lines shows where a substance begins to crystallize. The
point where the curves meet is the eutectic point E, and shows the
composition of the mixture which has the lowest freezing tempera-
ture and the temperature at which it consolidates. The horizontal
line drawn through the eutectic point separates the diagram into
two regions, a lower one in which the substance is entirely solid
and an upper one in which liquid is present. If we take any vertical
line in the diagram, it will indicate a mixture of definite composi-
tion ST and, followed downwards, it shows the changes taking
place in such a mixture as the temperature falls. Above the line
AE the mixture is a cooling liquid. At S crystallization begins. At
T the last liquid portion disappears and consolidation is complete ;
below T the substance is a cooling solid. The diagram refers only to
substances that crystallize on solidifying; glasses are solids which
essentially resemble highly viscous liquids in their properties. When
crystallization begins the substance which is in excess of the eu-
tectic mixture will crystallize out first, the residual liquid becom-
ing poorer in that component until it has reached the eutectic
composition, when the two components will go on crystallizine
simultaneously till all is solid. The composition of the liquid will
travel along the line AE from S to the point E, where it will remain
constant.
Such a diagram is based on a series of experiments in which a known
mixture of two substances (very carefully purified) is heated in a
furnace (generally electric) to a temperature well above its melting-
point. The mixture is then allowed to cool slowly and steadily, and
its temperature recorded at short intervals or continuously by some
form of pyrometer or recording thermometer. The rate of cooling
can be very accurately ascertained and plotted (fig. 2). Crystalliza-
tion is attended by liberation of heat (the liquid losing its latent
heat as it passes into a solid), and this involves a retardation of
cooling. The simple liquid cools at a uniform rate; crystallization
COMPOSITION
Fl G. I
100%B
8 4
PETROLOGY
begins and the cooling slows down ; at a certain point the liquid is all
crystallized and the mixture, now a solid mass of crystals, will go
on cooling uniformly. The change of slope in the curve of cooling
accordingly corresponds to the passage of the substance from S to E
in temperature (or from the purely liquid to the purely solid areas).
The physical condition of the substance at any given temperature
can also be ascertained by the method of chilling. If the charge be
taken from the furnace and plunged in water (or in some cases mer-
cury) the mixture consolidates almost immediately, and any parts
which were liquid will assume the form of a glass, or a very finely
crystalline aggregate. This is especially the case with silicates,
many of which crystallize with difficulty. Microscopic investigation
will enable us to determine the nature and relative proportions
of the crystals which were present. The results obtained can be
checked by experiments on mixtures having a different composition,
and in this way a complete diagram built up on a sound experi-
mental basis. The case outlined .above is the simplest known.
Many complications may appear, requiring special precautions and
elaborate investigation. Thus the liquid may not begin to crystallize
at the proper point on the upper curve, as some substances crystallize
with difficulty and the liquid becomes " undercooled." A heating-up
experiment may be tried to check the cooling experiments; the same
phenomena should appear in the reverse order if no complications
are present. Many silicates crystallize with great difficulty in or-
dinary crucible experiments (such as the felspars, albite and ortho-
clase). Again, it may be impossible to melt the mixture we desire
to investigate in any furnace which is suitable for experiments of
this kind. Magnesia, alumina, and lime are examples of substances
which cannot be fused at temperatures such as 1600 to 1700 C.,
which are the limits of accurate work in our laboratories at present ;
part of the diagram accordingly will be incomplete when substances
like these are studied, but an approximate solution can generally be
made by extrapolation. Another frequent complication is the ap-
pearance of transformations in the solid state. The first mineral to
crystallize becomes unstable as the temperature falls and changes
spontaneously into another crystalline form of the same substance.
The change will be attended by an alteration in the slope of the cool-
ing curve, for in such cases heat is either liberated or absorbed, and
successful chilling tests can often be made by which the mineral
transformation can be clearly demonstrated. Silica, for example,
appears in three minerals, cristobalite, tridymite and quartz, the
transition temperatures being 1470 and 870. Each of these min-
erals occurs in two forms. Carbonate of lime has a high-tem-
perature and a low-temperature form. Below 1190 calcium meta-
silicate crystallizes as wollastonite; above that temperature it forms
another mineral, pseudo-wollastonite. Many of these " high-
temperature " forms are not known as natural minerals, and as a
rule they are very rare in rocks, probably because rock cooling is
essentially a slow process, and the most stable forms at low tem-
peratures are the only ones likely to be present when the mass has
completely cooled. Some very interesting results have been obtained
in this field of research ; for example, it is known that quartz has two
TEMP.
15% B
60% B
TIME
FlG. 2.
modifications, one above 575", the other below that temperature,
and it has been proposed to use quartz as a geological thermometer
to show at what temperature it crystallizea in a rock mass. If
above 575 it would appear as quartz and on cooling would pass inta
o-quartz ; and by various indications, such as crystalline form, cracks,
etc., a record of this transformation may be obtained.
Very interesting modifications of the process of crystallization
occur when two or more of the minerals formed are members of an
isomorphous series and can in consequence form mixed crystals.
This is very common among the minerals of igneous rocks, of which
the felspars, pyroxenes, olivine (and probably also hornblende,
mica, nepheline and the felspathoids) all belong to isomorphous
series. If we have, for example, two components such as albite and
anorthite, they will tend to form mixed crystals (known generally as
plagioclase felspars). Anorthite has the higher melting-point
(about 1550 C.); albite crystallizes in crucibles only with great
reluctance at a temperature about nooC. A mixture containing
equal proportions of anorthite and albite will melt at about 1450,
and on cooling will begin to form crystals at that temperature.
These crystals will contain about 60% anorthite that is to say,
they are enriched in the less fusible component. As crystallization
proceeds, the felspar that separates becomes gradually less rich in
anorthite. The composition of the liquid also alters, because the
crystallization is abstracting anorthite molecules more rapidly than
albite molecules. This process may go on till the felspar has all
crystallized, the last deposited being near albite in composition, and
the crystals, examined microscopically, will show zones, of which
the internal are rich in anorthite and the external are progressively
richer and richer in albite. But if sufficient time is allowed, a reaction
sets in between the crystals and the liquid ; in other words, the fel-
spars crystallized are not in equilibrium with the magma except at
the moment of crystallization, and as the magma becomes richer in
albite it will attack the early plagioclase, replacing it by a variety
containing more albite. These phenomena are well known to
petrologists as zonal structure of plagioclase felspars; and corrosion
of the cores and internal zones of the crystals is almost universal in
such rocks as basalt and andesite. Rocks of similar composition which
have cooled very slowly, such as gabbro and norite, as a rule do not
contain zoned plagioclase crystals, no doubt because equilibrium
has been attained and homogeneous crystals formed by the process
above described.
FIG. 3.
This may be illustrated by fig. 3. The horizontal line represents
composition, the vertical temperature. A is 100% albite, B is 100%
anorthite. The upper curve is the liquidus above which there is only
liquid; the lower is the solidus below which all is crystallized :
between these lines is a space representing stages in which crystalliza-
tion is going on but still incomplete. Each point on the solidus has a
corresponding point on the liquidus, which is found by drawing a
horizontal line across the intervening space. A mixture of any
composition, say a at ab, is completely liquid. As the temperature
falls it begins to crystallize at b. The crystals formed have the
composition c. Further cooling results in the formation of crystals
at b the composition being c'. At b* all is crystallized, the last crys-
tals being d. If resorption is completely accomplished the final
crystals have the composition x, but they are usually more rich in
albite: this will depend on the rate of cooling, the number and
size of the crystals formed, and on a variety of other factors.
The theoretical investigations of Roozeboom and Gibbs have
shown that five types of crystallization of isomorphous substances
may occur, in some of which the mutual solubility of the two com-
ponents is unlimited, while in others it is limited so that only mixed
crystals of certain types may occur. Several of these have been
identified in rock-forming minerals, and others are suspected though
not yet proved.
Ternary Magmas. Magmas of three components (ternary) are
much more complicated than binary .magmas. To represent their
behaviour a triangular diagram is necessary. Usually an equilateral
triangle is employed and the distance from any point to the three
sides of the triangle is made to represent the three components of
any mixture in their true proportions; the sum of these three per-
pendiculars is constant and equal to the height of the triangle: if
lines be drawn through the point, parallel to the sides of the triangle,
they will cut the sides at distances which will represent the relative
proportions of the components. Any mixture of three components
can be represented by one point in this triangle. To represent tem-
perature another coordinate is required which is perpendicular to the
plane of the triangular diagram : and a solid model must be made,
resembling a triangular prism with flat base and an irregular surface
representing the consolidation temperatures as the top of the prism.
Each of the three vertical surfaces of the prism represents the be-
haviour of the mixture of two of the components.
To enable us to construct such a model a very large number of
experiments must be made, first with binary mixtures and then with
mixtures of the three substances. Their exact temperature of first
crystallization must be ascertained in each case and also the nature
of the mineral which crystallizes. Simultaneous crystallization of
two minerals will follow, and the temperature at which the second
mineral appears is to be determined. Three minerals will ultimately
PETROLOGY
-ac,
Ebc
appear, and the last process will probably be the formation of a
ternary eutectic at which the temperature remains steady till the
liquid disappears and finally the completely solid mass cools down.
As a very simple case we
may take the diagram in fig. 4.
A, B and C represent the
three pure substances. AB,
BC and AC represent mix-
tures of two components.
Ear, Ebc and & represent the
three binary eutectic mix-
tures. The ternary eutectic
is represented by Eat*, con-
taining about equal quantities
of C and B and a smaller
amount of A. If a represent
the composition of a certain
liquid which is allowed to cool
and crystallize, composition
will change along the line A &.
At a certain point the A
component will crystallize out and the liquid will become poorer in A
(richer in B and C), and the composition will change from a towards
b (away from point A). After a time the liquid becomes satura-
ted for b which will start to crystallize, and now the liquid -changes
composition along the line bE a kc as the temperature continues to
fall; finally C also begins to crystallize, and the ternary eutectic
point is reached at which the three components crystallize simul-
taneously in definite proportions (represented by the position of
Eotc) until it is completely solidified.
It is probable that nothing quite so simple as this occurs in
ordinary rock-forming minerals, at least the silicates, but some
metallic alloys show this type. In considering silicates the following
considerations must be kept in mind : (a) The liability to form com-
pounds, which behave as new substances with their own fusion-
points and eutectics. (b) The occurrence of isomorphous compounds
is almost universal and these form mixed crystals unstable in
the changing magma, and liable to resorption (this may upset the
formation of a ternary eutectic altogether), (c) Compounds may
appear at an early stage which subsequently become unstable and
are replaced by different minerals (incongruent). (d) Many silicates
refuse to crystallize in ordinary crucible experiments (except in
presence of solvents which do not appear in the final product).
We must also keep in mind that in the crystallization of rocks
certain conditions prevail which may modify the process to an un-
known extent. Thus: (a) All magmas contain gases of various
kinds which may have a very powerful influence in determining
what minerals will form, (b) Intrusive magmas are under great
pressure and the pressure diminishes as they rise to the surface;
the pressure may act directly or by increasing the concentration of
the gases dissolved in the magma, (c) Cooling in deep-seated mag-
mas is extremely slow. This will tend to prevent supersaturation
by undercooling and lessen the chance of the abnormality in the
sequence of crystallization which may appear in rapidly cooled
melts. It will also favour the complete transformation of early un-
stable minerals into stable permanent forms. Many varieties of
minerals have already been obtained experimentally which are not
known to occur in rocks. They are stable only at high temperatures
(and possibly under low pressures).
As an example of the effect of isomorphous minerals on the se-
quence of crystallization we may take a mixture consisting of 50 %
diopside and 50% plagioclase (containing equal proportions of
albite and anorthite). The composition diagram (fig. 5) is a triangle
with each mineral at one of the corners and the mixture is repre-
sented by a point (F). Crystallization begins with a separation of
diopside (supposed to be a simple mineral and not an isomorphous
mixture, as it would usually be in rocks) at about 1275. At 1245
the excess of diopside (G) has separated out, and felspar begins to
crystallize. It has about 75% anorthite (H). Thereafter diopside
and felspar both crystallize, but as the temperature travels along the
line EGD from G to K the composition of the felspar changes from
H to L (if we suppose that all the early felspar which is unduly rich
in anorthite is stage by stage absorbed). The resulting rock has the
mineral composition above stated; but if resorption of felspar is
incomplete the last-formed felspar is richer in albite and has a
composition T. The felspar crystals in that case are zonal with basic
centres. If at any time crystallization is suddenly brought to an end,
a glassy ground-mass will be formed, which is richer in soda and
silica than the original magma and contains zoned felspar crystals.
This is exceedingly like what takes place in many basaltic lavas.
Again, if the original mixture had been richer in felspar, so that the
composition point lay below the line DE, felspar would have crys-
tallized out first. This seems to be in keeping with the structure of
many dolerites, which contain felspar partly enclosed in augite
FIG. 6.
crystals of later formation (ophitic structure), while others show that
the augite appears in porphyritic crystals and began crystallizing
before felspar. Another interesting feature of this diagram is that
there is no tertiary eutectic point, and the liquid residue continually
changes in composition up to its final disappearance.
The phenomena of these component systems are extraordinarily
varied. One of the best known is the system AUOj-CaO-SiOj which
has been very fully tested at the Geophysical Laboratory in Wash-
ington by Shepherd and Rankin. A copy of their diagram is given
here (fig. 6). It is divided into fields, of which six are occupied by
substances known to occur as minerals, cristobalite, tridymite,
wollastonite, anorthite, sillimanite and corundum. In each of these
fields the mineral named will crystallize if the temperature of the
melt falls. The fields are separated by lines which show under what
circumstances the two minerals whose fields adjoin will crystallize.
Where three fields meet, the conditions exist at which three minerals
will exist simultaneously (or, to express it otherwise, are in equi-
librium with a liquid of the composition indicated). In no case do four
fields meet in one point.
This system is also of much interest to technologists desiring to
understand the chemistry of the manufacture of Portland cement.
This is a mixture of lime, alumina and silica, with a fairly definite
composition, and the compounds which form on fusing or sintering
the mixture are indicated by the diagram. Similarly, the CaO corner
of the figure shows what is the result of heating lime containing a
little alumina and silica (rmpure limestone) to a very high tempera-
ture. Silica is also a refractory mineral and is used in silica-bricks
and ganisters for lining furnaces. A little lime and alumina are
mixed with it (either naturally or expressly to obtain certain results),
and the behaviour of such mixtures is indicated by the appropriate
corner of the ternary scheme. These investigations accordingly are
of the greatest value in many industries such as pottery, steel-
making, glass-melting, brick-making, cement manufacture, lime-
burning and the quartz-glass industry. During the war the Carnegie
Geophysical Institute at Washington, which has earned great fame
86
PFLANZER-BALTIN PHARMACOLOGY
for these researches, was able to direct the manufacture of chemical
and optical glasses in the United States in a most successful manner,
and performed very valuable services to American industry.
Theory of Ternary Mixtures. The theory of ternary mixtures has
been very fully worked out mathematically by Willard Gibbs,
Backhuis Roozeboom, Schreinemakers, Smits, Kuenen, Tammann
and others, and may be said to be well understood in its main ap-
plications. Experimental investigation has also made great progress.
It is a laborious matter, requiring great skill and very elaborate
appliances. The diagram we have given showing the tertiary system
CaO, AU Oj, Si O 2 , required over 7,000 experiments, in some of which
the heating had to be continued for many hours and even for days;
and the thermal results had usually to be checked by microscopic
examination of the product. Other systems equally important have
received very careful study. These are not so simple as the instance
quoted, because mineral transformations, either during or after
crystallization of the melts, often give rise to many complications.
Thus, for example, CaSiOj crystallizes as pseudo-wollastonite at
high temperatures, which may change to wollastonite at low tem-
peratures. MgSiO 3 has four forms kupferite, magnesia amphibole,
enstatite and clinoenstatite. Where both these substances separate
from the melt, none of the above-named minerals appears, but a
diopside clinoenstatite solid solution or isomorphous mixture, which
belongs to the common group of minerals known as the pyroxenes.
These facts are of the greatest interest to both mineralogists and
petrologists. They have introduced many new minerals (artificial)
to our knowledge, and taught us their relationships at atmospheric
pressures in certain dry meTts. They have also enabled us to under-
stand many of the peculiarities of the minerals that occur in rocks,
and the method of their origin.
As another instance we may quote the relations of fprsterite
(Mg 2 SiO 4 ) and rustalite (MgSiOj). Forsterite may crystallize from
melts of suitable composition and after a time it may become
unstable in the residual magma; then it is dissolved up or "cor-
roded " and clinoenstatite replaces it. Again, if an enstatite
(MgSiOj) mixture be fused and allowed to cool, forsterite begins to
separate out ; it will tend to be reabsorbed and converted at a lower
temperature to clinoenstatite, but if this be prevented the mixture
solidifies as forsterite, clinoenstatite and quartz. To the petrologist
this is of great interest, because forsterite is one of the constituents
of olivine, a very common mineral of the basic igneous rocks. Now
olivine generally occurs along with some member of the pyroxene
group, and the olivine crystals show rounded outlines, which have
been taken to indicate corrosion or resorption by the magma after
crystallization with concurrent formation of pyroxene. In some
rocks there is clear evidence that olivine crystallized early and sub-
sequently was entirely dissolved. In other rocks olivine is found
enveloped in clusters of enstatite crystals which have evidently
formed at its expense; and it is a very frequent characteristic of the
olivines of gabbro and norite that they are surrounded by " reac-
tion rims " or " corrosion borders " consisting of enstatite, tremolite
and other magnesian silicates that have a higher percentage of
silica than olivine itself. The meaning of these phenomena was
fairly well apprehended by petrologists, and now their conclusions
have been confirmed by experimental evidence. Another feature
of some interest is that, in the ternary system under consideration,
it has been shown that forsterite may crystallize early, then dis-
appear by corrosion, and a second generation of forsterite may sub-
sequently crystallize. Whether this is a common phenomenon is
not yet known, and its exact relation to the frequent appearance of
minerals in two generations in rocks remains to be demonstrated.
The number of ternary systems that have as yet been fully in-
vestigated is small, though the results are of the highest importance.
Those which contain the alkalis potash and soda present certain
special difficulties, such as the volatility of part of the mixtures and
the difficulty of crystallizing some of the minerals. Rapid progress is
being made and it is unlikely that experimental difficulties will retard
the advance of knowledge. A special case, of the greatest possible
interest to the petrologist, arises where one or more of the com-
ponents are volatile. Natural magmas are probably always richly
charged with gases. The theory of such systems has been explored
by Schreinemakers, Smits and others. Experiments with mixtures
enclosed in steel bombs which can withstand great pressures at high
temperatures have been very successful in certain cases, but as yet
only the borders of this field have been explored. A good deal of
work has been done on the dissociation pressure of sulphides of the
metals, a subject of great importance as regards the paragenesis of
natural sulphides and the conditions under which mineral veins
have been formed. The effect of steam in the formation of silicates
is under investigation and during the next few years will probably
be the subject of much research.
Quaternary Mixtures. We have seen that systems of three com-
ponents are much more complicated than systems of two com-
ponents; and the addition of a fourth component greatly increases
the difficulties. The theory of such systems is not as yet fully ex-
plored; in fact, it is quite probable that many of the problems will
not be solvable by mathematics. No four-component system has yet
been completely studied, though parts of such systems have re-
ceived investigation. As a diagram a solid figure bounded by three
equilateral triangles may be used, and projections similar to those
employed to represent the faces of crystals have been tried. Systems
more complicated than the quaternary systems are at present be-
yond mathematical and experimental investigation.
' Constitution of Rocks. In rocks the least number of components
that can be regarded as essential is seven (SiO 2 , Al 2 Os, Fe 2 O 3 ,
CaO, MgO, K 2 O and Na 2 O). In rock analyses as a rule from 12 to
20 components are ascertained, but most of these are in small amount
and may be regarded as unessential. To the seven main coinponents
we must add the volcanic gases (such as H 2 O, F, Cl, HC1, .SO 2 ,
B 2 O 3 ), most of which appear only in very small quantity in the
crystallized rock, but are believed to exert a powerful influence in
determining the crystalline phases that appear. High pressures
must also be employed, and in some cases it is certain that the pres-
sures were by no means constant. For these and other reasons it is
clear that the genesis of such a rock as granite or basalt presents
problems of the highest order of difficulty.
In the preliminary stages it may be possible to simplify the prob-
lem by considering rock magmas, not as a mixture of the seven
oxides above named, but as mixtures of minerals. If three minerals
be taken a ternary system is the result. For example, a granite
might be regarded as consisting of orthoclase, quartz and albite; a
nepheline syenite as consisting of nepheline, albite and aegirine;
a basalt as composed of olivine, diopside, anorthite. Such systems,
of course, are a mere approximation and it is already known that
it may not be safe to treat them as simply ternary. In the system
diopside-forsterite-silica, for example, it is proved that under certain
conditions spinel crystallizes, and the reactions can only be regarded
as those of a four-component mixture. Another difficulty that is
bound to prove important is the occurrence of isomorphous minerals.
In petrology this is practically universal. Except quartz, all the
common rock-forming minerals are members of complicated iso-
morphous groups (felspars, nepheline, sodalite, micas, pyroxenes,
amphiboles, olivines) ; and even in simple ternary systems, if two of
the three minerals are isomorphous, there may be, strictly speaking,
no eutectic mixture as the last stage of crystallization. It is not too
much to say that the crystallization of rocks is very largely a problem
of the formation of isomorphous crystals, and it is unsafe to apply
to rocks the results derived from mixtures of minerals that do not
show similar relations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the recent advances in physico-chemical and
experimental petrology no English textbook is available. Marker's
Natural History of Igneous Rocks (1909) gives a sketch of the subject
from the standpoint of its time, but is now out of date. A more
adequate work is Boeke's Physikalische-Chemische Petrographie
('9'5)i which gives full references and is the best general account.
Vogt's Silikat Schmeldosungen (1904) is interesting but very specula-
tive. His Sulphid Silikatschmelzuneen (in course of publication)
deals with some special aspects of the problem. The fundamental
works on the theory of equilibrium are Roozeboom's Helerogene
Gleichgewichte and its continuation (3rd vol.) by Schreinemakers.
See also Bancroft, The Phase Rule, and Findlay, The Phase Rule;
Tammann, Krystalliziren und Schmelzen. For English and American
students the best authorities are the papers published by the workers
of the Geophysical Institution in Washington. See also Niggli,
Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (1920), Die Leichtfluchtigen Bestandtheile
im Magma (1920); Daly, Igneous Rocks and their Origin (1914);
Iddings, Igneous Rocks (1913); Holmes, Nomenclature of Petrol-
ogy (1920) ; Stark, "Petrographische Provinzen" (in Fortschritte der
Mineralogie, 1914). (J. S. F.)
PFLANZER-BALTIN, KARL, FREIHERR VON (1855- ),
Austro-Hungarian general, was born at Pecs in Hungary in 1855.
He served in the cavalry and on the general staff, but in 1914
found himself, on account of precarious health, unattached, and
it was only in the autumn of that year, when Rumania appeared
to be turning against the Central Powers, that he was charged
with the defence of Transylvania. But when the Russians at
this period crossed the Carpathians, and there was immediate
danger of their eruption into the plains of Hungary, Pflanzer-
Baltin, with a division improvised by his brilliant talent for
organization out of next to nothing, threw himself on this enemy,
and conducted the defensive in the form of a series of daring
offensive movements. After fighting with varying success in the
southern part of Eastern Galicia and in the Bukovina the VII.
Army under his command was driven back by Brussilov's offen-
sive in June 1916, whereupon he was relieved of his command.
In the summer of 1918 the Austro-Hungarian front in ; Albania
yielded before the attack of the Entente army. Pflanzer-Baltin,
entrusted with the command in this theatre of operations, won
back, after a brief and powerful attack, the old positions south-
wards of Fjeri and Berat the last considerable success which fell
to the Austro-Hungarian army in the field. (A.-K.)
PHARMACOLOGY (see 21.347). The science of experimental
pharmacology is a product chiefly of the last half-century, and
PHARMACOLOGY
the subject has more recently made rapid advances, due largely
to the creation of new laboratories and the institution of new
chairs devoted to pharmacological research. The chief impor-
tance of the work lies in the application of the knowledge gained
of the physiological action of drugs to the treatment of disease in
man and animals; and, though there have been periods when this
branch of therapy in spite of its antiquity and persistence
has been suspect, recent research leading to new, more accurate,
and more scientific use of drugs has placed the subject in a posi-
tion so indubitable that the time is not in sight when the practice
of medicine or surgery will be able to dispense with its services.
The main directions of recent advances in knowledge may be
indicated. The action of familiar drugs becomes daily more ac-
curately known, leading to a juster estimate of their value and
greater precision in the use of them in disease. New remedies are
being introduced and older remedies superseded. The enormous
development of synthetic chemistry has furnished many potential
remedies, all of which are now subjected to pharmacological in-
vestigation before they are used on man. One relatively recent
development which has proved fruitful in results of great practi-
cal importance in the treatment of disease is that of experi-
mental therapeutics, where the cure of disease artificially pro-
duced in experimental animals is investigated. So far this has
been most successful in the case of experimental trypanosomi-
asis, largely owing to the ease with which a disease of this nature
can be induced in laboratory animals and the constancy and
certainty of its duration.
Here only such developments of pharmacology need be men-
tioned as have already passed from the by-way of mere academic
interest into the highroad of practical application.
Of the simpler saline compounds the familiar Epsom salts mag-
nesium sulphate-^has been found to have more interesting actions
than that for which it is generally used. When given as a purgative
very little of it is absorbed into the blood, owing to the difficulty
which both magnesium and sulphate ions experience in passing
through membranes like the lining of the gut. But if injected
hypodermically or intravenously in sufficient quantity it has a
powerful action on the nervous system, causing a kind of motor
paralysis and anaesthesia. This effect of magnesium for the
sulphate ion takes no part in it has been utilized in the treatment
of tetanus, in which condition magnesium salts have been injected
intraspinally, with benefit in many cases in so far as the relief of
symptoms is concerned. This depressant action of magnesium on
the nervous system is antagonized in a dramatic way by calcium
salts; an animal paralysed by magnesium being restored, in suit-
able cases, to a normal condition in a few seconds by intravenous
injection of a soluble calcium salt.
Of the heavy metals arsenic and antimony have in recent years
claimed most attention. Both arsenic and antimony have been used
empirically in the treatment of syphilis for over a century but with-
out having any great vogue. When it was discovered that organisms
of the trypanosome type are the cause of syphilis and of many tropi-
cal diseases, and that arsenic is a powerful poison for such organisms,
an experimental justification for the employment of this substance
in the treatment of syphilis was furnished. The drawback to its use
was that it is so poisonous to higher animals that it is difficult to get
into the blood a concentration of arsenic sufficient to kill the para-
sitic organisms there present without injuring the host. It was
found, however, that certain organic compounds of arsenic could be
made which were very much less poisonous for mammals though
their toxicity for trypanosomes was retained or enhanced. Pursuing
this line of investigation of a large number of arsenical compounds
Ehrlich eventually discovered and recommended, as a result of
animal experiments, salvarsan as a remedy for syphilis. The value
of salvarsan and of nearly related compounds in the treatment of
syphilis is now common knowledge. One interesting point in regard
to this is that those unicellular organisms of that type which causes
syphilis readily become immune to the action of arsenic. It is there-
fore possible that, with the almost universal use of salvarsan now-
adays, strains of syphilitic infection may be developed which are
immune to arsenic ; and for people infected with syphilis from these
sources arsenical compounds like salvarsan would no longer have
any remedial value. The risk of this unfortunate sequel is small be-
cause usually salvarsan treatment renders the patient no longer
liable to infect other people and only in this way could an " arsenic-
fast " infecting organism be produced, but the risk would seem to be
not negligible. Fortunately no such immunity to mercury occurs.
The fact that antimony belongs to the same chemical group as
arsenic suggested the possibility that it, too, might be valuable in
these diseases and pharmacological investigation showed that
antimony has for trypanosomes a toxicity superior even to that of
arsenic. Though no organic compound of antimony has been dis-
covered comparable in advantageous properties with the salvarsan
compound of arsenic, the familiar tartar emetic (potassio-tartrate of
antimony) has been found, when administered intravenously,
adequate for the treatment of two important diseases, Kala-Agar
and Bilharzia diseases due to organisms different from trypano-
somes and for which no other effective remedy is known. These dis-
coveries have led to a revival of the use of antimony in medicine;
in the I7th and i8th centuries especially, antimony was regarded
almost as a panacea, but later it lost a prestige which it is now
regaining.
One of the established pharmacological actions of lead is to stimu-
late involuntary muscle of every kind, as exemplified in cases of
industrial poisoning by the occurrence of colic caused by irregular
and spasmodic contraction of the muscle of the bowel. While lead-
poisoning tends to become less common, owing to trade precautions
and earlier recognition of it, stress has been laid on the frequency
with which lead is used, especially in industrial districts in the N. of
England, to procure criminal abortion, which it tends to do -though
only in poisonous quantities by the irritant action of lead on the
muscle of the uterus. For this purpose lead plaster, which is easily
procurable by the laity, is frequently used by ingestion.
Of the simpler derivatives of benzol, carbolic acid itself, which was
first employed by Lister as an antiseptic now over half a century ago,
has gone largely out of use, especially as a surgical antiseptic, though
certain closely related compounds have important antiseptic uses.
Thus benzoic acid and benzoates are very widely used as antiseptics
in preserved foods and are, so far as careful experiments have shown,
harmless in the quantities used for this purpose. Salicylic acid has
come to be a favourite antiseptic for many infective skin diseases.
The group of antipyretic derivatives of benzol continue to be
widely employed not so much for reducing febrile temperatures as
for their action in relieving pain, which they effect by a paralysing
action on that part of the brain which is responsible for the percep-
tion of pain. A large number of new compounds of this type have
been investigated but so far only one of them threatens to usurp the
supremacy of the older phenacetin and antipyrine, namely aspirin.
Aspirin is a compound of salicylic acid and acetic acid. Salicylic
acid and its compounds have a very important, and partly specific,
effect in rheumatic fever in which they relieve the pain and reduce
the temperature; but aspirin is more effective in relieving non-
rheumatic pain such as headache. It is a relatively harmless drug;
but occasionally alarming, if not serious, symptoms are produced by
it in people specially susceptible to its action, the most frequent
symptom being oedematous swelling of the face, which, however,
disappears when the drug is discontinued.
Though much new work has been done on the effect of moderate
doses of alcohol, little has been added which was beyond the shrewd
suspicion of those who have intelligently experienced its effects
throughout the ages. That it has killed more than it has cured is
more than probable; that, if the imperfection of human nature per-
sists, alcohol, if it is banished, will be replaced by something worse
is not unlikely. Numerous new artificial hypnotics have been inves-
tigated, of which veronal, legitimately used, has proved safe and
efficient. Unfortunately cases of veronal habit have become in-
creasingly frequent, and deaths from overdosage, of which the lay
papers have afforded numerous examples in recent years, must have
served to warn the general public of its dangers.
Of the general anaesthetics ether has steadily gained in favour for
routine purposes. To get rid of its irritant action on the lungs and
bronchi, it has been administered in limited cases intravenously and
by rectal injection, but experiments are in progress which may result
in the discovery of an anaesthetic ether deprived even of the slight
drawbacks which at present attach to it.
With regard to the great group of alkaloids, much light has been
thrown in recent years both on their chemical constitution and their
exact pharmacological actions, and no apology need be made for
taking the alkaloids of opium first. These can be divided chemically
into two groups, of which morphine is representative of the one and
papaverine of the other. The two groups differ considerably in
their actions, as might be expected. The papaverine group has a
much more pronounced action than the morphine group in relieving
spasmodic contraction of smooth muscle a pharmacological ex-
planation of the clinically observed fact that preparations of opium,
which contain a mixture of the alkaloids, are better for relieving colic,
for example, than pure morphine. Preparations like tincture of
opium have long been used for the relief of pain by external applica-
tion, in spite of the fact that pharmacological evidence was against
its having any action on the sensory nerve ends, but more recent
and exact research has shown that some of the alkaloids have a
distinct local anaesthetic action, apart from the effect they have
in relieving pain by an action on the central nervous system.
The stimulant action of caffeine on the higher functions of the
brain is recognized in the world-wide practice of consuming beverages,
such as tea and coffee, which owe their stimulant action to the
caffeine that they contain. But caffeine also stimulates the kidney
and causes an increased flow of urine. Caffeine is chemically a tn-
methyl-xanthine and two closely allied compounds, theobromine and
theophylline dimethyl-xanthines are more powerful diuretics
while having less effect on the central nervous system. They are
used, in preference to caffeine, where diuretic action alone is desired.
88
PHILADELPHIA
Cocaine is another alkaloid which was discovered as the result
of the use by natives of S. America of the leaves of the coca plant as
a stimulant. The active ingredient of these leaves is the alkaloid
cocaine, which was found to be a powerful local anaesthetic and
which rapidly displaced from use the older and less efficient remedies
for the prevention of local pain. But the stimulant action of cocaine
on the brain has not been overlooked by civilized races; and the
habit, insidious and disastrous, of indulging in cocaine as a stimulant
has become a serious problem especially in America and in France
and has necessitated restrictive legislation upon the sale of the drug
in most countries. This is only one of the many drugs used as a
stimulant-intoxicant, others being morphine and its derivatives and
the various hypnotics. When drugs having this narcotic action are
taken for a very few times the person rapidly develops a craving for
them. If the practice is continued, larger and larger doses have
to be taken to produce the same effect, and in no long period a habit
is developed, always difficult and sometimes impossible to break off.
One disadvantage of cocaine as a local anaesthetic for example
in dentistry is that it is a very poisonous substance if absorbed
into the general bloodstream in sufficient quantity and with sufficient
rapidity. This danger can be prevented to a large extent, as is now
the general practice, by injecting with it adrenaline which causes
such a powerful contraction of the blood-vessels in the region of the
injection that the cocaine is absorbed very slowly ; and, as it is being
excreted continuously, the risk of a dangerously high concentration
occurring in the blood is minimised. Artificial compounds resembling
cocaine have been manufactured which are equally good local
anaesthetics but are less generally poisonous. Such local anaesthetics
act by blocking the passage of impulses through the nerves, so that
painful sensations can no longer pass through the affected nerve.
A similar effect can be produced on the spinal cord if the anaesthetic
is injected so as to come into immediate contact with it. By this
method of " intra-spinal anaesthesia " the whole of the lower limbs
and of the lower part of the body can be rendered insensitive to
pain, because conduction of pain sensations from this region to the
receiving station (the brain) is blocked at the site of injection.
The plant belladonna is said to have been so named because it was
used in by-gone days by ladies fair for the sinister purpose of dilating
their pupils to enhance their charms. The chief active principle of
belladonna atropine is still in daily use for dilating the pupil,
usually under more prosaic circumstances. This effect is only one
example of a general action of atropine in paralysing all parasym-
pathetic nerve terminations throughout the body. Other closely
allied alkaloids found in other plants of the order Alropaceae have
a similar action. One such alkaloid, hyoscine, also called scopolamine,
differs from atropine in its action on the central nervous system,
having a depressant in place of a stimulant action, and hyoscine is
now in common use as a hypnotic for certain conditions. In com-
bination with morphine, it is used to produce general analgesia, with
temporary loss of memory, in the treatment of child-birth, for which
the romantic name of " twilight sleep " has come into vogue.
Hyoscine contains an asymmetric carbon atom and laevo-rotatory
hyoscine is much more active than the dextro-rotatory form. This
difference ^a superior activity of the laevo-com pound has been
found also in the case of other optical isomers, e.g. of adrenaline and
hyoscyamine, and seems to be very generally true.
Ipecacuanha has been used as a remedy for dysentery with varying
success for nearly three centuries. It is now known for certain that
it is curative only in one form of dysentery, that due to an amoeboid
parasite; and also that the curative effect is due to the fact that the
alkaloid emetine found in ipecacuanha is, though possibly only
indirectly, a specific poison for this parasite. Emetine is now given
hypodermically in amoeboid dysentery and an artificial compound of
it emetine bismuth iodide has been found superior to it in the
treatment of chronic dysentery.
Consequent upon the advances in knowledge of the physiology
and pathology of the heart, the cardiac tonics of which digitalis is
the chief have been investigated more fully, and a considerable part
of the advantageous action of digitalis in heart disease, especially
in auricular fibrillation, is found to be due to its impairing the con-
duction from the auricle to the ventricle.
Drugs which cause the muscle of the uterus to contract are of
great value in certain cases of labour, especially for preventing uterine
haemorrhage. The extract of pituitary gland, which powerfully
stimulates the contractions of the uterus, has now largely replaced
the preparations of ergot so long used in midwifery practice for this
purpose. The active principles of ergot itself have at last been
determined and two of them found to be amines tyramine and
histamine derivatives of the aminoacids tyrosine and histidine
respectively. The discovery of the wide incidence of such amines, of
their physiological action and of their chemical relation to adrenaline,
has formed one of the most brilliant and fruitful chapters in modern
biological research and has tended to bring into closer relation and
cooperation the subjects of physiology, pharmacology and pathology.
(J. A. G.*)
PHILADELPHIA (see 21.367), retaining its rank as third city
in the United States, had in 1920 a pop. of 1,823,779, an in-
crease of 274,681 or 17-7% over the 1,549,098 of 1910. The pop.
of 1920 comprised whites, 1,688,313; negroes, 134,098, and
Chinese, Japanese and Indians, 1,368. The increase in the white
pop. since 1910 was 224,942 or 15-4%, while the correspond-
ing increase in the negro pop. was 49,639 or 58-8%. In 1920
males were 908,067, or 49-8%, and females 915,712, or 50-2%.
Government and Finance. The Bullitt Act, under which the
city government had functioned since 1887, gave way in 1920 to
the Woodward Act, which became effective with the beginning
of the term of Mayor J. Hampton Moore, in Jan. 1920. The new
charter differs greatly from its predecessor. Under it a dual coun-
cil is succeeded by a single body composed of one member for each
20,000 assessed voters in each state senatorial district, the mem-
bership in 1920 being twenty-one. The councilmen serve for
four years, and receive a salary of $5,000. In the executive de-
partment, the department of supplies is superseded by a purchas-
ing agent, and the department of health and public charities is
separated into two with a director for each, the title " Public
Charities " giving way to " Public Welfare." Further provisions
enable the city to do its own street cleaning and garbage and ash
removal, and place the great majority of city employees under
civil service rules. By this provision not only small office-holders
but the police and fire departments are removed from the possi-
bilities of political activity.
The cost of city operations has grown steadily since 1911, when,
under provisions of the state school code of May 18 1911, the Board
of Education was separated from the city government. The com-
bined cost in 1911 was $33,846,875.91. With the school expenses
eliminated the cost in 1912 of city government was $30,2 13,067. 44;
and, barring a slight decrease in 1913, has grown steadily until it
reached $48,520,872.92 in 1919. The tax rate, with the school tax
transferred to a separate item, was $1 in 1912, $1.25 in 1917, $1.75
in 1918 and $2.15 in 1920. This rate applied to real estate valued in
1919 at $1,805,494,000. At the close of 1919, the gross funded out-
standing debt of the city was $173,473,450, of which the commis-
sioners of the sinking fund held $31,898400, leaving a net funded
debt outstanding of $141,575,050.
Commerce and Industry. As a distinctive manufacturing centre,
Philadelphia shared the general depression of 1914, but advanced
rapidly with the increasing European demand after the outbreak of
the World War.
This is shown in the following table of the export values of the
port of Philadelphia from 1910-20:
Ex|x>rts
Exports
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
$65,256,949
70,869,648
72,769,617
72,236,967
66,256,811
132,437.556
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
$321,044,815
501,234,069
427,244,212
522,391,091
451,043,216
Importation figures also show a remarkable increase in the decade-
The imports in 1910 were valued at $89,610,401; in 1915, $69,473.
983; and in 1920, $282,157,831. In 1910, 9,871,667 gross tons of
shipping arrived and 9,771,266 tons cleared; in 1915, 9,315,157 tons
arrived and 9,377,901 cleared ; and in 1920, 12,246,427 tons arrived
and 12,820,377 cleared. The following table of coal exportation
shows the increasing value of the product as compared with tonnage
shipped :
Coal exported
in tons
Value
1910
1915
1919
866,148
1,127,415
1,072,773
$2,505,745
3,445,643
6,434,581
This remarkable increase in the activities of the port was made
possible by the completion of large parts of the 35-ft^ channel from
Allegheny Ave., Philadelphia, to the sea. The channel, about 800
ft. wide throughout, was 56 % completed on Dec. 31 1920 (the remain-
ing sections having a depth of 30 ft.), while a similar channel in the
Schuylkill river, from Passyunk Ave. Bridge to the Delaware, was
65 % completed. Both channels are national operations, authorized
by Congressional action and carried on with biennial appropria-
tions. The completion of more than half of the main channel opened
the port to shipping of a heavier tonnage and the result was manifest
in the increased number of lines plying from Philadelphia. In 1914
there were 27 transatlantic and 5 coastal lines; in 1918, at the close
of the World War, 36 transatlantic and 4 coastal ; and in April 1 92 1 ,
49 transatlantic and 10 coastal lines. A survey of the Pennsylvania
department of internal affairs shows that Philadelphia in 1919 had
4,454 manufacturing establishments, with 297,436 employees, and
products of $ 1 ,95 1 ,998,000. The capital invested was $ 1 ,005,658,500.
Metals and metal products were first with 946 establishments,
66,991 employees, and products of $366,780,000. Textile factories
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
89
numbered 502, with 44,294 employees and products of $292,107,000.
The values of other products were: food and kindred lines, $283,-
531,000; chemicals and allied products, $210,240,000; clothing manu-
facture, $189,629,000; paper and printing industry, $146,510,000;
leather and rubber goods, $130,585,000; building and contracting,
$70,344,700; lumber and its remanufacture, $41,747,700; and tobacco
and its products, $27,648,000.
History. Municipal history in 1910-20 was marked with few
items of interest outside of the political aspect and the natural
effect of American participation in the World War. The late John
G. Johnson, the noted corporation lawyer, who died April 14 1917,
gave the city his collection of 1,300 pictures, appraised at $4,445,802,
but estimated to be worth $7,000,000. In May 1919 the art collec-
tion of Mrs. Emily L. Harrison was left to the Pennsylvania Museum
and School of Industrial Art for permanent exhibition in Memorial
Hall. In Oct. of the same year, the George W. Elkins collection
of paintings, containing no masterpieces of the Dutch, Flemish
and 18th-century portrait schools, and valued at approximately
$2,500,000, was left to the city for display in the new Art Museum.
In 1921 the late John Howard McFadden, a cotton broker, left to
the municipality his collection of about 50 18th-century English
paintings, estimated at $2,000,000. The collection includes the
famous Gainsborough, " Lady Rodney," and a number of fine
portraits by Romney and Raeburn. Under the will the collection
was to be housed in the projected Art Museum in Fairmount Park,
provided that it was completed by 1928. In March 1921, the ar-
chitects announced that it would be completed within three years.
A free library was being built in 1921, and a convention hall was
planned for the Parkway, a thoroughfare from City Hall to Fair-
mount Park completed in 1919. Three large municipal piers were
completed between 1916 and 1920 and three more were under con-
struction. An elaborate subway and elevated transit system was
being built by the city, the first line of which, to Frankford, was
expected to be in operation by 1922.
War Period. Philadelphia sent 54,127 men into the National
army through the draft,.and nearly equalled that figure with volun-
teer enlistments in the regular army, National Guard and Marine
Corps. The city supplied the personnel of two full regiments of the
28th Div. and practically the full personnel of two regiments of the
79th Div., National army.
The city subscribed to the different Liberty Loans and to the
Victory Loan as follows :
Loan
Apportion-
ment
Subscribed
Per capita
Subscription
First Liberty .
Second Liberty
Third Liberty
Fourth Liberty
Victory ....
$94,694,750
139,499,950
136,499,950
259,198,000
186,209,450
Si45,i72,95o
234,901,000
J69,35o,6oo
311,306,250
208,482,200
$80
130
94
172
"5
(A. E. McK.)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS (see 21.392). The census of 1918
gave the pop. as 10,350,640, of whom 855,368 were classed as
non-Christians. The 9,495,272 Christians were in 1918: Filipinos,
9,429,857; Chinese, 45,156; Japanese, 6,684; Americans, 6,405;
Spaniards, 4,015; English, 1,063; a ll others, 2,092. The non-
Christians were subdivided into Mahommedans and pagans.
In 1917 H. Otley Beyer, of the University of the Philippines,
estimated the Mahommedan pop. at 315,980, while the pro-
the Romance languages differ among themselves. The English
language is used currently in all parts of the islands, being
spoken by more people than ever spoke Spanish. Literacy is
high among the Christian population. The cultural position of
the Negritos is about the same as when they were discovered by
the Spanish in 1521. The so-called " wild " peoples (all pagans
except for a few who have embraced Christianity) occupy about
the stage of culture exhibited in the i6th century by the ances-
tors of the Christian Filipinos. The culture of the Christian
Filipinos is distinctly occidental and is unique in the Orient.
Manila, the capital, and Baguio, the summer capital, located
in the uplands, in the Mountain province, are the only two
chartered cities. Manila, the metropolis, which coincides with
Manila province, had in 1918 a pop. of 283,613, or 20,858 to the
sq. m., and Baguio had 5,462. In the 55 provinces and sub-
provinces, there were in 1918 88 1 municipalities, 80 municipal
districts, and 15 other subdivisions. The largest municipalities
in 1918 were: Cebu with 65,300 inhabitants; Albay (Luzon),
with 53,105; Iloilo (Panay), with 49,808; Batangas (Luzon),
with 41,182; Ormoc (Leyte), with 38,247; Laoag (Ilocos Norte),
with 38,294; and Baybay (Leyte), with 36,934. The most
important are Cebu and Iloilo. The most populous provinces
are: Cebu, with 857,410 inhabitants; Leyte, with 597,995;
Pangasinan, with 567,644; Iloilo, with 508,272; Occidental
Negros, with 397,325; Samar, with 380,211; Bohol, with 359,600,
and Batangas, with 340,195. The most densely populated prov-
inces, apart from Manila, are Ilocos Sur (Luzon), with 217,410
inhabitants, or 492 to the sq. m.; Siquijor (Oriental Negros),
with 56,695, or 461 to the sq. m.; Cebu, with 459 to the sq. m.;
La Union (Luzon), with 160,575, or 459 to the sq. m. ; Cavite
(Luzon), with 157,347, or 339 to the sq. m.; Pampanga (Luzon),
with 257,641, or 313 to the sq. m.; Pangasinan (Luzon), with 292
to the sq. m.; and Laguna (Luzon), with 195,371, or 271 to the
sq. mile. The Batanes Is., a sub-province lying N. of Luzon,
have the smallest pop. of any provincial division (8,214), and
a density of 1 1 1 to the sq. mile. The least densely populated
is the sub-province of Apayao (Mountain province, Luzon),
which has 11,123 inhabitants, but only 6 to the sq. mile. The
majority of the people are engaged in agricultural and allied
pursuits, and among the professional classes are men of con-
siderable attainments.
Agriculture. Between 1913 and 1918 the cultivated area of the
Philippine Islands (total area, 73,585,583 ac. or 115,026 sq. m.)
rose from 5,859,877 ac. or 7-96% of the whole, to 7,294,159 ac., or
9-91 % of the whole. The Filipino too or peasant, naturally a good
farmer, has been slow to adopt modern and more efficient methods,
but through the efforts of the Bureaus of Agriculture and Education
a beginning has been made in some places. In 1918 the value of
the agricultural output was $183,479,158. The nine most important
crops were those of which the following table shows the area, pro-
duction and value in 1910 and 1918:
Acreage
Production (tons)
Value
1918
1910
1918
1910
1918
1910
Rice
Abaca (manila hemp) ....
Coco-nuts
Sugar-cane
Indian corn .....
Tobacco
3,379,305
1,265,894
828,936
507,612
1,033,413
193-754
2,820
1,896
80,524
2,944,588
1-1/5,585
405-556
205,412
1,432,026
132,456
3,151
2,637
21,237
1,539.186
166,863
1,506,796,110
(number)
396,242
309.798
61,555
566
721
16,664
810,786
168,452
937,927-927
(number)
152,639
392,484
28,006
74
85
4,628
$67,581,687
46,246,612
28,266,896
20,579,389
10,509,324
7,609,577
252,335
222,991
1,853,606
$31,300,133
13,476,171
19,470,813
7,631,966
11,774.525
3,780,915
33,406
34,378
277,700
Coffee
Maguey (aloe)
vincial governors of Mindanao and Sulu estimated it in 1919 at
402,799. Of the pagans, approximately 30,000 were Negritos,
and most of the others belonged to Malayan stocks. Head-
hunting among the pagans virtually ceased owing to vigilant
Government control.
The Christians include eight races, namely, Tagalog, Sambal,
Pampanga, Pangasinan, Iloko, Ibanag, Bicol, all inhabiting the
iland of Luzon and islands near it, and the Bisaya, inhabiting
the southern islands, including part of Mindanao. Each race
; a distinct language, which differs from the others as widely as
The production of rice fails to meet demand, and imports are
necessary. In 1910 imports amounted to 184,620 tons, and total
consumption to 712,674 tons; in 1918 imports and exports were,
respectively, 159,130 tons and 47 tons; and consumption, 1,161,344
tons; in 1919 imports and exports were respectively 148,724 and 296
tons, and total consumption, 1,067,699 tons. To prevent profiteer-
ing in so vital a commodity, the Government has, in times of scarcity,
purchased rice abroad, and sold it at a fair price. The cultivation of
abaca has been given a new impetus by a law (No. 2380) which grades
the product according to the cleaning of the fibre. Sugar is raised
in almost all the islands, but chiefly in Negros, Panay and Luzon.
The construction of up-to-date sugar " centrals " in many localities
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
is redeeming Philippine sugar from the evil reputation which the
" muscavado " sugar formerly bore. Corn is raised chiefly in
Cebu, where the soil is especially fitted for it, and where this grain,
instead of rice, is the chief crop. Tobacco is raised especially in
Luzon and Cebu, the product of the Cagayan valley in Luzon being
that most esteemed. Cacao comes chiefly from the provinces of
Albay and Camarines in Luzon; coffee from Mindoro I. and the
Mountain province (Luzon) ; and maguey (introduced from America)
from Cebii and the province of Ilocos Sur (Luzon). An effort is
being made to encourage the raising of sisal instead of maguey, the
former being the better fibre. Abaca is a natural monopoly in the
Philippine Islands, for it can be grown commercially nowhere else.
It is grown in many of the islands, but in recent years extensive
plantations have been laid out in Mindanao, where the constant
moisture needed for its growth is afforded. For many years, this
fibre formed one-half the exports from the islands, and is still one of
the leading exports. The export of 89,438 metric tons in 1900 rose
to 164,754 tons in 1910, and to 165,129 tons in 1918. Exports for
1919 fell to 131,898 tons valued at $26,861,526, while exports for
1920 were 139,250 tons valued at $35,862,000. The timber resources
are important, virgin forests covering about 40,000 sq. miles. About
99% of all timber lands belong to the Government. Much of the
timber consists of valuable hard woods. Timber land is not sold,
but is developed under the licence system, small operators being
granted a licence for one year, and large operators for 20 years.
During 1919, 2,950 licences were issued, some of which were for
gathering firewood. About 100,000,000 bd. ft. of lumber is used
annually in the Philippines. Exports of lumber in 1918 were 4,178,-
520 bd. ft., valued at $219,397, and in 1919, 4,503,304 bd. ft.,
valued at $259,592. Modern forest products include charcoal, nipa,
from which sugar and alcohol are made, various rattans and fibres,
copal, tan barks, dyewoods, gutta percha and rubber, paper pulp, a
soap bark, pili nuts, wax, wood-oil and medicinal plants. A school
of forestry is maintained by the Government in which up-to-date,
scientific lumbering instruction is given. The chief animal is the
carabao or water buffalo, of which there were 1,047,164 in 1913 and
1,271,208 in 1917. Other domestic animals for these two years
numbered respectively: cows, 41 8, 1 14 and 603,107; horses and mules,
179,089 and 214,204. During most years of American occupation,
the carabao was assailed by rinderpest, and the archipelago in 1920
was slowly recovering from its effects. The heavy mortality of
carabao hampered agriculture, especially the cultivation of rice
which was much retarded at times. The Government employed
various methods in its efforts to eradicate the disease, including
inoculation with a special serum, strict quarantine, and even the
killing of whole herds.
Minerals. Mineral products include gold, silver, iron, copper,
manganese, coal, petroleum, shale, sulphur, asphalt, asbestos, clay
products, lime, sand and gravel, stone, salt, and mineral waters.
The total value of the mineral output in 1907 was $117,046; in
1917. $3,018,225; and in 1918, $3,276,677. Between July I 1902 and
Dec. 31 1918, 10,943 mining claims were taken out, of which 6,683
were for gold, 1,893 f r petroleum and 607 for copper. The gold
output in 1908 was valued at $217,250; in 19 13 at $868,362; in 191 7 at
$1,408,309; in 1918 (from 24 mines) at $1,287,985 and in 1919 at
$ l >39<7 2 4- Iron-ore deposits in Surigao province, estimated to con-
tain about 500,000,000 metric tons, with 45 to 50% iron, have been
reserved for the Government. Other rich deposits are said to exist
in Bukidnon province in Mindanao. The manufactured iron all
came from the mines of Angac in Luzon and was chiefly used for
the making of plough points. Copper is found especially in Luzon at
Mancayan, where it has been mined and smelted many years by the
Igorot by primitive methods. Deposits of coal are found in many
localities, although much of it is lignite. Attempts have been made
to develop the deposits in the eastern part of Batan I., and in 1920
the Philippine Coal Mining Co. was said to be producing about 300
tons daily. In 1919 the output was 32,892 metric tons, valued at
$411,000. Much attention has been given to the development of the
coal deposits by the Government, and no little money was lost, but
the industry seems at last to be on a good basis. Deposits of fair
steaming coal are said to cover 58 sq. m. and to contain 61,788,000
metric tons. The National Coal Co. was organized in 1919, with
Government capital, to exploit Government deposits.
Manufactures. The Philippines have passed beyond the initial
stage of manufacturing, although it is probably true that the manu-
facturing industries will long be limited in number. Embroideries
and laces, the making of which has been fostered by the Bureau of
Education as well as by some private schools, find a ready market,
and during the World War when Belgium and Switzerland were un-
able to supply their markets, demand for the Philippine product
was stimulated. The industry is still largely one of the home.
Rope is made from abaca, both by the old rope-walk method and by
modern machinery. Much of the abaca is stripped! by machinery,
although fibre cleaned carefully by hand is still the best. Saw-milling
is increasing in importance, some of the mills being equipped with
modern machinery. In 1910 there was only one sugar " central "
in the archipelago for the production of centrifugal sugar. In 1920
there were 28, and the reputation of Philippine sugar was rising in
consequence. The war gave a great stimulus to the expressing of
coco-nut oil, because of the impossibility of obtaining sufficient ship-
ping for the export of the bulky copra. There were in 1920 more than
30 oil-mills, which produced over 100,000 tons of oil, the value of
the product having increased in five years from about $1,000,000 to
about $30,000,000 and furnishing about one-fourth of the export
trade of the islands. The Philippines are the third producing coco-
nut region in the world, there being over 800,000 ac. with about 68,-
000,000 trees, of which some 40,000,000 were bearing in 1920. The
output of cigars in 1910 was 285,561,328; in 1913, 282,096,996; in
1918, 367,022,982 and in 1919, 517,343,450. The output of cigarettes
for the same years was respectively 4,173,507,249; 4,384,807,247;
4,720,005,675 and 5,203,331,200. In 1918 there were 82 factories
manufacturing cigars and 23 manufacturing cigarettes. In 1916 a
tobacco inspection law was enacted by the Philippine Legislature
providing for the improvement of the leaf and for inspection of leaf
tobacco and of manufactured products, and prohibiting export to
the United States unless certain fixed standards were met. In 1918
there were 10,583 factories in the archipelago, of which 1,047 were
in Manila. Of the 182,117 employees, 21,828 were in Manila.
Communications. In 1908 there were only 246 m. of first-class
roads and bridges in the archipelago; in 1913, 1,303 m. of the first
class; 1,264 m. of the second; and 1,937 of the third; and in 1919,
2,796; 1,235; and 1,984 m. respectively. Third-class roads are as
a general rule fit only for carts and animals, and then only during the
dry season. In 1919 cost of maintenance of old roads and bridges
was $1,959,780. The archipelago has two railway systems, namely
the Manila Railroad Co. operating in Luzon, and the Philippine
Railway Co. operating in the islands of Cebu and Panay. The first
had in 1913517 m. of tracksand in 1918 64001. This company, under
contract with the Government, partly completed a line to the summer
capital, Bagnio, but could not carry the project to a successful end.
In Jan. 1917 the Government of the Philippine Islands purchased
the company's holdings and since that period the lines have been
undergoing reconstruction. The Philippine Railway Co., an Ameri-
can concern, had 60 m. of track in 1910 (the first year of operation),
and 133 m. in 1918. Under authority of an Act of Congress, ap-
proved Feb. 6 1905, the Insular Government guarantees 4% in-
terest for a period not to exceed 30 years on the first lien bonds issued
by the Manila Railroad Co. for new construction in southern Luzon,
and the same to the Philippine Railway Co. The combined
issues of both companies totalled $22,263,000. The lines in south-
ern Luzon and those in Cebu and Panay have opened to active
trade large stretches of territory and are affecting the industry of
their districts. During recent years the number of motor vehicles
has increased markedly, and they are now seen in almost all parts
of the islands. An up-to-date electric street-railway system is
operated in Manila. Post-offices increased in number from 540
in 1908 to 828 in 1918, and municipalities with free delivery serv-
ice from 31 in 1908 to 462 in 1918. Telegraph offices (Govern-
ment owned and operated) increased during the same period from
161 to 320. The inter-island cables are also owned and operated
by the Government. Manila has an efficient telephone service.
Shipf>ing. Manila is the chief port, but the ports of Iloilo, Cebu,
Zamboanga, and a few others share to some degree in the domestic
and foreign trade. In 1911 there were 906 entries of foreign ships
and 854 departures, with net tonnage of 1,849,475 and 1,787,650
respectively; and in 1918, 652 entries and 659 departures, with net
tonnages of 1,412,871 and 1,544,648 respectively. The United
Kingdom, which had uniformly occupied first place in the total
foreign carrying trade of the islands, lost that position to Japan
in 1917, but regained it in 1919, when British bottoms carried
525,000 tons. In the latter year, British and Japanese vessels
carried 63 % of the total foreign trade. Ships of the United States,
which moved only 44,000 tons in 1916, moved 441,000 tons in 1919,
while Philippine shipping engaged in foreign trade rose from 80,000
tons in 1916 to 128,000 tons in 1919. In value of cargo, British
bottoms led in the import carrying trade up to and including 1917.
In that year British ships carried cargoes valued at $25,865,273;
Japanese, $18,964,331; and United States, $9,731,816. In 1918,
Japanese ships carried import cargoes valued at $29,304,836;
United States, $28,041,294; and British, $24,406,231. In the export
trade, British bottoms also took first place up to and including 1917.
In that year, British ships carried exports valued at $28,903,609;
United States, $27,599,076; and Japanese, $24,657,632. In 1918
U.S. vessels carried exports valued at $53,389,398 ; British, $36,093,-
713; and Japanese, $24,544,204. In 1918 ships of the United States
took first place in the total value of the foreign carrying trade,
moving goods valued at $81,403,692, with the United Kingdom and
Japan taking second and third place respectively. In recent years
new piers and warehouses have been built in Manila.
Foreign Trade. Imports rose from $29,186,120 in 1908 to $149,-
400,000 in 1920. Exports were $32,601,072 in 1908; $151,100,000
in 1920. The balance of trade was in favour of the Philippines
during 1914-8, and in 1920. Import trade with the United States
rose from $35,813 in 1874 to $92,289,773 in 1920. Exports to the
United States rose from $2,657,333 m '874 to $105,216,263 in 1920.
In 1874 tne import and export trade with the United Kingdom was
valued respectively at $1,737,487 and $3,032,950; and in 1918 at
$2,764,407 and $19,481,698 respectively. Imports from and exports
to Japan were valued respectively at $13,104,055 and $7,968,304;
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
China, $6,576,962 and $3,249,290; French East Indies, $6,978,043
(mainly rice) and $1,302,376; Hong-Kong, $56,877 and $5,051,664.
Total trade with France was valued at $1,785,167 in 1918; Germany,
$366,534; Spain, $3,940,167; Australasia, $4,431,883; British East
Indies, $3,515,885; Switzerland, $607,870; Italy, $189,152; Nether-
lands, $45,463; Hawaii, $479,436; Siam, $1,219,673 and all other
countries, $1,494,421.
Government. In 1913, upon the occasion of the appointment
by the President of the United States of a new governor-general
of the Philippines, majority membership on the Philippine
Commission was given to the Filipinos by presidential appoint-
ment. On Aug 29 1916 the U.S. Congress passed the Jones Act.
The short preamble declared that " it has always been the pur-
pose of the people of the United States to withdraw their sover-
eignty over the Philippine Islands and to recognize their inde-
pendence as soon as a stable form of government can be estab-
lished therein." The Act created a Senate to supersede the
Philippine Commission, 12 senatorial districts being established,
each of which is represented by two senators elected by duly
qualified voters except the i2th district (consisting of the
Department of Mindanao and Sulu, the Mountain province,
Baguio, and Nueva Vizcaya), whose senators are appointed by
the governor-general. The Philippine Assembly was replaced by
the House of Representatives, the membership of 81 of the
Assembly to be increased in the new body by three representa-
tives from the Mountain province, one from Nueva Vizcaya, and
five from the Department of Mindanao and Sulu. Senators are
required to be over 30 years of age, able to read and write
English or Spanish, and to have been residents of the Philip-
pines for at least two consecutive years and actual residents of
the senatorial districts from which elected for at least one year
immediately preceding election. Representatives must be over
25 years of age, and have the same residential qualification.
Senators are elected for six years, representatives for three.
The Act extended the suffrage to males of 21 or over, to include
those who under previous law were legal voters and had exer-
cised their right; those who owned real property to the value of
$250; those who annually paid $15 or more of the established
taxes; and those who were able to read and write either Spanish,
English, or a native language. Two resident commissioners
with three-year terms were provided for, and paid by, the
United States, to be over 30 years of age and bona fide electors;
these commissioners to have seats in the House of Representa-
tives at Washington, with right of debate but no vote in that
body. The Legislature convenes on Oct. 16, but it may change
that date within certain limits if it choose. A governor-general,
vice-governor, auditor, and deputy auditor are appointed by the
President of the United States, by and w'ith the consent of the
Senate. The vice-governor is in control of the Bureaus of Educa-
tion and Health, but the remainder of his former bureaus and
his subordinate duties were shifted to the Interior Department.
Power is given to the Legislature to reorganize the other depart-
ments and bureaus of the Government. The chief justice and
associate justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the
President of the United States by and with the consent of the
Senate, and the judges of the courts of first instance are similarly
appointed by the governor-general by and with the advice of the
Senate of the Philippine Islands. The awards of the Supreme
Court are reviewable by the Supreme Court of the United States.
The Government as reorganized consists of the following groups
of departments, bureaus, and offices. On the governor-general
depend directly the Bureau of Audits, the civil service, and all other
offices and branches of the service not assigned by law to any de-
partment. On the Department of the Interior depend the Bureau of
non-Christian tribes (provided for in the organic Act), the Philip-
pine general hospital, Boards of Pharmaceutical Examiners, Medical
Examiners, Dental Examiners and Dental Hygiene, Optical Ex-
aminers, examination for nurses. On the Executive Bureau depend
the Philippine constabulary, and Bureau of Dependent Children.
On the Department of Public Instruction depend the Bureau of
Education, the Philippine Health Service, and Bureau of Quarantine
Service. On the Department of Finance depend the Bureaus of
Customs, Internal Revenue, Treasury and Printing, the general
supervision over banks, banking transactions, coinage, currency,
and (except as otherwise specially provided) over all funds the in-
vestment of which may be authorized by law. On the Department
of Justice depend the Bureau of Justice, the courts of first instance
and the inferior courts, Philippine Library and Museum, Bureau of
Prisons and Public Utility Commission. On the Department of
Agriculture and Natural Resources depend the Bureaus of Agri-
culture, Forestry, Lands, Science, Weather, and matters concerning
hunting, fisheries, sponges and other sea products. On the Depart-
ment of Commerce and Communications depend the Bureau of
Public Works, Posts, Supply, Labor, Coast and Geodetic Survey,
and Commerce and Industry. The secretaries of the several depart-
ments form the Cabinet.
There are in all 46 provinces, 34 of which are regular provinces
and the rest special or sub-provinces. The chief executive of a
province is the provincial governor, who is elective. He together
with two other members, also elective, forms the provincial board or
legislative branch of the provincial Government. In the special or
sub-provinces, with the exception of Mindoro, Palawan, and Ba-
tanes, the provincial governor is appointive. The chief official of a
town or municipality is the municipal president. The municipal
council or legislative branch of the municipal Government consists of
from 8 to 18 councillors, according to the size of the municipality.
In Oct. 1918 the governor-general, by an executive order, created
the Council of State as an advisory body. This body, composed of
the heads of all the executive departments and the presiding officers
of the two Housesof the Philippine Archipelago, has become an integral
part of the governmental system and is frequently referred to in
legislation. The meetings of the Council have practically super-
seded those of the Cabinet, and it has been entrusted by the Legis-
lature with certain executive functions. Policies decided on in the
Council meeting are assured full consideration in the Legislature.
Among other things the Council prepares and submits the budget.
Education. Special attention has been paid to public education
by the Government. Each of the 49 school divisions of the archi-
pelago follows in general provincial boundary lines, except that of
Manila and four insular schools, namely Philippine normal school,
Philippine school of arts and trades, Philippine nautical school, and
Central Luzon agricultural school, each of which is considered a
distinct division. The public-school system, which aims at the
creation of a staff of English-speaking Filipino teachers, is under the
director of education, with central offices in Manila. There are seven
elementary grades (four primary and three intermediate) and a
four-year high-school course. Much attention is paid to industrial
training, and to recreational athletics. Baseball and other games
have had great influence throughout the islands. Each school
division is in charge of a division superintendent and each of the
several districts in a division of a supervising teacher. In 1908
there were 3,932 public schools, with a total enrolment of 486,676.
In 1919, 749 new primary schools and III new intermediate schools
were opened, with an increase during one year of 104,560 pupils
in the elementary grades, and a record enrolment of 776,596 pupils
in all public schools. During that year, 2,963 additional elementary
teachers were appointed, and 300 primary schools constructed.
Tuition fees were abolished in all intermediate schools. In 1908
$2,563,553 was spent for public education, and in 1918 $5,365,105.
The Philippine normal school, in Manila, draws its pupils from all
parts of the islands. There were in 1920 50 provincial high schools,
20 provincial trade schools, 14 provincial shops, 13 large agricultural
schools, 15 farm schools, and 162 settlement farm schools. The farm
schools ranged in size from about 125 to 2,000 ac. and the settlement
farm schools from about 40 to 125 acres. School gardens, which
have become an essential part of the public educational system,
number about 4,000, and home gardens, the result of this instruc-
tion, over 100,000. A standard type of school buildings has been
evolved, and there were in 1920 865 satisfactory school buildings
(many constructed of concrete) and 2,170 buildings of semi-perma-
nent and permanent types. In 1910 the Government began the
systematic supervision of private schools, requiring courses in
English and harmonizing the work with that of the public schools.
New methods, courses, and text-books have been introduced, and
all private schools complying with requirements have been given
the same standing as Government schools. In 1920 there were about
300 accredited private schools with a total enrolment of 38,544 and
a teaching force of i,6oo. Higher education is provided for by the
university of the Philippines, a Government institution, and by
the Dominican University of Santo Tomas. The university of the
Philippines in 1920 had 31 buildings of permanent materials. The
total enrolment for 1919-20 was 3,427. Its three presidenti were,
successively, an American, a Filipino and an American. The uni-
versity of Santo Tomas, the oldest university under the flag of the
United States, has departments of law, medicine, pharmacy, civil
engineering, philosophy and letters, and theology. It has five build-
ings including a dormitory, and for the year 1919-20 had an enrol-
ment of 701. Between the years 1914 and 1919 its graduates num-
bered 347. The educational programme of the islands has from the first
had the hearty endorsement of the Filipino people, and Filipino
legislators have at all times supported almost unanimously any
movement looking toward the improvement of educational condi-
tions. In Dec. 1918, $15,000,000 were appropriated by the Legis-
lature for the extension of public schools. Instruction is being
extended rapidly among the non-Christian population. In addition
to the education supplied in the Philippines, some 9,000 Filipinos
are attending schools, colleges and universities in the United States ;
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
some of these receive Government aid, but the majority are pay-
ing for their own instruction. The work of the Philippine library and
museum is largely educational in character. This institution was first
founded as the Philippine library, May 20 1909. After the passage
of the Jones Bill of 1916 it was amalgamated with the Philippine
archives and the museum. It has charge of all the books owned by
the Insular Government. The manuscripts of the library number
several millions, the books in all over a quarter of a million.
Finance. Philippine currency in circulation on June 30 1908
amounted to 40,337,982 pesos or 4-82 per capita; on Dec. 31 1913 to
50,697,253 or 5-53 per capita; and on Dec. 31 1919 to 146,500,000,
or 14-16 per capita. The Philippine peso, nominally equivalent to
$0.50 U.S., was in June 1921 quoted in New York City at $0.46
and has even reached much lower levels; in Nov. 1921 it was
quoted at $0.4975. The total revenues and expenditures of the
Insular Government for the year ending June 30 1908 were respec-
tively, $10,899,261 and $11,469,785; and for 1919, $39,843,461 and
$43,371,294. The great increases in revenues began in 1916 simul-
taneously with the large trade balances in favour of the Philip-
pines. Revenues are mainly from customs collections, internal
revenues and receipts from land taxes and leases. Customs col-
lections for the year 1919 were $7,712,653 and for 1920, $8,878,-
932; and collections of internal revenues for 1919 $26,641,373. The
latter collections come mainly from the excise tax, licence, pro-
fession and occupation taxes, cedulas, franchise taxes, income
tax, documentary stamp tax, and inheritance tax. The bonded
indebtedness for the Insular and municipal Governments as of
June 30 1919 was $20,125,000, that for the former being $16,000,000.
Commercial bank assets rose from $31,872,964 in 1913 to $177,293,-
860 in 1919. In 1908 postal savings bank deposits were $774,105
and withdrawals $512,839; and in 1918 $2,942,762 and $2,599,775
respectively; in 1919 there were 417 postal savings banks in oper-
ation. In 1919, operations of the eight banks in Manila reached
a total of $4,197,682,000. The Philippine National Bank, the sole
depository of the Government, with headquarters in Manila, has
II branches and 41 provincial agencies in the Philippines, and
branches in Shanghai and New York. Its assets on June 30 1920
amounted to $118,749,138. More recently reverses, due, it is re-
ported, to poor management and the business crisis, overtook the
institution.
History. W. Cameron Forbes was appointed acting gov-
ernor-general in May 1909, and on Nov. n of the same year
governor-general, succeeding James T. Smith. During his term,
which expired on Oct. 6 1913, many public improvements were
made, and the principle of the Filipinization of the civil service
was carried out consistently, although comparatively few Fili-
pinos were appointed to the higher offices.
The Taal volcano, which had been quiescent for a century and
a half, erupted on Jan. 30 1911. Some 1,300 lives were lost.
The outburst was accompanied by violent earthquakes, of
which 1,014 were registered in Manila in about a fortnight. Earth-
quakes are of frequent occurrence in all parts of the islands, but
are rarely of magnitude. During Governor-General Forbes's
term no general appropriation measure for the expenses of
Government was passed after that of 1910, because the two
Houses could not agree upon the method of drawing it. In
consequence, the provision of the organic Act of 1902 which
declared that in the event of the failure to pass a general appro-
priation measure, the sum appropriated last should be considered
as reappropriated, was declared to be in effect, and proclama-
tion was so made each year. The breach between the two
Houses tended to widen, and much constructive legislation that
should have been enacted failed of passage. Educational meas-
ures, however, were generally assured of enactment and one is
continually struck by the number of measures of this kind
passed by each session of the Legislature. During this period
also the demand for political independence by certain Filipino
leaders, especially by Manuel Quezon, for part of the time
resident commissioner in Washington, was constant and insist-
ent. The Americans in the Philippines, regarded^as appointees
of the political party in control in the United States, were
skilfully made to appear hostile to Filipino interests, and that
administration was represented as withholding an inherent
right of the Filipino people. The desire of the Filipinos for inde-
pendence was and is real, and has grown with each succeeding
year; the whole course of American administration has fostered
that aspiration, and continually greater autonomy has been
granted, although differences of opinion have been manifest
as to the safety with which this could be done.
The change of administration in Washington in 1913 was
hailed with delight by the Filipinos, in the belief that it would
soon lead to political independence. On Oct. 6 1913 Francis
Burton Harrison, who had been appointed governor-general by
President Wilson, arrived in Manila, and immediately assumed
office. By presidential appointment the majority on the Philip-
pine Commission passed to the Filipinos. Various changes
were made by the new governor-general in the personnel of sev-
eral of the bureaus, the chief innovation being that Filipinos
were appointed to a number of the higher posts. On Jan. 11917
there were 31 Americans and 22 Filipinos acting as chiefs and
assistant chiefs, and on July i 1920, 20 Americans and 30 Fili-
pinos. On the latter date there were 760 Americans and 12,047
Filipinos connected with the Government, while in 1913 there
had been 2,623 of the former and 6,363 of the latter. This
increased rapidity in the Filipinization of the civil service after
1913, especially of the higher offices, has been criticized on the
ground of decreased efficiency, but while this was necessarily
the result to a considerable extent, it was not universally so, and
the policy led, as a natural corollary, to a greater official Harmony
than had reigned previously. In Feb. 1916 an Act of the Legisla-
ture, providing a temporary pension for employees who had
been in the service of the Philippine Government for from six
to ten years or longer, gave an impetus to many Americans to
request retirement under the terms of that Act. While techni-
cally the provisions of the Act apply to Filipinos as well as to
Americans, it has been the policy of the Government to retire
eligible Filipinos only because of age or physical disability.
Upon the declaration of war against Germany by the United
States, many Americans resigned to enlist, and it was felt that
Americans were leaving the Philippine service too rapidly,
especially the teachers. A very earnest effort was made after
the war to recruit American teachers.
The virtual Filipino autonomy resulting from the above-
mentioned changes was increased by the enactment by Con-
gress in Aug. 1916 of the Jones Act, by which the Philippine
Commission was replaced by an elective Senate (see Govern-
ment above). The era of good feeling, inaugurated in 1913 by
the change of Government, was seen almost immediately in the
passing of an appropriation measure for the general expenses of
Government the first to be enacted since 1910. Such meas-
ures have been passed annually since. One of the early Acts of
the Legislature was to reduce certain salaries, especially those
of the Philippine commissioners and of certain bureau chiefs;
but, as in the United States, a bonus system was later adopted
because of the increase in the cost of living and the governor-
general recommended that salaries be increased. In 1915 the
Philippine National Bank was created, taking over the former
Agricultural Bank owned by the Government, which had never
functioned acceptably. In the same year the Code Committee,
after several years' work, finished the administrative code of the
islands, which was passed by the Legislature. Among the first
Acts of the all-Filipino Legislature of 1916-7 was the reorganiza-
tion of the several departments of the Government, the result
being that the Department of Public Instruction came to be
the only one directly under an American.
The period was marked by generous appropriations for educa-
tional purposes, the most notable of these being the appropria-
tion of $15,332,912 for the extension of free elemental educa-
tion (see Education above). A previous Act prohibiting the
display of the Philippine flag was repealed, a measure desired
most ardently by Filipinos.
Upon the declaration of war against Germany by the United
States, the Filipinos offered to supply a division of troops for the
U.S. army and to supply funds for the construction of a destroyer
and submarine for the U.S. navy, and there was a generous
subscription to the Red Cross and to Liberty bonds. A volun-
teer National Guard was formed, which was joined by many of
the Filipino youth, this being disbanded in 1919. There were
also many Filipinos who served in the army and navy of the
United States. In this connexion it should be noted that Filipi-
nos have been admitted to West Point and Annapolis. Some 22
PHILLIMORE PHILOSOPHY
German ships, which had been interned in Manila harbour at the
beginning of the World War, were seized after the American
declaration of war, and the crews sent to an internment camp in
the United States after a partly successful attempt had been
made to damage the machinery and scuttle the vessels. Business
during the war was brisk, notwithstanding the lack of shipping;
but after the war, a depression developed from which the islands
had not recovered in 1921. Governor-General Harrison resigned
his post, as from March 3 1921, because of the change of adminis-
tration in the United States, and Vice- Governor Yeater became
acting governor-general. Shortly after assuming office, Presi-
dent Harding despatched Maj.-Gen. Leonard Wood and W.
Cameron Forbes to the Philippines to make a complete survey
and report on conditions. On Oct. 5 1921 Gen. Wood took
oath of office as governor-general of the islands.
The Wood-Forbes report recommended, among other things,
" that the present general status of the Philippine Islands con-
tinue until the people have had time to absorb and thoroughly
master the powers already in their hands, " and " that under
no circumstances should the American Government permit to
be established in the Philippine Islands a situation which would
leave the United States in a position of responsibility without
authority."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. John Arnold, The Philippines (official guide,
Manila, Bureau of Printing, 1912); H. Otley Beyer, Population of
the Philippine Islands in ipi6 (1917); Carl Crow, America and the
Philippines (1914) ; Frederick Chamberlin, The Philippine Problem,
1898-1913 (1913) ; Charles B. Elliott, The Philippines to the End of
the Commission Government and The Philippines to the End of the
Military Regime; Mary H. Fee, A Woman's Impressions of the Phil-
ippines (1910); Leandro H. Fernandez, A Brief History of the
Philippines; Maximo M. Kalaw, Th Case for the Filipino (1916),
A Guide Book to the Philippine Question (1919), and Self-Government
in the Philippines (1919); George A. Malcolm, The Government of
the Philippine Islands (1916); Hugo Miller, Economic Conditions
in the Philippines (1920) ; Jos6 P. Melencio, Arguments against
Philippine Independence and their Answers (1919); Population and
Mortality of the Philippine Islands (Bull. No. 4, Manila 1920) ;
James A. Robertson, The Extraordinary Sessions of the Philippine
Legislature and the Work of the Philippine Assembly (1910)
and The Philippines since the Inauguration of the Philippine
Assembly (1917); Statistical Bulletin No. 2 (Manila 1919); Cornells
de Witt Willcox, The Headhunters af Northern Luzon (1912); Daniel
R. Williams, The Odyssey of the Philippine Commission (1913);
Dean C. Worcester, The Philippines Past and Present (1914).
(J. A. Ro.)
PHILLIMORE, WALTER GEORGE FRANK PHILLIMORE,
IST BARON (1845- ), English judge, was born in London Nov.
21 1845, the eldest son of Sir Robert Joseph Phillimore, ist
bart., a distinguished judge and authority on ecclesiastical
and international law (see 21.405). He was educated at West-
minster and Christ Church, Oxford, where he had a distinguished
career, obtaining first classes in classics and law, winning the
Vinerian scholarship and being elected to an All Souls fellow-
ship. He was called to the bar in 1868. In 1885 he succeeded
his father as 2nd bart., and in 1897 was made a judge of the
Queen's Bench division, being in 1913 appointed a lord justice
of appeal. He retired from the bench in 1916, and in 1918 was
raised to the peerage.
As an authority on ecclesiastical law Lord Phillimore carried
on the tradition of his family. He published a revised edition
of J. H. Blunt's Book of Church Law (1872), besides a second
edition of Sir Robert Phillimore's Ecclesiastical Law (1895),
and also contributed the articles Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction and
Canon Law (in part) to the E.B. He was from 1905 to 1908
president of the International Law Association, and has pub-
lished Three Centuries of Treaties of Peace and their Teaching
(1917), besides issuing (1889) a third edition of vol. iv. of Sir
Robert Phillimore's International Law. In 1918 he was appointed
chairman of the naval prize tribunal. He was English repre-
sentative on the commission which sat at The Hague (1920) to
prepare the scheme of a permanent Court of International Jus-
tice, and was also chairman of the Foreign Office committee
on the League of Nations.
PHILLIPS, STEPHEN (1868-1915), English poet (see 21.407),
died at Deal Dec. 9 1915.
PHILLPOTTS, EDEN (1862- ), British novelist, poet and
dramatist, was born in India Nov. 4 1862, and was educated at
Plymouth. He was a clerk for ten years in the Sun fire insurance
office, then studied for the stage, but turned his attention to
literature, producing a number of successful novels with a
Devonshire setting. They include Some Everyday Polks (1893);
Children of the Mist (1898); The Human Boy (1899); Sons of
the Morning (1900); My Devon Year (1903); The Mother (1908;
dramatized 1913) ; Orphan Dinah (1920) and a play, St. George
and the Dragons (1919). His play, The Secret Woman (drama-
tized from his novel of that title), was refused a licence but,
after a public protest by twenty-four authors, it was performed
six times at matinees in 1912 under the management of Mr.
Granville Barker. He also published single poems such as
The Iscariot (1912), and two collections of poems, Plain Song
(1917) and As the Wind Blows (1920).
PHILOSOPHY (see 21.440). At the opening of the decade
1910-20, the ground covered by the philosophical sciences was
so vast that any one writer could see only a small portion of it in
clear perspective; and even within the partial field where he was-
most at home, he might well find it hard to catch the real drift
of tendencies which had not fully disclosed their ultimate scope.
Among the leading philosophers of that date three distin-
guished representatives of already established types of thought,
William James, Shadworth Hodgson and Alfred Fouillee, were
shortly to pass away. In Shadworth Hodgson there passed from
the scene perhaps the last survivor of the classic " British "
succession of thinkers, whose characteristic method in philosophy
was the direct psychological analysis of the given " moment of
experience " as distinct from metaphysical or epistemological
inquiry into the " transcendental " implications of Being or of
Thought. His philosophy seems likely to be the last attempt to
develop a system in entire independence of the influence of
Kant's " Copernican revolution," unless, indeed, the recent
work of Prof. S. Alexander should prove capable of development
into something like a system. William James's work in general
philosophy exhibits three distinct strains, none too closely
connected with one another: (i) a fundamental metaphysical
pluralism; (2) a radical empiricism in method; (3) the adoption
in logic of a purely utilitarian theory of truth and falsehood.
It was this peculiar view of truth as " that which works " or
" that which produces practically useful results " which, from
its apparently paradoxical character, made the principal sensa-
tion among James's contemporaries for the moment, and from
which he chose the name (" pragmatism ") for his type of
thought; but it is open to question whether his abiding place in
the history of philosophy will not depend primarily on his,
brilliant defence of pluralism against the singularism of philoso-
phies of the " one substance " and " absolutist " types.
The outstanding event in 1910-2, as far as philosophy is
concerned, was certainly the rapid rise of Bergson to a European
reputation. Les Donnees Immediate! de la Conscience had been
published as long ago as 1889, Matiere el Memoire in 1896, and
L'Evolution Creatrice had reached a fourth edition in 1908,
but the author's ideas can hardly be said to have attracted uni-
versal attention much before 1910. The English translations,
Time and Free Will, Matter and Memory and Creative Evolution
all belong to 1910-1. A great amount of work in various Euro-
pean languages appeared in exposition or criticism of Bergson's.
special tenets. Special reference may perhaps be made to H. W.
Carr's Henri Bergson, The Philosophy of Change (1911), and J.
McKellar Stewart's A Critical Exposition of Bergson's Philosophy
(1912). Without attempting to pronounce on the permanent
value of Bergson's ideas, it may at least be said that his works
contain the most systematic and brilliant exposition of Irration-
alism since Schopenhauer, and that his presentation has the
advantage of exhibiting the irrationalist position unencumbered
by Schopenhauer's temperamental pessimism.
Bergson's main doctrine may perhaps be briefly summarized
as follows. The human intellect is itself a product of evolution,
a tool fashioned by natural selection for the purpose of enabling
mankind to find their way about among the inanimate bodies
94
PHILOSOPHY
which make up their physical surroundings. Hence the crowning
achievement of the intellect is the creation of the science of
geometry, which therefore furnishes the ideal model to which
human science in general is everywhere striving to approximate.
The aim of all sciences is to become exact sciences, i.e. sciences
of number and measure. But the only magnitudes which we can
measure directly are straight lines. Consequently all measure-
ment of other magnitudes has to be effected by artifices which
enable us to substitute lengths for the various " intensive " mag-
nitudes (lapses of duration, degrees of temperature, electric
charges, and the like), which meet us in the " real world " of
actual life. In particular, the measurement of time only be-
comes possible by the artifice of representing the real duration
through which we live by the image of a line on which we can
measure off different lengths. This device, though indispensable
to science, inevitably falsifies the facts of living experience. For
it gives rise to the belief in a " Newtonian " time, which is homo-
geneous, like the straight line, and " flows equably," whereas the
" real duration " of experience, which is the very stuff of which our
inner life of feeling and conation is made, is non-homogeneous
and " flows " with very varying rapidity according as we are well
or ill, interested or bored, pleased or pained, and the like. From
the initial substitution of the unreal " uniform " time of science
for the infinitely varying " real duration," out of which the
processes of life and consciousness are made, further arise all
the illusions characteristic of a mechanical theory of the universe.
It is our tendency to envisage time under the form of a line,
which leads to the belief in permanent " substances " or things,
as the bearers or supports of change, and further conducts us to
the notion of a rigid determinism by producing the illusion that
what happens in the various moments of time is all completely
" given " at once, as all the points on a straight line are given
" simultaneously." This again leads to a radically false con-
ception of " evolution." It creates the belief that nothing
radically new is ever produced in the evolutionary process;
whatever emerges in the course of the process, on a determinist
theory, must be already completely contained in its antecedent
conditions, and adequate knowledge of those conditions must
enable you to say beforehand exactly what will emerge from
them. Hence for science, which to be true to its geometrical
ideal must be strictly mechanical, the whole process of evolution
can be nothing but the rearrangement, according to mechanical
law, of selfsame and permanent units. Real life, as we know it at
first hand in the act of living it, is of a wholly different kind.
It is a single continuous process of becoming, in which there is no
permanent substratum; it presents us at every moment with the
emergence of the qualitatively new, fresh qualities, fresh adapta-
tions to environment, which could never have been anticipated
from any knowledge of what had gone before, until they had
actually emerged. You cannot expect to know the direction this
flan vital, as Bergson names the impulse which Schopenhauer had
called the " will to live," will take until it has been actually
taken; life is thus essentially contingent. (It follows, of course,
that determinism is false as regards that special manifestation
of the flan vital which we call will or choice. To speak of our
decisions as necessitated or determined by our pasts is virtually
to think of them as already made for us before we make them.)
Instinctive or impulsive activity is thus but a manifestation of
the forward-going flan vital, the tendency of the process which
is life to exhibit itself in ever newer forms. Science is the in-
evitably unsuccessful attempt of the intellect to reconstruct
the process in " geometrical " form by reversing its sense. It
looks back at a process which has culminated in the appearance
of something new (e.g. a new modification of an animal species),
notes what the earlier stages of the process have been, and then
assumes that it could have predicted from a knowledge of ante-
cedent conditions the new manifestation of the flan vital with
which it had, in fact, to be already acquainted before it could
think of the antecedent events as conditions of this result.
Hence, if philosophy is to understand life, its method must be
the reverse of that of the scientific intellect. It must renounce
the intellect and its logic, which latter is indeed merely the ab-
stract schematism of the " geometrical " procedure, and surrender
itself without reserve to the intuitions and presages which
attend on complete immersion in the stream of the flan vital.
It may perhaps be suggested that the real test of Bergson's
ability to construct an irrational philosophy on this basis must
be sought in the success with which it can be applied to the in-
terpretation of the spiritual life of humanity, a task with which
Bergson has not as yet fully grappled. Meanwhile, there appear
to be some reasons for doubting whether the foundations of his
thought are themselves securely laid. The condemnation of the
intellect is based upon the assumption that because it is a " prod-
uct of evolution " it can have no function but that of enabling
us to find our way about among things; this is why geometry,
which deals with the " surfaces of solid things," is declared to
be its highest achievement, and why it is denied all value for the
interpretation of life. But it might reasonably be contended that
from the dawn of time men have had to occupy themselves at
least as much with reaching a common understanding of one
another as with learning their way about among " solid bodies,"
and that we should therefore expect an intellect which is a
" product of evolution " to be competent to deal with life as well
as with the surfaces of solid bodies. Again, it is plain that the
alleged necessity for science of a spatial schematism, which
inevitably misrepresents the facts of " real duration," depends
entirely on the results of the one chapter (Donntes Immediates
de la Conscience, ch. i) which expounds the author's peculiar
theory of measurable magnitudes. Now this chapter bears
evident marks of hasty construction. The author seems to
have forgotten that even in geometry straight lines are not
the only measurable magnitudes. It is indispensable that we
should be able to measure angles, a consideration which of itself
should have given the author pause. In fact, the whole treatment
of the distinction between " extensive " and " intensive "
magnitudes, upon which so much depends for Bergson's develop-
ment of his theory, is, as it stands, at least perfunctory. Again,
the very language employed to distinguish " real duration "
from the unreal time of science, viz. that the portions of real
duration flow with varying rapidity, seems to imply that these
varying rapidities are comparable with one another, and con-
sequently that " Newtonian " time has, after all, the significance
for real life which Bergson refuses to allow.
There has been much discussion in philosophical quarters
of Bergson's place in the classification of philosophers. William
James, in his latest works, claimed him as a pragmatist, and
it has been maintained on the continent of Europe that his
doctrine is not only a form, but the one really coherent form, of
pragmatism. There is, of course, a real affinity between Bergson
and the pragmatists, which rests on their common distrust
of the intellect. On the other hand, whereas pragmatism, at
least in its inception, made it a fundamental point to insist on a
pluralistic theory of the world, Bergson's doctrine of the elan
vital is definitely singularist. Thus he touches Bradley on one
side of his doctrine as closely as he touches James on the other.
In fact, the complaints which pragmatists used to make a few
years ago of the miraculous feats ascribed by " idealists " to the
Absolute might easily be urged totidem verbis against the elan
vital. According to another view, Bergson is most correctly
described as a " mystic," though he can hardly be called so if
the word is used with any precision. Mysticism is primarily not a
peculiar way of thinking but a peculiar way of being. What the
great mystics of the past have aimed at is first and foremost a
transformation of human character by which it becomes re-
sponsive to stimuli from a " transcendental " world, inaccessible
to ordinary perception. Since no such transcendental world is
recognized in the Bergsonian scheme, it seems merely misleading
to speak of his philosophy as mysticism.
A second feature of the philosophical movement in the earlier
days of the decade was, in Great Britain and America, the rise
of the so-called " New Realism." This also may be regarded as a
conscious reaction against the idealistic doctrines of the last
generation which go back for their inspiration to Fichte and Hegel,
but it was a reaction which was in many ways the direct antith-
PHILOSOPHY
95
esis of the movement represented by Bergson. The new realism,
though it manifested itself in a great variety of forms, was in all
its various guises definitely intellectualistic. This was shown by
the general dissatisfaction of its representatives with the Kantian
strain in the thought of their older contemporaries. What is
particularly objected to, as the source of " idealistic" or "men-
talistic " fallacies, is the Kantian view that both sense, in virtue
of the pure forms of intuition, and thought, in virtue of its
scheme of categories, are in part constitutive of the objects they
apprehend. The tendency common to all the writers who may
be classed together as typical of the latest forms of realism is to
regard both sense and thought as simply apprehensive of data
which do not depend on the percipient mind, either for their
existence or for their apprehended qualities and relations.
The degree of consistency with which this doctrine is held varies
with its individual representatives, but, thought out consistently,
it plainly tends in the direction of ultra-intellectualism, since it
leads to the view that the specific task of philosophy is simply
to apprehend as completely as possible objects and relations
which exist and have the characters which they are discovered by
science to have quite independently of the perceiving or knowing
mind. On the psychological side this tendency shows itself in its
extreme form in the doctrine that known relations between ob-
jects are purely non-mental, not the " work of the mind," as
T. H. Green had taught. The function of the intellect is not to
create relations between its objects, but simply to discover what
the relations between them are. On this point there seemed to be
general agreement between such writers as Alexander, Russell,
and Moore in England, Woodbridge, Fullerton, Montague and
others in America, and Couturat in France. It is a natural devel-
opment of the same view that the attempt should be made to
deny the existence of what are commonly called " presentations,"
and to hold that in sense perception we have only two distinguish-
able factors, an extra-mental presented thing and the process of
apprehending it. Presentations, i.e. mental " contents," which
psychologists have usually regarded as immediate objects of
cognition from which we may go on to infer propositions about
the extra-mental things which are their exciting causes, are then
dismissed as unnecessary fictions. This is the point of view
adopted by Prof. Alexander, according to whom there are,
strictly speaking, neither contents of cognition nor cognitive
states or processes. The contents of the mind consist solely
of conations of various types, and the universe is thus reduced
to conative tendencies and the objects in which they terminate
and find their satisfaction.
This extreme view, that presentations had no existence, was
not shared by all the writers who exhibited the realistic tendency.
Thus, in his Problems of Philosophy (1911), Mr. Bertrand Russell
maintains that apart from the general predicates of things and
the relations between them, which are universal and must not be
said to exist, what we know is composed of minds, physical
things and sense-data, i.e. what are more usually spoken of as
sense-qualities: red, sweet, salt, and the like. Sense-data are
neither mental (processes of consciousness) nor physical. We
are acquainted directly with our own minds and also with sense-
data. But we have no acquaintance either with physical things
or with minds other than our own. Any knowledge we have of
the minds of others or of physical things is merely knowledge by
description, and its possibility depends on the truth that things
with which we have no acquaintance can be indirectly known if it
is possible to describe them in terms of sense-data with which
we have acquaintance. Since Mr. Russell accepts the familiar
arguments against the physical reality of sensible qualities,
it follows on his theory that we have no acquaintance with
physical things. I know a physical thing only by inference, as,
e.g., " the cause of such-and-such a definite group of sense-data."
This is a description obtained by a combination of sense-data
which I know at first hand by acquaintance with the universals
" the " and " cause of," and with these universals I have also
immediate acquaintance. My acquaintance with the meaning
of " the " secures that the otherwise unknown physical thing
signified by the descriptive phrase shall be strictly individual.
Thus my knowledge through sense-data of physical objects is
like the knowledge I have, e.g. about the "magnates of the
Education Department," when I know that there is such a body,
and what it does, but have never met any of its members. For
science, the most important point in the theory of knowledge is
that we can be directly acquainted with relations and universals,
though these entities do not properly exist. Immediate knowl-
edge of this kind is what we mean by a priori knowledge, i.e.
knowledge which does not involve awareness of any proposition
about what actually exists. As the principles of inference are
among the relations with which we have acquaintance a priori,
we are able to have a derivative a priori knowledge of all truths
which are deduced by correct inference from a priori principles
with which we are directly acquainted. This covers the whole
domain of the sciences of logic and pure mathematics, as, con-
trary to the Kantian opinion, all pure mathematics can be shown
to consist of propositions deduced logically from premises which
involve only logical concepts and relations with which we are
directly acquainted. It is added that we must also include under
a priori knowledge our direct acquaintance with the relative
intrinsic worth of various goods. This is why there can be a
science of ethics. The chief special work of the particular type
of realism represented by Mr. Russell and his associates was done,
in close connection with the earlier work of mathematicians like
Peano and Frege, in the field of mathematical logic, with a view
to the exhibition of pure mathematics as a vast body of deduc-
tions from the principles of the logic of relations, first treated
with due elaboration in the third volume of E. Schroder's
Algebra der Logik (1895), and applied with particular thorough-
ness to arithmetic in Frege's Grundgesetze der Arithmetik (1893-
1903). The magnum opus of Messrs. Whitehead and Russell,
Principia Malhematica, represents the fullest development of
logic as a calculus of relations. The most brilliant account of the
principles and methods of the mathematical logicians is, per-
haps, that of Couturat (Principes des Mathemaliques, 1905).
Russell and also G. E. Moore made some application of their
doctrine to ethics (see G. E. Moore, Principia Ethica, 1903;
Ethics, 1912; and Russell, Philosophical Essays, 1910), but with-
out any very satisfactory results. From their point of view the
principal business of ethics is to discover true propositions about
the relative intrinsic worth of different " goods." As both writers
assume that there are a plurality of such propositions, and that
each of them is known a priori independently of the others, the
impression they leave upon a reader not previously committed
to their theory is that they have really no better standard for
determining the worth of various goods than their own personal
preferences. It is characteristic of both writers that they assume
without serious inquiry that conduct can only be good in a deriva-
tive sense as leading to the production of some good other than
itself. Hence, though both reject the older forms of utilitarian-
ism as ascribing a fictitious worth to pleasure, their own doctrine
is itself utilitarian in its general character. Beyond discovering
true propositions concerning the relative worth of goods, ethics
seeks to furnish rules of right conduct, i.e. conduct which pro-
duces good results, but these rules are always of the most rough-
and-ready sort and constantly require modification to suit special
cases. Hence the ground is left open in practice for an enormous
development of reflective casuistry. Messrs. Moore and Russell
have furnished us with some acute observations on the relative
goodness of various objects, but because of their refusal to look
at human life as a whole they cannot be said to have advanced
the study of ethics as an interpretation of life. In their ethical
writings, slender as they are in bulk, one cannot see the wood for
the trees; they are too much occupied with the search for true
propositions about " goods " to develop a satisfactory theory of
" the good."
Besides the irrationalism of Bergson and the atomistic in-
tellectualism of the new realists, one may mention as character-
istic of the years preceding the World War a third tendency,
which held in some respects a middle place between the former
two. This was the revival of philosophical Theism, in connection
with which important work was done, especially by Prof. James
9 6
PHILOSOPHY
Ward, Dr. Rashdall and Prof. Bernardino Varisco. Ward and
Varisco agree in refusing to accept the unfavourable verdict of
pragmatism and Bergson on the worth of the intellect in philoso-
phy, and are so far pronounced rationalists as to require of any
philosophical theory of the world that it should be able to justify
itself before the bar of reason; neither is, however, an " in-
tellectualist," since neither ascribes to cognition a primacy in
importance for the philosophical interpretation of the world over
feeling and conation; and both admit, like Kant, our right to
believe what we cannot demonstrate, provided that such belief, if
accepted, would form the natural completion of the conceptions
to which strictly logical analysis of the contents of science points.
Both hold in common with Bergson and the pragmatists the
reality of contingency and the production of the genuinely
" new," but both deny that there is anything irrational or re-
pugnant to the intellect in these conceptions. Ward's views
find their development in his Realms of Ends (1911), Varisco's
in / Massimi Problemi (1910) and Conosci te stesso (1912).
Both thinkers show very markedly the influence of Lotze, whose
final results in the main agree with theirs; Ward is, on the whole,
Kantian, Varisco Leibnitzian in manner.
Ward's starting point is afforded by the contrast between
the unity which thought demands of its world and the apparent
plurality which meets us in the world of sense perception.
The problem which philosophy has to solve is, according to him,
on what lines the world of experience can be thought of as
one without our ceasing to recognize that it is also truly many.
The history of the post-Kantian " idealist " schools has demon-
strated that the problem is insoluble if we attack it from the side
of the " one." Since the world of perception is not primarily
given to us as one but as many, we have to start from its given
multiplicity and work toward such a final conception of its unity
of plan as our data will permit. Ward thus begins by a tentative
inquiry how far the metaphysical assumptions of pluralism will
allow us to recognize the experience-world as exhibiting unity.
This leads him, inter alia, to a brilliant criticism of the concepts
of mechanism and " evolution " as they figure in singularist
philosophies. The result of the criticism is much that of Berg-
son's critique of the " geometrical " bias ascribed by him to the
intellect. A mechanistic monism must reduce " evolution "
to a process by which things unfold what has all along been in
them in an " incapsulated " form; but the. process known to
genuine science by the unhappy name of evolution is really more
properly " epigenesis," the growth of the qualitatively new, and
therefore unpredictable, out of the old. Starting with an original
pure pluralism which resolves the course of things into inter-
actions between agents, each of whom is independent of any
other, we can see that a pluralistic universe would develop a
tendency to unity in the very process by which its members
establish a modus vivendi among themselves, but it is uncertain
whether such a tendency would give us the amount of unity we
presuppose in the real world when we assume the validity for it
of general laws, and it certainly does not warrant our ascribing
to it such a unity as would justify the belief that the universe is
such as to permit the realization of our moral and spiritual ideals.
//, however, the pluralist should modify his hypothesis by
regarding one member of his universe as a God from whom the
rest derive their real but dependent existence, we could find in
the existence of such a God good ground for faith in the per-
sistence of spiritual life after bodily death, and the final victory
of good over evil; the alleged difficulties of Theism, in particular
the alleged impossibility of reconciling the goodness of God with
the presence of evil in His world, have no conclusive force. Thus
we are free, as Kant held, to exercise a reasonable faith in God
and in immortality; and such a faith, while meeting the demands
of morality and religion, involves no breach with the intellect,
as it amounts only to a further step along the road which the
pluralist is forced to tread in accounting for the presence of even
so much unity of plan as he has to admit in the visible world.
Varisco reaches a very similar position as the result of a polemic
against the empiricist metaphysic of the ordinary Comtist.
He begins with an analysis of the actual moment of sense per-
ception. The objects apprehended in such perception stand
at once in two sets of relations. On the one hand, they are con-
nected in various ways with one another, and as so connected
they form a system which lies open to the perception not only
of the special " I " who speak of apprehending them, but to the
perception of innumerable other beings, each of whom can
equally say " I apprehend " them. Considered from this point
of view the system of sense-data and their interconnections may
be said to form the common perceived world of mankind at
large. But also a given sense-datum which I apprehend is, at
the moment of its apprehension, present along with experiences
(feelings, conations) which are intimate and private to me and
directly accessible to no other being which calls itself " I." In
this sense the perceived objects may be said to be my objects.
Thus there is a sense in which the whole world of fact to which
the individual has to adjust himself in action is inseparably
bound up with the individual's inner life. Varisco develops this
idea in a way which may remind us strongly of T. H. Green,
but is at least equally reminiscent of Leibnitz, the one great
philosopher whom Green persistently misunderstood. It is fatal
to the empiricist theories which regard the " external world "
as simply given in sensation that the world reveals itself to
science as a complicated network of relations between terms,
and neither the universals which pervade it nor some at least
of the terms they connect are sense-data. The universals are
apprehended by thought, and the self to which they are known,
the only thing which we apprehend directly as it is, is also no
sense-datum. It is our immediate non-sensuous apprehension
of the self which owns its " states " that supplies us with our
standard of real Being. Hence Varisco is led to postulate as
indispensable factors in the scheme of the universe not only the
sense-data and the system of relations between them, but the
plurality of persons whose sense-data they are and whose thought
apprehends their complicated relations. From these considera-
tions follows the reality of freedom and contingency. For each
individual has its unique qualitative character, by which it is
distinguished from every other, and the course of phenomenal
events thus depends on two factors, the unique characters of
individuals and the universal relations between them, and the
former factor is obviously incalculable with certainty just because
it is what is not common to two or more individuals. Hence the
actual course of things is only partly calculable, and this ad-
mission of contingency, or spontaneity in the individual, involves
no breach with the principle that it is for philosophy to satisfy
our intellectual demands. We may call the element of sponta-
neity a logical (since logic is concerned solely with the universal
laws of interconnection and interaction), but not irrational.
At this point arises the supreme issue for a philosophical
interpretation of the universe, an issue which is one of value
or worth. The question is whether we regard the principle of
organization in the universe as immanent, and manifesting itself
in an endless succession of individuals which are all transitory;
or whether we are to think of it as itself a transcendent individual,
and of the finite individuals in which it exhibits itself as per-
manent factors in the universe. In the former case, the values of
the individuals will be all relative, and there will be no meaning
in attaching value or purpose to the world-order itself, as it is
only the individual which properly has either; in the second case,
there will be a meaning in regarding the values we ascribe to
human personalities as absolute, and we shall be able to ascribe
value and purpose to the universe as a whole, no less than to its
various members. Varisco's view is that philosophy as such
cannot decide this issue between an impersonal immanent prin-
ciple of order and " the traditional Christian conception of God."
Our decision will turn upon the intensity of our faith in the cor-
respondence between the order of facts and our spiritual ideals.
His own preference is for the Christian solution, as an expression
of personal faith.
In the sphere of ethics, the attention of modern philosophers
of all schools has seemed to be more concentrated on the inquiry
into the presuppositions and .methods of science than on the
interpretation of our inner life. " Erkenntnistheorie " is more
PHILOSOPHY
97
in the fashion than " discourses on conduct." This is, as has
always been the case, specially true of the work of the Neo-
Kantians. Special notice is perhaps due to the important volume,
Substanzbegrijf und Funktionsbegrif (1910), by the distinguished
Neo-Kantian writer, E. Cassirer, which is specially valuable for
its insight into the real character of the universals, or laws, of
exact physical science, and for its criticism of the work done on
the philosophy of mathematics by distinguished " new realists."
In the sphere of " philosophy of religion " one may perhaps give
special commendation to Evelyn Underbill's brilliant attempt
to make a thorough study of the meaning and worth of the
mystic " way of life " (Mysticism, 1910), as well as to the im-
portant and elaborate restatement of the principles of " idealism,"
with special application to the problems of religion, by Prof.
B. Bosanquet in his Principles of Individuality and Value (the
Gifford Lectures at Edinburgh for 1911) and its sequel, The
Value and Destiny of the Individual (Gifford Lectures, 1912).
It was not much easier in 1921 than it might have been in 1910
to detect a single main stream of tendency in latter-day philo-
sophical thinking. Perhaps, however, it may be said that some of
the issues were slowly clarifying. Except possibly in Italy, where
the Hegelian influence was marked in the work of Croce and
Gentile, " absolute idealism " of the Hegelian type seemed to be
losing ground. The veterans of the movement continued to
produce impressive work. (It may be sufficient to mention, in
addition to B. Bosanquet's two volumes, F. H. Bradley's Essay
on Truth and Reality, 1914, and J. M. E. McTaggart's The
Nature of Existence, vol. i., 1921.) But, at least outside Italy,
the school no longer seemed to attract recruits among younger
men. " Pragmatism " (or " Humanism ") seemed also, since the
death of William James, to have taken its place definitely as a
movement which had "done its do," and Bergson to be on the
way to that canonization as a " classic " which means, among
other things, that the canonized is felt to belong to the past
rather than to the present. Nor had the philosophy of pure
mathematics produced any work of absolutely first-rate im-
portance since the third volume of the monumental Principia
Mathematica of Whitehead and Russell. In 1920-1 the remark-
able developments given to the doctrine of " Relativity " in
physics by Einstein and others seemed to have caused a dis-
placement of the centre of gravity of " epistemological " dis-
cussion. For some time to come the most topically interesting
problem for the " epistemologist " and the metaphysician was
likely to be the evaluation of the new physical ideas from the
standpoint of general philosophy, and perhaps the most signifi-
cant fact in quite recent philosophical literature in the English
language was the impression which had been produced by
Whitehead's two remarkable volumes, Principles of Natural
Knowledge (1919) and The Concept of Nature (1920). The future
would show whether these works might not give rise to a new
and brilliant Naturphilosophie with marked affinities to Plato in
the Timaeus and to Berkeley. For the present, physics seemed
likely to occupy the same sort of central position in philosophical
speculation which mathematics had held since 1900.
As far as could be discerned in 1921, the main directions in
contemporary philosophy seemed to be three.
(i) Theism of a strongly ethical kind with a metaphysical
basis of " monadism " or " personal idealism " and definitely
hostile to that depreciation of human individuality which was
common among the religiously minded idealists of the latter part
of the nineteenth century. The theists of this type commonly
call themselves " idealists " and hold fast to the conception of a
real unity of the world of persons in a supramundane God, whom
the world would not refuse to speak of as " personal," though some
of them would hesitate to call him a " person." Striking exam-
ples of valuable works from this standpoint are James Ward's
Psychological Principles (1918 the most philosophical treat-
ment of psychology so far produced in Great Britain or perhaps
in Europe); W. R. Sorley, Moral Values and the Idea of God
(1018); A. S. Pringle-Pattison, The Idea of God (1917); C. C. J.
Webb, God and Personality (1918); Divine Personality and Hu-
man Life (1920).
xxxn. 4
(2) " Neutral Monism " in its various forms, all agreeing
in the attempt to deny that disparateness of mind and matter
upon which Descartes taught modern philosophy at its very
inception to insist, and the desire, speaking generally, to reduce
the importance of mind, " consciousness," " the subject " in the
scheme of things, to a minimum. This tendency has, perhaps,
been most marked in the United States of America, where it has
given rise to a whole school of young metaphysicians calling
themselves " New Realists " (in contradistinction from the older
realists of the Aristotelian tradition) and has been carried into
psychology, with some exaggeration of its distinctive point of
view, by the so-called " Behaviourists."
In Great Britain the same tendency has been shown in the
later work of B. A. W. Russell, but its most striking product
was perhaps S. Alexander's Space, Time and Deity (1920), where
the principles of " New Realism " are combined with the specula-
tions of Minkowski, Einstein and others on " Relativity " in an
attempt to take stock of the universe and its contents. As the
result is to represent these contents as an hierarchical order in
which mind, however low its real rank, at least holds the highest
rank with which we are acquainted, it is perhaps not unfair to say
that, in Mr. Alexander's construction, relativity is at any rate
" relatively " more prominent than " new realism." There is a
certain community of temper between the work of the " New
Realists " and one or two important works on special topics which
do not commit themselves unreservedly to any metaphysical
standpoint, though they may fairly be said at least to be not
" idealistic," such as C. D. Broad's Perception, Physics and
Reality (1914) and J. Laird's Problems of the Self (1917). J.
Laird's later work, A Study in Realism (1920), is much more
decidedly in line with the " new realism," though (as might be
expected from an author whose earlier book was chiefly notable
for the vigour with which it defended the position that the self,
while unquestionably real, is neither the body nor any part of it)
free from the tendency of many " new realists " to depreciate
the importance of mind in the scheme of things.
It was as yet too early in 1921 to feel sure what the value of
this revival of " realism " was. As against the older tendency
to regard Nature as very largely the creation of the human mind
and, in fact, something of an " illusion " which happens un-
accountably to be shared by every one, it may fairly be said to
be largely justified, and it seems also likely to prove a serviceable
ally to the moralist who believes in " objective " obligation
against the perennial endeavour of the mere anthropologist to
confound moral distinctions with capricious " personal " likings
and dislikes. It is a strong point of the doctrine that it refuses to
regard the universals of science and ethics as " figments " (like
the older sensationalism), or (like Kantianism) as " creations of
the mind." They are genuinely there " in the facts," and have
to be accepted no less than the deliverances of sense as " part
of the facts." In so far as the " realistic " tendency seems likely
to deliver us in natural philosophy from the belief in a " material
substrate " and the rejection of the wealth of " sensible qualities "
to the realm of illusion, and in ethics from the theory that moral
values are purely "subjective," it promises to do admirable work
for the clarification of thought. But it may be suspected that
some of the protagonists of the movement are too much in a
hurry to philosophize with due discrimination. The " neutral
monism " to which they seem to tend in metaphysics is no new
thing, and one may doubt whether it really deserves to survive
its drastic criticism by J. Ward at the end of the last century
(Naturalism and Agnosticism, 1899). It seems probable that
some of the dialectical victories of the " realist " are easily won
by substituting the alleged dualism of matter and mind for the
very different duality of knower and known. To deny that the
universe consists of two classes of substances, radically distinct
and disparate in all their properties, is one thing; to maintain,
as some, if not all, " new realists " do, that minds might disappear
from the universe and yet leave it with all its colours, tones,
odours, perhaps with all its " values," unaffected is quite another.
Reference to the " subject " of knowledge may be irrelevant to
the discussion of particular problems in nature precisely because
9 8
PHILOSOPHY
the " subject " is equally relevant to the whole of Nature. To the
present writer, at least, it seems that none of the " realists "
of the moment has so clear an insight into the real significance
of the " subject " and the real character of " Nature " as was
shown long ago by John Grote in his remarkable, but unfortu-
nately not very readable, work Exploratio Philosophka.
(3) The third tendency which calls for note is what one may
call " Spiritualist Pluralism." According to this view the uni-
verse consists in the end of a vast plurality of minds, but there
is no one central and supreme mind controlling its destiny.
Anti-materialism and atheism are thus conjoined. The view
itself is, indeed, not a new one. It has been long upheld, as an
interpretation of Hegelianism, by J. M. E. McTaggart, and is,
of course, not so very different from the " theism " of those
" personal idealists " who make a point of objecting to the
traditional doctrine of the Divine Omnipotence. But the plu-
ralistic universe of spirits, as conceived by these thinkers, is,
of course, an orderly one. The believers in a " finite God " have
always stipulated that the limits of their Deity's knowledge or
power shall be so widely drawn as to leave Him in a position to
act as an overruling Providence to the rest of us. McTaggart's
scheme does not include a God at all, but, for reasons which he
has, perhaps, not made fully apparent, he is persuaded that it is
in the nature of spirits to fall into line with one another and even
to advance inevitably by a natural law to complete fruition of
perfection and happiness. His world, to use an illustration of his
own, is like the senior common room of a college without a
master. (Have we here a last vestige of the old, comfortable
Godwinian dogma of the "perfectibility of human nature"?
There is a distinct flavour of the 18th-century optimism, against
which Candide was a protest, about this metaphysic. The times
of violence, it is taken for granted, lie behind us in the dim past ;
" culture " and " enlightenment " are a sufficient guarantee
against their return, exactly as was thought by those repre-
sentatives of the French noblesse who came up to Paris for the
meeting of the States-General in 1789.) Naturally enough, the
events of the recent years of world-wide war (1914-8), which
made even the most optimistic feel how very insecure the
foundations of our " moral civilization " are, were not favour-
able to spiritualistic pluralism of this easy-going and cheerful
kind. Aerial bombardments and poison gases brought it home
to all of us that the world is as " dangerous " as Nietzsche
could have wished it to be. But an anarchic version of spirit-
ualistic pluralism was enunciated with great vigour at the end
of the war by the brilliant Italian philosopher, A. Aliotta,
who had formerly professed a theistic " personal idealism,"
in his small but striking manifesto La guerra eterna ed
U dramma dell' existenza. According to Aliotta, what the "real
world " of spirits resembles is not a college in the long vacation
but one of the fronts of the recent war. Spirits are ingenerable
and indestructible, and their life is an unending warfare for
incompatible ideals. The issue of the conflict is unknown and
unknowable, and, indeed, it is just the fact that it is unknowable
which makes the fight worth while. It seems even to be held that
good would not really be good unless there was some one to hate
and resist it. Arma amens capio nee sat rationis inarmis. Aliotta,
in his later phase, rejects Theism with disdain. His reasons appear
to be primarily ethical. If there is a " God above," it is argued,
we know already that the issue of the secular warfare of good
with evil is decided. Good is going to win and we know it; the
battle is thus as good as over already, and there is no more
heroism in playing a man's part in the world than there is in
charging an unloaded battery on a day of field manoeuvres.
Aliotta's zeal and energy have created, apparently, a whole band
of enthusiasts for a pluralism of this kind among the younger
Italian philosophers. The weak points in the intellectual con-
struction are, however, obvious. The alleged ethical objections
to Theism only hold good on the assumption that Divine Provi-
dence is absolutely incompatible with human freedom, and no
serious attempt is made to justify this assumption that Theism
means hyper-Calvinism. That in a theistic universe good will be
triumphant " in God's good time " may be certain, but it does
not follow that it will triumph without our efforts or that it does
not depend largely on us when that " good time " shall be.
Again, it must not be forgotten that the Theist does not com-
monly profess to be able to demonstrate his creed with mathe-
matical certainty. He lives by faith and hope and usually pro-
fesses to prove no more than that the scheme of things leaves
him room to hope. It is probably impossible to reason an in-
tellectually alert but morally frivolous man into belief in God.
Still more unreasonable does it seem to hold, as Aliotta and his
followers sometimes appear to hold, that the very meaning of
" good " is " something which one has to fight for." If this were
so, evil would clearly become very good if it were so generally
hated by most men that its partisans were compelled to fight
very hard on its behalf. It must always be more than a meaning-
less form of words to ask the question: " Is what you propose
to fight about worth fighting for?" To put it differently, the
proposition " that for which I am fighting is good " is always
a synthetic proposition in Kant's sense of that phrase.
The years from 1918 to 1921, at all events in Great Britain,
seem to have been rather barren in works of practical philosophy
of outstanding importance. There were, of course, many reasons
for this: the disturbance, by the war, of the ordinary avocations
of the class by whom such works are chiefly produced, the rise
in the cost of living which lowered the demand for books,
and above all the great increase in the cost of paper and labour.
Mention should, however, be made of one admirable work,
L. T. Hobhouse's, The Metaphysical Theory of the State (1918).
Hobhouse's work is a hostile criticism of the Hegelian tendency
to deify the State as a sort of " super-person," which he takes as
exemplified by B. Bosanquet's Philosophical Theory of the State,
and a reassertion of the traditional " liberal " conception of the
State as a system of machinery for the promotion of the welfare
of individuals. The criticism of the Hegelian adoption of Rous-
seau's conception of the " general will " is severe but illuminating.
It may be that Hegelianism tends to make men conservatives
(though our own Hegelians have as often been socialists), and
that Hobhouse's personal political inclinations at times run
away with him. He seems so convinced of the antecedent prob-
ability that any governmental enactment will be a bad one as
almost to hold that any " rebel " (a Marat or an Hebert?) may
be presumed to be in the right until it is proved that he is in
the wrong. But in view of the dangerous tendency of present
society to " look to Government " for everything, and of the
serious moral abuses to which the metaphor of the " personality "
of the State may lead when it is taken to be more than a metaphor,
the book must be regarded as a singularly timely contribution
to philosophical politics.
In pure logic perhaps the most important English publication
of very recent years has been the issue in 1921 of the first volume
of W. E. Johnston's long-expected Logic. Mention should also
be made of B. Bosanquet's Implication and Linear Inference,
a welcome appendix to the more voluminous logical work of the
veteran philosopher which throws a good deal of fresh light on
his fundamental position.
The years of war and uneasy reconstruction have not been
barren of useful work in the history of philosophy. In N. Kemp
Smith's Commentary to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (1918),
we have at last in English an adequate historical and exegetical
companion to the most famous of all German works on meta-
physics and the theory of knowledge which will be indispensable
to all serious students and may take rank with anything which
the Germans themselves have done for their illustrious philoso-
pher. If Smith's work is not quite on the gigantic scale of
Vaihinger's great German commentary, it has the advantage of
covering the whole of the Critique, whereas Vaihinger breaks
off at the end of the Transcendental Aesthetic. In all other respects
the British commentator may fairly sustain comparison with his
Continental predecessor. Another very welcome contribution
to the history of modern thought is J. Gibson's Locke's Theory
of Knowledge (1917), which should do a great deal towards mak-
ing the real greatness of Locke as a rationalist philosopher clear
to his countrymen and dispelling the strange conception of him as
PHILOSOPHY
99
a sensationalistic empiricist made current among us in the
'seventies of the last century by T. H. Green's Introduction to
the Green and Grose edition of Hume. It were much to be wished
that some competent scholar would do for Hume, a philosopher
who has been no less strangely misunderstood, what Gibson has
done for Locke. We still need to have it established by a really
historical study of the Treatise and the dialogues on Natural
Religion that Hume was neither an empiricist, as Green would
make him, nor a positivist, as Huxley represents, but precisely
what he calls himself, an " academic or sceptical " philosopher,
and that the true measure of his intellectual greatness can only
be taken when this simple fact is kept steadily in mind. A gap is
also filled in our philosophical literature by the appearance of
W. R. Sorley's History of English Philosophy (1920), which
begins with Alcuin of York and carries the story down to the
end of the igth century. The veteran J. T. Merz completed
his masterly History of European Thought, a work to which it
would be hard to find a parallel in its scope and the accuracy of
knowledge in many fields which it displays, by the issue of the
fourth volume in 1914. He has since given us an interesting
addendum, containing an outline of his own philosophical inter-
pretation of experience in A Fragment on the Human Mind (1919),
where it is interesting to see how profoundly a thinker at home in
all the developments of French and German thought has been
influenced by our own Berkeley and Hume. The Fragment is
one of many signs that there is possibly a great future before
a really critical Neo-Berkeleyanism. Berkeley received scant
justice at the hands of the Anglo-Hegelian " Idealists " of the
late igth century, who seem to have been under the impression
that his best-known doctrine was meant as a kind of " subjectiv-
ism." The zoth century seems likely, by laying stress on the
very real element of " natf realism " in his work, to arrive at a
more intelligent and more generous estimate of its permanent
value. We should not omit to chronicle the real service done
to philosophical literature by the Open Court Publishing Com-
pany in the reissue (1916) of the epoch-making work of Boole
on the Laws of Thought, the original edition of which had become
very scarce. It is a great misfortune, owing presumably to the
deaths of Dr. Paul Carus and Mr. P. E. B. Jourdain, that the
complete republication of the logical writings of G. Boole and
his great contemporary Augustus De Morgan has not been
proceeded with. A reprint of De Morgan's Formal Logic, his
contributions to the logic of relatives, and Trigonometry and
Double Algebra, if of no other of his works, is badly needed by
the student of the history of modern exact logic.
It is gratifying to note that the study of the great Greek
founders of science and philosophy is still zealously prosecuted
in Great Britain and in other countries, notably in Italy, which
has been remarkably fertile in recent years in all departments of
philosophical literature. It may be recorded that all through the
war the issue of the great Oxford translation of Aristotle provided
for by the will of Jowett slowly proceeded, the last part issued
up to the middle of 1921 being the revision of Jowett's own ver-
sion of the Politics by W. D. Ross. The Aristotelian student may
be excused if he feels a little impatient at the continued non-
appearance of just those Aristotelian works which are at once the
most interesting and the least adequately represented in English,
the Organon, Physics, De Caelo, De Generalione and Meteorologica.
But for these logical and cosmological writings the English
Aristotle was in 1921 well-nigh complete. Another most valuable
work which progressed steadily after 1914, and in 1921 needed
only one more volume to be completed, is the handsome edition
of Kant's works with that indispensable subsidium, a full collec-
tion of variant readings edited by the eminent scholar, E. Cas-
sirer. If, in binding and quality of paper, the later volumes
inevitably fall off to some extent from the high standard of the
earlier, this edition is in all other respects what an edition of a
great classic ought to be. It was at last possible to read Kant
with pleasure to the eye and with full certainty whether what
one had before one was what Kant himself actually allowed to
be printed or a (good or bad) conjecture of some modern Kant-
scholar. We have too long acquiesced, and that not only in
philosophical works, in a standard of textual accuracy where
modern writers are concerned which would be rightly deemed
barbarous in editions of the Greek and Latin classics. It is to
be hoped that this bad practice will not be tolerated much longer
by self-respecting scholars.
The changes in the third edition (1921) of J. Burnet's Early
Greek Philosophy, the most critical and careful study of the
beginnings of Greek science, are an interesting indication of the
advance our knowledge of classical antiquity had made since
1908. No contemporary work on the primary Greek philosophers
is of quite such first-rate importance as L. Robin's important
La Theorie Platonicienne of 1908, the one modern work which
systematically and in detail begins the investigation of Plato's
philosophy with the proper initial question, what Plato was
understood to mean by men like Xenocrates and Aristotle, who
heard his doctrines from his own lips. J. Burnet's Greek Philoso-
phy, Thales to Plato (1914) proceeds on similar lines, but the
writer is limited by the facts that Plato is only one part of his
subject and that he has perforce to give most of his space to the
exposition of the dialogues. His actual interpretation of Plato
was deferred to his second volume, not yet published in 1921.
But Robin had issued a brief but important appendix to his main
work, Etudes sur la signification el la place ae la Physique dans
la Philosophic de Platan (1919). Mention should also be made of
the admirable Platonic studies of Adolfo Levi, Sulle interpre-
tazioni immanent istiche della filosofia di Platone and // Concetto
del Tempo nella filosofia di Platone (1920). These are contribu-
tions of first-rate importance to the recovery of the genuine
tradition of the first generations of the Platonic Academy. It
ought to be clear that it is on the recovery of this tradition, for
which there is ample available evidence, that our hopes of
definitely ascertaining the real meaning of the first and greatest
of all philosophical writers must depend.
The Neo-Thomist movement in the Catholic universities of
the Continent still continued, in 1921, to flourish vigorously
and to show its vitality in the general excellence of the work
in such journals as the Italian Rivista di Filosofia Neo-Scolastica
and the Revue Ne.o-Scolastique de Philosophie issued by the
philosophical faculty of the university of Louvain. Among the
actual books produced quite recently by the movement, mention
may be made of the brief but highly condensed and valuable
study of St. Thomas's thought in its entirety, Le Thomisme, by
E. Gilson of the university of Strassburg. The English reader
will get an admirable introduction to a great philosophy too
little known among us by combining the study of this general
introduction to Thomism with that of the very sympathetic
exposition of Thomist natural theology by P. H. Wicksteed,
The Reactions between Dogma and Philosophy Illustrated from
the Works of S. Thomas (1920). The appearance of works like this
last leads one to hope that it might soon be impossible for the
average historian of philosophy among us to write as though
nothing of any significance had been thought or said in philosophy
between Plotinus (or even Aristotle) and Descartes. Two other
recent contributions to the study of ancient and mediaeval
thought may be mentioned. G. M. Stratton's Greek Physiological
Psychology (1917) is a painstaking and laudable attempt to edit
the important fragment of Theophrastus de Sensu with a transla-
tion and full explanatory commentary. In Opera hactenus in-
edita Rogeri Bacon fasc. V. (1920), A. G. Steele happily resumed
the task, interrupted by the war since 1913, of providing a
complete edition of Roger Bacon's writings.
In U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorf's two large volumes en-
titled Platan (vol. i., 1917; vol. ii., 1919), the veteran German
professor makes some interesting and valuable suggestions,
but he is debarred from acting as a competent interpreter of
Plato partly by complete lack of training in philosophical thought,
partly by a habit of treating ingenious guesses of his own about
the motives of a classical writer and the circumstances in which
his various works were composed as certainties, partly by a
curious want of finish in verbal Greek scholarship which makes
his long series of conjectural emendations, in spite of a few
felicities, into a systematic depravation of the Platonic text.
100
PHYSIOLOGY
During the decade, many of the familiar figures of the philo-
sophical world were removed by death. This was only to be ex-
pected in the case of octogenarians like Wundt and Windelband and
J. F. Brentano, still more in that of a nonagenarian like the Italian
positivist, R. Ardigo (1828-1020). In Great Britain there were
few losses among the elder philosophers since the death of the
nonagenarian, A. Campbell Fraser. Of the elderly, but not old,
the United States lost their leading philosopher, Josiah Royce;
France, Gaston Milhaud and Emile Boutroux (1845-1921); and
Austria, Alexis Meinong. Still more regrettable was the death
of men who were still young or in their intellectual prime, as
Louis Couturat in France and Oswald Kulpe in Germany.
(A. E. T.)
PHYSIOLOGY (see 21.554;. Since 1910 increased attention
has been paid, in physiological research, to phenomena common
to living beings in general, and recent investigation has added
considerably to our knowledge and corrected earlier theories.
As distinguished from Morphology, the science of the form
and structure of living organisms, Physiology may be said to be
concerned with their activities, chemical and physical. But
there can be no hard and fast line between the two bodies of
doctrine. A function depends on the way the machine is made.
And many provinces of modern research, such as those depend-
ing on changes of general form in response to external agents,
combine morphology and physiology. For convenience of re-
search, physiology is often divided into biochemistry and bio-
physics. But this distinction can scarcely be regarded as a
scientific one, since in all vital processes both chemical and
physical factors intervene. It is true that some of the problems
of the biochemist consist in the elucidation of the chemical
nature of vital products, and might be looked upon as the
chemical side of morphology; but the methods of investiga-
tion distinguish them from those of the organic chemist.
Animal and Plant. There is no real or fundamental difference
beCween the animal and plant organism. Great as may appear
to be the external differences between a dog and a tree, when
we proceed to examine the physiological factors of which their
life is made up, we find that the elementary processes are
essentially alike. The most striking contrast, that of move-
ment, does not exist in the simplest members of the two king-
doms. While certain plants, such as algae and bacteria, are
motile in some stages, certain polyps and ascidians become
fixed in the later periods of their life. Other instances might
be given. The difference between the net result of the chemical
changes occurring in the green plants and those occurring in
animals is due to the presence in the former of the green pig-
ment, chlorophyll, and does not show itself in fungi. By the
aid of chlorophyll, the energy of the sun's light is used to build
up the carbon dioxide, formed in the combustion of food by all
cells, into sugar and oxygen. These again become available as
sources of energy to living matter. In this connexion, it may
be noted that the work of Willstatter and Stoll has made it
practically certain that carbon dioxide and water become at-
tached in some way to the chlorophyll particles, a molecular
rearrangement takes place with addition of energy when light
is absorbed, a peroxide of formaldehyde is produced, and this
is then decomposed into gaseous oxygen and formaldehyde by
the agency of an enzyme (catalase). From formaldehyde the
higher sugars are readily produced by polymerization. The
precise chemistry of the reactions is 'not yet clear it may be
that formic acid and hydrogen peroxide result from the action
of water on the formaldehyde peroxide. In this case, catalase
splits up hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen, while the
formic acid is reduced by light (absorbed by chlorophyll) to
formaldehyde. However this may be, the final result of the
process is that, in the light, green plants take up carbon diox-
ide and give off oxygen. In the dark, they behave like animals,
giving off carbon dioxide by combustion. Such combustion, of
course, is actually proceeding in the light also, although ob-
scured by the opposite phenomenon.
Vitalism. Some discussion, not very profitable as far as
physiology is concerned, has taken place as to the existence of
a form of energy, or, as held by some, of a kind of directing agency
peculiar to living beings. The aim of all physiological experi-
mentation is to express vital processes in terms of physical
and chemical laws. We call this " explaining " them. The
methods used, moreover, are those of physics and chemistry.
Owing to the complexity of the phenomena, we have to be
content in many cases with expression in terms of simpler
physiological laws, leaving the further analysis of these laws to
the future. As Claude Bernard pointed out, the laws of physics
and chemistry manifest their action in systems of a special kind,
differing from those familiar to workers in the former sciences,
so that the separation of a biological group is quite justified.
At the same time, there is intimate connexion and overlapping,
a process subject to continual increase.
As to the existence of a peculiar form of " vital " energy, it is
to be admitted that we have no direct method of measuring the
energy contained in a given mass of carbon and oxygen, although
we know that a definite quantity of work can be obtained by
allowing them to combine. Thus, the energy of living things
cannot be looked upon as altogether peculiar. Indeed, measure-
ments of any form of energy are usually made by converting
them into other forms. The first law of energetics tells us that
this is permissible. The striking fact that any organism behaves
as a unified and coordinated set of activities has led to the
assumption of a directing agency of some kind. We shall see
later that notable progress has been made in the explanation
of the factors responsible for many aspects of this integration.
The position of consciousness in physiological processes is
by no means clear. While it may be. held that the province of
physiology is to investigate what can be made out experiment-
ally in the nervous centres, it does not seem impossible that con-
sciousness may ultimately fall into place as one of the functions
of nervous tissue.
Relation to Physical Chemistry. One of the most striking
aspects of the development of modern physiology is the im-
portant part played by considerations derived from physical
chemistry. The osmotic pressure of solutions, the action of the
various inorganic ions arising from the electrolytic dissociation
of salts, acids and bases, especially the hydrogen ion, and the
maintenance of the neutrality necessary to the normal function
of the cell, together with the properties of matter in the colloidal
state and of heterogeneous systems in general may be mentioned.
The absorption of substances at the surfaces of contact of phases
that do not mix has been found to explain many otherwise puz-
zling facts, and is doubtless a prominent factor in the formation
of the membrane covering the surface of cells in general and
regulating the passage of dissolved substances into and out of
the cell protoplasm.
This is perhaps the most appropriate place to refer to the rela-
tion of vital processes to the second law of energetics. In one of
its aspects, this law points out how the transformation of
heat energy into other forms is limited, owing to our conditions
of existence being at a temperature so far above absolute zero.
The properties which we recognize as " vital " are especially
manifested during the change of one form of energy into another.
In this process, it is of much importance from the point of view
of economy that the free chemical energy of our food should not
be " degraded " to heat before utilization in muscular work,
and so on. Similarly, the energy of the sun's light must be con-
verted to chemical energy by the green plant as directly as pos-
sible, without passing through the stage of heat. Accordingly we
find that arrangements are made to ensure that loss from such
causes shall be as small as possible.
Nature of Protoplasm. As usually seen in such organisms as
the amoeba or the leucocytes of the blood, protoplasm exhibits
the properties of a liquid. It contains numerous particles in
Brownian movement, a fact which shows the absence of obstacles
holding them in place. This liquid, however, is itself a colloidal
solution and can be seen under special modes of illumination
to be closely packed with extremely minute particles. Under
some states of activity, as in dividing cells or when electrically
stimulated, this " hydrosol," to use Graham's word, becomes a
PHYSIOLOGY
101
" gel," in which the particles have joined together to form
minute closed chambers in which liquid is confined, the whole
mass then possessing the properties of a solid. This process
occurs when a warm solution of gelatin solidifies on cooling. It
will be clear that if protoplasm contains many-formed solid
structures, as in highly differentiated cells, together with com-
paratively little free water, it may be scarcely possible to detect
its liquid nature. However difficult it may be to conceive the
way in which different chemical processes can occur at different
places in a liquid, this must be the case, and suggestions have
been made as to the temporary formation of separating mem-
branes or other less mechanical means of isolation. The notion
of protoplasm as a giant molecule in the chemical sense, with
numerous side-chains of a variety of composition capable of
reacting together, is held by but few physiologists at the present
time. A view of this kind is contained in the theory of " biogens,"
to which reference will be made later.
The cell-membrane is evidently formed by surface condensation
of some constituents of protoplasm. In ordinary circumstances,
it is impermeable to salts, to glucose and to amino-acids. But
since these substances must obtain access to the interior as foods at
certain times, it is clear that the membrane must become more
permeable when required. The constituents of the membrane being
deposited at the surface owing to their properties of reducing sur-
face energy, the actual chemical composition of this layer must be of
a complex nature. It is probably, for the most part, an intimate
mixture of fatty substances with watery proteins. These may form
two kinds of colloidal systems minute droplets of fat may be
surrounded by a continuous solution of protein, like islands in a
sea, or they may themselves run together and enclose droplets of
protein, similar to the land surrounding a number of lakes or ponds.
The properties of these two systems, as regards the passage across
them of materials, will not be identical. Thus, rabbits cannot get
through the system of islands, fish can do so; while the reverse will
be the case with the other kind of system. Familiar instances of the
contrast are well known in the forms of cream and butter. The
former is a suspension of droplets of oil in a watery solution, the
latter consists of droplets of the watery solution in a continuous
medium of fat. The investigations of Clowes have shown how, by
the action of electrolytes, particularly of calcium ions, one system
can be changed into the other. A difficulty is sometimes felt as to
how a membrane which refuses passage to sugar allows visible solid
particles to pass through, as can be seen in the amoeba and leuco-
cytes. The explanation lies in the manner in which a needle can be
dropped through a soap nlmwithoutbreakingthefilm. A continuous
film of the membrane is formed over the point as it enters and again
over the eye-end as it leaves. Thus the membrane is never actually
broken. A further point to be remembered in the modifications of
the cell-membrane is that, being formed of materials present in the
cell, it is an integral part of this and must change in correspondence
with functional changes in the cell itself. Thus it appears that it
becomes more permeable in states of activity, as in the contraction
of muscle and in the secretory process of gland cells. If the sur-
ounding medium itself contains substances that lower surface
ension, these no doubt contribute to the structure of the mem-
>rane. Such is usually the case in the cells making up the animal
dy, less so in the plant.
Certain substances, proteins and others, become more or less
olidified in the process of concentration in surface films, as Rams-
den has shown. This fact must also play a part in the formation
the cell-membrane.
As to the chemical nature of protoplasm itself, it seems very
questionable whether it can be regarded as a uniform chemical
ompound. Although proteins take a large share, various other
ubstances, such as the complex fats known as lipoids or lipines,
re important components. All the constituents are interconnected
in a highly heterogeneous system, partly chemical, partly physical,
of many phases and intersected by semi-permeable membranes
forming and disappearing at intervals.
Attention may here be called to the special properties of the
arbon atom as forming the basis of the chemical changes associated
nth living matter. Compounds of carbon do not naturally react
itherwise than slowly. They are, therefore, subject to ready modi-
fication in this respect by the agency of the catalysts called
" enzymes." Owing to the capacity of carbon atoms to unite together
in long chains or rings of a relatively stable nature, along with the
possession of four valencies capable of union with four different
Troups, we have the possibility of the production of highly complex
arge molecules. Another property of importance in the carriage of
energy is the power of combining with elements of opposite charac-
ter, such as hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrocarbons give up
energy on oxidation, while the carbon dioxide can be reduced and
built up again by addition of energy to form stores of potential
energy for future use.
Although such large complex molecules are of great importance,
the view of the essential nature of protoplasm as a further growth
of the chemical molecule, the " biogen " hypothesis, cannot be
accepted. According to this view, food material is combined
chemically, as a side chain, with a giant molecule, while certain
other side chains consist of oxygen. In oxidation, to give energy,
combination takes place between these side chains. It follows from
such a view that oxygen must be stored up in living cells in an
" intra-molecular " form. Now, investigations from many points
of view have failed to obtain evidence of the existence of such
reserve oxygen. There is no proof that an organism possesses any
store of oxygen beyond that contained in the lungs or dissolved in
the fluids. It appears that the mechanism of living matter is more
analogous to that of a petrol engine, in which the fuel does not form
part of the structure previously to its combustion, but that this
combustion takes place in intimate relation with the moving
parts and that it is owing to the special arrangement of these that
the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into the mechanical
energy of motion. It is true that such cells as those of muscle and
secreting glands have been shown to prepare during rest a store of
some kind of system possessing potential energy, ready for use on
stimulation to activity. But the process of conversion of this sys-
tem to one of lower energy content is not associated with the con-
sumption of oxygen or evolution of carbon dioxide. Thus the
system is not comparable with a " biogen " and may probably be
rather of a physical than a chemical nature. The energy necessary
to form it is obtained by the combustion of some food material,
apparently carbohydrate, with the giving off of carbon dioxide and
involving some loss in the form of heat. The state of activity and
the actual combustion process are therefore separate phenomena
and the conception of giant molecules throws no light on their
nature. It is rather as if the combustion of the fuel in our petrol
engine were used, through some mechanism, to pump water to a
high level, from which the energy could be obtained by allowing it
to run down when required.
The Nucleus of the Cell. Although this component is present in
all the more highly organized cells, it is obvious that it cannot be
essential in this actual form. Bacteria, for example, do not appear
to possess a nucleus, although the materials out of which it is made
are probably present distributed through the cell. If, as Morley
Roberts suggests, the nucleus is a store of enzymes, the tools of the
cell, it might be supposed that, in the absence of the nucleus, these
tools are not kept in a special receptacle. Although statements have
been made that oxidative processes are especially carried out by
the nucleus, the evidence is unconvincing.
The nucleus undergoes a remarkable series of changes in the course
of the subdivision of one cell into two daughter cells. This process,
known as " karyokinesis " or " mitosis," exhibits a complex play
of directed or polar forces. The inheritance of the Mendelian
characters of organisms is conveyed by the nuclear constituents.
The general characters are held by some to be transmitted by the
cytoplasm. But, although it is difficult to believe that the cyto-
plasm plays no part, it would appear that if all the general charac-
ters are thus carried, those of the male parent would be practically
unrepresented, since the spermatozoa are almost devoid of cyto-
plasm. Further evidence is needed.
When a nucleated cell is cut into two parts, one alone containing
the nucleus, this part can continue to exist, whereas the other part
degenerates and dies. Thus, the nucleus is essential to the life and
growth of a cell in those cases where it has become a specially
differentiated part. The fact is particularly manifest in the case
of the cells called neurones, which make up the nervous system.
Here there is a very long fine fibre arising from a nucleated mass.
This is a " nerve-fibre," and if cut away from its nucleated origin,
it degenerates and ceases to be able to conduct nerve impulses.
Nutrition. During 1910-21 much attention was given to
problems of the phenomena of nutrition, necessitated in great
part by the conditions brought about by the World War of 1914-8.
Since the chief use of food is to supply energy and energy cannot
be created, it must always be kept in mind that a given amount
of food can only provide a certain definite quantity of energy.
For convenience of measurement, this is expressed in terms of
heat units, calories. An adequate diet must have a certain
minimal calorie value, or energy value, differing according to
work done, age, weight, etc. Whatever else may be necessary,
and whatever may be the composition of the diet, this energy
value must be provided. The fact must not be allowed to be
obscured by recent work on the importance of special con-
stituents, such as " vitamins " or the presence of particular
chemical compounds.
Further, food is obviously required in the growing organism
to make new tissue and in the adult to replace wear and tear.
Although the actual quantity needed for these purposes is not
great, it is clear that it must contain all the chemical elements
making up the constituents of the new tissues. There are more-
over certain rather complex chemical compounds that must be
IO2
PHYSIOLOGY
supplied, since the higher animals are unable to make them.
Nitrogen is needed for the production of proteins, and is in fact
taken in food in this latter form, although afterwards broken
down into its constituent amino-acids in the process of digestion.
A certain minimal amount of protein food is therefore a neces-
sity. When burned, protein gives energy, and might therefore
be used for this purpose, if taken in sufficient quantity. But
such a proceeding would be costly and wasteful. Accordingly,
we make up the greater part of the energy value of our food
by non-nitrogenous compounds, fats and carbo-hydrates. The
latter appear also to be necessary for proper assimilation of
protein. Some discussion has taken place as to the actual
necessity of fat, since it has been shown that in the organism
fat can be made from carbo-hydrate. Careful experiments
indicate that it is not indispensable. Its chief value, physiolog-
ically, lies in its high energy value, greatly owing to the very
small amount of water contained in the forms used for food.
On account of the fact that the nitrogen of protein appears to
be needed only or mainly for the construction of new body sub-
stance, there has been a tendency to reduce the consumption of
protein. This is advocated chiefly on grounds of economy.
Although excessive consumption of this or any food is physiolog-
ically harmful, there does not appear to be satisfactory reason
for supposing that protein is particularly injurious. On the
other hand, it has been stated that a consumption of protein
in considerable excess of the minimum requirement is of advan-
tage in conferring greater resistance to infection. Apart from the
ill effects of any diet deficient in energy value as a whole, no
satisfactory evidence has been brought in support of the state-
ment. It may be said that if any reasonable diet of animal or
vegetable structures, including fruit, be taken, it will only be
necessary to take account of its energy value. Sufficient proteins
and vitamins will be automatically obtained. The dictum of the
present writer " Take care of the calories, the proteins will take
care of themselves " may indeed be read " Take care of the
calories, other things will take care of themselves."
It may be useful to give the composition of the diet put for-
ward by the Royal Society Food Committee as a standard for
a man of 70 kilos weight, doing moderate work:
Protein 70 grammes = 280 calories
Fat 90 grammes = 810
Carbo-hydrate 550 grammes = 2200
Total 3290 calories
It is understood that this refers to that part of the diet actually
utilized and does not include undigested components.
In addition to the above-mentioned, there are certain things
which, although they do not contribute to the energy value
of a diet, are nevertheless indispensable for the proper working
of the cell machinery and the utilization of the material presented
to it. Water is needed for the carrying on of chemical reactions
and for the conveyance of products from place to place. The
colloidal systems of the cell are maintained and modified by
salts, especially those of sodium, potassium and calcium. This
adjustment, as Macallum has pointed out, is doubtless an
inheritance from adaptation to the composition of the ocean in
early geologic times, from whose inhabitants the present land
animals are descended. We find, moreover, certain metals, such
as iron, manganese, copper and magnesium, present in small
amount in living organisms. We know that iron is a constituent
of the red pigment of the blood corpuscles, by which oxygen is
supplied to the tissues. In certain invertebrate organisms, it is
replaced by copper. Magnesium is a corresponding element in
the green pigment of plants, chlorophyll, without which life
would come to an end owing to the using up of the oxygen of
the atmosphere. Iron and manganese are of importance in the
mechanism by which food is burned and its energy obtained.
Certain moulds will not develop completely without zinc. It
is more than likely that many other metals present in traces
are more than mere accidental contaminations. Calcium, as we
have already seen, plays an important part in the adjustment
of colloidal systems. Potassium, although we know it to be
indispensable, presents difficulties. Zwaardemaker maintains
that its importance rests in its radio-activity, but other workers
have not been able to replace it by other radio-active elements.
Sodium salts, at the present time, serve chiefly to make up the
osmotic pressure of the blood and tissue fluids. The occurrence
of iodine in the internal secretion of the thyroid gland must not
be overlooked.
Vitamins. Not the least interesting of those constituents of
a diet whose presence is absolutely necessary, although small
quantities suffice, are the accessory food factors called by this
name. The name " vitamine " was originally given owing to a
mistaken view of their chemical nature. But, since it has come
into general use and is conveniently short, objection to it may be
removed, as Drummond has pointed out, by omitting the final
"e" and using it merely as a name, without implication of
chemical structure.
So far as known at present, they are three in number, distin-
guished by the addition of the letters A, B and C. Vitamin-A
is commonly found in association with certain fats, such as
butter and cod-liver oil, but it is also present in fresh vegetables.
It is essential to normal growth and maintenance and its absence
appears to be responsible for rickets in children. Vitamin-B is
found in the germ of seeds, such as wheat and rice, but it is
widely spread. Its absence from polished rice results in beri-beri,
when this food material is the only one taken. Vitamin-C is
required for normal nutrition, although the precise manner in
which it acts is unknown. In its absence, the disease known as
scurvy makes its appearance. This vitamin is much less stable
than the preceding ones and is found only, to any notable extent,
in fresh fruit and vegetables. Although all of these factors occur
in animal products, they are present there owing to the vegetable
food taken by animals. Their ultimate source is the plant,
since animals are unable to make them. It is more particularly
Vitamin-C that is defective in animal products. Fresh meat
contains it in a very small amount. Owing to the minute quanti-
ties that are physiologically sufficient and are alone accessible
for investigation, their chemical nature is as yet unknown.
They do not undergo change in the course of their activity, but
are excreted or destroyed more or less rapidly. Thus, their
activity appears to be of a catalytic nature, but nothing very
definite can be stated at present.
The normal growth of plants is also dependent on similar
accessory factors. The " bios " of yeast, and Allen's work on
diatoms may be referred to here. Bacteria, also, require in
many cases special materials, such as haemoglobin, or particular
amino-acids, for satisfactory culture.
It should be noted that certain products formed by organs
in the body itself have powerful effects on the chemical changes
of growth and nutrition. To these " internal secretions " or
" hormones " reference will be made below.
Anabolism and Catabolism. It was held at one time that all food
materials, previous to further utilization, must be built up into
the actual constitution of complex protoplasmic molecules such as
" biogens." And that the activities of organs typified by muscular
contraction and glandular secretion consisted in the breaking down
of such complex chemical individuals. The former process was
spoken of as "anabolism" or "assimilation," the latter as "catab-
olism " or " dissimilation." More recent work has led to a some-
what different point of view, as already indicated above. It appears
that glucose, for example, is burned without becoming a part of the
protoplasmic structure and, although the energy thus available is
used for the storing up of potential energy in some complex sys-
tem, to be used up in subsequent contraction or secretion, this
system may not necessarily be of a purely chemical nature. If the
anabolic and catabolic processes are opposite chemical reactions
in the sense of the building up and breaking down of the same com-
pounds, it is natural to suppose that while the former process is
taking place the latter is ipso facto decreased. Hence, the view that
the nerves producing a reduction of activity (inhibition) are ana- '
bolic in action. Investigation, however, has failed to give confir-
mation of such a view of the nature of the inhibitory process.
Allied to the above problem is that of the existence of nerves
influencing the growth or repair of tissues. Although definite state-
ments cannot yet be made, evidence of any such influence, apart
from changes in blood supply, is inconclusive.
Enzymes. These catalytic agents are of great importance in the
chemical changes of living organisms. It is generally recognized
that they are colloidal and that the reactions accelerated by them
PHYSIOLOGY
103
take place on their surfaces. Thus, a preliminary absorption of
the components of a reaction occurs preparatory to the actual
chemical change. Whether this increased concentration or close
approximation by molecular forces is in itself sufficient to account
for the effects or whether there is an intermediate compound formed
between the material of the surface of the enzyme and the sub-
stances to be acted upon is not yet clear. No such compound has
been prepared, but its existence may be so brief as to elude detec-
tion. It is evident, however, that the chemical nature of the surface
of the enzyme particles may be held responsible for the variety
of limited and special activities met with amongst these substances.
At the same time, it is not to be forgotten that the physical proper-
ties of this surface depend on its chemical nature. In this connexion
the views of Langmuir on the orientation of molecules in surface
layers may be referred to. In regions of molecular forces, no valid
distinction can be drawn between chemical and physical forces.
Much discussion has taken place as to whether enzymes have
synthetic as well as hydrolytic powers. In the majority of cases we
are dealing 'with undoubted reversible reactions, which attain an
equilibrium position other than complete change in either direction.
But the two opposite reactions which determine the equilibrium
point proceed naturally at a very slow rate. If an enzyme were to
accelerate one of these without the other, the equilibrium position
would consist in practically complete change in one direction. If
this position as reached under the action of an enzyme is anywhere
but at the extreme in one or the other sense, it follows that the en-
zyme has quickened both the hydrolytic and the synthetic reactions.
Many cases of this kind are now known. The actual position of
the equilibrium depends on the concentration of water in the
system. Thus, in order that the synthetic activity may be pre-
ponderant, arrangements are required by which this concentration
of free water may be decreased. This may be effected in the cell by
colloidal imbibition by absorption on surfaces, or by osmotic ac-
tion. If the products of synthesis are rapidly removed either by
being deposited in an insoluble form, as for example starch or gly-
cogen are, or by being carried away in the blood stream, the syn-
thetic process may be continuous, since equilibrium is not reached.
Oxidation. As is well known, the living organism is able to burn
food materials, such as glucose, fat and so on, which are only
oxidized with such extreme slowness by atmospheric oxygen that
combustion appears to be absent in many cases. The mechanism
by which oxidation is effected in the organism consists in making
use by enzymes of products of oxidation of certain materials which
are attacked by atmospheric oxygen. Although details of the
mechanism are not altogether clear, the main facts are as follows.
When a substance, such as an unsaturated fat or lecithin, is oxidized
by oxygen as it exists in the air, it is said to undergo autoxidation.
In this process, pari passu with the formation of the ordinary oxide,
which of course affords available energy, a peroxide is formed by
the aid of this energy. It appears also from Mrs. Onslow's work
that the autoxidation may be hastened by an enzyme, thus afford-
ing a larger supply of the peroxide. But while a peroxide in itself
has greater oxidizing power than oxygen in the molecular state
has, or in other words its oxidation potential is higher, this potential
is not sufficiently high to attack glucose or lactic acid. If, however,
a small amount of a ferrous salt be added, a catalytic separation of
oxygen in an " active " state occurs and such refractory materials
as lactic acid are then oxidized (Fenton's reaction). Whether ac-
tive oxygen is atomic or whether it is in the process of changing
its valency, as Ramsay used to teach, is uncertain. The important
fact is that we find in living organisms an enzyme, " peroxidase,"
capable of acting on peroxides in the same way as the iron in
Fenton's reaction. Indeed, it seems likely that either iron or
nanganese is the responsible constituent of the enzyme.
Oxidation or reduction may also be brought about by substances
vhich remove hydrogen from water, thus leaving reactive oxygen.
Vs Hopkins has shown, a sulphur group (S-S) may take up hydrogen
o form HS-SH, while this compound in its turn may hand on
hydrogen to an " acceptor," and so reduce it.
Integration. Organisms behave as coordinated systems, not as
ollections of separate cells. There must accordingly be means of
nter-communication between all parts. In the animal, the most
obvious of these is the nervous system, which makes its appearance
at a very early stage of evolution. It may be compared to the
telephone system of a city, by which any part can be connected up
with any other. This comparison is in many ways an instructive
one. Any one subscriber can be put into communication with
any other and his line is a " final common path " for messages from
various sources. Thus, the nerve supplying any particular muscle
is made use of in many various movements, since it can be connected
up in the brain with different nerves conveying their respective
messages from the sense-organs.
Details of researches on the activities of the central nervous
system are beyond the scope of this article. In general it may be
said that the conception of a series of alternative parallel arcs at
different levels in the hierarchy has shown itself an illuminating
one. When the higher arcs come into use, those of lower levels fall
into disuse and become relatively resistant to the passage of im-
pulses. These lower arcs still remain potentially active and when
the higher parts are removed gradually become functional again, to
a greater or less degree. In some cases, their activity is kept in
check by the higher arcs and liable to become more or less excessive
when the influence of these is removed. Such " release " phenom-
ena play an important part in the manifestations of the nerve
centres, especially in abnormal states.
Pavlov's method of " conditioned reflexes," by which physio-
logical, objective, research on the cerebral cortex can be made, has
already led to many valuable results. The part played by inhibi-
tory processes has been shown to be a very important one.
As animals grow in size and complexity, some system analogous
to that of mechanical transport by roads or railways becomes
necessary. Oxygen has to be conveyed to all parts of the body from
the place in which it is obtained from the air. The carbon dioxide
and other products of chemical change require removal for the
purpose of elimination by the organs devoted to this purpose.
Food has to be taken from the alimentary canal to other organs
in which it is burned or used for repair. As is well known, it is by
means of the blood flowing in a voluminous network of tubes that
this aspect of integration is effected. Thus, materials in quantity
are carried from one organ to another. As regards oxygen and
carbon dioxide, further remarks will be found below.
Much attention has naturally been given to the pump, known as
the heart, which serves to keep the blood flowing through the
vascular system. The most important recent work is that of Star-
ling embodied in the Law of the Heart. It was found that all the
responses of this organ to the demands of the circulation, apart
from the effects of nervous reflexes upon it, could be explained on
the basis of a certain property common to all muscle. This prop-
erty, which was clearly brought out by the work of A. V. Hill, is
that the magnitude of any given contractile effort depends on the
length of the fibres when the contraction begins. Hence, the more
blood enters the heart during rest the greater is the force expelling
it in the next following beat. The property of muscle referred to
shows that the source of the contractile stress must be sought in
certain surfaces arranged longitudinally or in the direction of the
pull exerted. (For recent work on the capillaries, see SHOCK.)
But the system of mechanical transport of a town serves to carry
letters in addition to materials for actual use as such. The chemical
substance of these letters is not utilized, but they contain messages
by which a supply of something or other is ordered to be sent from
its source to a place where it is wanted. The so-called " internal
secretions," " chemical messengers " or " hormones " correspond
to the letters of the postal system. These are produced in some
organ and carried by the blood to other situations in which they set
various processes into activity. Thus, for example, adrenaline is
sent out from the suprarenal glands into the blood. Reaching the
liver, it causes a supply of glucose to be set free and supplied to the
body generally. It has, of course, other actions as well. We know
many of these chemical messengers at the present time. They are
formed in the thyroid, pituitary, pancreas, sex-glands and so on.
In one or two cases their chemical nature is known, but for the most
part this is not yet the case. It seems very probable that every
tissue in the organism has its influence on other tissues. In the
culture of tissues under the microscope, a method of investigation
which has now reached much perfection, it is found that the
growth and differentiation of one kind of tissue is greatly influenced
by the presence of other tissues.
In the higher plants, this effect of one part upon another is well
shown by the inhibitory effect of the apical growing tip upon the
growth of other buds. The work of Child suggests that this effect
is of the nature of a protoplasmic transmission of some influence
rather than the diffusion of an actual inhibiting hormone, as was
supposed by the previous workers.
Carriage of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide. Although it has been
known for some time that it is the haemoglobin of the red corpus-
cles that carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body, there
is still much to learn about the mode in which this gas is attached
to the haemoglobin. There are some puzzling phenomena, not the
least of which is the fact that we know of no other chemical com-
pound that takes up and gives off oxygen in a way similar to that of
haemoglobin. In particular, one which combines with oxygen in
proportion to the pressure of the gas up to a saturation point which
appears, in the case of the blood pigment, to correspond with one
molecule of oxygen to each molecule of haemoglobin. Much
valuable work has been done on the relationship referred to, es-
pecially by Barcroft and his coadjutors, more especially on the
way in which it is affected by changes in the conditions present in
the blood and tissues. The problem is one of paramount impor-
tance in the life of the higher organisms.
The problem of the carriage of carbon dioxide is in a more dis-
puted state. While some hold that it is effected by the proteins of
the blood actingas acids and driving off carbon dioxide from sodium
bicarbonate when the tension of carbon dioxide is lowered, others
hold that this gas is carried by haemoglobin in the same way in
which oxygen is carried. The decision necessitates difficult measure-
ments and is still uncertain.
Regulation of Reaction. Whether the sodium bicarbonate of the
blood acts as a carrier of carbon dioxide or not, there is no doubt
that it has an important function in preserving the neutrality of the
blood. As would be expected from the fact that the various chem-
104
PICKERING PIRRIE
ical processes take place with the intervention of colloids, they are
very sensitive to changes in hydrogen-ion concentration. This is
particularly the case with enzymes. The blood contains sodium
bicarbonate, which in itself has an alkaline reaction, owing to hydro-
lytic dissociation, together with carbon dioxide which forms an acid
when dissolved in water. The reaction or hydrogen-ion concen-
tration of the blood is thus controlled by the relative proportion of
these two constituents, and is normally at a very slight degree of
alkalinity. If acid is formed anywhere and passes into the blood, it
combines with part of the bicarbonate, driving off carbon dioxide
and thus raising the acidity. But the respiratory centre is enor-
mously sensitive to such a rise and removes carbon dioxide by
increased ventilation of the lungs until it is reduced to a level cor-
responding to the reduction of the bicarbonate. It has been held
by some that the proteins assist in the process, but it is very doubt-
ful whether this effect is more than very trifling, if present at all.
Excretion of Waste Products. The removal of one of the chief of
these, carbon dioxide, has been discussed. The most important
of the non-volatile products is urea, most of which is derived from
the ammonia of the amino-acids absorbed in excess of the amount
required for repair. There are a number of others in small quantity,
some nitrogenous, others not, which, although not really of a toxic
nature, are of no value. These are all non-colloidal and therefore
pass freely through the wall of the blood-vessels. The colloidal
constituents of the blood, mainly proteins, and the blood corpuscles
do not normally pass through, except in a few places, such as the
liver, where the membrane is incomplete. Owing to the pressure
produced by the heart, there is a tendency to a continuous filtration
through the walls of the blood-vessels of a solution containing all the
diffusible constituents of the blood. But the proteins of the blood
do not diffuse and, since they are such as to have an osmotic pres-
sure of about 30 to 40 mm. of mercury, they may be regarded as
attracting water with a force of this magnitude. Unless the blood
pressure exceeds this value, therefore, no nitration occurs, and
where it is below, reabsorption takes place. The pressure in the
arterioles and beginning of the capillaries exceeds the osmotic
pressure of the colloids, whereas it is lower than this in the rost
of the circulation. In the greater part of the body, the filtered fluid
escaping reabsorption is known as lymph. In the kidneys, the glom-
eruh are arranged so as to filter a large amount of fluid, which is the
first stage of the production of urine. This process as described
would suffice to remove all the waste products. But if the whole
filtrate were allowed to escape from the kidney, not only would a
large quantity of water be lost, but with it such valuable substances
as salts and food materials, sugar and amino-acids. What we
actually find is that the filtrate is caused to pass along a system of
tubules, in the course of which a large part of the water, together
with useful solutes, is reabsorbed, while the useless waste products
are left in more concentrated solution. It has been shown by Cushny
that if it be supposed that the fluid absorbed has invariably the
normal composition and concentration of the blood plasma as
regards diffusible substances, but without the waste products, all
the phenomena of renal function can readily be explained.
It would appear that the chief function of the plasma proteins
is to confer a colloidal osmotic pressure, so that excessive filtration
is avoided. In the absence of such an osmotic pressure, not only
would a large amount of liquid be exuded into the tissues, but there
would be no force available for its reabsorption and a dropsical
state would result. In fact, this is what happens when a simple salt
solution is introduced into the circulation (see SHOCK).
On the basis of the theory given above, it will be noted that the
energy for the actual production of the glomerular filtrate is provided
by the blood pressure, that is, by the contraction of the heart. _On
the other hand, the cells lining the tubules have to do work against
osmotic forces, since they remove a dilute solution from a more con-
centrated one. This work increases as the fluid passing along the
tubules becomes more concentrated. It must be provided by some
cellular mechanism analogous to a pump, requiring the provision of
energy to actuate it. The investigations of Tamura indicate that
this consumption of energy per unit time is unchanged, whatever
may be the amount of urine produced by the kidney. Hence, the
more concentrated the glomerular filtrate, the less fluid is reabsorbed
from it.
Stimulation and Environment. The capacity of an organism to
respond in an appropriate manner to changes in its environment
clearly depends on its power of properly appreciating such changes.
Hence, the more richly endowed is an organism with means by which
it is enabled to be affected by the various forms of energy impinging
upon it, the better it is fitted to profit, both materially and intellec-
tually, by knowledge of the outer world.
In order to understand the essential character of a receptor or
sense-organ, as we call the structures by which such information is
obtained, one or two fundamental facts brought out more clearly by
investigations in recent years have to be considered.
Receptor organs are connected to the brain each by its own set of
nerve fibres. These fibres proceed to special regions in the brain, and
it appears that whatever the manner in which impulses are set in
motion along the fibres, the process in them is the same. So that the
fact that the sensations aroused are in one case light, in another
taste, and so on, depends on the terminus in the brain. And from
whatever source this terminal " centre " is aroused to action, the
effect in consciousness is the same. If, for example, the trunk of a
nerve of taste is stimulated, either electrically, mechanically, or
chemically, a sensation of taste is evoked. A further fact that has
been made clear by Adrian's experiments is that the nerve-impulse
itself cannot be made other than of a definite magnitude by varying
the strength of the stimulus. In any particular state of the nerve, if
it is excited at all, the maximum response possible is obtained. In
the case of the heart muscle, this fact has long been known and was
given the name of the " law of all-or-nothing " by its discoverer,
Bowditch. This law has now been shown to hold for voluntary
muscle and for nerve. It is true that the work of Adrian was done on
motor nerves, but no difference between these and sensory fibres in
other respects has been shown to exist, and there is some direct
evidence that the law holds in the case of the optic nerve. It appears
then that the impulses travelling along nerves are the same in all
cases and that their various results are due merely to the structures
in which the fibres end. The statement applies also to efferent nerves,
in that there is no difference in nature between nerves which have
excitatory and those which have inhibitory action on the structures
in which they end. The difference, as Langley pointed out, is in the
manner in which their final connexion is made. The question is
indeed an aspect of Miillcr'slaw of specific sense-energies. The name
is not very explicit, but the law states that the excitation, however
produced, of each nerve of special sense gives rise to its own peculiar
sensation.
We see then that what is required in a receptor organ is that some
process shall be set going in it on the incidence of a particular form of
external energy, and that this process shall be such as to stimulate
the nerve fibres arising from the organ. It is clear that receptors of a
different kind are necessary in the cases of light, sound, heat, touch
and so on. While the nerve fibre itself can be stimulated by pressure
or by heat of sufficient intensity, it is insensitive to light or sound
waves, and even in the former case its sensibility to direct action is
far too small for the appreciation of the fine degrees of touch, tem-
perature, etc., which is required. The state of affairs is well shown
by the properties of the heat and cold spots on the skin. There are
distinct receptors for temperatures above that of the skin and below
it. The former give a sensation of heat, the latter of cold, and a
temperature that feels warm to a heat spot has no effect on a cold
spot and vice versa. Thus each is especially sensitive to its own ap-
propriate stimulus. If an electrical stimulus or a temperature high
enough to affect the nerve fibres directly is used, the sensation from
a heat spot is one of warmth, the opposite from a cold spot. But the
intensity of stimulus necessary is much greater than that required
in the stimulus for which the particular organ is adjusted. The
paradoxical fact that a temperature of 45C. feels hot to a heat spot
and cold to a cold spot is readily explained on the basis of stimula-
tion of the nervesof the organ and the operation of the law of specific
sensation. Although it is not easy to prove the fact directly, there
is every reason to believe that, at all events in the higher senses, each
separate nerve fibre has its own special connexion in the brain and
its own individual sensation.
It was remarked above that, so far as evidence goes, all nerve
impulses are alike. There is, however, a possibility, pointed out by
Keith Lucas, that these impulses may, within the limits imposed by
the refractory period, follow one another at different intervals of
time. Then, if a particular nerve fibre is connected with two or more
neurones in the centre, and if the properties of transmission or re-
fractory periods of these " synapses " differ, it may happen that a
rapid series of impulses may be able to pass one and not the others.
In this way, a single nerve fibre may serve more than one purpose.
For further details the following books may be consulted: Star-
ling, Principles of Human Physiology (3rd ed., London, 1020); Bay-
liss, Introduction to General Physiology (London, 1919); Bayliss,
Principles of General Physiology (3rd ed., London, 1920). In the
latter, references will be found in the " bibliography " to special
monographs and original papers. (W. M. B.)
PICKERING, EDWARD CHARLES (1846-1919), American
physicist and astronomer (see 21.582), died in Cambridge,
Mass., Feb. 3 1919.
PINERO, SIR ARTHUR WING (1855- ), English dramatist
(see 21.625). Amongst his later plays are The Mind the Paint
Girl (1912); The Big Drum (1915); Mr. Livermorc's Dream
(1917); The Freaks (1918); and a wordless play, Monica's Blue
Boy with accompanying music by Frederic Cowen.
PIRRIE, WILLIAM JAMES, IST VISCOUNT (1847- ),
British shipbuilder and engineer, was born at Quebec May 31
1847, and educated at the Belfast Royal Academic Institution.
In 1862 he entered the shipbuilding firm of Messrs. Harland &
Wolff of Belfast, and by his industry and talent he rose to be its
head, becoming partner in 1874 and later chairman. His success
was particularly associated with the building by his firm of
the White Star Line steamships, the first of the line, the
" Oceanic," being launched in 1870. From 1896 to 1897 he was
PISSARRO PISTOL
105
Lord Mayor of Belfast, and in 1898 the freedom of the city was
conferred upon him. In 1906 he was raised to the peerage as
Baron Pirrie, and was for a time comptroller of the household
of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and pro-chancellor of
Queen's University, Belfast. Towards the close of the World
War, in 1918, he was made controller-general of merchant
shipping. In 1921, on the King's visit to Belfast to inaugurate
the new Parliament of Northern Ireland, he was created a
viscount.
PISSARRO, LUCIEN (1863- ), Anglo-French painter and
engraver, was born in Paris on Feb. 20 1863, the son of the
painter Camille Pissarro (see 21.652). He studied art under
his father, and at the suggestion of Auguste Lepere took up wood
engraving. In 1891 he came to England, and there began his
studies in typography. In 1894 he started the Eragny Press and
published a series of books, using until 1903 the Vale type de-
signed by Charles Ricketts and afterwards the Brook type
designed by himself. The initial letters, borders and illus-
trations engraved on wood were throughout mainly from his
own designs, and sometimes show very skilful and refined use of
colour and gold. Among the most notable productions of his
press are L'Histoire de Soliman Ben-Daoud (1907); Le Livre de
Jade (1911) and La Charrue d'Erable (1912), with illustrations
engraved in colour from drawings by Camille Pissarro, one of
his son's few essays in reproductive engraving. He also pro-
duced a considerable number of isolated woodcuts. As a painter,
he uses the " spectral palette " of the impressionists, and works
in a high key. He early devoted himself to the study of subtle
gradations and variations in colour, and adopted a pointillist
technique, afterwards modified into a broader method of han-
dling, with more emphasis on design. His work is almost entirely
English landscape, notable recent examples being " Coldharbour,
Teatime " and " Crockhurst Lane, Coldharbour." He became
a member of the New English Art Club, was a member of the
Camden Town Group, and was the principal founder of the
Monarro Group. He became a naturalized British subject in
1916. He is represented in the Tate Gallery, and in the art
galleries of Leeds and Manchester.
PISTOL (see 21.654). During recent years the automatic
pistol has been gradually perfected and adapted to replace the
revolver as a military side arm, despite the fact that there are
many who maintain that the revolver is the more dependable
weapon. The automatic pistol, like all complicated mechanisms,
occasionally malfunctions, usually due to a defective magazine or
cartridge. This disadvantage is, however, offset by the fact
that from the pistol about three times the number of shots
per minute may be fired as from a revolver; its magazines are
changed instantly, thus giving sustained fire while loaded maga-
zines are at hand. This gives a great advantage to the user of
a properly working pistol, as a revolver is often useless at close
quarters, such as obtained in trench raids, after its six shots have
been fired. In such positions the volume of fire from a group of
pistols is much greater than that from an equal number of re-
volvers even if a pistol is occasionally disabled by a jam.
Owing to its simpler mechanism, the revolver is more reliable
for civilian self-defence where more than two or three shots are
seldom required; the weapon then being unused and often
neglected for long periods. The revolver is also considered
superior to the automatic pistol in safety. In the latter, the
loaded cartridge automatically inserted in the chamber after
each shot is liable to be forgotten and left there when the maga-
zine is taken out. To prevent accidental discharge from this
source, some of the newer models have a " magazine safety,"
which prevents the pistol from being fired when the magazine
is out. In addition, a " grip safety," which prevents discharge
unless the rear part of the grip is pressed in at the same time the
trigger is pulled; and a safety catch, which locks the slide and
hammer, are often used. Recent models of revolvers show no
improvements of note, and it is probable that with the attention
now being given to the design of the automatic pistol, that
weapon will eventually be made as reliable, safe, and quick to
get into action as a good revolver.
In European armies previous to the World War, the pistol
was used almost exclusively as an officer's side arm. Their
weapons were of small calibre, ranging from 7-63 mm. to 9 mm.,
and lacked stopping power. During the war the use of the
pistol and revolver was extended to include many branches of
the service not armed with rifles, particularly by the United
States, British and German armies. The large calibre weapons
of the former armies gave them a great advantage in pistol
fighting, and their use confirmed previous opinions that a large
calibre heavy bullet of short range and low velocity is more
effective in a pistol than a high velocity, small calibre bullet.
Automatic pistols have now been adopted by the armies of
the United States, Belgium, Spain, Italy, Denmark, Portugal,
Switzerland, Germany and Austria. The British navy has
adopted the Webley automatic pistol. In the table on page
107, details are given.
COLT AurOMATtC PISTOL.
FIG I.
Colt Automatic Pistol. The Colt automatic pistol, calibre .45
(fig. i), was adopted by the U. S. army in 1911. This pistol differs
radically from older Colt models in that it has a sloping handle, grip
safety (l), spiral mainspring (2), an improved method of locking the
barrel and breech, also an improved slide action and magazine catch
(3). The magazine (4) has a capacity of seven cartridges. The
ammunition for this pistol has a muzzle velocity of 800 f.s. with a 230-
grain bullet. The striking energy is 329 ft. lb., which gives a pene-
tration of 6 in. of white pine at 25 yards. The pistol is capable of
great rapidity of fire, 21 shots having been fired in 12 seconds
beginning with the pistol empty.
The action of the .45-calibre pistol, assuming that it is cocked and
ready to fire, is as follows: When the trigger (5) is pulled, the sear
(6) is released, and the hammer (7), actuated by the mainspring (2),
goes forward and strikes the firing-pin (8), which transmits the blow
to the primer of the cartridge. The pressure of the gases generated
in the barrel (9) by the explosion of the powder in the cartridge, is
exerted in a forward direction against the bullet, and in a rearward
direction through the cartridge case against the face of the slide (10),
driving the slide and the barrel to the rear together. The link (ll),
one end of which is fixed to the frame and the other to the barrel,
causes a downward pull on the barrel when it recoils, which disengages
the barrel lugs (12) from the slide, and the barrel is then stopped in
its lowest position. The slide continues to move to the rear, opening
the breech, and cocks the hammer (7) which moves the hammer
strut (13) downward, compressing the mainspring (2). The sear (6)
actuated by the sear spring (14) engages in the notch on the hammer
(7). Extracting and ejecting of the empty shell are accomplished and
the recoil spring (15) compressed until the slide reaches its rearmost
position, when another cartridge is raised into loading position. The
cartridge is forced into the chamber of the barrel by the return
movement of the slide under pressure of the recoil spring. The slide
during its forward motion encounters the rear extension of the barrel
and forces the barrel forward ; the rear end of the barrel swings
upward on the link (n) to the normal firing position. When the
slide and barrel reach their forward position they are positively
locked together by the locking lugs on the barrel and their joint
forward movement is arrested by the barrel lug encountering the pin
on the slide stop (16). The pistol is again ready for firing.
The inertia of the slide augmented by that of the barrel is so much
greater than the inertia of the bullet that the latter has been driven
from the muzzle of the barrel with its maximum velocity before the
slide and the barrel have recoiled to the point where the barrel com-
mences its unlocking movement. This construction delays the
opening of the breech of the barrel until after the bullet has left the
muzzle and therefore practically prevents the escape of any of the
powder gases to the rear after the breech has been opened.
io6
PISTOL
This factor of safety is further increased by the tension of the
recoil spring and mainspring, both of which oppose the rearward
movement of the slide.
The U.S. army uses the pistol as the standard side arm. All
officers and enlisted men in the cavalry, field artillery, tank corps,
signal corps and machine-gun companies, and most of the officers
and non-commissioned officers in other branches are armed with it.
In the shortage of pistols incident to the World War, Colt and
Smith & Wesson revolvers of the same calibre, chambered for the
same rimless cartridges, were used. The use of the rimless cartridge
in the revolver was accomplished by providing semicircular loading
clips which hold three cartridges by lugs which fit in the cannelure of
the cartridge. The ejection is accomplished by this means. The
clips make the loading much faster.
The Colt automatic pistol is also made in -22-in., -25-in., -32-in.,
38o-in., and -38-in. calibre military models.
BROWN/HG /HJTVM/mC P/STOL.
F/G. 2.
_ Browning Automatic Pistol. The new model Browning automatic
pistol (fig. 2) made by the Fabrique Nationale, Belgium, is repre-
sentative of modern automatic pistols of pocket size. This pistol is
made in 7-65-mm. (-32) and 9-mm. (-380) calibres. A military model
of 9-mm. calibre is also made which is used by the Belgian army.
The pistol shown is of the " blow back " type, the barrel (17) being
jocked to the frame (18), the slide (19) being free to recoil. On pull-
ing the trigger (20) and pressing in the grip safety (21), the sear (22)
revolves on its axis and releases the firing-pin (23), which actuated by
the coiled firing-pin spring (24), moves forward and fires the cart-
ridge. The inertia of the "slide assisted by the recoil spring (25)
delays the rearward motion of the slide until the bullet passes through
the barrel. The slide then recoils, compresses the recoil spring and
the firing-pin spring and ejects the empty cartridge case. When the
notch in the under side of the firing-pin passes over the sear nose, the
latter actuated by the sear spring (26) rises and holds the firing-pin
in a cocked position. When the effect of the recoil is overcome, the
slide moves forward in the usual manner feeding a loaded cartridge
in the chamber. The magazine (27) is released by the catch (28), and
when the magazine is taken out the magazine safety (29) locks the
sear and prevents discharge.
Webley Automatic Pistol. The Webley, the only automatic pistol
manufactured in Great Britain, is made in -25, -32, -380, -38 and -455
calibres (fig. 3). The latter size, which fires a 22O-grain bullet, has
been adopted by the British navy.
The action is unique in that a flat
recoil spring (30), situated in a re-
cess in the right grip and com-
pressed by the recoil lever (31),
absorbs the recoil and returns the
slide (32) to firing position. In the
larger calibres, the barrel (33) is
locked to the slide at the moment
of firing and these parts recoil
together a short distance; the bar-
rel then rises upon diagonal cam-
shaped lugs which unlock the slide and permit it to travel back alone.
During this rearward movement, the empty case is ejected and the
hammer (34) cocked. The forward motion of the slide then feeds a
cartridge from the magazine in the chamber in the usual manner.
The trigger (35) is connected with the sear (not shown) by means of
a trigger auxiliary lever (36) and sear tail (37). The magazine is
situated in the handle and holds eight cartridges.
The -32 calibre Webley pistol is used by the London metropolitan
police. A -25 calibre hammerless model has recently been brought
put which has a spiral recoil spring parallel to the barrel in a recess
in the slide.
WEBLE y AUTOnATIC
FIS. 3
Savage Automatic Pistol. This pistol (fig. 4), which is extensively
used in the United States, and has been adopted by the army and
navy of Portugal, is made in -32 and -380 calibres. The magazine
for the former holds ten cartridges ;
that for the latter, nine. The 1917
model differs from the previous
one in that an outside cocking lever
is added, and the shape of the grip
changed to facilitate aiming. There
is no grip safety or magazine safe-
ty on this pistol, the cocking lever
indicating whether it is in firing
position. The barrel and breech
are locked at the moment of firing
bv means of a locking lug on top
of the barrel which engages with an angular locking slot in the
bolt and makes it necessary for the barrel to rotate about one-
eighth of a turn to the right to unlock. The resistance of the bullet
to rotation in the rifling tends to twist the barrel to the left and
prevents the bolt from turning it to the right until the bullet leaves
the barrel. The momentum of the recoil then forces the bolt back,
the angular slot rotates the barrel and the rest of the cycle of opera-
tions is performed much as in the pistols already explained.
SAVAGE AUTOMATIC PISTOL.
Remington Automatic Pistol. The newest (1920) model automatic
pistol to be placed on the market is the Remington -380 calibre auto-
matic (fig. 5). In general this weapon follows the usual lines of auto-
matic pistols. The breech closure is of the positively locked recoil-
operated type. The recoil spring is held in a sleeve concentric with
the barrel, and the magazine, which holds seven cartridges, is in the
stock. The weapon has three safety devices: a grip safety, a side
safety catch which also indicates whether the weapon is cocked or
not, and a magazine safety which prevents the pistol from being
fired when the magazine is withdrawn. The recoil when a shot is
fired forces a movable breech block in the slide backward for about
fg in., and into contact with recesses in the frame, this movement
accomplishes primary extraction and transmits an initial thrust to
the slide which is free to move backward against the recoil spring.
This movement of the slide through a camming action lifts the
breech block out of engagement with the frame and carries the
breech back, cocking an internal hammer and ejecting the empty
case. The chamber is reloaded in the usual manner on the return
stroke. There are no screws in this pistol and it may be disassembled
without tools other than the firing-pin.
European Pistols. The German Parabellum (Luger) and Mauser
pistols have been little changed from those described in previous
editions of the E.B. The Parabellum o-mm. calibre is the stand-
ard German military arm, but during the shortage, incident to the
World War, they used a great variety of weapons, the principal
ones being the Mauser, Bayard, Browning, Borchardt, Bergman,
Pieper, Sauer and Dreyse. There were reported to be 28 different
models of pistols and revolvers in use in the German army. The
Parabellum is also used by the Swiss and Bulgarian armies.
A drum or " snail " magazine (fig. 6) holding 32 cartridges was
applied to the Luger pistol during the war. This magazine consists
of a straight section similar to the ordinary pistol magazine with a
round enclosed drum at the bottom. There are two springs, one
functioning as an ordinary magazine spring, and a flat drum spring
resembling a clock spring which with its casing fills the drum except
for space for a single row of cartridges around the_ edge. There is a
lever and catch on the outside for winding this spring and a rotating
feeding lever inside which fits in the cartridge space between the inner
casing and drum. The magazine spring is compressed between the
last cartridge and this lever, which being revolved by the drum spring
pushes the magazine spring and cartridges around the drum as the
pistol is fired. When the drum is empty the magazine spring func-
tions in the usual manner. This style of magazine was also applied
PITTSBURGH
107
to the Bergman pistol gun and the Mondragon semi-automatic
rifle. It destroys the balance of an arm and is of doubtful value.
The Bayard automatic pistol 9-mm. calibre is used in the Danish
army. The commercial pistols of this make in -32 and -380 calibres
LUGER
W/TH J/M/L M/1S/IZ/HE'.
F/G 6
are the smallest automatics of these calibres on the market. The
Victoria is the smallest -25 calibre. The Mannlicher is used by the
Austrian army.
The Campo-Giro automatic pistol g-mm. calibre was adopted by
Spain in 1914. The principal merit claimed for it is that a special
recoil check lessens the shock and permits more accurate firing.
the entire city. The mayor continued to appoint the heads of
departments (safety, works, health, charities, supplies, prop-
erty, water, treasury). The comptroller also was elected as
formerly by popular vote. The expanding of public business in
the city and county, exceeding the capacity of the city hall and
the court-house, led to the erection by joint action of a new City-
County Building, a fine structure of nine stories. The county in
1920 was completing a twin tunnel under Mount Washington to
connect the southern hill district with the city by a high level
bridge over the Monongahela river, which will bring that dis-
trict within 15 minutes' transit of the centre of the city. In 1919
the taxable valuation of Pittsburgh was $1,113,667,425, and the
tax rate in 1921 was, for the city, 20 mills on land, 14 mills on
buildings and 8-50 mills for school purposes. In 1919 a bond issue
of $22,500,000 was voted by the people for subway, boulevards,
playgrounds, bridges, parks, etc.
The value of Pittsburgh's products in 1919 was $602,582,300,
compared to $246,694,000 in 1914. In 1920 it held sixth place in
bank clearings ($8,982,887,309) and first place in per capita deposits
(total $817,013,249) and in the manufactured products iron, steel,
glass, electrical machinery, steel cars, tin-plate, air brakes, fire-brick,
white lead, pickles and preserves, corks and aluminium. The pro-
duction of pig iron in the city in 1919 was 31,015,364 tons and in the
surrounding district 7,440,746 more, a total of 38,456,110 tons.
Metal and metal products were valued at $324,261,900; chemical
products $2,045,800; clay, glass and stone products $4,345,500;
clothing manufacture $7,122,800; slaughtering and meat-packing
$21,134,700; confectionery $6,490,500; leather and rubber products
$5,589,700; cork-cutting $4,016,500; oil-well supplies $3,678,100.
The production of radium in 1920 (18 gr.) probably exceeded that
of the rest of the world. The sum of $970,072,700 was invested in
2,580 industrial plants, mills, foundries and furnaces, in which were
employed 221,621 men, with a daily pay-roll (1920) exceeding
$2,500,000. The annual tonnage of Pittsburgh is 2j times the com-
bined tonnage of New York, London and Hamburg. As a port of
AUTOMATIC PISTOLS AND THEIR CARTRIDGES
Cartridge
Barrel
Length,
Inches
Weight
of Bullet,
Grains
Muzzle
Velocity,
Ft.
Seconds
Energy
of Bullet,
Ft. Lb.
22 Long rifle rim fire ............
22 Colt Auto, target model ...........
6J .
4.O
76S
si-8
25 Auto. Colt, Webley & Scott, Harrington & Richardson (also inter-
changeable with 6-35 mm. Browning [Fabrique Nationale], Mauser, Pieper,
\\
CO
7-1-3
M
86
I ^Q7
7*65 Luger . . ...
4-f
Q-l
I I7VS
284-'*
32 Auto. Colt, Webley & Scott, Savage, Harrington & Richardson (also
interchangeable with 7-65 mm. Browning [Fabrique Nationale], Bayard,
4.
74.
Q64.
T Co* A
35 Smith and Wesson ............
I*
76
8oq
no- c.
9 mm. Luger .............
4.
12^
I O^Q-2
2QQ-8
38 Auto. Colt, Bayard
si
130
1,146-3
^70-4.
380 Colt Auto., Savage, Webley, Browning 9 mm. (Short), Remington,
3i
95
887
116
45 Colt Auto
5
200
9IO'2
-568
45 Colt Auto., U.S. Government
445 Webley Naval Automatic
5
230
220
809
7IO
335
455 Colt Automatic
PITTSBURGH (see 21.678) had, according to the U.S. census
of 1920, a pop. of 588,193. The increase over 1910 was 54,288 or
10-2%. After the 1920 census was taken the township of Char-
tiers, with a pop. of 5,000, was annexed, petitions were filed for
the annexation of the borough of Homestead with a pop. of
20,452, and a movement was on foot for the merger of the bor-
oughs of Wilkensburg (24,403), Ingram (4,000), Grafton (5,934)
and others. Within the metropolitan district of a lo-m. radius,
but outside the city limits proper, there was a further population
equal in number to that within the municipality itself. In Alle-
gheny county, of which Pittsburgh is the county seat and busi-
ness centre, there were in 1920 1,184,832 persons, 13-6% of the
total pop. of Pennsylvania.
The sesqui-centennial of Pittsburgh, elaborately observed in
1908, marked the beginning of a new period of corporate, educa-
tional, social and material development. By legislative enact-
ment (1911) the former Common and Select Councils gave way
to a small council of nine members, elected by general vote of
(H. O'L.)
entry the value of imports in 1918 was $6,391,960. The city's
contribution to the Liberty and Victory loans was $625,429,600,
to the Red Cross $10,194,765, and to the seven relief agencies
$13,909,000, making a total of $649,533,365.
In 1911 the Legislature adopted a new school code for the entire
commonwealth, coming into operation Nov. II 1911. Under this
code a Board of Education, consisting of 15 members appointed by
the Common Pleas judges, took control. Separate school districts
were abolished; a new city superintendent, with associate superin-
tendents, was appointed ; the scattered and unrelated school agencies
were consolidated; new high schools and junior high schools estab-
jished and buildings erected, such as the Schenley high school, built
in 1916 at a cost of $1,500,000 and accommodating 2,000 students.
New ward schools of modern construction were established. The
teachers numbered in 1920 2,015 m r 33 grade schools and 494 in II
high schools, and the enrolment of pupils in grades was 74,654 and in
high schools 12,169. There were in evening grades 198 teachers and
6,245 pupils, and in evening high schools 148 teachers and 5,090
pupils. The public-school system was supplemented by parochial
schools which had in 1920 650 teachers and 33,000 pupils. In addi-
tion to the high schools there were a number of academies and other
schools, 77 in all, on private foundations. The development of higher
education during the decade was notable. The Holy Ghost College
io8
PIUS X. PLUMER
became Duquesne University, and in 1920 had 2,129 students,
including department of law, 86 students, and evening school of
accounts and finance, 1,120 students. The Carnegie Institute in the
decade increased the extent of its service to the community; its
central library, with 464,313 volumes, had 8 branches, i6stations, 128
school stations, 10 club stations and 8 playground stations, with a
circulation of 1,363,365 books; both the scientific museum and the
art department added greatly to their collections; in the school of
technology the enrolment grew from 2,102 students in 1909 to 4,982
students in 1920, including those in the departments of science and
engineering, arts, industries and the Margaret Morrison school for
women. The university of Pittsburgh, established in 1908 by assem-
bling the scattered departments of what was the Western University
of Pennsylvania, and taking over 43 ac. near the Carnegie Institute
for a campus, grew rapidly in its new location, and in 1920 numbered
4,979 students. In the same year there were in the city 227 social,
health, religious and welfare agencies.
After careful study of playground systems a bond issue of J8oo,ooo
was voted (1919) to initiate'a constructive development of parks and
playgrounds at public expense. Another civic improvement was the
plan that a permanent committee of citizens should be engaged in
the solving of the housing problem, and that the chamber of com-
merce, cooperating with the state, should employ a director in charge
of the Americanization programme in which the public schools and
corporations cooperate. The Society for the Improvement of the
Poor, constructed and opened (1921) the Wayfaring hotel to accom-
modate 500 men. The 20 hospitals, modern in construction and
equipment, with 4,500 beds, included special hospitals for children,
eye and ear, maternity, tuberculosis, and contagious diseases. The
Magee hospital, established by legacy of 83,500,000 under will of
the late C. L. Magee, by agreement the maternity hospital of the
university of Pittsburgh, is perhaps the most modern and complete
maternity hospital in America. (S. B. Me.)
PIUS X. [GIUSEPPE SARTO] (1835-1914), Pope (see 21.600),
died Aug. 20 1914. Although the pontificate of Pius X. lasted
only ii years (Aug. 4 1903 Aug. 20 1914), it has been said that
his work for the Church, reconstructive and reformative, sur-
passed that of any of his predecessors since the days of Sixtus V.,
who died in 1590. In the defence of the Faith, his condemnation
of the 65 propositions of Modernism in 1007 will rank in Catho-
lic theology as a parallel to the condemnation of the 68 proposi-
tions of Molinism by Innocent XI. in 1637 or the 101 propo-
sitions of Jansenism condemned by Clement XI. in 1713.
The activity of the pontificate may be judged by the fact that its
output of papal Bulls and greater official papal documents
(counting only those published) exceeded 3,322. These bear
upon undertakings and reforms of the first importance the
codification of canon law; the protection of the liberty of the
Conclave by the abolition of the Exclusiva; the simplification
and security of the conditions of marriage by the Ne Temere
legislation; the restoration of the Rota as the supreme Court of
Appeal; the regulation of the triennial or quinquennial visits of
bishops to Rome; the legislation as to Church music; and the
decree as to First Communion, and the encouragement of inter-
national eucharistic congresses; the reform of the Roman bre-
viary; the founding of the biblical institute for the work of
Scriptural research; the regulation of studies in the seminaries;
the creation of the commission for the great work of editing the
true text of the Vulgate; the reconstruction of the official
machinery of the Roman Curia ; the transfer of the English-speak-
ing countries from the propaganda or missionary regime to the
normal government of the Church. To these may be added in
the domain of discipline the unflinching vindication by Pius X. of
the Church's right to depose delinquent bishops, carried out even
at the cost of rupture of diplomatic relations with France;
an apostolic visitation rigorously carried out through the
dioceses of Italy, resulting in four bishops being caused to resign
on account of neglect or inefficiency; a further regulation by
which no one can be proposed for a bishopric unless his promo-
tion receives the visa of the Holy Office, which means that his
past life has been free from ecclesiastical censure or reproach.
The well-known personal characteristics of Pius X. were his
piety, charity, deep humility, simplicity, pastoral zeal, combined
with great charm of manner to all who approached him. For war
he had nothing but Horror and it was the shock of the outbreak
of the World War that hastened his death. It is said that one
of his last acts was to refuse the request of the Austrian Em-
peror to bless his soldiers, saying, " I do not bless war: I bless
peace." (J. Mo.*)
PIUS XI. [ACHILLE RATTI], elected Pope on Feb. 6 1922 at
the Conclave following the death of Benedict XV., was born
May 30 1857, at Desio, near Milan. He came of a middle-class
Italian family, his father, Francesco Ratti, being manager of a
textile factory. Achille was the third of six children, and was
educated for the priesthood at the seminary of Milan and the
Lombard College in Rome, becoming deacon in 1877 and priest
in 1879. Devoting himself to study, he took doctorates in phil-
osophy, theology and canon law in Rome, and in 1882 became a
teacher in the major seminary at Milan. In 1888 he was chosen
one of the college of doctors of the Ambrosiana Library in Milan,
where he worked assiduously, becoming librarian in 1907, and
attaining so high a reputation as a scholar that in 1910 he was
also appointed by Pius X. vice-prefect of the Vatican Library.
He was prefect of the Vatican Library from 1913 to 1918, and
in this capacity was made a monsignor. During the war years
his exceptional gifts as a diplomatist impressed themselves on
Benedict XV., who, in the spring of 1918, sent him as Papal
Nuncio to Poland, where his success led to still further dis-
tinctions. In June 1919 he was created Archbishop of Lepanto,
in April 1921 Archbishop of Milan, and in June 1921 cardinal.
PLENER, ERNST, FREIHERR VON (1841- ), Austrian states-
man, was born on Oct. 18 1841 at Eger in Bohemia, the son
of the excellent Austrian statesman Ignaz von Plener (1810-
1908). He began his diplomatic career in 1865, and served
in the Paris and London embassies until 1873. In the latter
year he was elected by the Chamber of Commerce of his native
place to the Chamber of Deputies of the Reichsrat, where he
was soon reckoned among the most conspicuous members of the
Constitutional party. In the Taaffe period (1879-93) h fi w &s one
of the leaders, and from 1888 the acknowledged head of the
German-Liberals in their struggles against the Slav-Conservative
majority in the Chamber. Consequently he represented German-
ism on the nationalities question, but was not averse to con-
cessions compatible with the maintenance throughout the whole
monarchy of the position due to the German Austrians. He
sought to compromise the quarrel between Germans and Czechs,
and the so-called " points " of 1890, a summary of the bases for
a German-Czech understanding, were essentially his work. In
the Windischgratz Coalition Ministry (1893-95), Plener took
over the portfolio of Finance. Soon after his retirement from
the Finance Ministry, Plener was appointed president of the
Supreme Audit Department (Obersle Rechnungshof) . He became
a member of the Upper House in 1900.
Plener wrote a series of economic and political works, among
others Die Englische Fabriksgesetzgebung (1871) ; Rnglische Baugenos-
senschaften (1873). His speeches were published by his friends in
1911. He himself published Erinnerungen (3 vols., 1911-21).
(A. F. PR.)
PLUMER, HERBERT CHARLES ONSLOW PLUMER, IST
BARON (1857- ), British field marshal, was born March 18
1857, and entered the army in 1876. He served on the Red Sea
Littoral in 1884, and in 1896 commanded a mounted regiment in
the Matabele Campaign, for which he was promoted brevet
lieutenant-colonel. Before the outbreak of the South African
War in 1899 he was sent out to the Cape on special service, and
he raised the Rhodesian field force, which he commanded during
the early months of the contest. He assisted in the relief of
Mafeking, and was promoted colonel, appointed A.D.C. to the
Queen, and given the C.B. In the later stages he was constantly
in command of a column or a group of columns, and he was
promoted major-general on the conclusion of hostilities. He
commanded a brigade at home from 1902-4 and was then ap-
pointed quartermaster-general at headquarters, a position which
he vacated at the end of 1905; shortly afterwards he was ap-
pointed commander of the 5th Division. He was promoted
lieutenant-general in 1908 and in 1911 was placed in charge of
the Northern Command.
In May 1915 Sir Herbert Plumer was selected to lead the II.
Army on the western front, and shortly afterwards he was
promoted general. His army was not very actively engaged
during the remainder of 1915, nor yet in 1916, in which year
he was given the G.C.M.G. for his services. But on June 7 1917
PLUNKETT POINCARE
109
Plumer gained a signal victory at Messines on the opening of
the Flanders offensive, for which he was given the G.C.B.
Three months later he assumed charge of the operations east
of Ypres, which had been making slow progress, and his dis-
positions were for a time highly successful; but the recovery of
the whole of the high ground could not be accomplished owing
to the lateness of the season. Then, just as the Flanders offen-
sive concluded, he was in Nov. selected to take charge of the
British troops that were being sent to the basin of the Po after
the Italian defeat at Caporetto. He commanded them until
March, but he was then summoned back to Flanders to resume
leadership of the II. Army just before the great German
offensive started. During the later stages of the hostile effort
his troops were forced back some miles, but they succeeded in
checking the enemy. Then, when the general advance of the
Allies began in Aug., his army took a very prominent part in
the operations by which Belgian Flanders was recovered from
the invaders. For his services in the war he was raised to the
peerage as Baron Plumer of Messines and of Bilton, was pro-
moted field marshal, and received a grant of 30,000. He sub-
sequently commanded the British forces on the Rhine for a
short time, and in June 1919 went out to Malta as governor and
commander-in-chief.
PLUNKETT, SIR HORACE CURZON (1854- ), Irish poli-
tician (see 21.857), after his retirement in 1907 from the vice-
presidency of the Irish Agricultural Department, took no promi-
nent part in politics till the crucial year 1914. In Feb. of that
year, when suggestions for an agreed settlement of the Irish diffi-
culty were pouring in from all sides, he came out, in a long letter
to The Times, with a scheme of his own, under which Ulster
should accept the Home Rule bill, but should have a right to
secede after a term of years, while the Ulster Volunteers should
become a Territorial Force, partly as an ultimate safeguard of the
Ulster Unionists. Hitherto he had been regarded as a moderate
Unionist, but this suggestion rendered him suspect in Ulster eyes,
and the suspicion was confirmed when he published in the third
week of July a pamphlet entitled The Better Way: an Appeal to
Ulster not to Desert Ireland, in which he announced his conver-
sion to Home Rule and appealed to Ulster to give Home Rule a
chance, re-stating the arguments of his previous letter, and sug-
gesting a conference of Irishmen on the bill. This was his attempt
to avert civil war; but the situation was revolutionized by the out-
break of the World War. Once again, in 1917, a year after the
Dublin rebellion, he took the lead in an honest attempt to solve
the Irish question. When Mr. Lloyd George set up a comprehen-
sive convention of Irishmen to consider the matter, and report
their conclusions, there was great difficulty in finding a suitable
chairman; but the first meeting unanimously chose Sir Horace
for the post. He was himself sanguine, and worked at his task
with singular devotion; but the absence of Sinn Fein from the
gathering, the impossibility of reconciling the views of the Ulster-
men and the southern Unionists, and the occurrence of a number
of tragic events in Ireland, prevented the adoption of any report
with colourable unanimity. In 1920-1 he was a prominent advo-
cate of " Dominion Home Rule" (see IRELAND: History).
PODMORE, FRANK (1856-1910), English psychologist, was
born at Elstree, Herts, Feb. 5 1856. Educated at Haileybury
and Pembroke College, Oxford, he became interested in psychical
research, and was closely associated with Edmund Gurney and
F. W. H. Myers in the telepathic and psychical investigations
described in their joint publication Phantasms of the Living
(1886). He also published Apparitions and Thought Trans-
ference (1894); Studies in Psychical Research (1897); Modern
Spiritualism (1902) and other works on the subject. He was
found drowned near Malvern Aug. 15 1910.
POINCARE, JULES HENRI (1854-1912), French physicist
(see 21.892), was born at Nancy April 29 1854, and educated
at the lycee in that town. As a boy he served in an ambulance
corps during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and later passed
with distinction through the Ecole Polytechnique in mining, be-
coming a mining engineer, but soon abandoning practical work
for teaching, first at Caen and later in the university of Paris. He
won the King of Sweden's open prize for a mathematical treatise
in 1889, and in 1908 was elected to the Academic Franchise.
He was a voluminous writer on his own special subjects. Some
details of his contributions to science are given in 19.859, 25.786
and 26.947. He died in Paris July 17 1912.
POINCARE, LUCIEN (1862-1920), French physicist (see
21.892), was born at Bar-le-Duc July 22 1862. After a distin-
guished academic career he became in succession inspector-
general of physical science in 1902, director of secondary educa-
tion at the Ministry of Public Instruction in 1910, director of
higher education in 1914 and rector of the Academic de Paris in
1917. In that capacity he received President Wilson at the
Sorbonne on the occasion of his visit to Paris for the Peace
Conference. He died in Paris March 9 1920.
POINCARE, RAYMOND (1860- ), French statesman and
writer (see 21.892). After fhe fall of the Sarrien Ministry in
1906 M. Poincare ceased for some years to take an active part
in politics. On Dec. 9 1909 he was made a member of the
French Academy. In 1911 he was invited to join the Monis
Ministry, but refused. His opportunity came at the beginning
of 1912, and on Jan. 13 he became head of what was popularly
known as the " great " or " national " Ministry, in which he
also held the portfolio of Foreign Affairs. As Prime Minister
Poincare aimed at safeguarding the interests of France abroad,
especially against the menace of the Triple Alliance, and at
strengthening her at home by firm government and the restora-
tion of social discipline. In this he was helped by the revival
of a strong national feeling in France, provoked by the inter-
national crisis of 1911. The fact that he was a Lorrainer prej-
udiced public opinion in his favour, and his popularity was
increased by his foreign policy especially the successful estab-
lishment of the French protectorate over Morocco and the
conclusion of the naval agreement with Russia. In Aug. 1912
Poincare went to St. Petersburg to confer with the Tsar and
his ministers about the Franco-Russian Alliance and the new
developments of the Eastern question, a visit which countered
the somewhat depressing effect in France of the meeting of the
German and Russian Emperors at Baltic Port on July 4. The
Balkan Wars, and Poincare's attitude towards the problem
raised by them, greatly increased his prestige; he declared on
Dec. 4 to the Foreign Affairs Committee of the Chamber that
he was determined to secure respect for the economic and politi-
cal interests of France, not only in the Balkan Peninsula, but in
the Ottoman Empire generally, and especially in Syria.
At the beginning of 1913 he became a candidate for the pres-
idency. This action excited strong personal as well as political
feeling, and his election was hotly contested, the second and
third ballots showing a majority for his most serious competitor,
M. Pams. On appeal to the National Assembly, however, he
was ultimately elected by a majority of 187 votes over M.
Pams, his inauguration taking place on Feb. 18 amid great demon-
strations of popular enthusiasm. Two days later he showed that
he intended to exercise the right of the President to address
Parliament direct a right which had fallen into desuetude
by sending a message to the Chambers, in which he stated that
it was his function as President " to be a guide and adviser for
public opinion in times of crisis " and " to seek to make a rational
choice between conflicting interests." His activities as Presi-
dent were still directed to strengthening the internal and external
position of France. In June 1913, after inspecting the fleet at
Toulon, he paid a State visit to England (24-27), during which
he enlarged on the necessity of the perpetual association of the
two nations " for the progress of civilization and the maintenance
of the peace of the world." In the autumn he made a motor
tour of the south of France, being greeted everywhere with
popular acclamation, the bands playing the irredentist march
" Sambre et Meuse," and attended the army manoeuvres at
Toulouse. His State visit to Spain followed in October.
The President's activity and enormous popularity roused the
anger of the Opposition parties, and the Radical-Socialist con-
gress at Pau, on Oct. 17, passed a resolution condemning
" the aspirations of personal policy." This had no effect, how-
no
POISON GAS WARFARE
ever, on public opinion, and Poincare's popularity was undimin-
ished during the months immediately preceding the outbreak
of the World War. On the very eve of the war, immediately
after the rising of the Chambers on July 15 1914, Poincare set
out on a State visit to Russia and the Scandinavian countries,
arriving at Kronstadt on July 20. His visit to Sweden was,
however, interrupted by the serious news from France, and on
the 29th he was back in Paris. He now made a personal appeal
to King George V. to use his influence in favour of peace, while
the Ministry asked for the armed intervention of Great Britain.
After the outbreak of war his activities were mainly directed to
stirring up the patriotic spirit of the people, as in his messages
to the Chambers of Aug. 4 1914 and Aug. 5 1915, or his speech
on July 14 1915 on the occasion of the transference of the re-
mains of Rouget de Lisle, the composer of the " Marseillaise,"
to the Invalides. On Oct. 4 1914 he also visited the French
head-quarters.
After the conclusion of the Armistice Poincare made a tour
in Alsace and Lorraine, his official entrance into Metz taking
place on Dec. 4 1918. On Jan. 18 1919 he opened the Peace
Conference in Paris with a short speech, in which he empha-
sized " justice " as the guiding principle of the victorious Allies.
His term of office expired on the following Feb. 18. He subse-
quently accepted the presidency of the Reparations Commission,
which he resigned in May 1920 as a protest against what he
considered to be the undue leniency shown to Germany. This
became the text of a violent press campaign which he carried on,
against the policy of the Supreme Council in general and of
Mr. Lloyd George in particular (see FRANCE: History). During
1920 and 1921 it was Poincare's influence that was mainly dictat-
ing the aggressiveness of French feeling in international politics;
and during the latter part of Briand's premiership, culminating
in Briand's visit to the United States for the Washington Con-
ference at the end of 1921, it was Poincare who was fomenting
the criticism that French interests were being undermined. The
result was seen when, in the midst of the Cannes Conference in
Jan. 1922, the proposal for an Anglo-French treaty of de-
fence led to Briand's hasty return to Paris to answer interpel-
lations with regard to his policy in the Chamber, and to his
sudden resignation on Jan. 13 without facing discussion on a
vote of confidence. Poincare was at once entrusted by Presi-
dent Millerand with the formation of a new Cabinet, which he
completed on Jan. 15, and French policy under his premiership
was now given a definitely Nationalist orientation.
Poincard's published works include Du droit de suite dans la
propriete mobilaire (1883); Idees contemporaines (1906); Questions et
figures politiques (1907).
See Henry Girard, Raymond Poincare (1913); Raymond Poincare,
a sketch (1914); Larousse Mensuel, No. 158 (1920).
POISON GAS WARFARE. The use of poisonous gases in
warfare, as started during the World War, was only made
possible by modern progress in chemistry. From a purely
objective point of view, and apart from all ethical considera-
tions, it should be observed that fighting-men have, at some time
or other, adopted any means of making war, however ruthless.
Poisoned weapons and poisoned wells are as old as history. The
ancient Greeks indeed used sulphur fumes, and the Byzantines
" Greek fire "; and in mediaeval sieges carcasses of dead animals
were thrown over the defences from mangonels, in order that
their putrefaction might spread disease. Underground warfare
in all times has been marked by attempts to drive the enemy
from his galleries with smoke and suffocating fumes. The usages
of chivalry, while prescribing courtesy to prisoners, imposed no
limit on means of destroying life. Only in the i8th century,
when war in western Europe became a very formal affair, did a
tendency appear to set such limits. Both Louis XIV. and Louis
XV. declined the use of " infernal liquids " offered to them by
chemists. Later the tendency to impose moral restrictions
became more definite. Lord Dundonald's proposal for the use of
asphyxiating smoke-clouds at the siege of Sebastopol was rejected
by the British Cabinet. In 1865 at Chalons experiments with
asphyxiating shells were made on dogs before Napoleon III., who
stopped the trials and declared that such barbarous means of
destruction would never be employed by the French army be-
cause they were against the " law of nations." In the S. African
War of 1899-1902, the Boers thought they were justified in
complaining of the injurious effects of the gases given off by the
British high-explosive shells. It was only indirectly that the
Hague Convention limited the use of gas. It forbade, by Art.
23 (e), the use of weapons calculated to cause unnecessary suffer-
ing; " poison or poisoned weapons " by Art. 23 (a). A separate
declaration had, some years before (July 29 1899), forbidden the
use of projectiles whose " sole object it was (qui ont pour but
unique) to spread deleterious or asphyxiating gases." The method
which actually arose in the World War that of a fixed apparatus
which propels liquid gas in a jet had apparently not then been
generally foreseen. If it had been, the use of poisonous gases
would, no doubt, have been more explicitly forbidden.
It is one of the ironies of history that the first great war after
the Hague Convention should have witnessed its entire useless-
ness to limit human suffering. Gases of a nature to cause lifelong
injury, liquid fire, molten metal, burning phosphorus all were
employed with a prodigality limited only by the inventive pow-
ers of the combatants.
There was, of course, no objection to the use of gases and
substances of the lachrymator class. The object of these is to
cause temporary incapacity by violent smarting of the eyes,
sneezing or retching, while the effect passes off when the subject
is removed from the radius of action of the gas. Probably the
earliest example of this class is the Chinese " Stinkpot "; and it
is interesting to note that as the Chinese were before the Western
nations in the use of gunpowder, so they also were in this early
form of what, in the World War, came to be known as " Chemical
Warfare," a term which in itself is really too wide for " gas
warfare," since chemistry enters into explosives also.
At the time of the Russo-Japanese War the subject of lachry-
mators was taken up by the Japanese, and later by the British
War Office. It was also investigated by the French for police
purposes. The British experiments covered a wide range of
compounds based mainly on iodine, bromine and picric acid.
The chief subjects of inquiry were effectiveness, keeping quali-
ties and the effect of the liquid on the container. Nothing very
highly effective was found, and it appeared that most of the
liquids required a container of lead, glass or porcelain, on
account of their action on steel or cast iron. The experiments
were dropped some years before the World War, probably
because, in the kind of warfare that was then anticipated, it did
not appear that there would be much use for lachrymators.
In 1913 the question was submitted again to the British War
Office. The Hague Convention was always kept in view, and it
was considered that the term " deleterious " applied only to
gases which caused permanent harm. As one chemist pointed
out, poisons were- prohibited by the convention, but disagreeable
fumes were not. A few experiments were made with compounds
of the lachrymator class in shells, and the question remained
alive until in Sept. 1914, after the outbreak of war, it was decided
not to use chemical shell of this type for the British army or navy.
Quite early in the World War stories began to be current on
each side of the employment -of gas shells by the other. In Dec.
1914, upon a semi-official suggestion from the British G.H.Q. in
France, a section of the War Office, working with Sir William
Ramsay's Chemical Sub-Committee of the Royal Society, took
the question up again. By this time trench warfare was fairly
established and the armies of both sides were immobilized in
trenches, facing each other in some places at a distance of only a
few yards. All possible means of trench fighting had to be consid-
ered, and among other things it was thought that, if a sufficient
number of lachrymating grenades could be thrown from the
British front trenches into those of the enemy, he might be
forced to evacuate them temporarily, or might at least have his
fighting power considerably reduced by being forced to the con-
stant use of a protective mask.
In Jan. 1915, an idio-acetate compound was brought forward
which caused such smarting of the eyes that it was impossible to
POISON GAS WARFARE
in
remain in its neighbourhood. By that time catapults were
available which could throw a 2-lb. projectile 200 yards, a
distance which brought the enemy's trenches within range in
many parts of the line. A tinned iron cylindrical grenade was
therefore designed to hold 2 Ib. of liquid, which by means of a
5-second time-fuze and detonator was made to burst and dis-
tribute the lachrymator in a fine spray. The British War Office
and G.H.Q. approved of this grenade, and the manufacture was
put in hand. At the same time many other substances were
considered, mostly lachrymators and sternutators. Some of
these compounds appeared to be very effective under experimen-
tal conditions, but were not so in the field.
While these modest tentatives were proceeding, always
within the limits laid down by the Convention and the Declara-
tion, the first German gas attack took place on the Ypres front
on April 22 1915. This immediately altered the whole situation,
as it was obvious that in using chlorine an asphyxiant the
Germans had transgressed, if not the letter of the Declaration
and the Convention, certainly their spirit. Accounts of the
sufferings of those who had been exposed without protection to
this new form of attack roused great indignation, but its effect-
iveness could not be ignored, and after a few days it was decided
by the British authorities that preparations at least must be
made to reply to the German gas offensive in the same manner.
The section of the War Office that had been dealing with lachry-
mating grenades was instructed to take up the question, and
with the aid of two or three chemists of the highest standing a
small council was formed which sat continuously to discuss ways
and means and consulted all the most prominent chemists and
manufacturers. It soon became evident that the Germans had
employed chlorine gas discharged under pressure from cylinders
placed in the front line of trenches. A rapid review of all possible
means of reply showed that chlorine was the easiest gas to begin
with, but the position of Great Britain in this matter was very
different from that of Germany. For the ordinary processes of
the dye industry, the Gerrhans produced in peace-time very
large quantities of liquid chlorine. In England only one or two
firms produced it, and that in very small quantities. Moreover,
the available containers for transport of the chlorine were not
only very few but were much too bulky and heavy for use in the
field. The problem therefore was twofold: first, to install appara-
tus for an enormously increased supply of liquid chlorine, and
secondly to design and manufacture suitable cylinders or dis-
chargers for its use in the field. In both cases many initial
difficulties were encountered, which were overcome in due
course, and on Sept. 25 1915, at Loos, the first British gas
attack with chlorine took place.
Meanwhile a very large range of possible gases had been passed
under review with the object of discovering substitutes for
chlorine. Obviously the thing to aim at was something which
was more directly lethal than chlorine, and at the same time
would cause less suffering by its effects. It was also realized from
the first that the discharge of gas from the front trenches necessi-
tated waiting for suitable weather conditions, which was very
inconvenient for the arrangement of tactical operations; and it
appeared to be necessary to release the gas in the enemy's lines,
so as to be independent of wind, which could best be done from
gun shells or trench-mortar bombs. The principle was approved
and a new class of problems had now to be faced.
Effects of Gases. At this point it will be convenient to consider
the effects produced by different varieties of gases, and the
methods of employing them.
When considered from the point of view of their physiological
effect, war gases may be classed in two main divisions, (a) Lethal,
and (b) Irritant. The lethals fall under the two heads: those
whose action is instantaneous or practically so (specific), and
those whose action is more or less delayed, arid is generally of an
asphyxiating character.
A gas is classed as immediately fatal when death follows expo-
sure for a period of two minutes to a certain concentration
(i.e. a certain proportion in the air breathed). A higher concen-
tration may cause instantaneous death. The only known com-
pounds which, in concentrations practically obtainable, produce
immediate death, are those containing cyanogen. The chief
disadvantage of these is that when the concentration is not
sufficient to cause death they have no effect at all, or only tempo-
rary faintness, headache or heart trouble. The other lethal
compounds may have immediate injurious effects, such as
headache, nausea, etc., and in high concentrations may cause
death in a short time. In concentrations which are not strong
enough to kill, they may cause casualties, which have the dis-
advantage that as the action is delayed a man may be able to
continue fighting for some time after exposure. Thus in the case
of phosgene, a man who does not notice that he has been gassed
may die suddenly as much as 48 hours later.
The irritant gases are divided into (a) Lachrymatory (affecting
the eyes), (b) Sternutatory (causing sneezing), (c) Vesicatory
(blistering).
Lachrymators, on account of the extreme sensitiveness of the
eye, can produce an effect in extraordinarily weak concentrations,
such as i in 1,000,000 parts, or even less. Protection can be
given by well-fitting goggles, but goggles cannot be used when
there is a chance of exposure to lethal gases, because they would
interfere with the gas-mask. The presence of lachrymators
therefore entails the wearing of the complete mask, with all its
disadvantages. The principal bases for lachrymators are iodine
and bromine.
The sternutators were originally considered from the point of
view of putting a man temporarily out of action by a violent fit
of sneezing. A more important use suggested itself later, namely,
that a man could be prevented by sneezing from adjusting his
gas-mask, and would thus be exposed to the action of lethal shell.
Similarly, if a sternutator could be found to penetrate the gas-
mask it would be impossible for the wearer to keep it on. Early
in the war there were many reports of the intended use by the
Germans of red pepper and capsicine. Many experiments were
tried by the British with capsicine and similar agents, but they
did not give good results. In the summer of 1917 the Germans
introduced shells filled with diphenyl-arsenious chloride (Blue
Cross shell). They used a great many of these, especially on the
French front, but not with any great success. In view of their
effect on the wearing of the gas-mask, these irritants require
further investigation.
Vesicants are only practicable when they act in vapour form.
In that case they are by far the most effective of all the irritants,
as they attack the skin and all the mucous surfaces. Those
first considered were effective only when they reached the skin
as liquids, a condition difficult to secure, and they were there-
fore dismissed. But the German " mustard gas," also known
as Yellow Cross and Yperite (Sym. dichlordiethylsulphide) , act-
ing as a vapour, was immediately successful. It first appeared
in July 1917. It attacked the skin through the clothing, causing
burns and irritation which might last from a fortnight to two
months. Acting on the eyes it caused blindness, usually tempo-
rary. Acting on the bronchial tubes it might cause bronchial
pneumonia. It might affect the heart, and also the stomach,
causing vomiting and diarrhoea. These effects were sufficiently
serious, in view of the large numbers of casualties which were
produced, although the proportion of fatal cases was small, being
no more than about 3 %. In this connexion it should be noted
that substances of the irritant class may also be lethal in high
concentrations, i.e. in concentrations higher than those necessary
to produce the characteristic temporary disablement.
A very important consideration in the use of gas is what is
known as " persistence." Cylinder gas, travelling with the wind,
is effective over a particular area only while it passes; but liquid
gas splashed on the ground in minute particles from a shell, or
left in the ground by the smothered burst of a shell, may be
effective for some time, and gases are classed as of " high persist-
ence " or " low persistence " according to the time during which
their effect remains. This depends on the rate of evaporation. A
strong lachrymator may be effective on the surface for perhaps
twenty hours; other irritants, such as mustard gas, may remain
effective for days in suitable meteorological conditions. Left
112
POISON GAS WARFARE
under the surface they may remain latent for still longer periods,
and take effect when disturbed by digging. It will be understood
at once that this is a question of great tactical importance. For
instance, a bombardment with " high-persistence " shells of
trenches shortly to be attacked would be an obvious mistake,
since the attacking troops after capturing the trenches would
not be able to occupy them. On the other hand, in a raid on
trenches which it was not proposed to retain it would be correct
to burst bombs of " high-persistence " gas in trenches and dug-
outs. So also in using a gas barrage or in bombarding an area,
high-persistence shells should not be used if it is intended shortly
to attack over that ground. The use of vesicatory shells especi-
ally will deny a given area to both sides, or " nullify " it. Gas shell
is now classified not according to its physiological effect, but
according to tactical use, viz. as persistent or non-persistent,
the former being used for neutralization (e.g. mustard gas) and
the latter for surprise destructive bombardment (e.g. phosgene).
The questions may be asked why use the irritant type of
gases at all if lethals are available? and among the lethal gases,
why not use only the most powerful, namely, those which pro-
duce immediate death? In both cases the answer is found in the
question of quantity. The specific lethal gases will only produce
their effect in very high concentrations, which means that a large
number of shells must be used simultaneously over a certain
area. Shells of other types, though they may not kill at once, will
produce casualties in very much lower concentrations. The
question of the number of shells to be fired to produce a given
effect is of great importance, not merely from the point of view
of expense and the call on manufacturing resources, but still
more in the field, as regards the number of guns required to fire
the shells, the exertion of the guns' crews, and the question of
transport. Again, an effective lachrymator will produce an
atmosphere that cannot be endured in one-thousandth part of
the concentration which the lethal shell would require for its
purpose. This is a matter of great importance, especially in
neutralizing enemy batteries. Lachrymators rather went out of
fashion towards the end of the war, not only because the great
munition efforts of both sides had produced an enormous quan-
tity of lethal shell, but still more because the neutralizing effects
and harassing effects which were their raison d'etre could be
obtained better by mustard gas.
Vesicating shells, which are of high persistence and whose
effect is often delayed, are specially useful against targets behind
the front line. Although a trench or strong point which it is
intended physically to occupy cannot be subjected to mustard-
gas bombardments, the use of this substance in combination
with an attack round the flanks proved very valuable in reducing
defences which could not have been carried either by assault or
by explosive bombardments. The possibilities also of mustard-
gas barrages in defence are very great. They should be used
against communications, depots, railway stations, and especially
staff offices, telephone exchanges and everything that affects the
enemy's organization. An entirely odourless vesicator and one
which does not produce a smoke easily recognizable will be par-
ticularly effective in this way.
As a general rule both lethal and irritant shells should be used
in scientific alternation. With lethals, of course, the object is to
catch the enemy unprotected by his masks, and in order to get a
good effect a large number of shells must be fired at once. Such
effects may be specially aimed at when large numbers of troops
are known to be concentrated in certain places, previous to an
assault. But it is also an important object to force the enemy to
wear masks as long as possible, not only to fatigue him, but to
exhaust the protective powers of the mask. This can be effected
with irritants, and after some hours of bombardment with these,
fresh bursts of lethal shells may be tried.
Methods of Employment. The study of the characteristics of
gas-clouds is very complicated. The cloud may consist of true
gas, or minute drops of liquid, or infinitesimally divided solid
particles. The last are known as " particulate clouds," and in
their behaviour resemble a colloid vapour. Their action has to be
studied physically and electrically as well as chemically.
The production of cylinder clouds, of course, is simple. The
critical temperature of the gas employed must be above normal
temperature. The liquefied gas is filled into a cylinder with a
nozzle on the principle of a soda-water syphon. The cylinder is
placed in position in the trench, and the nozzle is provided with a
short length of pipe, which is placed on the ground in front of the
trench, and ensures that the gas on issuing is well clear of it. The
valve being opened, the liquefied gas is discharged with some
force, and as its evaporation causes a fall of temperature a heavy
cloud is formed which travels with the wind. The necessary
density of cloud is obtained by opening simultaneously a suffi-
cient number of cylinders per unit of length of trench, other
cylinders being held in reserve to continue the discharge for the
time considered necessary. At first the cylinders were placed in
groups against the front wall of the trench. This method had
the disadvantage that a cylinder might be burst at an inopportune
time by an enemy shell, and later the Germans placed their
cylinders under the floor of the trench, protected by sandbags,
etc., while the British placed theirs in chambers excavated at
some depth below the parapet.
The earliest cloud discharges lasted only twenty or thirty
minutes, or at most an hour, the necessary concentration being
calculated at ten tons of the chemical per km. of front attacked
per hour. By the end of 1916 the French were using 100
tons per km. per hour, and the emission was continued for
three or four hours. In the course of 1918 the British Special
Brigade was using 200 to 250 tons of gas per km. per hour, and
keeping up the cloud for eight, ten or even fourteen hours. The
transport of gas cylinders up to the front trenches was naturally
extremely laborious. It was very difficult to avoid attracting
the enemy's attention to the carrying and emplacement of them,
and there was always the risk of cylinders being burst by the
enemy's shell. The results that were achieved under such condi-
tions testify in the highest degree to the devotion and courage of
the troops employed. The enormous discharges of 1918 were
effected by loading the cylinders on trolleys and running them up
to the front trenches on light railways just before they were to be
used. The nozzles were opened by an electric device.
On the other hand the use of gas in shells presented all sorts of
difficulties from the outset. It was first necessary to find gases
that could withstand the shock of discharge from the gun and
the effect of bursting the shell. Some of the most lethal gases
could not be utilized because they were chemically unstable, and
were liable to become decomposed into their constituent elements
by shock. The cyanide compounds were to some extent of this
nature, so that the Germans never used them. The French
discovered a stable cyanide compound in which they had consi-
derable faith, and the British used them to a certain extent.
Some stable lethal gases were found in due course, in addition
to the irritants, and a whole series of problems presented them-
selves. The first question was the possible effect of the gas on the
material of the shell. Some gases, such as phosgene, had no action
on steel or cast iron. Others required containers of lead or porce-
lain; the French had a very effective method of blowing a glass
lining into shell. The methods of sealing the shells and of filling
and closing them offered merely technical difficulties, though
these were considerable. The most suitable means of opening the
shell was the next question, which had to be first considered, and
then practically tested. The first gas shell used by the Germans
contained a large proportion of high explosive; it is not known
whether the idea was to follow the Hague Declaration in that the
sole purpose of the shell should not be to spread deleterious
gases, or to have a " double-purpose " shell, destructive and toxic.
The result, however, was to produce an inferior explosive shell,
while most of the gas was dissipated by the explosion.
The British efforts were directed at first to getting the maxi-
mum amount of gas into a shell and releasing it with as little
disturbance as possible. The gas-cloud would issue in the form
of an oblate spheroid which travelled down the wind, gradually
enlarging and being diluted by the air. Without wind the gas
would remain on the surface, settling down in trenches or de-
pressions of the ground. For opening with the least amount of
POISON GAS WARFARE
disturbance cast-iron shells were indicated, as they required
practically no bursting charge; but cast-iron shells have the
drawback that they hold much less liquid than steel shell,
because the shell wall has to be very much thicker to resist the
shock of discharge. It was eventually found that not only every
gas but every nature and every calibre of shell required a different
bursting charge, and sometimes a different explosive. These
all had to be determined experimentally. Later it appeared that
certain liquids required a more powerful burster in order that
they might be distributed in a fine spray. When a solid was in-
troduced, in the shape of diphenylchlorarsine, a still more power-
ful burster became necessary in order that the solid might be
atomized and dispersed as a cloud. Thus the German 77-mm.
shell contained only 125 gr. of this solid enclosed in a glass
container, the space between the container and the shell being
filled with 600 gi. of explosive.
While the output of chemical shells remained very small the
question of cloud formation by lethal shells was of high impor-
tance. Not enough shells being available to charge the whole
atmosphere over a certain area with a fatal concentration, it was
necessary to rely on the effect of each individual shell cloud,
which ought to pass over a man or group of men while still at full
strength. With the very large quantities of shell that were
available later this question was of less importance, as it became
possible to produce and maintain very high concentrations over
a given area or length of trench. This was facilitated by bringing
the larger natures of shell into service, and also by the use of
Stokes' bombs and trench-mortar shells, but still more by the
Livens projector.
Since gas shells were intended to be used without considering
the direction of the wind, the possible effect of a bombardment
on one's own troops had to be considered, and a further range of
experiments became necessary. The kind of precautions re-
quired are indicated in an extract from German Army Orders of
June 30 1918:
The following regulations for gas bombardment are made known.
Minimum distance of the objective from our first line:
(1) Wind normal or oblique towards the enemy: for all natures
of gas shell the least distance must be 300 metres; below that dis-
tance projectiles fired short may fall in our lines. When the wind is
steady and the ground favourable, this distance may be reduced if
only a small number of projectiles are being fired.
(2) Still weather, or wind normal or oblique towards our lines:
(a) Heavy bombardment (several thousand projectiles), ground
favourable for the return of the gas towards our lines:
Blue Cross shells (Diphenyldichlorarsine sternutators) . . .
1,000 metres (offensive).
Blue Cross shells . . . 500 metres (defensive).
Green Cross shells (Trichlormethylchloroformate lethal) . . .
1,000 metres.
Yellow Cross shells (Sym. dichlordiethylsulphide vesicatory) . .
1,000 to 2,000 metres according to the number.
(6) Light bombardments (some hundreds of projectiles), when
our troops have been warned and the ground is favourable :
Gas shells of all natures: 300 to 500 metres. These distances are
given for general guidance; they may be reduced or increased accord-
ing to local conditions.
The influence of the state of the atmosphere and ground condi-
tions on the use of gas is naturally of great importance. The
first consideration is the wind. Lethal shells will produce the best
effect with a wind of three miles an hour or less; with a wind of
over seven miles they cannot be used effectively. Lachrymators
can be used in higher winds up to twelve miles, but with diminish-
ing effect. Heavy rain destroys gas effect. Dry we.ather and a
bright sun tend to dissipate the gas quickly. The most favourable
atmospheric conditions are little or no wind, moist atmosphere,
and no sun. The night usually offers the best conditions for gas.
As regards the effect of ground, it will be obvious that anything
which protects the gas from the effect of wind assists concentra-
tion. Hollow ground, valleys, woods, areas covered with under-
growth, and villages make therefore good targets.
Field Organization. The earliest British experiments on a
field scale were made with extemporized appliances on the nearest
open ground to the source of production of gases under trial.
Some experiments not involving danger were made on a ground
that had been acquired for flame-projector and explosive trials
at Wembley, and at the Clapham School of Trench Warfare, but
it was soon evident that a properly organized experimental
ground was essential, and after much search a site was found at
Porton near Salisbury. Here trenches and dugouts were made,
artillery ranges prepared, and gradually a complete installation
provided of laboratories, mechanical workshops, magazines,
filling-rooms, gas-chambers, etc. It was now possible to experi-
ment on a really scientific basis, while the ground available gave
space for trial of many other trench-warfare requirements,
among which smoke and incendiary shells and light signals were
of great importance. Porton thus became the headquarters of
the practical study of gas warfare. The laboratory experiments
there were confined, however, to examination of the results of
trials. Other laboratory work was done at the Imperial College,
at Cambridge and other universities, and in private laboratories.
The first British experiments with gas-projectors showed the
difficulties that were likely to arise with defective apparatus, or
from changes of wind in the trenches; and it was realized at
once that, for the handling of the new weapon, it was necessary
to have some chemists in the front line who should be trained in
the handling of the material, and who could also advise the troops
on the effects of it. The suggestion of raising a Chemical Corps
was put forward and approved; and as a result all the universities
were invited to nominate students of chemistry, while at the
front chemists were withdrawn from the ranks for the new
corps. This was the beginning of the Special Brigade R.E. in
which a certain number of selected students and officers already
serving were given commissions, while others were appointed
as non-commissioned officers to give them the necessary author-
ity and position.
A certain number of officers and men were also appointed to
it who were not chemists but had experience at the front. Thus
the officer commanding the Special Brigade suggested working
the men at cylinder emplacements in the trenches in pairs; one a
chemist and the other an old hand from the infantry. The
importance of having trained scientific men in the brigade was
shown by the number of valuable suggestions that emanated
from the officers, as well as by their extraordinary keenness and
effectiveness in the field. After a short time selected officers from
the brigade were appointed as chemical advisers at head-
quarters of armies and corps, and a central laboratory at
General Headquarters was started for examining enemy gas
and anti-gas appliances and dealing with urgent problems.
Organization in England. In June 1913, upon the formation
of the British Ministry of Munitions, the personnel hitherto
engaged on chemical warfare was transferred to the ministry.
The time had come for rapid expansion, and a Trench Warfare
Department was created by the minister which was responsible
for both design and supply, not only of chemical war material
but grenades, trench mortars and projectiles, smoke shells,
signals and the countless other requirements that modern trench
warfare had made necessary. The staff, rudimentary hitherto,
was increased in proportion to the requirements of experiment
and manufacture, and a scientific advisory committee was formed
of eminent specialists in chemistry, physics and physiology. This
new department was unique in combining the functions of re-
search, design and supply. The other departments of the ministry
were concerned with supply only, in response to the demand of
the War Office. It was decided after much discussion that this
exception should be made for the Trench Warfare Department,
because it was recognized that in dealing with so many entirely
new products, the manufacture of most of which was attended
by considerable danger, it was essential that the designers should
be in the closest possible touch with the manufacturers, should
be able to explain what was being aimed at, and should advise on
difficulties as they arose. The resultant close contact enabled
them also to modify their designs during manufacture when
necessary; to take account of facilities for supply and manu-
facture; and to order supplies in advance as soon as a new
production was foreseen.
There is no doubt that this was the right procedure, as was
proved by the rate production up to the end of 1915. The weak
POISON GAS WARFARE
points were that the department had to communicate with the
front through the War Office, which caused delays and mistakes,
and that defensive arrangements, the provision of gas masks, etc.,
so intimately connected with offensive research, remained with
the War Office. But, for the rest, the department had only to
obtain the approval of the War Office for new designs and material,
with an indication of quantities to be provided, and could then
make its own arrangements. To this, however, one very impor-
tant exception had to be made; they were not allowed to design
or manufacture gas shell, and as other branches were not in a
position to design them this led to serious delays. These delays
were accentuated by the fact that in 1915, when shells were
scarce and the value of gas shell had not been proved, the
authorities responsible for shell generally were very unwilling
to allocate shells to gas.
Gas warfare both in France and Russia began with divided
control, and as this gave very unsatisfactory results, in each
country after some time a separate organization was formed
with complete control of design and supply. In the autumn of
1916 for instance, when the British were scarcely beginning to
produce gas shell, Russia with her poor manufacturing resources
was already sending to the front a steady supply of 25,000 gas
shells a week for field guns. The British on the other hand,
having begun on the right path, had left it. Within the ministry,
at the end of 1915, research and supply were separated. It was
assumed that they would work together as closely as before; but
in fact, the Supply Department immediately and inevitably
drifted away, and not only lost the advantage of supervision by
the designers, but began to research on its own account, thus
causing overlapping and confusion. Early in 1916 a Department
of Munition Design was formed, and the Trench Warfare
Research Departm;nt passed under the control of that depart-
ment. Their work was then much restricted, and was directed
by a d jpartment which knew nothing of it, and which intervened
between them' and the War Office. The confusion and friction
that followed had a serious effect both on progress and output.
In the summer of 1917 the large number of casualties caused
by the German mustard-gas shells occasioned some anxiety on
the British front, and it was asked why the British army had not
something equally effective. The reason was that since 1915
research in irritants had been discouraged; and as the Chemical
Research branch was not in direct touch with G.H.Q. the ques-
tion had never been properly discussed. In the result, in Oct.
1917 the Chemical Warfare branch was reorganized and con-
siderably expanded. It had more direct communication with
the front, and the Defensive organization from the War Office
was amalgamated with it. The Supply Department was however
kept separate.
In April 1918 the Trench Warfare Supply Department was
broken up. This was the opportunity to restore the supply of
gas and gas shells to the Chemical Warfare branch, especially as
they already had supply on the " anti-gas " side; but the manu-
facture of gas went to the Department of Explosives Supply,
and the filling of shells and bombs to the Department of Gas
Ammunition Filling. This continued until the Armistice.
Objects of Gas in Warfare. It must be clearly recognized that
in the use of gas a new weapon of war has been found, which
supplements without displacing the existing arms. Explosive
and shrapnel shell have their limits. A very small amount of
cover will give entire protection against shrapnel, and deep
dugouts will protect against the most powerful explosive shell.
When the enemy has provided cover and such shell become
ineffective, gas becomes effective. A gas heavier than air will
settle in trenches and remain in them; it will drop down the
approaches to the deepest dugouts and permeate them. Accord-
ing to the nature of the gas, whether lethal or irritant, the enemy,
if unprovided with gas-masks, will then be either killed or driven
up into the fresh air. In the latter case, he comes once more
under the action of the ordinary artillery shell. If he has masks
he can remain under cover, but the masks must be worn, not
only until the bombardment stops, but afterwards until the
shelter is cleared of gas.
In trenches also, and in the open, as long as there is gas, masks
must be worn, and the troops fight under a heavy handicap.
This condition may be kept up indefinitely with a slow bombard-
ment of irritants and occasional bursts of lethals. In the case of
a smoke-cloud discharged for eight or ten hours continuously
the protection afforded by the mask with its refills will be ex-
hausted, and the troops attacked have three alternatives: to
counter-attack, which without prearrangement and the necessary
supports is hopeless, to die at their posts, or to retire.
The effect of gas differs fundamentally from that of ordinary
shell in its persistence. A bombardment with explosive shell is
effective only while it lasts. The moment it is over troops can
move freely over the area of bombardment. With gas, on the
other hand, troops cannot cross the area without masks until
the gas has been dissipated.
Again, a shrapnel bullet or splinter of explosive shell may hit
or may miss; troops may pass through such a barrage with
considerable losses, but still in sufficient numbers to attack.
The gas cannot miss. If enough has been discharged over a
certain area to give the necessary concentration, every man
passing over that area without a mask will be affected.
In clearing up a captured line of trenches during an advance,
gas bombs are most effective for bringing the enemy out of
deep dugouts. For this purpose a non-lethal irritant of low per-
sistence, which will penetrate the enemy's mask, may be used.
There is also the question of the effect of gas behind the lines.
Such a discharge of cloud-gas as has been described may travel
for miles before it is sufficiently diluted to lose its destructive
effect. A long-range bombardment of an artillery or engineer
depot will make it impossible for some days to handle the ma-
terial without good protection.
That gas shell had a real military value as compared with
ordinary shell is proved by the fact that both combatants used
them so freely in the last year of the World War. Thirty per
cent of the total American casualties were caused by gas, and no
estimate can even be attempted of the general loss of efficiency
brought about by the necessity for wearing respirators. Sillevaerts
gives the following German order for the proportion of different
shells to be used in the bombardment before the attack on the
Aisne on May 27 1918:
Object
Explo-
sive
Blue
Cross
Green
Cross
I. Counter-battery and long-range
bombardment ._ . . .
2. Bombardment of infantry posi-
tions
(a) Moving barrage
('>) Back hi mire
20%
60%
30%
70%
30%
60%
10%
10%
10%
Experience showed also that batteries attacked by gas shell
were generally put out of action for several days.
Future of Gas Warfare. Such then is the new weapon. Its
potency is undeniable, as is the fact that it is effective where
other weapons fail. The question is, will its use be continued?
The answer, from a military point of view, may be found in the
fact that, if one belligerent uses gas and the other does not, the
former will in all probability win. Since experience has shown
that conventions made in peace-time are not always respected
when war comes, the argument that no nation can allow its exist-
ence to depend on the security of a convention prohibiting the use
of such a weapon, is even strengthened by the fact that, after the
lessons of the World War, nobody in 1921 could predict what
further chemical or physical developments scientific investigation
might produce in the future. Great advances might well be made
in the discovery of gases that would penetrate any mask hitherto
designed, and in the utilization of them. The nation that cares
for its safety must therefore keep pace with such discoveries and
with the means of protection against them. To prevent the
production and the study of toxic gases is impracticable, because
many of them are either necessary elements or by-products of
manufactures essential to modern industries in peace-time.
As for the ethical side of the question, it must be considered
dispassionately. Every new means of warfare, intensifying its
POISON GAS WARFARE
115
effectiveness, has caused an outcry when first introduced. Gas
warfare, per se, is not necessarily or exceptionally cruel. For
instance, if it were conducted on both sides with cyanides, suc-
cessfully adapted to war purposes, the resultant deaths would be
the most merciful that history has ever known. It is to be noted
that in the World War less than 3 % of the total gas casualties
were deaths, whereas some 20 % of casualties due to other weapons
resulted in death either on the field or in hospital. The use of
gases may be guarded by future conventions so as to prevent
unnecessary suffering, just as explosive bullets were barred.
Thus chlorine might be forbidden, because there is no death
more painful than that by suffocation. But the utmost that
seems possible is to limit by convention the use of poison gases
in such a way that a breach of the convention will not place the
offending combatant in a definite position of superiority.
It is infinitely to be deplored that gas warfare was ever intro-
duced. It certainly adds a new horror to war. It imposes fresh
burdens on the soldiers, who may ultimately be forced to spend
most of their time in gas masks, even when far behind the lines.
The most terrible thing perhaps about it is that, since it is im-
possible to remove all non-combatants from a zone of war, and
equally impossible to provide them with masks, thousands of
them must inevitably perish. For this reason alone it would be
well if gases were forbidden. To forbid them, however, is one
thing; to prevent their use is another. And unless more effectual
means than were within sight in 1921 can be devised to make
this (or any other) form of warfare impossible, considerations of
national security must inevitably prevail.
Gases used in the World War. The following are some of the
more important gases used during the World War:
Cyanogen Compounds. Effect, in concentrations of as much as
I in 1,000, immediate death. In weak concentrations, giddiness,
headache and pains about the heart, but ultimately complete recov-
ery. Used by the French and the British in shells as a mixture of
50% hydrogen cyanide, with arsenic trichloride, stannic chloride
and chloroform.
Chlorine. Attacks the respiratory tracts, forming in contact
with moisture hydrochloric acid which destroys the tissues. Has a
reflex action on the system generally, causing vomiting and diar-
rhoea. In high concentration may cause immediate death by spasm
of the glottis. Only used as cloud-gas from cylinders.
Phosgene (Carbonyl chloride). A very dangerous gas because
the effect is delayed, and the victim is often not aware that he has
been gassed. May cause sudden death as much as 48 hours after
exposure. Very much used both in shells, and with chlorine as
cloud-gas.
Diphosgene (Trichlormethyl chloroformate). Effect similar to
that of phosgene. Much used in shells, both alone and with other
gases.
Chloropicrin. Acts on the respiratory system like chlorine but
more strongly. Is also a lachrymator. Much used in shells gener-
ally in combination with other gases.
Bromine. Action similar to that of chlorine. It can be used
conveniently for gas-clouds on account of its high boiling-point,
but it forms the basis of a large number of powerful lachrymators.
It was much used by the Germans as a lachrymatory shell-filling
in the form of benzyl or xylyl bromide and brominated ketones.
Ethyl iodoacetate. British lachrymator. Very marked action on
the eyes, ceasing the moment the neighbourhood of the gas is left.
High persistence.
Bromacetone, Chloracetone and Brommethylethylketone. Much
used in shell. Powerful lachrymators, and asphyxiating or lethal in
high concentrations. Moderate persistence.
Diphenylchloroarsine. Solid, dispersed in clouds of fine particles.
Cannot be kept out by ordinary masks. Powerful sternutator, pro-
ducing also coughing and sickness; in strong concentration, causing
insupportable headache. Much used in Blue Cross shells by the
Germans.
Diphenylcyonoarsine. Similar to diphenylchloroarsine, but with a
more powerful action. It superseded the latter as a German Blue
Cross filling.
Mustard Gas, Yperite, or Yellow Cross. (Sym. dichlordiethylsul-
phide). Vesicant. Attacks the skin even through the clothing with
a blistering or burning effect. Affects all the mucous surfaces.
Acting on the eyes causes blindness, usually temporary. Acting on
the respiratory tracts may cause death by bronchial pneumonia.
In favourable weather remains effective for several days.
Livens Projectors. The use of lethal-gas shells, which require a
very high concentration, implies the necessity of bursting a large
number of shells simultaneously along a given length of trench or
over a given area. With artillery shell this necessitates a concen-
tration of every available gun within range on the point of attack,
and needs a certain amount of preliminary arrangements. With
Stokes or trench-mortar bombs whose contents are much larger,
and especially with a Stokes gun which can be fired very rapidly,
a smaller number of pieces can be used. But probably the most
effective means of obtaining a high concentration was the pro-
jector devised by Captain Livens, R.E. This consisted originally in
using an old gas cylinder, with its top cut off, as a mortar; a hole is
dug in the ground and the projector placed in it, resting on the
ground at an inclination of 45 degrees and pointing in the required
direction; the breech of the cylinder is backed up with a strong
base-plate about 12 in. square. The propelling charge is contained
in a tin box placed at the bottom of the projector and divided into
compartments; the propellent explosive is placed in the compart-
ments in bags, the number of bags being varied according to the
range required. The projectile is a steel drum with rounded ends,
21 in. in length and just fitting into the cylinder, which has a bore
of 8 in. ; within the drum is a central tube running down its length,
about I in. in diameter, which contains the bursting charge. The
projector is fired by an electric fuse, about 20 of them being con-
nected up with an exploder. These 20 may all be placed side by
side in the same trench, and will constitute a battery. By these
means as many as 4,000 of these projectors have been placed in posi-
tion behind the front trenches in a night and fired simultaneously.
Naturally, neither range nor direction are very accurate, but they
are sufficiently so to give a very high concentration of gas over a
small area, in some cases sufficient to kill men even when wearing
their respirators. These projectors proved so useful that they
were employed also for incendiary and high-explosive charges, and
were immediately copied by the Germans, who feared them more
than any of the other chemical warfare methods of offence employed
by the Allies.
Incendiary Materials. The beginning of the war showed nothing
particularly new or useful in the incendiary materials used by either
side. Quite early in the war a German incendiary shell was found
to contain white phosphorus and a very inflammable celluloid mix-
ture. In England petrol bombs were tried and containers filled with
rags soaked in petrol. The results were not important. Phosphorus
by itself was not a reliable incendiary agent, though a shower of
molten phosphorus descending from a shell burst in the air had a
good moral effect.
The first demand for incendiary materials for the British army
arose from the necessity of burning the long grass in No Man's
Land during the summer of 1915, to prevent the enemy from using
it for cover. To meet this demand a small catapult grenade filled
with phosphorus and petrol was supplied, it being found that a small
addition of phosphorus gave a more certain ignition of the petrol.
Phosphorus, however, was far more useful as a smoke-producer
than as an incendiary. A very important advance was made when
a method of utilizing thermit in shell was discovered. Thermit is a
mixture of iron oxide and aluminium which when ignited by a suit-
able primer burns with an intense heat, which has been estimated
at 5400 Fahrenheit. It is used commercially for welding, and
has been used in the army for such purposes as destroying guns,
a small quantity of it being placed in the bore and ignited ; the result
of this is to make the gun useless, as when the thermit cools it is
found to be firmly welded to the surface of the bore.
The ordinary ignition, however, is too slow for the purpose of an
incendiary shell. Experiments were made with special ignition pow-
ders in Stokes shells but without good result. In Jan. 1916, however,
thermit was tried with a bursting charge of ophorite which gave
excellent results, the thermit being instantly raised by the dis-
charge to melting-point so that when the shell was burst in the air
it let fall a shower of molten metal. Ophorite was an explosive that
had recently been discovered by Professor Thorpe, which while less
powerful than the ordinary high explosives, had the advantage that
it could be fired by a fuze without a detonator.
Thermit employed in low-velocity projectiles such as Stokes gun
shells became a very valuable incendiary agent; with artillery shells
it was not so useful, as satisfactory ignition was difficult to obtain.
Experiments were also tried with fine coal-dust distributed in the
air but the results were not practical.
Anti-gas Defences. About the end of March 1915, in conse-
quence of the increasing rumours that the Germans intended to
use poison gases, the British War Office asked Sir William Ram-
say's committee to consider what gases might possibly be used,
and what would be the best means of protection. Before the
committee reported, the cloud attack of April 22 was made.
The circumstances were explained to Sir William Ramsay by
telephone, with the remark that the gas was probably chlorine,
and the next morning he came to the War Office with several
sample mouth-pads made of flannel or wool soaked in hyposul-
phite of soda. An appeal was made through the Press to British
women to furnish 1,000,000 of them at once, and thanks to their
response and the efforts of the Red Cross the necessary quantity
came in two or three days, so that within a fortnight every man
n6
POISON GAS WARFARE
in the British army at the front was supplied with this form of
respirator. Although rudimentary, it gave useful protection.
Meanwhile chemists and physicists were at work on both the
French and British fronts investigating the facts and advising on
temporary protection. The day after the first gas attack, in-
structions were issued to keep buckets of solution of bicarbonate
of soda in the trenches; the men were to dip their handkerchiefs
in the solution and tie them round their mouths in case of gas
attack. More efficient respirators were considered, also the use
of large fans for clearing the trenches of gas, and direct fighting of
the cloud by spraying neutralizing agents into it. Thousands of
Vermorel sprayers were sent out, for clearing trenches and dug-
outs. The dispersal of clouds by shelling and by explosions was
tried, also lighting fires in front of the trenches to heat the cloud
and cause it to rise. None of these methods were really effective
in stopping clouds, and attention was gradually concentrated on
direct defence by masks.
The first improvement on the respirator, which was introduced
in the War Office a few days after the attack, was known as the
Smoke helmet or Hypo helmet, a kind of Balaklava helmet
made of flannel or thin serge, covering the head loosely and
reaching below the neck, round which it was tied. The eye-
pieces were made of mica. This helmet was impregnated with
hyposulphite, soda and glycerine solution, and carried in a
waterproof bag. It gave satisfactory results for some time.
Pending the complete supply, the increasing use of lachrymating
shells by the Germans gave rise in June to a demand for goggles.
During 1915 the helmet was improved by the introduction
first of phenates to protect against phosgene (when it is called
the P helmet) and later by the further addition of Hyomine
(when it was called the P.H. helmet), to ensure protection
against phosgene and prussic acid. A respiratory valve and
mouth-tube was also inserted in the P. and P.H. helmets, and
this added to their comfort and efficiency.
As the use of other gases was foreseen, such as phosgene and
hydrocyanic acid, a more effective protection than could be put
into cloth became necessary. Thus the " box respirator " type
was developed, and gradually issued during 1916. The general
type of these consisted of a mask or face-piece into which entered
a flexible tube issuing from a metal container which held chemicals,
through which the air was breathed. In the earlier patterns the
air passed through the tube into the space between the mask and
the face; but as it is very difficult to get the mask to make an
airtight fit round the face, the tube was extended and ended in a
mouth-piece which fitted closely to the lips, while the nostrils
were closed by a nose-clip. The container and mask were carried
in a knapsack. The mica eye-pieces were replaced by celluloid,
and eventually by triplex glass, which does not splinter when
broken and remains airtight.
The introduction of a container for the neutralizing and
absorbing agents gave free scope to chemists to provide against
all kinds of poison gas. In this connexion it is worth recording
that the British gas-mask did in fact give efficient protection
from its introduction to the end of the war.
The containers were filled with alternate layers of charcoal
and composition granules. The charcoal absorbed gases, and
the granules, whose composition could be varied indefinitely,
absorbed and neutralized them. The container had the further
advantage that its contents could easily be renewed.
This type of respirator continued in use until the end of the
war but was subject to continual improvement. No effort in
this direction could be spared seeing that any defect in the
manufacture or adjustment of the mask might mean death to
the wearer. Constant progress was made with the British and
French patterns, and the Americans when they entered the war
took up the question very thoroughly. They, like the French,
had the advantage that their chemical service was a separate
branch of the army with the offensive and defensive sections
working under the same head. Among other defects the air-tight
fitting of the mask to the face needed a great deal of study and
experiment. The eye-pieces gave trouble because moisture would
condense on them both outside and in. This was partly cured by
using a soapy solution on the glass. The whole apparatus had to
be made as little cumbrous as possible, and so adjusted with its
knapsack that it could be very quickly taken out and put on.
The use of the mouth-piece and nose-clip was very trying when
worn for long periods.
In 1918, the Tisset mask was introduced in France, which did
away with the mouth-piece and met the difficulty of condensation
by causing the cold air from the inlet-tube to pass across the
eye-piece in entering the mask. This type, which was adopted and
improved by the Americans, was known as a " single-protection "
respirator. Its weak point is that if the face-piece is torn, or does
not fit properly, protection is lost.
The provision of the charcoal for the containers opened up a
wide field of investigation. For absorbent purposes a very dense
charcoal was required. Experiments made in the United States
showed that coconut-shells gave the best form of charcoal for the
purpose, but their preparations were on such an extensive scale
that they calculated that they would require a supply of 400,000
tons per day of coconut-shell, which were obviously not obtain-
able. After coconut-shells the best carbon was obtained from fruit-
stones such as peach, cherry, etc., and Brazil and other nut-
shells. Carbon obtained from hard wood, such, as the ironwood
was of less efficiency.
The scale on which the United States worked is shown by the
following figures given by Farrow of the production of protective
materials up to the date of the Armistice, the great bulk of which
were produced in the last four months of the war:
Production up
Material. to Nov. n 1918.
Respirators . . . 5.276,515
Extra canisters
Horse masks
Bleaching powder (tons)
Extra antidimming (tubes)
Sag paste (tons)
Dugout blanket oil (gallons)
Protective suits
Protective gloves
Dugout blankets
Warning devices
Trench fans
3,144,485
366,529
3,677
2,855,776
95,000
500
1,773
159,127
33,202
29,977
The sag paste mentioned in this list was an ointment used for
the skin to protect it against mustard gas, the protective suits
and gloves being for the same purpose. The blankets, which
were to seal the doors of dugouts, were made of specially woven
cotton treated with a specially heavy oil. The warning devices
were mainly watchmen's rattles and Klaxon horns.
From the beginning gas schools were established on all army
fronts, where men were taught the use of the masks and made to
enter gas chambers with masks on to get proof of the protection
afforded. Similar schools were established by all the nations at
their gas defence headquarters, where experiments could be
tried. The result of such work is well shown by the following
extract from Farrow's description of the American gas service:
" There was a special field-testing section of the Gas Defence
Division composed of about 150 men who were trained to the min-
ute in field manoeuvres and did most of their work in gas-masks.
They were constantly in and out of gas with regular production and
experimental masks. They played baseball in them, they dug
trenches, laid out wire, cut wires, and fought sham battles at night,
both with and without actual gas. The work of this section even
went so far in the case of the later design as to include a test where
six men worked, played and slept in the masks for an entire week,
only taking them on for 30 minutes at each meal-time, and each
day entering high concentrations of the most deadly gases without
any ill effects whatsoever to the wearers. When it is remembered
that eight hours was the limit of time which a strong man could
wear the old-type mask, something of the efficiency of the new
mask may be realized."
These of course are experimental results with selected men,
which generally differ widely from those obtainable in the field.
They only show the great improvement made in patterns of
respirators before the end of the war. The fact remains that any
efficient respirator is a source of fatigue as well as a great incon-
venience. British experiments have shown that in hill-climbing
with and without respirators, there is a marked difference in the
increase of heart rates and rates of breathing under the former
POLAND
117
condition. Up to 1921 what had been done gave good protection
with reduced inconvenience. But much yet remained to do;
indeed, complete protection both at the front and in the rear
areas might well be unattainable. (L. J.)
POLAND (see 21.902*). The partition of Poland was the one
great crime of the i8th century for which no redress was afforded
by the settlement of Europe after the Napoleonic wars, and it
eventually proved one of the causes of the World War in 1914,
though the Poles had become apparently more or less reconciled
by that date to working out their destiny under Russia, Prussia
and Austria. In the earlier article their history has been sketched
up to 1863, but it is necessary here to make some brief reference
to former times as well as to give the outlines of its development
from then up to 1914.
RUSSIAN POLAND. " The insurrection of 1863," says Stanis-
laus Kosmian, "helped the greatest enemy of Poland and the
Polish cause to success. On the ruins of the Polish revolution rose
. . . the system of Russification in the Empire of the Tsar."
Under the new name of the Governments of the Vistula the
Polish provinces formerly known as " Congress Poland " or the
" Kingdom of Poland " were placed in the hands of military
governors whose duty it was to suppress every tendency towards
Nationalism and to ensure complete subservience to Russia.
Russian became the official language of the country and it
was enforced in all public business. In 1869 it was adopted as the
official language of higher and secondary education and in 1885
the use of the Russian language became compulsory in the pri-
mary schools. The publication of articles in Polish was forbidden
and the teaching of the language was punished by fine and im-
prisonment. In 1876 Russification was extended to the courts of
justice and Polish officials were replaced by Russians. It cannot
however be said that the policy was consistently enforced; it was
for instance mitigated under Count Berg who succeeded Milyu-
tin in 1867 and devoted himself to conciliating Polish society, and
again by Count Schuvalof and Prince Imeritinsky, successors to
the Draconian Gen. Gurko who reigned from 1883 to 1894.
Roman Catholicism was, however, from the first recognized as
" the backbone of Polish Nationalism " and consistently attacked.
At the outset the monasteries were closed, the ecclesiastical
lands confiscated and the Union with Rome assailed by com-
pelling Uniates to become Catholics. This religious persecution
was carried on with very slight intermittence until 1905, when
religious freedom was first permitted.
The most interesting feature in the process of Russification,
however, was the attempt made to break the power of the old his-
toric families and bring the peasants into close union with Russia.
The emancipation of the peasants which had been urged before
the revolution was effected by the Ukases of 1864. Each peasant,
whatever his tenure had been, and the mass of the landless be-
came freeholders, which was a constant cause of class friction,
and they were allowed to retain their right of free access to the
forests and pastures of the landlord. To the landlords compensa-
tion was given in the form of Treasury Bonds so that they might
have a lasting interest in the maintenance and solvency of the
Russian Empire. Village affairs were placed in the hands of a
Commune (Gromada) consisting entirely of peasants, who from
ignorance and inexperience soon fell under the influence and mas-
tery of the officials; while the landlords were represented in the
organization of the district.
The basic idea of the system was the accentuation of class
divisions, for it was hoped thus to create a class independent of,
and antagonistic to, the Polish landlord and bound by ties of
gratitude to Russia. These hopes were not realized for it was
these peasant communes which provided centres for the educa-
tional movement at the end of the century and foci for the spread
of the idea of Polish nationality.
From the emancipation of the serfs can further be traced the
economic changes which took place in the latter half of the igth
century. By the splitting-up into small parcels of the large
estates an ever increasing class of peasant proprietors was
instituted because the small freeholders, who included in their
numbers members of the smaller gentry or Schlachta, as well as
the former serfs, desired to increase their holdings and found
themselves more and more able to pay the prices demanded by
the landlords. Though the kingdom of Poland was and remains
essentially an agricultural country, a great industrial change has
also taken place. Whereas in 1863 the towns were still in a
primitive state of development, by the end of the century great
industrial centres had appeared. Competition with Russian
industry was a different thing to competition with German
industry, especially under the protection of the Russian tariff
wall. Hence the growth of a strong middle class in which the
Jews took a considerable part, some of the leading Jewish
families even marrying into and being received as part of Polish
society in Warsaw. The economic development became a strong
bond of union with Russia and Polish textiles penetrated
through the empire as far as Turkestan.
The practical exclusion of the Poles from the Russian army and
administration threw back the abler and more ambitious of the
upper classes among them on other employment, and strength-
ened this middle class and brought a new influence to bear on na-
tional life in Congress Poland. Hence practical economic reform
improvement became the order of the day and the habit of
theorizing on the subject of political independence fell into the
background. But these improvements again could not long avoid
a political aspect and hence the formation of Socialist and Demo-
cratic associations.
These Socialist societies, however, had always a Nationalist
tendency because capital was largely in German and Jewish
hands. The most noteworthy was the National Democratic par-
ty which came into existence before the end of the century, after
several earlier revolutionary societies had failed, and set to work
by means of private educational efforts to oppose Russification
and definitely awaken the spirit of nationality. During the
troubles which succeeded the Russo-Japanese War this party,
under the leadership of M. Dmowski, formed " the army of the
national movement " and in the First Duma held an important
and in the Second a controlling position, but its influence was
diminished by the reduction of the membership at the election
of the Third Parliament. Outside Russia an important move-
ment took place in 1908, thanks to the rise of the Neo Slav party,
which aimed at effecting a reconciliation between Russia and
Poland, and this platform was adopted at Pan Slav Congress
held at Prague in 1908, for it was felt that the Poles would be
the first victims of a victorious advance of Germany, now the
most dangerous enemy (it was held) of the Polish cause.
The Russian Government was, however, recovering from the
blows of the revolution of 1905 and unwilling to consider the
grant of autonomy for Poland, and in the Duma even the support
of the Constitutional Democrats was withdrawn when the Polish
Club in the Austrian Reichsrat encouraged in 1908 the incorpora-
tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina with the Habsburg dominions.
The failure of its plans caused the break-up of the. National
Democratic party. Its place was taken by Socialist societies an-
tagonistic to Russia. Hence at the outbreak of the World War
feeling in Russian Poland was divided.
PRUSSIAN POLAND. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 had stip-
ulated that the Poles should receive " a representation and na-
tional institutions." In the duchy of Posen the national rights of
the Poles were recognized and for some years the policy adopted
by Prussia was one of conciliation rather than oppression,
while the needs of the country, such as those as to education and
communications and the emancipation of serfs, were efficiently
provided for. It was not till 1830 that any system of Germani-
zation was introduced and even that was enforced with no great
severity for the twenty years after 1851. But when Bismarck
was able to turn his attention from Austria and France to Poland
he found that under the mild rule that had prevailed the Poles
had been able to develop a national movement which had indeed
a parliamentary group in Berlin and had to be reckoned with in
the Reichstag, but the strength of which lay in societies such as
that founded by Marcinkowski in 1842 which had brought an
educated class of Polish doctors, lawyers, merchants and trades-
people into existence. By means of propaganda this movement
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
n8
POLAND
had increased rapidly to a position more formidable than that
previously engineered by the historic families and was in fact
" undermining the foundations of the Prussian State." As a coun-
ter-stroke to an organization which he realized was strengthened
and to some extent led by the priests, Bismarck in 1872 under-
took the Kulturkampf, hoping thereby to crush out the growing
conception of Polish nationality. The Archbishop of Gnesen-
Posen, the chief leader of the Roman Catholic party, was impris-
oned, the liberty of the pulpit was denied, the use of the Polish
language was prohibited in the schools and attempts were made
to forbid its use at public meetings. The Kulturkampf was con-
tinued till 1885 and in spite of its failures Bismarck's policy
seemed assured of success when Dinder was appointed Archbishop
of Gnesen and the onslaught of the schools began.
The history of Prussian Poland in later years turns to a great
extent upon the economic question. The industrial develop-
ment of Germany had brought about a great immigration of
Polish labourers to work as agriculturists in eastern Germany and
as miners in Westphalia. Bismarck descried danger here and
after unsuccessfully trying to prevent it by expelling the immi-
grants essayed to counteract it by further Germanization of
Poland. The appointment of the Land Commission in 1886 with
5,000,000 to buy land from Poles in Posen and W. Prussia and
sell it to German colonists was the first step in the policy of Ger-
man colonization which was pursued till the outbreak of the war.
It is true that under Caprivi the severity of the anti-Polish policy
was relaxed, but under Prince Hohenlohe it was reinforced and in
1894 the Ostmarken Verein was founded to obtain the trade of
the eastern provinces exclusively for Germans and undermine
the Polish element. Under Count Bulow the culminating point
was reached in 1908 when the compulsory expropriation bill
was passed with the bill prohibiting the use of Polish at ordinary
public meetings. More colonists were now introduced and the
sale of their land to Poles was forbidden. There were signs all
through of the failure of this policy, such as the strike of the school
children in 1006 against the use of the German language in re-
ligious instruction, and these signs were multiplied in the econom-
ic sphere. For here the Poles, acting on the principle that they
would be masters when they were " better, more educated and
richer than the Germans," had definitely set themselves to the
task of defeating the Germans economically. The land that was
bought for colonists was poor land and bought at high prices.
The German colonists were boycotted to such an extent that
they were forced to withdraw or become Polonized and the Polish
position actually seemed to grow stronger as the legislation
became more severe. The incorruptible Prussian official, the in-
exorable Prussian schoolmaster and the brutal Prussian drill ser-
geant had disciplined a talented people hitherto uncultured and
rendered them capable of organizing and acting for themselves.
By means of their cooperative societies which dealt with agri-
culture, finance, industry and commerce they obtained complete
control of the resources of the country to the exclusion of the
Germans and the Jews. They also founded unions of landowners,
social, athletic and political associations. The heads of all these
societies before the war formed a sort of secret Cabinet which
exercised the chief power in Prussian Poland with a preponderat-
ing influence in the local Press, with power to control the supply
of immigrant labour and secretly direct the boycott both of Ger-
mans and of Jews. In fact when victory came the assumption of
political supremacy was not the first but the last step to complete
independence.
The success of the Poles of Prussia may have been one of the
elements which led Pilsudski to put his money on the wrong
horse at the beginning of the World War, believing that Germany
would be obliged to make of Poland a buffer State against the
eternal menace of the Russian Empire.
AUSTRIAN POLAND. The lot of the Poles in the Austrian Em-
pire with its purely non-national basis was preferable to that under
Prussia or Russia. In the former they had by fighting obtained a
tolerable position. In the latter the severities were intermittent
and could be mitigated by bribery. In Austria there was always
a certain amount of bonhomie or Gemullichkeit which made official
harshness tolerable. The history, however, of Austrian Poland
from 1863 to 1914 can be understood only by reference to certain
governing facts, namely the imperialist opportunism of the
monarchy and the racial problem presented by the rise of the
Ruthenian movement in Galicia.
During the years immediately following the revolution of 1863,
the Galician Poles, under the influence of bitter disillusionment,
resolved to concentrate all their efforts not on recovering politi-
cal unity with the boundaries of 1772, but on preserving and
strengthening national unity within the Austrian Monarchy.
German culture and the German language constituted the unify-
ing and predominant force in the Habsburg Monarchy, but after
the war of 1866 and under the constitution of 1867 Austrian
Germans had to look for allies amongst the other nationalities.
The Poles had to decide whether they would support the aims of
the Federalist party with its disruptive tendencies or whether
they would favour the German element and adhere to the Vienna
Government. They followed the latter course and promised
loyalty in return for practical concessions. Having 57 votes in
the Reichsrat they were able to secure useful privileges for
Galicia. In 1867 they obtained a special minister for Galicia in
the Austrian Cabinet; a separate board for Galician education;
the use of the Polish language in secondary schools; the use of
Ruthenian being restricted to elementary schools; the use of
Polish instead of German in administration and the law courts.
In the following year Polish became the official language for the
university of Cracow, whilst a year later it was enacted that
Poles alone should be teachers in the universities of Cracow and
Lemberg. From 1877 onwards the " Polish Club " in the Reichs-
rat became a governmental party and used all its influence to
build up piecemeal the fabric of Polish autonomy in Galicia. On
the whole the Poles did not use their power well. By the estab-
lishment of an academy of science at Cracow they did indeed
encourage learning, but they did nothing to improve the economic
condition of the people. The peasants remained ignorant and the
towns were neglected. No Polish middle class was created and
hence the Jewish element predominated in trade and commerce.
Galicia was rapidly Polonized but only at the expense of the
Germans and the Ruthenians, and on their oppression of these
last the history of Austrian Poland up to and after the war to a
great extent depends.
The Ruthenians have been described by Prof. Alison Phillips
as a compact body of 30,000,000 occupying the country " from
the north-eastern district of Hungary across the Carpathians and
E. Galicia " and eastwards as far as the Dnieper. They were
then ruled partly by Russia and partly by Austria, but have al-
ways been claimed by the Russians as part of their race. Indeed
little doubt was expressed on the subject till a movement was
started about the middle of the igth century by certain Ruthe-
nian scholars, who set out to prove they had a right to a sepa-
rate national existence. The real impetus of the movement was
economic and arose from the discontent of the peasant with the
oppression of their Russian and Polish landlords. It was some 20
years before the importance of the danger of the movement was
realized. From the Polish point of view it was dangerous because
it challenged their supremacy in " the annexed provinces " in
Podolia, Volhynia and Eastern Gah'cia. From the Russian point
of view it was disastrous because it threatened to break up the
Russian Empire. In Galicia, where in addition to the language
the Greek Uniat Church formed a strong bond of union, the move-
ment prospered in spite of the Polish efforts to suppress it, which
were at first supported by the Austrian Government. This sup-
port continued as long as Austria desired good relations with
Russia, that is until in 1884 it was desired to weaken the Russian
colossus. Then concessions were made to the Ukrainians and the
result was that in 1891 Ukrainophil deputies appeared in the
Reichsrat with the development of an Ukrainian State within the
monarchy inscribed on their banner. This policy had the effect of
promoting a reconciliation between Russia and the Galician Poles,
who thought it better that the Galician Ruthenes should be ab-
sorbed by Russia than that a Ruthene State should be set up at
the expense of both Russians and Poles. To retain their ascen-
POLAND
119
dancy, therefore, the Poles proceeded to encourage the Russophil
Ruthenians, with the result that the latter were successful in 1907
in the election which followed the establishment of universal suf-
frage in the Austrian half of the Dual Monarchy.
In 1908 the Neo Slav Congress definitely declared that Russian
Neo Slavs and Poles should act in conjunction to suppress the
movement, a decision which met with no approval from the
Austrian Government because Russia and later Austria were then
at daggers-drawn in the Balkans and a new viceroy was appointed
in Galicia who was definitely anti-Russian. The culminating
point was reached in 1914, when it was discovered that the
Ukrainian party was and had been for ten years past in close
touch with the Prussian Ostmark Verein which was opposed to
everything Polish. The Galician Poles had realized the complete
subservience of Austria to the German Emperor and this pro-
duced a great change in their attitude to the Habsburgs, so
much so, that the murder of the Archduke was received with
almost indecent expressions of satisfaction, because to him was
ascribed the success of the Ukraine movement in 1913.
POLAND DURING THE WORLD WAR. Thus the declaration of
war in 1914 found the Poles with no definite national policy. The
various political parties were united in that they had one common
end in view, the restoration of an independent Poland, but their
opinions were divided as to the means of attaining this end. In
Galicia the majority of the Poles were pro-Austrian. In Russian
Poland the National Democrats, under the leadership of M.
Dmowski, were strongly in favour of working for an autonomous
Poland under the Russian crown, and this policy seems to have
been supported by the majority of the Russian Poles. In opposi-
tion to this party was a strong anti-Russian element, of which
the most notable supporter was Pilsudski. Having been forced
to flee from Russian Poland in 1907 Pilsudski had taken refuge
in Galicia, where he had utilized the sokols (athletic clubs) and
shooting clubs for the purpose of organizing an efficient military
force to use against Russia in case of war. At the outbreak of war
he mobilized his forces, as the Polish Legion, and, advancing
across the border, seized Kielce. The actual military result was of
no great importance, but '' it soon became clear that his bold
decisive action had powerfully impressed the national mind."
On Aug. 14, in answer to the anti-Russian campaign which the
Germans had been organizing in Warsaw, the Grand Duke
Nicholas issued a proclamation announcing Russia's intention of
establishing a united Poland " under the sceptre of the Russian
emperor," a Poland which was to be " free in faith, language and
in self-government." By the National Democrats this proclama-
tion was welcomed as being the first stage towards the fulfilment
of their aims. By the followers of Pilsudski, however, the procla-
mation was received with no favour: proposals for conciliation
with Russia tended only to emphasize Polish divisions.
Polish resistance to the Russians took a political as well as a
military form. On Aug. 16 two existing Polish organizations, the
Confederation of Independent parties and the Polish Military
chest (skarb), were merged in the Supreme National Council of
Galicia, which contained representatives of all parties in the Gali-
cian Diet and Reichsrat. Though the National Council was
formed with the object of offering political resistance to the
Russians, it was not altogether in agreement with Pilsudski and
his legionaries. It was inclined to be monarchical whilst Pilsud-
ski was Socialist Republican. Accordingly the Council laid down
the following regulations: The Polish legions were to form a
separate Polish command but to be subject to the Austrian Army
Command. The Polish language was to be used. Legionaries
were to take the Austrian Landsturm oath and F. M. L. Durski,
a Pole in the Austrian service, was placed in command. Pilsudski,
having taken the oath under protest, was given the command of
the first regiment.
At first both the Austrians and the Germans distrusted the
movement as they stood to lose should Pilsudski achieve the
national independence for which he was working. Austria more-
over was hostile to any idea of Polish union and to anything
which might lead to increased autonomy in Galicia. Recruiting,
therefore, was forbidden. Later the Germans, realizing that the
strength of Russia would be decreased as the strength of the
Polish legions was increased, allowed recruiting to take place
among the Russian Poles.
The Galician situation, however, was somewhat changed by
the Russian advance. On Sept. 2 Lemberg was taken by Russian
troops and for the moment " the Austrian solution was at a dis-
count." The divisions among the Galician Poles became apparent.
By some, who had ties of blood and religion with the Russians,
the invasion was welcomed and the new rule accepted with
alacrity. The most noticeable effect of the pro-Russian sympa-
thy is to be found in the dissolution of the E. Galician Legion,
which took place in Oct. and which caused an estrangement be-
tween the Conservatives of the National Committee and the E.
Galician Conservatives. Bobrinsky was appointed governor of
Lemberg, his policy being that of systematic Russification.
In 1915 the Polish situation was again changed by the military
campaigns. On June 22 Lemberg was retaken from the Russians
and on Aug. 5 the Germans entered Warsaw: thus German
power was established in Russian Poland and Austrian power
reestablished in Galicia. Among the Poles themselves, in 1915,
party differences seemed to decrease. In Dec. the Radical
Socialist elements formed a central national committee. It was
composed of the Peasants' party; the Union of Workers; the
Polish Socialist party and the Club of Polish Statehood (Stiid-
nicki). The aim of the league was to work for independence;
it was dissolved in Feb. 1917.
By the beginning of 1916 the Polish Legion was well equipped
and in June the brigades totalled 18,000. When the Polish inde-
pendence parties at Warsaw asked for the nomination of Pilsud-
ski as the commander-in-chief of a Polish army all the conces-
sions previously granted by the Germans were withdrawn.
Pilsudski then appealed to the Austrians. The Austrians' ideas
with regard to Poland had undergone a slight change, and
though suspicious of Pilsudski and his legionaries, the Govern-
ment decided to encourage them in the hope that a union might
be effected of the Polish kingdom and Galicia under Austrian
protection. In July Pilsudski felt himself in a position to
appeal for concessions regarding the substitution of Poles for
Austrians as officers in the legion and for the use of the Polish
uniform and colours. There was some delay in considering the
question of these concessions and as a protest Pilsudski, to-
gether with other officers, retired. The Austrians did make and
were prepared to adhere to certain concessions. They therefore
negotiated with Pilsudski to withdraw his resignation. At this
point, however, the German command interfered and Pilsudski
was dismissed on the grounds of insubordination. In Oct. the
legions were withdrawn from the front.
The Germans and Austrians were in the meantime trying to
arrive at some satisfactory solution of the Polish question. The
tendency of the Poles themselves was on the whole pro-Austrian,
this tendency being strengthened by the union of the province
of Chelm (Kholm) to Poland. The first solution proposed by the
Germans was that of an independent Polish state under a Habs-
burg king. This state was to consist of Russian Poland, Galicia,
and those parts of Posen where the Poles exceeded 65 % of the
population. This solution the Austrians would not accept. It
was not clear how much of Poland the Germans were willing to
give up, but it was clear that their sacrifice would not be so great
as that of the Austrians who were to lose all Galicia. The solu-
tion proposed by the Austrians was that of a genuinely indepen-
dent Poland consisting of Galicia and Russian Poland. This new
Poland was to be a third co-equal state with Austria-Hungary.
The German Chancellor then issued new proposals and after a
Polish deputation had been sent to Berlin to discuss the terms an
agreement was brought about and the result was the Decree of
Independence of Nov. 5. By this decree the Polish districts
" snatched from Russian power " were to form an independent
state which was to have a hereditary monarchy and a constitu-
tion. The organization, training and command of the Polish
army were to be settled by mutual agreement.
From the point of view of the Germans the Polish state was to
be closely united to the Central Powers, " especially in military
I2O
POLAND
matters." Their ultimate aim was to secure additional man-
power against Russia. This settlement was not welcomed by
Austria. She " had accepted unwillingly the German scheme
as to Poland . . . but she hoped by her scheme of Galician
autonomy so to embarrass the German settlement as to revive
the Austrian solution which Berlin had rejected." l
The independence of Poland was acknowledged on Dec. 20
by a joint Allied note and later in 1917 it was acknowledged by
the Revolutionary Government in Russia.
The first attempt of the German Government to organize the
new state was not successful. General von Beseler (primarily a
savant and geographer), who as military governor held the chief
power, issued a decree arranging for the election of 70 members of
the Diet in the German sphere of occupation; eight members of
the Council of State were to be chosen by these 70, whilst four
others and the chairman were to be chosen by the governor-
general; all resolutions of the Council of State were subject to
the assent of the two governors-general. The unpopularity of
this proposed organization was so great that certain modifica-
tions were introduced, and the following scheme adopted: the
two Governments were to nominate immediately a council of
25, 15 from the German sphere and 10 from the Austrian; they
were to elect their own chairman; they had power to regulate
internal affairs and economic reconstruction and were to cooperate
in the formation of a Polish army. The Council was composed
eventually of n Conservatives, but no National Democrats,
8 of the Central party (pro-Austrians) and 6 of the Left
(Socialists). It was liable to be over-ruled by von Beseler.
The powers of the Council were fairly extensive. "Educa-
tion and justice were handed over to them practically without
reserve; and for the first time for many years the native tongue
was again heard in the schools and in the courts of law. Local
representative bodies were called into being in the towns and in
the country; and in Warsaw the municipality received control
of all the public services, including police, prisons, posts (mu-
nicipal), public sanitation and hygiene." 2 The finances were
handed over to the Council " except in so far as the costs of
the occupation " were concerned. A Minister of Political Affairs
was appointed but he might hold official relations only with
the Central Powers.
One of the first problems facing the new Council in 1917 was
that of the economic reconstruction of the country. In his His-
tory of the War, John Buchan gives the following description of
the condition of Poland under the German domination " The
German policy demanded a wholesale destruction and . . .
Poland was methodically laid waste.' . . . Only blackened ruins
marked the site of villages, and since the German army ate up
all supplies, famine stalked through the land. . . . The ma-
terial damage can scarcely be estimated ... all labour and
industry have been swept away." In addition to the devasta-
tion, the currency was depreciated and the Customs, which
might have provided revenue, were to go to Germany and Austria.
The Council was responsible for the drawing up of a constitu-
tion. A committee was formed in which all shades of opinion were
represented. It was decided that a Ministry and a Senate should
hold.office until a genuine National Assembly could be established.
As regards political matters the Council demanded that there
should be a regent: that they should be given more control over
local government: and that existing ordinances should be mod-
ified. These demands were not accepted by von Beseler.
The chief question which occupied the Council was that of the
army. Pilsudski was attempting to raise a strong national army
which would give the Council more chance of enforcing its de-
cisions, but he was not prepared to raise it for German use.
The meeting of Council in which the political demands were
formulated took place on May i. Only unimportant concessions
in education and justice were made, therefore on May 17 the
Council suspended its functions, though through German intimi-
dation it was forced to resume them on June 9. At the beginning
of July three resolutions were passed: proposals for a regency,
1 Nelson's History of the War, xviii., 123.
1 Butler's The New Europe, p. 113.
a Cabinet and a Senate were accepted; a military oath was to be
taken exacting loyalty to the Central Powers and to the future
king of Poland (thus excluding a republic); and a recruiting
appeal was made. These resolutions proved the submission of
the Council to Germany, and in protest Pilsudski and five of his
supporters resigned.
After the passing of these resolutions on July 3 the Council was
discredited. It had failed to cope satisfactorily with the economic
crisis and it had failed to produce a practical settlement with
regard to the army. As matters stood the army could be used
against the Russians but not against the Austrians or the Ger-
mans. Finally the Council was discredited by the attitude of the
Austrian Poles. The Government had delayed the grant of in-
creased autonomy to Galicia and on May 28 the resentment of
the Galician Poles culminated in a conference of Polish members
of the Galician Diet and of the Austrian Reichsrat, in which they
declared that " the desire of the Polish nation was to have
restored an independent and united Poland with access to the
sea." On July 30 Polish discontent was further increased by the
arrest of Pilsudski, and a month later the Council resigned.
After the failure of the Council a regency project was intro-
duced. By this scheme there was to be a regency of three, a
Cabinet and Premier and a Council of State. The Premier and
the Council of State were to be chosen by the Regency Council
subject to the approval of the Central Powers. The functions of
the Polish authorities were limited to education, justice, public
welfare, agriculture, and finance as far as it concerned the depart-
ments assigned to their care. They might legislate on matters
handed over to them but the German and Austrian governors-
general had the right of veto within a fortnight of the completion
of the bill. The regency had no control over the army.
Such was the position of the Polish Government at the be-
ginning of 1918. The German domination seemed more complete
than it had ever been before. In 1916 the Poles could extract
concessions from the Germans in view of the fact that their help
was needed against the Russians. That help was no longer
necessary, therefore concessions were no longer forthcoming.
When the negotiations opened at Brest Litovsk the Polish
Government asked the Central Powers to admit its representa-
tives. In spite of " weighty declarations " made at Berlin the
demand was ignored and the Poles were excluded from the con-
ference. On Feb. 9 the Treaty of Brest Litovsk was signed. As
far as Poland was concerned the important clause of the Treaty
was that which ceded Chelm to the Ukraine. On Aug. 17 1917
the Provisional Government of Russia had recognized Ukrainian
autonomy. The Ukrainian state was composed roughly of the
following territory: the western parts of the Governments of
Lublin and Grodno, and the whole of the Governments of Kiev,
Poltava, Kherson, Volhynia, Kharkov, Podolia, Yekaterinoslav,
and Chernigov and excluded the Austrian Ukraine. On Nov. 20
1917 the Ukraine declared itself to be a republic and on Jan. n
1918 the delegates of the Ukrainian Republic were formally recog-
nized at Brest by the Central Powers. The territory of Chelm,
which was ceded to the Ukraine at this Treaty, had been handed
over to Poland by Austria only in June 1916, but its ownership
had been disputed for many years and it had already before been
in the possession of the Poles.
As a protest against the lack of consideration shown them at
Brest the Cabinet, under Kuchazewski, resigned and the Poles
issued a formal protest against the violation of their rights. This,
however, made little difference to the German policy, which de-
manded that Poland should " completely give over all those
greater hopes which might be inconvenient to Germany." This
policy was emphasized later in the year when Adml. von Hintze
in a speech to the Reichstag proposed an economic union with
Poland on the basis of a Customs union or Zollverein, that is to
say on the basis of free trade between Poland and Germany.
In April the Poles made a statement of their programme at the
Congress at Rome. They declared their aim to be " Reunion
into one independent state of all the Polish lands, including those
which the Central Empires are refusing to restore to Poland and
those which they are bestowing as largess on their vassals." It
POLAND
121
was not, however, until the autumn that it seemed possible for
them to achieve the end at which they were aiming. In Oct. it
became clear that the union of the Poles no longer depended on
the wishes of Vienna and Berlin, but rather on the will of the
Polish people. In the same month a national Polish Diet was
convoked, and in Austria all the Polish parties left the Reichsrat
and formed the National Council in Cracow, until there should be
" a freely elected Parliament of a United and Independent
Poland." On Nov. 10 Pilsudski, having been released from
Germany, arrived in Warsaw and the Council of Regency pro-
claimed that the German occupation had ceased to exist.
AFTER THE ARMISTICE. The predominating figure in the
evolution of the new Polish state was that of Pilsudski, who,
on the abdication of the Council of Regency, took the Govern-
ment of the country into his hands and succeeded in overcoming
the internal and external dangers which faced the country after
the German collapse.
Pilsudski was by birth a Lithuanian Pole. In 1885 as a stu-
dent of medicine at Kharkov University he became connected
with the Socialist movement and three years later was banished
for complicity in the attempt on the life of Alexander III. though
in reality he had been strongly opposed to the plot. In 1893 he
returned to Poland and became one of the chief founders of the
Polish Socialist party in Russian Poland. The aim of this party
was the independence of Poland. In 1900 he was arrested on ac-
count of his socialistic writings but he escaped to London, after
simulating madness, and two years later returned to Poland.
At this time he and his associates " adhered to Socialism because
they recognized in it the only powerful revolutionary and demo-
cratic force of our time and their supreme aim was, by revolu-
tionary means to win Polish Independence."
In about 1904 Socialism in Poland became a wide popular
movement. Pilsudski was responsible for organizing the mili-
tary element in the new party. Primarily this took the form of
the " Fighting Organization " but later systematic military in-
struction was given by means of Rifle Clubs, with the object of
establishing a force which would be used in armed revolution
against Tsarist Russia. The war gave them their chance and at its
outset they fought against Russia, for " the fight against Tsar-
dom had become to them a second nature." In 1915, however,
Pilsudski stopped recruiting for his Legions, his aim being not to
raise an army which was to be used for the purposes of Germany
and Austria, but one which would ultimately become the army of
an independent Poland. With this object in view Pilsudski
created the " Polish military organization." This organization
was carried on secretly and was concerned chiefly with spreading
propaganda in favour of a struggle for a Poland independent
both of Russia and of the Central Powers. In 1916 after conflict
with the Austrian commanders Pilsudski sent in his resignation.
The Austrians refused to allow his resignation but when he with-
drew his brigade from the front without any previous warning,
the Germans insisted upon his dismissal.
After the declaration of Polish independence Pilsudski was
called upon to help in the formation of a Polish army, but this he
refused to do, on the principle that a Polish army must not be
formed without a true Polish national Government to direct it.
In the summer of 1917 he demanded concessions from the Ger-
mans, and, in view of the feeble attitude taken up by his col-
leagues, he withdrew from the Council, at the same time ordering
his followers in the Legions to refuse to take the oath. As a result
about four-fifths of the Legion were disbanded. He was arrested
subsequently by the Germans and imprisoned at Magdeburg.
During his imprisonment the Polish military organization con-
tinued to develop secretly and when Pilsudski was released by
the German Revolution in Nov. 1918 this organization formed
the basis of the Polish army.
When Pilsudski returned to Poland in Nov. he found the coun-
try confronted with serious dangers. There was no effective
Government, the Council of Regency having been dependent
upon German control; the anarchy in Russia threatened to spread
into Poland, and finally the danger was augmented by the 30,000
rebel German troops which were still in the country. On Nov. 14
the Council of Regency abdicated, leaving the supreme power in
Pilsudski's hands. His first work was to establish an army on
the foundations laid by the Polish military organization. Through
the prompt formation of the army the danger from the German
troops was removed and the Bolsheviks were temporarily held
back. Pilsudski's next work was to constitute a Government.
" Only a Left government," it was well said, " with a pro-
gramme of constructive democratic reform, could retain authority
in the State. Pilsudski therefore formed the Labour Government
of M. Moraczewski, and so forced the Left in this critical
hour to undertake positive work instead of fruitless oppo-
sition and chaotic revolt."
At the end of 1918, therefore, Pilsudski had become the head
of the Polish State. The fundamental principle which underlay
his policy throughout this period was that of pushing on the
Polish State in the " path of modern organic social and political
life." He realized that it was social reconstruction, not social
unrest, which would consolidate the new state and enable it to
hold its own against the anarchic elements which threatened its
existence. In the New Europe in June 1920 Pilsudski's achieve-
ments were thus described: " Socialist, agitator and Leader:
Brigadier-General in the Austrian Army: Head of the Polish
State: the changes are kaleidoscopic. He has now undoubtedly
ranged behind him the great majority of the Polish people, in-
cluding some of his old enemies, the National Democrats; and
this success is one of the greatest tests of his ability, because
Poland contains at least a score of political parties."
The first political event of importance in 1919 was the forma-
tion of a new Cabinet under M. Paderewski. At the beginning of
the year there had been elements of discord between the Govern-
ment at Warsaw and the Polish National Council which had been
formed during the war in Paris, and of which M. Paderewski was
the most prominent member. At the beginning of Jan., however,
an agreement was made and when M. Moraczewski resigned his
office as Premier, Paderewski succeeded him. The chief difficul-
ties which faced the new Cabinet were that of the Bolshevik
advance and the economic condition of the country of which the
worst feature was famine.
At the beginning of Feb. a general election for a Constituent
Assembly was held, and resulted in a victory for the non-Socialist
parties, supporting Paderewski. The actual figures are reported
to have been: Ministerial party 400, Socialists 80, and Jews 15.
In the summer of 1919 Paderewski, as Premier, was responsible
for laying the Treaties of Peace before the Polish Parliament.
The terms concerning Poland were briefly as follows: Poland
received the larger part of Posen and part of W. Prussia. A
plebiscite was to determine the settlement of Masuria and Upper
Silesia. Danzig was to be a free city under the protection of the
League of Nations. This city was to be included within the
Polish customs frontiers and its foreign relations and the protec-
tion of its citizens abroad were to be entrusted to Poland. " Po-
land also received the right of freely using and of developing and
improving all water-ways, docks, and wharfs within the territory
of the free city; and the control and administration of the Vistula
river, and, subject to some restrictions, of the railway, postal
and telegraph systems of Danzig." The actual details were to be
settled later by a treaty between Poland and the free city. A
provisional boundary was laid down between Poland and Russia,
roughly corresponding to the course of the Vistula. In addition
to these territorial changes, it was agreed to embody in " a treaty
with the Allied and Associated Powers such provisions as may
be deemed necessary by the Powers to protect the interests of
inhabitants of Poland who differ from the majority of the
population in race, language or religion," and also " such pro-
visions as they may deem necessary to protect freedom of transit
and equitable treatment of the commerce of other nations."
The clauses concerning Danzig, and the plebiscites for Masuria
and Upper Silesia could not fail to be met with disfavour in
Poland as the territories were claimed as being Polish either his-
torically or ethnographically. Moreover, the Poles resented the
suggestion that they would oppress the national minorities in the
country, and felt that the inclusion of this clause was unnecessary.
122
POLAND
In spite of these objections, the Peace Treaty was passed by
the Parliament on Aug. i by 285 votes to 41.
At the end of Nov. a bill was drafted with proposals for a new
constitution. It was proposed: that the vote should be given
to all citizens of both sexes over 21; that the National Assembly
should be elected every four years; that there should be a bi-
cameral form of Government, the Senate being quite small; that
the President should be elected every seven years and that his
powers should be considerable. The actual constitution was not
finally drawn up, however, until March 1921.
In Dec. a political crisis took place, resulting in the resignation
of M. Paderewski. It was decided by the Allied and Associated
Powers that Eastern Galicia should be given autonomy for 25
years under the protection of Poland, after which settlement was
to be made by plebiscite. Although the majority of the inhab-
itants of Eastern Galicia were Ruthenians the Poles claimed the
territory and this decision of the Powers caused an outcry in
Warsaw. Paderewski's explanations carried no conviction and
he was forced to resign. On Dec. 15 it was announced that M.
Skulski would form a Ministry.
During 1919 the Poles, with Gen. Pilsudski as their commander-
in-chief, were engaged in three wars. Two of them, with the
Ukrainians and the Czechoslovaks, were not of great impor-
tance. Hostilities were started with the Ukrainians on account of
the disputed territories in Galicia. At the beginning of the follow-
ing year a settlement was made after which the Poles and the
Ukrainians joined forces to fight the Bolsheviks. The dispute
with the Czechoslovaks was also on the subject of disputed
territory. The duchy of Teschen, though small, is valuable be-
cause of its coking-coal and thriving industries, and for this rea-
son both Poles and Czechs were anxious to possess it. In the
summer of 1920 the dispute was settled by a decision of the Coun-
cil of Ambassadors, which awarded to the Czechs the whole
mining region and the chief railway running through the terri-
tory. As a result the town of Teschen is cut in two.
The third and most important war was that with the Bolshe-
viks. The war was caused by the German troops evacuating the
eastern territories in a way which was contrary to agreement
and which allowed the Bolsheviks to occupy the territory before
the Polish troops could be brought up. The local population in
the occupied zones appealed to the Poles for aid and, as a fur-
ther advance seemed imminent, the Poles were forced to fight.
The Poles have been accused of entering into this war with the
Bolsheviks with imperialistic and aggressive aims. It seems
clear, however, that this was not the case. The Polish army was
small and was engaged in hostilities elsewhere and the financial
and industrial condition of the country was such that unnecessary
war would not be undertaken.
The policy of the Allies throughout 1919 was vacillating. At
first direct military intervention was attempted but was given
up. Later ammunition and war materials were sent to Denikin
and Kolchak. Finally the " barbed-wire " policy was suggested,
in which Poland was to play a leading part among the states
which were to act as a barrier round Russia. This policy, how-
ever, lasted only 28 days.
In the autumn the Bolsheviks were prepared to make peace, on
Poland's terms, and an armistice was suggested. M. Paderewski
was advised by the Allied Powers to refuse these terms and to
continue fighting. By the end of the year no further negotiations
had been proposed.
During 1920 Poland " served as the centre of the resistance to
the spread of Bolshevism," and her political history is very much
bound up with her military history. In the spring there were some
more peace negotiations, but as before these came to nothing.
On April 27 a strong Polish offensive was begun, chiefly to the S.
of the Pripet marshes. The Poles advanced rapidly, capturing
guns and war material, and on May 8 they entered Kiev. The
Bolsheviks, owing to the defeat of Kolchak and Denikin, were
now able to concentrate all their forces against Poland and in
May opened a counter-offensive campaign. There was serious
fighting between the Dnieper and Dvina and the Poles were
forced to retreat.
In June a change of Government took place, a non-party
Government being formed by M. Grabski. In view of the con-
tinued retreat of the Poles the Premier was sent to the Spa
Conference to ask for help from the Allied Powers. In July Lord
Curzon, as representative of the British Government, proposed
negotiations on the basis of the acceptance of the provisional
boundary laid down by the Peace Conference, corresponding
roughly to the boundary of the Governments of the Vistula. On
July 20 these terms were refused by the Bolsheviks.
In Warsaw another change took place in the Government, a
War Cabinet being formed, which consisted of M. Witos, M.
Daszynski, M. Grabski, M. Skulski, with Prince Sapieha as
Foreign Minister. The policy of the new Cabinet was " to de-
fend the full independence of the Polish Republic and conclude
a just and lasting peace."
The Bolshevik advance had, in the meantime, been steadily
continuing and by Aug. 14 they were within i am. of Warsaw.
Even if Warsaw had fallen it is possible that the Poles might have
made a successful resistance, based upon the western province
of Posen, which is in many respects the most important province
of the new state. The end of July and the beginning of Aug. saw
further attempts for peace. On July 30 Polish officers were allowed
to cross the Russian lines to conclude an armistice but they
were forced to return with nothing accomplished as they were
not authorized to sign the preliminaries of peace with which
the Bolsheviks presented them. At the beginning of Aug. a
peace conference at Minsk was arranged. As made known to Mr.
Lloyd George the chief terms proposed by the Bolsheviks were:
the reduction of the Polish army to 50,000, together with a small
civic militia; the surrender by the Poles of all arms and war
materials with the exception of those necessary for the reduced
army; and the demobilization of all war industries.
Owing to Russian procrastination the peace conference was
not held until Aug. 17, by which date the military situation had
changed with remarkable rapidity. The Russians had advanced
too fast and too far and were not prepared for any sudden coun-
ter-offensive. When Gen. Pilsudski, therefore, organized a gener-
al counter-attack the Bolshevik armies collapsed and retreated
in disorder. By Aug. 21 the Poles had entered Brest Litovsk.
When, on Aug. 17, the conference opened at Minsk it was dis-
covered that there was a difference between the terms actually
offered by the Bolsheviks and those previously tranrmitted to
Mr. Lloyd George. The terms relating to the civic militia were
considerably enlarged. It was in reality to take the form of a
force of armed trades-unionists, 200,000 strong and organized
after the regular Soviet pattern. In short it was an attempt to
foist Bolshevism on to Poland. The military situation, however,
made it impossible for the Russians to enforce their terms.
In Sept. negotiations were moved to Riga, where on Oct. 12
the final treaty was signed. In the N. Poland obtained direct
access to Lettland on the Dvina above Dvinsk. The Poles ob-
tained Baranovichi, Pinsk, Kovel, Rovno and the whole extent
of the Baranovichi-Rovno railway. With these boundaries the
area of the new state is about 148,000 sq. m., and the population
about 30 millions, but of this no accurate estimate can be yet
formed. Poland ranks as the sixth state of Europe in size and
population, and is by far the most important of the new states
which the war has produced in eastern Europe.
In addition to the war with the Bolsheviks Poland was con-
cerned with other foreign affairs. The treaty between Poland
and Danzig was signed in 1921 but in the meantime there was
" an unhappy amount of friction between the Poles, the Germans
of Danzig and the British High Commissioner representing the
League of Nations." The Poles in Danzig were frequently
mobbed and in the summer of 1920, during the crisis in the Bol-
shevik war, guns and war material sent from the Allied Powers
were held up in the port by the people of Danzig.
After Sept. 1920 there was friction with Lithuania. When
the Bolsheviks retreated from Vilna both the Poles and the
Lithuanians claimed the city, the Poles on the grounds of the
language and population, the Lithuanians on the grounds of
historical tradition. The Lithuanians at first took possession of
POLAND
123
Vilna but later Zeligowski with an army of White Russians
turned out the Lithuanians and established an independent
Polish Government.
THE JEWISH QUESTION. One of the most important questions to
be considered by the new Polish State is that of the Jews. Numeri-
cally they form roughly one-seventh of the population. In Warsaw a
third of the population are Jews : in many provincial towns four out
of every five inhabitants are Jews and in some nine out of ten, and
of these the vast majority are Eastern Jews who in language, religion
and customs differ from the population. Their language is Yiddish,
a Middle-High German dialect; for the purposes of writing, Hebrew
characters are used. Their dress is peculiar to themselves and their
unclean habits and low standards of conduct " are neither European
nor modern." The Western Jew is the more civilized type which is
generally found in western Europe, speaking the language and
conforming to the habits of Western civilization.
The Eastern Jew is essentially a business or commercial man, but
rarely a producer. He is usually a middleman or intermediary. In
towns the majority of the shops are owned by Jews, but they are a
race apart, hated and despised by the rest of the population, devoted
to their religion, which is a primitive type of Judaism.
The Jews have been settled in Poland between 800 and 1,000 years
so that they can hardly be considered " strangers " in the land, in fact
the Slavs cannot be considered very much more native than they.
It was not, however, until about 20 years ago that the present quarrel
between the Jews and the Poles began. The Tsarist Government
drove the Jews out of Russia but gave them exceptional advantages
in Poland. These Litvaks (as they were called) openly professed
themselves the partisans of Russia and founded the Jewish press
which set to work openly to fight against Polish autonomy. The
Poles attacked the Jews before the war by means of a national boy-
cott, the only means by which one subject race could attack another.
During and after the war the hostility to the Jews was increased by
the fact that in the German occupation the Jew was the willing tool
of the invader, and by the close connexion between the Jews and
Bolshevism. The hostility to the Jew was marked in 1918 and 1910
by excesses in which some 200-300 have in fact been killed, but which
have been enormously exaggerated by the Jewish press.
The following recommendations for the future treatment of| the
Jews in Poland were made by Sir Stuart Samuel in his report on his
mission to Poland (Cmd. 674, 1920) : That the Polish Government be
urged to carry out the clauses of the Minority Treaty of June 28
1919, in a spirit of sympathy with its Jewish subjects. That a gen-
uine and not a " masked equality be accorded to the Jewish
population of Poland. That all outrages against the person and prop-
erty of the subject, irrespective of race or religion, should be prompt-
ly punished and the names of the delinquents published. That the
Jews in E. Galicia be restored to their official positions in the same
manner as non-Jews have been. That no restrictions should be placed
upon the number of Jews admitted to the universities. That a decree
be published declaring boycotts illegal, and ordering all publications
advocating boycott to be suspended. That all prisoners in intern-
ment camps be brought to immediate trial, and that humane treat-
ment be assured to all interned prisoners. That facilities be afforded
for the introduction of new industries into Poland with a view to
converting a larger proportion of the Jewish population into pro-
ducors. That the British Government should assist Jews wishing to
emigrate from Poland by providing facilities to proceed to countries
such as Palestine, Canada, S. Africa, Algeria and S. America, or any
other country desiring to receive them. That banks be established
possessing the confidence of the Jewish public, so that money might
be deposited therein instead of being carried on the person or con-
cealed in dwellings. Finally, that the desirability of a secretary who
understands and speaks Yiddish being added to the staff of H.M.
Legation at Warsaw be considered.
Capt. Peter Wright, in his very valuable and interesting report
states (Cmd. 674, 1920, pp. 17-36) that the great majority of the poor
Jews are of the Eastern type and extreme orthodoxy (Chassidin).
They form an immense mass of squalid and helpless poverty and
Capt. Wright's only recommendation is that the richer Jews should
study the condition of the poor Jews who either trade as small mid-
dlemen, as hawkers or touts, or labour as unskilled, or almost un-
skilled, and fill the sweating dens as sweaters or sweated when they
emigrate. They are driven into all sorts of illicit and fraudulent prac-
tices and in England, in the East End of London, too large a propor-
tion of convictions for such offence can be laid to their account.
They are unfit for the modern economic world for want of education
and for Western society because of their habits and want of cleanli-
ness. They are devoted to their strange old religion but as they grow
rich their piety, as the Chief Rabbi told Capt. Wright, is destroyed
by wealth and they take too little interest in their poorer brethren.
No one who knows Poland can be surprised at the Polish attitude or
the desire of the Poles to be rid of this corrupting influence.
POLAND IN 1921! It was still impossible in the autumn of
1921 to make any final or definite statement with regard to the
boundaries of Poland; as regards Lithuania the situation re-
mained unsettled, and it was only in Oct. that a decision favour-
able to Poland in respect to Upper Silesia resulted from the
award of the League of Nations (see SILESIA) .
Working on the principle of national rights it was attempted at
the Peace Conference to make the boundaries of Poland conform
to ethnographic divisions. A commission was appointed, under
M. Cambon, which was to deal with the Polish question and sub-
mit drafted proposals to the Supreme Council. The first report
of the commission concerned the western boundaries, the propo-
sals being as follows: The larger part of Posen and Upper
Silesia should be transferred to Poland, " leaving Germany the
western, predominantly German-speaking districts of both terri-
tories." According to the German census of 1910 the Poles
formed about 65% of the population in the two areas ceded to
Poland. In addition Poland was to be given " the central and
eastern zones of the province of West Prussia, including both
banks of the lower Vistula and Danzig," though racially the latter
was distinctly German. The settlement in the case of the dis-
trict of Allenstein, that is to say the southern zone of E. Prussia,
was to be referred to a plebiscite.
These proposals were not accepted without modification, as it
was urged by Mr. Lloyd George that they were terms to which the
Germans would never agree. In the first place a modification was
made with regard to the territory round Marienwerder on the E.
bank of the Vistula. Instead of being transferred to Poland out-
right this territory was to be subjected to a plebiscite. More
important, however, was the change introduced in the matter of
Danzig. It was decided that Danzig and the small adjacent dis-
trict were to form a free city under the protection of the League
of Nations. Poland received the right of freely using all the water-
ways, docks and wharfs and was to have the control and adminis-
tration of the Vistula river. Later a third modification was made
with regard to Upper Silesia, when it was decided that in this
territory too there should be a plebiscite.
The results of the plebiscite in the Marienwerder and Allen-
stein districts were in favour of Germany, a result which was
largely due to the number of Germans who were imported into the
territory. The plebiscite in Upper Silesia was likewise in favour
of Germany as a whole, though in many districts there was an
immense Polish majority.
The southern boundary of Poland is that of Galicia. In the
N.E. the boundary between Poland and Lithuania was still un-
settled in 1921 and the Poles were still in possession of Vilna,
the capital of Lithuania.
With regard to the eastern boundary between Poland and Rus-
sia nothing definite could be settled at the Peace Conference as
there was no recognized Russian Government with which to carry
on negotiations. In order to facilitate the work of the Warsaw
Government in organizing local administration in the part of
Russian Poland which was certain to be ceded by Russia, a pro-
visional eastern boundary was proposed which would include all
the territory which might be regarded as having " an indisputably
Polish ethnic majority." All the territories to the W. of this
line were to belong unconditionally to Poland, whilst the terri-
tories to the E. were to be settled by future negotiations with
Russia. Roughly speaking this provisional boundary corre-
sponded to the old boundary of the Governments of the Vistula.
This provisional boundary has since become known as the
" Curzon Line." When the Poles appealed, in the summer of
1920, for help against the Bolsheviks an attempt was made by the
British Government to secure peace. Lord Curzon, acting on be-
half of the Government, proposed the acceptance of this line as
the basis of the peace terms. The Poles being unwilling to sacri-
fice lands which were inhabited by an incontestably Polish popula-
tion would not agree to this settlement and were later, at the
Treaty of Riga, able to conclude peace with the Bolsheviks on
more advantageous terms.
As finally settled at Riga on Oct. 12 1920 the line of the eastern
boundary is as follows: Starting from the border of Latvia the
line takes a south-easterly direction to Dzisna (Disna), thence S.
passing very slightly to the W. of Dokszyce (Dokshitsi) ; it passes
some 30 km. W. of Minsk and, farther S., 90-95 km. E. of Pinsk;
it proceeds almost due S. and then slightly S.W. to Ostrog; for
124
POLAND
some 40 km. it continues in a south-westerly direction and then
goes almost due S. again till it reaches the river Zbrucz; the
boundary follows the line of this river until it reaches the
Dniester, which separates Poland from Rumania.
Constitution. Poland is a Republic. The legislative power is
given to a Diet and a Senate, which are summoned, adjourned and
dissolved by the President. The Diet is composed of paid members
elected for five years, upon a system of proportional representation.
Suffrage is universal all who enjoy full civic rights and who are over
21 being qualified to vote, but, since voting is personal, soldiers on
active service are excluded. Citizens over 25 are eligible for election
to the Diet with the exception of members of the Civil Service, who
cannot be elected for the district in which they hold office. The
minimum age for voting in senatorial elections is 30, whilst no one
under 40 is eligible for election.
Bills go to the Senate after being passed by the Diet and if no
objection is raised within 30 days the bill becomes law. Amendments
are considered and voted on by the Diet. With regard to finance
a budget is fixed each year for the following year; taxes and customs
duties can be established only by law and a supreme court of control
superintends the management of state finance.
The executive power is exercised by the President and a council of
ministers who are responsible for his official actions. He is elected
for seven years by the National Assembly, that is, the Diet and
Senate acting together. Laws are to be signed by him and by the
President of the Council and the minister concerned. The President
has the supreme power in the army, except in time of war when the
Minister for War is responsible for all military affairs. The President
can declare war and make peace only with the consent of the Diet.
He has the right of pardon.
For purposes of administration Poland is to be divided into pa-
latinates, districts and urban and rural communes, these forming
the units of local government. Economic autonomy is established
by means of chambers of agriculture, commerce, industry, etc.,
which will together form the Supreme Economic Chamber of the
Republic, the competence of which required further legislation. 1
Judges are nominated by the President whilst justices of the peace
are popularly elected. Judges can be removed from office only in
certain legal cases and following a judicial decision. All citizens are
equal in the eyes of the law, protection of life, liberty and property
being assured to all inhabitants. State protection is given to labour
and insurance for unemployment, illness and accident is guaranteed.
Roman Catholicism is the recognized religion of the country but
others are allowed provided they are in accordance with the law.
Land must be cultivated from the point of view of public utility.
The law is to decide to what extent citizens and independent asso-
ciations may cultivate the land and exploit its mineral wealth, and
in what cases the state may repurchase property to improve the
value of its production.
POLAND IN 1921
Population. It was still impossible in 1921 to give any accurate
statistics with regard to the Polish population of Poland, etc., since
the establishment of the new state. The following are the statistics
of 1910.
Russia :
Kingdom of Poland .
Lithuania and Ruthenia
Empire
9,100,000
2,438,000
460,000
1 1,998,000
4,672,000
200,000
235,000
36,000
36,000
Austria Hungary:
Galicia
Spioz Orava, etc
Teschen
Bukovina
Other provinces
5,179,000
Germany:
Posen 1,291,000
W. Prussia 604,000
E. Prussia 286,000
Silesia 1,338,000
Westphalia, etc. 580,000
Different countries of Europe
Europe .
Outside Europe:
N. America
S. America ...
Other parts of the globe
Grand total
4,099,000
100, (MX)
21,376,000
3,IOO,OOO
IOO,OOO
3O,OOO
3,230,000
24,6O6,OOO
1 A law was passed by the Diet in 1919 providing that the state
should buy land from the nobles and distribute it to the Polish
peasantry. Owing to the want of money the law has hitherto been
in suspense. The execution of this law might eventually fall under
the Chamber of Agriculture.
Economic Development. In considering the economic development
of Poland the following territories are included: the kingdom of
Poland, parts of E. and W. Prussia, Posnania, Silesia and Galicia.
Agriculture. The majority of the people of these lands, with the
exception of Silesia, were engaged in agriculture before the war;
the percentage being 56-6 in the kingdom of Poland, 54-1 in Posna-
nia, 49-9 in W. Prussia, whilst in Galicia there were 71 agriculturists
per square kilometre.
Arable land predominated. The most important crops were rye,
oats, barley, potatoes, wheat and sugar-beet. Agriculture was most
highly developed in Prussian Poland where the latest agricultural
implements and scientific manures were employed. The breeding of
domestic animals, especially horses, showed distinct progress before
the war. In the kingdom of Poland pig-breeding was particularly
encouraged. Cattle and pigs were most numerous in Posnania and
W. Prussia while in Galicia the horned stock were well up to the
average for Austria in general.
Of the percentage of area under forest, there was in the kingdom of
Poland in 1909 some 18%, in Galicia (1912) 25%, in Posnania 19%,
W. Prussia 22% and in Upper Silesia 28%. In E. and W. Prussia
more than half the forest area belonged to the state, in Posnania
about a third, in Silesia only about 12 per cent.
The kingdom of Poland had 17 agricultural syndicates in 1909, for
selling agricultural products and buying machinery, manures, etc.,
the most important of these being the Central Society of Agricul-
ture, founded in 1907. These societies were most developed in
Prussian Poland, particularly in Posnania, where in 1913 there were
388 Polish agricultural societies. There were also numerous coop-
erative societies. Galicia also possessed agricultural, cooperative
and mutual insurance societies.
Minerals. The most important production in Galicia was that
of petroleum, which was estimated, in 1914, as being 3% of the
world's output and 9% of that of Europe, including Russia. The
petroleum industry has attracted an abundant flow of international
capital and has thus been able to adopt every device for profitable
exploitation.
The chief coal-fields are those of Silesia where the production in
191 1 was some 36 million tons, while that of Galicia was I J, and that
of Poland 5} million tons. Other notable mineral industries are
those of iron, zinc and lead.
Manufacture. Of industrial workers Upper Silesia possessed the
largest number: 47-7% of its population were engaged in industry
(1907). In the kingdom of Poland this proportion was only 15-4%
(1897), in Galicia 8-8% (1900), Posnania 23-4%, W. Prussia 24-1 %
(1907). In the kingdom of Poland the most important industry was
the textile, which occupied about 150,000 workers. Cotton manu-
factures were the most important, wool being second. Before the
war this industry was handicapped by the high tariff charged by the
Russian Government for the transport of raw material. Second in
importance was the metallurgical industry, the most important
manufactures being machinery, boilers, materials for bridge building,
nails, wire and sheet iron. The manufacture of machinery was of
considerable importance in Silesia but less developed in Galicia.
Of other industries that of the potato by-products is most impor-
tant. More than a quarter of the potatoes produced in Posnania and
the greater part of those of Galicia were used for the making of alco-
hol. Before the war the wood industry was in a poor condition
owing to severe German importation duties on manufactured wood,
but these duties encouraged the development of the saw-mill
industry in Prussian Poland. The coastal fisheries of E. and W.
Prussia are of considerable importance; likewise the pond fisheries
in Poland, but fishing is generally only a subsidiary occupation.
The industry of Poland was very much influenced by the Jewish
population. In the kingdom of Poland before the war nearly 15%
of the population was Jewish and the following trades were more or
less in their control: leather goods and the boot trade; stocking
industry; manufacturing of the so-called " astrakan " caps; malt
refuse breweries and small mead breweries; manufacture of paper
tubes for cigarettes; and potato starch.
Towns. The chief towns in the kingdom of Poland were Warsaw,
Lodz and Sosnowice which had over 100,000 inhabitants. The
principal towns of Galicia are Lemberg (206,000), Cracow (154,000),
Przemysl (54,000) and Kolomea (44,000). In 1910 E. Prussia had
five towns with a pop. of more than 20,000: Konigsberg, Tilsit,
Memel, Allenstein, Insterburg. There were in W._ Prussia three
towns with upwards of 20,000 inhabitants: Danzig, Thorn and
Graudenz. In Posnania there is an unusual number of small towns,
but there are only nine with more than 10,000 inhabitants; the most
important are Posen (154,811 in 1910), Bromberg (70,000), Schnei-
demuhl (27,504), Lissa (17,156). Silesia has seven towns with a pop.
of more than 50,000: Breslau (537,000), Gorlitz (86,000), Konigs-
hutte (72,000), Liegnitz (69,000), Beuthen (67,000), Gleiwitz
(64,000) and Zabrze (59,000).
Commnunications.Ol the natural water-ways in Poland the Vistula
is the most important. It has 21 tributaries, of which the total
length, with that of the river itself, amounts to 7,770 kilometres.
In 1864 a convention was made between Russia and Austria for
the regulation of the course of the river; in Austria 64-47 % of the
work was completed by 1909, in Poland 39-7 per cent. Thus in
Poland the Vistula is almost impossible for regular steamer traffic.
POLAND
125
The Niemen is navigable from about halfway between Grodno and
Kovno to the Prussian frontier. The Pilitsa is navigable for rafts
from a point near Novo Radomsk to its junction with the Vistula,
so for a small portion of the year is the Bug from the point where
it first touches Poland and likewise the Narew fora considerable
distance. The Oder affords the products of Silesia an outlet not only
to Stettin near its mouth, but also to Berlin and Hamburg with
which it is connected by an extensive system of water-ways. The
Dniester is used in Galicia only for rafting timber. The chief canals
are the Dnieper-Bug Canal; the Augustowo Canal, uniting the Vis-
tula to the Niemen through the Narew; and the Bromberg Canal,
uniting the Brahe to the Netze and thus the Vistula to the Oder.
Of these the latter is the only canal navigable for large boats
and steamers. As regards railways, in 1912 the kingdom of Poland
had 2-9 km. per sq. km., the Polish provinces of Prussia had 9-27 km.
and Galicia (1911) 5-24 kilometres. As the railways were constructed
for the most part from a strategical point of view, industry did not
benefit so much from them as it might otherwise have done. The
poor railway system between Russia and Danzig was one of the
causes of the decline of the trade of that port.
Trade. With regard to commerce the kingdom of Poland was
closely attached to Russia by the protectionist system introduced in
1877 and this made trade with other countries difficult. The inter-
change of goods with Russia was about 2\ times greater than that
with other countries. The following were the chief exports: textiles,
three-quarters of which went to Russia, though trade with countries
further E., notably Persia and Mongolia, was increasing; clothing
and boots, which found their chief markets in Russia ; horses, poultry
and eggs. Ttfe chief imports of the kingdom of Poland were : raw
wool and cotton from overseas and from Russian Turkestan; iron
ore and pig-iron from Russia; cattle from the steppes; and flour
from Russia. In 1909 over 1-4 million q.m. of Russian flour was
imported, this forming a formidable competitor to Polish milling
thanks to special transport rates.
Galicia was united to the fiscal territory of Austria in 1784 and her
commercial interests were generally subordinate to the will of the
more powerful states of the west. The principal customer of Galicia
was Germany. In 1909 the exports of Galicia to Germany amounted
to 10-6 million q.m. ; the imports from Germany to 6 million q.m.
The chief exports were salt and petroleum and wood. The chief
imports were: textiles to the value of about 300 million francs;
iron and iron goods from Germany; coal, of which 7j million q.m.
was imported in 1908.
The industry of the Polish provinces of Prussia began to decline
after they were assimilated to the German hinterland. On the other
hand, the protective custom tariff acted beneficially on agriculture
and the trade in provisions. The principal customers of Posnania
were the other states and provinces of Germany. The chief exports
were sugar, alcohol and cereals. There were exported annually from
1885-1908 250,000 q.m. of wheat, 2,000,000 q.m. of rye, 410,000
q.m. of barley and 210,000 q.m. of oats. The rye was sent to Bohe-
mia, Austrian Silesia and the kingdom of Poland, rye meal to Scandi-
navia, Belgium, Holland and Finland. Except for the products of
local agriculture and forestry these provinces were entirely dependent
on outside sources.
Cooperative credit societies developed vigorously and by 1913
they had together over 75,000 members and deposits of over 202
million francs. The Cooperative Societies' Bank, founded in 1910,
formed a financial centre for the societies. With regard to savings
banks, by the end of 1912 there were in Galicia 53 banks with depos-
sits amounting to 336 million francs. In Prussian Poland coopera-
tive societies were established on the principles of Schulze-Delitzsch
and on the Raiffeisen system after 1900 buying and selling societies
were founded. The Polish credit institutions in Prussia, deriving
their capital solely from Polish sources, had at disposal the sum of
498,631,000 francs.
The war left Poland in "a pitiable economic situation." The
country was devastated in the first years of the war and then its
resources were drained by the German occupation. The mobiliza-
tion of Polish industry depends on currency stability, improved
transport conditions and an abundance of available coal. The follow-
ing statistics show the number of industrial workers employed before
the war and on Jan. I 1920:
Before the
war
Jan. i 1920
Per cent as
compared
with pre-war
figures
Mining
Metallurgical
Metal
Mineral
Textile
Paper
Chemical
Tanning
Provisions
Wood
28,300
18,650
52,415
40,900
168,016
7,000
8,550
8,020
33,200
9,540
36,900
5,450
7,i5i
12,200
38,900
4,000
3,220
2,614
14,370
130
29
14
30
23
57
38
32
43
j Total .
374,591
I 24,805
34
It will be seen that the coal industry has, in spite of housing and
provisioning difficulties, increased from the pre-war standard. The
production of coal in Congress Poland and Galicia does not suffice
to cover the requirements of the countries at present constituting
the Polish State. The Reparations Committee assigned to Poland
only 250,000 tons of coal per month from Silesia; and the Polish
Coal Sub-Committee has granted a lump sum of 450,000 tons of
coal. This lack of coal is one of the most serious hindrances to the
reorganization of Polish industry.
The oil industry was not much devastated by the war, but for the
first five months of 1919 the Boryslaw-Truskawiec basin and that of
Bikhov were under Ukrainian administration, and oil had to be
used instead of coal for working the shafts. In 1920 about half the
textile industry had been mobilized and many factories started in
Lodz and also in Czenstochowa, Kalisz and Bielsk. In 1919-20 the
output of sugar scarcely amounted to 65 % of the expected output,
i.e. instead of 500,000 q.m. only 350,000 q.m. were produced. The
iron foundries came to a standstill during the war and no plant
was left without some essential part wanting. In July 1919 the first
blast furnace started work and by the beginning of 1920 a few others
were in working order. Steel production is hampered by lack of coal.
Finance. The revenue of the Russian Treasury of the Kingdom
of Poland in 1912 amounted to about 609 million francs and the
expenditure amounted to about 371 million francs. From 1905 to
1912 inclusive, the excess of receipts over expenditure in the King-
dom amounted to 1,034 million francs. State officials administered
the finance of 116 towns in the Kingdom of Poland. The revenue of
Warsaw according to the budget of 1914 was 39 million francs. The
rural communes possessed a limited autonomy. In Galicia the largest
item contributed to the Austrian State was from the taxes on con-
sumable articles and monopolies. The total receipts were 42-37
francs per inhabitant and the expenditure 26-90 francs per inhabi-
tant. As regards the finance of Galicia as an autonomous province,
in 1911 the expenditure amounted to 66 million francs, derived
mainly from taxes on articles of consumption and provincial surtax
on direct contributions. In the 7.1 autonomous districts the income
amounted to 12 million francs, derived from the surtax on direct
contributions and the tolls of the districts. The budget of Lemberg
was over 1 1 million francs and that of Cracow nearly 9 million francs.
In Prussian Poland the finance of the Empire was based on indirect
contributions, customs yielding the largest return. In Prussia direct
contributions played the most important part, the income tax
producing 9 million francs in Posnania in 1911, and 7 million francs
in W. Prussia. The total of the autonomous taxation of the province,
districts and communes amounted to 24 francs 350. per head in Pos-
nania and to 30 francs ore. in W. Prussia.
In the Kingdom of Poland the chief bank was the State Bank. In
1914 there were 38 private branches accredited to it, five branches of
Petrograd large banks and five branches of the Riga Bank of Com-
merce. In Galicia the most important were the Austro-Hungarian
Bank, with 13 Galician branches and 20 branches of Vienna and
Tchek Banks. Branches of the Reichsbank and of large German
Banks protected the German element in Russian Poland In addi-
tion to these there were joint stock banks for credit for short periods.
In the Kingdom of Poland there were nine ; the deposits amounted
to over 296 million francs inig 14. In Galicia the Mortgage Bank was
the largest joint stock bank, which in 1912 discounted bills of ex-
change for 178 million francs. In Prussian Poland the most impor-
tant was the Bank of the Federation of Cooperative Societies, which
had a capital of 29 million francs in 1916. Credit for long periods
depended, in the Kingdom of Poland, on the Land Credit Society
and the Peasants' Bank; in Galicia, on the Land Credit Society and
the Commission of Rentengiiter, and in Prussian Poland chiefly on
cooperative credit societies.
Finally Poland was in a crippled condition financially. The mark
which was at 40 to the pound sterling in 1919, touched a new
low record on June 28, 1921 namely 6,400 to the pound, and after
that fell for two days to 9,000 to the pound. This rate of exchange
Crevented Poland from trading internationally and consequently
indered her economic reconstruction. On July 30 the Polish budget
for 1921, the first real balancing of expenditure and revenue pro-
duced by any Polish finance minister, was presented to the Diet and
showed a deficit of 80,000,000,000 marks (the exchange on that day
being about 8,000 to the ) for Russian and Austrian Poland without
the Polish part of the Austrian duchy of Teschen. The former
Prussian provinces which only came under the Ministry of Finance
on Sept. I 1921 have a surplus of 6,000,000,000 marks which reduces
its national deficit to 14,000,000,000 marks.
The Ministry of War was responsible for 30 % of the expenditure,
railways for 21 % of the expenditure and food supplies for some 10%.
But it may be said that'the existing low rate of exchange gave no real
indication of the prosperity of the country. Polish indebtedness
was not great (about 6,600,000 at the exchange of July 30 1921),
the productive capacity of the country was increasing, and the
harvest prospects were excellent.
REFERENCES. The one indispensable introduction to things
Polish for English readers is the little volume entitled Poland in the
Home University Library by Prof. Alison Phillips. In that admirable
summary there are but two lacunae. The Exodus to Paris after
1830 and the Jewish question are not adequately treated, but it
126
POLICE POOR LAW
contains a good bibliography for beginners, to which there are only
a few additions to be made : Geoff rey Drage, " Pre-war Statistics of
Poland and Lithuania," published in the Journal of the Royal
Statistical Society (March 1918); Bruce Boswell, Poland and the
Poles (1920); Ralph Butler, The New Eastern Europe (1919)-
Erasmus Pilz, Poland (1916); Askenazy, Danzig and Poland; Bass'
The Peace Tangle (1921); Mandell House Seymour, What Really
- " "&*' ^^*/ , AT*. n,iiv4v,n ii\juc ocymuur, vv rial i\.ediiy
happened at Paris (1921) ; Pernot, L'epreuve de la Pologne; Report by
Sir Stuart Samuel on his Mission to Poland (Cmd 674) 1920
(G. DR.)
POLICE (United States). An interesting recent development
as regards police in the United States has been the establishment
in certain states of a state police, sometimes called constabulary.
This body acts under state rather than local authority, is usually
organized on a military basis, is widely distributed for patrol duty,
but can be quickly mobilized for emergencies. Such forces are
of special service for protecting life and property in country dis-
tricts, made accessible to robbers and assassins by the introduc-
tion of the automobile. Since the adoption of national prohibi-
tion much of their time has been spent in suppressing illegal
liquor traffic.
The largest state police force is that of Pennsylvania, consist-
ing in 1920 of 415 officers and men. It was organized in 1905
somewhat after the model of the Canadian Northwest police. It
is composed of five troops with posts in different parts of the state.
Detachments are sent out to the 40 stations and from the stations
small patrols operate in every direction. The posts and stations
are in constant communication, and help can be rushed imme-
diately to any point. They are empowered to make arrests for any
violation of the law; at the same time they act as fish and game
wardens and as fire patrols. When practicable they cooperate
with the local authorities in preserving order. In some states
their powers are somewhat restricted; in New York they cannot
enter a city to suppress a riot unless so ordered by the governor
or on request of the mayor with the approval of the governor.
But in any state they may pursue a criminal and arrest him
anywhere. In Pennsylvania applicants for appointment who
have served in the army, navy or militia are given preference.
The recruit serves a probation period of four months and makes
a study of the state laws. The period of enlistment is two years.
Another type of state police is seen in South Dakota, where
the sheriffs and deputy-sheriffs form a state constabulary " for
the purpose of detecting crime, apprehending criminals, sup-
pressing riots, preventing affrays, and preserving and enforcing
law and order throughout the state." In Idaho all state, county
and municipal officers form a state constabulary under the di-
rect control of the commissioner of the department of law en-
forcement. A third type is seen in the Massachusetts District
Police, consisting of a detective and an inspection department.
Appointments are made by the governor and his council. At
the governor's command they suppress disorder anywhere in the
state. They do not maintain a patrol. In 1920 a state police, or
constabulary, was maintained in 12 states: Massachusetts,
Texas, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Nevada, New York, South
Dakota, Michigan, Idaho, New Mexico, Tennessee, and West
Virginia. At that time several other states were considering the
establishment of such forces.
A special committee on state and metropolitan police, appointed
by the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, in a
report submitted in 1920 urged active cooperation " in educating
the people, and especially the Legislatures of 'their respective states,
with respect to the nature, methods, and valueof a state police force."
See this committee's report, " Metropolitan and State Police," in
the Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Crimi-
nology, vol. XL, No. 3 (Nov. 1920). An excellent account of the
largest and best organized of the state police forces is given by
Kathenne Mayo in Justice to All: The Story of the Pennsylvania State
Police (1917), with an introduction by Theodore Roosevelt.
POLLIO, ALBERTO (1852-1914), Italian general, was born at
Caserta on April 21 1852. Before he was nine years old he
entered the Naples military college, and he received his com-
mission as a sub-lieutenant of artillery in April 1870. He
served with distinction in various posts, and in June 1908 he
was appointed chief of the Italian general staff, a position
which he retained till his sudden death on July i 1914. Pollio
acquired, a wide reputation as a writer on military subjects,
his chief works being on Waterloo and Custozza. Both these
books were translated into various languages.
POOR LAW, in the United Kingdom (see 22.^4). During the
decade following the publication of the Royal Commission's
Reports in 1909 the English Poor Law system underwent some
minor administrative reforms. The commissioners had laid
bare many crying scandals, and their reasoned indictment of
the whole system aroused immediate and wide-spread interest.
An agitation was set on foot, and actively prosecuted for several
years by the partisans of the Minority Report, who demanded
the complete abolition of the Poor Law. Many M.P.'s, irre-
spective of party, were pledged to this, and the public generally
was prepared for drastic legislation. It was expected that the
Government would presently take the matter up, when the
outbreak of the World War in 1914 shelved the question. Mean-
while the Reports and the agitation begun in 1910 could not be
entirely ignored by the Poor Law authorities themselves. Mr.
John Burns, the President of the Local Government Board,
though a staunch defender of the Poor Law, was bound to
admit that some amendments were necessary. But these, he
claimed, could be carried out by his own department. What
was wanted was not, as he put it, " reform by revolution, but
revolution by reform in administration." The administrative
revolution, however, did not produce any startling changes.
A new Relief Regulation Order was issued, which did a little to
improve the administration of outdoor relief, but left the
fundamental objections untouched. Another Order (Poor Law
Institutions Order 1913) was designed to consolidate the regula-
tions governing indoor relief. This, too, effected slight im-
provements in classification, the quality of the nursing service,
the paupers' dietaries and so on. It also insisted on the removal
of children over three years of age from the general mixed work-
house into separate institutions or quarters. But many of the
boards of guardians were apathetic, or openly defiant of the
central authority, and a steady pressure was required to reduce
the numbers of these children, whose condition had been shown
by the Royal Commission in 1909 to be peculiarly scandalous.
During the war this pressure was relaxed, and in 1921 there
was still a residue of children between 3 and 16 years of age (be-
sides the infants under 3) living in the general workhouse wards.
In 1911 a Boarding-out Order emphasized the need of closer
supervision and more adequate allowances for the pauper chil-
dren lodged in private houses with " foster-parents." There was
also an attempt made to deal with the problem of vagrancy in
London, by putting all the casual wards of the Metropolis under
the control of the Metropolitan Asylums Board, cooperating
with the police and various philanthropic agencies. And rather
late in the rest of the country most of the boards of guardians
combined in county vagrancy committees, for the better co-
ordination of their treatment of the tramps. " Way-tickets "
and bread-stations were established, a number of casual wards
were closed, and expenses were pooled. But these reforms
scarcely amounted to a revolution, either in their conception
or in their effects.
Of the later developments only two are of any importance.
The Representation of the People Act 1917 removed the dis-
franchisement which had been one of the chief stigmata of
pauperism. Hitherto the receipt of parish relief (other than
medical relief only) " within the twelve months next preceding
the last day of July in each year " had disqua'ified a man or
woman from being registered as a voter. Now anyone may vote,
provided he is not actually an inmate of a Poor Law institution
at the moment of the election. In 1919 the Local Government
Board ceased to exist, and was succeeded as the central Poor
Law authority by the newly created Ministry of Health. This
change made no outward difference, but it was generally taken
to foreshadow a thorough reform of the Poor Law system,
and the Ministry of Health Act 1919, sect. 3 (3), actually con-
tains the significant words: " in the event of provision being
made by Act of Parliament ... for the revision of the law
relating to the relief of the poor and the distribution amongst
POOR LAW
127
other authorities of the powers exercisable by boards of guard-
ians." The removal of the pauper disfranchisement was in har-
mony with the growing democratic spirit of the time, and
reveals clearly the enormous change in thought since the setting-
up of the " New Poor Law " in 1834. The same softening tend-
ency appears also in the trivial, but significant, alteration of
the name of the workhouse: the workhouse is now officially
known as " the institution," though the word " workhouse "
must be retained for certain legal purposes.
Meantime, a different sort of reform was proceeding from out-
side the Poor Law, by the increasing inroads of the local author-
ities into the field of the guardians. On the removal of the
"pauper disqualification" in 1911 many thousands of the
destitute aged became entitled to old-age pensions and so passed
out of the Poor Law. Similarly the National Health Insurance
Act took a vast number of patients, or potential patients, from
the Poor Law medical service. And later Acts, empowering the
local health authorities to set up maternity and infant clinics,
to provide midwifery, to supply milk to expectant and nursing
mothers, to treat venereal disease or tuberculosis, have still
further diminished the scope of the Poor Law. All this, however,
desirable as it might be from the point of view of social progress,
could hardly be regarded as " Poor Law reform " save in an
ironical sense. In point of fact, it served to reinforce more and
more strongly one of the principal charges made by the Royal
Commission in 1909. For it meant in practically every depart-
ment an increase of administrative disorder overlapping,
multiplication of macninery and waste. In the case of every
class of the pauper host, infants, children of school age, the sick,
the feeble-minded, the aged, the able-bodied, there is now at
least one, and generally more than one, other authority set
up as a rival to the board of guardians. There is little, if any,
coordination between the work of the medley of public bodies
engaged in giving various forms of assistance out of the rates
and taxes. They are in many cases dealing on different lines,
and for different reasons, with different members of the same
family. So far as the Poor Law Guardians are concerned, it is
often a mere matter of chance whether it is they or the local
health or lunacy or education authority who become responsible
for a sick or feeble-minded person or a school-child. And as
regards the aged, it was found that at the beginning of 1920,
out of a total of 46,846 paupers over 70 in England and Wales,
no less than 9,345 were old-age pensioners, two-thirds of them
receiving outdoor relief and the other third in institutions.
When, in the latter period of the World War, public attention
was directed to the problems of social reform that would have
to be solved after the peace, this question of " public assistance "
inevitably bulked large. In July 1917 the Ministry of Recon-
struction appointed a " Local Government Committee " to
consider and report upon " the steps to be taken to secure
the better coordination of public assistance in England and
Wales and upon such other matters affecting the system of
Local Government as may from time to time be referred to it."
Its report popularly known as the Maclean Report, from the
name of the chairman, Sir Donald Maclean, M.P. was pre-
sented at the end of 1917. Subject to reservations by certain
members of the committee, it was unanimous on the main
point. The existence side by side, it declared, of the boards of
guardians on the one hand, and the county, municipal and other
health and education authorities on the other, produced both
overlapping functions and areas and conflicting principles of
administration.
" The resulting confusion has been aggravated by the growing
popular prejudice against the Poor Law a prejudice which does less
than justice to the devoted work of the Guardians, and the contin-
uous improvement in poor-law administration, especially in respect
of the children and the sick. For the last decade Parliament has been
unwilling to entrust the Boards of Guardians with new functions,
and the provision for new services has had to be made by other
Local Authorities in some cases new Local Authorities often
to the increase of the confusion and overlapping. Further, the
classification by institutions and the specialized treatment of re-
cipients of assistance almost necessarily involve an enlargement of
existing areas of administration.'
The eommittee, therefore, recommended the abolition of the
boards of guardians and the Poor Law unions. The scheme
advocated may be summarized as follows:
1. All the functions of the boards of guardians should be trans-
ferred to the councils of counties, county boroughs and boroughs
or urban districts with populations exceeding 50,000.
2. Provision for all the sick and infirm (including the aged re-
quiring institutional care, and maternity and infancy) should be
made by these authorities under the Public Health Acts suitably
extended.
3. The Ministry of Health should have power to put any borough
with a population over 10,000 or any urban district with over 20,000,
in the position of an autonomous health authority, with such reser-
vations as might be desirable.
4. The children should be dealt with by the local education
authorities, the mentally deficient by the local lunacy authorities.
5. Every county or county borough (or borough or urban district
council with a population over 50,000) should set up: (i.) a preven-
tion of unemployment and training committee (on the lines of the
education committee, and including representatives of employers and
trade unions) ; (ii.) a home assistance committee (on the lines of the
education committee) to enquire into the economic circumstances
of all applicants for public assistance, to supervise them, to adminis-
ter all relief given in the home, to recover expenses of maintenance,
treatment, etc., and to keep a private register of all such applicants
and their families and of the assistance given.
6. County councils should appoint committees for districts or
combinations of districts, to which various functions of the home
assistance committee and the prevention of unemployment com-
mittee would be delegated. Such district committees would consist
of: (a) members of the county council; (6) borough or district
councillors; (c) persons experienced in the work to be done.
7. London should have a special scheme, in which the functions
would be divided between the London County Council and the
metropolitan borough councils. The borough councils would appoint
home assistance committees, and would also be responsible for vac-
cination and registration of births and deaths. The London County
Council would, through its appropriate committees, exercise the rest
of the functions transferred. It would also appoint a central assist-
ance committee, which would lay down a policy and rules of local
administration for the home assistance committees in the metro-
politan boroughs.
8. Poor Law officials should be transferred to the local authorities
(provided both they and the local authorities agreed), and com-
pensated for any pecuniary loss incurred by the change.
9. The cost of all functions transferred should fall on the new
authority (the county, county borough, borough or urban district,
and in London mainly on the county, but partly on the metropolitan
borough).
Scotland, of course, was outside the committee's reference.
But if their proposals were adopted, a Scottish scheme on
similar lines would undoubtedly follow.
These recommendations were an endorsement of the principles
advocated by the Royal Commission in 1909. The Maclean
Report was, indeed, a compromise between the majority and
minority of the Royal Commission, though leaning more
heavily to the side of the minority, who, unlike the majority,
had insisted above all on the abolition of the ad-hoc destitution
authority. And the importance of the new recommendations
was enhanced by the fact that they marked the actual recon-
ciliation of the two parties, since Lord George Hamilton and
Sir Samuel Provis, who had signed the Majority Report in 1909,
and Mrs. Sidney Webb, who had signed the Minority Report,
were unanimous on the Maclean Committee. The Govern-
ment eventually pledged itself to legislate on the lines of the
Maclean recommendations at the first opportunity. But no
opportunity had been found by the session of 1921.
The Poor Law system, therefore, then remained still in theory as
it was in 1834, when the famous " principles " were established
first, that relief should not be offered to able-bodied persons and their
dependents except in a well-regulated workhouse; and, secondly,
that the lot of the able-bodied should be made " less eligible " than
that of the independent labourer of the lowest class. These prin-
ciples had already worn very thin by the beginning of the 2Oth
century, and the Royal Commission in its investigations from 1905
to 1909 discovered a wide-spread laxity. Nevertheless, whether the
administration was, or is, lax or strict, its character is inevitably
fixed by the fact that the Poor Law deals with the destitute. It is
true that the guardians are entitled to interpret " destitution "
fairly broadly to treat it, in fact, as meaning "necessitous"; but
in practice this amounts to little. Generally speaking, relief is only
given to those who are in a grave state of want. This fact, with its
natural consequences, especially in the domain of public health, has
128
POPPER PORTO RICO
been increasingly emphasized in recent years. And there is no doubt
that it has been one of the chief reasons why public opinion has
favoured the sapping of the Poor Law by the local authorities, who
are under no such restriction and are better able to apply preventive
rather than palliative treatment. But the large increase of public
assistance by these other bodies, while adding to the administrative
confusion, still leaves a huge volume of pauperism and a huge ex-
penditure by the Poor Law guardians.
The following figures show the total number of persons in England
and Wales in receipt of Poor Law relief of all kinds on Jan. I of each
year:
1900
1905
1910
1914
1915
1916
803,247
924,630
935-738
761,578
762,060
684,549
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
637,327
586,785
554,617
576,418
663,667
None of these figures of course represents the complete total of pau-
perism in any one year, for they only relate to one day, and allowance
must be made for many other individuals amounting to several
hundreds of thousands who will receive relief at one time or
another during the twelve months. The figures do, however, afford
an accurate basis for tracing the movements of pauperism. It will be
seen that between 1910 and 1914 there is a large decline. This is
mainly due to the causes noted above the removal of a great num-
ber of the aged and of the sick from the Poor Law. On tne declara-
tion of war in Aug. 1914 there was a sharp rise in pauperism, owing
to the rapid and widespread dislocation of industry. Within three
weeks of the outbreak of hostilities the total of persons in receipt of
relief was over 40,000 higher than that for the corresponding date
in 1913, and a month later it had risen by another 115,000. Very
soon, however, there began an equally rapid recovery, and with the
absorption of men into the army or munition work and the influx of
women into industry, pauperism declined month by month. Many
of the workhouses and infirmaries were taken over by the War
Office for military use, their inmates being moved to other buildings
or boarded out in neighbouring unions. The volume of pauperism
continued to fall progressively till the end of the war, under the in-
fluence of such causes as enlistment, the unsatisfied demand for
labour of all sorts, both of men and women, the generally high rates
of wages, and the steady income drawn from separation allowances
and pensions by poor people whose earnings had previously been
precarious or inadequate. Nevertheless, there was a permanent
residue of sick and infirm, feeble-minded, aged and children. After
the Armistice in Nov. 1918 the figures began to mount again.
Demobilization brought jn its train a renewal of unemployment,
together with industrial disputes and reduced earnings. Throughout
1919 and 1920 the rise continued until, at the beginning of 1921,
when the whole country was involved in a serious trade depression,
the total was approaching the pre-war level.
The movement of Poor Law expenditure during the first twenty
years of the 2Oth century shows little fluctuation; it increased con-
tinuously, as the following figures indicate:
Total Expenditure on all Poor Law Services in England and Wales.
1900
1905
1910
1915
1916
11,567,649
13.851,981
14,849,584
15,804,073
16,085,586
1917
1918
1919
1920
16,187,748
17,039,623
18,423,883
23,501,241
The reason for the paradoxical increase of expenditure on a decreas-
ing number of persons during the war is, of course, to be found in the
rising cost of maintenance, including food, fuel, medicine, salaries
and so on. The average cost of maintaining a pauper in the general
workhouse before the war was 133. 8id. per week in London and los.
lOjd. elsewhere (1910). In 1918 it was i8s. s$d. in London and 2os.
3id. elsewhere, whilst the weekly cost of maintenance in the infir-
mary was 373. 6Jd. in London and 303. 4$d. elsewhere. In 1919-20
the cost had mounted to 243. sfd. in London and 253. 6d. elsewhere
for maintenance in the workhouse, and to 463. 7id. in London and
403. 3d. elsewhere for maintenance in the infirmary. In Scotland the
figures, both of persons relieved and of expenditure, pursue much the
same course, though they are naturally much smaller since the
population of Scotland is less than one-seventh of that of England
and Wales. In May 1920 the total number of legal poor of all
classes in Scotland was 87,868. The majority were on outdoor relief.
16,175 were insane, maintained in asylums, lunatic wards or private
dwellings. Of the sane, between 8,000 and 9,000 (including nearly
800 children) were in the poorhouses. The Scottish Poor Law ex-
penditure for 1918-9 amounted to 1,667,536 and for 1919-20 to
2,093,523. The weekly cost of maintenance in the poorhouse in
1920 averaged about 233 per head. (C. M. L.)
POPPER, DAVID (1846-1913), Bohemian violoncellist (see
22.91), died in 1913.
PORTER, BENJAMIN CURTIS (1843-1908), American painter
(see 22.113), died in New York City April 2 1908.
PORTER, HORACE (1837-1921), American diplomatist and
soldier (see 22.116), died in New York City May 29 1921.
PORTO RICO (see 22.124). Important developments in the
affairs of Porto Rico political, economic, social took place in
the decade 1910-20. Politically, the organic law was first
amended and later materially changed. Economically, the
agriculture and commerce of the island underwent notable
increase. Socially, there was progress in the betterment of
living conditions, in the spread of elementary education and in
the reduction of poverty and disease. The Act of Congress
approved April 12 1900 (the Foraker Act), under which the
island had been administered for the first decade of its existence
under the American flag, was amended by the Act of Congress
approved July 15 1909 (the Olmsted Act). In so far as supervised
by the United States, Porto Rican affairs were placed under the
jurisdiction of an executive department to be designated by the
president, the War Department being subsequently designated.
To prevent recurrent deadlocks over the insular budget, provision
was made that if the legislature failed to pass the appropriation
bill for an ensuing fiscal year, the sums authorized for the current
year should be deemed to have been appropriated and might be
lawfully expended. Far more thorough-going were the changes
effected by the passage of the Act of Congress approved March 2
1917 (the Jones Act). By its provisions citizens of Porto Rico are
deemed and held to be citizens of the United States.
Six executive departments are constituted: justice, finance,
interior, education, agriculture and labor, and health. The
governor, the attorney-general and the commissioner of educa-
tion are appointed by the President of the United States, subject
to the approval of the U.S. Senate; the heads of the remaining
departments by the governor of Porto Rico subject to the approval
of the insular Senate. The law-making power is vested in a
legislature consisting of a senate of 19 members and a house of
representatives of 39 members, all elected by manhood suffrage
for a term of four years. Acts of the legislature may be vetoed
by the governor; but his veto may be overridden by a two-thirds
vote. The President of the United States may nevertheless
interpose a final veto. Matters relating to franchises and conces-
sions are vested in a public service commission consisting of the
heads of the executive departments, the auditor, and two elected
commissioners. A resident commissioner to the United States,
paid by the Federal Government, is elected by popular vote for
a term of four years; he represents the island in the House of
Representatives, with voice but without vote, and is recognized
by all departments in Washington.
The economic experience of the years 1910-20 was the increased
and more profitable production of sugar, tobacco, coffee and fruits,
consequent in the first instance upon duty-free access to the American
market, and aided by the completion of insular projects of irrigation.
The increase of exports was accompanied by larger imports, by a
reversal of the island's adverse trade balance, and by an appreciable
though unequal diffusion of gain among the island's population, the
growers of sugar and tobacco being specially benefited. The com-
merce of the island trebled in the decade, the combined value of
imports and exports rising from $78,705,364 in 1911, 101247,199,983
in 1920. This amazing growth was uneven. The activity of 1911-2
was followed by reaction in 1913, accented by the dislocations con-
sequent upon the outbreak of the World War. War demand for the
island's staples made itself sharply felt in 1916-7 with some arrest in
1918-9. In 1920 came sensational developments, exports rising from
$79,496,040 in the preceding year to $150,811,449, and imports
from $62,400,360 to $96,388,534. The factors directly responsible
were the world's runaway markets in sugar and to a less absolute
degree in tobacco and coffee. Sugar exports in tonnage were actually
less in 1920 than in 1916 and 1917; the price per ton rising from
$75.81 in 1911, to $136.77 in 1919, and to $235.88 in 1920.
The visible trade balance in favour of the island rose from a pre-
vious maximum of $27,780,417 (1916) to $54,422,915 in 1920. The
great bulk of this trade, 90 % in 1920, was with the United States.
There was marked improvement during the decade in the island's
material equipment. New schoolhouses were erected, and additional
roads and bridges constructed. Even the remoter towns of the in-
terior had in 1920 waterworks and electric-lighting plants, made
possible through loans from the insular treasury. The increase in
private wealth was reflected in the erection of many attractive
residences, while the development of commerce and agriculture
stimulated the extension of bank and transportation facilities. The
basis of the insular revenue system remained the measure put into
PORTUGAL
129
operation with the establishment of civil government under the
American flag (the Hollander law), as modified and adapted to meet
changing conditions. Ordinary expenditures for the fiscal year 1920
were $7,258,970.57, as compared with $3,685,613 in 1911. The
total assessed valuation of all property for purposes of taxation in
1920 was $264,235,686, as compared with $133,817,931 in 1911.
The pop. of the island in 1920, despite appreciable emigration to
the United States and Santo Domingo, was 1,299,809 (an increase of
181,797 in the decade), with a density distribution of 378-4 per
square mile. In consequence of this continued growth, education
and health remain grave problems. The total enrolment in all schools
supported by public funds was 184,991. Of the 228,829 children of
compulsory school age (8-14 years) only 61 % attended school. The
death-rate for 1920 was 23-33 P er 1,000 inhabitants as compared with
24-97 in 1911. But in 1920, tuberculosis, malaria and uncinariasis
(hookworm), together with infant mortality, still accounted for 60 %
of the total death-rate. The enquiries of a commission sent by the
Rockefeller Foundation upon the request of the insular authorities
confirmed the opinion that about 90 % of the people of the island
were infected with uncinariasis. " Our population is one of the
densest on earth," the insular commissioner of health, himself a
distinguished Porto Rican, wrote in 1920. " More than 70% are in
the country, badly housed and fed, ill in health and ignorant of
the first principles of hygiene. Until the people have learned to
preserve and protect their health and have more ample means to
provide better houses and food so as to reduce their miseries, no
positive result, no recompense for all our efforts, can be obtained."
The governors were George R. Colton, 1909-13; Arthur Yager,
1913-21; E. M. Reily, 1921- . (J. H. Ho.)
PORTUGAL (see 22.134). The effects of the Portuguese
Revolution of Oct. 1910 fell most heavily on the poor of the coun-
try districts, who suffered from the loss of charities sustained by
the expelled religious bodies and of the care of the sisters of
charity, and from the exile of many of the richest families and the
transference of capital abroad. In consequence, emigration in
the years preceding the World War increased to an unprece-
dented extent, rising from 6 -83 per 1,000 in 1910 to 14-85 per 1,000
in 1912. In one district, that of Braganza (Braganga), it rose to
6 % of the population. In the towns unrest was less passive and
discontent with the working of the Republic was prevalent;
lavish promises had aroused impossible hopes among the people,
and by many the Republic was regarded as but a.first step towards
a more Radical workmen's republic. Socialism and syndicalism
developed rapidly. The right to strike at 24 hours' notice, con-
ceded on Dec. 7 1910, was followed by strikes of all kinds, including
several serious railway strikes. The disorders culminated in the
demonstration against Parliament on Aug. 2 1911 and the general
strike at Lisbon on Jan. 31 1912, when the city was placed under
martial law and over 1,000 workmen suspected Sf syndicalism
were arrested. The new governing class, largely composed of
professional men, chiefly lawyers and journalists, had not the
necessary authority to prevent excess.
The Provisional Government of the Republic consisted of
Dr. Theophilo Braga, President, Dr. Antonio Jose de Almeida
(Home Affairs), Dr. Afonso Costa (Justice), Col. Correa Bar-
reto (War), Dr. Amaro Azevedo Gomes (Marine), Dr. Bernar-
dino Machado (Foreign Affairs), Dr. Basilio Telles and, later,
Dr. Jose Relvas (Finance), Dr. Antonio Luiz Gomes and, later,
Dr. Brito Camacho (Public Works). It lasted till Aug. 24 1911.
The Constitution. On March 18 1911 the new electoral law
came into force. It gave the vote to all Portuguese over 21 years
of age who could read or write, including priests and officers of
the army or navy, but excluding naturalized Portuguese, officers
on the active list and persons proscribed politically. Lisbon and
Oporto (voting on the proportional system) were to return ten
deputies each, the other districts four and the colonies one each.
By a modification of Jan. n 1915 Lisbon received 20 deputies,
Oporto 10, the remaining constituencies between i and 4 each.
By a decree of March n 1918 universal suffrage for all citizens
over 21 was established, but illiterates (75% of the. pop.) were
again disfranchized in 1919. By the law of 1918 the number of
deputies was reduced to 155, returned by 5 1 constituencies, of
which Lisbon returned 14, Oporto 6. The representation in the
Senate, consisting of 77 members, was made regional and profes-
sional. By a decree of April 26 191 8 soldiers and sailors on active
service were allowed to, vote. In the elections held on May 28
1911 many of the candidates were nominated by the authorities
xxxn. 5
without opposition and, even where there was an election (in 28
out of 50 districts), the Government candidates were returned
without difficulty, no Royalists offering themselves.
The Constitutional Assembly was opened on June 19 1911 and
a decree was passed declaring the monarchy abolished and the
House of Braganza forever banished from Portugal. On Aug. 20
the new constitution was voted. It provided for two Chambers,
that of the Deputies, consisting of 163 members to be elected
every three years, and the Senate, consisting of 71 members.
The President of the Republic was to be elected by both
chambers for four years and could not be reelected. His salary
was fixed at 3,600, with 1,200 for expenses. On Feb. 19 1920 he
was given the right to dissolve parliament, after consulting a
special council appointed for this purpose.
The first President under the new constitution was Dr. Manuel
de Arriaga (born in 1840, at Horta, in the Azores), who, on Aug.
24 defeated the Radical candidate, Dr. Bernardino Machado, by
121 votes to 86, the Conservative candidate, Senhor Braamcamp
Freire, having withdrawn. The members of the first Constitu-
tional Ministry were: Dr. Joao Chagas, premier and minister of
Home Affairs; Dr. Augusto de Vasconcellos (Foreign Affairs);
Dr. Duarte Leite (Finance); Gen. Pimenta de Castro (War);
Senhor Joao de Meneses (Marine); Dr. Celestino de Almeida
(Colonies) ; Dr. Diogo Tavares de Mello (Justice) ; Dr. Sidonio
Paes (Public Works). The Government was opposed by the
Radicals under Dr. Afonso Costa and faintly supported by the
other groups the Evolutionist followers of Dr. Almeida, the
Unionist followers of Dr. Brito Camacho and the Independents.
One of the first measures was to vote the payment to each deputy
of 1 73. for each sitting of the assembly. . .
Church and State. -The anti-clerical policy of the Provisional
Government had entailed serious difficulties. The bishops signed
a pastoral letter of protest and on March 8 1911 the bishop of
Oporto was removed from his see, with a pension of 240. The
religious orders had been expelled by the decree of Oct. 8 1910,
their property confiscated and the convents closed. By that of
Oct. 22 the teaching of religion in the primary schools was forbid-
den. Marriage of priests became legal. The decree of separation
between Church and State was drawn up, under the date of
April 20 1911, by Dr. Afonso Costa, then Minister of Justice. It
granted full liberty of conscience to all Portuguese citizens. The
Roman Catholic religion ceased to be that of the State, which
recognized all creeds as of equal authority, making no payment
for their support. Among other proscriptions, public worship
was to be open to the public and was held to include religious
instruction, public or private. The congregation might only
contribute to the expenses of their worship through the miseri'
cordias or other Portuguese charitable institutions. The churches
were declared inalienable without the consent of the Minister of
Justice and might be expropriated at any time. Local authorities
were given full power to restrict or forbid processions, funerals
or other external acts of worship. An inventory was to be taken
(June-Sept. 1911) of all Church property, including churches
and cathedrals, which became the property of the State. The
clergy were granted a salary under certain conditions and all
ecclesiastical property was made liable to taxation. The priests
were forbidden to wear the cassock except at services. No for-
eigner or naturalized Portuguese might take part in any service
except in the case of international agreement or ancient custom.
Papal edicts might not be promulgated in Portugal without the
consent of the Government.
This decree, in a country where over 90% of the inhabitants
were Roman Catholic, was considered to be the subjection of the
Church to the State rather than its separation, and contributed
towards alienating the north of Portugal from the Republic. The
patriarch of Lisbon and the bishop of Guarda published a pas-
toral letter forbidding the clergy to accept salaries from the State.
For consistent opposition to the law of separation the bishop of
Guarda and the patriarch of Lisbon were banished from their
dioceses for two years.
The value of the Church property confiscated was 6,000,000.
Owing to official protests on behalf of some of the foreign congre-
130
PORTUGAL
gations a promise was made to revise the law of separation, a
promise only partially redeemed in 1918. Claims for compensa-
tion were referred to the Hague Tribunal by an agreement signed
July 31 1913 by Great Britain, France and Spain, the only coun-
tries which accepted arbitration. The claims, including those of
Italy, Belgium and Germany, amounted to 2,000,00x3. By the
award given Sept. 5 1920 Portugal was condemned to pay 21,800
to Great Britain and 80,000 to France.
After the promulgation of the law of separation, and the Pope's
encyclical of May 23 1911, Jamdudum in Lusitanid, relations be-
tween Portugal and the Vatican were broken off, and the Portu-
guese Legation at the Vatican was suppressed July 10 1913. The
law was extended in Nov. 1913 to the Portuguese colonies, where
the discouragement of Portuguese missions later gave rise to
serious fears of the denationalization of the colonies through the
activity of foreign missionaries. When Paes subsequently be-
came president, one of his first acts was to redress some of the
grievances suffered under the law of separation, and, by a decree
of Dec. 22 1917, banishment imposed on the priests was annulled
and the Cardinal Patriarch returned to Lisbon. In May 1918
conversations between the Papal Nuncio and the Portuguese
Minister at Madrid resulted in a visit of the former to Portugal
and he was received by President Paes, who informed him of the
intention of the Government to send a Portuguese representative
to the Vatican. Monsignor Locatelli was appointed Papal Nuncio
in Portugal in April 1919. Relations with the Vatican were main-
tained after President Paes' death, and in 1919, and again in 1920,
the Pope wrote Cardinal Mendes Bello and the Portuguese prel-
ates congratulating them on the improved religious conditions.
The Royalist Invasions. The main event of Senhor Chagas'
premiership was the first Royalist invasion, commanded by
Capt. Henrique Mitchell Paiva Couceiro. Small Royalist risings
had been suppressed during the summer of 1911, but Capt.
Couceiro still threatened the northern frontier. Representations
were made by the Republic to the Spanish Government, which
was itself suffering from the action of Portuguese Republicans in
Spain. The Spanish authorities seized 4 Krupp guns and i ,000
rifles at Orense, and the German steamer " Gemma," with rifles
and ammunition, was detained at Corcubi6n. The steamers,
" Foam Queen " and " Arizona," with war material, ostensibly
bound for Bahia Blanca, were detained by the customs authori-
ties of London and Barrow in August. Couceiro crossed the fron-
tier on Oct. 3 at the head of about 1,000 men, not a quarter of
whom were armed with rifles. He advanced in the direction of
Braganza and took the small town of Vinhaes, but evacuated it on
Oct. 6 and, after maintaining himself for a fortnight in the hills,
recrossed the frontier. A Royalist rising in Oporto, timed to
coincide with this invasion, was brought prematurely to a head
by Carbonario agents on Sept. 29, and this prevented the north
from rising, except in the case of a few isolated villages.
King Manoel and the Pretender Dom Miguel met at Dover on
Feb. 6 1912 to concert on common action, and the Royalist cause
was strengthened by the great wealth of the Miguelists. On July
7 Couceiro again crossed the frontier, with a slightly larger force,
but most of his arms and ammunition had been seized in Belgium
and Galicia. The Royalist attacks on Valenca and Chaves
failed, and within a week they returned to Spain. Royalist ris-
ings in the northern provinces were speedily suppressed, and
great excitement prevailed in the south, where the Carbonarios
discovered a Royalist plot at Torres Vedras. D. Joao de Almeida
and other prisoners-of-war were tried by court-martial and con-
fined in the Lisbon Penitenciaria.
The Political Trials. The arrests after the invasions of 1911
and 1912 were very numerous. Special tribunals were set up in
Lisbon and Oporto in Jan. 1911 to try cases of political conspiracy,
and in July 1912 Parliament voted still more stringent laws of de-
fence. All persons suspected of reactionary opinions, religious or
political, were in danger. Thousands of innocent persons were
summarily arrested without the formulation of any definite
charge and were confined for months in subterranean dungeons.
The chief instrument of this widespread system of espionage
and terrorism was the organization of the Carbonarios. This
secret society, the Jov. Port. (Young Portugal), founded or re-
vived by Senhor Arthur Duarte da Luz e Almeida, forced through
the Revolution of 1910 before the politicians were prepared for
it. It assumed the functions of an unofficial police force and at
times proved itself strong enough to attack the Republican
Government and the army. Its members, who carried arms, were
Republicans of the most extreme type; many had also joined its
ranks in order to gratify some personal dislike or to secure the re-
wards given to successful informers. It was thus a body composed
of dangerous fanatics. Completely blind to the political embar-
rassments which its actions might bring upon the Republic, it
arrogated to itself the right of summary arrest. Senhor Chagas
estimated that on Oct. 23 1911 there were 2,000 political prisoners
awaiting trial, of whom 700 were innocent.
So notorious was the barbarity with which suspects were
treated that a committee of prominent British residents was
formed to investigate and, if possible, alleviate their condition.
Several Portuguese Republican newspapers and prominent
Conservative Republicans corroborated the findings of the Brit-
ish committee and diplomatic representations followed. But
reforms were opposed by the Carbonarios and the Radical Re-
publicans, and some of the worst outrages were committed under
the weak Government which succeeded that of Senhor Chagas
in Nov. 1911, with Dr. Augusto de Vasconcellos as premier, and
under the third Coalition ministry formed by Dr. Duarte Leite
in July 1912. One of the worst features was the intimidation of
justice, the law courts being frequently filled with Carbonarios.
Hopes of improvement vanished when the Government re-
signed in Dec. 1912, and, after various attempts on the part of
President Arriaga to form a moderate ministry, Dr. Afonso Costa,
the Radical leader, came into power in Jan. 1913. In March of
that year Adeline, Duchess of Bedford, with expert knowledge of
prisons, visited the prisons of Lisbon, and meetings of protest
against the treatment of the prisoners, held in London, advocated
a general amnesty. Under the pressure of public opinion, the
Minister of Justice in Jan. I9T3 introduced a bill modifying the
Penitenciaria regime, and in Feb. of that year 600 political pris-
oners and common criminals were excused from wearing the
convict's hood, a. pardon was granted to 300 prisoners, but the
general amnesty was delayed till Feb. 1914.
The situation had become one of growing unrest and strikes
were frequent. In April 1913 an attempted ultra-Radical
coup d'etat, in which a portion of the army and navy were impli-
cated, was quelled and part of the crews of the " Vasco da
Gama " and " S. Gabriel " were transported to Angra in the
Azores. In June the Government decreed the suppression of the
Lisbon Syndicalist Club. In July a movement similar to that of
April was marked at Lisbon by attacks on the military barracks
and was followed by numerous arrests. In Oct. 130 Republican
prisoners were transferred to the fortress of Elvas, and a Mon-
archist movement at Lisbon and Oporto led to redoubled Car-
bonario activity. The amnesty bill became law on Feb. 22 1914
and in all about 1,300 prisoners (of whom over one-third had
not been tried) and 1,500 exiles benefited by it, excluding Paiva
Couceira among others. The courts martial, which had been
active during two years, were abolished by a decree of Aug. 19.
Dr. Afonso Costa, who gave much of his attention to finance,
resigned on Feb. 9 1914, and Dr. Bernardino Machado became
premier and was in office when the World War began.
On Dec. 13 1914 Dr. Machado was succeeded in the premier-
ship by the Democrat, Senhor Victor Hugo de Azevedo Coutinho,
President of the Chamber of Deputies, with a view to holding
the elections which were fixed for March 7, but the Government's
purpose was prevented by a military movement, and President
Arriaga appealed to Gen. Pimenta de Castro to constitute a
government representative of a wider body of opinion in the
country; he formed a ministry on Jan. 28, 1915. The action of the
new Government was conciliatory and had the support of the
moderate Republicans led by Dr. Antonio Jose de Almeida; the
country's foreign policy remained unchanged, but the activity of
the Carbonarios was checked, the so-called Committee of Public
Safety abolished and the refractory municipal councils dissolved.
PORTUGAL
The general election was now fixed for June 6 1915. In April an
amnesty emptied the prisons. The Democrats were, however,
able to count on the support of the marines and on May 14 the
sailors mutinied, shot the captains of the " Almirante Reis " and
" Vasco da Gama " and bombarded Lisbon, about 100 persons
being killed. Pimenta de Castro resigned on May 15, and. was
arrested next day and transported to the Azores. The revolution-
ary committee nominated Senhor Chagas as premier, but on
May 16 he was shot at and wounded in the train, on his way to
Lisbon by Senator Joao de Freitas, who was killed. Chagas re-
signed on May 24 and was succeeded by Dr. Jose de Castro.
In a message addressed to Parliament Arriaga resigned the
presidency as from May 29 (he died on March 5 1917) ; and after
a short interim presidency under Dr. Theophilo Braga, he was
definitely succeeded as President on Aug. 6 1915 by Dr. Bernar-
dino Machado. The Government resigned in June, Castro again
becoming premier, but he resigned in Nov. and Dr. Costa re-
turned to office.
The Revolution of Dec. 1917. On Dec. 5 1917 a revolution
directed against the internal policy of Costa and the Democrats
broke out at Lisbon. The rebels entrenched themselves in the
Parque Eduardo VII. and their artillery opened fire upon the
fleet. After two days' fighting, Gen. Norton de Mattos and Capt.
Leotte do Rego took refuge on board a British ship in the Tagus.
Dr. Costa and Dr. Scares were arrested; President Machado was
placed under arrest, and on the i$th was conducted to the fron-
tier. Vice-Adml. Machado dos Santos was released from prison
and, with Maj. Sidonio Paes, the leader of the movement, and
Capt. Feliciano Costa, formed a revolutionary committee. A
provisional government was now constituted, Maj. Paes becom-
ing President and Minister for War and Foreign Affairs. The
Radical sailors mutinied on Jan. 8 1918 and bombarded Lisbon,
but the movement was easily quelled, and several hundreds were
deported to Africa. On Jan. 12 Paes left for the north, and at
Oporto was received enthusiastically, as also on his return to
Lisbon. A visit to the south in Feb. was equally successful.
In March 1918 Paes reconstructed his ministry, and the elec-
tions, on an enlarged franchise, were held throughout the country
on April 28. The election of the President was held by universal
suffrage on the same day. Paes was elected by over half a million
votes and was proclaimed President on May 9. The Powers
recognized the new regime, and on May 27 Great Britain raised
her legation in Lisbon to the status of an embassy. The President
opened Parliament in July. In Oct. a new Government was
formed. Under a new system the President became also premier
and ministers were called secretaries of state.
The first anniversary of the revolution was celebrated with
national rejoicings on Dec.s-8 1918. But on Dec. 14 President
Paes was shot at the Rocio station by Jose Julio da Costa, and
died a few minutes later. On Dec. 16 Adml. Joao de Canto e
Castro was provisionally elected president, and in Jan. 1919
Senhor Tamagnini Barbosa formed a ministry, reviving the
office of premier.
The Oporto Monarchy. The Radical and Carbonario elements,
which had hoped to benefit by President Paes' murder, rapidly
became impatient, and a Democrat rising now broke out at San-
tarem, but the town was besieged by Government troops and
the rebels surrendered. On Jan. 19 1919 the monarchy was pro-
claimed at Oporto, Braga and Viseu, Capt. Paiva Couceiro
becoming regent and acting also as premier and minister of
finance. At Lisbon the Royalists occupied Fort Monsanto and
bombarded the city, but they were overcome without difficulty by
the marines and Carbonarios. A considerable Republican army
was sent against Oporto, but, though part of the regular troops
drafted from Lisbon deserted, the Royalist forces were weak and
did not reach Aveiro. The fighting during the three weeks of civil
war was not of a serious character. A counter-revolutionary
movement at Oporto in Feb. led to the restoration of the Repub-
lic, and the main result of these ill-timed risings was to fill the
prisons and bring the Radicals into power. At Lisbon the
marines and Carbonarios, in Feb., demanded government by
" Soviets " and the abolition of the official police. Severe street
fighting and serious outrages occurred, including the burning
down of a block of government offices in Black-Horse Square and
of the Limoeiro prison. This had the effect of forcing the new
authorities to copy the disciplinary methods of President Paes.
Government by Groups. Senhor Jose Relvas became premier
on Jan. 27 1919, and was succeeded in March by the Democrat,
Dr. Domingo Pereira. It now became possible to hold the elec-
tions, and in May a Radical majority was returned. On June i
Adml. Canto e Castro announced his intention of resigning the
presidency, the candidate of the Democratic party, Dr. Antonio
Jose de Almeida, being subsequently elected President on Aug. 6.
On June 28 the Democratic Col. Sa Cardoso constituted a more
stable ministry, which lasted till Jan. 7 1920. There followed
a succession of short-lived ministries, under Senhor Fernandez
Costa, Dr. Domingo Pereira, Col. Antonio Maria Baptista, Dr.
Ramos Preto, Senhor Antonio Maria da Silva, Senhor Antonio
Granjo (July to Nov. 15), Dr. Alvaro de Castro, and Lt.-Col.
Liberate Pinto (Nov. 29 to Feb. 1921); and on March 2 1921 a
new Coalition ministry (composed of Democrats, Reconstituents,
Dissidents and members of the Popular party, all offshoots of
the original Republican Democrat party) was formed, under the
premiership of Dr. Bernardino Machado. A military pronuncia-
mento on May 20 caused the resignation of Dr. Machado. He
was succeeded by a Liberal ministry under Dr. Barros Queiroz,
who dissolved Parliament and held a general election on July 10.
The absence of a firm guiding hand had been especially felt
after the murder of President Paes, and successive governments
seemed to lose control over the finances. No government was
strong enough to raise an internal loan, to revise the system of tax-
ation or levy a war-profits tax, and, while the taxes were paid in
worthless paper money, the Government had to buy wheat and pay
the service on the debt in gold. Social unrest was chronic in March
1920; there was a general strike of civil, and post and telegraph,
servants; a railway strike which began on Oct. i 1920, lasted 70
days; and a newspaper strike in 1921 for over two months. The
Royalists showed themselves willing to exchange revolutionary
for constitutional opposition, and King Manoel had constantly
deprecated any revolutionary movement in view of the grave crisis
through which the country was passing. The death of his uncle,
the Duke of Oporto in 1920, left King Manoel without an heir to
the throne. D. Miguel, Duke of Viseu, and his father D. Miguel,
Duke of Braganza, renounced their right to the throne of
Portugal in favour of D. Duarte Nuno, the younger son of the
latter, born Sept. 23 1907.
The World War. At a special joint sitting of both Chambers
on Aug. 7 1914 Portugal proclaimed her loyalty to the British
Alliance, and on Nov. 23 formally committed herself to partici-
pation in military operations. She served the cause of the Alh'es
effectively by furnishing munitions, guns, and a division of
artillery, and acted in close cooperation with Great Britain. In
Oct. a Portuguese military mission arrived in London and a
commercial mission followed in November. On Sept. n the
first expedition of Portuguese troops left for Africa under the
command of Colonels Alves Rocadas and Massano de Amorim,
and fresh contingents followed at intervals, 40,000 troops in all
being despatched for the defence of the colonies. Germany had
not waited to be at war with Portugal in order to attack them.
As early as Aug. 24 1914 a raid was made on the Portuguese post
of Maziwa on the northern frontier of Mozambique. On Oct. 19
the Germans attacked Naulila (on the Angola frontier), where
more serious fighting occurred two months later, and on Oct. 30
they stormed the fortress of Kwangar and put the garrison to
the sword. On April n 1916 Portuguese troops occupied
Kionga (S. of the Rovuma River), which Germany had seized in
1894, and on May 27 they crossed the Rovuma River. They
were still cooperating with the British in rounding up the
Germans when war ended.
The British Government had deprecated any unnecessary
intervention of Portugal in the war, but agreed to the requisition-
ing of German ships lying in Portuguese ports, and this was car-
ried into effect in Feb. 1916. Consequently, Germany retaliated
by declaring war on Portugal on March 9, and the declaration of
J32
PORTUGAL
war between Portugal and Austria followed on March 16. The
Government-resigned in order to make way for a national minis-
try, constituted on March 15 under Dr. Almeida. Capt. Leotte
do Rego was appointed commander-in-chief of the naval division.
French and British military missions arrived in Lisbon in March,
and a British naval mission arrived in April. In June a first divi-
sion of 20,000 men was concentrated at Tancos, where training
began. Of the Germans in Portugal many had already left and
400 were interned. German submarines were active off the coast
of Portugal during the autumn, many ships being sunk in 1917;
Ponta Delgada was attacked by one on July 4 1917, and attacks
were also made on Funchal and Cabo Verde in December.
On the declaration of war in March 1916 the few Royalist
journals still permitted to appear in Portugal made patriotic
declarations, and a message from King Manoel in Nov. exhorted
his followers to set country above party. In Dec. a revolutionary
movement was suppressed at Thomar and its leader, Machado
dos Santos, imprisoned. In April 1917 Dr. Costa formed a new
ministry. By a decree of Jan. 17 1917 Gen. Fernando Tamagnini
de Alorn was given command of the Portuguese Expeditionary
Force, and by July there were over 40,000 Portuguese troops on
the western front, with 20,000 in Portugal ready to reinforce
them. On April 9 1918, on the river Lys, the Portuguese con-
tingent were subjected to a formidable attack by the Germans,
and they were compelled to fall back, leaving a large number
of prisoners. Subsequently Portuguese troops took part in the
victorious entry into Lille.
Dr. Egas Moniz (later replaced by Dr. Afonso Costa) was ap-
pointed to represent Portugal at the Peace Conference, and in
Jan. 1919, at the instance of Great Britain, the number of dele-
gates to the Conference was increased to two. Portugal came out
of the war with a crushing debt, but her colonies were assured to
her, and her economic future was promising. The Peace Treaty
was ratified on March 30 1920. At the Spa Conference in July
1920 Portugal secured 0-75% as her share of the indemnity from
Germany, and also received Kionga.
Legislation. One of the first decrees of the provisional govern-
ment (Oct. 29 1910) ordained that press offences should be tried
before a jury, but the liberty of the press under the Republic was
more nominal than real and no Royalist or clerical newspaper was
left long unmolested. The law of divorce (Nov. 4 1910) allowed,
among other grounds for divorce, insanity, a long term of imprison-
ment, desertion, inveterate gambling and mutual consent. Gam-
bling, at first legalized, was totally prohibited in 1919. Duelling
was forbidden in Jan. 1911. On May 30 1911 Greenwich time was
officially adopted, all clocks being advanced 37 minutes at mid-
night on Dec. 31 1911. In Sept. 1911 the Marconi system of wireless
telegraphy was adopted. On June 14 1913 Portugal and Great
Britain signed an agreement regulating the opium monopoly in
Macao and Hong-Kong. On Aug. 15 1914 administrative and finan-
cial autonomy was given to the colonies. The employment of native
labour in the Portuguese colonies was regulated by a very elaborate
decree of Oct. 14 1914, modifying and developing the law of May 27
1911 and the decree of Oct. I 1913.
Legislation on the subject of education was voluminous, but com-
paratively little was achieved to replace the schools of the expelled
religious orders. By the decree of March 29 191 1 primary education
became neutral, laic and compulsory. Each parish was to have at
least one boys' and one girls' school, the cost to be shared between
the State and the town councils. In the two following years 991 new
schools were decreed, but in March 1913 556 were still non-existent.
The sum of 40,000 destined in 1913 for the building of primary
schools, was apportioned among 1 80 schools. By a decree of Sept.
II 1913, in order to encourage industrial education and relieve the
lyceums of Lisbon, Oporto and Coimbra, the number of students
admissible to these latter was limited to a total of 4,850. Secondary
education was remodelled by decrees of July 14 and Sept. 8 1918.
In May 1914 a military school of aeronautics was created. Other
decrees dealt with agricultural credit (1914), accidents to workmen
(1913 and 1914) and work of minors and women (1915). On March 9
1918 a Ministry of Agriculture was created, but the decrees stimulat-
ing production were of a tentative and contradictory character.
Uncultivated land has to pay a small tax per acre and becomes the
property of the State if still uncultivated in 20 years from 1911. In
March 1921 a much-needed bill was introduced providing for the
building of new roads and for the repair each year of 312 miles of
existing roads during 1922-31.
Defence. On Jan. 19 1911 a commission appointed to reorganize
the navy recommended the acquisition from Great Britain of three
battleships of the dreadnought type, similar to the " Minas Geraes "
of the Brazilian navy. This recommendation was adopted in the new
naval programme submitted by the Minister of Marine in Dec.
1911, which involved the purchase of 3 battleships of 20,000 tons
each, 3 scouts of 3,000 tons, 12 torpedo-boats of 820 tons and 6
submarines. On May I 1912 a bill was introduced fixing the naval
force at 4,500 men, as compared with 5,687 in 1910. On Jan. 27
1913 a commission was appointed for the creation of a naval arsenal
on the S. bank of the Tagus.
Finance. The average annual revenue from 1907-8 till the revo-
lution (1910) was 14,456,000, and the average deficit 500,000.
After the revolution special attention was given to finance. A com-
mittee appointed to examine into various loans made by the State
to the House of Braganza assessed the total to June 18 1912 at
nearly 800,000, of which 720,000 had been advanced to King
Carlos, 24,500 to the Duke of Oporto and 16,400 to Queen Amelia.
The Government decided to reimburse itself from King Manoel's
property in Portugal.
The budget for 1911-2 showed a deficit reduced to 435,000, but
an increased expenditure of 1,026,800. The deficit for 1912-3,
estimated at 710,000, was converted into a surplus of 33,400 in
August. The 1913-4 budget showed a total revenue of 15,178,843
and a surplus of 195,778, of which 111,800 was destined for the
new naval programme. These figures were obtained by adding to the
debt. On Aug. 31 1913 the debt stood at 145,917,500, an increase of
1,596,000 over its amount on Dec. 31 1912. In presenting the 1915-6
budget, with an estimated deficit of 2,120,400, it was decided to
separate ordinary and war expenditure, but in practice, although two
budgets were presented, the expenditure was not kept strictly sep-
arate. The double budget of 1916-7 provided for an ordinary expen-
diture of 17,220,000, with 403,400 deficit, and a war expenditure of
15,000,000. The war added an average of 20,000,000 yearly to the
debt, which reached 22 7, 000,000 on July I 1918. Portugal was further
indebted to Great Britain to the extent of 16,000,000 advanced for
expenses at the front and 2,000,000 for war expenses in Portugal.
The 1920-1 budget, presented in Feb. 1920, before that of the pre-
vious year had been voted, showed a revenue of 26,581,000 and a
deficit of 25,555,000, an increase of 7,333,000 over the deficitof the
previous year. It was proposed to extinguish the deficit by a reduc-
tion in the cost of the civil service and a war-profits tax, calculated
to yield 22,222,000, but the Government fell before the proposals
could be carried into effect. In Dec. 1920 heavy property and indus-
trial taxes were imposed. By the 1921-2 estimates, presented in
Jan. 1921, the deficit was increased to 58,888,000 on a total ex-
penditure of 106,610,000. At the end of 1920 the debt was unoffi-
cially estimated as follows: external 53,777,000, floating 123,-
939,000, internal 325,333,000 total 503,049,000. The paper
currency, which at the end of 1910 stood at 16,000,000 (at par of
exchange, namely, 4,500 reis = l), had risen to 82,361,000 in Dec.
1919, and to 118,361,000 in Sept. 1920. A further increase of
44,444,000 was voted by Parliament in Dec. 1920. In that month
the 3 % external debt was quoted at 22. The agio on gold, which was
5 in Oct. 1910 and 16 in Aug. 1914, exceeded 1,100 % in Feb. 1921,
but fell to half that amount a few months later. The floating debt,
which immediately before the war was 19,555,000 (at par of ex-
change), stood at 119,555,000 on Dec. 31 1919. The heavy depreci-
ation in the exchange, however, must be allowed for.
In Feb. 1921 the Banco Nacional Ultramarino became the sole
agent of the Royal Bank of Scotland and of some English banks.
Commerce. Portugal's foreign trade, which in 1913 had reached
22,094,500 in imports and 11,355,000 in exports, further expanded
during the World War, and in 1917 amounted (at par of exchange)
to 37,391,700 imports and 19,121,500 exports. The trade between
Portugal and her African colonies almost doubled between 1911 and
1917. In 1917 5,860 ships of 4,906,599 tonnage entered Portuguese
ports, as compared with 10,638 of 24,368,120 tonnage in 1913. The
total tonnage of German ships seized in 1916 was 242,441, of which
157,333 were handed over to the Allies. Portugal lost 28,637 tons
of shipping by enemy action, and her merchant shipping at the end
of 1918 stood at 100,000 tons.
A treaty of arbitration for five years, between Portugal and Great
Britain, was signed at London on Nov. 16 1914. The commercial
treaty between the two countries, signed at Lisbon on Aug. 12 1914,
became effective on Sept. 23 1916.
Foreign Exchange. After the war serious efforts were made to
grapple with the problem of the exchange, which was aggravated by
the decree of May 31 1919 placing the financial agency at Rio de
Janeiro in private hands. A decree of April 27 1918 provided that
when the exchange was at 29!, 50% of the customs duties should
be paid in gold at that rate and 50% at par, until the exchange
reached 38 3 /22, when the whole of the duties was to be paid in gold at
par. A decree of Feb. 4 1920 totally prohibited a large number of
imports, thus depriving the exchequer of an important source of
revenue. Neither the Banking Consortium (Jan. lO-May 26 1920)
nor the attempt to fix the rate of exchange officially, was effective in
preventing a further rapid depreciation in Portuguese money, owing
to the almost complete absence of gold (the reserve having fallen to
under 2 % in 1920) and to decreased production. As a result of the
cost of labour and the fixed price of bread, cultivation of wheat dim-
inished steadily from 1918, its best year. In 1918 the 248 million kgm.
produced fell short of requirements by 56 million kilograms. The most
important export trade wine suffered during the war from trans-
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA
133
port difficulties and, later, from the reduced demand in Great Britain
and the loss of the markets of the United States, Canada, Russia and
Norway. The wine trade attained its maximum in 1919, when the
cost of transport fell from 15 to 4 a pipe and Great Britain im-
ported 12,458,220 gallons. In 1920 Great Britain imported only
5,914,575 gal. and a huge stock was left on the hands of the merchants.
Portuguese manufacturing industries, which expanded considerably
during the war, despite the coal shortage, were similarly affected by
decreased demand in 1920, for which the expansion of colonial trade
did not entirely compensate.
Population. The pop. of Portugal numbered 5,547,708 in 1911,
not including the inhabitants of the Azores and Madeira, which
amounted to 412,348 in the same year. The pop. of the chief towns
(1911 census) were: Lisbon 435,399, Oporto 194,099, Setubal 30,346,
Ilhavo 14,130, Povoa de Varzim 12,115, Tavira 11,665, Faro 12,680,
Ovar 11,416, Olhao 10,890, Viana do Castello 10,486, Aveiro 11,523,
Louie 19,688, Coimbra 20,581, Evora 17,901, Covilha 15,745,
Elvas 10,645, Portalegre 11,603, Palmella 13,318, Torres Novas
13,961.
Literature. Literature in Portugal from 1911 to 1921 was marked
chiefly by the death of prominent men of letters of philologists,
Goncalvez Viana (1914), Epiphanio Dias (1916), Julio Moreira
(1917) and Adolpho Coelho (1919); critics, Ramalho Ortigao (1917)
and D. Maria Amalia Vaz de Carvalho (1921); novelists, Fialho de
Almeida (1911), Abel Botelho (1917) andTeizeira de Queiroz (1919) ;
the dramatist Marcellino Mesquita (1919) ; poets, Antonio Feijo
('917)1 Jao Penha (1919) and Gomes Leal (1921). But although
the revolution was followed by no great literary revival, most
useful work was accomplished, including much-needed and impor-
tant reprints and editions of the classics. Among these may be
mentioned the scholarly editions of Dr. J. J. Nunes and of Dr.
Esteves Pereira, who in 1918 published the Livro da Montana of
King Joao I. from the original manuscript. Valuable material for
the future historian of Portugal was brought together by the re-
searches of several scholars, among whom Mr. Edgar Prestage
specialized on the I7th century. The Revista de Historia has been
published regularly since 1912. Senhor J. Lucio de Azevedo followed
up his Life of Pombal with notable studies on Antonio Vieira.
Dr. Leite de Vasconcellos' invaluable Revista Lusitania reached its
2Oth volume in 1917. In poetry a national tendency set in which is
strongly marked in Dr. Lopes Vieira's Ilhas de Bruma (1917). The
veteran poet, Senhor Guerra Junqueiro, published Poesias Dis-
persas in 1920. In the field of essay the glowing style and national
fervour of Senhor Antero de Fiqueiredo in Leonor Teles (1916),
Jornadas em Portugal (1918), RecordaQoes e Viagens (2nd ed. 1916),
and other works, are notable. The growing interest in Portuguese
literature in England was marked by the foundation of a chair of
Portuguese literature at King's College, London, in 1917.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For general study of the country see L. Poinsard,
Le Portugal Inconnu (1911) ; A. Marvaud, Le Portugal et ses Colonies
(1912); G. Diercks, Das Moderne Portugal (1913); A. F. G. Bell,
Portugal of the Portuguese (1915); G. Young, Portugal: An His-
torical Study (1916) ; Bento Carqueja, O Povo Portuguez (1916) and
Futuro de Portugal (2nd ed. 1920); Ezequiel de Campes, A Con-
servaftio da Riqueza Nacional (1917); Capt. B. Granville Baker,
A Winter Holiday in Portugal (1912); A. F. G. Bell, In Portugal
(1912); G. Diercks, Porlugiesische Geschichle (1912); A. Herculano,
Historia de Portugal, illustrated edition in 8 vols. (1914-6) ; H. da
Gama Barros, Historia da Administrate publica em Portugal nos
seculos XII. a XV. (3 yols. 1895-6 and 1914); Dr. Mendes dos
Remedies, Historia da Litteratura Portugueza (=>th ed. 1921); F. de
Figueiredo, Historia da Litteratura Romantica Portugueza (1913),
Historia da Litteratiira Realista (1914), Historia da Litteratura
Classica (1917), dealing with the i6th century, and A Critica Lit-
teraria como Sciencia (3rd ed. 1920). What purports to be a summary
of the literature of Dr. Theophilo Braga consists of 4 vols. : Edade
Media (1909), Renascenca (1914), Os Seiscentistas (1916), Os Arcades
(1918). ' (A. F. G. B.)
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA, or MOZAMBIQUE (see 22.163).
As the result of the World War in what was formerly the German
territory adjoining, Portuguese East Africa has become bordered
andward entirely by British, or British administered, territory.
In 1919 " the Kionga triangle," some 400 sq. m. in size, and
including the southern shore of the estuary of the Rovuma, was
transferred to the province having been part of German East
Africa. The pop. in 1918 was roughly estimated at 3,000,000
to 3,500,000; no systematic census had been made and the
inhabitants in areas not controlled by the Portuguese were not
included. Europeans, exclusive of troops, numbered some
12,000; Asiatics (mainly Indian traders) 15,000-18,000. Lou-
renco Marques, the capital, with suburbs had about 20,000
inhabitants of whom 5,500 were white (700 being British).
Products and Trade. An increase in the area under sugar, greater
attention to the plantations of coco-nut palms (for copra), the
introduction of sisal growing (from German East Africa) and the
cultivation of maize for export were directions in which endeavours
were made to increase the resources of the province in 191121. The
sugar plantations were mainly in the region between Beira and the
Zambezi, a region governed under charter by the Company of
Mozambique, in which British capital was largely interested.
Between 1911 and 1919 the area under sugar trebled and the output
reached 35,000 tons yearly. Most of it was produced by the Sena
Sugar Co. and shipped at Beira. Sisal was cultivated mostly in the
Quilimane area; in 1916 the export was 2,200 tons of fibre.
Before the World War trade was mainly divided between British,
Portuguese and Germans; the Germans financed the Banyans
(Indian traders) who retailed " Kaffir truck " to the natives, a busi-
ness worth 250,000 or more a year. In return the natives sold,
principally, ground nuts of which some 2,000 tons were exported
annually. North of the Zambezi German merchants had nearly all
the trade, both import and export, and had begun to oust even the
Banyan. In the S., at Delagoa Bay and Beira British, firms held over
50 % of the trade. The war eliminated the German trader.
No uniform system of trade statistics was adopted in the three
administrative areas into which the province was divided. The
following figures are approximations to accuracy : in 191 1 imports
8,250,000, exports 2,250,000. The imports include some 6,800,000,
in and out transit trade through Delagoa Bay and Beira. For 1913
the imports (excluding transit trade) were given at 2,053,000;
exports at 2,720,000. Portuguese figures for 1917 (excluding Beira)
gave the imports at 2,800,000; the exports at 1,500,000, not
reckoning transit trade pr reexports.
The imports for local use were mainly textiles, provisions and
machinery. Large quantities of wine, " vinho colonial," are imported
from Portugal for native consumption in 1913 the amount received
at Lourenco Marques alone was 1 ,620,000 gallons valued at 105,000.
In 1920 alcohol was declared by the high commissioner of Mozam-
bique to be the curse of the province. The great bulk of the trade
was in transit to or from the Transvaal, Rhodesia or British Nyasa-
land. The import of most direct benefit to the province was coal
from the Transvaal. From 1912 onward Lourenco Marques became
important both for the export and bunkering trade. (For the rela-
tions of the province with the Transvaal see DELAGOA BAY.)
Communications. During 1910-20 several short lines of railway
were built from the seaports. The largest scheme was to connect
Delagoa Bay and Inhambane. This line with a total length of 280
m. was planned in independent sections, and 1 60 m. had been com-
pleted by 1916; the central section had not been built in 1920. The
building of a railway (about 170 m. long) from Beira to the Zambezi,
opposite Chindio, was begun in 1920 under a guarantee of the British
Nyasaland Protectorate, its object being to afford that protectorate
an ocean gateway. From Chindio a railway, completed in May 1915,
goes to Port Herald where it connects with the Shire Highlands rail-
way. A route for a railway from Port Amelia to Lake Nyasa was
surveyed in 1912. The line would have been built by a German
company but for the outbreak of the World War. Up to 1921 a few
miles only of rails had been laid from Port Amelia. Wireless tele-
graph stations have been erected at Delagoa Bay, Inhambane and
Mozambique town.
Finance. Revenue was obtained chiefly from a hut tax, customs
and taxes on emigration, i.e. a poll tax paid to the provincial authori-
ties for natives recruited for the Transvaal gold mines and other
work. In 1913-4 revenue and expenditure were budgeted for
1,312,000; in 1917-8 at 1,809,000. " Cost of administration " was
given as the chief item of expenditure, not unnaturally, as in 1917
there were over 10,000 persons in Government pay.
History. The efforts made by chartered companies and
reforming governors to develop the province left its vast natural
resources up to 1920 scarcely touched. The Portuguese lacked
capital with which to undertake large operations, the settler
class was not on the whole of a satisfactory character, the ad-
ministrative system was very defective, and up to 1914 the
interests of the province were entirely subordinated to the
assumed interests of Portugal. In that year following an
agitation in which the then governor-general of the province,
Senhor de Magelhas, took the lead, Mozambique was granted
partial autonomy and in 1920, when Dr. Brito Camacho was
appointed high commissioner, further reforms were enacted.
The general trend of events during 1910-20 was to show the
province as of value chiefly as a passage-way to and from the
Transvaal, Rhodesia and British Nyasaland. Partly because of
the necessity of keeping this passage-way open it was in this
period that Portuguese authority was first made fairly effective
throughout the province. Moslem chiefs along the coast in the
region opposite Mozambique Island were subjugated by 1910,
after a four years' contest, and the hinterland tribes then sub-
mitted with little resistance. The occupation of the interior of
Portuguese Nyasaland, begun in earnest in 1909, met, however,
with strong opposition from the natives and was not completed
till 1912, when Mataka, the most powerful opponent of the
134
POTIOREK POULTRY
Portuguese, fled across the Rovuma into German territory. In
1915 there was a widespread revolt in the Zambezi valley and
farther S., which was not fully suppressed till the end of 1917.
The paramount economic interests of Great Britain in the
southern part of the province, including the delta of the Zambezi,
were recognized in the Anglo-German draft agreement prepared
in 1913-4, but not signed owing to the outbreak of the World
War. By that agreement the part of the province N. of the
Liconga (Licungo) river (which reaches the sea over 100 m. N. of
the Zambezi delta) was to be in the economic sphere of Germany
(see AFRICA: History). The larger part of this northern area was
governed, under a charter, by the Nyasa Company. That
company, for lack of funds, had done little to develop its terri-
tory. In 1914 German capitalists succeeded, through a neutral
intermediary, in obtaining control of the Nyasa Co. and by the
aid of a German directorate they sought to acquire political
control, and advance the scheme for the creation of a German
Mittel-Afrika. The World War put an end to this design.
Early in 1917 German raiding parties entered Portuguese
territory and in Nov. of that year Gen. von Lettow Vorbeck, to
escape capture crossed into the province from German East
Africa, carrying on the war there for nearly a year (see GERMAN
EAST AFRICA). Von Lettow helped to prove the natural resources
of the regions he traversed, while aerial reconnaissances by the
British gave material for mapping.
See A Manual of Portuguese East Africa and Portuguese Nyasa-
land, both British Admiralty publications (1920); Mozambique, a
handbook issued by the British Foreign Office (1918-9) aN with
bibliographies; The South and East African Year Book and Guide,
ed. by A. S. and G. G. Brown (London yearly) ; the Anuario Colonial
and Rivista Colonial, both Lisbon publications. (F. R. C.)
POTIOREK, OSKAR (1853- ), Austro-Hungarian general
of artillery, was born at Blieburg, Carinthia, in 1853. He gradu-
ated from the Engineers' Academy as lieutenant in 1871. His
career was chiefly spent on the General Staff, of which he was
one of the most distinguished representatives. He held there
the important post of Chief of the Section of Operations, later
that of Deputy to the Chief of the General Staff, Count Beck.
After Beck's retirement he was in command of the III. Corps,
in 1911 Army Inspector and Governor (Landeschef) in Bosnia and
Herzegovina. As such, he was officially responsible for counte-
nancing the fateful visit of the heir to the throne to Serajevo,
out of which the World War ensued. In the offensive taken by
Austria against Serbia in the winter of 1914, which eventually
broke down after great initial success, his judgment was also
found wanting.
POULTRY (see 22.213). During 1900-20 there were many
changes and developments in the poultry industry, as carried on
in Great Britain. New breeds were evolved or imported, while
some of the older breeds have diminished in popularity and,
except for small numbers kept by persistent breeders, have almost
died out. Far more striking, however, has been the rapid evolu-
tion of the present-day utih'ty breeds, the extension of public
" laying trials " and the development of extensive commercial
egg farms and breeding farms, accompanied by new mass methods
of hatching, rearing, feeding and housing. The agriculturist has
shown slowly increasing interest in poultry-keeping as a business
branch of farm operations, and there has been a notable expansion
of poultry-keeping by residents in urban and suburban areas.
The view so strongly held for many years by the majority of
people who thought about the matter at all that poultry-keep-
ing was not a practicable commercial proposition except as a
small side-line, and in circumstances where waste food for the
birds was available at little or no cost, has been very much modi-
fied, for the reason that poultry-keepers, who have derived the
main portion of their livelihood over a period of years from one or
more branches of the industry, have so obviously increased in
numbers. In addition numerous authentic instances of profit-
able results obtained from poultry-keeping as a subsidiary
occupation have been made public. Hence in recent years
increasing numbers of people have turned their attention to
poultry-keeping, and in several instances the capital involved
in well-known poultry farms amounts to several thousands of
pounds. So far successful British poultry farming comprises one
or more of the following branches: Breeding laying strains of
poultry; the production of exhibition stock; the sale of day-old
chicks, eggs for hatching and stock birds; the production of eggs
and poultry for consumption. The production of table poultry is
in practically every case a subsidiary branch, and was particu-
larly so during the war owing to the scarcity of feeding-stuffs.
It is not possible to form any reliable estimate of the value of the
poultry-stock-breeding industry in the United Kingdom, as no com-
plete figures are available. Every experienced observer knows, how-
ever, that the increase in the demand for and supply of eggs for hatch-
ing, day-old chicks, and pure-bred stock birds, has been very con-
siderable during the past few years. Nor can any reliable estimate be
made of the growth of table poultry and egg production, since there
are insufficient data upon which to base an estimate. It is possible,
however, to make a rough estimate of the total annual value of table
poultry and egg production.
In 1908, in connexion with the Census of Production Act of 1906,
the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries published a poultry census
for Great Britain showing that the number of poultry kept by
occupiers of agricultural holdings exceeding one ac. in extent was
36,728,000. In its report, however, the Board draws special atten-
tion to the limitation of the scope of the returns to holdings exceeding
one ac., and points out " that poultry are very largely kept by cot-
tagers and persons who do not come within the definition of agricul-
tural holdings, while a further very large poultry population would no
doubt be enumerated if the returns were extended to the towns."
In addition to obtaining this census, each occupier was asked to
state the number of home-bred poultry of each description sold during
the preceding twelve months, and special schedules were issued to all
occupiers returning not less than 50 fowls or 10 ducks, geese or
turkeys, asking for the number of males and females, respectively,
hatched before 1908, the number of eggs produced, sold for con-
sumption, or sold or used for hatching, and the number of young and
adult birds sold. As a result the report states that there were 15^
million adult hens on farms in Great Britain in 1908, that the aver-
age annual egg yield per hen was 72, and that the total value of the
output of eggs and poultry was calculated to be about 5,000,000. The
report, however, emphasizes the fact that this sum " takes no ac-
count of poultry kept by cottagers, residents in towns and others not
within the scope of the Agricultural Returns. The aggregate produc-
tion thus excluded must be very large, though again it may be as-
sumed that the greater part of it is consumed by the poultry-keepers
themselves."
Since 1908 no poultry census figures for Great Britain are avail-
able, but interesting deductions may be made regarding British
production by examining the returns published for the years 1008
and 1918 by the Irish Department of Agriculture regarding the Irish
poultry industry. The Irish returns refer to all agricultural holdings
including labourers' cottages built under rural housing Schemes and
are thus more comprehensive than those for Great Britain, though
like the British returns they apparently take no account of town
poultry-keepers. The number of such poultry-keepers in Ireland,
however, would be insignificant as compared with the number in
Great Britain. The total number of poultry in Ireland in 1908 is
given as 24,031,095. The report estimates the average annual egg
yield of Irish hens as loo, and calculates the total value of Irish
poultry production in 1908 at 5,290,000. Of this amount 3,526,000
was stated to represent the value of the exports, 1,764,000 the value
of the home consumption.
In 1918 the Irish returns give the total number of poultry in Ire-
land as 24,424,230, and state that the value of the exports of eggs and
poultry was 18,352,578. No figures are given regarding the value
of the home consumption, but in view of the value given in this connex-
ion in 1908 it may be fairly assumed that 4,000,000 represents a rea-.
sonable estimate. Thus a total production value of 22,352,578 is
arrived at for the Irish poultry industry in 1918. Now it is difficult
to believe that the average yield of hens in Great Britain is less
than that of their sisters in Ireland, and it is certain that the average
price realized by British producers for their eggs and poultry have
been greater than those obtained by Irish producers. Hence, if the
incomplete British census for 1908 be taken, and even if it be assumed
that there was no increase in the numbers in British poultry be-
tween 1908 and 1918, the total value of the produce from the
36,728,000 poultry in Great Britain would amount to approximately
33,000,000 for 1918, if calculated on the same unit production value
as the Irish figures. But unit production value is almost certainly
higher in Britain, if only on account of higher prices, and the total
of 33,000,000 takes no account of the value of the produce of
the large numbers of poultry kept in Great Britain by dwellers
in urban and suburban districts. What this value may be can only
be estimated, but it is practically certain to be well over 4,000,000
annually. A final estimate of 37,000,000 is thus arrived at as the
value of British egg and poultry production in 1918, and if to this
figure be added the corresponding one for Ireland a total of roughly
60,000,000 is obtained for the United Kingdom.
POULTRY
135
It is interesting in comparison to note that, according to an answer
given by Sir R. Sanders for the Minister of Agriculture in the House
of Commons on Feb. 24 1921, the estimated value of the total wheat
crop of the United Kingdom in 1920 was 31,000,000. Also in a re-
cent Report on the Trade in Imports and Exports at the Irish ports
it was stated that the value of the Irish eggs, poultry and feathers
exported was in one year greater by about 13,000,000 than the store
cattle trade and nearly equal in value to the export in fat cattle.
There is a further important aspect of the effect of the demand for
table eggs and poultry in the United Kingdom in the national fin-
ances, viz. the large sums paid annually to foreign countries for sup-
plies to supplement the insufficient home production. Tables I and 2
show the annual quantities and values of these imports for the years
1913, 1919 and 1920:
the increasing appreciation shown by poultry-keepers of the com-
mercial importance of high egg yield, and the consequent demand
for stock, specially selected and bred for this quality. A great
stimulus was given to this development by the introduction of
public laying competitions, the object of which was to test the egg-
producing capacities of various breeders' birds and also to gain
information regarding the relative fecundity of existing strains
and breeds. The introduction of these laying competitions in
England was due to the enterprise shown by the Northern Utility
Poultry Society of Burley, Lancashire, and the Utility Poultry
Club (now the National Utility Poultry Society) , and at first
TABLE i. -Imports of Eggs, in Shell, into the United Kingdom.
From
191
3
19
9
1C
20
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Gt. Hundreds
Gt. Hundreds
Gt. Hundreds
1 1,453,277
{A 7/1C 22Q
Nil
Nil
f . _-.
Denmark .
4,264,943
Xjttt tOt^^y
2,296,843
1,638,067
2,776,116
3,939437
7,032,357
Germany .
513,740
2I5,8l6
Nil
Nil
6,960
11,112
Netherlands
977,350
490,717
620
1,180
48,474
73,748
France
702,281
326,102
6,584
7,065
15,160
24,836
Italy .
845,789
420,914
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
United States .
5,869
2,894
1,408,606
2,205,092
331,185
553,211
Egypt
1,096,539
356,627
758,728
930,674
566,498
597,208
Canada
Austria-Hungary
1,950
883,651
957
375,943
1,476,962
Nil
2,230,422
Nil
807,281
7,984
1,478,933
14,457
Sweden
Belgium
Portugal .
Spain .
Rumania .
Turkey, Asiatic
834-561
358,560
354,828
462,777
1,338,104
1,778,814
Morocco
China
Other British Possessions
Other Foreign Countries .
Total
21,579,950
9,590,602
5,644,395
8,613,326
7,070,266
11,579,096
TABLE 2. Comparative Imports of Poultry in Cwt.
From
1913
1919
1920
Cwt.
1 1 Q QAJ.
Cwt.
g
Cwt.
66
-21 T7C
? 08 1.
26 674.
Nil
U. S. A. . .
o 872
Other Countries
46,430
43,6i7
S6,oi8
Total quantities
278,465
147,567
94,464
Total values
954,540
i,527,992
817,872
The figures in Tables I and 2 show that in 1920, as compared with
1913, the total value of imported eggs and poultry had increased
from 10,545,142 to 12,396,968, whilst the total quantity had
decreased in the case of eggs from 21,579,950 great hundreds to
7,070,266 great hundreds: and in the case of dead poultry from
278,465 cwt. to 94,464 cwt. Thus, reckoning that the eggs averaged
14 Ib. per 120, the imports in 1920 were less by 90,685 tons than in
1913, whilst the imports of dead poultry were less by 9,200 tons. It
appears, therefore, that thetotal annual value of the eggs and poultry
consumed in the United Kingdom had in 1920 reached the following
approximate huge sum:
British production 37,000,000
Irish 22,352,578
Imported 12,396,968
Total 71-749,546
From the foregoing it would seem that the opportunities for
increasing the production of eggs and poultry in the United Kingdom
were in 1921 greater than ever. Russia, the largest supplier in pre-
war days, had practically ceased her exports, whilst Italy and the
countries formerly included in Austria-Hungary would probably
take some years to recover their former exporting capabilities. M uch
must depend, however, upon the capacity of the British people to
adopt efficient methods of cheaper production. There is little doubt
that the majority of British consumers would prefer to eat fresh
British eggs and poultry rather than those of foreign origin, preserved
or otherwise, provided the price of the home article is not too high.
It is largely a matter of cost of production and methods of marketing.
One of the most interesting developments in poultry-keeping
of recent years has been the growth of stock poultry farms whose
main object is the production of pure-bred poultry of heavy lay-
ing capacity. This development was no doubt primarily due to
competitions were conducted over four winter months, commenc-
ing in October. Thus the productive capacity of the birds was
tested at the time of the year when eggs are most difficult to ob-
tain, and competing breeders were compelled to hatch their birds
early if they wished them to obtain a good place in the trials.
The introduction of these competitions marks an important epoch
in the history of the poultry industry, as attention was thereby
focussed upon the great variation in fecundity of various strains and
breeds, whilst the commercial importance of high egg yield was
forcibly demonstrated. For the first few years trap-nests were not
used, records of the egg yield of each pen of four birds being taken.
In 1902, however, trap-nests were introduced and the individual
records were taken. In 1912-13 the competitions were extended to
twelve-month periods, and a grant in aid of this work was given to the
Utility Poultry Society in conjunction with the Harper Adams
Agricultural College, Newport, Salop, by the Board of Agriculture
and Fisheries. It was no doubt realized by the Board that the
educational value of these competitions was very great. Not only
was information obtained regarding the relative productivity of
different birds, " strains," and breeds, but also regarding size and
colour of egg, comparative seasonal production, period of brooding,
cost of food per bird and net cost of egg production, value of different
systems of housing, feeding, and general management. In fact it is
open to question if the full educational value of laying competitions or
trials had in 1921 been fully exploited.
The National Utility Society continued to organize trials annually,
and after 1916-17 these were carried out for the Society by the
Great Eastern Railway Co. at Bentley, Ipswich. This Company in
conjunction with the Utility Duck Club also arranged in 1921 a
laying trial for ducks. The trap-nesting arrangement for these birds
is very ingenious as the ducks are enticed into the nests by regularly
placing the food in small pens in front of the nests, but inside the
136
POULTRY
traps. Only one duck can obtain admission to each pen or nest, and
as the birds are plainly marked with distinctive rings very little
handling is necessary.
Several other public laying trials were being conducted in 1921 in
various parts of the United Kingdom: at Burnley, Lancashire, by
the Northern Poultry Society ; at Newport, Salop, by the Harper
Adams Agricultural College; at Wye, Kent, by the South Eastern
Agricultural College; at Birmingham by the Midland Fur and
at too high a cost in other directions and that high resistance to
disease, low chicken mortality, and reasonably sized eggs are also
matters of considerable importance.
The type of bird bred by the- breeder of pedigree layers has
drifted further and further away from the standard set up by the
specialist exhibition clubs. So much is this so, that in the case of
several breeds, particularly White Leghorns and White Wyan-
The gross production and general averages, etc
years. The Championship Section was instituted in
TABLE 3
, of the National Utility Poultry Society's twelve-month competitions during eight
1918-19, and each pen consisted of 10 pullets instead of 5 as in the ordinary section.
Total
No. of
Pullets
Entered
Per Cent
White
Wyan-
dottes
Per Cent
White
Leg-
horns
Total
Eggs
laid
Per Cent
Grades of Eggs
Total
Average
per Pullet
Per Cent
Pullets laying
over under
Best
Pens
Aver-
age per
Bird
Worst
Pens
Aver-
age
per Bird
Food cost
per bird
s. d.
1st
2nd
200
140
1912-13
I9I3-I4
*I9I4-I5
1915-16
1916-17
1917-18
1918-19
1919-20
600
300
300
600
354
575
720
1,440
33
48
30
29
3<>
32
31
30
18
IS
38
29
3
41
48
30
9I,"5
56,184
50,562
98,898
52,438
84.477
112,162
231,777
76-4
90-2
87-4
65-5
58-8
75-4
84-4
78-6
23-5
9-7
12-5
31-5
41-2
24-6
13-6
21-2
'5'-9
187-2
168-5
164-0
148-1
142-2
155-7
163-3
15
43
'9
24
8-4
IQ-I
40
17
21
26
42
2S-62
231
223
212
252
249
233
204
207
87
102
124
78^
8 9
63
Si
72 1
7 ii
7 oj
8 loj
II 6
Not
Reported
Ten months only. Championship Section
1918-19
1919-20
IOO
1 20
3
33-3'?
'/
58-3
18,209
22.320
87-1
7.V3
H-9
26-7
182-0
188-8
28-0
47-5
I4-0
H-I
203
215
171
184
Feather Federation ; at Trowbridge by the Wiltshire County Council ;
and in Ireland at Cork by the Irish Department of Agriculture. In
the case of the trials at Newport, Wye and Trowbridge, financial
assistance to the work is given by the Ministry of Agriculture.
As a brief indication of the results obtained at a few of the laying
competitions the accompanying tables are instructive. (Tables 3
and 4 have been compiled by Mr. H. E. Ivatts, late Hon. Sec. of the
National Laying Trials.)
Up to the 1916-17 competition awards were granted upon the
basis of the market value of the eggs laid with a varying discount
penalty up to 20% upon eggs weighing less than 2 ounces. Subse-
quent to 1916-17 the competitive value of a hen's production was
determined in accordance with the following rule:
. " For the purpose of the test the eggs laid by each hen will be
assessed and recorded according to their weight as first or second
grade eggs. First grade eggs shall be those weighing two ounces or
more. Second grade eggs during the first ten weeks shall be those
weighing less than 2 ounces but not less than if ounces, and for the
subsequent period of the test not less than I J- ounces. Second grade
eggs shall be accepted as of equal value to first grade eggs, but not
more than 100 egs shall be credited to the score of any hen in Sec-
tions I to 5, and in the case of Section 6 (Championship) 200 eggs."
The 1915-16 trials held by the Utility Society have a special
Interest, as 42 of the competitors 1 pens were retained for a second
year in order to ascertain the yield of these birds for their second
year. Table 4 shows the results obtained.
The stimulus given by laying trials to the breeding of highly
fecund strains of poultry has been enormous. Not only has the spirit
of competition set up by the trials urged breeders to devote much
time and thought and energy to their breeding operations, but the
fact that a win in a .public competition is of great value as an ad-
vertisement led to the keenest efforts being made by competitors to
obtain a high position in the prize list. It is perhaps not too much to
Bay that success in the trials has been in several cases the foundation
of many present-day successful stock poultry farms. Ordinary
poultry-keepers wishing to buy birds either as a beginning or to
improve existing stock apply to a large extent to successful com-
petitors in the laying trials, and a considerable foreign demand at
highly remunerative prices is not infrequently the direct result of
success in the trials. This is certainly a mark of progress in the egg-
producing industry as a whole, in the same way that the increasing
demand for pedigree milking stock by the dairy farmer is an indica-
tion of progress in the dairying industry. A word of caution, however,
may not be misplaced. There may be a danger in focussing attention
too strongly on the development possibly the abnormal develop-
ment of one function, or producing weaknesses in the bird in other
directions. There is a certain risk of sterility, high mortality in rear-
ing chickens and general lack of constitution in the adult stock. The
really skilled breeder will know how to avoid these dangers, but nature
is inclined to be severe on attempts to develop abnormal capacity in
any one direction. Our knowledge of the laws of heredity is still very
incomplete in spite of the considerable amount of empiric knowledge
possessed by some of our present-day breeders. No doubt Mendel's
discoveries and the investigations made by Bateson, Punnett, Pearl
and others may give material assistance to the elucidation of the
many problems involved in the inheritance of fecundity, but in the
meantime stock breeders and commercial egg farmers would do well
to remember that high individual egg yield may possibly be obtained
TABLE 4
Two- Year Egg-Laying Competition at Harper Adams Agricultural
College, Newport, Salop, 1915-17. Each pen held 6 birds.
No.
1st Year
2nd Year
2 Years' Total
Score
Value
Eggs
Avg.
Eggs
Avg.
Eggs
Avg.
Section i. White Leghorns
l
,353
225
829
138
2,182
363
18 10 7J
2
,265
2IO
720
120
,985
330
16 i 7 i
3
-125
I8 7
745
124
,870
3"
15 17 2j
4
,196
199
686
114
,882
313
15 12 IOJ
5
,092
182
811
135
,93
37
15 12 7i
6
,261
2IO
619
103
,880
313
15 7 2j
7
,225
204
655
IO9
,880
313
IS 3 7l
8
,118
186
665
no
,783
296
14 6 74
9
,003
167
688
114
,691
281
14 o i
10
948
158
679
"3
,627
271
12 19
ii
,091
181
53
84
-594
265
12 17 7%
12
,087
181
452
75
-539
256
ii 18 ij
13
,449
241
837
139
2,286
380
19 2 44
14
,086
181
658
109
i,744
290
14 6 n|
Section 2. White Wyandotles
IS
,068
178
933
155
2,001
333
i7 9 8J
16
,177
196
755
125
i,93 2
321
17 o 7J
17
968
K.I
823
137
I-79I
298
15 3 6J
18
,071
178
707
117
1,778
295
H 19 5
19
,042
173
706
H7
1,748
290
14 IO 2j
20
997
1 66
722
1 20
i,7i9
286
H 4 7J
21
938
156
706
"7
1,644
273
H 3 o
22
95
ISO
719
119
1,624
269
13 8 9 5
23
949
158
549
91
1,498
249
12 10 5}
24
,513
252
809
134
2,322
386
19 10 9
25
,169
194
846
141
2,015
335
17 8 8]
26
,109
184
841
140
1,95
324
17 3 Hi
27
,210
201
798
133
2,008
334
17 2 si
28
,168
194
604
IOO
1,772
294
15 ii 10
29
,093
182
733
122
1,826
34
.15 I0 4
Section 3. Buff Plymouth Rocks
Rhode Island Reds, White Orpingtons, Buff Orpingtons
Barred Plymouth Rocks
30
899
149
896
149
1,795
298
i5 9 6*
31
777
129
811
135
1,588
264
13 ii 9i
32
1,000
1 66
534
8 9
1,534
255
13 i 7i
33
1,084
1 80
465
77
1-549
257
13 o o|
34
1,029
171
559
93
1,588
264
12 13 4
35
751
125
574
95
1,325
220
10 19 3i
36
977
162
285
47
1,262
209
10 14 6}
37
773
129
372
62
I.I45
191
9 9 o|
38
732
122
388
66
1,120
188
8 18 i|
39
471
78
455
75
926
153
7 5 i*
Section 4. Light and Red Sussex
40
915
152
752
125
1,667
277
13 19 8|
41
988
I6 4
631
105
1,619
269
13 I2 5l
42
892
148
623
103
i,5i5
251
13 i Si
POULTRY
137
dottes, the birds which win in laying competitions are of a type
distinctly different from exhibition specimens and are indeed
given a distinguishing designation such as Utility White Leghorns
in contrast to Exhibition White Leghorns. Apparently the heavy
layer develops a type of her own and if, as appears probable, the
future demand for stock poultry should be increasingly for birds
whose useful qualities, whether for egg or flesh production, have
been highly developed, it is obviously desirable that British breed-
ers of exhibition and utility poultry should take counsel together
and if possible frame their breed standards to meet present-day
requirements. Otherwise, confusion is likely to increase with
resulting loss of trade both at home and abroad.
The Irish Department of Agriculture have held annual eleven-
month laying trials in Ireland since 1913, and, as the results are
published in a form which facilitates comparison, Table 5 is of
interest :
the open-fronted house is very little used, a span-roofed type with
windows low down near the floor being preferred. The amount of
run provided for the birds also varies. One well-known poultry
farmer maintains 400 layers to the ac. but divides the acre into
two portions, and whilst the birds occupy one portion forage
crops, such as thousand-headed kale, which the birds later on con-
sume, are grown on the other portion. On another farm the lay-
ing-houses are so placed on the farm and the wire fencing so
arranged, that the birds can be given access to arable fields, fruit
gardens or pasture, as the crops and the season permit.
In methods of feeding, too, there is also wide variation. The
dry mash method is practised on certain farms whilst on others
the wet mash method is preferred or a combination of the two.
On some well-known egg farms large quantities of cooked vege-
table food are regularly fed to the layers, whilst on other farms
TABLE 5. Comparison of Results.
Eleven
Months
ending
Aug. 31
No. of
Pullets
No. of
Eggs
Laid
Average
No. per
Bird
Average
Value
per
Bird
Cost of
Food
per
Bird
Average
Price of
Eggs per
Dozen
Return per
Bird over
Cost of
Food
s. d.
s. d.
d.
s. d.
1913
318
38,199
I2O-I
II 2-3
5 8
I3-05
5 6-3
1914
282
39,2i6
139-0
13 3-6
5 8-3
13-77
7 7-3
1915
264
39-764
I5O-6
17 6
7 0-5
16-75
10 5-5
1916
297
49,830
I&9-5
23 0-5
8 n-8
19-58
14 0-7
1917
210
36,660
174-6
32 7-2
13 10-7
26-89
18 8-5
1918
2IO
36,106
I7I-9
47 4
16 6
39-66
30 io- 1
1919
306
55,124
180-0
53 3-4
20 o
42-59
33 3-4
1920
354
65.840
185-08
53
19 3-0
41-62
34 5-i
Most of the so-called "commercial egg farms," which have
become more in evidence of recent years, are stocked with Utility
White Leghorns, White Wyandottes, or Rhode Island Reds. The
main business of these farms is to produce eggs for consumption
though most of them do also a certain amount of trade in supply-
ing eggs for hatching, day-old chicks, and stock birds. One of the
largest British commercial egg farmers, however, who maintains
a flock of 5,000 layers and rears some 5,000 to 6,000 chickens
every year, states that nine-tenths of his produce is sold for direct
consumption and that he regards the hatching egg and stock
cockerel trade as comparatively unprofitable and troublesome.
All hatching and rearing on this particular farm are done with
broody hens, no incubators or foster-mothers being used, and this
has been the practice for many years. It has proved commercially
successful in this particular case, though other egg farmers use
mammoth incubators and pipe brooder houses or anthracite stove
hovers with apparently successful results. There is little doubt
that the capacity for rearing large numbers of chickens with a low
percentage of mortality is the crucial test of the commercial egg
farmers' skill and management, and much has yet to be learnt
regarding the rearing of chickens in large flocks. Considerable
differences of opinion exist as to the comparative merits of pipe
brooder housss, anthracite stove hovers, brooder houses with
small portable oil hovers, outdoor portable brooders, and natural
methods. When the pipe brooder system as practised in America
was first tried in England many failures were recorded. Since
then, however, improvements have been introduced and there is
some evidence that the improved form of pipe brooder house
may yet become popular in Britain. At least one large breeder
has erected a brooder house of this type with a capacity of from
3,000 to 5,000 chickens and excellent results have so far been ob-
tained. The anthracite stove brooder is now in use in consider-
able numbers, but opinions vary widely as to its efficiency in
rearing a high percentage of vigorous well-grown chickens.
Methods of housing and feeding hens kept principally for table-
egg production vary considerably. The usual practice is to keep
the birds in comparatively large flocks of from 1 50 to 400 and to
house them in open-fronted scratching-shed houses, the original
type of which was probably introduced from America. These
houses are not uniform in type, some being 14 ft. deep with special
back ventilation whilst others are built only 9 ft. deep and de-
pend for ventilation entirely on the open front. In Lancashire
very little green food is given beyond what the birds gather for
themselves on their runs.
From all this it will be gathered that methods are far from
being standardized in the poultry industry, and this is indeed
not a matter for surprise when the recent development of poultry-
keeping as a business is considered. Unlike agriculture, which is:
man's oldest industry and has been for many years investigated
both from the scientific and practical aspect by some of the best
brains, there has been little scientific or even practical investiga-
tion into poultry-keeping methods in the United Kingdom. For
the novice therefore, who may well feel doubtful as to the best
system to adopt, the soundest procedure is probably to obtain
information as to the methods practised on several successsful
poultry farms and then to adopt a method which appears to
combine the good points of several.
The keeping of poultry in England by urban dwellers, with
gardens or even small backyards, and by allotment holders, re-
ceived a great stimulus during the war, owing to the falling-off in
suoplies of imported eggs and the necessity for converting all the
edible household and garden waste material into human food. It
was soon realized that a limited number of laying hens could be
maintained under intensive conditions in small backyards and
gardens, at comparatively low cost. The necessary labour could
be provided within the family, and first-class eggs produced at
the point of consumption at much lower outlay than that involved
in purchasing inferior shop eggs. Furthermore, eggs so produced
were actually on the consumers' premises. Difficulties and ex-
penses of transport did not affect the supplies, provided a limited
amount of additional feeding-stuffs could be obtained to supple-
ment the household and garden waste material. This develop-
ment in urban poultry-keeping would no doubt have proceeded
much more rapidly than it actually did had the supply of chick-
ens, pullets, and hens been greater. Unfortunately, however, poul-
try-breeders were unable to obtain supplies of feeding-stuffs
freely and hence were obliged to restrict their breeding operations.
Consequently the demand for laying stock by town dwellers could
not in many cases be satisfied, or was met by supplies of old hens
which gave disappointing results. In any case urban poultry-
keeping has taken a firm hold, so much so that local sanitary
authorities and town property owners are showing concern as
to possible interference with the amenities of properties in urban
areas, and local by-laws and clauses in leases which were more
138
POULTRY
or less ignored in many cases during the war are now being
strictly enforced. It is to be hoped that town poultry.-keepers
will so regard the requirements of hygiene and sanitation in
thickly populated areas that no serious cause for complaint with
subsequent restrictive action on the part of local authorities may
arise, as undoubtedly " backyard " poultry-keeping can give
powerful assistance in reducing the necessity for large importa-
tions of foreign eggs.
For backyard, allotment and garden poultry-keeping the inten-
sive system of housing is usually adopted, though in some cases
where sufficient space is available open or covered runs for the birds
may be provided in addition to the house. Under the strictly inten-
sive system the birds are permanently confined to the house which
should afford four or five sq. ft. of floor space to each bird. It is
essential that the floor of the house be kept dry and some 4 in. to 8
in. of bedding should be provided amongst which grain should
be scattered from time to time so as to induce the birds to take
necessary exercise by scratching amongst the litter for the grain.
The intensive house is usually of a lean-to open-fronted type so de-
signed as to admit as much sunlight as possible on to the floor in the
winter months and yet to keep out rain, snow and wind. It may be
built of wood, J-in. tongued and grooved match-boarding is often
iised, asbestos sheeting, or even mainly of felt. As a backyard
or garden poultry house is often of a more or less permanent nature
it is usually more economical in the long run to use sound materials
which are likely to need little repairing. A house of this type, which
should be high enough to permit of easy cleaning, may be built for
iix or eight hens in quite a small backyard, and provided it is kept
quite clean and no male birds are kept no offence is likely to be caused
to neighbours even in a crowded city district. In circumstances
such as these, however, it is inadvisable to attempt hatching and
rearing, and the egg supply is likely to be more satisfactorily main-
tained if fresh pullets are purchased at the end of each summer and
the hens disposed of which have been kept intensively for about a
year, and have temporarily ceased laying and commenced to moult.
If space permit a covered run may be provided adjoining the
house, but the floor material, especially if of soil or sand, must be
kept scrupulously sweet and clean. The top surface should be raked
off and renewed from time to time and occasionally a little disin-
fectant powder may be sprinkled in the run. Extra accommodation
of this sort is, however, not really necessary for laying stock kept
under proper intensive conditions for one year only, and most
backyard poultry-keepers with limited space at their disposal will
find an intensive house constructed on sound lines most suitable
for their purpose.
The Sussex poultry-fattening industry, which had become of
considerable importance in the three south-eastern counties
prior to the war, has become almost extinct owing to the high
price, and the difficulty in obtaining supplies, of the Sussex ground
oats which were invariably used for cramming the birds. Apart
from the fact that it was considered uneconomical in war-time
scarcity to use concentrated feeding-stuffs for the production of
the highly finished, crammed Surrey fowl, supplies of store chick-
ens were difficult to obtain, feeding-stuffs were very short and
were rationed, and, owing to the shortage of fresh meat, chickens
found a ready market in almost any condition. Thus the old
Sussex fattening industry gradually died out, though of course
chickens continued to be reared as far as conditions would per-
mit and were marketed as a rule without cramming or special
fattening.
There have been some indications of a revival of the cram-
ming practice, but Irish supplies of store chickens having been
diverted for direct sale in London and elsewhere, and poultry-
raisers having accustomed themselves to selling their birds for
direct consumption without additional fattening, it may be that
any general revival of cramming will be long deferred. Much
will depend upon the public demand and this will no doubt revive
to an increasing extent if supplies of the former high-quality
crammed chickens become greater. The practice of trough feed-
ing chickens in fattening coops for a week or so in order to give
them a little extra finish is still continued to a certain extent dur-
ing the late summer, and this practice has much to commend it.
Less skill is required than in cramming; it is more economical of
feeding-stuffs, and though the chickens cannot be as highly fin-
ished as by the crammer, good-quality table birds can be produced
which are readily saleable at satisfactory prices.
Like the Sussex cramming industry, the old-established Ayles-
bury duck-fattening industry, as well as duck-fattening farms
outside Buckinghamshire, became practically extinct during the
war, but duck farms were bound to reappear as feeding-stuffs
became cheaper and more plentiful. In 1921 the tendency ap-
peared to be to keep the lighter breeds of ducks, such as the
Indian Runner, the Khaki Campbell, and the Buff Orpington,
for egg production rather than for table purposes, and much
attention has been drawn to this aspect of duck-keeping owing
to the laying competition for ducks conducted by the Great
Eastern Railway Co. with the Utility Duck Club.
For many years the poultry industry received little recogni-
tion or assistance from the state authorities in the United King-
dom. Considerable changes in this respect, however, have been in
evidence during recent years. State aid has been mainly directed
to educational activities, and there are now few counties which
do not possess an instructor in poultry -keeping, whose duties con-
sist in giving instruction in this subject by means of peripatetic
lectures, classes, and visits to poultry-keepers. Most of the
agricultural colleges, dairy institutes and. farm institutes also
provide regular instruction in poultry-keeping to their pupils, and
in some instances such as at the Harper Adams Agricultural
College, Shropshire; the Lancashire County Council School at
Hutton; the Glasgow and West of Scotland Agricultural College
Poultry School at Kilmarnock, etc. courses of training are pro-
vided for students desiring to specialize in poultry-keeping.
Poultry-breeding centres have been established by the Board
of Agriculture in cooperation with local authorities in almost
every district in the United Kingdom, for the purpose of distribu-
ting good pure-bred utility poultry usually by the sale of eggs
for hatching or day-old chicks to smallholders, cottagers and
allotment holders. This scheme has met with much apprecia-
tion and success. Table 6 shows the number of distributing sta-
tions established in England and Wales and the numbers of eggs
and chicks distributed since 1919:
TABLE 6. Distribution Stations.
Jt
OH
c
goi
U.2
y C
o o
S3
3
Total
||
"1
<*s3
uS
"p.S
Eggs
iu
t/5
bo
t/}
c ^
9
H
i
Q
I 9 i9
156
3
4
163
52,980
2,974
1920
122
39
8
4
173
141,611
20,934
1921
138
84
9
4
259'
Includes 24 stations which undertake distribution of ducks' eggs.
It is significant of the interest now taken by the State in the
development of the poultry industry that the Ministry of Agri-
culture and Fisheries has created a separate Small Livestock
Branch, on the staff of which technically qualified officers were
appointed. One of the chief duties of the branch is to supervise
the poultry educational work of local authorities in respect of
which grants in aid are made by the Ministry. It is the duty of
the technical head of the branch to advise the Ministry on mat-
ters relating to the industry.
Valuable work is done in Britain to assist the poultry industry
by poultry societies and clubs, such as the National Utility
Poultry Society, the Poultry Club, the Northern Utility Society,
the Scientific Poultry Breeders' Association, the Midland Fur and
Feather Federation, and many others. These clubs organize lec-
tures, demonstrations, laying competitions and shows, and do a
great amount of voluntary work in an advisory capacity. In
1920 a central organization known as the National Poultry
Parliament was set up mainly through the efforts of Mr. Edward
Brown, F.L.S., who was unanimously appointed the first presi-
dent. This poultry parliament, which meets once or twice a year
to discuss questions relating to the industry, is representative of
societies, clubs, educational authorities and institutions and trad-
ing organizations. The parliament has appointed a smaller exec-
utive body known as the National Poultry Council, and one of
the first important steps taken by the council was to set up a
national examination board to conduct an examination and to
award to successful candidates a national diploma, which is
intended to be in the main a standard qualification for persons
desiring to obtain appointments as instructors in poultry-
keeping. (P. A. F.)
POULTRY
139
UNITED STATES
Profound changes took place in the American industry between
1900 and 1920. In 1900 " breeding-birds " and meat were the
principal objects of poultry raising and furnished most of the
profit. Eggs at that time were a by-product. Conditions had so
changed by 1920 that eggs were the principal money producer
and meat and breeding birds were the by-products.
Many factors contributed to this change. There had been a
greater increase in the population especially in the cities, than
in the number of hens kept. Consequently there was a greater
demand for meat and eggs, especially eggs. Cold storage facili-
ties and improved shipping methods had raised the average
quality of the product marketed and by more nearly equalizing
the supply and price, had increased the demand. The spring
flow of eggs after the introduction of storage became profitable,
although formerly it often had resulted in loss. The per capita
consumption of eggs and poultry flock decreased because of the
increase in price. The increase in price affected the consumption
of meat more than of eggs because substitution of other meats
was possible. Eggs, quickly and easily cooked, digestible, con-
taining concentrated vitamines, clean, imparting their flavour
and preserving qualities to cakes and pastries, remained in strong
demand even at high prices.
During 1920 the total value of products placed the industry
among the few of those connected with farming from which the
1920 return exceeded a thousand million dollars. The 1920 cen-
sus showed more farmers reporting poultry than any other single
crop, even apart from the large quantity of poultry raised in
towns and villages not covered by the census reports.
Table 7 shows that, relatively, poultry-keeping rapidly de-
clined in the east during the decade 1909-19. The west, especially
the Pacific Coast states, continued to increase. The decline in
the east was due largely to the high price of feed and the diffi-
culty of obtaining it, particularly during 1917 and 1918, and the
decrease in farm population and the number of farms. Opposite
conditions obtained in the west. While feed was higher it was
easily obtainable and relatively cheaper because of the freight
congestion. During the decade there was an increase in the num-
ber of farms and farmers in the west particularly on the Pacific
Coast. The poultry farms in New England that were making a
specialty of producing meat were to a large extent put out of
business owing to the increased cost of feed and labour without
a proportionate increase in the price of meat during 1917 and
1918. The same was true to a lesser extent of the specialized egg
farms and farm flocks in New England and the North Atlantic
states. These farms had not returned to normal when the 1920
census was taken, but at the close of 1921 a rapid development
was under way.
The general depression in the industry from 1916 to 1919
primarily affected those who were obtaining comparatively poor
egg production due to faulty methods of management or to
poorly selected or poorly bred stock. The poultrymen who ob-
tained high egg yields made greater profits than for the years
1910-1915. This condition drew the attention of poultry-keepers
to the necessity of getting a good egg yield and led to systematic
breeding and selecting for egg production. Many farms, partic-
ularly those in the northwest, have bred their birds to the point
where they are getting an average egg production of over 200
eggs per hen from large flocks of birds. From 1900 to 1915 an
increasing number of commercial poultry farms were established
primarily to produce eggs. These took the place of the broiler
farms, which had been mainly failures. Through these farms and
the value of the produce, poultry became a business or industry
rather than a side-line for farmers' wives or a hobby for fanciers.
Perhaps the most rapid change that took place in the industry
during the period 1910-20 was that in 1910 but few baby chicks
were sold, but in 1921 millions were sold to the advantage of the
breeder, the hatchery man and the farmer raising the chicks.
If the rate of increase of the chick hatcheries for 1918-21 should
be maintained until 1930 comparatively few hens then would be
used for hatching, and comparatively few hatching eggs would be
sold except to the hatcheries.
I
I
"3
a_
*
Ci ^"^
|l
vJ>-,-
^.^
Chickens and Eggs *
$
ON
w
ro
C4
10
ON
$
IO
tf>
^ * fc* N w o M *o
M M 00 O Tj- ^J- rj- O"O
O O t^. IO\O pj i-i vo IO
sorting chickens on hand but no eggs produced. The returns for 1909 included all eggs produced. To obtain figures
y ducks, in proportion to the number of ducks on hand in 1910. Eggs from fowls other than chickens and ducks are
jorting chickens on hand on the census date but no chickens raised during the preceding year. The returns for 1909
deductions have been made for fowls other than chickens, in proportion to the number of such fowls on hand in 1910.
y, while the 1909 figures include the products of all kinds of poultry.
i-Crfo o <><N rCiorC
H ro *-t toiot-i r> 10 ON
IO O MOO O-^J-O ON >-<
cT Os **3 ON O - -4- pf iO
P IOC* PI lOrJ-Tl-t-. C*
&
ON
CT;
c
00
%
t-c
"I"
o_
v>
OOOO IO fO CO IO O i-t \O
IO IOOO IO\O ON M IO Tf-
r^rfpi C-.N 5 Tf-ts.M
rO i-i -3-OO M OO \O IO O
1-1 10 -t 10 coco IO f*5 Tt-
101^00 >-i vo i-i I-H \o >H
pToO & O O O tC O~ fO
c*5 O Tf 1^. i-c 00 & fO^O
Chickens Raised 2
<U -w
<n C
rt o
^
*&
ON
W
C*OO ^^J-iOr^hH H- -r}-
MOO O\O OOO\O IOO
| | Ui'*
$
ON
r^
IO
o
NO
o"
NO
*
t-N-vO 00 O O O f*5 O rO
rj- O ON\O to HI 10 rO O
CTv^O \o O OM^ P) O ^t*
\Q O >OOO~ 00* rO i-t \O rf
10 r^. & ON >ooo o n i-t
i-^ooo OOMD r-Tt-o
o ^f oo"oo" 10 to T? oo" *
-rOON'-^OioiO I-H
ON
IO
ro
3i
ro
N
O;
rO
r^
*
O IO Pi t^. r^. 10 rj- ONvO
VO O IO N Tf IOOO P4 -i
f*5 -* lO-^-O Tt- 1-1 rOrh
r-ONHH o ^fi-H t-i cr^O^
t^. lOio rOf^-t^. 1O^5 fO
^OPIvOrOOOOON
06" - &*o 10 I-H oo" c*5 d"
fOO\MO lOtOt-i w
Chicken Eggs Produced '
(Dozens)
Increase
Per cent
w
"O
(S O ON fO t>- IOOO O M
- IO P) t^- t-OO rO l^. O
pi | **
8
ON
1,574,979,416
rfOO IO Tj- Ui OOO i-t O
OO W C\\O Cl -* O ^t-
av^Oco r^-'O ^ t-t TJ-
oo~ io\o rC dvoo <* *o <
vO \O lOvD OO O Tf to ^t-
\O ^h Cl - N fO^O M ON
^*- ON O> M M- r>- r*^ IOOO
10 1000 T+- to n \o fC^O
W f*5^-W H IH
ON
ON
1,656,267,200
\OOO\OoO O O\O tOf
O^^O l Orl-O i-t Oi-OO
00 Tj-^o\fOi- fOiOi-t
IH to 10 o\ n PI o\^o o
f^lO^iO\O IO\O 00 O
\O Th Tj-\o vo M fO I s * 1-1
tC * o ^f ^oo~ td-i o^
fjiOO t^H'fOlOlOO
|_ ^J-Tj- 1 M t- HH M
Chickens on Hand
'o
t-i
ON
>o
&
<
280,340,959
Tf O fOv) O O r^ rf- N
O "d~ ON'-D O iO\O rO O
TfOO O M O O N W fO
09 include estimates for farms rej
ve been made for eggs produced b
09 include estimates for farms re|
) obtain figures for chickens alone,
ude chicken eggs and chickens on
O 00 i-t P) vO iO\O N- *O
^-Tj-t^o^o or>.\o c*
00 "..J- <<j- \O Tj-M( rJ-\O
VO ThOMOiOTfOMOOv
C* VO 00 M M PI
O
f*
ON
d
a
' >
o
00
f>
(C
ro
IO
<>
IO
O
r^. o^ looo O oo co o 10
O to r>. o\ >-> t^^o Tf r^.
lOrJ-pt O^Ooo ON CO
fOdvoco t^-woo ^j- ^t*
OiOi-'^-OCM-HPIt^.
OO ^J-iOtOH-O OMO ^
lOt^.rJ-iOO Tj- ON ONVO
CO O CO rO PO t-i
Division
a
rt
X
TJ
4.J
*c
> (
1 The figures for both 1919 and 19
for chicken eggs alone, deductions ha
considered negligible.
2 The figures for both 1919 and 19
included all kinds of fowls raised. Tc
3 The products shown for 1919 incl
'Chickens 3 months old and over.
s -|1 -"si
Z JlgiolS
>-OcCjU.a^c3
Sjls-Sji.^
oU^t: 733 3 s
IO^^JIL
J3
140
POWER, SIR W. T. PRICES
In 1900 there were few colleges or experiment stations in
America teaching poultry raising or experimenting with it. By
1920 all the states were teaching and most of them were doing
experimental work. Colleges and experiment stations have been
of great assistance to farmers and poultrymen in showing them
better methods. Egg-laying contests have shown the value of
breeding for high production and of strains rather than breeds
so far as egg production is concerned. The first egg-laying contest
in America was at Storrs, Conn., under the supervision of the
Connecticut Agricultural College in 1911-2. There were more
than 10 contests in the United States and loin Canada in 1921-2.
The highest average production in any contest was obtained by
the Western Washington Experiment Station at Puyallup, Wash.,
for the year 1920-21. The 365 birds in the contest averaged 214
eggs per hen. The pen of five single-comb White Leghorns which
led the contest and made the American record layed 1,384 eggs
or an average of 276-8 eggs per hen.
During 1910-20 ornamental breeds and bantams so decreased
that in 1921 few commercial breeds were maintained on a large
scale. The chief breeds were White Leghorns, Barred Plymouth
Rocks, Rhode Island Reds and White Wyandottes. There were
also fairly large numbers of Anconas, Buff and White Orpingtons,
Brown Leghorns, White Plymouth Rocks, Buff Wyandottes,
Black Minorcas, Black Langshans and Light Brahmas.
Table 8 shows that imports and exports of eggs and egg
products greatly increased from 1910 to 1920, the imports more
TABLE 8. U.S. Exports and Imports; Eggs (Shell) and Egg
Products, Fiscal Years 1910-20
Exports
Imports
1910
1915 . . ;.
1920 . . ; .
S 1,264,043
5,083,825
19,459,187
$ 166,859
1,236,889
9,250,021
rapidly than the exports, so that the United States seemed likely
to become on balance an importing nation. The exports for
1920 consisted largely of shell eggs and went to Cuba, Canada,
Mexico, Panama, England and Scotland. A considerable propor-
tion of the eggs that went to Canada replaced Canadian eggs
shipped to England. As Canada has a grading law, its eggs were
exported to better advantage. The imports were mostly egg
products from the Orient, particularly from China. In 1920 the
imports consisted of 1,348,383 dozen of shell eggs, of which over
70% came from the Orient. The egg products amounted to
24,091,098 pounds, of which over 90% came from the Orient.
Beginning about 1918 the large packing and egg handling houses
began establishing egg-breaking and packing facilities in China
and South America, so that in 1921 the imports seemed likely to
continue to increase for some years unless tariff changes affected
conditions. (O. B. K.)
POWER, SIR WILLIAM TYRONE (1819-1911), British soldier
and administrator (see 22.224), died July 24 1911.
POYNTER, SIR EDWARD JOHN, BART. (1836-1919), English
painter (see 22.239), died in London July 26 1919. In 1919 he
retired from the presidency of the Royal Academy, and was
created K.C.V.O.
PREECE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1834-1913), British elec-
trical engineer, was born in Wales Feb. 15 1834 and educated
at King's College, London. He became a civil engineer but in
1853 joined the Electric and International Telegraph Co., whence
in 1869 he reverted to the civil service. In 1877 he was appointed
electrician to the Post Office, in 1899 engineer-in-chief and,
after his retirement, consulting engineer. He was a pioneer of
wireless telegraphy and his early experiments are described
in 26.530. He died at Penrhos, Carnarvon, Nov. 6 1913.
PRESSENSE, FRANCIS DE (1853-1914), French politician
and man of letters, was born in Paris Sept. 30 1853, the son
of Edmond de Pressense (see 22.299). He was educated at the
Lycee Bonaparte, and at school had a brilliant career, earning
many distinctions. He served on General Chanzy's staff during
the war of 1870 and was taken prisoner at Le Mans, but after
the war entered the public service. After a short period at the
Ministry of Public Instruction, he entered the diplomatic service,
and was appointed first secretary at Washington. In 1882 he
returned to France and took up journalism. He was a contrib-
utor to many journals, including the Revue des Deux Mondes
and the Republique Franqaise, and in 1888 became foreign editor
of the Temps. On the rise of the Dreyfus question (1895) de
Pressense identified himself with the cause of the prisoner. He
wrote in support of General Picquart, and in consequence of his
advocacy of Emile Zola's cause was struck off the roll of the
Legion of Honour. This led to his resignation from the Temps,
and he came forward as a socialist politician, being in 1902
elected socialist deputy for the Rhone. He was prominent in
the debates on the question of the separation of Church and
State, and a bill brought in by him formed the basis of the one
finally carried by M. Briand. He died in Paris Jan. 19 1914.
De Pressens6 published many articles of the greatest interest in
the Temps, the Revue des Deux Mondes, Aurore and Humanite. He
also produced Le Cardinal Manning (1896), an interesting study, and
a work on Home Rule, L'Irlande et I'Anglelerre depuis Vacte d'union
jusqu'a nos jours, 1800-1888 (1889).
PRETORIA (see 22.309). Pop. (1911), whites 35,942, coloured
18,732, total 54,674; in 1918, whites 41,690. About a mile
from the centre of the town on a commanding position on
the slopes of Meintjes Kop are the Union Government Build-
ings, the finest public offices in South Africa. They were built
1910-3, from the designs of Herbert Baker, at a cost of 1,800,-
ooo, and consist of three main portions; a large central semi-
circular colonnaded building flanked east and west by rectan-
gular blocks. At the junction of each wing with the central
section is a domed tower 180 ft. high, and at the end of each
wing is a projecting pillared pavilion. A feature of the building
is the long low roof, with projecting eaves. The space enclosed
by the building is laid out in terraces culminating in an open
amphitheatre, in the centre of which is a stone rostrum. The
buildings are of South African freestone, on a foundation of
Transvaal granite. The laying out and planting of the terraced
gardens was not completed until 1920. The principal approach
lies 12 ft. below the main terrace, is 80 ft. wide and is planted
with trees. Another road leads to the suburb of Bryntirion,
where are Government House and the residences of ministers.
The foundation stone of Government Buildings was laid in Nov.
1910 by the Duke of Connaught, and the first public ceremony in
the amphitheatre of the building was held in 1915 to celebrate
General Botha's conquest of South-West Africa. In 1913 a statue of
President Kruger was unveiled in the town. In April 1918 Pretoria
became the headquarters of the newly created university of South
Africa. One of its constituent colleges, the Transvaal University
College (incorporated 1910), is situated in Pretoria.
The State Library and Museum (built 1913) are in Market Street.
The former Transvaal Government Buildings, facing Church Square,
which is the business centre of the city, are used by the Provincial
Council. The Law Courts (completed 1914) are on the north side of
the square; the Post Office (completed 1912) faces Church Square
and Church St.
The municipality, which owns the sanitary, water, electric and
tramway services, spent between 1902 and 1919 a sum of 1,675,000
on improvements, including the provision of a water sewerage sys-
tem, electric tramways, parks, an open air swimming-bath and a golf
course, reputed one of the best in South Africa. The rateable value
of Pretoria in 1918 was 7,438,000, its revenue 366,000, and its
indebtedness 1,716,000.
PRICES. In the following article, which should be read in
connexion with those under COST OF LIVING and WAGES, the
changes in prices of commodities during the years 1910-20
are considered with special reference to the United Kingdom.
An account of the American system for controlling prices in
the United States is appended.
(I.) Wholesale Prices in General. The movement of wholesale
prices in general is measured by the method of index numbers.
The prices of commodities for which definite market quotations
for definite grades exist are selected as typical in their changes of
prices in general, a year or longer period is chosen as base, the
price of each commodity is equated to 100 at the base period and
the price in other years expressed proportionately, such numbers
being called price ratios. (Thus if the price of wheat in the base
period was 6os. and in another year 455., the price ratio in the
latter year would be written as 75.) Then either factors are chosen
expressing the relative importance of the commodities as deter-
PRICES
mined by the total sum spent on them in a period or some other
ciriterion, and each price ratio is multiplied by the corresponding
factor, the sum of the products is divided by the sum of the
factors and the resulting quotient is the index number of whole-
sale prices for that year; or the more important commodities are
represented by two or more price quotations and the resulting
price ratios are simply averaged to obtain the index number.
There are many variants of method and there has been much
controversy on every detail of the process; in fact, however, the
precision of the result depends not to any great extent on the
particular method followed, but principally on (i.) the number
of independent prices included and (ii.) on the dispersion of the
various price ratios in the year to which the index number
refers, so that when prices are moving on the whole in the same
proportion the index number is more accurate than when some
are moving rapidly upwards and others are stationary or falling.
In normal times when changes are moderate it has been shown
both from theoretical considerations and by comparing the
numbers obtained by various methods that the precision of the
method is high, but during the war period the movements were
rapid and unequal, the conditions of accuracy were lost and no
very precise measurement could be obtained. The object of the
method of index numbers is to average away the variations due
to the special conditions of supply and demand of particular
commodities, and to obtain a resultant which measures the
effect on prices of general causes, such as the supply of currency.
It is found in practice that the necessity for restricting price
quotations to those of commodities for which the same grade
and quality is in the market in large quantities through a long
period of years restricts the choice greatly, and limits it to
raw materials or articles in an elementary state of manufacture.
In some cases the price used is based on the average value of
all grades of the commodities (e.g. of wheat, of tea, of coal),
imported or exported, but this introduces a possibility of error
since the average may change owing to a change in the relative
quantities of high and low grades independently of any change in
price. The three index numbers of wholesale prices in use in
the United Kingdom are the Board of Trade's, the Economist's,
and the Statist's (formerly Sauerbeck's); the first uses average
values to some extent and applies factors to the price ratios to
allow for the relative importance of commodities, the second and
third use market quotations of definite qualities of goods and
take a simple average of the price ratios.
Table I. exhibits the general movement in the twelve years
before the World War, and shows how little the variation of
method affects the result in this period. The year 1903 is taken
as the starting point, since it is after the great fall of prices end-
ing in 1896 and the subsequent rise and the inflation of 1900-1,
and may be regarded as a normal year.
TABLE I. Movement of wholesale prices in the United Kingdom
1903-13. (In each case the index number of 1913 is equated to 100.)
Year
Board of
Trade
Index No.
Sauerbeck's
Index No.
Economist
Index No.
1903
83
82
79
1904
84
83
81
1905
84
85
81
1906
87
91
88
1907
91
94
93
1908
89
86
83
1909
90
87
84
1910
94
92
90
1911
94
94
. 95
1912
99
IOO
108
1913
IOO
IOO
IOO
1914
Jan.-June
97
. 96
Sauerbeck's index numbers for 1903 on the same basis for
separate groups of commodities were: Vegetable food 90;
animal food 85; sugar, tea, coffee, 86; minerals 74; textiles 79;
sundry materials 83. Wholesale prices had therefore been
rising from 1902-13 (with a short inflation and depression in
1906-8), but tended downwards in the first half of 1914.
TABLE II. Statist monthly
July 1914 taken as too.
index numbers.
141
Average Jan. to
End of
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
Jan.
T~* t-
117
150
193
225
233
298
239
Feb.
122
!54
199
227
227
317
220
March
126
158
205
228
224
316
215
April
IOO
128
163
209
230
224
323
206
May
130
164
212
231
235
316
196
June
129
159
218
2 33
242
3U
189
July
129
158
214
233
250
309
Aug.
1 06
130
163
213
237
258
38
Sept.
1 08
131
163
214
239
26O
32
Oct. .
109
133
173
219
239
272
291,
Nov.
1 08
137
183
222
237
280
27?
Dec.
in
H3
187
225
237
285
252
Average for year-
Statist
Economist
Board of Trade
131 164 212 233 249 301
128 167 212 234 244 298
127 164 214 235 261 327
Immediately after the declaration of war in 1914 prices began
to rise, and with certain interruptions continued to mount up
till the spring of 1920, when the index numbers reached their
maximum (Statist 323, end of April; Economist 326, end of March;
Board of Trade 357, average of July). Till Oct. 1917 the in-
creases showed a remarkable regularity averaging 2 % monthly,
equivalent cumulatively to 27% per annum; on this scale the
index in the successive Octobers would leach in 1914 106, in 1915
135, in 1916 171, in 1917 217 and in 1918 258, numbers which
(except the last) are in close agreement with those shown in the
table. This was, however, a definite seasonal movement super-
imposed on this regularity; in the first three or four months of
each year prices moved up with special rapidity, while in the
summer the increase was slackened and in some cases was
replaced by a fall. The check in the increase in the summer of
1917, following a specially rapid rise, is attributable to the control
of prices which by that date was general. From Aug. 1917
prices continued to rise in spite of control till Sept. 1918, but the
rise in these 13 months aggregated to only 13% (239 against
213). After the Armistice prices fell slowly for five months, dur-
ing the season in which in previous years the increase had been
specially rapid, but expectations of a permanent fall were not
realized; in the year beginning April 1919 the index rose from
224 to 3 23 or 44%.
From the beginning of the war till July 1919 the Statist and
Economist index numbers are in close agreement, except that
the Economist shows a more rapid rise for twelve months from
Oct. 1916 and less increase in the late autumn of 1917, but there
is disagreement as to the dates and amount of the increase after
July 1919. At that date the three index numbers agree in
estimating the whole increase in five years at 148, 149 or 150%.
The following table shows the divergence in subsequent months :
TABLE III. Monthly index numbers, July 1919 taken as 100.
Board of Trade
Economist
Statist
1919
July
IOO
IOO
IOO
Aug.
106
IOI
103
Sept.
no
IO2
104
Oct.
"5
105
109
Nov.
1 20
1 08
112
Dec.
123
114
114
1920
Jan.
127
1 2O
119
Feb.
IS'
127
126
March
133
130
127
April
May
133
132
128
128
129
126
June
140
122
124
July.
144
122
123
Aug.
135
120
123
Sept.
137
119 -
1 2O
Oct.
134
Ill
116
Nov.
129
I O2
1 08
Dec.
125
92
IOO
The earlier agreement is more remarkable than the later dis-
crepancies, for the conditions of accuracy named above were
not present during the war when prices were moving rapidly
and quotations for the usual qualities of goods were often
142
PRICES
TABLE IV. Index numbers of wholesale prices.
United
King-
dom
Canada
U.S.A.
France
Italy
Japan
Sweden
Nether-
lands
Den-
mark
Norway
Aus-
tralia
Statist
Official
Brad-
street's
Statist-
ique
Generale
Bacchi
Bank of
Japan
Svensk
Handels-
tidning
Official
Finanz-
tidende
Okono-
miks
Revue
Official
1913
IOO
IOO
IOO
IOO
IOO
IOO
IOO
IOO
IOO
1914
IOI
IOO
97
103
95
95 1
116
106
134
IOO
IOO
1915
126
109
1 08
141
133
97
145
149
149
141
1916
159*
134
130
190
200
"7
185
233
206
132
1917
206
175
172
263
306
I 4 8J
244
298
284
146
1918
226i
205
204
34'
409
196
339
398
292
170
1919
242
216
204
358
366
239
33
306
34
1 80
1920
.
Jan.
289
248
227
489
54
301
319
293
334
203
Feb.
306
253i
226
525
556
3H
342
289
.
344
206
Mar.
308
258
225*
557
619
322
354
290
35 1
209
April
3'3
261
226
59i
679
301
354
296
354
217
May
306
263
216
553
659
272
36i
297
37i
225
June
301
258-
211
495
615
248
366
297
383
384
233
July
299*
256
205
498
613
239
363
301
385
411
234
Aug.
298
244
I 9 6
54
632
235
365
290
394
418
236
Sept.
293
241
184
528
660
231
362
288
398
427
230
Oct.
282
234
171
504
662
226
346
283
43
422
215
Nov.
263
224J
148
463
658
221
331
260
374
404
208
Dec.
244
214
138
437
634
2O6
2QO
233
34i
377
197
The prices are of course measured in the currency of each country. In every case there is a fall in the last months of 1920.
unobtainable. It is important to emphasize this uncertainty,
for it is the fact that exact measurements of general price
changes cannot be made in times of disturbance, and indeed it
is difficult even to define the quantity we wish to measure;
tendencies can be observed clearly, but only rough measurements
can be made and fine comparisons lead to error. The maximum
level was reached in March 1920 by the Economist index number,
in April by the Statist, in July by the Board of Trade. By Dec.
1920 the Board of Trade index was back at the level of the
beginning of 1920, that of the Statist at the level of July 1919, and
that of the Economist at the level of May 1919. The difference
is mainly due to the varying proportions given to cereals and
textiles, which had fallen rapidly, and to meat and minerals
which had fallen little in the three numbers.
Table IV. (from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics of the Su-
preme Economic Council, vol. ii., No. 5) shows the index num-
bers for several countries.
(II.) Wholesale Prices of Selected Commodities. When we come
to commodities separately, the measurements can be made more
exactly subject to the two following qualifications. During the
war period the ordinary sources of supply were so disturbed that
pre-war kinds and qualities were no longer in the market (in
the Economist index number only 19 out of the 44 quotations
included were not subject to some modification of kind); and
a statement of prices is generally taken as meaning the price at
which a purchaser can obtain the goods he desires and at which a
merchant is willing to sell, but in the time of control and rationing
these conditions did not obtain, and the price was fixed by other
conditions than those which influence a free market.
Table V. is based on the prices tabulated in the Journal of
the Royal Statistical Society, July 1920, pp. 640-5, by the editor
of the Statist. The index numbers have been recast, the average
price in 1913 being taken as 100 for each commodity; the totals
have been obtained by grouping together the separate entries
on the same plan as in the original, but the change in base
year affects the results, which thus differ from those given in
Table II. in the same way as if the weights had been changed.
It is at once evident that the various prices have not followed
the same course; the extremes in 1919 are tin, whose price rose
only 28% in 6 years, and Russian flax, where the rise is 323%.
This great divergence "of itself shows that the general index
number cannot have great precision; but in the absence of means
of improving it, we cannot do better than take this number
(shown in the line " Grand Total " in Table V.) as measuring the
general inflation of wholesale prices.
The prices as recorded are the resultants of at least five nearly
distinct forces, viz. the general inflation of prices, the conditions
of supply and demand for the separate commodities, the control
of supply, the control of prices, the change of quality. In 1915
TABLE V. Statist index numbers. Averages for each year.
1913
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
Vegetable food
Wheat
English Gazette
IOO
170
184
239
229
229
253
American .
IOO
164
185
229
215
205
253
Flour, Town made
white or G.R. .
IOO
1 60
172
192
153
153
216
Barley, English Ga-
zette
IOO
137
189
238
217
278
330
Oats, English Ga-
zette
IOO
162
1 80
270
258
274
301
Maize, American
mixed
IOO
175
223
304
332
334
383
Potatoes, good Eng-
lish .
IOO
120
197
239
183
254
311
Rice, Rangoon
IOO
162
206
309
320
313
501
Total
IOO
156
192
252
238
255
319
Animal food
Beef: Carcase, Lon-
don Central
meat market.
Prime
Middling
Mutton: Carcase,
IOO
IOO
134
139
150
157
194
206
191
211
200
220
231
257
London Central
meat market.
Prime .
IOO
121
151
185
176
184
233
Middling .
Pork : Carcase,
IOO
126
154
195
196
203
258
London Central
meat market .
Bacon, Waterford .
Butter, Friesland .
IOO
IOO
IOO
129
121
UK
1 60
143
161
2OO
192
181
234
237
208
233
248
212
306
3"
253
Total
IOO
127
154
193
208
214
264
Tropical food
Sugar
West-Indian* .
IOO
154
255+
332 1
347
404
611
Beet* .
IOO
180*
239 +
267+
279
361
689
Java
IOO
172
244
301
327
400
687
Coffee
East India*
IOO
97
96
117
159
1 80
183
Rio* .
IOO
84
94
109
130
215
210
Tea
Congou, common*
IOO
167
160
338
418
270
225
Indian, good me-
diunTJ"
IOO
127
130
185
194
182
114
Average Import*
IOO
122
125
I62
166
171
165
Total*
IOO
143
182
241
269
300
432
Total Food
IOO
143
1 86
228
233
250
322
PRICES
143
TABLE V .Continued.
1913
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
Minerals
Iron
Scottish Pig* .
IOO
109
137
146
154
215
326
Cleveland Pig* .
too
112
142
154
163
235
357
Common Bars .
IOO
136
177
177
181
249
366
Copper
Chili Bars .
IOO
107
170
183
170
135
143
English Tough
Cakef .
IOO
112
182
185
171
135
153
Tin, Straits
IOO
82
91
118
165
128
150
Lead, English Pig
IOO
125
170
169
169
154
209
Coal
Wallsend in Lon-
don
IOO
I43
I28
I28
156
211
149
Newcastle Steam f
IOO
136
266
194
216
293
332
Average Export
IOO
122
177
193
219
331
572
Total
IOO
118
150
1 60
174
205
276
Textiles
Cotton
Middling Ameri-
can .
IOO
84
128
236
318
280
330
Fair Dhollerah .
IOO
77
123
240
301
259
248
Flax
Petrograd *
IOO
176
226
333
353"
353
353
Russian, Average
Import*
IOO
161
207
368
379
423
837
Hemp
Manila, Fair rop-
'ing*.
IOO
120
172
266
313
185
207
Petrograd, clean*
IOO
159
187
278
439
388
385
Jute, good medium
IOO
80
117
149
148
189
169
Wool
Merino, Port
Philip* .
IOO
119
182
258
262
372
444
Merino, Adelaide*
IOO
114
174
245
2,47
338
337
English, Lincoln
half-hogs
IOO
140
162
169
152
183
178
Silk, Tsatlee .
IOO
89
148
195
234
236
35i
Total
IOO
112
156
214
269
272
320
Miscellaneous
Hides
River Plate, dry*
IOO
105
119
162
163
182
1 66
River Plate,
salted* .
IOO
116
139
167
149
206
192
Average Import
price*
IOO
116
135
1 80
185
198
233
Leather
Dressing hides*
IOO
147
145
179
1 68
187
223
Average import
price*
IOO
113
140
179
170
211
37
Tallow, town .
IOO
108
138
181
242
255
218
Oil
Palm .
IOO
98
126
130
127
197
198
Olive .
IOO
104
1 20
234
400
404 a
44
Linseed*
IOO
122
167
228
257
375
356
Linseed *
IOO
126
176
247
288
306
345
Petroleum, refined
IOO
105
141
190
252
204
298
Soda, crystals
TOO
1 02
1 66
189
174
249
317
Nitrate of Soda
IOO
no
156
217
237
216
215
Indigo, Bengal
IOO
486
486
373
327
332
527
Timber .
Hewn, average
import* .
IOO
147
205
244
268
344
400
Sawn, average
import* .
IOO
150
236
333
430
369
416
Total
IOO
148
182
217
247
268
312
Total Materials
IOO
129
165
2OI
234
252
34
Grand Total
IOO
135
170
212
234
251
312
Silverf
IOO
86
114
151
172
207
223
*The entries in these cases of similar commodities are averaged
before inclusion in the index numbers.
fThese commodities are not included in the Statist index numbers.
jComparative values.
Approximate prices. "Nominal prices.
and 1916 the principal increases may be traced to the diminution
or difficulty of supply (cereals, sugar, flax) or to acuteness of
demand (wool) or to both (timber). In 1917-8 the prices of
nearly all commodities whose supply was threatened or for which
the demand was increased were controlled. The quality was
changed definitely in the case of flour and indirectly when the
prices are averages of several grades as in the cases of meat, flax,
leather and timber
Food. The price of wheat rose immediately after the beginning
of the war, and with it the prices of flour, oats, maize and rice.
The prices were checked by the establishment of a government
system of purchase at the end of 1916 and by the control of the
prices of home-grown cereals in 1917; with this system flour of
mixed materials was substituted for wheat-flour and the product
sold at a price kept constant and relatively low, by the help of a
subsidy beginning in the autumn of 1917. In the case of wheat
and flour, the subsidy and control continued till the beginning of
1921 but the prices rose; the prices of other cereals increased very
rapidly from the autumn of 1919. An attempt was made to con-
trol the consumption of oats in 1917-8, otherwise cereals were not
rationed. The wholesale price of potatoes was fixed from time
to time, the Government undertaking to make good growers'
losses, but the price was changed so frequently that the control
had little effect.
Early in the war the price of imported meat increased more
rapidly than that of home-killed, till in 1917 there was little
difference between their retail prices. On the whole the price
of meat increased less than that of commodities in general. Prices
were fixed in Aug. 1917 and consumption was rationed early in
1918; after the Armistice control was gradually relaxed; but
prices of beef and mutton changed very little during the 1 two
years after the first fixing of them. The prices of Irish bacon
quoted are hardly typical; in 1917 a great quantity of American
bacon of inferior quality was bought by the Government, who had
difficulty in selling it at a price which covered the cost. The
demand for high-class bacon could not be met, and its price after
1917 rose more rapidly than that of butcher's meat. The line
in the table relating to imported butter is perhaps misleading
since the supply was insignificant, and its inclusion unduly de-
presses the average; for the records of milk and its products
we must depend on retail prices. Taken together the prices of
animal food increased at a lower rate than the general average of
prices except in 1916-7.
The price of sugar was of course dominated by the cutting off
of the continental supply, and its increase was greater than that
of any commodity always obtainable included in the table. The
Government took over the whole supply at the beginning of the
war and issued it at a fixed price; the control continued till 1921.
There was no shortage of supply of coffee nor of tea (except in
the autumn of 1917), and their prices rose relatively little.
When all food prices are grouped together as in the table, it is
seen that they rose till 1917 more rapidly than the average for
materials, but that the increase from 1913 to 1918, and to 1919
was the same in the two groups.
Materials. The prices of different kinds of coal increased at
different rates prior to the general control of coal mines which
took effect early in 1917; with the stoppage of export of coal the
supply was adequate even for the increased use in the manu-
facture of pig-iron, and the restriction in consumption from 1917
was only necessary to economize labour in the mines. For
domestic and manufacturing use the price rose but slowly till 1919
and generally less than for goods in general. Iron and steel
began to come under control as early as June 1915 with the
initiation of the Ministry of Munitions, and their use was
severely restricted for all civil purposes, so that there was no free
market for more than three years. The prices were actually
fixed in Nov. 1917, a government subsidy being given to steel and
to pig-iron makers to meet any extra costs. The subsidies were
withdrawn early in 1919 and the price of pig-iron rose from
4 1 55. to 8 a ton, the pre-war level having been 2 us. Recon-
struction and repairs, for many years in arrear, caused a great
demand for iron and steel, and in July 1920 pig-iron was 320%
and steel rails were 283% dearer than in 1914; prices fell slowly
in the autumn of 1920 (Birkett: " Iron & Steel Trades during
the War," Statistical Journal, May 1920). Copper, tin and lead
showed no special inflation and were relatively cheap in 1919.
144
PRICES
Cotton followed an. exceptional course. With the cutting off
of Germany from the market the price fell considerably in the
first months of the war and was below the'pre-war level tUl nearly
the end of 1915. Presumably in consequence of the restriction of
shipping, a rapid rise began in the autumn of 1916, and at the date
of the Armistice cotton was at three times its pre-war price;
then there was a perceptible fall for some months, but this was
followed by a great increase, the reason of which has not been
explained, which brought American cotton early in 1920 to more
than four times its cost in July 1914; the reaction from this
inflation gave the first indication in 1920 that the general index
number was about to move downwards. Both yarn and piece
goods rose more rapidly than raw cotton, especially in, 1919-20.
The price of wool also fell after the outbreak of war, but the
great demand for the Allied armies soon turned the scale and
English wool especially became rapidly dearer in 1915. From
June 1916 the Government took steps to assume ownership of all
the wool it required and to control the rest; the distribution to
manufacturers and prices was arranged by an intricate system
involving the Government, wool-brokers and manufacturers
(Zimmern: Economic Journal, March 1918). The price was very
high in 1917-8 and rose rapidly in 1919 when the civilian demand
for replenishing their wardrobes and households was acute, and
the prices of yarn and manufactured goods outpaced even raw
materials. There was no definite fall till 1920. As regards flax,
the cutting off of the Russian supply and the Government
demand for linen in airships caused linen to be practically un-
obtainable by civilians, and the shortage naturally continued
long after the war. Jute and silk were less affected.
The variations in the movements shown under the heading
" Miscellaneous " can in general be explained by known condi-
tions of supply and demand. The supply of petroleum proved to
be sufficient for war needs. The Statist index number is vitiated
by the exclusion of rubber. Owing to the development of
plantations before the war the supply was even excessive; the
price was rarely more than 20% higher than in July 1914 and
after the Armistice was lower.
(III.) Retail Prices of Food in the United Kingdom. Accurate
and useful statements of retail prices are in general only obtain-
able with respect to food, in part because most attention has been
directed to recurrent and necessary domestic expenditure, in
part because it is less easy to define the unit of purchase in the
case of clothes and manufactured goods. The cost of other
necessary items of expenditure is considered in the article COST
or LIVING, and this section deals with food alone.
The following tables show the average prices paid by the
working classes in the United Kingdom, the result of the monthly
collection of information by the Ministry of Labour (formerly by
the Board of Trade) published in each issue of the Labour
Gazette, and described in detail in the issue of March 1920. The
general movement in retail prices was similar to that of wholesale,
that is, a nearly regular increase (23% cumulatively per annum)
took place for three years after the outbreak of war, then for more
than a year the rise was checked by control and rationing; there
was a temporary fall in the spring of 1919, followed by a rise
which became rapid in the summer and autumn of 1920 and a
fall after Nov. 1920.
TABLE VII. Average of Retail Food Price-Changes in the
United Kingdom as computed in the Labour Gazette.
(The average on the ist or 2nd of each month is expressed as a
percentage of the average in July 1914.)
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
January
118
145
187
2O6
230
2 3 6
2 7 8
February
122
'47
189
208
230
235
263
March
124
148
192
207
22O
233
249
A , pril
124
149
194
2O6
213
235
238
May .
126
155
198
207
207
2 4 6
232
June .
132
159
202
208
204
255
218
July .
IOO
1321
161
204
2IO
2O9
258
220
August
"34
1 60
2O2
218
217
262
September
IIO
135
165
206
216
216
267
October .
112
140
1 68
197
229
222
270
November
"3
141
I 7 8
2O6
233
231
291
December
in.
144
184
205
229
234
282
Average for year
1 60
198
215
219
2 5 6
Wholesale food index*
(Statist)
143
'73
335
231
245
308
*Second quarter of 1914 taken as 100.
Table VII. shows the average of the movements as combined
from the data in Table VI. (together with the prices of fish and
eggs) by the Ministry of Labour, each item being given the im-
portance estimated from a pre-war standard budget of expendi-
ture. For the relation of this computation to the cost of living
see COST OF LIVING. Except for making facile generalizations
the detailed table is more important than the summary.
The price of bread rose intermittently, but on the whole rapidly
till Sept. 1917, when its price was exactly double that of July 1914.
The rate of extraction of flour from grain was controlled from the
autumn of 1916, and government regulation flour containing an
admixture of wheat, maize, rice and other cereals in varying pro-
portions alone was used in the three years 1917-8-9, and during this
period the price is not that of a commodity of constant quality. In
Sept. 1917 the Government fixed the price at 9d. for the 4-lb. loaf,
became the sole purchasers of the necessary cereals, regulated the
price to millers and bakers and met the deficit by a subsidy. The
price was raised to gld. in Sept. 1919 to meet bakers' increased
expenses, and at subsequent dates again raised with the increasing
price of wheat till it reached is. 4d. ; when wheat fell in the latter
part of 1920 the subsidy was gradually reduced to zero and the price
of bread maintained; in 1921 the price fell, and was is. lid. from
April to July. Flour followed nearly the same course as bread.
The retail prices of meat were determined by the wholesale prices
already discussed. Imported meat remained for three and a half
TABLE VI. Average Retail Prices in the United Kingdom of the Principal Foods as recorded* at the beginning of each month in the
Labour Gazette.
1914
July Dec.
1915
June Dec.
1916
Tune Dec.
1917
June Dec.
1918
June Doc.
1919
June Dec.
1920
Jane Dec.
1921
June
s. d. s. d.
s. d. s. d.
s. d. s. d
s. d. s. d.
s. d. s. d.
s. d. s d.
s. d. s. d.
s. d.
Bread . 4 Ib.
51 61
8 8
8f 10
Ill 9
9 9
9 9i
i o! i 4
I ll
Flour : Ib.
iol i o
13 I 3i
i 4i -i 7i
I 10 14
14 14
1414
III 2 61
2 O?
Beef
British Ib.
8 8|
III llf
i if i ij
4i i 3i
i 3i i Si
i 3 i i 6 n
1619
I 8J
Imported Ib.
6 7 i
9 9i
iii ii
I 3i I Si
i o| I o|
I
Mutton
British Ib.
8i 8|
10 J II
i ll i i|
Si i 3
13 I4l
i 3i i Si
i t si i ii x
I IO
Imported Ib.
51 61
8 81
iii n
2 III
13 i Si
II 10
ii
Bacon Ib.
iii i o
I ll I 2l
i 3l i Si
8i 2 2i
23 23
2324!
26 29!
2 2;
Milk . qt.
3l 3i
3l 4i
4i Si
51 6J .
Si 81
61 loj
7-1 ii
7,
Cheese
Imported Ib.
2' i 9i
nl ni
I Ii I 21
i 7i i 4?
IS i 8
- 1 6 i 6
i 81 i 9
I 7a
Butter . Ib.
i 4! i 7
17 20
2024!
2 Si 2 6
26 26;
2 ni 3 3!
2 2
Margarine Ib.
71 l 71
7i 7i
8i 8|
ii| ill
10 10
ill I i
12 11}
9,
Sugar . Ib.
2 31
31 4
si 6
7 7 ,
7 3 8
12 IO
i 7i
Potatoes 7 Ib.
Tea . Ib.
4l 4
I 61 i 81-
4l 4i
i ii 23!
5 * 10?
2 3? 2 3?
ii| 6f
2831!
7i 7i
28 28
8| iol
2 6J- 2 9?
i 3l "i
2 lof 2 8|
8-2
2 61
*The prices from Dec. 1914 to Dec. 1918 are calculated from the percentage changes recorded.
NOTES. The prices of meat are the means between two entries in each case and .not the average prices of the carcases. They should
only be used for comparative purposes, and not taken to be the average price of all meat bought.
In general the, records are the average for the commodities as bought in shops and stores used by the working class.
PRICES
145
years at 2d. or 3d. a Ib. lower than British meat, but since the price
of the latter was nearly doubled, the percentage increase of the
former was much greater. The Ministry of Food fixed wholesale
prices and the retailer's margin in September 1917 and subsequently
the distinction in price between British and imported meat was re-
moved. Rationing was gradually introduced, and was nearly univer-
sal from April 1918 to May 1919. Purchasers were restricted also to
the kind of meat that was available from time to time. During the
period of control and till the summer of 1920 prices fluctuated little,
but after control was removed imported meat became cheaper than
British, and with a rise in the latter in 1920 the pre-war proportion
between the two was nearly restored. Home meat was at its maxi-
mum (at about two and a half times its pre-war level) in the autumn
of 1920 and did not fall at all considerably till after May 1921.
Prior to 1914 the corresponding numbers, for London only, are
1910 and 1911 98, 1912 and 1913 103. (See article COST OF LIVING
for further analysis, and for comparative figures for other countries.)
The price of bacon rose rather more slowly in the opening years
of the war, but rapidly in the summer of 1917 till it was 140% above
the pre-war price. In Nov. 1917 importers' and dealers' prices were
fixed, and in July 1918 the regulations extended to retail prices;
during this period large supplies of generally inferior bacon were
received from America, and rationing was only necessary for a few
months. The price after being stationary for two years rose during
1920 till it reached three times the level of July 1914.
After 1915 the price of milk was markedly seasonal, while before
the war it was generally retailed at the same price nearly all the
year round. No change took place till the autumn of 1915, when the
price rose id. a qt., and in the following autumn another fd., and in
neither case was there a fall in the spring; in the autumn of 1917 it
reached nearly twice the pre-war price, and in subsequent years
fell in the spring and rose in the winter to successively higher points,
the maximum (iofd.) being reached in Jan. 1920. Maximum prices
were in force from the autumn of 1917 till Jan. 1920, but they were
not reached in all localities. The great rise in the price of milk must
be attributed to the high cost of cattle food, which was very scarce
in the period of restricted imports; elaborate arrangements were
made to increase the supply by curtailing the consumption of cream
and the manufacture of butter and cheese. Milk was not rationed
except by informal local arrangements. Not much attention should
be paid to the prices of butter and cheese after 1916, since during a
long period they were not freely obtainable, and the Government
having taken control distributed them at prices which would meet
their cost. Butter was rationed with margarine.
The price of margarine rose little till 1917, while its consumption
increased greatly owing to the want of butter. A shortage of supply
was felt suddenly at Christmas 1917, and the Ministry of Food took
control and presently assumed ownership of the supply of its
constituents and the factories in which it was made. The quality
was greatly improved, as compared with that in 1914, and it:,
importance as food became very great in view of the difficulty of
obtaining sufficient fatty substances from other sources. The price
was fixed in Nov. 1917 at is. (is. 4d. for oleomargarine) and changed
little till the end of 1920. In May 1919 the price was left free.
The whole supply and distribution of sugar was taken over by the
Government at the beginning of the war and control was continued
till 1921. Sugar was distributed through the ordinary channels in
such amounts as were available and traders began early to ration
their customers. Official rationing (generally at 8 oz. per person)
developed in 1917 and its success encouraged the Government to
develop the general sche.tie of rationing meat, fats and some other
foods in 1918; rationing of sugar gradually became obsolescent in
1919. The prhe rose consi ierably at irregular intervals as shown in
the table till in Jan. 1920 it was seven times as dear as before the war.
Potatoes became dear after 1916 and afterwards fluctuated strongly
upwards in sympathy with other agricultural produce and the prhe
of manures, and in relation to the supply of each season. The high
prices, however, were not universally felt owing to the development
of the cultivation of private allotments especially early in 1918.
The supply of tea was ample except for a short period in the
autumn of 1917. At that date the Government took control of the
supplies and provided a uniform blend to be retailed at 2s. 8d. per
Ib. Tne rise in price was less on the whole than that of any other
commodity shown in the table.
Other less important foods often showed a greater increase in
price than those already named, especially since there was a run on
them during the time of restriction and shipping facilities were given
rather to the more necessary imports. Eggs in particular became
scarce and dear owing to the failure of the European supply and the
scarcity of poultry food.
No general comparison of wholesale and retail prices is possible,
for want of adequate records of the wholesale prices of manu-
factured goods and of retail prices of articles other than food.
In the case of food, however, the figures are sufficiently typical
and accurate to allow of a general comparison, but not to permit
accurate detailed measurements. The two index numbers
hown depend on nearly the same range of foods, but the bread
subsidy lowers the retail prices by about 10 points in 1918-20.
TABLE VIII. Wholesale and retail prices of food. (Statist and
Labour Gazette index numbers.)
Year
Quarters
Wholesale
(Statist)
Retail
(Labour Gazette)
1914
1st & 2nd*
IOO
IOO
4th
118
116
1915
ISt
134
123
2nd
144
130
3rd
142
136
4th
144
143
1916
ISt
159
148
2nd
173
158
3rd
169
164
4th
195
183
1917
1st
218
192
2nd
232
2OI
3-"d
221
203
4th
222
2O6
1918
1st
230
2O7
2nd
227
208
3rd
234
221
4th
247
231
1919
ISt
236
221
2nd
233
207
3rd
244
218
4th
26 4
234
1920
1st
292
234
2nd
328
253
3rd
326
268
4th
290
284
1921
ISt
216
250
"July 1914 for retail prices.
In Table VIII. the retail prices for the first quarter of each year
are the averages for the ist of Feb., March, April and so through-
out the year. Wholesale and retail prices include those of con-
trolled goods, and in the case of wheat, flour and bread are affect-
ed by the bread subsidy. The table shows that retail prices rose
in sympathy with wholesale prices during the first three years
of the war, but the rise on the whole was less, and the accelerated
rise in the spring of each year was only marked in wholesale prices.
As prices became more and more rigidly controlled in 1917, and
some commodities were rationed in 1918, wholesale prices fell or
remained nearly stationary, while retail prices rose very slowly.
(A. L. Bo.)
PRICE-CONTROL IN UNITED STATES. During the World War
price-fixing agencies in the United States were numerous, and
the arrangements made were often informal. Many prices were
controlled indirectly; but when this control was to any degree
international the result was a " fixed price."
Prices were more or less formally fixed by various departments
or branches of the U.S. Government for at least no important
products, each of which required a separate price-fixing opera-
tion. This was exclusive of repetitions or renewals at later periods,
which often involved as much work and study as the original
decisions. The following is a partial list of products for which
prices were fixed by some government agency or sanction. They
ar^ arranged in general in the order in which the prices were
fixed, although no pretence to accuracy in this regard is claimed.
Food products are not covered in detail, and no attempt has been
made to mention them in order:
Hides
Coal, bituminous
Coal, semi-
bituminous
Pig iron
Steel plates
Steel, structural
Wheat
Ship timbers
Pine, yellow
Steel billets
Sugar
Sardines
Bar iron
Pipe, cast-iron
Castor oil
Aluminium
Coal, anthracite
Coke
Copper
Molasses (imported)
Manila fibre
Retail lumber
(eastern cities)
Platinum
Hemlock
Pine, white
Spruce, eastern
Paper, newsprint
Manganese ore
Copper, ingot, electro-
lytic
Copper wire
Iron ore
Nitric acid
Cotton linters
Cotton goods
Cotton yarns
Denims (Mass.)
Drillings (Mass.)
Ginghams, (Amoskeag)
Print cloths
Sheetings, bleached
Sheetings, brown
Hemp
146
PRICES
Steel rails
Nickel
Tin plate
Wire, barbed,
galvanized
Wire, plain,
annealed
Ammonia
Douglas fir
Arsenic
Ammonium
sulphate
Alcohol, wood
Acetic acid
Nitrate of soda
Silver
Zinc, grade "A"
Zinc, sheets and
plates
Binder twine
Castor beans
Sashes and doors
Linters (munition)
Quebracho extract
Cement, Portland
Sulphur
Rubber
Wool
Acetate of lime
Quicksilver
Iridium
Hogs
Leather, harness
Prunes, California
Raisins, California
Carbon tetrachloride
Formaldehyde
Chlorine gas, liquid
Toluol
Phenol
Picric acid
Sulphuric acid
Tickings (Amoskeag)
Flour, wheat
Rice
Building tile
Crushed stone
Sand and gravel
Lead
Charcoal
Leather, sole
Glycerine (dynamite)
Cottonseed meal
Cottonseed oil
Wool grease
Burlap
Tin, pig
Tree nails, locust
Cotton compress rates
Birch logs
Brick, common
Wallboard
Food products
Without attempting a complete list, it may be stated that food
products whose prices were regulated included flour, bread, sugar,
live stock, meat, poultry, dairy products (including retail milk
prices), oleomargarine, cottonseed and its products, canned foods,
dried foods, rice and rice flour, feeds and coffee. The prices that
were first formally fixed by the Government fall chiefly in the
basic raw-materials group. A more shortsighted policy might
have begun by regulating prices of articles which figure most
conspicuously in public consumption.
In some cases prices were fixed for Government purchases
alone, for example, nickel, quicksilver, sulphuric acid, cement,
New England spruce and other lumber. In others the prices
were fixed for the Government and made available to the public
in a contingent way; for example, in the case of hemlock lumber
it was provided that any quantity of the commodity which, in
the judgment of the lumber director of the War Industries
Board, could be released for the commercial market might be
sold to the public, subject to the maximum price fixed for the
Government. In still other cases for example, copper and raw
sugar purchases by the Allied Governments were included in
the scope of price-fixing for the U.S. Government; and in a few
instances, as purchases for the use of the railways of the United
States, the prices were specifically fixed, although they did not
apply to the public. Prices were sometimes fixed for single
branches of the Government, as in the case of oil products for
the navy and cow-hide splits for the quartermaster's corps of the
army. Prices were even fixed by the U.S. Government to apply
to purchases by the Allied Governments only, as was the case
with fuel oil, gasoline and kerosene.
The President, however, early took a firm stand for the
principle that prices charged by producers should be the same to
the public and to the Government, and, with the exception of
prices on certain purchases made by Government departments,
rapid progress was made during 1918 in carrying out this policy.
Thus the prices fixed for pine, fir lumber and cement, which at
first applied only to direct Government purchases, were extended
to the public. It proved to be highly important as a practical
matter that prices under similar conditions of purchase should be
the same to all. The existence in the commercial market of prices
that were higher than those paid for Government purchases made
it difficult for the Government to secure prompt deliveries.
Moreover, such a situation often defeated the purpose of price-
fixing, because large purchases might be made by private con-
cerns producing more or less directly for the Government.
The period of price-fixing began about the middle of 1917, and
came to a nearly complete standstill with the signing of the
Armistice. Among the earliest commodities to be affected by the
price-fixing activities of the Government were lumber, coal,
wheat, sugar and canned foods. Lumber prices for the Govern-
ment alone were fixed by arrangement with the Council of
National Defense on June 18 1917, and approved by the Secretary
of War; coal prices for the navy were fixed on June 19 1917.
The Food and Fuel Control Act on Aug. 10 1917 set a minimum
price on the wheat crop of 1918. Bituminous coal prices at the
mine were fixed by executive order on Aug. 21 1917. Nine days
later came the President's announcement of a $2.20 basic price
on wheat " to be paid in Government purchases." The price of
copper was fixed in September. Relatively few prices were fixed
after Nov. 1918, although those fixed prior to that time extended
well over intoigip. Prices, as fixed, were allowed to expire in spite
of the fact that in several important cases the representatives
of the industry concerned asked that the existing price be
continued. On Dec. n 1918 the War Industries Board issued a
statement to the effect that, since it would cease to function after
Jan. i 1919, no new price agreements would be entered into by
the Price-Fixing Committee and that all prices theretofore fixed
would be allowed to expire by limitation. Several commodities,
the cost of which had not been immediately ascertainable, had
been taken in large quantities by the Government at prices sub-
ject to later determination. For example, during the latter part
of Jan. and the early part of Feb. 1919, the Price-Fixing
Committee of the War Industries Board fixed prices on common
brick and on wall board. Inasmuch as the Food and Fuel
Administrations depended for their powers upon the Act of
Aug. 10 1917, which applied " during the war," they functioned
longer, but became practically inoperative early in 1919.
Of the various agencies through which prices were fixed the
following are without doubt the most important: Congress,
which by direct legislation fixed a minimum price for wheat and for
silver; the President, acting under authority granted by Congress,
who fixed prices for coal and wheat; the War Industries Board,
created by the President July 28 191 7, under authority from Con-
gress, which Board through its Price-Fixing Committee fixed
numerous prices from Sept. 1917 to Nov. 1918 (as late as Jan.
and Feb. 1919 several cases of price-fixing for commodities bought
at tentative prices were awaiting cost determination); the U.S.
Food Administration, established in Aug. 1917, which fixed
prices of hogs, meat, flour, sugar, binder twine, etc.; local food
administrators and sub-agencies, such as the Sugar Equalization
Board and the U.S. Food Administration Grain Corporation,
which fixed many prices; the U.S. Fuel Administration, estab-
lished in Sept. 1917, which fixed prices of coal, coke, etc.; the
War Trade Board, which fixed prices of rubber, quebracho
extract and marrila fibre; the Federal Trade Commission, which
fixed the prices of newsprint paper; the Emergency Fleet Corpora-
tion of the U.S. Shipping Board, which fixed the price of ship
timbers and locust tree nails; the U.S. Shipping Board which
fixed ocean freight rates; the International Nitrate Executive
Committee, which fixed the price of nitrate of soda; the Food
Purchase Board, which fixed prices of canned foods, etc., for
the army and navy; various army and navy departments, which
fixed prices of gasoline and fuel oil, zinc oxide, automatic sprinklers,
sashes and doors, castor oil, etc.; the Appraisal Boards of the
army and navy, which fixed prices in cases of dissent from prices
named in commandeering orders; and the U.S. Railroad Adminis-
tration, which took steps to fix reasonable prices of locomotives
and cars. As time went on a tendency toward greater uniformity
and centralization of procedure developed within the price-
fixing mechanism. This tendency was seen in an increasing amount
of work thrown upon the War Industries Board and the Federal
Trade Commission, the former naming a price based largely upon
the cost findings of the latter.
In initiating price-fixing no systematic plan was followed and
prices were at first fixed sporadically. Various Governmental powers
were resorted to and were applied by numerous agencies, using diverse
means for carrying out the decisions or agreements which they reached.
In some cases prices were fixed under special authority, conferred
directly by Act of Congress, and limited by the provision of such
Act to specified commodities. Thus by section 14 of the Act of
Congress of Aug. 10 1917, already referred to, the President was
empowered to fix "a reasonable guaranteed price for wheat."
Accordingly on Aug. 30 the President, acting upon the recommenda-
tion of a committee appointed by himself, promulgated a price of
$2.20 per bus. for No. I northern spring wheat at Chicago. The same
law, commonly known as the Lever Act, authorized and empowered
the President to license importers, producers or distributors of " any
necessaries, in order to carry into effect any of the purposes of this
Act "; and, if he found unreasonable any storage charges, commis-
sions or profits, to revoke licences and make findings as to reasonable
profits, etc. Section 10 of the Act authorized him to requisition
necessary foods, feeds, fuels and other supplies. Section 1 1 gave him
PRICES
147
power to purchase and sell at reasonable cash prices wheat, flour,
meal, beans and potatoes. The power under this Act ran to the
President, and the Fuel Administrator and Food Administrator
acted under " executive orders." On the other hand, the War
Industries Board acted under less specific authority proceeding from
the general war powers of the President. Thus the prices fixed for
steel, copper, lumber and other commodities by the Price-Fixing
Committee of the War Industries Board were in theory approved by
the President before being publicly announced. In some cases, how-
ever, such as retail lumber prices in certain eastern cities, the prices
were announced without formal approval by the President.
The means of enforcing prices when " fixed," whether determined
by the price-fixing agencies or reached by agreement with the pro-
ducers, were various, ranging from appeals to the patriotism of the
trade to commandeering orders. In most cases there was in the back-
ground the possibility of the Government's taking over the industry ;
and in not a few the army or navy did commandeer plants or stocks
of merchandise. In such cases a price was named which was subject
to adjudication, first by the Board of Appraisers and then, upon
appeal, by the courts. On Dec. 24 1917 all wood chemicals (acetic
acid, alcohol, etc.) were commandeered for a period of six months
and later the commandeering order was extended to cover the second
half of 1918. Apart from purchases on army or navy account,
however, price-fixing was effected chiefly by " licences " and control
of " priorities." The Food Administration and the Fuel Administra-
tion, under the Act of Aug. 10 1917, put in force extensive systems of
licensing, under which unlicensed producers and distributors were
not allowed to engage in business, and licences were revoked, if the
regulations were disobeyed. The War Trade Board also licensed
importers of certain articles on condition that the prices which it
fixed should be observed. The administration of priorities proved to
be a major element in the price-fixing programme, and involved many
important questions. Toward the end of 1917 a priorities division
was established within the War Industries Board and a priorities
commissioner placed at its head. Representatives of the Fuel Ad-
ministration, the Railroad Administration, and the U.S. Shipping
Board were placed upon a Priorities Committee. The War Trade
Board, the Food Administration, and the army and navy were also
represented. The Price-Fixing Committee of the War Industries
Board and the Priorities Committee worked in harmony. This
was of the utmost importance, as it made possible a substantial
degree of unity of policy among the different Government pur-
chasing departments; and, through the power of the Priorities Com-
mittee over fuel and transportation, pressure could be brought
to bear upon a recalcitrant business concern for the purpose
of compelling it to adhere to fixed prices. The Priorities Com-
mittee undertook whenever necessary to administer priorities in
the production of all raw materials and finished products, save
food, feeds and fuels. The distribution of fuel was, of course,
under the supervision of the Fuel Administrator, and transpor-
tation service under the U.S. Railroad Administration, but the
Fuel and Railroad Administrators were guided largely by the
" preference list " issued by the Priorities Committee and by the
recommendations of the division chiefs of the War Industries
Board, and on the whole came to work in close relation to the
committee's general policy. The Priorities Committee, then, exer-
cised a general function of adjusting production to the needs of the
nation at war by allocating the limited supplies of fuel and basic raw
materials, and its powers were sometimes used as a club to reinforce
the authority of the Price-Fixing Committee in particular cases.
The Army and Navy Appraisal Boards were called to pass on prices
in the case of commandeer orders issued for the requirements of
those departments. When a commandeer order was to be issued the
practice developed of having the chief in charge of that division of
the War Industries Board which dealt with that commodity approve
the order in which the price was named. If, as was frequently the
case, the producers of the commodity were not satisfied with the
price, the matter was brought before the Appraisal Board. It is
important to observe that those members of the Price-Fixing Com-
mittee who represented the army and navy were also members of the
appraisal boards of these two departments.
Various methods of applying price control were tried. Prices may
be fixed both directly and indirectly. As a rule, each commodity the
price of which it was desired to fix was taken up directly and a specific
price made for its purchase; but in some cases reliance was placed
upon indirect control of the price of one commodity through direct
control of the price of another. A most interesting and important
phase of indirect price- fixing activities lay in the attempts to restrain
prices by controlling consumption, as in the cases of tin, platinum,
coal, sugar, wheat and meat. These efforts culminated in rationing
in the case of sugar and the requirement of purchase of substitutes
in the case of wheat or flour. Steps were taken, also, to prevent
waste and to improve methods of production, for example, cleaner
threshing of wheat. Most of such " conservation " measures are to
be approved without reserve. Closely connected with the conserva-
tion phase as seen in control of demand, rationing, etc., were stabili-
zation and pooling. But pooling, while partly used to facilitate
rationing (as in the case of sugar), may also be used to keep prices up,
either locally or throughout the entire market. In at least three
cases, wheat, sugar and tin, the Government entered upon a pool-
ing programme for the purpose of stabilizing prices. Stabilization
is a term which implies mixed motives, a considerable part of its
purpose commonly being to maintain or keep up prices, at least in
a part of the field. This was the case with the Sugar Equalization
Board and the tin pool, and the Government's Grain Corporation.
The degree of precision with which prices were fixed varied widely
from commodity to commodity, ranging from a loosely determined
maximum price to a careful determination of the definite price to
be charged for a particular commodity in the case of a particular
purchase. As a rule, only maximum prices were fixed, although in a
majority of cases the price named as a maximum was the one which
actually prevailed. This was not infrequently taken for granted by
the price-fixing agency. In some important cases, however, the
actual market price fell below the maximum named by the Govern-
ment. This was true of zinc plates and sheets and certain kinds of
lumber. Also, in the case of rubber, a price was named by the War
Trade Board as a maximum, which was considerably higher than the
market price. As has been already noted, a minimum price was fixed
for wheat, the reason being that it was desired to guarantee the mar-
ket in this case and thus encourage production. The price of hogs
was fixed on the basis of a positive minimum after the failure of the
attempt to maintain the price on the basis of a fixed ratio to corn.
Wheat also furnishes a case in which both a maximum and a minimum
price were specifically fixed. Obviously a result similar to that ob-
tained by naming a price may be gained by limiting profits or gross
margins. Thus, an effort was made to restrict the profits of the meat-
packers to 2 J % on sales, and in the case of the five largest packers a
maximum margin on meat of 9% on investment was named. The
flour millers were limited to a profit of 25 cents per barrel. Dealers in
cotton-seed and peanuts, both ginners and others, were limited, be-
ginning July I 1918, to a margin of $3.00 per ton over cost (not re-
placement value). This method was also largely used by the Fuel
Administration in an attempt to regulate the price of coal to con-
sumers, and in Sept. 1917 this agency announced its plan for fixing
the maximum gross margins of retail dealers in coal and coke.
Each dealer was authorized to add to the average margin for 1915
between his delivered cost price of coal or coke and the price
charged consumers, 30 % to cover increased expenses provided the
gross margin thus arrived at did not exceed his average for July
1917. Fixed rates of commission or margins of profit were im-
posed also on dealers in newsprint paper, retail lumber and other
commodities.
In addition to the above methods, there was the attempt to
fix retail prices directly by publishing fair prices, as was done
for groceries by the local price interpreting boards " set up by
the Food Administration. Price-fixing by restricting margins passed
into the realm of hopes and aspirations in such cases as the earlier
regulation of the lake-forwarders by the Fuel Administration, and
the cotton-ginners by the Food Administration, for in these cases
the producers were merely urged to charge "reasonable" prices.
Much the same may be said of the somewhat tentative moves
made by the Oil Division of the Fuel Administration toward
fixing the price of petroleum and its products. In July 1918 the
Oil Director made some proposals with regard to fixing the differ-
ential between the prices of crude and those of refined products;
and in Aug. he announced a plan to stabilize the price of crude
oil, stating his belief that this would prevent radical changes
in the price of refined products. It does not appear, however, that
the plan had any appreciable effect.
From the foregoing it would appear that there were three
chief types of price-fixing: (i) maximum prices, in the case of
basic staples which had wide public interest, often recognized
as "pegged" prices when any scarcity or rapidly advancing
cost existed; (2) definite prices, (a) to encourage production by
guaranteeing returns, (b) Government purchases (direct or
indirect) in the nature of single transactions; (3) margins, (a)
absolute amount per unit, (b) percentage on sales, cost, or in-
vestment; this method being used when it was desired to cover
the distribution of products, the marketing of which was not
integrated with manufacture. The minimum price, strictly
speaking, was the exception, but is logically associated with the
definite price, which is both maximum and minimum.
Another distinction of some importance in fixing prices depended
upon the place at which the price named was to apply. Some prices
were made on an f .o.b. factory basis, while others were on a delivered
basis. The practice prevailing in the industry was partly followed.
The tendency, however, was to fix prices on an f.o.b. factory or mill
basis, a natural tendency when the price is based on cost. In a major-
ity of cases, prices came to be made f.o.b. the producer's plant.
In many cases, however, prices were quoted f.o.b. some market
basing point. This was notably true of copper, which was always
quoted f.o.b. New York, although the metal was secured from
mines in Michigan, Montana and Arizona, and refined at various
seaboard points. In the case of commodities produced in several
competing areas there was often a tendency to quote prices on a
delivered basis. Prices delivered were fixed for New England spruce,
148
PRICES
Pennsylvania hemlock, cement, hollow building tile, iron and steel
scrap, and oil products for the navy. The situation in the case of
hollow building tile furnishes some explanation of this tendency.
The chief producing area for this commodity was centred in Ohio,
while there were other producing territories in the south, in New
Jersey and elsewhere. In order to stabilize market conditions and to
divide the market, the representatives of the industry desired to fix
prices on a delivered basis. In this way, by fixing a delivered price
sufficiently low, the low-cost producers in Ohio were prevented from
coming too far east with their product; while, if the price had been
fixed f.o.b. the plant, there would have been no limit to the area
covered by the low-cost producer, except cost of freight and desire
for profit. Had the war continued much longer, there can be little
doubt that adjustments in railway rates would have become an
important part of the price-fixing programme. Special railway
service was given in a number of instances as a direct part of price-
fixing, as, for example, the arrangements made to furnish transpor-
tation to the Douglas fir lumber mills for the purpose of relieving
them of accumulations of low-grade lumber. In the case of price-
fixing for manganese ore produced in the United States, an integral
part of the scheme was the application of special railway rates.
When a controlling part of the supply of any given product
is produced by concerns which are not completely integrated,
especially as to the earlier stages of the industry, it is practically
necessary, in price-fixing, to control the price of the chief semi-fin-
ished products; but when a controlling proportion of a product
comes from producers who are more or less completely inte-
grated, this necessity does not exist, although some protection may
be required for independent producers in the earlier stages. Also
when the object is to protect the consumer of products which are
distributed by separate wholesale and retail agencies, it is necessary
to control the wholesale and retail prices as well as the price f.o.b.
factory or mill.
Prices were fixed for various periods of time, but in general
it may be said that on account of changing conditions the
periods were short. Perhaps the period most frequently chosen
was three months. A much shorter period would have created
too much risk and uncertainty in marketing, to say nothing
of the strain upon the price-fixing machinery; while a longer
period was not, as a rule, desired by the representatives of the
industries, especially during a period of increasing costs. Various
exceptions might be cited, such as the case of wheat, in which
the price was fixed for the crop of a given season. The prices
of meat and coal were fixed for indefinite periods, and the same
was true of manganese ore. Various bases for determining the
reasonable maximum price to be fixed were used, but it may be
said that, on the whole, the prevailing tendency was to fix
prices on the basis of cost, a reasonable allowance being added
for profits. In this connexion the Federal Trade Commission did
important work in ascertaining from the books of the producers
the actual cost of production and the investment.
In the ordinary case of price-fixing, the gist of the method used by
the Price-Fixing Committee was as follows : First, some estimate was
made of the probable quantity of the product wanted, which, of
course, involved a knowledge of the stocks on hand. Second, the
quantity which each producer could turn out was ascertained.
Third, each producer's cost of production was computed for the most
recent period available. Fourth, the average investment involved
in the production of the commodity was determined and reduced to
the basis of investment per unit of product. The first three of these
items bear directly upon the determination of the representative or
marginal producers for price-fixing purposes. The fundamental
question in fixing prices that are based on cost, is the determination
of what may be called the " marginal cost." This cost may be ex-
plained as follows: it is frequently the case that when the several
individual costs for a group of producers are accurately ascertained
and are ranged in their order from low to high, there will be a varia-
tion among them of 100%, the high cost being double that of the
low cost. Ordinarily the bulk of the production comes from those
producers whose costs are below the average, though this is not al-
ways the case. It does not follow, however, that the average cost
gives the basis for a fair price. If 25%, or even 10%, of the pro-
duction comes from high-cost producers and the entire output is
needed, the average cost cannot be the basis of price. It is true that
in many cases prices were fixed on the basis of average cost, both
by the War Industries Board and by other price-fixing agencies;
but as time went on methods were perfected, and the practice of
taking a " representative cost " developed. This representative cost
was very similar to what the economist calls the marginal cost,
meaning the cost at which the highest-cost producer is able to produce
without loss at a given price.
Of the conditions which facilitate the determination of a reason-
able marginal cost for price-fixing, a knowledge of the requirements
of the market, or in war-time a knowledge of the needs of the Govern-
ment and its agencies, is most important. Price-fixing in the United
States was handicapped by uncertainty as to the quantity which it
Yearly and Quarterly U.S. Fixed Prices, 1913-8.
Year
COAL,
bituminous
per ton
COPPER,
electro-
lytic per
Ib.
LUMBER,
Southern
yellow pine
timbers
6 in. x 8 in.
x 16 ft.
per M.
PIG IRON,
Bessemer
per ton
SUGAR,
fine granu-
lated in bags
or barrels
FLOUR,
standard
patent
bar. 196
Ib.
BEEF,
fresh
native
carcass
(Chicago)
WOOL,
Ohio fine
unwashed
per Ib.
LEATHER
shoe upper
2nd grade
per sq. ft.
1913
$1.18
$0.15
$14-46
$17-13
80.0428
$4-58
$0.1295
$0.238
$0.194
I9H
1.16
'3
12.87
14.89
0471
5-09
.1364
-250
.209
Quarters
First ....
Second ....
Third ....
Fourth ....
1.16
''7
1.16
1.16
.14
.14
.12
.12
13.21
I3-42
I3-I4
11.71
15.04
14.90
14.90
14.71
.0389
0395
-0583
0523
4-57
4-55
5-34
5-86
.1300
.1322
.1402
1435
.229
.248
.271
.251
205
.205
.218
215
1915
1-13
17
12.90
15-78
0556
6.66
.1289
.300
205
Quarters
First ....
Second ....
Third ....
Fourth ....
1.16
1. 12
I. II
1.14
.14
.18
.18
.19
11.64
12.21
12.46
15.31
14.56
14.61
15-91
18.03
0538
0585
.0546
-0552
7-34
7-39
6.22
5-74
.1229
.1214
1330
1375
.298
.291
.301
.308
.214
.201
.2OO
.204
1916
1.24
.28
1576
23.88
.0688
7.26
.1382
352
275
Quarters
First ....
Second ....
Third ....
Fourth ....
1.17
1.20
I.2I
1.40
.26
.28
.27
31
I5.92
15.21
15.21
16.71
21. 6l
21-95
22.05
29.93
.0610
.0729
.0696
.0712
6.32
6.05
7-37
9.26
1375
.1388
.1388
1375
.328
335
351
39 6
.216
.246
-265
375
1917
2.O7
.29
21-75
43.60
.0771
11-39
.1672
.664
.385
Quarters ....
First ....
Second ....
Third ....
Fourth ....
1.47
2.40
2.24
2.17
33
32
.27
23
17.42
22.14
23.89
23.53
36.48
47.18
53-51
37-25
.0686
.0788
.0797
.0814
9.29
13-57
12.39
")-34
1431
.1606
.1762
.1888
485
598
745
750
.428
.410
355
350
1918
2-56
24
25-51
36.66
779
10.14
.2213
.740
359
Quarters
First ....
Second ....
Third ....
Fourth ....
2. 2O
2-71
2.67
2.67
23
23
.26
.25
25.14
25.92
25-42
25.57
37-25
36.21
36.60
36.60
0735
.0730
.0769
.0882
10.15
9-79
10.39
TO.2I
1750
.2227
.2423
.2450
75
746
.746
.720
351
35
.360
375
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND PRINCETON
149
was desired to have produced, which uncertainty was in some cases
due both to ignorance of the available stocks and to uncertainty as to
future requirements. While prices were generally fixed on the basis of
cost, there were necessarily many exceptions. Sometimes no costs
were available. Sometimes cost was only partly available as a basis,
as in the case of " joint products " and of products for which com-
plete cost data did not exist. Sometimes, again, no effort was made
to use cost, as in the case of substitutes whose prices were fixed on
the basis of the commodity in the place of which they might be used.
In a few instances the price was fixed without regard to cost, merely
on the basis of preexisting prices, such prices being taken for what
was presumably a normal period. Perhaps the chief difficulty in most
cases was to ascertain a fair return on investment. This phase of
the matter was never satisfactorily dealt with by any U.S. price-
fixing agency during the war. The Federal Trade Commission in
connexion with its cost findings frequently reported to the Price-
Fixing Committee of the War Industries Board a figure representing
the investment, but time did not permit the careful investigation
that would have been necessary to ascertain the actual money in-
vested, nor was the attitude of the price-fixing agency, as a rule, one
which favoured the strict construction of " investment." In general,
it may be said that in a majority of the price-fixing operations of the
War Industries Board, some consideration was given to the estimated
investment, and that in such cases the figure used was one which lay
somewhere between the book value claimed by the companies con-
cerned and the actual net investment made. On the other hand, a
majority of the price-fixing operations of such agencies as the Food
Administration appear to have been made on the basis of a margin
(interest and profits) per unit of product, determined upon with
reference to past experience. And of course, exceptions to any usual
practice were at times necessary.
In general there were three chief purposes in fixing prices:
(i) to secure production of needed commodities; (2) to prevent
social unrest by checking profiteering, coordinating food prices
and wages, and stabilizing industrial conditions; (3) to assure
Government economy of purchase. The greatest success was
attained with regard to the first purpose. The accomplishment
of the second, which was more vague, is difficult to measure,
but appears considerable. The most that can be said concerning
the third is that things might have been worse had there been
no price-fixing.
The table on page 148 shows the yearly and quarterly average
prices of important articles whose prices were regulated.
On the whole, it may be said that price-fixing in the United
States suffered from the lack of a programme. No adequate
study was made of interrelations between commodities or of the
various complicated factors affecting demand and supply. No
general principles were formulated. Too frequently, each step
was taken up as a separate proposition. Much trouble would
have been saved by a better understanding among the different
price-fixing agencies and by the adoption of certain broad
fundamental principles, such as the basis for determining
marginal cost and the basis for determining investment. There
should have been a general board of strategy to supervise the
entire price-fixing programme and to coordinate it with the
Government's fiscal arrangements and with the various steps
taken to control the production and consumption through
priorities and rationing. Some progress was made in this
direction, but it remains true that the price-fixing operations
were not sufficiently correlated with taxation and borrowing
(inflation) on the one hand, and with rationing and priorities on
the other. (L. H. H.)
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND (see 22.344). The pop. of this
Canadian province in 1911 was 93,728, having sunk from 109,078
in 1891. It is the most densely populated province in Canada,
with 42-92 persons to the square mile. In 1911 the origin of the
people was: Scots 36,772; English 22,176; Irish 19,900; French
13,117; all other nationalities 1,763. Charlottetown, the capital
(pop. 11,198 iaign), standing on one of the best harbours in
America, is celebrated as the birthplace of the Canadian Con-
federation, the first conferences having been held there in 1864.
The Legislative Assembly is composed of 1 5 councillors elected
on a property qualification, and 1 5 members elected on a popular
franchise. The Executive Government consists of nine members.
The superintendent of education acts as secretary to the
board and administers the system through school inspectors.
In 1920 there were 468 schools, 597 teachers, and a total enrol-
ment of 17,861 pupils; the expenditure was $268,547 in 1919.
Prince Edward Island has been aptly described as the garden
province of the Dominion, more resembling an English shire than a
Canadian province. The population is almost entirely agricultural,
and practically the whole island has been cleared and brought under
cultivation. The soil of the island is best suited for oats and pota-
toes, which are the staple crops. Wheat is grown for local purposes
only. Maize, for fodder, and barley are grown. Cattle and hogs
flourish. The total value of field crops in 1920 was $18,530,400.
Poultry-raising and dairying are extensively and profitably carried
on. Beef and bacon, as well as fruit, poultry, butter, cheese, eggs
and potatoes, are exported in large quantities to neighbouring
provinces, Newfoundland and the New England states. Coopera-
tive dairying was begun in 1891 and the growth of the industry has
been rapid. A new source of revenue began in 1910 with the breeding
of black foxes and the industry of fur-farming was developed. About
$10,000,000 had already been invested in this industry in 1918, in
which year the sale of fox pelts realized over $750,000. In 1919
300 fur ranches sold skins and live animals to the value of $1,500,000,
and in 1920 there were approximately 1 1,000 pairs of black foxes on
the ranches of the island.
The once celebrated Malpeque oyster has almost become extinct
through disease. The lobster industry is also on the decline. The
value of the fisheries in 1919 was $1,536,844, the catch including cod,
herring, mackerel, oysters and lobsters. The men employed in the
industry numbered about 6,000.
No mining is carried on. Manufacturing is connected chiefly with
the preparation of foods such as butter and cheese. Pork-packing
and lobster-canning are large and growing industries. The value of
manufactured products was $3,136,470 in 1911.
The strait of Northumberland separates Prince Edward Island
from the mainland, the distance across varying from 9 to 31 miles.
At the narrowest point a railway-car ferry established in 1918 by the
Dominion Government connects the Canadian National railway sys-
tem of the mainland with that on Prince Edward Island, and affords
continuous connexion summer and winter across the strait. This is
the principal highway of transportation to and from the island
province, but the ferry service is occasionally interrupted by ice and
the substitution of a tunnel has been advocated. (W. L. G.*)
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY (see 22.347). -In Sept. 1910
President Wilson accepted the Democratic nomination for
governor of New Jersey and resigned the presidency of the
university. In Jan. 1912 Prof. John Grier Hibben, of the fac-
ulty, was elected president. His administration was marked by
further development of student self-government, the conduct-
ing of discipline and general student activities and the regula-
tion of athletics being in 1921 shared by undergraduate represen-
tatives and university officers. Especial attention was paid to
the scientific safeguarding of student health and physical fitness
by careful periodical examinations and required supervised
athletics. The potential effectiveness of the alumni organization
was increased by the formation of a National Alumni Association,
whose working administrative centre was the Graduate Coun-
cil of about 100, representing the graduate classes, the alumni
associations, and different regional districts of the country. The
national character of the university was expressly recognized by
the addition of regional trustees to the governing board, and
also by the establishment of a large number of regional compet-
itive scholarships.
On the scholastic side, the entrance requirements and the under-
graduate curriculum were completely revised. To put the university
into closer touch with American secondary education, especially the
high schools, Greek was no longer required (although strongly
advised) for the A.B. degree. The Litt.B. degree was discontinued.
The elective principle was broadened so as to bridge the gaps be-
tween preparatory school and college, and underclass and upper-
class years, giving the student in his underclass years a broad general
training in subjects deemed fundamental to real education, and in
his upperclass years requiring him to follow continuous work in one
of three divisions of studies, the literary-philosophical, the historical-
economic, or the mathematical-scientific. The regulations governing
admission to the graduate school, and in particular to candidacy
for the competitive fellowships, the awards of which depend entirely
on scholarship and ability, attracted to the school an increasing
number of select advanced students in liberal studies. The erection
of the residential graduate college in 1913 rendered permanent what
had previously been an experimental and, in America, an unique fea-
ture of the Princeton graduate school, namely, the provision of
adequate living quarters for graduate students, who there shared a
common scholarly life amid attractive conditions. The graduate
college accommodated in 1921 about 100 students.
During the World War over 5,000 undergraduates and graduates
were in Service; about 3,000 receiving commissions, and 284 receiv-
ing 293 decorations and citations. The honour roll of those who gave
150
PRISONERS OF WAR
up their lives numbered 149. The entrance atrium of Nassau hall
was converted into a memorial to these men, and a scholarship has
been founded in memory of each. During the war nearly half of the
faculty was on leave of absence, either in military and naval service,
or in the scientific war service of the American, British or French
Governments. The student body was cut more than half; buildings
were occupied by a Government school of ariation and a naval
paymasters' school, while the laboratories were turned over to Govern-
ment use. With the institution of the student army training corps,
and the naval training unit, virtually the entire university and its
equipment were devoted to national purposes, the number of civil-
ian students being about 75, rejected from service for physical
disabilities. After the return of peace, effort was concentrated on
increasing the inadequate endowment of the university, and the
sum of over $8,000,000 was raised. A bequest from the late Henry
C. Frick, not yet received in 1921, was expected to amount to about
$5,000,000. In the year 1920-1 the faculty numbered 213, the under-
graduate body 1, 814, the graduate students 149, as against, in 1909-10,
169 faculty members, 1,266 undergraduates and 134 graduate
students. Besides the graduate college, which includes the Cleve-
land tower, a national memorial to President Grover Cleveland, a
trustee of Princeton, the buildings erected beween 1912 and 1921
were Holder hall (a dormitory), Madison hall (the university
dining halls, where all underclass men are required to take their
meals), Cuyler hall (a dormitory), the Palmer Memorial football
stadium, and the University boat house (headquarters of the rowing
activities of the university). In May 1920 Dickinson hall and Mar-
quand chapel were destroyed by fire. (V. L. C.)
PRISONERS OF WAR (see 28.314*). The procedure laid
down by international agreement for the treatment of Prisoners
of War under the Hague regulations was tested during the
.World War under unprecedented difficulties. These arose not
only from the passions and prejudices inevitably engendered in
th: course of such a vast conflict between the entire manhood
of the nations concerned, but also from the facts that unexpect-
edly large numbers of combatants were taken prisoners, and
that the captors had to deal with men of different nationalities,
of varying characteristics and with widely different views as to
the accommodation and food requisite for a prisoner of war.
Probably few people realized during the war how vast was
the number of combatant prisoners taken by one side or the
other, or how small was the proportion of the British prisoners
to the whole number. Though the final figures cannot be given
otherwise than approximately, it is certain that they amounted
to several millions. To name only the principal belligerents
(excluding Russia), Great Britain claims to have taken just
under half a million, France just over that number, Italy nearly
one million, Germany two and a half millions and Austria nearly
one and a half millions. With regard to Russia the numbers
have never been even approximately ascertained, but some
idea of them may be gathered from the fact that Austria alone
admitted to having lost to the Russians not less than one and a
half millions. To the list must be added the prisoners cap-
tured by the Americans (48,000 in number), and by the Turks,
Bulgarians and the other lesser belligerents. Of this vast host
only about 200,000 (probably not much more than 2%) were
British, and about 185,000 of these were in the hands of
Germany.
When it is further remembered that sometimes in the course
of a single operation tens of thousands of men, many of them
wounded, were added to the number captured earlier, it will be
understood how great was the strain placed on the captors'
resources in the matter of transport, care and feeding. More-
over, prisoners were taken in almost every part of the globe in
every kind of climate, and in conditions in which the means of
supply and transport varied from being comparatively complete
to being almost non-existent. Even if all the belligerent Govern-
ments had been actuated by the most earnest desire to apply
strictly the provisions of the Hague Convention it was inevita-
ble that there should be much suffering and, owing to the diffi-
culty of effective supervision, cases of cruelty and ill-treatment
at the hands of individuals.
It must be recognized that, speaking generally, the adminis-
trative problems in relation to the treatment of prisoners were
not so serious in Great Britain as in most of the belligerent
States, but it is satisfactory to be able to record that they were
humanely and for the most part satisfactorily solved as they
arose. It is on the other hand unfortunately true that, quite
apart from the misery inseparable from prolonged confinement,
numbers of British prisoners underwent gratuitous and grievous
suffering, especially in territory merely occupied by the enemy
and at some of the working camps in Germany, in Bulgaria and
in Turkey.
While something is said below with regard to the treatment
of prisoners by the Bulgarians and Turks, it is impossible here
to attempt to deal with the whole area of hostilities and with
the multitude of questions relating to prisoners which arose
between the belligerents. This article, therefore, will deal
chiefly with the lot of prisoners in Great Britain and Germany,
and the application of the Hague regulations in those countries.
Though discussions arose as to the position of such persons as
reservists and officers of merchant ships, prisoners of war may
be divided into two main classes: (i) Civilian, (2) Combatant.
(i). Civilian. It is quite certain that the framers of the
Hague Convention had not in view the treatment of persons
other than combatants, but such large numbers of civilians were
interned during the war that the arrangements made for them
must shortly be considered.
The internment of civilians in both Great Britain and in Ger-
many was, as a system, possibly due to two accidental but
different causes. In Great Britain it arose first from the wide-
spread belief, justified probably only in a relatively small num-
ber of cases, that the German civilian population in England
were either spies in the service of the German Government or
an advance guard of a German army of occupation. After this
feeling had died down, and release from internment had become
general, the system had again to be resorted to after the sinking
of the " Lusitania," largely in deference to wide-spread indigna-
tion at that outrage and for the protection of the Germans them-
selves. Even then, however, internment was not general.
Every enemy alien had a right to have his case dealt with by
an advisory committee, of which Mr. Justice Sankey was chair-
man and Lord Justice Younger was a member, and by this com-
mittee many exemptions were granted.
In Germany, on the other hand, the internment of civilians
ultimately much more indiscriminate than in the United King-
dom resulted from popular indignation in Germany at the
entry of Great Britain into the war.
Thus it was that in both countries in England by end of Oct.
1914 and in Germany by Nov. 1914 nearly every male enemy
national of military age was interned, and the system, as applied
to civilians, became established in both countries, although its
working in Great Britain was later modified in the manner re-
ferred to above.
Accommodation. The accommodation in both countries was
bad in the beginning. In Great Britain some prisoners were at
first placed on board ships, but this was found to be unsatis-
factory for many reasons. Considerable numbers of aliens were
sent to the Newbury race-course, where they lived in loose boxes
without any beds and without any adequate sanitary or cooking
arrangements; as numbers increased tents were added and
various improvements made, but the place was never satisfac-
tory, and it was closed soon after the weather broke in the
autumn. It is only mentioned because it seems more than
probable that, characteristically enough, Ruhleben (itself a
race-course) was selected by the Germans for the internment of
British civilians as a reply to Newbury. The problem of finding
adequate accommodation was difficult in England where there
were eventually some 29,000 Germans interned out of a con-
siderably larger number not interfered with. In Germany the
difficulty must have been even greater, as in addition to two and
a half million combatants there were nearly 112,000 civilian
internees of different nationalities to be provided for; of these
only between 5,000 and 6,000 were British. 1
1 There were in addition to German civilians interned in England
a comparatively small number of internees of other nationalities and
nearly 20,000 more in other parts of the Empire. The whole of the
prisoners in German hands were of course confined in Germany or
the occupied districts.
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
PRISONERS OF WAR
151
After the early unsatisfactory camps in England were closed,
civilians were confined in large institutions of different kinds,
but eventually far the largest number was placed in the Isle of
Man, where there was created at Knockaloe a huge camp con-
taining at last some 23,000 prisoners. There were also two
" privilege camps " at Douglas and Wakefield, where those
possessed of means could, upon payment, secure a certain amount
of privacy and comfort, and employ as their servants other
prisoners desirous of earning a little money. There was also
Islington Workhouse, perhaps the best place of all, where enemy
civilians with British-born wives, or some other claim to con-
sideration, were interned.
In Germany the lot of those who were first arrested was worse
than in England. They were cast into the ordinary prisons
and treated like convicted criminals. After no long time, how-
ever, most of them were transferred to Ruhlcben, which, with
the exception of Schloss Celle, where a certain number of elderly
civilians, whose status was somewhat uncertain, were placed,
became the place of confinement for all British civilians.
Ruhleben was a race-course near Berlin, with stables, grand-
stand and all the usual appurtenances of a race-course. The
prisoners were housed in the loose boxes and attics without at
first any beds, though eventually ships' berths were fitted, six
to a box. As the numbers grew, huts were added. The washing
and sanitary arrangements, at first rudimentary only, were never
satisfactory. No arrangements were made by the Germans for
the housing of the prisoners according to their vocational or
social affinities a real boon in the case of civilians. They were
allowed, however, ultimately to some extent to sort themselves.
Management. At first in both countries the camps were
conducted on military lines, but eventually the interned persons
were left to manage the internal affairs of the camps very much
by themselves. A camp captain was elected by them, and
captains of huts or other divisions. The camp captain was the
official medium of communication with the authorities.
Work and Recreation. It was recognized in both countries
that civilians might not be forced to do any work beyond what
was necessary for the orderliness of the camp. This was a
doubtful privilege, and the prisoners' want of occupation led to
difficulties in maintaining discipline. In the latter stages of the
war, at all events in England, a small proportion of prisoners
volunteered to work in order to escape the ennui of camp life,
and for some 1,500 out of the whole number, useful work was
found, mainly in agriculture. No British civilians did any work
outside the camps in Germany.
But much was done by the prisoners themselves. Workshops
were organized and equipped with the assistance of the Y.M.C.A.
(British and American), and other similar organizations. The
difficulty in England was to find a market for the produce of the
workshops, owing to the objections raised to the prisoners com-
peting with British workmen. This was overcome by sending
the articles manufactured to neutral countries.
Besides this form of manual occupation, classes were formed
and lectures delivered, and students were enabled to continue
their studies so far as their circumstances permitted, and a
small number were employed in administrative work.
Medical Care. Provision was made in England for the
civilian prisoners by small hospitals in each place of internment,
for the treatment of minor and urgent cases, while some who
had been residents in Great Britain before the war were treated
in outside institutions.
At Ruhleben a lazaret to which any prisoners could go was
established at the Emigrants' Railway Station, close to the
camp. The place had previously been used by a low class, and
was filthy. The sanitation was bad, and the accommodation
of the roughest description, while the attention given to the
patients was, to say the least, perfunctory; a doctor came once a
day, and there were no nurses or orderlies. After the first dis-
organization was remedied, there was what was called the
Revier Barracke, with a waiting and consultation room, in which
.the doctor examined those requiring advice. The place had
accommodation for emergency cases and those suffering from
accidents, and persons were kept under observation till it was
decided what should be done with them. From here patients
were drafted either to the lazaret above mentioned, or to Dr.
Weiler's Sanatorium outside but near the camp, established at
the suggestion of the American ambassador for the better treat-
ment of the prisoners, in return for a substantial payment made
either by the British Government, or by the patients themselves.
Besides these there was the Schonungs Barracke, a place for
convalescents and the ailing. Though the building was pro-
vided by the German Government, the place owed its existence
and all its amenities to the self-denying labours of Mr. Lambert,
himself a British prisoner. It proved a real home of rest for
those who were not ill enough to require hospital treatment.
One great defect in the arrangements made for the sick pris-
oners here was that the German Government, as in the camps
where combatant prisoners were confined, provided no diet
suitable for them. The ration was the same as for men in good
health. A proper diet was provided in Dr. Weiler's Sanatorium
in return for the substantial payment made by or on behalf of
the patients, and in the Schonungs Barracke by Mr. Lambert
with the assistance of friends in England.
Lastly, one further fact should be mentioned. In a few
exceptional cases persons were allowed to proceed to places far
removed from Berlin to complete " cures " which had been
interrupted by the outbreak of war.
The position with regard to the care of sick civilian prisoners
may be summed up as follows: The German Government
provided some, but inadequate, accommodation for the very
poor, and did not put any great obstacles in the way of prisoners
who could themselves afford, or for whom the British Govern-
ment or others were willing, to pay for better treatment.
(2). Combatant Prisoners. In considering the application of
the Hague Convention to the combatant prisoners, it is impossi-
ble to deal with all the subjects mentioned in it. It is proposed
to deal at length only with the principal matters, viz. accommo-
dation, food, the application of the military law of the captors,
and after touching on a few less important subjects, to consider
how the great general principle enunciated in Article 4, that
prisoners must be " humanely treated," was acted on.
Accommodation. German officers in Great Britain were
interned in large country houses and public institutions adapted
for the purpose, to which, as necessity arose, additions were made,
usually in the form of wooden huts. The necessary furniture
and everything reasonably required for messing, as well as fuel
and light, was provided free of charge. In Germany, however,
the housing was in many cases bad and unsuitable. British
officers were confined in the casements of fortresses, as at Ingol-
stadt; in the men's barracks, as at Crefeld; in disused factories
as at Halle, or in huts which had been previously occupied by
the rank and file of other nations, as at Holzminden. The best
accommodation was in some of the hotels, as at Augustabad,
where, until the place became crowded, conditions were comfort-
able. The British prisoners had to provide, at their own expense,
cutlery and everything required for the table, as well as fuel and
light, which last caused considerable hardship in winter, for
some of the camps were established in summer resorts slightly
constructed and at a high altitude.
The actual position of the German places of confinement was
undoubtedly chosen in some cases with ulterior objects in view.
Thus, the quarters provided right in the middle of the Badische
Anilin und Soda Fabrik at Ludwigshafen, and in the centre of
Karlsruhe, were undoubtedly chosen in the hopes of warding off
air attacks on those places or for the purpose of involving na-
tionals of the raiders in the results.
The men's camps fall into two classes the large main camps
and the working camps.
In both countries the arrangements in the main camps were
similar. The camps consisted of groups of huts, either attached
to some barracks or similar place, or quite independent, with the
necessary cook-houses, baths, latrines and administrative block,
all surrounded by a barbed wire fence. There were frequent
and justifiable complaints of overcrowding in the German
152
PRISONERS OF WAR
camps. At Wittenberg, for instance, there was, when the camp
was full, a population of from 15,000 to 17,000 on an area of
about 10 acres. There was usually a building set apart for
religious services and recreation in the form of concerts and
theatrical performances. The sleeping accommodation con-
sisted of bunks arranged in two or sometimes three tiers. The
camps were divided by barbed wire into compounds containing
about 1,200 prisoners camps within a camp.
Working Camps. The housing of the prisoners sent out to
work is more difficult to deal with comprehensively, for it
depended so much on the locality and nature of the work, quite
apart from the goodwill or otherwise of the employer. Accord-
ing to the German regulations, there ought to have been five
cubic metres of internal capacity for each prisoner of war. This
regulation was by no means always observed. The accommoda-
tion provided in Germany varied from a single very-well-lit and
ventilated bedroom in a farm to crowded filthy quarters in ver-
minous draughty buildings in mines, quarries and brickyards.
In the larger working camps, buildings were sometimes erected
for the express purpose of housing the prisoners, and, though
not infrequently overcrowded, were generally suited for this
purpose. These buildings were sometimes of brick, more usu-
ally of wood, set up somewhat above the ground level. In E.
Prussia, however, and in a few other places, a construction com-
mon in the neighbourhood was used. The huts were sunk into
the ground and were in fact something like large lined dugouts
roofed over. They were not satisfactory for considerable num-
bers, but had the advantage that they were in that bleak dis-
trict warmer in winter than if they had been erected wholly
above ground. In other cases, the prisoners lived in the quar-
ters which at many mines and large industrial works the em-
ployers provided for their own bachelor workmen. Such quar-
ters were usually satisfactory. The situation of these quarters,
of course, depended on the conditions existing locally, and the
nature of the work. In mines they were usually in the mine
compound, in some places they were situated at a distance from
the actual place of working, and thus was added to the day's
labour a walk of occasionally as much as 5 km. each way a
serious addition if the work was severe. But in the majority
of cases there were no workmen's quarters, and it was impracti-
cable to build barracks for only a few prisoners. Accommodation
was then provided in village recreation halls, inns, theatres and
similar places. They were .not well adapted for the purpose,
but where a little goodwill was shewn on both sides, were often
made reasonably comfortable.
In a few cases, at Kiel and elsewhere in that neighbourhood,
the prisoners lived on board ship where the accommodation,
acco'ding to the neutral reports, seems to have been satisfactory.
In the places dealt with above, good provision was usually
made for bathing, personal washing and laundry; in many
mines and industrial works the men were able to get a hot
shower-bath daily. In some places, on the other hand, the
quarters provided were disgusting. To take two instances out
of many which might be given. At Fangslause, attached to Do-
beritz, where the men were engaged in refuse sorting, the bar-
racks consisted of a wooden building divided into two rooms,
which were very dirty, in a verminous condition, and overrun
with rats and mice. There were no arrangements for bathing
or washing; the only opportunity the men had for washing being
afforded by a canal near by. At another place, a coalyard, the
men were housed in an archway under one of the main lines
running into Berlin, and bathing arrangements were nil.
In Great Britain, prisoners of war sent to work were either
housed by the military authorities or, in some cases, when en-
gaged in agriculture, by the employer, who was bound to supply
housing accommodation, straw for filling palliasses, cooking
utensils, crockery, facilities for washing and artificial light. As
in Germany, it was not always found possible in England to
house prisoners near their work. Any time required to reach
and return from their work in excess of one hour was deducted
from the hours of labour. One rest day a week was allowed in
both countries.
Work. The construction placed during the World War by
the belligerents upon Article 6, which enables the captors to
employ the labour of prisoners of war and to authorize them to
work for the public service or private persons, probably caused
more ill-feeling than any other cause, for the result was to
reduce hundreds of thousands of men temporarily to virtual, if
not nominal, slavery. In the war of 1870-1 the Germans took
some 400,000 French as prisoners. They were permitted, but
in no way forced, to work in factories and elsewhere. During
the World War, with many exceptions, it is true, practically all
able-bodied prisoners, except officers and non-commissioned
officers, were ultimately forced to work.
Early in 1915 the British prisoners in German hands were
invited to volunteer for work outside the main camps. They
refused almost to a man. Then by degrees pressure was applied,
and soon men who refused were punished for their refusal, and,
eventually, as mentioned below, a formal pronouncement on
the subject was made by the German Military Courts.
Meanwhile, a question arose as to the employment of non-
commissioned officers. As early as February 1915, the German
Government suggested certain privileges for superior non-
commissioned officers, and eventually an agreement was come to,
that non-commissioned officers should not be compelled to work,
except as superintendents, unless they volunteered to do so.
A camp was formed for non-commissioned officers at Grossen-
weder Moor, in the notorious X. Army Corps district, and steps
were taken to obtain volunteers for work by withdrawing all
privileges and forcing the men to march on parade for nine hours
a day. The men did not volunteer and eventually the condi-
tions were improved.
The question of the nature of the work which could be prop-
erly demanded of prisoners of war was early found to be a diffi-
cult one. In a war of nations such as the World War every
able-bodied man replaced by a prisoner is a potential soldier,
and, in these circumstances, any work in the enemy country
might be said to be " indirectly connected with the operations
of war," especially in cases in which the prisoner was engaged
in any step in the manufacture or transport of any one of the
multitude of articles necessary for an army in the field.
The position first taken up by the German authorities was
that so long as prisoners did not actually handle the finished
product arms, ammunition and such like there was no in-
fraction of the rules of international law. This, however, did
not really cover the whole ground, and the matter was eventu-
ally formally considered by the German Military Courts, and
the following principles were laid down:
(1) The work on which a prisoner of war may be employed can
only be judged on the merits of each particular case.
(2) It is illegal to employ prisoners of war in the manufacture of
munitions intended for use against their native country or its allies.
(3) They may be employed in agricultural or forestry work, as
well as on military property, e.g. the improvement of parade and
drill-grounds and of rifle ranges.
(4) They may be employed on preparation work, e.g. the trans-
port of coke or of ores for the manufacture of shells, because there
is no direct connexion between such work and military operations.
(5) They can only claim exemption from such work as stands in
direct relation to military operations in the area of hostilities.
These principles were accepted by the British War Office and
the commanders-in-chief of the British armies, and seem on
the whole to have been fairly acted on by the German authori-
ties except behind the lines on the eastern and western fronts,
though in some cases individual commandants attempted to
force men to take part in the actual manufacture of such things
as shells, parts of fuzes and the like.
There seem to have been a large number of them employed
in labouring work, handling the actual material for guns, shells,
etc., in places where munitions were made, and some cases in
which they had to take an active part in the manufacture of
the finished article certainly did occur. At Krupp's Germania
wharf at Kiel, prisoners were employed in riveting ships, includ-
ing the outsides of submarines, while at Mannheim a number of
British were made to work in the manufacture of sulphuric acid_
in the middle of a large munition factory.
PRISONERS OF WAR
153
The authorities naturally reserved to themselves the right to
say what work the prisoners could be forced to do, but, at all
events in the early years of the war, they promised to give to
the prisoners certificates that they had been forced to do the
work to which they objected in order to protect them against
proceedings in their own country. The promise seems to have
been very seldom kept.
Setting aside work directly or indirectly connected with the
operations of war there seems to have been no kind of work
which prisoners were not called on to perform. They were
employed in every kind of manual labour, including work in
mines, from skilled engineering to scavenging. This last seems
to transgress the principles laid down in the German War Book,
that " these tasks " (to which prisoners can be put) " should
not be prejudicial to health nor in any way dishonourable."
In Berlin prisoners were sent to work in a slaughterhouse; at
three places they were obliged to do scavenging in the public
streets, while at two places at Kiel, and at four places near
Berlin they had to collect and sort the rubbish of the town.
The visitor of the protecting Power says in his report of one of
the places at Kiel where only British prisoners were employe..'.
" the work the prisoners are called on to perform is of a partic-
ularly revolting character."
In Great Britain, the principles above stated having been
accepted, prisoners were employed in accordance with them, but
none were employed in mines, nor were such degrading tasks as
scavenging and refuse-sorting imposed on them. A large num-
ber were employed in France in various capacities not directly
connected with the operations of war, and, after the Armistice,
in general salvage work.
The organization of the working camps was much the same
in both countries. Each working camp was connected with a
main camp, which was the centre for all administrative purposes
and upon its books the prisoners were borne.
In Germany the working camps were divided into three
classes: (a) those which the representative of the protecting
Power might visit freely and see the men at their work and in
their quarters; (b) those in which he might see them in their
quarters but not at work; and (c) those in which he was admitted
neither to the work nor to the quarters but was allowed to see
one or more prisoners outside. It has been suggested that this
classification was due to the influence of some of the great indus-
trial magnates who objected to their works being visited by
outsiders, but, however this may be, the third class was a very
small one, and the prohibition with regard to the second and
third classes does not appear to have been very strictly enforced.
Pay. The provisions of the Hague Convention with regard
to pay are too vague to be of any real value.
In the II. Army Corps district the German regulations, which
may be taken as typical, seemed to contemplate a payment by
the employer of the customary local wages, of which the mili-
tary administrative department took three-quarters for board,
lodging, guarding, etc., and the prisoner was credited with one
quarter, which he received in token money. In practice, a
prisoner working on the land generally himself received 30 pf. a
day, in mines from 75 to 90 pf., and in industrial works from 50
pf. to even several marks a day. In some cases a premium was
paid to prisoners who did more than the minimum.
Prisoners of war in British hands, when employed by the
Government, received the same rate of pay as that given to
British soldiers as working pay. When employed by private
persons or corporations the employer in England was obliged to
pay the full current rate of wages to the Government by whom
the prisoner was paid. Piece-work or task-work was adopted
where possible and extra pay given where the task was exceeded.
The rates were so adjusted that a man of moderate industry
could earn the equivalent of time-work earnings, and a very
industrious man could earn more. Time-work was paid at
rates which ranged according to circumstances from is. 4d. to
8d. a day. These sums were credited to the prisoner, but power
was reserved to the commandant to decide the amount actually
issued to the prisoner.
Food. Article 7 imposes on the captor State the duty of
maintaining its prisoners, and provides for their being treated
as regards rations, quarters and clothing on the same footing as
its own troops. This article is difficult to understand; it is not
clear whether prisoners are to have the same rations as soldiers
in the field or at home; or whether they are to be placed in bar-
racks with the same space and conveniences as the captor's
soldiers. How this last matter was actually dealt with has been
already explained. Whatever may be the true construction of
the article, none of the belligerents observed the letter of it with
regard to food. Difficulties arose, not merely from the steadily
decreasing supplies, owing to the submarine war on one side and
the blockade of Germany on the other, but also from the differ-
ence in the kind of food appreciated by the subjects of the two
countries. At a time when the Germans interned in England
were receiving the full peace-time rations of the British soldier,
they were complaining of the insufficiency and unpalatable
nature of the food. On the other hand, the British prisoners
even when supplies were sufficient in Germany complained of
the brown or black bread, and of the soup, which is liked by the
continental working man.
In England, after a short time, no rations were issued to
officers. Canteens were established, and subject to regulations
for the prevention of undue luxury, the German officers could
provide such food as they wished, which was prepared for them
by cooks of their own nationality.
In Germany it was different. Rations were issued, though
not always partaken of. The British officers, at all events after
the war had continued for some time, lived almost entirely on
supplies obtained from home. The rations in Germany were
issued according to a scale based upon a scientific analysis of the
composition of the food given, which showed a daily average in
grammes of albumen, fat and carbo-hydrates, and the number of
calories. These, as determined by the Kriegs ministerium for
the last week in Sept. 1916 at Parchim Camp, averaged daily
75-6, 24-5, 368-4 and 2,019-4 respectively.
It perhaps throws some light on the sufficiency of this ration
that in July 1918, nearly two years later, it was agreed between
the representatives of Great Britain and Germany, who met at
The Hague, that the combatant prisoners of war should receive
as far as possible the same allowance of rationed articles of food
as the civil population, and that in no case should the daily calor-
ific value fall below 2,000 calories for non-workers, 2,500 for or-
dinary workers, and 2,800 for heavy workers.
It may be doubted, however, whether at any time in German
camps the prisoners received even these moderate amounts of
food; and as the supplies became more difficult to obtain, they
probably received considerably less, even in the working camps.
Even if they did, such things as fish roe, soya flour, soya oil,
buckwheat and " blutwurst " do not appeal to a British soldier,
however admirable they may be from a scientific point of view as
articles of food, especially when they are all boiled together and
given in the form of soup.
In England the scales were not drawn up in exactly the same
way. If we take the principal articles of food, up to the middle
of 1916 the German prisoners received a daily ration of i J Ib. of
bread, 8 oz. of fresh or frozen meat or 4 oz. of preserved, 2 oz. of
cheese and i oz. of margarine. By Dec. 1917, the ration had
been much reduced. The bread ration was 13 oz., for 4 oz. of
which broken biscuit was substituted when obtainable. Meat
was given on three days a week only, but a ration of 10 oz. of
herring was added on two days. The 2 oz. of cheese and i oz.
of margarine were given till Oct. 1918, when both were reduced.
In the case of non-workers, the bread in Oct. 1918 was reduced
by a quarter of a pound, the cheese omitted, and the margarine
further reduced. In England, as in Germany, the prisoners had
to share in the privations of the civilian population.
In both countries the rations were supplemented by parcels of
food which were sent to the prisoners. At first they were sent
from England by individuals and associations, but before long
great abuses arose. Some British prisoners received large num-
bers of parcels, not infrequently far beyond any possible require-
154
PRISONERS OF WAR
ments. Others received nothing, and there can be no doubt
that in not a few cases gross fraud was practised on sympathetic
persons. Early in 1915 the Prisoners of War Help Committee
was established in London. It tried to coordinate the work of
the different associations and individuals, but failed as it had
no powers, and was dissolved in Sept. 1916, when the Central
Prisoners of War Committee of the British Red Cross and Order
of St. John was officially established and without its authoriza-
tion no individual or body could send a parcel to a prisoner.
Amongst its functions were (i) to authorize committees, asso-
ciations and approved shops to pack and despatch parcels to
prisoners of war, (2) to control and coordinate the work of all
such committees, associations and shops, and (3) to act as a care
committee for all prisoners who for any reason were without a
care committee, for all civilian prisoners, and, after Oct. 1917,
for all officer prisoners.
Under the presidency of Sir Starr Jameson, Bart., and, after
his death, of the Earl of Sandwich, the committee of which Sir
P. D. Agnew was vice-chairman and managing-director, not
only organized the whole of the despatch of parcels of food and
other things to the prisoners of war by 181 care committees, 81
local associations and 67 shops, but packed and despatched par-
cels to individual officers and men, numbering, at the date of
the Armistice, no less than 47,500. Three parcels of n Ib.
weight were sent each fortnight to every prisoner and contained,
together with 13 Ib. of bread sent once a fortnight from Copen-
hagen or Berne, sufficient, without other food, to maintain a
man doing reasonably hard work. Officers did not come under
the scheme till the autumn of 1917.
At first the scheme was very unpopular, because it interfered
with the power of individuals to send what they liked to their
friends, and in April 1917, a Joint Committee of both Houses of
Parliament was appointed to enquire into it. The report was
published in June of that year, and while paying a high tribute
of praise to the work accomplished made certain suggestions
which did much to allay the discontent, as they provided for
the introduction of the personal touch into the parcels. In its
main features the scheme continued till the end of the war.
Besides the despatch of parcels to individuals the Committee
sent food, either in bulk or in the form of emergency parcels, to
the larger camps in Germany, for newly captured prisoners.
Though it is obvious that the despatch of parcels of food on
the great scale indicated above relieved the German Govern-
ment of a very great responsibility, yet it must be recognized
that credit is due to the German nation for the fact that all but
a small percentage reached the addresses to which they were sent,
notwithstanding that they contained articles unobtainable in
Germany, except by the very rich.
Though it is true that the parcels arrived, it is also true that
in some camps the German commandants as a punishment
delayed or prohibited for some days or even weeks their issue
to the addressees, and that there were complaints as to the way
in which the censoring of the contents of the parcels, necessary
of course to prevent the introduction of prohibited articles, was
carried out. Latterly, however, in all good camps the parcels
were opened in the presence of the addressee, and the tinned
food was stored and not opened till it was required.
Owing to the increasing shortage of food in Germany, and to
the fact that the rations in England for a long time were main-
tained at a reasonable level, the number of parcels sent to Ger-
man prisoners was far smaller than that sent to British prisoners.
At first a considerable amount of food was sent into the German
prisoners' camps in England from their relations and .friends
residing in Great Britain, but when the shortage became acute
it became necessary to prohibit this practice.
The Hague Convention also requires the captor to treat his
prisoners as regards clothing on the same footing as his own
soldiers. The German Government claimed that it strictly
observed this article and forbade the sending of clothing by the
British Government. The article was not observed at all in
some German camps, and great trouble was caused by the claim,
in at all events some army corps, that boots were part of a sol-
dier's military equipment, and that the captors were entitled to
take them. The clothing in any case supplied by the Germans
was quite insufficient, and arrangements were made by which an
adequate supply was despatched according to a regular scale.
Some of it went astray and some was stolen, although a good
proportion reached the addressees. In England clothing was
issued when necessary to enemy prisoners, other than officers,
on a regular scale, which provided for them having a sufficient
change of clothing, while in both countries officers made their
own arrangements for the supply of the necessary clothing.
Application of the M Hilary Law of the Captors. Article 8
enacts that prisoners of war are subject to the laws, regulations
and orders in force in the army of the captor State, a provision
which gave rise to a good deal of trouble, owing, in England, to
the difficulty of carrying it out strictly while in some cases, as
in Bulgaria, punishments were allowed such as flogging for
ordinary breaches of discipline which were quite alien to British
ideas of what is permissible.
The German military law is in general far more severe than
the British, and there is this further great difference, that in
Germany officers as well as men may be summarily sent to cells
or awarded other severe punishments for trivial offences, while
in the United Kingdom, strictly, any offender above the rank of
private should have been tried by court-martial, a provision
amended during the war by the substitution of military courts.
In another respect the German code is more severe in that all
sentences of arrest involved solitary confinement, while one of
close arrest, which was limited to four weeks, meant that the
prisoner was confined in a dark cell, with a plank bed and bread
and water diet, though these aggravations of the punishment
were omitted on the fourth, eighth and subsequently every third
day, the prisoner receiving the ordinary camp diet on these days.
One punishment officially termed " field punishment," but
more generally known in England as the " post punishment,"
caused a great outcry in that country and much resentment
among British prisoners in Germany. It is provided in the
German Manual of Military Law that the punishment is to be
inflicted in a manner not detrimental to the health of the prisoner,
who is to be kept in an upright position with the back turned to
a wall or a tree in such a manner that the prisoner can neither
sit nor lie down. These last words were construed to mean ty-
ing the prisoner to a post; sometimes his feet were placed on a
brick which was removed after he was securely tied, and some-
times his hands were secured above his head. Apart, at all
events, from these aggravations, this punishment was in strict
accordance with the military law of the captors; indeed it corre-
sponds to the field punishment No. i authorized by the British
military law and described in the rules for field punishment for
offences committed on active service made under Sec. 44 of the
Army Act. These rules authorize the keeping of the offender in
fetters or handcuffs or both, and when so kept he may be attached
by straps or ropes for a period or periods not exceeding two hours
in any one day to a fixed object during not more than three out
of four consecutive days nor more than twenty-one days in all.
In Germany all prisoners are liable to be treated as " in the
field," i.e. on active service.
In one respect, viz. the punishments for attempted escape, the
German military law was less severe than the British, the greater
severity of the latter having apparently arisen from a misunder-
standing of the expression " peines disciplinaires " in the second
paragraph of the 8th Article of the Hague Convention. This
seems to have been understood on the Continent as a punish-
ment which could be awarded summarily: that is, arrest, open,
medium or close, for a period not exceeding six weeks. In Great
Britain the punishment was limited to 12 months' imprisonment;
in Germany it was far less for the simple offence, though it was
frequently added to by the addition of charges for damaging
Government property, and the like. The matter came under
discussion between the British and German Delegates at The
Hague in 1917 and 1918, and an agreement was arrived at by
which the punishment for a simple attempt to escape was to be
limited to fourteen days, or if accompanied with offences relating
PRISONERS OF WAR
155
to the appropriation, possession of or injury to property to two
months' military confinement.
In addition to the summary punishments, there were, of course,
in both countries the punishment of death and imprisonment,
which could only be inflicted by court-martial. In some cases
the German code lays down minimum punishments of great
severity, and in many of those cases, in which the infliction of
very severe punishments properly raised a great outcry in Eng-
land, the German court-martial had no option but to pass them.
The British military law on the other hand has only one offence
murder for which there is a fixed punishment; for others
it is " such less punishment as is in the Act mentioned."
In one respect the prisoners of both countries never were
satisfied. Neither understood or appreciated the procedure of
the other. The British never understood the long delays,
sometimes it is to be feared deliberate, which occurred in bring-
ing them to trial for alleged offences, and during which they
were kept under arrest, nor, owing to their ignorance of the
German military code, could they understand the very severe
sentences necessarily passed by courts-martial (which seem
usually to have been conducted with fairness), nor the right of
the prosecutor to appeal against a sentence which he considered
to be inadequate.
On the other hand, the Germans never appreciated the
British procedure, nor could they understand the absence of any
right of formal appeal from a sentence, for which ample provi-
sion is made in Germany, even against the award of a disciplin-
ary punishment, a right which, oddly enough, by Sec. 52 of the
Regulations relating to it, the accused shared with the prose-
cutor " only when the sentence has been carried out."
Parole. Articles 10, n and 12 deal with the subject of parole.
In the World War no combatant prisoners, with one exception,
were allowed to leave Germany or Great Britain on parole, or
to reside outside the camps. The only cases in which questions
arose were with regard to the temporary parole given when
officers left their camps for a walk, and the parole given by
those who were interned in neutral countries. According to the
custom of the British Army no officer ought to give his parole,
it being his duty to escape and rejoin his unit if he can, nor can
anyone below the rank of officer give a parole. In both coun-
tries, however, officers were eventually allowed to go out for a
walk in parties accompanied by an officer, each giving in writing
a temporary written parole that he would not attempt to escape,
nor during the walk make arrangements to escape, nor do any-
thing to the prejudice of the captor State. The parole was given
on leaving the camp and returned on reentry.
The case of those interned in neutral countries was different.
The British officers of the Royal Naval Division interned in
Holland after the fall of Antwerp were permitted to choose their
own residence in Groningen on parole, the men being interned
close by. This privilege was withdrawn for a time, and the
officers were interned in a fortress, but it was restored later.
As time went on, the Netherlands Government permitted
officers to return to England and Germany on parole, on proof
of the serious illness of a near relative, a concession which was
afterwards extended so that regular periods of leave were en-
joyed by both officers and men, the former giving a formal
parole and the latter a promise to return on the expiration of
their leave, while the British Government gave its assurance
that the men would not be employed on any work to do with
war, and would return at the end of their leave. Similarly, the
Danish and Norwegian Governments granted leave to British
and German combatants interned in their countries.
No parole seems to have been taken from those officers who
were interned in Switzerland or Holland under the agreements
made in 1917 and 1918 with the German Government.
Relief Societies. Article 15 deals with societies -for the relief
of prisoners. An immense amount of valuable work, impossible
here to particularize, was done by such societies. The Ameri-
can branch of the Y.M.C.A. especially did much for the pris-
oners in England and Germany, being permitted to work on the
following conditions, substantially the same in both countries.
A building or tent might be erected in the camp with the
consent of the general officer in command of the district or
army corps, but nothing might be sold in it nor could any one
be employed there other than a prisoner. A member of the
association might visit the camp once a week for a definite time.
He might hold services, provide materials for games, entertain-
ments and employment, arrange instructional courses, pro-
vide books (subject to censorship) and writing materials other
than writing paper and envelopes. Nothing might be given to
or received by a prisoner without the commandant's consent.
Recreation. No express provision is contained in the Hague
Convention relating to the occupation of prisoners in their
leisure time, but much of the good work done by the societies
had to do with the recreation and education of prisoners. In
both countries, and in nearly all camps, provision was eventually
made for sufficient space for recreation and exercise, but this was
not the case at first. At Halle, for instance, a German camp
for officers, established in a disused factory, the only place for
exercise was the space enclosed by the three buildings, in which
some 500 officers lived. It measured about 100 yards by 50,
and in winter was a morass of water and mud; in summer deep
in dust. In some of the men's camps the space was very con-
fined, and organized games of any kind were impossible. But
later things improved, and in most provision, sometimes at the
prisoners' expense, was made for sufficient room for tennis, foot-
ball and other games.
In England, facilities were provided by the War Office. To
take two typical instances, it may be said that at Donnington
Hall for German officers, there was a considerable space in front
of the house, and at Dorchester, for men, there was a large field
where any games could be played.
As time went on, walks outside the camp were permitted for
officers on their giving a temporary parole, and in Germany, in
some of the larger working camps, the men were allowed out
for walks on Sunday.
With regard to educational facilities, in England both officers
and men made their own arrangements, as they did in Germany,
with the full concurrence of the authorities. At Miinster, for
instance, the general officer commanding excused all students
from work, and much was done by some of the prisoners in the
organization of classes and lectures. The neutral organizations,
such as the American and Danish Y.M.C.A.'s, also did a great
deal in this direction, as did certain of the German civilians in
the neighbourhood of the great camp at Gottingen. Professor
Stange and some of his colleagues interested themselves in the
prisoners and organized the educational work in the camp, and
he himself had an office there where he was accessible to prison-
ers, and assisted them with his advice on educational matters.
He used even to obtain the requisites for games through the
Red Cross in Switzerland. Unfortunately for them, all the
British prisoners were ultimately removed from Gottingen,
which had become something of a model camp.
Some of the larger employers were also very considerate in
this respect, providing recreation halls and fields for playing
games, and even musical instruments. At Mulheim the Dutch
visitor found the employers had paid the expenses of the prison-
ers' Christmas festivities.
Letters. Article 16 was observed by both countries, except
that at one time in some of the camps in Germany customs
duties were charged on the contents of parcels, but this seems to
have been due to some misapprehension, and was soon aban-
doned. Prisoners were as a rule allowed to write two letters a
month and a postcard every week, and, in addition, a postcard
in the prescribed form acknowledging the receipt of a parcel.
But later in the war a " first capture postcard " was introduced,
by which on a printed form a prisoner was allowed to notify to
his relatives his capture, his state of health and his address.
Pay. Article 17 provides for officers receiving the same rate
of pay as officers of the corresponding rank in the army of the
captors. This provision was not observed by the German
Government, who paid subalterns 60 marks a month and other
ranks rather more. Accordingly, the British Government
156
PRISONERS OF WAR
declined to carry out the terms of the article and paid the Ger-
man subalterns 45. a day and other ranks 45. 6d., naval officers
being paid according to their relative rank. Out of this an
officer was required to pay for his food, laundry and clothing,
a deduction being made if he was in hospital (where, of course,
he was provided with everything necessary). By an arrange-
ment made later the German Government was allowed to make
a small addition to these daily rates of pay. Medical officers
employed in the care of sick and wounded prisoners of their own
nationality received the full pay of medical officers of corres-
ponding rank in the army of the captors.
Religious Exercises. -Article 18 is designed to secure to pris-
oners complete liberty in the exercise of their religion, and during
the World War no real complaint was made on either side.
In the United Kingdom German pastors who had been resi-
dent in the country were allowed to hold services in the camps,
but difficulties arose and the permission was withdrawn. There-
upon some pastors elected to be interned, with a view to min-
istering to the prisoners. Later, however, the permits were
issued in a modified form, and English and American clergy and
laymen and members of the Danish and Swiss Student Christian
Movement were allowed to visit the camps, the necessary funds
being provided by the American Branch of the Y.M.C.A.
The Roman Catholic prisoners were usually attended by the
priest of the district in which the camp was situated and every
facility was given to them. Where no German-speaking priest
was at hand the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster charged
the German priests of his archdiocese to visit the camps every
now and then in order to enable the prisoners to go to confession
and to hear a sermon in their mother tongue.
In Germany, at first, the Rev. F. Williams, who had been in
charge of the English Church in Berlin, was allowed to visit the
different camps and hospitals. But this permission was with-
drawn and the prisoners were left to conduct their own services,
to which, except at Grossenweder Moor, no objection was
raised. A few British chaplains were captured, and did good
work until they were repatriated. Great assistance was given
also by the American branch of the Y.M.C.A., and by Arch-
deacon Nies, an American clergyman at Munich, until the
United States came into the war.
The German clergy also did what they could for the prisoners
in many camps and hospitals. Some of them were spoken of
very warmly by the British prisoners.
The needs of the Roman Catholics were more easily met
owing to the presence among the French prisoners of many
priests who did excellent work, and the Bishop of Paderborn
(afterwards Archbishop of Cologne) did much for the prisoners.
Moreover, Father Crotty was sent from Rome and was per-
mitted to minister at Limburg and Giessen, partly perhaps
because he was an Irishman, and it was hoped his influence
might be useful to the Germans.
In the German working camps there was no regular provision
for religious services, though Mr. Williams seems to have visited
some of the larger places, and in one district a German pastor is
said to have travelled around the small camps and ministered
to the prisoners. There was a standing order of the Kriegs-
ministerium that, at all events in the country districts, the
prisoners should be allowed to attend the local churches. This,
though of value to Roman Catholics, was not much use to the
Protestants, owing to the difficulties of language.
At Zossen the Germans built a mosque for Mahommedan
prisoners, and generally arrangements seem to have been made
to avoid hurting religious and caste prejudices.
Medical Treatment. Up to this point an attempt has been
made to show how the provisions of the Hague Convention were
applied in Great Britain and Germany. But this Convention
does not deal with everything which affects the well-being of
prisoners of war. The Geneva Convention of 1906 requires
the belligerents to respect and take care of the wounded and
sick without distinction of nationality, and leaves them at
liberty to agree for the restoration of wounded left on the field,
the repatriation of wounded after rendering them fit for removal
or after recovery, and for handing over the sick and wounded
to a neutral State to be interned by it till the conclusion of
hostilities. What was in fact done must be considered under
three heads: the attention given (i) in the regular hospitals, (2)
in the main camps and (3) in the working camps.
Hospitals. In Germany at first there seem to have been
inadequate arrangements made for the reception of seriously
wounded prisoners, but later well-arranged and well-equipped
hospitals were available, the principal being in Berlin, at Cologne
and Paderborn, though of course there were a large number
elsewhere. As time went on and the pressure on Germany
became more and more acute, the supply of medical requisites
became deficient, bandages were made of paper, drugs and
anaesthetics were less plentiful, but, though naturally British
prisoners would fare worse than the wounded Germans, there is
no evidence that the former were intentionally deprived of any-
thing necessary for them if there was an adequate supply.
The conduct of the German doctors to the prisoners in the
regular hospitals is one of the bright pages in the sad history of
the World War, and is worthy of their great profession. Most
of the returned British prisoners reported that the doctors were
kind and humane, while many of them spoke of them in warmest
possible terms and told how the doctor had said that when a
prisoner was wounded or ill he no longer looked on him as an
enemy, or how, though he hated the English, he did his very
best. There were exceptions, who formed a very small minority.
The large majority of German doctors worked hard, often with
infinite kindness, in the interests of those in their charge, and
unreservedly placed such knowledge and skill as they possessed
at the disposal of the prisoners.
The nursing in Germany was carried out by orderlies, by
trained nurses or by sisterhoods. It seems to have varied very
much. In some cases it was good and kind, in some indifferent,
and in some rough and bad. But there appears to be no reason
to think that in any case it was intentionally less good than
circumstances permitted.
Main Camps. The same satisfactory account of the medical
arrangements in the main German camps cannot be given, even
after the first disorganization was overcome. There was in each
camp a lazaret providing accommodation for a number propor-
tionate to the number for which the camp was designed, but
the arrangements were often very incomplete.
There seem to have been a large number of Russian doctors
employed in the German camps, while in a few, for short periods,
English medical officers were employed though in all cases a
German seems to have been responsible. The nursing was in
the main done by prisoner orderlies, many of whom of course
were quite untrained, though they seem to have done their best.
It is impossible to generalize as to the conduct of the German
medical staff in hundreds of camps over a period of four years,
but the general impression produced by the evidence is that the
staffs were humane and did all they could.
There is reliable evidence that the nature of the food provided
in the German camp hospitals, as distinguished from the regular
hospitals, where, until supplies became very short, it seems to
have been satisfactory, was quite unsuited for invalids. A sick
prisoner was a non-worker, and therefore received the ordinary
camp ration, less 10 per cent. This was even the case in the
typhus camps, where the requisite milk and light food for the
fever-stricken patients had to be provided by the British and
Allied medical officers themselves.
There seems to have been insufficient care, at all events in
the early stages of the war, to prevent the spread of tuberculosis
by the segregation from the healthy of those suffering from that
disease. Later, however, steps were taken to effect this, and
more than one place was established exclusively for tuberculous
patients, while the arrangement made for their internment in
Switzerland did still more to deal with this evil.
It must not of course be said that this mingling of the sick
and healthy was deliberate. It was probably due to want of
thought, an excuse which cannot be made for the policy adopted
by the German Government of mixing all the Allies together,
PRISONERS OF WAR
although this was bound in the circumstances to lead to an
excessive amount of illness. This policy was quite deliberate.
Mr. Gerard, the American ambassador to Germany, in 1915
raised the question with the German authorities with regard to
officers, and reported: " I was told that this was a political move
ordered for the purpose of showing to the French, British,
Belgian and Russian officers that they were not natural Allies."
The commandant of the Gardelegen camp tried to enforce the
observance of this regulation during the height of the typhus
epidemic at that camp, but his direct order was deliberately dis-
obeyed by the British doctors, with excellent results.
Though this policy did not produce any ill effects upon the
health of the prisoners in the officers' camps in Germany, its
results, assisted by the insanitary condition of many of them,
were disastrous in the main men's camps. Typhus is endemic
in Russia, and the Russian prisoners, herded together with
those of other nationalities, spread the disease till in some camps
appalling epidemics were produced. At Ohdruf, Langensalza,
Zerbst, Wittenberg and Gardelegen the fever raged with great
virulence. At Wittenberg the camp was overcrowded and in-
sanitary, the washing arrangements were nothing more than
troughs in the open, which, with the supply pipes, were during
the hard winter of 1914 frequently frozen. In these circum-
stances, a serious epidemic broke out in Dec. 1914. As soon as
this was recognized, the whole German staff, military and medi-
cal, left, and never came inside again till Aug. 1915, by which
time all the patients were convalescent. For his services in
combating the epidemic Dr. Aschenbach, the German principal
medical officer, received the Iron Cross. Many Allied and Brit-
ish medical officers had been improperly detained in Germany
after their capture, and were dispatched to take the place of the
German doctors, who (it is charitable to believe, in obedience to
superior orders) had deserted their charges. In Feb. 1915, six
British medical officers were sent to the camp which they found
in a state of misery and disorganization. Of the six, three died
of the fever, as did several French and Russian doctors. Not-
withstanding the fact that there seem to have been ample sup-
plies of medical necessaries available, the difficulty of obtaining
sufficient drugs and dressings was extreme. There was not
even any soap till one of the British doctors obtained a supply
at his own expense from England, nor, till April 1915, were
beds or bedding for patients requiring hospital treatment im-
provised in one of the barracks. There were between 700 and
800 British prisoners among at least 1 5,000 in all, who, incredible
as it may seem, were confined in an area not exceeding 105 acres.
Of the British about 300 were attacked by the disease and 60 died.
At Gardelegen the same story was repeated. As soon as it
was apparent in February 1915 that something was wrong, cap-
tured medical officers were dispatched to Gardelegen, where
the conditions were favourable for the propagation of disease.
Though there were empty huts in the camp, the commandant
refused to allow them to be used, and the prisoners' rooms were
very overcrowded, the nationalities, as usual, being all mixed
up together. To each company of 1,200 men was allotted for
washing one outdoor trough, which was often frozen, and there
was a small hut containing at the most thirty showers for 1 1,000
men. The place was bitterly cold, the heating arrangements
entirely inadequate, consequently the huts were kept closed,
and the atmosphere therein became foul. Four days after the
arrival of the Allied medical officers every German had left the
camp, and the commandant, standing outside the barbed wire,
informed the medical officers that no person or thing was to
pass out, and that they were responsible for the discipline and
general internal arrangement of the camp, and for the care of
the sick. Dr. Wenzil, the German principal medical officer,
left the camp with the rest, but soon afterwards died of typhus.
His two successors never came inside the camp. But the third,
Dr. Kranski, a civilian, came in March and devoted himself
seriously to the welfare of the camp, and, though he took no part
in the care of the sick, did much to improve the sanitation, and
in that way to aid the medical men in their work. It is un-
necessary to go through the whole story of the struggles to obtain
the barest requisites in the way of food, drugs, dressings or furni-
ture. The plague was stayed after four months, during which
over 2,000 cases were treated out of 11,000 prisoners, the
mortality being about 15% of those attacked. Of the 16 Allied
medical officers, 12 took the disease and 3 died, while of 10
French priests, who devoted themselves to the care and nursing
of the sick, eight were attacked and five succumbed.
The epidemics at Wittenberg and Gardelegen in these cir-
cumstances of gratuitous suffering and official callousness made
a world-impression never likely to be entirely effaced, but it is
only just to add that the German authorities, having learnt
their lesson at the cost to others of so much suffering and death,
did their best, too late indeed, to remedy the defects, and Gar-
delegen and Wittenberg eventually became, if not model, at all
events fairly satisfactory camps.
German Working Camps.- In mines and large industrial
places, there was generally a small sick-bay containing from two
or three beds up to perhaps a dozen, in charge of a German
Sanitater. There was no resident doctor, but a civilian practi-
tioner called in well-managed camps daily, in others at intervals
varying from twice a week to four weeks. In case of accident
he was summoned as soon as the Feldwebel in charge thought
fit. In the smaller camps reliance was placed simply on the
local practitioner, which ordinarily was sufficient provision,
though in some places, such as the large land reclamation camps
in Hanover, the nearest doctor might live at any distance up to
20 kilometres. A prisoner seriously ill or injured was either
taken to the hospital at the main camp to which his commando
was attached, or sent to the local hospital, military or civil.
The real defect in the medical arrangements in these places
was that too much power was left in the hands of the person in
charge to decide whether a man reporting sick should see the
doctor or not. The regulations in the II. Army Corps district
provided that there must be a clinical thermometer in each
commando, and the guard was to be instructed in the use of it.
No prisoner was to be sent to work who had a temperature above
38 (100.4 Fahrenheit). This seems to have been construed
as meaning that the prisoner was to be sent to work unless he
could show that temperature. Armed with his thermometer
the Feldwebel in charge often declined to allow the prisoner to
see the doctor. The test was in some cases sufficient, in many
it was no test at all, and the results were sometimes fatal.
British Medical Arrangements. In the United Kingdom the
arrangements for the treatment of sick and wounded prisoners
did not differ in essentials from those made in Germany. At
first there were no special hospitals for them, but in Sept. 1915
a large hospital was opened at Dartford. This accommodation,
however, soon became insufficient, and at the time of the Armis-
tice there were seven hospitals entirely set apart for prisoners.
In addition to these large hospitals there was a hospital with
beds to the number of about 2 % of the prisoners, for the treat-
ment of minor and urgent cases; while in the working camps the
services of the local practitioner were given as required. In
exceptional cases prisoners requiring special treatment were
sent to an ordinary military or civil hospital.
Repatriation. Closely allied with the matter of medical
treatment is the question of repatriation and internment in a
neutral country. As early as Jan. 1915, an agreement for
repatriation of incapacitated officers was made. There was at
first no agreement as to the degree of incapacity sufficient to
entitle an officer to repatriation, but in August of that year an
agreement was arrived at, which was Slightly amended in Octo-
ber. It included 13 injuries or complaints entitling a person to
be repatriated, which may be summed up as being such that the
person was permanently, or for a calculable period, unfit for
military service in the army, or in the case of an officer or non-
commissioned officer, from service in training or office work.
But besides this direct repatriation of totally incapacitated
persons, many prisoners were sent to Switzerland or Holland.
In the spring of 1916 an agreement was made with the Ger-
man and Swiss Governments by which prisoners whose disabili-
ties fell within an agreed schedule but were not sufficient to
158
PRISONERS OF WAR
justify direct repatriation should be transferred to Swiss custody.
They were selected by mixed travelling boards composed of
Swiss medical men and medical officers of the captor State,
those selected being afterwards examined by a Control Board,
whose decision was final. After the Conference at The Hague in
1917, these travelling boards were abolished, and the first selec-
tion made by the camp medical officer, an arrangement subse-
quently modified at the meeting of 1918.
The guiding principles for internment in Switzerland were
stated in 1917 as follows:
" The following shall be interned: (l) Sick and wounded whose
recovery may be anticipated within a year, and whose cure will be
more speedily and surely brought about by the facilities obtainable
in Switzerland than by a prolongation of imprisonment. (2) Pris-
oners of war whose health in the opinion of the medical authorities
appears to be seriously menaced either physically or mentally by the
prolongation of captivity, and who would probably be saved from
this danger by internment in Switzerland.'
If the person's disabilities increased so as to bring him within the
category entitled to direct repatriation, he was to be sent home.
In 1917 the Netherlands Government offered to receive in all
16,000 persons, British and German, divided into three categories:
(i) invalid co'mbatants (7,500); (2) officers and non-commis-
sioned officers who had been in captivity for 18 months (6,500);
and (3) invalid civilians (2,000). This offer formed the basis
of the agreement made between the British and German Govern-
ments at The Hague in June 1917. By that agreement the
schedule of disabilities for the invalids was the same as in the
case of Switzerland, except that the British Government insisted
with the assent of Switzerland that tuberculous patients should
go to that country. Much resentment was felt in consequence
of the exclusion of privates who had been 18 months in captivity
from the benefit of this agreement. But the British delegates
were powerless. Every attempt to induce the German dele-
gates to agree to their inclusion was vain.
The provisons of the agreement arrived at in 1917 were
largely extended at a further meeting in 1918, by which all
warrant and non-commissioned officers, as well as men who had
been prisoners of war for more than 18 months, should, with
exceptions, be repatriated, head for head and rank for rank.
General Treatment. So far an attempt has been made to show
how the principal articles of the Hague and Geneva Conventions
relating to prisoners of war were applied in Great Britain and
Germany during the World War. It remains to be considered
how far the over-riding principle laid down in Article 4 of the
Hague Convention was observed. That article requires first,
that prisoners must be treated with humanity; and second, that
all their personal belongings, except arms, horses and military
papers, shall remain their property.
With regard to the second requirement charges were made
against both armies that this obligation was not observed, and it
cannot be doubted that on both sides the wounded were some-
times on their first capture relieved of valuables. But this was
not due to any official action; it was due to the unauthorized
and wrongful acts of individuals. In respect of one matter only
was there anything which could be treated as an authorized
disregard of this article. British prisoners often had their boots
taken from them by the Germans, either at first capture or later
even in the camps in the interior of Germany. This was justi-
fied by the Germans on the ground that a man's boots were as
much a part of his military equipment as his arms, and that
therefore they were entitled to take them away. This claim
seems only specious; the practice it sought to support or excuse
certainly had the most cruel results in many cases, as men were
forced to go about without any covering on their feet, or, if the
boots were replaced, as they sometimes were, by wooden clogs,
the men suffered much, especially during the winter or in
mines from that unaccustomed footwear. However, in other
respects this part of the article appears to have been fairly
observed, though a somewhat liberal construction was placed
on the expression " military papers " by both sides.
We turn now to the other part of the article, which enjoins
that the prisoners must be treated with humanity. There
existed during the war much misconception with regard to the
treatment of prisoners in Germany, partly owing to the fact that
only stories of horrors were published in England and the Allied
countries, partly owing to the prominence given to this subject
as a method of Allied war-propaganda, in the dramatic form of
cinematograph films, and notably in the pictures relating to the
work of Mr. Gerard, the American ambassador.
Some of the stories thus .circulated were untrue. As an
instance, it may be recorded that every story as to the tattooing
of prisoners by the Germans, to which great prominence was
given, pictures of the alleged victims being produced in the cheap
illustrated papers, was, as far as possible, carefully investigated
and was in no case shown to have any foundation. But the
stories had their effect, for an idea got abroad that a prisoner
once in the hands of the Germans was subject to every kind
of indignity and cruelty.
It is possible now to weigh all the evidence, and express a
judicial conclusion unaffected by the passions of war. The
materials for doing so are ample. In the summer of 1915 a com-
mittee, presided over by Lord Justice Younger, was appointed
by the British Government to enquire into the treatment by
the enemy of British prisoners of war. As far as possible, each
escaped or repatriated prisoner was examined by a person
experienced in taking evidence, and arrangements were also
made by the committee for examining the prisoners interned in
neutral countries. In all, over 3,500 persons who had been
prisoners in Germany, including 445 officers and 90 medical
officers, were examined by this committee during the war, and
most of their statements were printed and all indexed. After
the Armistice the committee was asked to arrange that every
returned prisoner should have an opportunity of making any
complaint he wished. A questionnaire was carefully prepared
and handed to every returned prisoner on his arrival at one of
the dispersal camps to which all prisoners were sent before
being allowed to return home. Each company of returning
men was addressed by the person in charge of the investigation,
and he impressed on the men the importance of stating frankly
whether there was any complaint that they desired to make,
and, if so, what it was. The result was remarkable. Out of not
less than 170,000 forms issued only some 59,000 were even
returned, and of these only about 22,000 contained information
of any value whatever.
While this information was being collected, the then Attorney-
General, Sir F. E. Smith (afterwards Lord Birkenhead), appoint-
ed a further committee to enquire into the breaches of the
laws of war, the sub-committee dealing with prisoners being
under the presidency of Mr. Justice Peterson. This sub-
committee carefully considered the whole of this mass of evi-
dence, and, in addition, the reports, nearly 2,000 in number, of
the American and Dutch representatives who visited the
camps. The German military law was also carefully studied.
Information was thus obtained with regard to 57 camps for
officers and 78 main camps for men, besides the working camps,
the number of which, shown by lists (admittedly not quite
complete) from time to time furnished by the German authorities
to the Netherlands minister, was 7,157. There were certainly
not less than 7,500 places in all where one or more British
prisoners were at one time or another confined, in addition to
the camps on the eastern and western fronts, which are left for
separate consideration.
The result of the investigation was that complaints, some
uncorroborated, some trivial and some very serious, were re-
ceived as regards 929 places, in only 349 of which rather less
than 5 % of the whole did a first study of the evidence seem to
call for further examination.
It is clear, therefore, that no general charge of inhuman treat-
ment is well-founded; it is, however, true that, apart altogether
from the camps on the eastern and western fronts, there were
actually, if not proportionately, a large number of cases in which
the German treatment of British prisoners was certainly bad,
and, in some cases, very bad.
To form a just estimate of the gravity of the situation so
disclosed, consideration must be given to the differences of the
PRISONERS OF WAR
159
military law and disciplinary practice of the two countries, and
to the personal characteristics of the two peoples. With regard
to the former, it is not necessary to repeat what has been said
before about the severity of the German military law, and in
actual practice the officers and non-commissioned officers in the
German army are accustomed, apparently without lawful au-
thority, to ill-treat their men physically in a way which would
not be tolerated in England. Moreover, the German is naturally
more amenable to strict discipline than the average Briton.
Much of the ill-treatment complained of in the camps resulted
from one or other of the causes above indicated; for the rest a
disregard of the German military law or the regulations made
for carrying that law into force was the main contributing cause.
In this connexion the attitude of the civilian population can-
not be ignored. -The anger aroused by the entry of Great
Britain into the war induced on the part of German men and
even German women cruelties which any decent person must
look upon with disgust. It was inevitable that the passage of
wounded prisoners from the battle-front to the interior of
Germany should be attended with suffering. But that men
grievously injured should be subjected to insults and physical
ill-treatment is horrible, and that women bearing the Red
Cross should throw water on men crying in agony for a drink,
or should sho\v to famished men soup and then pour it on the
ground rather than allow them to partake of it is conduct almost
incredible in its brutality. But such things occurred, not once
or twice, but frequently in the early months of the war, and
even later the conduct of civilians outside the prisoners' camps
is worthy of the severest condemnation. Happily, however, pas-
sions were allayed, and after the first year of the war prisoners
passed through from the front without being subjected to the
insults and ill-treatment which unhappily were common at first.
Again, it was inevitable that, owing to the state of unpre-
paredness and want of experience of all the belligerents, much
discomfort and suffering should be caused to those captured
early in the war. This is passed over as being practically
unavoidable, and in what follows, unless otherwise clearly
stated, the conditions recorded are those after the organization
was or ought to have been fairly complete.
Officers. The treatment of officers in a camp depended very
much on the commandant, and, to some extent, on the person-
ality of the general of the army corps district in which the
camp was situated. As officers were under no obligation to
work, one grievance which was so fruitful a cause of trouble in
the men's camps did not exist in their case.
In some camps where, as at Crefeld, the commandant was a
gentleman, no valid complaint can be made of the treatment.
In others, especially in the X. Army Corps district, where the
malign influence of Gen. von Hanisch was paramount, some
of the commandants were neither gentlemen nor capable of
understanding the feelings of gentlemen, and there was continual
trouble. At Clausthal and Holzminden, of which the two
brothers Niemeyer were commandants, the state of affairs was
intolerable. There were continual arrests for trivial offences
and endless pinpricks on both sides. But, worse than this, the
guards had orders to use their bayonets and rifles without
adequate cause. On one occasion an officer, for looking out of a
window, was shot at by order of the commandant at Holzmin-
den, but fortunately not hit. At Strohen, another camp in this
district, two officers were seriously wounded in a bayonet charge
ordered personally by the commandant because a knot of them
had gathered near a prohibited part of the camp.
One matter gave rise to much resentment. It was right and
proper for the Germans to make occasional strict searches in
view of the continual attempts to escape; but their method of
carrying them out with detectives from Berlin assisted by police
dogs which prowled round the completely stripped officers was
offensive in the extreme.
But these were exceptional places and incidents. In general,
the officers commanding were gentlemen, who treated their
charges with courtesy and consideration, though in most cases
there was occasional friction owing to the propensity of the
young officers to attempt to escape, and, in some measure per-
haps, owing to the inability of German officers to understand
the exuberance even in captivity of British subalterns.
Men in the Main Camps. In the main camps the treatment
on the whole seems to have been reasonable, and in some cases
more considerate than might have been expected. There was
the usual trouble from the enforcement of a discipline far more
severe than that to which the prisoners had been accustomed in
their own army; from the violence with which the German non-
commissioned officers treated offending prisoners, and, up to
quite late in the war, from the use of savage police dogs in the
camps, which the German Foreign Office declared to be "a mili-
tary necessity, in view of the large number of prisoners of war
in Germany," adding that, " having regard to the inferior num-
ber of prisoners in England no comparison can be drawn between
conditions in the two countries." Trouble, and even loss of
life, was caused by the too frequent use of firearms in some
camps, as, for instance, at Wittenberg, where on one occasion
men were ordered to return to their huts on a given signal and
the laggards were fired on. But such incidents were not general,
and occurred only in camps where the commandant was quite
unfit for his post. In most cases the prisoners were treated
fairly, if strictly; in a few, of which Friedrichsfelde may be
taken as an example, at all events in its later stages, everything
seems to have been done to make the prisoner's lot as little irk-
some and unpleasant as possible. An exception must be made
in the case of Langensalza, where the treatment was from first
to last rough in the extreme, a roughness which culminated just
after the Armistice in the shooting by the guard, hurriedly
called upon the scene, of a number of prisoners who were pulling
down a building, a proceeding condemned by the German Court
of Enquiry as a breach of Article 4 of the Hague Convention.
Working Camps. Still leaving out of consideration the camps
in the occupied districts on the eastern and western fronts, the
great bulk of the ill-treatment occurred in the working camps,
and by a curious paradox, it is in them that the best treatment
is to be found. The ill-treatment was due to two main causes:
first, to the fact that, except in very large working camps, the
person in charge was a non-commissioned officer, and, second, to
the passive resistance and in some cases the active insubordina-
tion of the British prisoners.
The non-commissioned officers, trained in the school of the
German army and unrestrained by the presence of a superior
officer, treated the prisoners in the way in which the rank and
file of the German army have so often been treated. Men who
refused to work, or in the opinion of the guards did not work
hard enough, were kicked, spat upon, beaten with sticks, whips,
clubs, rubber tubing, mining hammers and the butts of rifles.
Those who escaped and were recaptured not infrequently re-
ceived severe beatings before they were reported as recaptured
and were formally punished for their offence. And all this was
done notwithstanding the regulations, which, after laying down
rules in the main reasonable enough for the use of arms by the
guard, continue as follows (the quotation is from the instruc-
tions in force in the II. Army Corps district) : " Blows with the
hand or fist or with sticks or clubs and kicks are forbidden.
Except in the most exceptional and unusual cases it is inexcus-
able to lay hands on a prisoner."
Even where the non-commissioned officer was lawfully inflict-
ing punishment, he would often by his perverse ingenuity add
to its severity. Men were made to stand at attention on hot
asphalted roofs, or before coke ovens, where they were nearly
roasted, or sometimes in exposed positions without an overcoat
in the freezing atmosphere of a winter's night. At more than
one mine, the dark cells, in which, according to the German law,
prisoners of war under punishment were obliged to pass their
periods of close arrest, were constructed in close proximity to
the main steam pipe and became so hot that the men had to
strip themselves almost to the skin.
For all this there is no excuse or palliation possible; happily,
however, there is another side to record. At some large German
works the employers seem to have taken a real interest in their
i6o
PRISONERS OF WAR
prisoners, and to have done whatever in them lay to make
their lot endurable and even comfortable. 1 On the farms and
similar places, the relations between prisoners and their employ-
ers were frequently, as in Great Britain, even cordial, and more
than one repatriated British prisoner has spoken warmly of the
kindness and consideration with which he was treated, though
such cases were, of course, not common.
The impression produced by the study of all the available
material is that there was neither in the main nor the working
camps in Germany any officially recognized ill-treatment of
prisoners; that there was, nevertheless, in many cases much
cruelty by individuals, and that when as occasionally, but far
too infrequently, happened, a prisoner could bring home to the
authorities that some individual had exceeded his powers and
acted outside the regulations, the offender was punished, some-
times by being sent away to the front, sometimes by a sentence
to a term of imprisonment. On the other hand, it is also
clear that in some cases the prisoners were treated, not only
with humanity, but with kindness.
The reason for these contrasts is to be found in two things.
First, the personal character of the man in charge, and, second,
the independence of the army corps commanders, and even to
some extent of the camp commandants, who not only placed
their own interpretation on the regulations, but sometimes acted
in deliberate defiance of them.
Men in the Occupied Districts. While the above represents
the considered opinion which results from the study of the very
voluminous material available with regard to the camps in the
interior in Germany, the same conclusion cannot be reached
when the evidence dealing with the camps in the occupied dis-
tricts is examined.
The cruelties inflicted on the prisoners in these places had
their origin, and from the German point of view, their justifica-
tion, as reprisals for alleged ill-treatment of Germans in British
hands. It is not proposed to give here an account of the reprisals
enforced on one side or the other, more than to allude to the
severe conditions under which the first captured German sub-
marine officers were interned in Great Britain, which resulted
in the German Government retaliating by selecting from among
the officers in their hands who bore well-known names (including
among them the son of the former British ambassador to Berlin)
and imprisoning them under exceptionally rigorous conditions.
Most of the reprisals, while unpleasant enough for the victims,
were not such as to amount to real cruelty.
But it is not too much to say that the treatment of the prison-
ers of war on the eastern and western fronts must, so long as
the terrible story is remembered, bring indelible disgrace on the
German nation, and on those responsible for the appalling
cruelty inflicted on defenceless men. It was quite deliberate,
as the following facts will show.
Eastern Front. In the spring of 1916, German prisoners of
war were sent to work at Rouen and Havre, and in May the
German Government informed the British Government that it
had in consequence decided to send 2,000 British prisoners to
the occupied Russian territory to work under similar conditions
to those existing at Havre and Rouen. They were accordingly
sent, divided into four companies of 500 each, to four main
camps, from which they were sent in smaller parties to work on
numerous farms and in road-making and tree-felling. There
is no serious complaint to make of the central camps, but at the
others the conditions were very hard, the accommodation bad,
and the unter-offiziers rough.
On Feb. 7 1917, the British Government received a German
note verbale in which complaint was made that a consider-
able number of Germans were detained behind the British front
in France, where it was alleged the " prisoners suffered from
inadequate food, defective accommodation ... as well as being
subjected to hard work and irregularities in the matter of mails,"
and that they were exposed to German gunfire which " has
resulted in several of them being killed." The Germans re-
1 In some places the prisoners were even taken periodically to the
Vocal cinema, not always at their own expense.
quired that their men should be removed to a distance of at
least 30 km. behind the firing-lines and " provided there with
accommodation in accordance with the season of the year and
hygienic needs." In default of the British Government notify-
ing their compliance with these demands by Feb. i (the note
verbale was dated Jan. 24 and received on Feb. 7), "a number of
British prisoners will be transferred from camps in Germany to
the area of operations in the western theatre of war where, in
respect of employment, accommodation, food, and the question
of mails, they will be treated in a manner corresponding to the
practice of the British military authorities " which means, of
course, the practice alleged by the Germans, i.e. insufficient
food, defective accommodation (only tents), hard work and
irregular mails.
The British Government, in a note verbale for transmission
to the German Government, dated Feb. 8 1917, gave the explicit
assurance that the prisoners received the same food as the
British troops, that 75% were in huts, the remainder being like
many British troops in specially warmed tents with floor boards,
that strict orders had been given against their being employed
within the range of German gunfire though it was regretted
that one man had been wounded by a shell which must have
been fired at exceptionally long range, this being the only
casualty which had occurred.
Within ten days of the date of the British reply, 500 men were
sent, not to the western but to the eastern front, and they
were " officially informed " that they would be sent to the
trenches between Riga and Mitau and remain within the artil-
lery zone by way of reprisal. On Feb. 25 these 500 men were
forced to march 35 km. up the frozen river Aa, often through
snow-drifts knee deep. Sledges followed to pick up the men
who broke down from exhaustion, while the escort of Uhlans
drove the stragglers on with lances and whips. Those who fell
were robbed of their kit and property. Of the 500 who started,
between 1 20 and 130 are said to have collapsed on the march.
" They were brought in by transport later, but through their
lying in the snow they were frost-bitten in the hands and feet."
Arrived at their destination, the men were kept waiting out-
side a " cavalry tent built on the ice of (marsh by) the river.
It had wire beds on three racks, the bottom one being about one
foot from the ground, so that the weight of a man's body weighed
it down till he was lying on the snow or the ice."
The next morning they were paraded, and a notice was read
out giving the reasons why they were there. The substance of
this notice is given by one of the British prisoners who heard
it, as follows:
" You are here on a reprisal because the English have German
prisoners working in the firing-line in France. They have bad
accommodation, bad food, bad treatment; they are under fire and
36 men have lost their lives. In return, you are to work here in the
firing-line and will get bad treatment, bad food, bad accommodation,
and 36 of you have got to die."
The way in which it corresponds with the substance of the
note verbale of Jan. 24, already quoted, which the soldier who
gave the evidence could not possibly have heard of, cannot
escape notice, any more than the fact that the accommodation
provided corresponds with the complaint that some of the
Germans at Havre and Rouen were lodged in tents. 2
The threats contained in the notice were carried out to the
letter. The accommodation was bad, the treatment was bad,
the food was bad, and numbers of men died, while more lost
toes, fingers or hand through frost-bite.
The tent was a large cavalry tent pitched on the frozen
marsh, with a foot or more of snow and ice inside and frequently
under shell-fire. There were some small stoves, but no fuel or
entirely inadequate fuel was provided. The " revier Stube "
was a wretched peasant's cottage (in which the guard also was
quartered) in charge of a brutal Sanitater. Men in the last
stages of illness were sent by sledge to Mitau. When the thaw
1 When the men had been in this place for a week the " German
Government informed the Netherlands minister at Berlin, in a
note verbale dated March 5, that British prisoners of war had not yet
been sent quite close to the German firing-line on the Russian front."
PRISONERS OF WAR
161
came the tent was moved to Pinne, on the other side of the river,
where deep mud took the place of snow and ice inside the tent.
There was no water supply; such water as there was, was
obtained by melting ice from the river or by digging down into
the marsh, where filthy polluted water was obtained. Most of
the men had no wash during the whole time they were there.
The treatment was bad. Were it not established beyond the
possibility of doubt, the story would be unbelievable. Men
were driven out to work breaking ice on the river, felling
trees, making and repairing trenches under fire when they
could hardly stand, and had to be supported by their comrades
to and from their work. One man died while being carried
home; another, who had fallen exhausted on his way back to
camp, was shot at point-blank range by the sentry; while a
third man, who did not turn out quick enough one morning,
was first abused and then attacked with a bayonet by the
Sanitater; further investigation disclosed the fact that he had
been dead some hours, frozen in his bunk. The only punish-
ment was tying to the post outside the tent for two hours after
the men returned from work, under conditions hardly differing
from crucifixion. A sergeant-major, having been urged by the
interpreter to write home how they were being treated, even-
tually did so: " next day," he proceeds, " I got the letter back
marked ' five days strong arrest.' After being hard at work
from 6 A.M. to 6 P.M., I was tied to the pole from 7 P.M., during
36 degrees of frost." This is corroborated by several witnesses.
That this treatment was deliberate and inspired by higher
authority is evident from the fact that the sergeant-major says
he obtained a copy of the orders from the guard, which stated
" that no mercy was to be shown to us; we were men who had,
every one of us, assisted in stopping the Kaiser's army from
going to Paris; and they were to think of their comrades who
were being brutally treated in France. Any soldier failing to
carry out these orders was to be severely punished."
The guards were given three-quarters of a loaf each day, the
prisoners, doing hard work, received one-sixth of a loaf. The
guards were given good, thick soup; the prisoners, soup "that
you could drink straight off." To such straits were the men
reduced that it is recorded by more than one witness that the
men became so ravenous that they would eat anything. " There
were," says one, " many unburied Russian bodies lying round
the camp. Some men were so reduced that when they saw
any bones they would rush at them and eat them like a dog. It
was pitiful to see men reduced to such an animal stage." No
parcels were allowed before April, and no letters. When the
remnants of this unhappy company returned to Mitau, 20,000
parcels were found stored. Had they been forwarded much
suffering might have been avoided and lives saved.
The result of this inhuman treatment was what might have
been expected. At the end of April 1917, there were 77 men
left in the camp out of the 500 driven there in February. Of
these, no fewer than 47 were certified by the German doctor as
unfit to leave their beds. No less than 23 had died from
exposure and starvation some 16 in the camp, the rest in
hospital at Mitau, besides those killed by the sentries or per-
manently injured by shell-fire or frost-bite.
There can be no doubt whatever that the sufferings endured
by this unfortunate 500 were directly due to someone in authori-
ty in Berlin. The terms of the notice read out to the prisoners
and of the orders given to the guard are in exact accordance with
the terms of the note verbale of Jan. 24 1917.
Western Front. The story of the treatment of the prisoners
on the western front is not less terrible, indeed in some respects
it is worse in that their sufferings were more prolonged, though
they were not exposed to the same climatic conditions as their
comrades in Russia. There is overwhelming evidence in this
case also of the deliberation with which the suffering was inflicted.
In April 1917 it was agreed, after the communications of
January and February mentioned above, that neither bellig-
erent would employ prisoners within 30 km. of the firing-line,
and on April 28 a telegram was sent by the British authorities
informing the German Government that orders had been issued
xxxn. 6
that all German prisoners were to be removed. On May 30 a
further telegram was sent stating that they had all been with-
drawn to a distance of 30 km. from the firing-line, and request-
ing immediate information that the British prisoners had been
so withdrawn on the eastern and western fronts. No reply was
received till July 4, when the British minister at The Hague
transmitted a communication from the German Government
stating that " there can be no question in any case of intentional
retention or concealment of British prisoners," and on July 9 a
further communication was received, dated Berlin June 15,
saying " that the withdrawal of British prisoners of war in the
German fighting zone to a distance of 30 km. behind the firing-
line has been completed everywhere."
On July 2 the British and German representatives at The
Hague had made the following important agreement:
" Reprisals against combatant and civilian prisoners of war may
only be carried out after at least four weeks' notice of intention so to
do has been given" ; and second, " all captures are to be notified by the
captor State to the other State with the least possible delay : every
Erisoner captured is to be allowed to communicate at once with his
imily and is to be provided with the means of doing so and the
dispatch of his communication is to be facilitated : as soon as prac-
ticable after capture every prisoner is to be enabled to inform his
family of an address at which they can communicate with him."
The statements with regard to the removal of the prisoners
were not true. From early in 1917 up to the Armistice prisoners
were kept by Germans within 30 km. of the front line and were
there subjected to the most cruel treatment. After the above-
mentioned agreement, and up to the date of the German offen-
sive of March 1918, their number was probably not large, but
after that date thousands were so detained under very bad con-
ditions. No notice of the fact that they were to be so detained
as a reprisal was ever given to the British Government.
In April 1917 a notice entitled " Conditions of respite to
German prisoners " was handed at Lille to a British noncom-
missioned officer to be read out to his fellow-prisoners. It runs
as follows:
" Upon the German request to withdraw the German prisoners of
war to a distance of not less than 30 km. from the front line, the
British Government has not replied ; therefore it has been decided
that all prisoners of war who are captured in future will be kept as
prisoners of respite (sic). Very short food, bad lighting, bad lodgings,
no beds, and hard work beside the German guns under heavy shell-
fire. No pay, no soap for washing or shaving, no towels or boots, etc."
The notice proceeds to the effect that prisoners are to write
home of their sufferings and that " no alteration in the ill-treat-
ment will occur till the English Government has consented to
the German request " and then the prisoners would be removed
" to camps in Germany, where they will be properly treated,
with good food, good clothing." Stationery would be supplied
and " all this correspondence in which you will explain your
hardships will be sent as express mail to England." Similar
notices were read out at several other places. The threats were
carried out to the letter. The accommodation was everywhere
and always as bad as it could be. In the spring of 1917 prisoners
were confined at Lille in conditions comparable only to those of
the "black hole" of Calcutta, the crowding was terrible, there
were no washing arrangements, and the only sanitary accom-
modation took the form of tubs in the rooms. The same condi-
tions were renewed or continued in 1918; in the spring of that
year the men were told that they were being badly treated as a
reprisal. Prisoners were sent to places behind the lines, where
they had to work for eight or nine hours on end and even longer
on entirely insufficient food. The evidence of over 2,300 men
has been obtained with regard to 78 of these places, at 20 of
which they were exposed to Allied shell-fire which caused many
casualties, while at 38 they were engaged in work directly con-
nected with the operations of war, being required in some cases
actually to take up ammunition to the German guns. They
were forced to do this by brutal ill-treatment, and were worked
till they could do nothing more and either died or were sent
back to Germany mere wrecks of their former selves. Men
died in the train, their bodies being taken out at stations on the
way; many more died within 24 hours of their arrival at the
162
PRISONERS OF WAR
hospital to which they were sent, and often a large percentage
(up to 30 % it is said in some cases) within the next three
or four weeks. Their physical condition is vouched for by
33 medical officers who were prisoners: 10 of them immediately
behind the lines who saw what was going on, and the remainder
detained in the interior of Germany who saw and tended the
prisoners on their arrival there.
The under-feeding of the prisoners on this front was aggra-
vated by three things: First, the Germans did not notify the
capture of large numbers of them in obedience to the Hague
agreement of 1917; second, the prisoners were forced to give as
their address some camp in the interior of Germany to which
parcels were sent for them and, except in a few cases, not for-
warded; third, steps were taken to prevent the French and
Belgians giving the prisoners any food.
The Kommandantur at Mons on April 4 1918 issued a notice
in French of which the following is a translation:
" Conversation with prisoners is absolutely forbidden, as is giving
them letters, food, or anything else. Breaches of this regulation
will be punished by imprisonment for a maximum of three years or
a maximum fine of 10,000 marks." 1
This was repeated on July 28 and on Sept. 9 1918 the Kom-
mandantur again called attention to the matter, the notice of the
latter date containing a passage of which the following is a trans-
lation:
" Notwithstanding this warning, frequent breaches of the regula-
tion have been reported. The Kommandantur, being responsible
for strictly maintaining order, has instructed guards to use their
firearms when it becomes necessary so to do." 1
This was no mere threat. Many civilians, women among
them, were shot for attempting to help the starving prisoners,
and many prisoners were shot on the spot even for attempting
to pick up the remains of food which they saw in the road as
they marched along.
This treatment was continued right up to the Armistice, when
prisoners in the last stages of exhaustion and starvation stumbled
into the British lines hardly recognizable as British soldiers.
The High Command had faithfully kept their promise of "very
short food, bad lighting, bad lodgings, no beds and hard work
beside the German guns under heavy shell-fire."
PRISONERS OUTSIDE EUROPE. Something must be added with
regard to the treatment of prisoners elsewhere than in Europe,
if only because serious complaints Were made on both sides as
to their treatment with regard to accommodation and food,
especially in East Africa. There can be no doubt that much
suffering was endured by prisoners of both nationalities in this
part of the world; but it was mainly due to the conditions of
the campaign and to the climate, while on the British side there
appears to have been much justification for the complaints which
were made against individual Germans for their want of consid-
eration for the devoted men and women missionaries whom the
fortunes of war had brought into their hands.
Turkey. Little can be said with regard to the application of
the Hague Convention by Turkey, because the Government of
that country made practically no attempt to conform to the
regulations contained in it. Their treatment of prisoners varied
from an almost theatrical politeness to the great, to complete
indifference to suffering almost to barbarism in the case of
men of little esteem.
These oriental characteristics may be best illustrated by the
fate of the British prisoners captured on the fall of Kut el 'Amara
at the end of April 1916, when, as Enver Pasha stated, they be-
came " the honoured guests of the Turkish Government." The
'The original wording was:
" II est absolument interdit de parler aux prisonniers ou de leur
passer des lettres, des viyres, ou d'autres objets quelconques. Les
infractions a cette prescription seront punies d'un emprisonnement
pouvant s'61ever a 3 ans, ou d'une amende pouvant atteindre 10,000
mark."
2 The original wording was:
" Malgr6 cette defense, de nombreuses infractions ont 16 signa-
16es. La Kommandantur ayant pour tache de maintenir 1'ordre le
plus strict, les soldats de surveillance ont regu 1'instruction de faire
usage, le cas 6ch6ant, de leurs armes ajeu."
officers were sent by steamer to Bagdad and thereafter drafted
to various camps in Anatolia. The men were marched 100 m.
to Bagdad, in stifling heat, with no sort of organization for food
transport or medical care of those worn out by the privations of
the long-drawn-out siege. The Turkish commandant promised
that the day's march should not exceed eight miles. He kept
his promise for one day, and thereafter the men were forced to
march from 12 to 1 8 m. a day, herded like sheep by mounted
Arabs who flogged forward the stragglers. At night they lay
out on the open ground without any shelter. Many fell out and
died. At one point 350 men were left behind in a sort of cow-
shed, so sick as to be unable to move, and were picked up by the
already overcrowded boats, where there was room only for the
most desperately ill to lie down. Arrived at Bagdad, all but
500, who were too ill even for the Turks to force them forward,
were sent on a soo-m. march to places where they were to work.
Out of a total of 13,670 of all ranks believed to have been cap-
tured at Kut, in the course of two and a half years 1,425 es-
caped or were repatriated, 2,611 are known to have died, while
2,200 were missing, and there were left in the hands of the Turks
only 7,414, or little more than half of those captured.
Up to Dec. 1917 the Ottoman Government steadily refused
to permit neutrals to inspect the camps, and though this con-
cession was then made, it was so worded as in effect to be useless.
Bulgaria. If due allowance is made for the backward condi-
tion of the country, it must be admitted that the treatment by
the Bulgarians was correct, though complaint was made that
British soldiers were flogged for disciplinary offences. This is
permitted by the military law of Bulgaria but after representa-
tions were made on the subject the practice was abandoned in
the case of British soldiers.
The food given the prisoners was the same as that given to
the Bulgarian soldiers, and the hospital treatment was not less
good than that given to their own men. The accommodation
was rough but in general no worse than that of the inhabitants
of the country. Every effort appears to have been made to
improve conditions where they were remediable, and the authori-
ties seemed anxious to treat their British prisoners with consid-
eration. An unusual amount of liberty was accorded to the
prisoners, and there is no little evidence of the kindness and
friendliness of the Bulgarian civilians to the British.
Austria. The few British prisoners captured by Austria
were treated with consideration and in accordance with the pro-
visions of the Hague Convention.
NEGOTIATIONS DURING THE WAR. During the World War a
notable step was taken in arranging for meetings between rep-
resentatives of the belligerents for the discussion of matters
relating to prisoners of war. In the spring of 1917 meetings
had taken place between French and German representatives
with useful results, and, largely owing to the insistence of Lord
Newton, who was then in charge of the Prisoners of War
Department of the British Foreign Office, a meeting between
German and British representatives was arranged and took
place at The Hague in June. Great Britain was represented by
Lord Newton, Lord Justice Younger and Gen. Belfield, and Ger-
many by Gen. Friederich and two others, the meetings being pre-
sided over by M. van Vredenburg on behalf of M. Loudon,
the Netherlands Minister of Foreign Affairs. At. this meeting
arrangements were made for the repatriation of disabled com-
batants, for the internment of invalid interned civilians, for
the repatriation of medical personnel still retained by the bel-
ligerents, and for the 'mitigation of certain punishments in-
flicted on prisoners of war. It was agreed that reprisals should
only be carried out after a month's notice of intention to do
so had been given and it was also agreed that all captures were
to be notified with the least possible delay.
This meeting was followed by one which lasted from June
8 to July 14 1918, at which the British representatives were
Lord Cave, Lord Newton and Gen. Belfield, the first-named
being'obliged to return before the agreement was signed. It
contained no fewer than 60 articles with six annexes thereto, and
dealt with the following subjects: the repatriation of invalids;
PROFITEERING
163
the internment in a neutral country of prisoners who had
been a long time in captivity; the protection of prisoners after
capture; prisoners retained in an area of operations; notification
of capture; equipment and organization of camps; food; punish-
ments; help committees; relations with protecting powers; parcels
and postal services; and the publication of the agreements in
the different camps. Much was done by these two meetings to
translate into a concrete form the principles laid down in the
Hague Conventions, and to mitigate the lot of the prisoners,
though the full benefit of the second agreement was never
realized as it was never formally ratified.
In Dec. 1917 Lord Newton and Gen. Belfield met Turkish
representatives at Berne under the presidency of M. Ador, of
the Swiss Political Department, and an agreement was drawn
up on lines similar to those of the German agreements.
QUESTIONS FOR THE FUTURE. The foregoing investigation of
the operation of the Hague Convention during the World War
leads one inevitably to ask whether it is desirable and prac-
ticable to make any substantial amendment to. that Convention.
It is a most difficult question to answer, for, although not gen-
erally recognized, the whole problem is military rather than
humanitarian. While of course all active ill-treatment should
be prohibited, the lot of a prisoner must not be made so attrac-
tive in comparison with that of soldiers in the firing-line as to
afford a temptation to them to desert or to do anything incom-
patible with their military duty. Further, while it is possible
for the voices of humanity and charity to make themselves
effectively heard in times of profound peace, it is useless then to
formulate regulations which public opinion, stirred to its depths
by alleged misdeeds of the enemy, will not allow to be observed,
and which the military authorities will disregard in time of war.
All that can be usefully accomplished is to put into the form of
rules those principles which the good sense of all civilized nations
accepts as correct, and for this purpose to use the experience
gained during the World War, of which not the least important
part was the value of direct conference between representatives
of the belligerents during active hostilities for the purpose of
dealing with the detailed application of those principles.
But it does seem desirable that regulations should be made
dealing with the case of civilians found in any enemy country
at the outbreak of war, for it is improbable that in any future
war of nations civilians will be allowed to return home or to
remain at large in view of the means of communication which
modern science has made possible.
The value of the inspection of prisoners-of-war camps by the
accredited representatives of the protecting State has been
made abundantly clear, and their right to visit the camps, which
was the result of an agreement made early in 1915 between the
British and German Governments should be made permanent.
It will, however, be extremely difficult to reconcile the desires of
the humanitarians and the military authorities with regard to
camps within the area of hostilities, though it will probably be
found possible to come to some agreement defining the nature of
the work on which prisoners of war may not be employed, and
an attempt should be made to make more clear than it is at
present the obligation of the captors with regard to the feeding
and clothing of the prisoners in their hands.
For military reasons there would be no chance of obtaining a
general assent to the prohibition of reprisals, but provisions
similar to those contained in the agreements with the German
and Ottoman Governments requiring notice before reprisals
are made might be accepted.
Finally, those agreements made during the war with regard to
the repatriation of disabled prisoners, and the conditions on
which a prisoner should be entitled to internment in a neutral
country if accommodation could be found, might be made of
universal application.
There remains the most difficult question of all: whether it is
possible to provide penalties for the infraction of any regulation
which may be made, and to establish a tribunal with authority
to punish individuals and States. Articles 227-229 of the Peace
Treaty with Germany, satisfactory from one point of view,
savour too little of the calm administration of justice. They are
not reciprocal, the vanquished are given no right to have judi-
cially investigated any complaints they may have against the
victors. It would be far more satisfactory to have an alleged
" atrocity " investigated than that, for want of public investiga-
tion, an unfounded legend of brutality should grow up.
It is perhaps too much to expect that, at the conclusion of a
war in which the victors have made great sacrifices and under-
gone great suffering, they should take steps to establish a court
for the trial of charges against their own people, but if provision
had been made in time of peace for the establishment of a court
to investigate all charges of wrong treatment in time of war the
victors would not depart from their agreement. The establish-
ment of such a court may well occupy the attention of states-
men and international lawyers.
AUTHORITIES. The following is a complete list of official publica-
tions: Correspondence between H.M. Government and the U.S.
ambassador respecting the treatment of prisoners of war and
interned civilians in the United Kingdom and Germany: Misc. 7
(1915), cd. 7817; do. Misc. 5 (1915), cd. 7815. Reports by United
States officials on treatment of British prisoners of war and,
interned civilians in Germany: Misc. II (1915), cd. 7861; Misc.
3 (1916), cd. 8161; Misc. 14 (1915), cd. 7950; Misc. 15 (1915), cd.
7961; Misc. 19 (1915), cd. 8108; Misc. 16 (1916), cd. 8235; Misc.
26 (1916), cd. 8297; Misc. 7 (1917), cd. 8477. Report on conditions
existing at Ruhleben: Misc. 13 (1915), cd. 7863. Report by Dr.
A. E. Taylor on the conditions of diet and nutrition at Ruhleben:
Misc. 18 (1916), cd. 8259; Misc. 21 (1916), cd. 8262. The same,
and on proposed release of civilians: Misc. 26 (1916), cd. 8296;
Misc. 35 (1916), cd. 8352. Correspondence, respecting the employ-
ment of British and German prisoners of war in Poland and France
respectively: Misc. 19 (1916), cd. 8260. Correspondence with U.S.
ambassador respecting transfer to Switzerland of British and
German prisoners of war: Misc. 17 (1916), cd. 8236. Reports of
visits of inspection made by officials of the United States embassy
to various internment camps in the United Kingdom: Misc. 30
(1916), cd. 8324. Report on the treatment of prisoners of war in
England and Germany during the first eight months of the war:
Misc. 12 (1915), cd. 7862. Report on the transport of British pris-
oners of war to Germany Aug.-Dec. 1914: Misc. 3 (1918), cd. 8984.
Report on treatment of British prisoners and natives in German
East Africa: Misc. 13 (1917), cd. 8689; do. London 1918. Corre-
spondence with German Government respecting the burning of
G. P. Genower, A.B.: Misc. 6 (1918), cd. 8987. Correspondence
respecting the use of police dogs: Misc. 9 (1917), cd. 8480. Corre-
spondence with H.M.'s minister at Berne respecting reprisals:
Misc. 29 (1916), cd. 8323. Report on Wittenburg typhus epidemic :
Misc. 10 (1916), cd. 8224; do. Gardelegen, Misc. 34 (1916), cd.
8351. Report on the treatment of officers in camps under X.
Army Corps: Misc. 28 (1918). Report on the treatment of British
prisoners behind the lines in France and Belgium: Misc. 7 (1918),
cd. 8788; do., Misc. 19 (1918), cd. 9106; do., Misc. 27 (1918).
Report on the employment of British prisoners in coal and salt
mines: Misc. 23 (1918), cd. 9150. Agreement between the British
and German Governments concerning combatant and civilian
prisoners of war: Misc. 12 (1917), cd. 8590; do., Misc. 20 (1918),
cd. 9147. Report on the treatment of British prisoners of war in
Turkey: Misc. 24 (1918), cd. 9208. Agreement between the British
and Ottoman Governments respecting prisoners of war and civil-
ians: Misc. 10 (1918), cd. 9024. Work of the Central Prisoners of
War Committee 1916-1919: Revue Internationale de la Croix Rouge
(No. 26, Feb. 1921). Report of the Joint Committee to enquire into
the organization and methods of the Central Prisoners of War Com-
mittee, cd. 8615.
Up to Jan. 1922, neither the British Government Committee on
the treatment by the enemy of British prisoners of war, nor the
Committee on the Breaches of the Laws of War, had published any
general report; nor had the Reports of the representatives of the
Netherlands Government been published. (R. B. D. A.)
PROFITEERING. The word " Profiteering " was introduced
in 1919 into an Act of Parliament, and thus may be said to have
obtained official recognition as part of the English language. It
had become current colloquially quite early in the World War.
The following implicit definition was given by Sir Auckland
Geddes (as president of the Board of Trade) in Parliament on
the second reading of the Profiteering bill (1919): " To profi-
teer is to make an unreasonably large profit, all the circum-
stances of the case being considered, by the sale to one's fellow-
citizens of an article which is one or one of a kind in common use
by the public, or is material, machinery, or accessories used in
the production thereof." 1 Asan urgent social and economic prob-
1 Hansard, vol. 119, No. 114, Col. 545, Aug. II 1919.
164
PROFITEERING
lem the conception of " profiteering " was a new one as well as
the name attached to it, since the possibility of unreasonably
high profits being reaped on a large scale to the public detriment
from the sale of articles in common use was a direct outcome of
the conditions of disorganized trade and world-shortage of
commodities which resulted from the World War. It is clear
that under normal economic conditions high profits do not neces-
sarily involve high prices, but may even be obtained as a result
of greater efficiency of organization or production. It is probably
true to say that before the war, as a rule, a free market and plen-
tiful supplies afforded, in the case of most commodities in general
use, an effective safeguard against excessive profits based on
excessive prices.
It was no doubt partly with this consideration in view that
(to meet the demand for a clearer definition of the offence) a
provision was inserted in the bill in Committee, laying down that
a rate of profit not exceeding the pre-war rate should not be
deemed " unreasonable." It is with profiteering in this technical
sense that this article deals, and not with the wider economic
problems affecting profits as such.
The Profiteering Act, 1919, was thus a temporary measure
designed by the British Government to meet peculiar circum-
stances. It was a measure " to check profiteering," and accord-
ingly was framed to avoid, so far as possible, anyinterference
with legitimate commercial enterprise. The great difficulty pre-
sented by legislation of this kind is to design an instrument of
such accuracy, and to use it with such precision, that it shall
deal effectively with the evil against which it is directed, without
hitting the sensitive organism of trade and industry, the recovery
of which was in itself an essential factor in the removal of those
conditions of shortage and high prices of which profiteering was
to a large extent a symptom. How far the Profiteering Acts suc-
ceeded in solving this difficulty is a matter of opinion, but this
was the problem they had to deal with.
The main powers conferred upon the Board of Trade by the
Profiteering Act, 1919, may be summarized as follows: (a)
to investigate prices, costs and profits at all stages; (b) to re-
ceive and investigate complaints regarding the making of exces-
sive profits on the sale of any article to which the Act was applied
by the Board of Trade, and after giving the parties an opportu-
nity of being heard either to dismiss the complaint or to declare
the reasonable price for such articles, and to order the seller to
refund to the buyer any amount paid in excess of such reasonable
price. The Board also had power, where it appeared to them
that the circumstances so required, to take proceedings against
the seller in a Court of Summary Jurisdiction; (c) to obtain
from all sources information as to the nature, extent and develop-
ment of trusts, and similar combinations. 1
The Act was applied by the Board of Trade by a series of orders
to practically every article of ordinary everyday use, including all
articles of wearing apparel, household utensils and requisites, articles
for mending and knitting, furniture, building materials, drugs and
medicinal preparations, medical and surgical appliances and dress-
ings, mineral waters, all articles used for fuel and lighting, tools,
weights, measures, weighing and measuring instruments, motor
spirit, stationery, and, in agreement with the Ministry of Food, to
practically all articles of food the price of which was not otherwise
controlled, including milk, bread, fish, tea, coffee, cacao, margarine
and meat. Further, in accordance with extended powers given by
Section 2 (2) of the Profiteering (Amendment) Act, 1920, the
following processes were by order brought within the operation of
the Acts: the repairing, altering or washing of articles of wearing
1 Powers were also conferred on the Board of Trade by the Prin-
cipal Act to fix maximum prices, and to authorize local authorities
under suitable conditions to buy and sell any article or class of
articles to which the Act was applied. These powers were only
intended to be held in reserve for use in an emergency. Neither pow-
er was ever exercised, with the single exception of the temporary
fixing of the price of motor spirit during the railway strike in the
autumn of 1919. Further provisions were embodied in the Act
(or added by the Amendment Act of 1920) giving the Board com-
pulsory power of obtaining information, providing proper safeguards
For confidential information and for secret processes, providing against
victimization of complainants by sellers refusing to sell, excluding
from the scope of the Acts sales for export or sales by public auction
or competitive tender, and laying down maximum penalties by way
of fine or imprisonment for persons offending against the Acts.
apparel and household linen, etc., the repairing, altering or cleaning
of clocks and watches, and the repairing or altering of boots, shoes
and umbrellas.
For administrative purposes the Act empowered the Board of
Trade to establish or authorize local authorities to establish local or
other committees to which the Board might delegate any or all of
their powers under the Act (except the power to fix maximum prices).
The work fell naturally into two broad sections, viz. : (i) the larger
transactions of wholesalers or manufacturers which raise wide
questions affecting whole trades or industries, and (2) retail trade,
which is much more affected by local conditions. To deal with (i)
the Board of Trade set up a Central Committee, with its head-
quarters in London; to deal with (2) the Board invited local authori-
ties throughout the country to appoint local profiteering committees.
Local Committees and Appeal Tribunals. Over 1, 800 local com-
mittees were established in the United Kingdom, and the vast
majority continued in existence until the expiration of the Profi-
teering Acts in May 1921. Their constitution, powers and procedure
were defined by regulations made by the Board of Trade, who del-
egated to the local committees the bulk of their powers under the
Act in relation to retail sales. The regulations provided among other
things that labour, women, and the retail trade should be adequately
represented on local committees; that complaints should, except in
special cases, be heard in public; that any member who happened
to be a trade competitor of the respondent or otherwise personally
interested should be disqualified from adjudicating; that a complaint
should be lodged in writing within four days of the sale, and a copy
forwarded to the respondent within seven clays of its receipt; that a
preliminary investigation should first take place, after which if a
prima facie cause of complaint had been disclosed at least three
days' notice should be given to the parties of the date fixed for hear-
ing the complaint; and that both complainant and respondent
should always be given an opportunity of being heard. The object
of the preliminary investigation was to weed out frivolous com-
plaints. The rule was laid down that it should invariably be held
in camera and that the names of the parties to any complaint shoujd
not be made public until such time as the complaint was heard in
public. The Board of Trade also appointed 108 appeal tribunals,
to which the seller had a right of appeal against the decision of a
local committee. The total number of complaints investigated by
local committees during the operation of the Acts (Aug. 1919 to
May 1921) was over 4,700; of these some 73 % were dismissed. Only
173 appeals were made, of which roughly two out of every five were
dismissed. Only 202 prosecutions by local committees were reported
to the Board of Trade; in these fines were imposed to the amount of
some 1,786, and costs ordered against the seller to the amount of
455. Within the limits laid down by the regulations local committees
had full freedom of action and were in no sense controlled by the
Department. The Department, however, both by correspondence
ana through a small staff of six or seven travelling inspectors, kept in
close touch with the committees' work, and helped them wherever
possible with advice and information. Apart from the work arising
out of actual complaints, the local committees had the power to hold
general investigations into prices, costs and profit at the retail
stage", but comparatively few committees undertook such investiga-
tions. The report of the county of London appeal tribunal, which
dealt with a much larger number of cases than any other appeal
tribunal, has been published as a Parliamentary paper.
Central Committee. This body, about 150 in number, was widely
representative, including among its members manufacturers, trad-
ers, consumers, trade-union representatives, economists, representa-
tives of the cooperative movement, etc. Mr. McCurdy, its first
chairman, was succeeded after about 10 months by Mr. John Murray,
M.P. The Board of Trade made regulations laying down the con-
stitution, powers and procedure of the Central Committee, to which
the Board delegated the power (a) to investigate prices, costs and
profit at all stages; (b) to investigate, consider and determine com-
plaints regarding unreasonable charges arising out of the wholesale
sale of any articles to which the Act was applied; and (c) to obtain
information regarding trusts and trade combinations.
The Central Committee rarely met as a committee. Its functions
were rather those of a panel, and the work was performed by three
standing committees: the Investigation of Prices Committee, the
Complaints Committee, and the Standing Committee on Trusts.
Every member of the Central Committee was' appointed on one at
least of these standing committees, which in turn appointed from
time to time small sub-committees. These sub-committees, through
which the bulk of the work was done, were composed of members of
the Central Committee with the addition often of outside persons
appointed (in practice at the suggestion of the sub-committee or
standing committee concerned) by the Board of Trade.
The Investigation of Prices Committee undertook the investiga-
tions into the cost of production of various articles in all stages
of their manufacture where they considered it desirable to obtain
such information for the benefit of the public or of the Board of
Trade. The reports on these investigations were published from time
to time as Parliamentary papers: they cover the following subjects:
agricultural implements and machinery, aspirin, biscuits, boot and
shoe repairs, brushes and brooms, clogs, costings in Government
department, furniture, gas apparatus, matches, metal bedsteads,
PROFITEERING
165
motor fuel, pottery, standard boot and shoe scheme, tweed cloth,
wool and worsted yarns, wool, and the wool-top-making trade.
The Complaints Committee undertook the investigation of specific
complaints arising out of transactions or sales other than retail
sales. In practice the Complaints Committee became, like the
Central Committee itself, a panel, working almost exclusively through
sub-committees or tribunals. The procedure was analogous to that
of local committees, the complaint being first considered in camera
by a sub-committee called the Preliminary Investigation Committee,
who, if they were of opinion that the complaint did not give suffi-
cient particulars or did not disclose prima facie grounds for hearing
the complaint, had power (after giving the complainant an oppor-
tunity of being heard) either to dismiss the complaint forthwith or
to require the production of further or better particulars or grounds
of complaint within a stated period, failing which the complaint was
dismissed. If the Preliminary Investigation Committee were satis-
fied that a prima facie cause of complaint was disclosed, a tribunal
was appointed ' to hear the case, seven days' notice being given to
the parties of the time and place fixed for the hearing. The tribunal
had power either to dismiss the case, or (if they were satisfied that an
unreasonable profit had been made) to order the seller to repay to
the complainant any amount paid by him in excess of the price
declared by the tribunal to be reasonable ; further, the tribunal might
take proceedings against the seller before a court of Summary Juris-
diction. The hearing of all complaints before the tribunal was
normally in public, subject to the discretion of the tribunal in
particular cases, and the parties could conduct their own cases or be
represented by counsel or otherwise. As in the case of local com-
mittees, trade competitors or persons otherwise personally interested
were disqualified from adjudicating on the tribunal.
The Complaints Committee also investigated specific transactions
brought to their notice, even where there was no formal complaint ;
e.g. cases referred to the Board of Trade by local committees where
a complaint against a retailer had been dismissed, but it appeared
probable that profiteering had taken place at some earlier stage of
distribution or manufacture. The following figures show the number
of matters referred to the Complaints Committee and the manner
in which they were dealt with : Complaints lodged or specific trans-
actions referred to the committee, 607 ; profiteering found to exist,
73; number of prosecutions undertaken, 24; number of convictions
obtained before the magistrates, 17; fines imposed, 815; costs
ordered, 205.
The Committee on Trusts was charged with the duty of obtaining
such information as is specified in Section 3 of the Profiteering Act,
1919, which required the Board of Trade to "obtain from all
available sources information as to the nature, extent, and develop-
ment of trusts, companies, firms, combinations, agreements and
arrangements connected with mining, manufactures, trade, com-
merce, finance, or transport, having for their purpose or effect the
regulation of the prices or output of commodities or services pro-
duced or rendered in the United Kingdom or imported into the United
Kingdom, or the delimitation of markets in respect thereof, or the
regulation of transport rates and services, in so far as they tend to
the creation of monopolies or to the restraint of trade."
This section embodied a recommendation of the departmental
committee appointed by the Minister of Reconstruction " in view of
the probable extension of trade organizations and combinations, to
consider and report what action, if any, may be necessary to safe-
guard the public interest," which reported in 1919. It is to be noted
that the Act gave no power under which any coercion could be exer-
cised on a trade combination except in so far as it brought itself
within the penal clauses of the Act by charging unreasonably high
prices. Parliament appears to have taken the view that powers of
this kind ought to be the subject of further permanent legislation,
and that the temporary powers of enquiry and publication given by
the Profiteering Act should make it possible by preliminary inves-
tigation to get together a body of facts which would be of great value
when permanent legislation on the question of trade monopolies was
introduced. The numerous reports by sub-committees of the Com-
mittee on Trusts constitute in fact such a body of information.
They show, on the one hand, that many of the big combinations now
existing have been of public benefit ; that by economies in working
and efficient organization of manufacture, buying, and selling, they
have been able to keep prices at a lower level than they must other-
wise have attained. On the other hand, instances of abuse of monop-
oly power have been brought to light, and, in general, many of the
reports are in favour of the provision of some kind of statutory
power, under which action could be taken if a strong and close
organization controlling the whole or nearly the whole of an essential
trade or industry adopted a policy contrary to the public interest.
The following is a list of the investigations on which reports by
the Committee on Trusts have been published as Parliamentary
papers : dyes and dyestuffs, dyeing, finishing, bleaching and printing,
electric cables, electric lamps, explosives, farriery, fish, fixed retail
prices, fruit, glassware, iron and steel products, laundry prices, meat,
milk, oil and fats, pipes and castings, road transport rates, salt, sew-
ing cotton, soap, tobacco, uniform clothing, vinegar and yeast.
1 Originally by the Complaints Committee, but under the amended
regulations of Aug. 7 1920 by the Chairman of Central Committee.
Reports on the following subjects by sub-committees jointly ap-
pointed by the standing committees on Prices and Trusts have
also been published : bricks, cement and mortar, dyeing and clean-
ing, light castings, stone and clayware, slates and roofing materials,
and timber.
The Profiteering Act was to remain in force for six months only.
It was, however, continued for a further three months by the Profi-
teering (Continuance) Act, 1919, and again for a further twelve
months (until May 19 1921) by the Profiteering (Amendment)
Act, 1920. The Amendment Act was largely concerned with
improvements of machinery in points of detail where experience
of actual working had disclosed defects. It contained, however, in
Section i an important new provision, the object of which was to
encourage the various trades and industries to take into their own
hands the business of checking profiteering.
Section i reads as follows:
(i). Where any persons or associations of persons appearing to
the Board of Trade to represent a, substantial proportion of the
persons engaged in the production or distribution of any article or
class of articles to which the Profiteering Act, 1919 (hereinafter re-
ferred to as 'the principal Act '), is applied, submit to the Board of
Trade a scheme limiting the profit to be allowed on the manufacture
or distribution of the article or class of articles at all or any stages of
manufacture or distribution, the Board of Trade may, if they think
it expedient, approve the scheme, and, where any such scheme is so
approved, any profit sought or obtained in connexion with the sale of
any article to which the scheme relates, which does not exceed such
profit as is allowed by or under the scheme, shall not be deemed un-
reasonable for the purposes of section one of the principal Act.
(2)., If the Board of Trade are satisfied that any scheme so approved
secures an adequate supply to the home market of any articles or
classes of articles to which the principal Act is applied, the Board of
Trade may by order exempt producers who comply with the scheme
from any general investigation under section one, subsection (i)
(a) of the principal Act in respect of those articles or classes of articles
and any articles of a similar description.
The preliminary work of investigation and negotiation in
connexion with schemes submitted under this section was under-
taken by the Central Committee, the final approval or disap-
proval resting, of course, with the Board of Trade. Owing to the
unexpectedly rapid fall of markets and alteration in the general
trade outlook in the latter part of the year 1920, conditions were
not very favourable for profit-limiting schemes. Very few were
put forward ; of these some were withdrawn or not proceeded with,
and only two 2 (relating to men's ready-made and made-to-meas-
ure clothing and to the retail sale of coal in the London area)
were actually approved by the Board of Trade.
The foregoing is a brief review of the principles on which the
Profiteering Acts were based, the machinery by which they were
worked, and the nature of the work. The Acts were denounced as
harassing the small retail trader while enabling the profiteer
on a large scale to escape; but complaints against the harassing
nature of the Acts came from all quarters, wholesaler, retailer,
and manufacturer alike. Although it is possible that investiga-
tions may in rare cases have caused hardship to particular
interests, this can hardly be held to outweigh the valuable re-
sults in helping to dispel misconceptions and suspicions by pub-
lishing facts. The figures already quoted with regard to com-
plaints would indeed seem a sufficient answer to the charge that
trade was unduly harassed. On the other hand the deterrent
effect of the Acts must not be overlooked. From the point of
view of checking profiteering, the mere existence of the penal
clauses of the Acts and of the machinery for their enforcement
was undoubtedly of great value. As regards the absence of any
definite standard of a reasonable rate of profit, the original
Profiteering bill was criticized in Parliament on the ground that
it gave no clear definition of the offence. This criticism was
met to some extent by the proviso that a rate of profit not ex-
ceeding the pre-war rate should not be deemed unreasonable;
and in the Amendment Act the position was further defined
by making it clear that the standard of comparison to be aimed
at was the percentage rate of net profit, not gross profit, thus
2 Reports on these by joint sub-committees of the Standing Com-
mittees on Prices and Trusts, and also on the working of the standard
boot and shoe scheme (which was not technically a scheme under
Section i), have been published as Parliamentary papers.
i66
PROFITEERING
ensuring that the seller should not benefit unduly by the fact
that his oncost or establishment charges showed a smaller in-
crease than did cost of wages and raw materials.
A word may be added with regard to anti-profiteering leg-
islation outside the United Kingdom. The majority of Euro-
pean countries, including Belgium, France, Germany, Italy,
Norway, Poland, Portugal, Rumania and Sweden, passed some
form of legislation with a view to checking profiteering or specula-
tion in the necessities of life. Legislation with this object was
also passed in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Union of
South Africa, and a number of the smaller British possessions.
A number of foreign countries or British possessions studied
through their representatives the working of the Profiteering
Acts, 1910 and 1920, and several (as for example Italy, South
Africa, Gibraltar and Sierra Leone) availed themselves largely of
English experience in framing their anti-profiteering legislation.
(E. R. E.)
UNITED STATES
" Profiteering," as the term has been used in the United
States, may be roughly defined as consciously taking and retain-
ing profits considerably in excess of the return necessary to
equilibrate demand and supply, especially when such profits are
the result of prices enhanced by the activity or policy of the
recipient. Its meaning has therefore a direct relation to the cur-
rent conception of a legitimate business " profit " a point on
which public opinion during the World War became peculiarly
sensitive. Probably, conscious direct control of industrial proc-
esses never reached such development in the United States as
during the World War. Prices were fixed and both supply and
demand controlled. Income taxes were highly developed. An
unusual mass of information concerning cost, production, con-
sumption and stocks was obtained. As a result much became
known of the profits made in different industries, and much in-
formation concerning them was given out sometimes with the
purpose of exercising a check. In the United States the chief
sources of information are the cost reports of the Federal Trade
Commission and data compiled from the income-tax returns.
If it be remembered that not all that seems excessive is profiteer-
ing, it will be of value to recapitulate some of these data.
According to income-tax returns from some 7,000 corporations
their net earnings of the pre-war years 1911-3 averaged 11% on
invested capital. This corresponds well with the common judg-
ment at that time that from 10% to 12% (depending on the risk)
was a fair profit in most industries. Unfortunately, returns are not
available in published material for these same corporations in
1917, but for 1918 a year of lower profits they averaged 15%.
The year 1917 was the time of maximum profits. We know that
in that year the total net income of 31,500 corporations was well
in excess of the total for all corporations in the country in 1913.
These corporations made an average net return on investment of
approximately 22%, and more than one-half of their net income
was reported by those earning 30% or more. (It is to be noted
that these figures do not include corporations earning under 15 %.
Nevertheless, it is probable that all corporations averaged
approximately 18%.)
These income-tax returns are not conclusive. The padding of
investment account and of costs was all too common, and the
statistical treatment of the returns is not satisfactory. They do
indicate, however, that average profits increased considerably
between the pre-war period and 1918. More accurate and illu-
minating figures concerning particular industries were obtained
by the Federal Trade Commission, and a few representative
cases will give the best understanding of the situation. A study
of the costs of 37 wheat-flour companies showed that the average
earned on investment was 12-6% in the fiscal year 1913-4, 17%
in 1914-5, 38-4% in 1916-7, and 34% in 1917-8. That this in-
crease in profits was not due solely to increase in business is
evident from the fact that the percentage earned on sales also
increased, the rate being 3-4% in 1913-4 and 6-5% in 1916-7.
In 1917 there was apparently no limit, to the price purchasers
were willing to pay, the condition being one of panic. The large
profits of the year were partly due to the enhanced value of un-
sold stocks and to speculative profits derived from feed. In the
next year profits were somewhat abated by Government regula-
tion. The Federal Trade Commission, after noting that the
margin of 25 cents per bar. allowed by the Food Administration
was larger than the normal profit, said: " The Commission's
investigations of costs and profits for recent months indicate that
25 cents a barrel is being taken by many millers as a guaranteed
net profit after paying all income and excess profit taxes. ..."
In other words (i) taxes payable on net income were being
wrongfully treated as expense, and (2) a maximum margin was
being made the minimum. This course involved some fraud and
showed concerted action. Depreciation and salary accounts were
padded and capital charges were treated as operating expenses.
Twenty-two manufacturers of farm implements made at this
time about 85% of the product in the United States. Their
profits increased from about 9% on investment in the years just
prior to the war to 16-6% in 1917 and 19-9% in 1918; and the
rate of profit on sales increased several fold. There w as no general
shortage of farm implements and no unusual demand, for exports
were cut off. The Commission says: " The large increase in
the prices and profits of manufacturers in 1917 and 1918 was due
in part to price understanding or agreements . . . and, to a
more limited extent, the profits of dealers seem to have been
due to similar activities."
From Senate Document No.248 (65 Cong. 2nd Session)
further evidence of profiteering may be gained. It appears that
oil companies circulated reports that the supply of gasoline was
dangerously short, for the purpose of maintaining prices of that
commodity while making " enormous " profits on fuel oil. Con-
cerns bottling or canning vegetables, which had made future
contracts, sometimes withheld portions of their output from
delivery on such contracts and sold in the higher " spot " markets.
In frequent cases licences were revoked by the Food Administra-
tion. The practice of such concerns in maintaining re-sale prices
for jobbers contributed toward maintaining the general high
level of prices and increased profits in some instances. According
to the same document the steel companies in 1917, prior to
Government price-fixing, made abnormal profits, and a number
continued to make unusually heavy profits thereafter. The
United States Steel Corp., which made 5% before the war, re-
ceived 25% on investment in 1917; and 10 smaller concerns, such
as begin their operations with the employment of steel furnaces,
made from 30% to 319% on their investments. Certain sulphur
companies took advantage of the war demand for sulphur to raise
their prices to such an extent as to reap net profits of approximately
$i 5 a ton, which meant over 200% on investment in one case. It
further appears that " unnecessarily " large profits were made by
the producers of yellow pine lumber in the South. A good margin
per i,ooo bd. ft. had been considered to be $3, but in 1917 the
average margin was over $4.80; and while the average profit on
investment in 1916 was 5-2%, the figure was increased to 17% in
1917. The profits of tanners increased from two to five times, as
they took advantage of the enormous demand for leather and
exacted very high prices. The price of hides was rapidly advanced,
notwithstanding that at the same time " great supplies were
withheld from the public." ' Upon learning of approaching
price control, one of the large packers took steps " quietly and
promptly " to increase the appraised value of his tanneries.
Other figures indicating the general trend may be given as
follows:
Percentage of net earnings to
Investrrent
1914
1916
1917
Meat packers (large)
Tanners .
Shoe manufacturers
Bituminous coal (Pa.)
Vegetable canners
Salmon canners
Petroleum refiners.
Copper producers .
8-3
12-9
iS-i
15-0
II-7
18-5
33-8
26-1
6-0*
9-0
22-O
26-5
25-7
24.7
32-0*
32-0
52-7
2I-O
24-4
'Percentage of net sales.
PROFIT-SHARING AND CO-PARTNERSHIP
167
According to the annual report of the Attorney-General for 1920,
since Oct. 1919 sentences had been imposed on 49 sugar dealers
and 20 clothing dealers. This was under the anti-profiteering
law, referred to below. In addition, six sugar dealers and one
flour dealer had been convicted of hoarding, and two coal dealers
had been sentenced under the provision as to fixing reasonable
prices. In all there had been over 2,000 indictments, arrests and
sentences, involving chiefly the commodities just mentioned,
together with meats, potatoes, and meals at restaurants. The
great majority could not be sustained under the law.
Without further evidence it may be concluded that profits in
many industries increased in the earlier part of the war more than
1 00% above the pre-war level, and that this increase was in not
a few cases due in part to profiteering as above defined. High
prices do not necessarily indicate excessive profits, but there is
reason to believe that profiteering was common in cement, petro-
leum, lumber (notably ship timber), wool, clothing, sulphur,
naval stores, rice, sugar, sand and gravel, raisins and other prod-
ucts, in addition to those already mentioned. In most of these
cases the Government reduced prices and profits through some
form of control. Anyone who had experience at Washington
during the war knows that many persons went there for the
purpose of furthering profiteering schemes. In some cases the
method was to secure contracts at excessive prices, perhaps by
bribery, certainly by misrepresentation. Many such cases later
came to light, some concerning articles of clothing for the army
and involving collusion with army officers. In other cases the
method was to induce the Government to abstain from fixing
a reasonable price or to induce it to fix a high price. Thus, in the
United States, oil companies succeeded in virtually preventing
any price-fixing on the ground that the exorbitant prices that
prevailed were necessary to stimulate production; while lumber,
copper and cement associations by concerted and persistent
activity obtained prices that were unnecessarily high. In still
other cases every effort had been made to defraud the Govern-
ment in respect of excess profits taxes, to enable a business to
" retain " profits larger than lawful. Equally reprehensible was
the action of hosts of retail dealers, such as those selling shoes
and men's clothing, who maintained the same percentages of
profits on sales although the great increase in prices meant greatly
increased absolute margins and percentages on investments.
The U.S. Government attempted to deal with profiteering in
three ways: (i) taxation; (2) price-fixing; (3) direct action under
the Food Control Act. The first and the last methods proved
largely ineffective.
By special taxes levied on profits, many thought that the spoils
of the profiteers could be regained by the public. In 1916 a tax
of 125% was levied on the profits of munitions manufacturers;
and a general " war profits tax " and an " excess profits tax "
were imposed in 1917. In 1918 these taxes were combined.
Under this measure profits of corporations organized for profits
were liable either to (i) a progressive tax on profits in excels of
8% on capital; or to (2) a flat tax of 80% of net income over the
average profits for the three pre-war years 1911, 1912 and 1913.
Not a few legislators and economists hoped that these taxes
would make regulation of prices or profits unnecessary. Let any
concern make what it can, they said, we will take it as fast as they
make it. But, unfortunately, it proved so easy for most corpora-
tions to increase their investment accounts, and to pad their
expenses, that the worst profiteers often showed small excess
profits. Moreover, a considerable part of the tax was shifted to
consumers in the shape of higher prices, as was possible during
the inflation period.
Government price-fixing, while it did not prevent profiteering,
did moderate the evil, notably through such substantial reduc-
tions as were made in the prices of wool, coal, sugar, flour and
sulphuric acid. Unfortunately, this means was not used as
vigorously and thoroughly as it would have been had there not
been an ill-founded reliance upon profits taxes.
On Aug. 10 1917 the,Food Control Act became law. Section 4
of this Act made it unlawful for any person to hoard or to make
any unjust or unreasonable charge in transactions relating to
" necessaries " (foods, feeds, fuel, fertilizers, farm implements
and machinery), but imposed no penalty. Sections 6 and 7,
however, provided for penalties and seizure, in case of hoarding.
Section 5 authorized the licensing of dealers in necessaries and
the fixing of fair storage charges, commissions, profits, or prac-
tices. The fixing of prices for coal and coke was authorized in
section 25. It was under this Act that the Food Administration
operated, and, as already indicated, its control over prices was
partly effective. On June 30 1919, however, the activities of the
Food Administration were suspended; and as the agitation
concerning the " high cost of living " grew in volume, the Depart-
ment of Justice assumed the task of enforcing the law, which
remained in force while a state of war was only technically in
existence. Between Aug. and Nov. 1919, the Department made
some 92 seizures of such food products as eggs, butter, sugar,
flour and pork, under section 7, and secured several indictments
under section 6, one indicted party pleading guilty. The chief
agencies depended upon were the local " fair price committees "
such as had been established under the Food Administration.
Indeed, the wartime organization of local food administrators
was partly revived, and an extensive publicity campaign was
initiated. But the Attorney-General found his efforts limited by
the absence of a penalty clause in section 4 and the restricted
definition of " necessaries," and, at the President's request,
Congress reenacted the law in Oct. 1919, with amendments to
cover these defects. Encouraged by this action, and animated, it
is charged by his critics, largely by political ambition, the Attor-
ney-General proceeded vigorously under the Act, and in his annual
report for 1920 stated that there had been 1,049 prosecutions
under section 4 and 99 convictions.
Meanwhile, a growing hostility to the Act was apparent, and
the courts in several jurisdictions declared it unconstitutional.
This was true in five of the ten chie.f bituminous coal-producing
states. Action concerning anthracite coal profiteering was also
blocked by a decision of the Federal District Court in Pennsyl-
vania. The upshot of the matter was a decision of the Supreme
Court in Feb. 1921, which finally declared the Act unconstitu-
tional. The case was that of U.S. v. L. Cohen Grocery Co., and
involved profiteering in sugar. The reasoning of the Court was
that Congress alone had power to define crimes against the
United States; and, therefore, because the Act was vague and
indefinite, and fixed no precise standard of guilt, and because it
did not inform the defendant of the nature and cause of the
accusation against him, it was unconstitutional. Thus ended
the anti-profiteering crusade of the Attorney-General. Mean-
while, from April 1920 prices began to decline, and with that de-
cline came a loss of interest in profiteering.
In a sense the U.S. Government was to blame for much war-
time profiteering. In the first place it was lax in letting contracts
and making purchases, either directly, or indirectly, by placing
authority in the hands of interested persons. The " cost-plus
system " invited profiteering as well as inefficiency. In the
second place its combination of excess profits taxes and price
regulation was unfortunate. At the same time that it fixed
prices on a cost basis it spread the idea that it made little differ-
ence if excess profits were earned, as such profits would be
reached by taxation. Taxation, however, proved at best to be an
inadequate means of reaching profits, and early laxity in defining
cost and investment made this means nugatory. The system as
it worked in the United States tended toward laxity both in
fixing prices and in collecting taxes on income. (L. H. H.)
PROFIT-SHARING AND CO-PARTNERSHIP (see 22.423).
Profit-sharing was defined by the International Conference on
Profit-Sharing held in Paris in 1889 in the follawing formula:
" The International Congress is of opinion that the agreement,
freely entered into, by which the employee receives a share,
fixed in advance, of the profits, is in harmony with equity and
with the essential principles underlying all legislation." This
definition, which is accepted by nearly all writers on profit-shar-
ing, excludes on the one hand distributions made by a firm to its
employees, say at Christmas, the amount of which is not fixed
in advance, and to which the employees have no definite right.
i68
PROFIT-SHARING AND CO-PARTNERSHIP
Such distributions are to industry what the Squire's coal and
blankets are to village life, but they are not profit-sharing. It
also excludes forms of " output bonus," etc., under which the
individual employee (or the squad or gang) gets, or is supposed
to get, a share of the money which he individually saves to the
firm by working faster or better; this was formerly classed
with it under the general term gain-sharing, and profit-sharing
is still sometimes incorrectly used to cover such forms of bonus.
Under true profit-sharing the share of the employees varies
with the prosperity of the firm, and depends therefore not on
their exertions solely but on the competence of managers and
directors, the state of the market, and other considerations.
The Labour Co- Partnership Association in 1911 expressed its
view that the co-partnership of labour with capital involved:
(i) " That the worker should receive, in addition to the stand-
ard wages of the trade, some share in the final profits of the
business, or the economy of production. (2) That the worker
should accumulate his share of the profits, or part thereof in the
capital of the business employing him, thus gaining the ordi-
nary rights and responsibilities of a shareholder." To this in
1919 the Association added a further clause: (3) " That the
worker shall acquire some share in the control of the business
in the two following ways: (a) By acquiring share capital, and
thus gaining the ordinary rights and responsibilities of a share-
holder, (b) By the formation of a co-partnership committee of
workers having a voice in the internal management." The ad-
dition of the last clause is due to the belief, now rapidly gain-
ing credence, that the smaller shareholders in the ordinary firm
have in reality little or no voice in its management, and that
other means are necessary to provide the employee co-partners
with their share in control. It has not, however, been adopted by
all, or nearly all, of the firms which have co-partnership schemes.
Profit-sharing and co-partnership are thus seen to differ in
theory by the fact that the profit-sharer has a share only in the
cash profits of his employer over a given period, and may take
his share away in his pocket entire, whereas the co-partner must
take some of his profit in the form of investment in the business,
and receives also some share in the management. In some cases
the co-partner does not actually have to invest, but is offered
shares at par or at reduced rates, or even free, these shares
generally carrying with them all shareholders' rights. In
practice, however, there are so many possible variations that no
general distinction is possible, and the terms are frequently
interchanged. It will also be observed that both forms assume
the existence in industry of two parties, the " firm " and its
" employees." They are therefore not connected with the
various cooperative experiments which have been made from
time to time by groups of workers, forming themselves into a
firm and dividing amongst themselves the profits or losses,
with the cooperative colonies of Robert Owen in England, or
the ateliers or self-governing workshops of Louis Blanc in France.
Co-partnership, as now understood, is distinctly a " paternal "
movement, the dominant " partner " in industry being moved
to confer a favour on its junior; and though the ideals of Owen,
Fourier and the Christian Socialists may have had some influence
on the minds of the earliest co-partners, a truer descendant than
the co-partnership of to-day is the working-class Cooperative
Movement, which aims at the supersession of capitalism.
The earliest example of co-partnership comes from France.
In 1843 a master painter of Paris, Edme-Jean Leclaire, divided
among his permanent hands (43 out of about 300 employed)
the sum of 12,266 francs. The scheme met with approval and
up till 1870 this " kernel," as he called it, of permanent work-
men, who were members of the firm's mutual provident society,
continued to take their share of the increasing profits. At no
time did the members of the mutual provident society amount
to more than a third of those employed. In 1870 the profit-
sharing was extended to all the men employed, for however
short a time, and upon this basis it has continued as " Brugniot,
Cros et Cie. (ancienne maison Leclaire)." The arrangement
for division of profits is as follows: 5% is first paid on the
capital; of the remainder 15% goes to the managing partners
(who according to French law have unh'mited liability), 50%
as a dividend to all workers in proportion to their time wages,
and 35% to the mutual provident society the " kernel "-
which is now a partner in the business. The managing partners
also receive a salary. This experiment, as it was the first, is also
peculiar in the amount of control entrusted to the permanent
workmen, the " kernel," who are very carefully chosen. Among
their other privileges it falls to them to elect new managing
directors among the employees, a privilege not, as far as the
writer is aware, granted under any English scheme of co-partner-
ship. The whole business, however, employs only between one
and two thousand workers; its interest is, therefore, chiefly as
an experiment. (For fuller accounts of this and other French
schemes, including the Familistere of Guise, consult the publi-
cations mentioned at the end of this article.)
France, as it was the original home of co-partnership, has
also been the country in which it has excited the most interest,
and the comparative lack of trustification in French industry
has made it easier for schemes established by individual firms
to be accepted. The numerical weakness of French trade union-
ism has also made it easier to gain the adherence of French
workers, for an established trade-union movement is generally
hostile to co-partnership and profit-sharing.
United Kingdom. In the British Isles, if we except a scheme
inaugurated in 1829 by Lord Wallscourt for the farmers on his
Galway estates and abandoned shortly afterwards, the move-
ment begins in 1865 with the adoption of six schemes, of which
five have since been abandoned, although one (adopted by
Messrs. Jolly & Son, silk mercers, of Bath) survived until 1906.
One of the five was the famous Briggs scheme, of the Whitwood
and Methley Collieries, to which reference is made below. The
movement then progressed very slowly for some years. Between
1865 and 1888 only 66 schemes in all were launched, of which all
but fourteen had disappeared by 1920.
The International Congress on Profit-Sharing which drew up
the definition quoted at the head of this article was held in 1889.
In that year also the South Metropolitan Gas Co. adopted
profit-sharing, and thus initiated it in the only British indus-
try in which it has obtained any considerable hold. These
two facts combined to stimulate an interest in profit-sharing,
and during the four years 1880-92, 83 schemes were adopted,
of which only 12 survive. A long decline in profit-sharing,
owing partly no doubt to the trade depression which began in
1892, led up to rather less vigorous revivals during 1908-10 and
1912-4. The World War then practically put an end to the
development of the system, until the phenomenal profits of the
early months of the peace and the willingness of many firms to
share some of them with their employees, led to an outburst of
42 schemes in 1919. The boom continued during the early
months of 1920 (19 during the first six months); but during the
subsequent industrial depression there was a marked slackening
of interest in this direction.
Up to the end of 1919 the British Isles had given birth to 417
schemes, of which 198, or slightly less than half, have been
abandoned for one cause or another. Of the remainder, 36
were run by gas companies (see below). These figures alone,
however, would give a misleading impression of the size of the
movement. Of the 144 schemes started up to 1918, only 15 are
returned as affecting more than a thousand employees, while
no fewer than 54. affect less than a hundred. Out of the 15
again, four are run by gas companies (the South Metropolitan,
the South Suburban, the Gas Light and Coke Co., and the
Liverpool Gas Co.), and of the remaining n, four of the
largest affect only a portion of the workpeople in the firm's
employ. These are: Messrs. Armstrong Whitworth & Co.,
(12,215 out of 69,000 employed); Messrs. Pease and Partners,
of Darlington (2,243 out of 11,000); Messrs. Lever Bros. (3,542
outof 8,833); and the Bradford Dyers' Assn. (3, 600 out of 9,800).
The only really large concern whose profit-sharing affects nearly
the whole of its workpeople is the Prudential Assurance Co.,
18,500 of whose 20,000 employees participate in its scheme.
Details of the number participating are not available for schemes
PROFIT-SHARING AND CO-PARTNERSHIP
169
started since 1918, but as out of the 42 firms only eight have
a pay-roll of over 1,000, while ten employ less than 100, it would
seem that the proportions would not be materially altered if they
were all included. Neither do all the smaller firms include by
any means all their employees in their profit-sharing schemes.
The proportion varies from case to case, falling as low, in the case
of one firm of manufacturers, whose scheme dates from 1889, as
50 out of 1,500, or 3 1 per cent. It is clear that in this and similar
cases the co-partnership is really a tiny experiment carried on
with a few picked employees and is of infinitesimal significance
in the industrial life of the country. Nor is it only the successful
experiments that are of this type; the abandoned schemes tell
the same tale, except that the number of participants is lower.
Apart from the gas companies, then, co-partnership in British
industry has been confined, with one or two exceptions, to small
firms, and these for the most part in minor industries. The food
trades, such as cocoa, confectionery, jam, chocolate, etc., and
the distributive houses provide a large number of experiments;
tailoring, dress-making, boot and shoe manufacture, and print-
ing and stationery are also considerable groups. In the great
basic industries of the country, (mining, cotton, engineering
and shipbuilding) and in transport, co-partnership has made
practically no progress, nor does it seem to be making any.
What is the reason of this? An analysis of the reasons given
for the abandonment of dead schemes may provide part of the
answer. Forty-nine schemes were abandoned " for financial
reasons," i.e. because there had ceased to be any profit to be
shared. In 16 cases no cause can be assigned; and in about 40
the abandonment was due to changes connected with adminis-
tration. There remain 91 schemes which were abandoned owing
to the dissatisfaction of owners or men with their results. The
men's dissatisfaction can generally be traced to a simple cause
the smallness of the dividend distributed. The average rate
of bonus paid to workmen under all schemes varies within
narrow limits and is generally about 5% per annum on the
total of their wages. Translated into cash', this meant in 1918
that 105 firms paid to their workmen an average of 3 135. 3d.
per head, or, if the firms which paid nothing at all be excluded,
of 5 155. zd. In 1919, the average bonus paid per head was
4 1 8s. rod. It will readily be understood that so exiguous a
cash benefit causes considerable disappointment to the worker
who has been led to expect material advantages from being pro-
vided with an interest in the business; and this fact may also
go some way towards explaining the failure of schemes which
employers gave up owing to the " apathy " of their workmen.
3 135. 3d. per annum, especially when paid in a lump at the
end of twelve months, during which the workers have been
working at ordinary rates, is hardly likely to provide a very
strong incentive to better work.
This may account for the high mortality among profit-sharing
schemes which have actually come into existence. More reasons,
however, are needed to explain the smallness of their numbers
and their comparative insignificance. This is undoubtedly due
in part to the hostility of the consuming public, which tends to
regard profit-sharing schemes as designed to keep within the
industry money which should be used to reduce the price to
itself. Thus the distributive Cooperative Movement, which is
an association of consumers, has done very little in the way of
profit-sharing or co-partnership, and that little is steadily grow-
ing less, and the English and Scottish Cooperative Wholesale
Societies have both abandoned their schemes of profit-sharing,
the former in 1886, and the latter in 1915.
The gas companies, to which reference has already been made,
are not open to this criticism owing to their peculiar statutory
position. All gas companies are regulated by Act of Parliament,
and in most cases they are not allowed to increase their dividends
unless the price of gas is correspondingly reduced. (In the other
cases the dividend is limited to a fixed maximum percentage.)
Thus the gas companies have never been able to make enor-
mous profits at the expense of their customers, and moreover,
since their accounts of capital and dividend must be regularly
rendered to the Government, there is little or no cause for the
suspicions which occasionally develop in co-partnership concerns,
of " watered " capital and the like. Further, there was fre-
quently before the war a considerable surplus which the com-
panies did not wish to use in reduction of price, which, there-
fore, not being available for shareholders' dividend, could be
distributed among the employees. This, by keeping up the
workers' dividend, served to render the profit-sharing scheme
popular. Since the war, surpluses have largely disappeared.
But the greatest bar to. the success of the co-partnership
movement has undoubtedly been the hostility of the organized
labour movement. The trade unions are almost uniformly
opposed to it as a policy, and in some cases even expel any mem-
ber joining a co-partnership or profit-sharing scheme. This
was the case in 1920 with the Amalgamated Society of Wood-
workers, whose right to expel members joining Lord Lever-
hulme's scheme at Port Sunlight was contested in the courts,
though the decision finally went against them. The earliest
firms to adopt profit-sharing did little to allay the suspic-
ions of the unions. They were generally as unfavourable to
the unions as the unions were to them. The well-known exper-
iment of Messrs. Henry Briggs & Co., which was launched in
1865, was avowedly intended to draw the men away from their
union, ,and came to an end ten years later, after a somewhat
stormy career, because the employees chose rather to uphold
their union in resisting an attempt by the employers to reduce
wages than to remain in the firm's employ and get what they
could. The scheme of the South Metropolitan Gas Co., which
nearly came to grief in its first year owing to the company's
insistence that every workman should sign a yearly contract,
dating from different days in each case (which would have
rendered any concerted strike punishable at law), also required,
until 1902, every workman to sign a declaration that he was
not a member of the Gasworkers' union. Recently this attitude
has been modified, and the most distinguished advocates of
co-partnership, such as Mr. Aneurin Williams, now insist on the
recognition of trade unions: but the unions nevertheless hold
that it gives the workers in a single firm a sectional interest and
so tends to divide them from their fellows in the same trade,
and, further, that there is always a danger that workers in a
profit-sharing firm may, in return for the profit-sharing, be
induced to accept less than the rates of wages which it is the
unions' business to maintain. As far as one can see, this attitude
is not likely to be easily changed in the near future, and the
co-partnership movement, therefore, is unlikely to spread
beyond the small firms and the minor industries in which trade
unionism is weak.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Ministry of Labour's Report on Profit-
Sharing and. Labour Co- Partner ship in the United Kingdom (Crnd.
544. 1920.) is indispensable. It contains nearly all the available in-
formation, and has an exhaustive bibliography. The best book giving
the case for co-partnership is Charles Carpenter's Industrial Co-
partnership. A useful book is Co-partnership and Profit-Sharings, by
Aneurin Williams (Williams and Norgate, 1913); a good analysis
is to be found in Methods of Industrial Remuneration, by D. F. Schloss
(Williams and Norgate, 1907). Later Edition. The Labour Co-
partnership Association, 6, Bloomsbury Square, London, W.C.I.,
published a number of brochures dealing with particular aspects and
particular experiments.
For the Labour point of view the best works are two pamphlets
by Edward R. Pease: Profit-Sharing and Co-Partnership; A Fraud
and a Failure? (Fabian Soc., 1913) and Co-Partnership and Profit-
Sharing (Labour Party. 1921). See also chapters in The World of
Labour, by G. D. H. Cole. (M. I. C.)
United States. Profit-sharing, strictly defined, is a plan for
increasing the ordinary remuneration of labour by amounts
varying with the profits of the business. Popularly, the term is
loosely used to describe a great variety of methods of wage pay-
ment. In this article it is used to describe an arrangement by
which employees, other than managerial employees, receive, in
addition to wages or salaries, a share of the net profits of the
business, such share being distributed at the time of the declara-
tion of dividends to stockholders. The arrangement may be
expressed either by a formal agreement or an oral promise.
Although the profits are contingent, the percentage of profits to
be distributed is fixed and known in advance, and, like dividends,
170
PROFIT-SHARING AND CO-PARTNERSHIP
is paid sometimes in whole or in part in stock instead of cash.
This definition excludes many forms of wage payment commonly
associated and confused with profit-sharing, such as the bonuses
sometimes measured by individual or collective output, length
of service, attendance at work or employee savings, and some-
times given as Christmas gratuities, and such as sundry stock-
purchasing schemes, none of which fluctuate directly with the
net profits.
The term " co-partnership " is not generally used in the United
States in this connexion, since the implied constituents, profit-
sharing, stock-ownership and participation in management, are
not often found in the same establishment. Many profit-sharing
plans arrange for distribution of stock as a part of, or as an addi-
tion to, profit-sharing. There are also more than 60 known stock-
purchasing schemes, besides many arrangements for " manage-
rial" or "limited" profit-sharing, affecting less than one-third of
the total employees. Probably fewer than ten of these varied
plans provide for workers' committees as an integral part of the
arrangement.
Related to the idea of co-partnership, but quite apart from
profit-sharing, are a considerable number of schemes for labour's
participation in management which have sprung up during and
since the World War. These schemes vary all the way from
representation on boards of directors, in a very few cases, to
joint management through industrial and works councils, shop
committees, grievance and welfare committees, shop chairmen
and voluntary arbitration boards. The distinguishing character-
istic of these management-sharing plans is that under them the
management does not depend upon organized labour, but deals
with its own employees collectively. They are distinct from
profit-sharing, in that the employer retains all of the profits he
makes, though the workers are given collectively a voice in
determining the wages, hours and working conditions which to
some extent affect the profits account. Without doubt labour's
participation in management in such a sense is more usual than
profit-sharing and co-partnership.
The pioneers of true profit-sharing in the United States, dating
from 1886, are the Ballard and Mallard Co. of Louisville, Ky.,
engaged in flour-milling, and the N. O. Nelson Manufacturing
Co. of St. Louis, Mo., manufacturers of plumbers' and steam-
fitters' supplies. The years of greatest installation of new pro-
jects were 1901, 1906, 1909-11, 1914-6, and 1919. Fully 70%
of all the known plans were started after 1910. These variations
in the progress of profit-sharing in the United States correspond
with those in England, where profit-sharing plans found favour
during periods of ample employment and labour unrest. It is
only natural, however, that periods of low profits should check
the spread of profit-sharing and cause the abandonment of
many plans, the average life of abandoned plans being two to
three years. For this reason, and since no comprehensive study
had been made in the five years preceding 1921, it is difficult to
state with confidence the exact number of profit-sharing arrange-
ments existing in that year, one of general business depression.
On the basis of the Government report in 1916 and subsequent
semi-official studies it is estimated that 86 true profit-sharing
plans were in operation at the end of 1920. Of these plans more
than one-half (53%) were in manufacturing establishments, 16%
in mercantile concerns, n% in banking institutions, 9% in
pubh'c utilities and the remainder scattered. Approximately
two-thirds of these concerns employed less than 300 people,
and only one-seventh employed more than 1,000, so that the
total number of employees was less than 50,000. The number of
arrangements solely for stock purchasing is not accurately known
but the inclusion of several large corporations, as the United
States Steel Corp. and the International Harvester Co., raises
the number of participating employees to a million or more.
In the determination of the divisible fund of profits, two
general methods, subject to individual variations, are followed:
(i) Setting aside a specific percentage of profits after all ordinary
expenses of the business, such as depreciation reserves and inter-
est on invested capital, are taken care of; (2) fixing a rate of
dividend on employees' earnings coordinate with the rate of
dividend oh capital. Assume a corporation capitalized at
$1,000,000 with an annual payroll of $100,000 and net profits of
$220,000 a year. In most plans using the first method, the pre-
ferred and common stockholders first receive dividends (not to
exceed a certain per cent, say 10%, or $100,000). The remainder
of the profits fund ($120,000) is divisible and is shared with
labour according to a fixed percentage, perhaps 50% to labour
and 50% to capital, or 40% to labour and 60% to capital. Four
of the more recent plans allow employee beneficiaries to send an
accountant on their behalf to verify the company's computations.
Under the second method, the divisible fund depends on divi-
dends declared. Thus if a 10% dividend is declared, a fund
equal to 5% or 75% of the total payroll ($5,000 or $7,500) is
distributed among workers. The advantage to the management
of this method is that it may be found desirable to pass all divi-
dends and use this amount for strengthening the business.
When the amount of divisible profits has been determined,
there remains the apportionment of the respective shares to
capital and labour. In most instances the employer determines
this apportionment at the outset, announcing that perhaps 50%
or 40% or 33 J% of the divisible profits will be distributed among
employees according to their earnings. Often, however, divisible
profits are distributed according to the ratio of (i) total invested
capital to total payroll or (2) interest on invested capital to
total payroll. Assuming, in the exarrple given above, that
$120,000 remains to be divided, the ratio in the first instance is
$1,000,000 (capital) to $100,000 (payroll) or ten to one, which
allots $10,909 to labour and $109,091 to capital. In the second
case, assuming 6% as a fair return on the investment, the ratio
is $60,000 (interest) to $100,000 (payroll) or six-tenths to one, in
which event labour's share is $75,000 and capital's share is
$45,000. This latter method of division in 1921 was known to
obtain in only one establishment.
An almost universal rule is that length of service shall be a
condition of the eligibility of participants. In one or two cases
the employee benefits as soon as hired. But most schemes
require from three months to three years of continuous employ-
ment as qualification for a share in profits. Concessions from
the specification of " continuous " employment are sometimes
made to provide for such contingencies as sickness, unavoidable
lay-off and accidents. Discharge for cause or quitting employ-
ment entails an automatic forfeiture of all claims to accumu-
lated or accruing shares in profits; in one plan discharge for
cause is the only occasion for forfeiture. The obvious intent of
such regulations is to reduce labour turnover by rewarding the
faithful. In this respect profit-sharing indirectly acts as a Icngth-
of-service bonus. A further rule as to eligibility in some plans is
to require a written application from the employee who wishes
to participate. In one such case employees are obligated to share
in possible losses, not to exceed 10% of their earnings, 10% of
their pay being held back by the employer each week to provide
for this contingency. Loss-sharing in addition to profit-sharing
is incorporated in four schemes. Still another restriction is as to
the class of work performed, as shown by the amount of salary
or wages or by classification of employment. Firms using this
restriction evidently feel that the type of their workingmen
is such that only a sharing limited to some of their employees
would produce the desired results. Yet there is also the wish to
experiment fully and the desire to extend the benefits of the
plan, should limited participation be successful.
The form and time of payment of shares to employees are also
important variants. Over three-fourths of the firms studied
in 1916 paid their shares fully in cash, annually, snmi-annually
or quarterly. The others paid part in cash, part in company
stock, or paid part into a common welfare fund or savings
account. The stock-sharing or co-partnership plans provided
many restrictions designed to encourage thrift, and to discour-
age speculation and absentee ownership. These restrictions
take the form of prohibitions of sale of stock, sometimes only
with the consent of an official of the company, or holding the
stock in trust for the employee and paying him only the dividends,
or of forfeiture of participating rights if such stock be sold.
PROHIBITION
171
Four plans provide for workers' co-partnership committees,
though there are several strictly stock-purchasing plans which
allow shareholding employees to acquire a voice in management
through the exercise of the ordinary voting rights of sharehold-
ers. The extent of the co-partnership in these forms is negligible.
All these varying details (and the variations are by no means
exhausted in this recapitulation) reveal in large measure the
spirit and purpose of profit-sharing. As a rule the employer
announces his plan without previously consulting his employees.
There is virtually unanimous agreement among successful profit-
sharing employers that the cooperation, loyalty and stability of
working forces the chief avowed purposes of profit-sharing
are obtained by all the plans which have been in operation for
any considerable period. There are, however, varying opinions
as to how far these plans attain the more specific objects of (i)
economy of time and material, (2) improvements in quality and
quantity of output, (3) inducement to thrift, (4) avoidance of
industrial disputes, (5) attainment of social justice. On the
whole there is a considerable body of employers' opinion sup-
porting the value and practicability of profit-sharing in improv-
ing industrial relations.
On the other hand union leaders universally condemn profit-
sharing for three general reasons: (i) Where profit-sharing exists,
wages less than the market rates are paid; (2) workers prefer a
fair, fixed wage scale rather than a part of their wages unde-
termined and subject wholly to the employer's decision; (3)
labour organization is undermined, as obligations to the firm are
made a first lien on the workers' loyalty. That these criticisms
have some foundation in fact is proved by the high percentage
of abandoned plans and the reasons for their failure. Most of
the failures were due to apathy or open hostility on the part of
the workers, expressed in strikes, to diminished profits, or to
changes in ownership of the business.
The success or failure of profit-sharing plans depends on cir-
cumstances not touched by the profit-sharing principle. Where
favourable results have been obtained, they were due, not to
profit-sharing as a mechanical device, but to the confidence
which the employees had in the management.
Bibliography. A comprehensive bibliography will be found in
Boris Emmet's report " Profit-Sharing in the United States ''
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin No. 208, 1917.
Other references are: C. D. Wright, Profit-Sharing (1886); N. P.Gil-
man, Profit-Sharing between Employer and Employee (London and
New York, 1892) ; idem, A Dividend to Labour (London and Boston,
1900) ; A. F. Burritt, Profit-Sharing: its Principles and Practice (New
York and London, 1918); National Industrial Conference Board,
Research Report No. 29, " Practical Experience with Prpfit-Sharing
in Industrial Establishments " (Boston, 1920) ; National Civic
Federation, I 'rofit-Sharing Department, Profit-Sharing by American
Employers (New York, 1920). (J. R. Co.)
PROHIBITION. In the earlier article (see 26.578) under
TEMPERANCE, reference has already been made to the various
methods devised for securing total abstinence from the con-
sumption of intoxicating liquor, and in particular to the prog-
ress of the movement for legislative Prohibition in the United
States up to the year 1910. This latter movement eventually
culminated in the establishment of nation-wide Prohibition by
the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United
States, as proposed by Congress, Dec. 3 1917, ratified by the
necessary three-fourths of all the states, and officially proclaimed,
Jan. 29 1919, as part of the Constitution, becoming effective,
in accordance with its terms, one year from the date of ratifica-
tion by 36 states, namely Jan. 16 1920.
In the separate article under LIQUOR LAWS the measures
adopted in Great Britain for further regulating the liquor
traffic during 1910 to 1921 are dealt with; and here it is only
necessary to deal with the advent of complete national Pro-
hibition in the United States, where its adoption forms one of
the most interesting chapters in the social history of modern
times. The movement for Prohibition was affected by new scien-
tific knowledge, new views of industrial economics, and educa-
tional forces of great variety, considerably intensified, but not
substantially changed in character, by the experience of the
World War. The conviction had grown steadily in the United
States that social and industrial efficiency, and national unity
of purpose, could not be had at any cheaper price than the cost
or sacrifices involved (whatever they might be) in national
prohibition; and this belief had almost reached the point where
it could be translated into effective governmental action even
before the war necessitated a supreme effort for such efficiency.
Surprising evidence of this was seen in the passage, by a major-
ity vote (193 to 189) in the House of Representatives, of the
Hobson amendment for national prohibition, Dec. 22 1914, two
years and four months before the United States entered the
war. Save for the war, the country would probably not have
had constitutional (which means virtually permanent) national
prohibition as early as 1920. Forces were, however, at work
which would have probably brought it within another decade,
and with it the " bone dry " enforcement contemplated in the
National Prohibition Act (popularly called the Volstead Act),
the significant title of which is "an Act to prohibit intoxicating
beverages, and to regulate the manufacture, production, use,
and sale of high-proof spirits for other than beverage purposes,
and to ensure an ample supply of alcohol and promote its use in
scientific research and in the development of fuel, dye, and other
lawful industries."
Up to the wartime legislation of 1917 and 1918 and the Vol-
stead Act of Oct. 28 1919 for the enforcement of the Eighteenth
Amendment, there had been but little change since 1910 in
Federal policy. Federal taxation of liquor was greatly increased
for revenue purposes in 1917 and 1918. The increasing sentiment
in favour of prohibition throughout the country was reflected,
however, in other Federal measures. In 1913 the Webb-Kenyon
Act was passed, over President Taft's veto. It was based on
the constitutional grounds that the Act delegated power over
interstate commerce, exclusively vested in Congress, to a state,
by making illegal the shipment of liquor from a " wet " state to
a " dry " state contrary to the laws of the latter. Some such
measure seemed necessary in order that local prohibition might
be enforced in " dry " territory. Another indication of national
sentiment in favour of restriction is found in the same year in
the passage of the Jones-Works Excise Bill for the District of
Columbia, which reduced the number of licensed saloons by
Nov. i 1914 to not more than 300, about half as many as before.
The Isthmian Canal Commission on July i 1913, by an admin-
istrative order previously adopted, abolished 35 saloons in the
Canal Zone by declining to issue any further licences for the
sale of liquor. In 1915 absolute prohibition for the District
of Columbia was proposed in a rider to an appropriation bill,
and defeated in the Senate by a small majority, and in the same
year a bill for that purpose was favourably reported in the
Senate by the Committee on the District of Columbia. In 1916
the Judiciary Committee of the Senate reported, 13 to 3, a
resolution proposing the National Prohibition Amendment to
the Constitution. A similar resolution received a majority vote
in the House of Representatives in Dec. 1914, though it failed
to secure the two-thirds necessary for passage. During the
years 1915 and 1916 many of the states had enacted statewide
prohibition laws, and there was a considerable extension of dry
territory under local option in wet states.
Early in 1917 Congress enacted the Federal Anti-Liquor
Advertising Bill with the so-called Reed Bone-Dry Amendment,
as an amendment to the Post-Office appropriation bill. This
was a drastic prohibition of the use of the mails for advertising,
or soliciting orders for, liquor in " dry " territory, and was an
extension of the principle of the Webb-Kenyon Act. Congress
also adopted prohibition for the District of Columbia, over which
it has exclusive legislative power. It provided for prohibition
in Alaska to be effective Jan. i 1918, and in the Porto Rican
Citizenship and Civil Government Act it made provision for
a referendum in Porto Rico on prohibition. This was Ijeld in
July 1917, and resulted in a vote of 99,775 for prohibition to
62,195 against. All this action by Congress took place before
the declaration of war in April, 1917. Following that declaration
came the enactment of wartime prohibition in the Food Control
Act of Aug. 10 1917, the liquor restrictions of the draft law of
172
PROHIBITION
May 18, and the extension of their application in the Act to
promote the efficiency of the navy, approved Oct. 6 1917. These
measures are discussed later in the section on wartime legislation.
Quite apart, however, from war legislation, on Aug. i 1917 the
Senate adopted the resolution proposing to the states the
National Prohibition Amendment by a vote of 65 to 20 more
than two-thirds of the members present, and this resolution was
adopted by the House with some amendments Dec. 17 by a vote
of 282 to 128. On Dec. 18 1917 the Senate concurred in the
amendments made by the House, and the resolution was there-
upon submitted to the Legislatures of the several states for
ratification. Ratified by the last of the necessary 36 states (Jan.
16 1919), and proclaimed by the Secretary of State (Jan. 29
1919), it became the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitu-
tion, to go into effect one year from the date of its ratification,
namely on Jan. 16 1920. The wording of the Amendment is as
follows:
1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manu-
facture, sale or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the
importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United
States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for bev-
erage purposes is hereby prohibited.
2. The Congress and the several states shall have concurrent
power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been
ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures
of the several states, as provided by the Constitution, within seven
years from the date of the submission hereof to the states by the
Congress.
After Jan. 16 1919 the Amendment was ratified by all but
three of the remaining states.
Whatever allowance may be made for the effect produced by
the political activities of the Anti-Saloon League, an analysis
of the vote in Congress for the submission of the Amendment
showed a fair proportionate representation of the people residing
in " dry " territory, and also the proportion of " dry " to " wet "
territory in the United States. The'subsequent votes in the State
Legislatures on ratification of the Amendment corroborate this
view. The accompanying table shows the order and dates of rati-
fication by the several states, and the vote in each House of the
State Legislatures by which ratification was enacted. The total
number of votes in the state Senates or upper Houses, for rati-
fication, was 1,297 in favour and 236 against, or 84% for national
prohibition to 14% against; in the lower or more popular branch
of the state Legislatures, the total vote for prohibition was 3,742,
or 78%, to 1,001 or 22% against. It will be noted that in South
Dakota, Idaho, Washington, Kansas, Utah and Wyoming no
votes were cast against ratification.
The three states which had not ratified the Eighteenth Amend-
ment to Sept. 1921 were Connecticut, Rhode Island and New
Jersey. That the ratification of the proposed amendment failed
in all three states by a very narrow margin is seen from the
following facts. Rhode Island's State Senate by a vote of 20
to 18 on March 2 1918 postponed indefinitely the consideration
of the ratification resolution; the resolution was presented again
at the 1919 session, when the Senate voted 25 to 12 to postpone
indefinitely its consideration. In Connecticut the Senate voted
14 for ratification and 20 against, and the House 153 for and 96
against. In New Jersey the House passed the ratification
resolution, Jan. 24 1921, by a vote of 52 to 4, but the vote in
the Senate on April 7 1921 was 10 in favour to 8 against, and the
resolution failed because the state Constitution required at
least ii affirmative votes in the Senate as then organized.
Following the adoption of the Amendment came the Volstead
Act, which was passed over President Wilson's veto on Oct. 28
1919. Before that, however, in addition to further war legisla-
Votes in Legislatures on Ratification of Eighteenth A mendment.
(1) Mississippi
(2) Virginia
(3) Kentucky .
(4) South Carolina .
(5) North Dakota .
(6) Maryland .
(7) Montana .
(8) Texas
(9) Delaware .
(10) South Dakota .
(llj Massachusetts .
(12) Arizona
(13) Georgia
(14) Louisiana .
1(15) Florida
16) Michigan .
17) Ohio
18) Oklahoma .
19) Maine
,20) Idaho
(2 1 ) West Virginia .
(22) Washington
23) Tennessee .
24) California .
(25) Indiana
(26) Illinois
(27) Arkansas .
(28) North Carolina.
(29) Alabama .
Kansas
Oregon
Iowa
(33) Utah . .
(34) Colorado . _ .
(35) New Hampshire
(36) Nebraska .
(37) Missouri .
(38) Wyoming .
(39) Wisconsin .
(40) Minnesota
(41) New Mexico
(42) Nevada
(43) Vermont .
(44) New York .
(45) Pennsylvania .
Ratified by Upper House.
(30)
(31)
(32)
[an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
?eb.
Feb.
Feb.
March 18 1918, 13 to
March 19 1918, 43 to
8 1918, 28 to
10 1918, 30 to
14 1918, 28 to
18 1918, 28 to
25 1918, 43 to
13 1918, 18 to
19 1918, 35 to
28 1918, 15 to
Ratified by Lower House.
2 1918, 27 to 12
23 1918, 17 to o
26 1918, 34 to 2
6 1918, 21 to 20
27 1918, 25 to 2
2 1919, 3O to O
7 1919, 20 to 12
7 1919, 43 to o
8 1919, 29 to o
7 1919, 38 to o
9 1919, 27 to o
13 1919, 42 to o
9 1919, 28 to 2
10 1919, 24 to 15
13 1919, 41 to 6
8 1919, 30 to 15
14 1919, 34 to o
10 1919, 49 to o
14 1919, 23 to ii
H 1919. 39 to o
15 1919, 30 to
15 1919, 42 to
15 1919, 16 to
15 1919, 34 to
15 1919, 19 to
13 1919, 31 to
16 1919, 22 tO IO
16 1919, 26 to o
16 1919, 19 to ii
16 1919, 48 to ii
20 1919, 12 to 4
21 1919, 14 to I
16 1919, 26 to 3
29 1919, 27 to 24
2 5 I9'9> 2 9 to 16
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Feb.
Feb.
June
Aug.
Nov.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
an.
93 to
84 to
66 to
66 to
96 to
58 to
77 to
72 to
27 to
86 to
Jan. 8 1918,
Jan. ii 1918,
Jan. 14 1918,
28 1918,
25 1918,
8 1918,
18 1918,
March 4 1918,
March 14 1918,
March 20 1918,
March 26 1918, 145 to
May 24 1918, 29 to
25 1918, 129 to
28 1918, 69 to
27 1918, 61 to
5 an. 2 1919, 88 to
an. 7 1919, 85 to
an. 7 1919, 90 to
8 1919, 122 to
7 1919, 62 to
9 1919,
13 1919,
13 1919,
13 1919,
14 1919,
14 1919,
13 1919,
14 1919,
14 1919,
14 1919, 121 to
14 1919, 53 to
15 1919, 86 to
14 1919, 43 to
15 1919, 63 to
15 1919, 221 to 131
16 1919, 98 to o
16 1919, 104 to
16 1919, 52 to
17 1919. 58 to
17 1919, 92 to
16 1919, 45 to
20 1919, 33 to
29 1919, 155 to
23 1919, 81 to
4 1919, no to
78 to
93 to
82 to
48 to
87 to
84 to
93 to
93 to
64 to
Jan.
Jan.
Feb.
*Repassed in Lower House to correct error Jan. 23.
PROHIBITION
173
tion affecting the liquor traffic, Congress enacted in 1918 pro-
hibition for Hawaii and in 1919 a bone-dry law for the District
of Columbia.
National prohibition was proclaimed Jan. 29 1919, and the
year of grace allowed by the Eighteenth Amendment for it to
go into effect was intended to give liquor manufacturers and
dealers time in which to liquidate their business and dispose
of their stocks. The so-called wartime Prohibition Act, however,
which was enacted 10 days after active warfare had ceased (Nov.
21 1918), became effective on July i 1919. The production of
beer, except " near-beer," had been stopped at the beginning of
the year as a food conservation measure, but even after war-
time prohibition became effective, 2-75% beer was manufactured
in some states on the assumption that it was a non-intoxicating
liquor, and because Congress had not yet defined the quantity
of alcohol a beverage might contain without coming within the
meaning of the word " intoxicating," as used in the various
laws, regulations and administrative orders. Rhode Island for
example, enacted a state law declaring all liquors of less than
4% alcohol to be non-intoxicating.
The questions thus raised, together with the definitions of the
Volstead Act declaring all liquors containing one-half of i%
of alcohol or more to be intoxicating and hence prohibited,
were taken to the Supreme Court, which finally sustained both
the Eighteenth Amendment and the Volstead Act's definition
of intoxicating liquor, in two cases (Hawke v. Smith and Rhode
Island v. Palmer, 253 .U.S.) in which decision was rendered June
12 1920. The Court had previously sustained the War Pro-
hibition Act and the one-half of i% limit which it specified;
but the liquor interests and the liquor-consuming public hoped
that greater latitude would be given them by a narrower con-
struction of the first section of the Eighteenth Amendment,
which prohibited only intoxicating liquors, and therefore, it
was argued, did not warrant legislation forbidding the sale and
manufacture of any liquor which was, in fact, non-intoxicating,
whether it contained more or less than one-half of I % of alcohol.
The Court, however, without stating or discussing this con-
tention, cited the war prohibition cases in support of the con-
clusion that while " recognizing that there are limits beyond
which Congress cannot go in treating beverages as within its
power of enforcement, we think those limits are not transcended
by the provision of the Volstead Act."
The Volstead Act provided for drastic enforcement, and arms
the Government, through the Commissioner of Internal Revenue,
with ample powers to punish and suppress any evasion. The
regulations under this Act governing physicians' prescriptions
and the procuring of wine for sacramental purposes are also
drastic.
The Act supplementary to the National Prohibition Act ap-
proved Nov. 23 1921 contains still more strict enforcement pro-
visions. It forbids physicians to prescribe for medicinal purposes
other than spirituous and vinous liquor, and no physician may
prescribe or any person sell or furnish on prescription any vinous
liquor that contains more than 24 % of alcohol by volume and
not more than a quarter gallon or any quantity of such liquor
containing more than one pint of alcohol for the use of any per-
son within a period of ten days. This may seem to be an un-
necessary and unwarranted interference with medical science,
but it indicates that no power was likely to be refused that the
administration authorities might find necessary to make enforce-
ment effective. Other provisions giving the enforcing authorities
control over importations for non-beverage purposes make it
clear that both this Act and the National Prohibition Act apply
to all territory subject to the jurisdiction of the United States
and specifically continue in force all laws in regard to the manu-
facture and taxation of and traffic in intoxicating liquor and
their several penalties as in force when the National Prohibition
Act was enacted. Although the effectiveness and justice of
these provisions cannot be accurately judged at present, they at
least assisted materially towards enforcing national prohibition.
The question of the meaning of " concurrent power " to en-
force the Eighteenth Amendment was also settled by the Supreme
Court in Hawke v. Smith, in which the Supreme Court held
that the provision of the Amendment in this connexion was
within the amending power, was a part of the Constitution
and " must be respected and given effect the same as other pro-
visions of that instrument," was " operative throughout the
entire territorial limits of the United States " and " of its own
force invalidates every legislative act, whether by Congress,
by a State Legislature, or by a Territorial Assembly, which
authorizes or sanctions what the section forbids." The second
section of the Amendment declared that " the Congress and the
several states shall have concurrent power to enforce this article
by appropriate legislation." The Supreme Court said that this
" does not enable Congress or the several states to defeat or
thwart the prohibition, but only to enforce it by appropriate
legislation. The words ' concurrent power,' in that section, do
not mean joint power, or require that legislation thereunder by
Congress to be effective shall be approved or sanctioned by the
several states or any of them ; nor do they mean that the power
to enforce is divided between Congress and the several states
along the lines which separate or distinguish foreign and inter-
state commerce from intrastate affairs. The power confided to
Congress by that section, while not exclusive, is territorially
coextensive with the prohibition of the first section, embraces
manufacture and other intrastate transactions as well as importa-
tion, exportation and interstate traffic, and is in no wise de-
pendent on or affected by any action or inaction on the part
of the several states or any of them." The prohibitionists
could scarcely have hoped for a more sweeping endorsement,
and the decision may be fairly considered further evidence of
the widespread popular desire for effective national prohibition.
State Action. Statewide prohibition had existed in 1910 in
only nine states one of them in New England (Maine) ; three in
the middle-west (North Dakota, Kansas and Oklahoma); and
five in the south (North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi
and Tennessee). Not till 1914 did any greater tendency to
statewide prohibition show itself, with the exception of an ,
amendment of the state Constitution of West Virginia in 1912. '
But during the five years 1914-9 half the states adopted state- ; i
wide prohibition, and these represented every section of the j
country, although they did not include some of the most populous j
states with large urban centres. In 1914 statewide prohibition i
was adopted by Colorado, Oregon, Virginia, Washington; in !
1915 by Alabama, Arizona, South Carolina; in 1916 by Arkansas,
Idaho, Iowa, Michigan, Montana, Nebraska, South Dakota;
in 1917 by the District of Columbia, Indiana, New Hampshire, j
New Mexico; in 1918 by Florida, Nevada, Ohio, Utah; in 1919 |
by Kentucky and Texas.
From 1910 to 1914, and in lesser degree until 1920, there j
was meanwhile a continued struggle as to local option in states j
where statewide prohibition was not adopted with considerable I
fluctuation in the proportion of dry and wet areas or counties !
or towns, as the case might be, within the several states, and j
sometimes with the further fluctuation that the same area be- !
came dry at one election and wet at the next. Local option seems
to have had its first trial in the United States in Indiana as
early as 1832; when in 1881 Massachusetts adopted local option
after extensive experiment with prohibition and ordinary forms
of licence, that state became a model for other states in its local
option law; local option in 1910 prevailed in 33 states. In
Pennsylvania, where the licences were granted by the courts
of quarter sessions and the judges elected by the people, local
option virtually obtained, because elections of judges often
turned on the question of whether or not licences should be
granted in a given community; and in New Jersey some com-
munities, by reason of the provisions of special municipal charters,
enjoyed the privilege of local option. It was estimated in 1910
that the extent of the dry areas of the United States was to
that of the wet areas approximately as seven is to five. The
total pop., however, living in dry areas was approximately 41,-
.500,00x3 to 46,000,000 in the wet areas.
Outside prohibition areas and local option areas there remained
little territory in 1910 under other forms of licence or regulation,
174
PROHIBITION
the most notable exception being the dispensary system in
South Carolina, which was still in operation, however, in only
six counties out of 22 that previously had state dispensaries;
besides these there were 32 counties dry under local option.
Experiments with local option provided valuable tests of the
spread of prohibition sentiment. A writer in the National
Municipal Review for Oct. 1916, dealing with local option in the
United States, stated that at that time 80% of the land area of
the United States was under prohibition, affecting 54% of the
pop. of the country; in other words that more than one-half
of the pop. of the United States, spread over four-fifths of its
area, was without licensed supply of intoxicants. In the 26
local option states the percentage of area made dry in that
year by local legislation ranged from 18% in Rhode Island to
98-3% in Wyoming, with a median percentage of 78-5. Only
three of those states had less than half their area under no licence;
seven between one-third and three-fourths, and 16 more than
three-fourths. Therefore, said this writer, " with 19 states
wholly dry, 16 states more than three-fourths dry and 7 states
more than half dry, it would appear from the map that national
prohibition requiring the consent of 36 states is not far off."
Liquor Consumption. Too much importance is often attached
to actual statistics of the consumption of liquor as an evidence
of the success or failure of local option, and of restriction or
prohibition of manufacture and sale. They are by no means
conclusive, and especially have slight bearing on the important
question, involved in most local option and prohibition enact-
ments, concerning the nature, character and number of saloons
and places where intoxicating beverages are sold and consumed.
The annexed official figures from the United Stales Statistical
Abstract for 1920 give statistics for the consumption per capita
of distilled spirits, wines and malt liquors for beverage purposes,
from 1850 to 1920.
United States Annual Consumption per capita of Distilled Spirits,
Wines, and Malt Liquors, 1850 to 1920; in gallons.
Year ended
June 30
Distilled
Spirits
Wines
Malt
Liquors
All Liquors
and \Vines
1850 .
2-24
27
1-58
4-08
i860 .
2-86
34
3-22
6-43
1870 .
2-07
32
5-3'
7-70
1871-80*
39
47
6-93
8-79
1881-90*
34
48
"37
13-20
1891-5 *
37
39
15-20
16-96
1896-1900*
12
36
15-53
17-01
I90I-5 *
39
47
17-34
19-20
1906-10*
43
62
19-81
21-86
1911
46
67
20-69
22-81
1912
45
58
20-02
22-05
1913
51
56
2O-72
22-80
1914
44
S3
2O-69
22-66
1915
26
33
18-40
19-99
1916
37
47
I7-78
19-61
1917
62
41
I8-I7
20-20
1918
-89
49
14-80
KrlS
1919
80
51
8-03
9-34
1920
26
12
2-63
3-01
*Average for the period.
Influences Behind Prohibition. The facts and figures already
set forth should help to indicate what were the influences which
brought together the local, state and national forces, and led to
the adoption of national prohibition in 1920, as well as to its
virtual enforcement as a war measure July i 1919, throughout
the area of the United States and the territory subject to its
jurisdiction. The movement was not to be ascribed, as some
publicists have seemed inclined to believe, to a state of
exaltation induced by the war. Neither was it due to the absence
of many male voters engaged in military service and perhaps
not able to make their opinions effective in the matter. Pro-
hibition had its roots and causes outside of and far antedating
these sentiments and experiences. The continuously rising
standard of living of the masses in both urban and rural com-
munities from 1910 to 1918 had much influence. The industrial
demands for efficiency, and the growth of scientific knowledge,
about its requirements, had an important and increasing effect.
Americans of all classes in increasing numbers perceived that,
quite irrespective of their personal habits or desires with respect
to the consumption of alcohol, they could not secure the advan-
tages of abstinence, or of moderate and perhaps harmless con-
sumption, on the part of the weaker and more numerous members
of any community, unless they themselves were willing to forgo
the liberty of personal consumption, even though they belonged
to the minority whose efficiency might not in any case be seri-
ously impaired. Enlightened opinion was also shown in the
increasing regard for public health, and the measures which
the nation as a whole, and the public authorities in most of its
component divisions, were taking to promote it. The physio-
logical effect of small doses of alcohol on physical strength and
on mental processes had been studied by scientists for many
years; and the activities of the leading life-insurance companies,
during the decade here under review, in the dissemination of
information with respect to personal and public hygiene, had
also exerted a considerable influence upon the movement. The
published statements of the life-insurance companies, analysing
their mortality experience, have generally been regarded as
unbiassed, but have not been unchallenged or free from con-
flicting interpretation. Their conclusions, however, steadily
served to support the total abstinence arguments as to indus-
trial efficiency and public health, and they were widely circu-
lated by many of the companies in such a way as to exert an
effective educational influence. Mr. Arthur Hunter, actuary
of the New York Life Insurance Co., in a paper read before the
National Conference of Charities and Correction in Indianapolis
in 1916, presented a survey of this material in which he claimed
that the American statistics, many of which were then only
recently available in published form, corroborated the English
data in indicating that total abstinence decidedly increased
longevity. He said, " the experience of the seven American
life insurance companies (and one Canadian company whose
records had been studied) has proved that abstainers have from
10% to 30% lower mortality than non-abstainers, and there is
no good reason for believing that if the other companies compiled
their statistics there would be any different result, providing
the companies exercised the same care in accepting abstainers
and non-abstainers."
Lastly, and of as much weight, it would seem, as all the other
reasons combined, there was among all classes a growing hostility
to the liquor saloon, as a mischievous agency, largely controlled
and dominated by anti-social influences, and by persons and
corporations actuated by a strong motive of private profit.
Furthermore, the liquor saloon was gaining a power in politics,
and a control of matters affecting the social life and general
welfare of the people, which made its growth disproportionate
to that of any other social institution in the country. The
public perceived the increasing political influence of the saloon,
and the failure everywhere of the various experiments to develop
a substitute for it, or, indeed, to organize any other successful
centre of recreation, social intercourse and community life, in
competition with saloons supported and controlled by the profits
of the liquor industry. A formidable body of public opinion
united many persons who were neither total abstainers nor
wholly convinced by the economic efficiency and health argu-
ments against alcohol. Nevertheless they were sure that drastic
measures were necessary, even if they involved heavy personal
sacrifice on the part of many persons, to rid the communities in
which they resided, as well as those in which they did business,
of the baneful results and by-products of the saloon. Thus
many who never would have voted for state prohibition, and who
were even disappointed with the general outcome of local option,
were prepared, when the issue was presented, to support and
defend national prohibition.
Results. Various efforts were made between Jan. 1920 and
the autumn of 1921 to appraise the economic results and the
effectiveness of the enforcement of national prohibition. But
there had not yet been time to get accurate and convincing
statistics or to know how to make allowance for purely accidental
factors. Adjustment to the new conditions was still going on,
and the existence of old stocks of liquor and wine introduced
PROHIBITION
175
an inevitable complication. In the case of war prohibition there
was a tolerated delay of 7i months, which the Supreme Court,
in its decision upholding the war prohibition enactment, practi-
cally stated was a reasonable period, in lieu of compensation,
to enable liquor dealers to dispose of liquors on hand. It was
still necessary in the autumn of 1921 to depend largely upon the
judgment of trained observers, who could be trusted to interpret
partial but significant statistics. Of local and partial data there
was no lack. The Survey for Jan. 17 1920, speaking of six months
of the enforcement of war prohibition, said: " Thus the fact
of national prohibition comes to pass without any of the dire
disasters predicted great bodies of men are not jobless; the
breweries are not idle, but have turned to the making of soft
drinks and ice cream; labor has not refused to work without
beer. . . ; real-estate values have not slumped; in fact, the
rentals charged to cigar stores, soda fountains, lunch counters,
groceries and such like which are moving into the vacant saloons
with all possible speed, are higher than they were; there has
not been a reign of terror by outraged men demanding the
return of their personal liberty." Another study made by
The Survey and published Nov. 6 1920, of the city of Grand
Rapids, Mich, (located in a state under constitutional prohi-
bition since 1916), says that Grand Rapids in 1920 was practically
free from drunkenness if not from drink; prohibition had all
but emptied the county gaol; the county farm had run down
for lack of prison labour; the police force had been greatly re-
duced; the withdrawal of liquor from dance and social halls
had closed prolific sources of immorality and crime; and the
number of arrests in two years had been cut in half.
A study under the direction of the Federal Council of Churches
was made by the head of a social settlement in Buffalo, who
visited eight cities, including three of the largest New York,
Philadelphia and Chicago and the smaller cities of Washington,
Harrisburg, Columbus, Detroit and Buffalo, examining the
police returns, hospital returns, reports of lodging houses,
charitable and community organizations, during the month of
April 1920. Most of his material is from official sources and shows
a decrease in the number of arrests in cities far apart, which
cannot be explained by the operation of the usual causes of
fluctuation. Apparently prohibition was the only factor common
to all of these returns and operating upon them alike. Other
reports, from many sources, of similar character show that
throughout 1920 arrests for drunkenness and for all crimes in
the principal cities diminished. In Philadelphia the total for
the dry six months of 1919 compared with the wet six months
of that year showed a decrease of 40% (47,000 to 28,530), and
the chief resident physician of the Philadelphia General Hospital
stated that there had been no increase in the use of drugs since
prohibition.
Fifty-nine cities of the United States having a pop. of 30,000
or over and a combined pop. of over 20,000,000 (including New
York, Chicago and Philadelphia) give the following official
figures for arrests for drunkenness in the four successive years
1917-20: 316,842, 260,169, 1 7 2 >6S9 an d 109,768. Indiana shows
70% fewer arrests in 1920 for drunkenness than in 1917, the
last year when the state was wet, for 39 cities with a combined
pop. of nearly one million. Boston reports 5,000 fewer arrests
in 1920 for all causes than for drunkenness alone in 1919; the
state of Massachusetts reports 32,580 arrests for drunkenness
in 1920 compared with 77,925 in 1919; Connecticut had 943
arrests for drunkenness in 1920 against 3,777 in 1919; New York
City a decrease from 14,182 in 1917 to 5,813 in 1920; St. Louis
a decrease from 2,605 m I 9 1 9 to 691 in 1920. A similar tendency
in many cities is apparent in the returns for 1920.
Since prohibition, high wages and continuous employment
came together during the year July i 1919 to June 30 1920, it
is difficult to state with certainty which of the three was the
cause, or the major cause, of the increase in savings bank accounts,
or of the decrease in industrial accidents reported during that
period. An official statement of the Comptroller of the Currency
given out in Washington Jan. 22 1920 stated that in national
banks alone 880,949 new accounts were opened in the first 4i
months of the fiscal year beginning July i 1919, and that the
increase in the number of depositors in state and private banks,
though not available, was known to be fax greater than the
increase of depositors in national banks. The Comptroller's
official report (48th Annual Report) for the year ended Oct.
31 1920 states: " In the number of depositors or deposit accounts
in national banks all previous records were exceeded, official
reports showing that on June 30 1920 there were 20,520,177
deposit accounts in all national banks. This was an increase of
2,279,877 (125%) over June 30 1919. There is now approxi-
mately one depositor in the national banks for every five of our
population."
The most disinterested and intelligent observers, accustomed
to judging public conditions and social facts, differed widely
in their verdicts on prohibition, its economic results and general
benefits or disadvantages to the public welfare in the first year
of national prohibition. That is likely to be true for several
years to come. The more authoritative opinion, however, seemed
to be that the first effects had been generally beneficial; that the
popular sentiment in support of effective prohibition was gaining
in strength, and that the experiment would be continued and
developed. The fears of lurking danger to social institutions or to
the moral integrity of the people (which some critics believed
to be inherent in prohibition), seemed likely to be outweighed by
the economic and political advantages of freedom from the saloon,
and the semblance, at least, of more orderly communities, less
petty crime and less abject poverty. The majority of moderate
drinkers seemed to be willing to sacrifice their personal liberty
for these desirable results. The intemperate constitute a minority
as compared with the total abstainers plus a majority of those
who had been moderate users of intoxicating beverages, and
their number may be expected to diminish from year to year.
The business interests which were thought to be menaced by
prohibition found, at the time when national and wartime
prohibition went into effect, means of readjustment without
great loss and without inflicting on the nation the burden of
any scheme of compensation. The outlook for the future was
in 1921 one of hope that new forces and new funds had now
been released, which might be directed to providing normal
recreation and facilities for social and community life which
the saloon did not provide, but for which its very existence had
precluded other provision being made.
U.S. War-emergency Measures. After the entry of the United
States into the World War, Federal legislation began v. it h the Draft
law of May 18 1917, Section 12 of which authorized the President
to make regulations for the prohibition of the sale of alcoholic liquors
in or near military camps and to officers and enlisted men of the
army. An Act to promote the efficiency of the U.S. navy, approved
Oct. 6 1917, extended these provisions to include the navy and all
places for training and mobilization connected with the naval serv-
ice. This section made it unlawful to sell or supply intoxicating
liquors to any military or naval station, cantonment, camp, fort, or
officers' or enlisted men's club, or to sell intoxicating liquor, in-
cluding beer, ale or wine, to any officer or member of the military
force while in uniform. The Food Control Act of Aug. 10 1917
prohibited the use of foods, fruits or food materials in the production
of distilled spirits for beverage purposes, but authorized the President
to prescribe rules for their use in the production of distilled spirits
for other purposes. It provided also that distilled spirits should not
be imported into the United States, and that whenever the President
should find that limitation, regulation or prohibition of the use of
foods, fruits or food materials in making malt or vinous liquors
for beverage purposes, or that the reduction of the alcoholic content
of such liquors is essential for food conservation, he should be au-
thorized to prescribe and give public notice of such limitation, pro-
hibition or reduction as might be necessary. This Act also authorized
the President to commandeer and pay for distilled spirits needed for
the manufacture of munitions or military supplies.
The so-called War Prohibition Act, enacted Nov. 21 1918, IO
days after the signing of the Armistice, was an amendment to the
Agricultural Appropriation Bill, and provided that from June 30
1919 until the conclusion of the war and of demobilizatjon, the date
to be determined and proclaimed by the President, it should be
unlawful to sell for beverage purpose any distilled spirits or to with-
draw distilled spirits from bond except for export. It also provided
that after May I 1919 no grains, cereals, fruit or other food products
should be used in the manufacture or production of beer, wine or
other intoxicating malt or vinous liquor for beverage purposes, and
after June 30 1919 no beer, wine or other intoxicating malt or vinous
176
PROPAGANDA
liquor should be sold for beverage purposes except for export, until
the conclusion of the war and of demobilization, the date to be
determined by the President. This Act also prohibited the importa-
tion, from the date of its approval until the period of its termination,
of distilled malt, vinous or other intoxicating liquors. The President
was further authorized by the Act to establish zones about coal
mines, munition factories, shipbuilding plants or wherever necessary
to facilitate war work, in which strict prohibition should be made
effective under heavy penalties. This Act continued in force until
national prohibition came into force by reason of the refusal of the
President to declare demobilization to have been completed before
that date, and the section of the Act authorizing the President
to establish special zones as above described was incorporated from
a joint resolution of Congress, having the force of law from the earlier
date of Sept. 12 1918.
The Prohibition Enforcement Law or Volstead Act, enacted
Oct. 28 1919, three months before national prohibition came into
effect, provided for the enforcement of both the War Prohibition
Act and the Eighteenth Amendment. The President exercised the
powers conferred on him under the Food Control Act of Aug. 10
1917, and under it the manufacture of distilled spirits in the United
States was prohibited on and after Sept. 8 1917. Through the Food
Administration the President also stopped the use of food materials
in the manufacture of beer on Dec. I 1918. All these measures were
strictly enforced and achieved their major purposes by securing
conservation and the maintenance of discipline and sobriety in all
places where men in uniform were stationed. They did not affect
the civilian population because of the short period of prohibition of
manufacture, and because of the existing stocks in territory where
local or state legislation permitted its sale. No state legislation was
necessary to carry out the purposes of the special war period re-
strictions. (S. McC. L.)
PROPAGANDA, the term applied to a concerted scheme for
the promotion of a doctrine or practice; more generally, the effort
to influence opinion; by a false analogy from such plural words
as " memoranda," frequently applied to the means by which a
propaganda is conducted. The objective of a propaganda is to
promote the interests of those who contrive it, rather than to
benefit those to whom it is addressed; in advertisement to sell
an article; in publicity to state a case; in politics to forward a
policy; in war to bring victory. This differentiates it from the
diffusion of useful knowledge; the evangel of a mission; publica-
tion of the cure for a disease. In such objectives there may be a
secondary advantage to the contriver, but to benefit the sub-
jects of the effort is the leading motive. Similarly those engaged
in a propaganda may genuinely believe that success will be an
advantage to those whom they address, but the stimulus to
their action is their own cause. The differentia of a propaganda
is that it is self-seeking, whether the object be worthy or un-
worthy, intrinsically, or in the minds of its promoters.
Statements or arguments known to be self-interested tend to
raise suspicion. A wide examination of propagandas supplies
an empirical argument in justification of such an attitude. In-
deed, casuisticaLly considered, indifference to truth is a character-
istic of propaganda. Truth is valuable only so far as it is effective.
The whole truth would generally be superfluous and almost
always misleading; the selections made range from a high per-
centage to a minus quantity. The time factor is vital. If a quick
sale or a decisive victory is possible, opportunism may be more
useful than exactitude. If a permanent market is to be opened
or a protracted campaign is expected, caution is required in
suppression or in misstatement. Although truth may thus be
irrelevant to the success of a propaganda, it does not follow
that those engaged in it are consciously unethical. Doubtless, in
every effort to control opinion, there are persons either indifferent
to justification, or who justify the means by the end. But the
more the emotions are excited, whether by patriotism or by
cupidity, by pride or by pity, the more the critical- faculties are
inhibited. It is a quality of propaganda, as of counter-propa-
ganda, that high-minded persons on both sides commend their
cause by identical arguments, and that high-strung persons soon
come to believe what they wish to be true. Their character and
their enthusiasm lend weight to many partial statements, or
even make false coin ring true.
The suspicions aroused by an admitted propaganda lessen,
its effectiveness, from which it follows that much of the work
has to be furtive. Part of the task, and that the more easy, is to
whip up existing inclinations, but the more arduous and the more
frequent duty is to reverse or to create opinion. Efforts are
therefore made to present " tendencious " matter as impartial.
The simplest case is seen in the familiar methods of newspaper
advertisement. The crudest form is a direct printed recommen-
dation of an object, obviously paid for. More subtle, but still
plainly a paid advertisement, is a general paragraph in the
" News " columns, with the letters Adv. at the foot. Best of
all is commendation in the editorial columns or description
disguised as news, these methods being seldom adopted in the
responsible Press of the better kind, but familiar in organs sub-
sidized to support an interest, possibly with a free hand on
everything except that interest.
The methods of a propaganda are limited only by the resources
and the ingenuity of its promoters. They may be studied in
their most intensive form in the propagandist efforts during a
war; the magnitude of the object secures the necessary funds,
and at the same time attracts the services of persons of more
intellect and character than would usually devote themselves
to such a pursuit; in the atmosphere of war, moreover, truth,
like many other fine qualities of humanity, is judged by expe-
diency, with varying answers.
The use of propaganda in war dates from remote antiquity.
It is plain that Herodotus, with his alert and modern mind,
suspected the possibility of " working " the oracles whose pro-
nouncements had so great an influence. But in Urania VIII.,
22, he describes a propagandist effort made in the Persian War
by Themistocles, son of Neocles, which in intention and method
might have occurred in the recent World War:
"Themistocles, having selected the best sailing ships of the Athe-
nians, went to the places where there was water fit for drinking, and
engraved upon the stones inscriptions, which the lonians, upon arriv-
ing next day at Artemisium, read. The inscriptions were to this ef-
fect: ' Men of Ionia, you do wrong in fighting against your fathers,
and helping to enslave Greece: rather, therefore, come over to us;
or, if you cannot do that, withdraw your forces from the contest,
and entreat the Carians to do the same. But if neither of these
things is possible, and you are bound by too strong a necessity to
revolt, yet in action, when we are engaged, behave ill on purpose,
remembering that you are descended from us, and that the enmity
of the barbarian against us originally sprung from you.' Themisto-
cles, in my opinion, wrote this with two objects in view; that
either, if the inscriptions escaped the notice of the king, he might
induce the lonians to change sides and come over to them; or, if
they were reported to him, and made a subject of accusation before
Xerxes, they might make the lonians suspected, and cause them to be
excluded from the sea-fights." (Herodotus VIII., Urania 22.)
Propaganda on similar lines has been conducted in almost
every war in history, but until the World War (1914-18)
chiefly as a subsidiary part of the actual military or naval
operations. Clausewitz, the Polish-Prussian officer (1780-1831)
whose works on the conduct of war were translated into most
modern languages and formed the basis of most military theory,
laid it down partly as a prediction and partly as a precept that
war must be waged with the whole force of a nation. Military
propaganda may therefore be defined as the attempt to add the
psychological factor to the other resources of warfare. It may
be considered formally under four heads: (i) Control of Home
Opinion; (2) Control of Neutral Opinion; (3) Control of Allied
Opinion; (4) Control of Enemy Opinion. Counter-propaganda
is the effort to counter the operations of the Enemy.
(i). Control of Home Opinion. In modern times even the most
autocratic ruler or state cannot hope to conduct a protracted
war, or a war that brings a great burden on a nation, or a war
that sways with doubtful success, unless public opinion is favour-
able. A large part of propaganda must therefore be for home
consumption. It will proclaim the certainty of victory, describe
actual and prospective military and naval triumphs, obliterate
or explain reverses. It will vaunt economic strength, financial
resources, power of organization; it will explain difficulties in
the supply of food and raw materials, give the reasons for vexa-
tious regulations and interferences with the ordinary routine
of trade. When the war appears to be going unfavourably, it
will urge the need of endurance. But it will not neglect the
moral appeal. It will insist that the war is one of defence, or at
least for an unselfish purpose; that victory will be for the good
PROPAGANDA
177
of the world, will be a permanent triumph of right over wrong.
At the same time, according to the mentality of the nation, it
will insist on historical military glory, on the pursuit of the
national aspirations such as recovery of ancient rights, redress
of old wrongs, material benefits to be derived from victory,
appalling consequences of defeat. The outrageous conduct of
the enemy, his unnecessary cruelty, his breach of international
law are all important.
(2). Control of Neutral Opinion. The propaganda addressed
to Neutrals covers much of the same ground, with the least
possible stress on the interested motives, much stress on the
defensive and inevitable sides of the war, the certainty of
victory and its benefit to all humanity. Very careful attention
is devoted to explaining as necessities all the steps that have
interfered with the rights of Neutrals or have been positively
harmful to them. Much care is given to exposition of the thesis
that victory would also be to the benefit of the Neutrals.
(3). Control of Allied Opinion. This is of great difficulty and
of increasing importance with the prolongation of a war. It is
necessary to anticipate points of friction, gloss over points of
diverging interest, pay very careful deference to the Allied
contribution to the common cause and to the absolute identity
of interest. In the World War many mistakes were made in
this aspect of propaganda, but by none more conspicuously
than by the Germans, whose treatment of their Allies was
marked by compulsion rather than by persuasion.
(4). Control of Enemy Opinion. The efforts in this direction
fall under three main heads: Insistence that victory is certain
and that prolongation of the war is only increasing the inevitable
disaster to the Enemy. Attempts to stir up disaffection amongst
the Enemy's Allies; attempts to stir up internal trouble in the
Enemy's country.
The four sub-divisions enumerated above cover the main pur-
poses of both propaganda and counter-propaganda, but they are
only formal, and it is of vital importance to remember that under
modern conditions a propaganda cannot be limited to the group for
which it was intended. The most rigid censorship and scrutiny at
the frontiers did not retain within Allied Countries or in Germany
what was prepared for home consumption, with the result that the
propaganda of one camp was often used almost without alteration
as counter-propaganda in another. Neutral countries were the
battle-ground in which contending propagandas met, and where
statements of alleged facts and arguments came in contact.
THE BRITISH EFFORT IN THE WORLD WAR. In the usual
British fashion propaganda in the World War came into exist-
ence by the extension of the normal duties of several different
bodies, with the result that there was much overlapping,
as well as many gaps and considerable diversity of aim and
method. From time to time new bodies were created, partly
absorbing, partly replacing and partly combining the agencies
in operation. Even when the Armistice came, no complete
organization had been achieved, and the very great success
actually obtained may be ascribed to the flexibility of the
methods, the devotion of those who conducted them, and a very
remarkable unity of purpose which overbore such personal
rivalries as are inevitable in human affairs. A logical and
consecutive account of the British propaganda is impossible.
No complete organization ever existed, and as much of the most
successful work was necessarily conducted secretly, and much
was done by private enterprise, for instance by the spontaneous
patriotism of universities, publishers, newspapers and private
persons, an exhaustive description is impossible. The official
side of it was conducted at first chiefly by the Foreign Office,
the War Office and the Admiralty, as extensions or side issues of
their normal duties. Many special missions were inaugurated
by these bodies, or directly by the Cabinet.
In the beginning of 1918 a special body, the Ministry of In-
formation, under a Cabinet Minister, Lord Beaverbrook, was
created to combine and extend British propaganda with special
reference to the control of Home and Neutral opinion, and
another special body, the Department of Enemy Propaganda
(afterwards the British War Mission), under Lord Northcliffe,
for the same purpose, with special reference to control of opinion
in ene.my countries. Under the energetic direction of these two
great publicists and the brilliant staffs they assembled, British
propaganda enlarged its sphere, increased its potential and began
to approach coherence. The steps of most vital consequence,
however, must be attributed to Lord Northcliffe and his staff.
They were early impressed with the conception that propaganda
must be closely linked with policy. With the willing cooperation
of the Ministry of Information, they first secured a general
unity of method and purpose in purely British work, and, next,
by propaganda conferences in London, extended a similar unity
to British, French, Italian and American propaganda. Still
later, as the war appeared to be nearing its end, they formed a
general committee containing representatives of all the great
Departments of State and worked out a Peace Propaganda
Policy, to which the assent of the British Cabinet was obtained
and which was at once made the basis of all British propaganda.
Arrangements had been made for another conference of Allies
in which the British Peace Propaganda Policy was to be co-
ordinated with the policy of our Allies, when the signing of the
Armistice made further effort of this kind unnecessary. Later
in this article the steps which led to this ultimate coordination
will be described more fully, or will become more apparent as
the scattered agencies which led to it have been explained.
But it is pertinent here to observe that the final stage, reached
by slow experience, should have been the initial stage. In any
national propaganda, the national policy, if such indeed exist,
should be within the cognizance of those who have to create
and direct the machinery for endeavouring to control opinion.
From the outbreak of the war in 1914 to the end of 1915, the
official organization of British propaganda was highly tentative.
The task of creating and directing public opinion during war had
never before been a function of British Governments and did
not consort well with the national traditions. In the first months
of the war, during Mr. Asquith's Ministry, a War Propaganda
Bureau was set up in the National Assurance Offices at Welling-
ton House; a Neutral Press Committee, with special reference
to Cabling was established under the Home Office, and a News
Department, to deal with the Press, was formed by the Foreign
Office. Gradually these three departments came more under
the authority of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs; but
they operated to a large extent as independent agencies without
central control.
The Admiralty and the War Office had to exercise strict con-
trol over the publication of news relating to actual or proposed
operations and other matters relating to the navy and army.
The censorship which they had to exercise strictly for military
reasons, gradually acquired a wider purpose and passed into a
dissemination of news essentially propagandist. The direct
effect of this bias given to news was upon home opinion, but
naturally passed from home countries to neutrals, and from
neutrals to enemies. It had therefore the legitimate objects
not only of concealing what it was useful to conceal, but of mak-
ing suggestions which might deceive. From indirect or accidental
propaganda, it passed over to deliberate propaganda. Similarly
the official representatives of the Foreign Office in Allied and
neutral countries quickly found that their routine duties of
explaining the intentions of the British Government, and of
assisting public and private British interests, necessarily ac-
quired a propagandist bias. As there were obvious incon-
veniences in this course, the propagandist activities in foreign
countries gradually became detached from the official diplomatic
activities, and acquired direct relationship with special depart-
ments at home. A similar series of events took place in the case
of the representatives of the British army and navy in foreign
countries, especially those attached to the Secret Services.
As their efforts became more propagandist, it was convenient to
separate them. Thus in various ways a propagandist service
crystallized out of normal services.
During this period, and, indeed until the end of the war, the
voluntary work of the great newspapers and publishing houses
made an important contribution to British propaganda. It is
perhaps necessary to insist on the voluntary side of this work.
It has never been the tradition of the British Government to
178
PROPAGANDA
subsidize or to control the British Press, and although some
efforts were made in that direction, they were signal failures.
The great newspapers and the great publishing houses jealously
maintained their independence and their right of criticism; they
were willing to accept censorship so far as it was supposed to
prevent the leaking of information that might be of service to the
enemy. But they fought bitterly, and successfully, any attempts
of the Censorship to overstep the bounds of military needs.
(See CENSORSHIP.) The independence of their attitude and the
strength of their patriotism combined to make their voluntary
propagandist effort of the utmost importance.
Ministry of Information. It will be convenient to deal first
with the grouping of propagandist agencies under the Depart-
ment, later the Ministry, of Information, as this body was the
first to combine a number of scattered bodies under one direction,
although, as will be shown later, the War Office, under the Direc-
torate of Military Information, created earlier an extensive
propagandist headquarters.
The Department of Information was formed by a resolution
of the War Cabinet on Feb. 20 1917. According to that resolu-
tion its object was to take over and unify the various foreign
propaganda activities, and to act as a general publicity bureau
under the War Cabinet. Col. John Buchan was brought back
from France and appointed Director of Information. Propa-
ganda thus acquired its own specific organization separate from
other Government Offices and directly under the Prime Minister.
There was necessarily much overlapping with the War Office,
but on the whole the Department of Information worked toward
the control of civilian opinion, the War Office to that of military
opinion; the former concentrated attention on political and
general subjects, the latter on military subjects.
The Department of Information, during the time of its
existence, covered the work of British propaganda in Allied,
neutral and enemy countries. It was arranged in four sections:
(a) An administrative section, divided into branches, correspond-
ing to the different countries, each branch being under the charge of
an official who was a specialist in that geographical area.
(b) A producing section which dealt with literature and art and
was virtually a large publishing establishment.
(c) A producing section concerned with cables and wireless and
the distribution of cinema films and press articles.
(d) A political intelligence section, which provided reports upon
political and civil matters in foreign countries.
Foreign propaganda was conducted (a) among foreigners on
a visit to Britain or resident there as correspondents, and (b)
in the foreign countries themselves, (a) The first task involved
hospitality to foreign visitors, the securing of facilities for
Allied and neutral correspondents, and the arranging of visits
to the British front, the British fleet and other centres of
interest for writers and public men from Allied and neutral
countries. Three chateaux on the western front were used for
guests by the Department of Information one for American
visitors, one for the Allied and neutral press, and one for visitors
in general. A large number of distinguished foreigners were
invited to Britain, since it was held, with reason, that the best
propaganda in any country was that done by the citizens of
the country themselves, (b) Propaganda in foreign countries
was conducted by the issue of a very large number of publica-
tions in different languages, including pictorial journals, pam-
phlets and books. The War Pictorial was issued monthly in eight
editions with a circulation of over 700,000. Six oriental papers
were published fortnightly in different languages, and the
Department published fortnightly journals in Spanish, Greek,
and Portuguese. Exhibitions of photographs and war films
were arranged throughout the world. Over a million words of
propaganda material a month were cabled by Reuter, and
there were also daily cable and wireless messages sent from the
Department. An average of 400 articles per week was sent out
to the foreign press. Bureaux of Information were established
in the different Allied and neutral countries, which assisted to
distribute the material prepared by the Department, and also
acted as intelligence centres. A special section dealt with
propaganda in enemy countries by means of articles and cables
printed in the newspapers of adjacent neutral States, and by
aeroplane and balloon distribution on the different fronts.
The organization of the Department of Information obviously
left much to be desired. In the first place it was not a ministry
and had no ministerial head. This led to two disadvantages:
the War Cabinet had little time to spare for the supervision
and direction of its policy, and in dealing with other ministries
it lacked the prestige necessary to safeguard its interests and
enforce its requirements. Again, it had no single domicile, being
housed in four different parts of London, and this led not only
to a great deal of delay in its work, but prevented it being
organized according to the normal plan of a Government office.
The Ministry of Information was constituted on March 4
1018, with Lord Beaverbrook as minister. It took over the whole
organization of the old Department of Information, with the
exception of the Political Intelligence branch, which was trans-
ferred to the Foreign Office, and the section dealing with enemy
propaganda (excluding Turkey and the Middle East), which
was transferred to Lord Northcliffe. The new Ministry was
organized on the normal lines of a Government department,
and was able to draw for its increased staff upon a large number
of distinguished volunteer workers. The new Ministry had four
main departments:
(l). The Intelligence Department received and digested all infor-
mation necessary to the efficient work of propaganda in the different
countries, translating policy into terms of propaganda. The special
cable and wireless messages which were issued daily were prepared
under the direct supervision of this Department.
(2). The Propaganda Department was in charge of the actual
administration of propaganda in foreign countries. Under its
director there was a section for each important country, or group
of countries. Each section was in charge of a " National " at the
headquarters of the Ministry, and in each foreign area there was a
corresponding organization which carried on the work in that area.
Over each of the main sections there was a special officer called the
controller, whose business it was to supervise the work of the " Na-
tionals," more especially with a view to the expenditure of public
money.
(3). The material for propaganda apart from the cables and
wireless, which were directly under the Intelligence Department
consisted of press articles prepared or arranged for at the Ministry's
headquarters; literature in the shape of journals and pamphlets;
and war photographs, films, pictures. The preparation of pictures,
photographs and films, as well as their distribution, was directly
controlled by the minister, and was no longer in the hands of War
Office Committees, as had been the case with the old Depart-
ment of Information.
(4). The Ministry gave special attention to what might be called
" personal " propaganda, securing facilities for foreign correspon-
dents to visit British centres of interest and to meet representative
British public men, and, generally speaking, the widening of sym-
pathy for Britain's cause by the personal and social contact of Bri-
tons with the citizens of other lands. In this direction the work was
large and ramified. A Facilities branch arranged for visits and enter-
tainments; an Overseas Press Centre acted as a clearing house be-
tween all branches of the Ministry and the correspondents of the
Overseas Press in this country; a special organization dealt with the
entertainment of American troops in Britain. Besides the work of
personal propaganda done in Britain itself, much was done by repre-
sentatives of the Ministry abroad, who acted as popular and demo-
cratic ambassadors, keeping in touch, not with official, but with un-
official powers.
The nature of its duties made it impossible for the Ministry
of Information to be a rigid organization like an ordinary
Government office. Propaganda is not a static thing and can
never be standardized, and the constitution of a propaganda
department had to be adapted to so fluctuating a subject matter.
Constant revision was necessary, both in material and method.
Moreover, the larger part of the work of the Ministry had to
be done quietly and unofficially, and without advertisement,
since popular opinion in every country is so delicate an instru-
ment that attempts to play upon it in the name of a foreign
government, even an Allied Government, would without doubt
have been resented. The anomalous character of its duties was
reflected in the curious variety of its staff. It is probable that
never before in any Government department had there been
so many distinguished men of a type so remote from that of the
normal official. All varieties of talent were needed the skilled
journalist and the expert in publicity for the actual business of
PROPAGANDA
179
propaganda, the experienced business man for the control and
expenditure of machinery, and the student of public affairs for
Intelligence and Policy.
Directorate of Military Intelligence. Until the end of 1915, the
Intelligence Section of G.H.Q. (France), and the Director of
Special Intelligence at the War Office, made somewhat casual
efforts in the direction of propaganda at home, abroad and
amongst the enemy forces, and did more in the direction of
acquiring information about the propagandist activities of the
enemy. The supreme military authorities, however, either
attached little value to propaganda, or were more absorbed
by their directly combatant functions, and gave no encourage-
ment to the development of propaganda. In the beginning of
1016 Gen. Sir George Macdonough returned from France to
become Director of Intelligence on the Imperial General Staff.
Thenceforward until the end of the war, a branch of his director-
ate was devoted to propaganda with continually increasing
intensity. Under his stimulation and with the encouragement
and the active assistance of Brig.-Gen. Cockerill, his second-in-
command, a small group of men, half of them regular officers and
half distinguished civilians with temporary commissions, a very
large and successful organization was built up. It worked in
close cooperation with General Headquarters at the various
fronts and with the propagandist agencies in England. Its
command of material drawn from all the branches, open and
secret, of the Directorate of Military Intelligence, and its close
connexion with the fighting services, gave it very large oppor-
tunities, of which it took full advantage; on the other hand, the
fact that it was a branch of the War Office, run on strict military
lines, prevented the full extent of its activities being known, and
the credit of much that it accomplished was assigned to organiza-
tions more accustomed to work before the footlights.
Reports, captured documents, photographs and any other
matter with a possible propagandist use, were collected from
all the fronts. Samples of all propaganda prepared by the
enemy were obtained from neutral countries, through the
postal censorship, by direct capture, from the navy and from
all other available sources. Details of the actual fighting
operations, stories from the fronts, and all matter tending to
show the conditions of fighting on both sides were assembled.
Letters written by prisoners of war were read in the special
censorship and copies of any judged to be of utility were pre-
served for reproduction in facsimile. Illustrated booklets de-
scribing the happy conditions of enemy prisoners in British
camps were prepared. The foreign press, especially that from
enemy countries, was regularly read, and extracts taken.
From these and similar materials propaganda was prepared for
distribution, partly by the regular staff of the section, partly
by distinguished civilians who gave their services, and largely
by wounded or otherwise disabled officers of literary capacity
seconded for the purpose. The propagandist material prepared
in this way was first carefully censored from the military point
of view, in case inadvertently it might contain information
which it was desired to keep secret. It was next submitted,
especially where it contained matter with any political signifi-
cance, to the Foreign Office. It was then ready for use. A
staff of linguists was maintained to examine and translate ma-
terial from foreign sources which covered almost every known
language. The prepared propaganda, if useful for other than
English readers, was translated into foreign languages ranging
from Urdu to Spanish, from Russian to Arabic.
A few examples may serve to illustrate the range covered
by the War Office propaganda. A German Army Order cap-
tured in E. Africa showed contempt or ignorance of Mahom-
medan religious customs. It was reproduced in facsimile, with a
translation into every known tongue spoken by Mahommedans.
A pamphlet written by Dr. Liebknecht, the German socialist
leader, suppressed in Germany, was reproduced in German.
Photographs of German prisoners showing their miserable condi-
tion on capture, their reception in the British lines with food,
chocolate and cigarettes, and their happiness in their ultimate
quarters in British prisoner of war camps, were reproduced
as a small album. Letters written home by German prisoners
of war, describing the comfortable conditions under which
they lived, were reproduced in facsimile. An erroneous account
of the battle of the Marne, written in Spanish for circulation as
German propaganda in S. America, was followed by a correct
account with exact maps, written by a British general who had
been actually engaged in the battle. Every effort of German
propaganda was followed and promptly countered in the same
language as that in which it had been written. Perhaps the
quickest exchange and counter-exchange took place through a
cable and wireless service. All the messages issued by the
enemy by cables or wireless telegraphy were intercepted and
transmitted at once to the War Office. They were followed by
a special staff, and the replies to them often reached their des-
tinations a few hours after the originals, more often than not in
time for the same editions of foreign newspapers.
Increasing attention was paid to the unification of the prop-
aganda issued by the Allies, and to the pooling of information
useful for propaganda. Regular conferences took place at
British and French military headquarters in France for the
purpose of coordinating propaganda. With the same object
constant touch was maintained between the military propa-
gandist staffs in London and Paris. A weekly journal, Le
Courrier de I' Air, was prepared and issued at the War Office
for circulation in the part of Belgium under German occupation.
It contained information as to the progress of the war, general
news, political intelligence, and much ordinary magazine reading.
Articles suited for British newspapers were offered to editors,
and were freely used. These for the most part consisted of de-
scriptions of scenes in the war on various fronts, written by
officers who had been engaged in them. Similar matter, and
articles covering a wider field, were distributed to English
newspapers in every part of the world. A special staff watched
the newspapers to observe the kind of articles that were most
freely taken by each, so as to suit the supply to the demand.
In the same way articles on almost every subject connected
with the war were translated into foreign languages and dis-
tributed to newspapers in foreign countries. Large quantities
of matter were sent to the Department of Information for
distribution by their agencies, especially in neutral and Allied
countries. There were several military distributing agencies in
the Near East, and farther away, of which the largest was an
" Arab Bureau " in Egypt. Some of these had local presses
at which copy sent from London was set up, but a very large
bulk of matter, especially illustrated matter, was prepared and
printed in London, and sent out in bulk. According to its ob-
jective, it was distributed through vernacular newspapers, or
by special agents, who smuggled it into enemy countries.
As regards distribution to enemies, a certain amount of this
important side of the propagandist effort was done through the
Department of Information, but the War Office itself directed
the greater part of the work, especially where it wa's desired to
reach enemy soldiers directly, or the enemy civilian popula-
tion through them. From the examination of prisoners of war
and by the direct admission of the German authorities it became
clear that this service was highly effective. Early in 1917 the
decision was made to extend considerably the work of preparing
and distributing propaganda for the enemy troops on the
western front. A special sub-section was created under the
charge of an officer who had just completed an analysis of over
2,000 books and pamphlets of enemy origin. At that time there
was no objection to the use of aeroplanes for the distribution
of literature over the enemy's lines. The sub-section prepared
and had translated into German a large quantity of suitable
literature, much of it written by the officer in charge of the
section (the writer of this article), other matter selected from the
work of the Department of Information or from other sections
of the War Office. Some of these early efforts were too success-
ful; in particular the Germans objected to a cartoon with the
legend " A German Family that has had no losses in the War,"
depicting the Kaiser and his sons in uniform, on the ground
that its distribution was an offence against military discipline
i8o
PROPAGANDA
Captured flying officers accused of distributing propaganda were
tried in Germany by court martial and received severe sentences.
Although in fact the sentences were not carried out, after
negotiations had taken place through a neutral Power between
the British and German Governments, the Germans let it be
known that any future cases would be treated with the utmost
severity. The French continued the use of aeroplanes in spite
of this threat. But the British Air Ministry opposed the use
of aeroplanes, partly on the ground of the " bad psychological
effect of working under such threats, on young pilots and
aviators," and partly on the more valid ground that the supply
of trained men and of machines was no more than sufficient for
the direct purposes of this branch of the forces. After an attempt,
obviously impractical, to distinguish between propaganda that
could not be regarded as " inflammatory " and that therefore
could be distributed by aeroplanes, and propaganda that could
not escape this charge, British G.H.Q. accepted the position
and decided against the use of aeroplanes for the distribution of
literature. The stock of literature prepared for the western front,
except such small parts of it as could be used by other army
devices, was transferred to the Ministry of Information and to
the French army.
The War Office Enemy Propaganda Section then turned to
the devising of other possible methods for the distribution of
literature by mechanical means. Information was collected
from all possible sources, the methods of the enemy being care-
fully watched. With the assistance of the Aerial Inventions
Board and the Munitions Inventions Department, many devices
were tried, and as soon as any had reached a promising stage,
the officer in charge took it out to France, to discuss its possibil-
ities, and, with the assistance of the intelligence officers of the
army, to test it under field conditions.
A section of G.H.Q. Intelligence had obtained great success
in dropping homing pigeons and other means of carrying mes-
sages on known areas where they could be found by British
agents behind the enemy lines. In this work fabric balloons with
timing devices for dropping loads at the required localities were
employed, but the apparatus on the one hand was unnecessarily
exact, and, on the other, much too costly for the distribution of
literature. The Germans were found to be using very large
balloons of scarlet Japanese paper which carried bundles of
newspapers and other matter long distances, sometimes releasing
them by slow-burning tinder fuzes. It was clear, however,
that this method was haphazard, as balloons and loads destined
for the neighbourhood of Verdun not infrequently dropped in
Kent. Experiments were undertaken to study the lifting capac-
ity of light balloons, the load and degree of filling that would
enable them to rise to an approximately known height, and the
arrangement of time fuzes so that they would liberate weights
at known distances varying with the strength of the wind. At the
same time experiments were made as to the shape, economical
mode of manufacture and dimensions of paper balloons, and on
the treatment of the paper to lower the rate of diffusion of coal-
gas or hydrogen.
, A large number of devices such as rockets, grenades and shells
were enquired into, but were not adopted because of various
objections raised against their use by the military authorities.
A device consisting of a fire-balloon, the fabric of which con-
sisted of propaganda sheets joined by strips of touch paper,
seemed promising, but did not reach success.
Extensive experiments were carried out with the object of
adapting an apparatus invented to distribute light' bombs to the
distribution of literature. It consisted of a box-kite with an
automatic conveyer which carried five-pound loads of prop-
aganda up the cable, liberated them at the required height,
and automatically returned for another load, the sheets when
liberated being carried to their destination by the wind. The
method was extremely good; it was cheap, easy to work, and had
a range of upwards of ten miles according to the strength of the
wind. But objection to its use at the front was taken by the
Air Force on the ground that the cable of the kite would be a
danger to aeroplanes.
In connexion with the last-mentioned apparatus, extensive
observations were carried out on the wind-driftage of sheets of
paper of different shapes and weights, and of the methods of
releasing them at height. Experiments were made from aero-
planes and from captive balloons, and the range and conditions
of falling were ascertained. It was found, for example, that in a
wind of approximately ten miles an hour, a bundle of 150 sheets
liberated at a height of 2,50x3 ft., came to the ground two miles
away, scattered over an area 500 yd. square. In higher winds
and from greater heights much more distant ranges could be
attained. The War Office Propaganda Section accordingly
suggested that aeroplanes might be safely used, flying at heights
proportioned to the strength of the wind, and the distance of
the enemy lines, by flights well within the British lines. But
this proposal also was " turned down."
By the end of 1917 it became clear that the use of paper
balloons was the only method which would encounter no opposi-
tion, and attention was therefore concentrated on producing
them on a large scale and on applying the experience gained in
other directions to them. By far the largest bulk of propaganda
distributed by the Allies on the western front was released from
balloons, and it may therefore be of historical interest to de-
scribe their final form. The propaganda balloons were made of
paper cut in longitudinal panels, with a neck of oiled silk about
18 in. long. Their circumference was approximately 20 ft. and
their height when inflated 8 feet. They were liberated inflated
nearly to their full capacity from 90 to 95 cub. ft. of hydrogen.
The weight of the balloon was under one pound, the load of
propaganda four pounds. The leaflets were attached to a fuze of
treated cotton, similar to the tinder of flint pipe-lighters, and
burning at the rate of an inch in five minutes. The string of
propaganda was tied to the neck of the balloon, and just before
liberation a slit was cut in the neck to permit the escape of gas,
and the end of the fuze was lighted. The weight and lift were
adjusted so that the balloon could rise several thousand feet into
the air before the loss of gas due to expansion would have
caused a state of equilibrium. At this point the first bundle of
leaflets was set free, and the process was continued until, at the
end of the run, the last bundle was released. The total time
length of the fuze and the attachment of the bundles to it were
calculated according to the area which it was desired to reach
and the strength of the wind. Experimental improvement of
the " dope," by which the rate of diffusion of the gas was lowered,
and the manufacture of balloons of double the standard capacity,
had made runs of upwards of 150 m. practical, before the Armi-
stice suspended operations. But the bulk of the propaganda was
actually scattered over an area of from 10 to 50 m. behind the
enemy lines, rest camps and villages occupied by the troops
being made the chief targets. Each distribution unit at the
front consisted of two motor lorries which carried the balloons,
hydrogen cylinders, and personnel to convenient positions,
generally from 3 to 4 m. behind the front line.
Early in March 1918, the method of balloon distribution was
in full working order, and the War Office Propaganda Section
resumed the active preparation of material. The reproduction
of selected letters written by prisoners of war was resumed, and
Le Courrier de I' Air was enlarged and improved by the intro-
duction of direct propaganda. A series of leaflets, known as the
A.P. (Aerial Propaganda) was begun. The first of these, sent
to France in March, was a complete German edition of the
British Prime Minister's speech on British War Aims. This had
been incompletely reported in the German newspapers, and in
the new edition attention was directed to the portions which
had been taken out by the German censorship; copy for other
leaflets was selected from German and Austrian newspapers,
was contributed by G.H.Q. (France), by the War Aims Com-
mittee, by the Ministry of Information, and by the new Direc-
torate of Propaganda in Enemy Countries which had been estab-
lished under Lord Northcliffe. But the whole series was selected,
revised, edited, and produced by the War Office, and a very
large proportion of the actual leaflets were prepared by the
officer-in-charge. The first of the series was sent to France on
PROPAGANDA
181
March 16, the last, number 95, on Sept. 4; of the whole series
over 12 million leaflets were sent to France.
Later, in 1918, when, under the energetic direction of Lord
Northcliffe, the machinery for propaganda in enemy countries
was greatly increased, there was a further extension of distri-
bution by balloons. The military successes of the Allies were
being concealed from their troops by the Germans, and it was
thought that quick and accurate information would further
demoralize the Germans. In conference with the War Office,
Lord Northcliffe's department arranged that the leaflets should
be divided into two categories, " stock leaflets," the contents
of which would not deteriorate by a little delay, and " priority
leaflets " containing matter of urgent importance. The latter
were printed three times a week and sent in editions of 100,000
direct to Messrs. Gamage, who were manufacturing the
balloons and the " releases." They were at once prepared for
distribution, handed over to the Military Transport Department
and sent via Boulogne direct to the distributing stations. In
favourable weather they were thus actually in the hands of the
Germans 60 hours after being written.
But even with the best arrangements, distribution by balloon
is subject to many delays from weather and other conditions.
Lord Northcliffe continued to urge on the Cabinet the need of
distribution by aeroplane, and was at last successful in breaking
down the resistance. The writer of this article, then liaison
officer between Lord Northcliffe's department, the Directorate
of Military Intelligence and the Air Force, in the second half of
1918 carried through the final stages of the negotiations. The
last obstacle was the fear of the Air Ministry that bundles of
leaflets suddenly scattered in the air might foul the steering
guys of the aeroplanes; he devised a simple mode of packing
the leaflets so that they would fall as a solid bundle for 20 ft.
before dispersing. On the morning of the Armistice, the first
packets of propaganda made up on this system were delivered
to the Air Force in France.
The methods of distributing propaganda by the Allies were
ascertained in a conference held in August 1918 at Crewe
House under the chairmanship of Lord Northcliffe. Aeroplanes
were used by the British forces in the Near East, and by the
Italians, French and Belgians on the western front. But it
was clear that either lack of aeroplanes or of personnel limited
their use even by those who had no objection to it. The Italians
used special devices such as rockets and shells, the French
were experimenting with shells and trench-mortars and were
trying to manufacture balloons on the British model, and both
the French and Belgians sent large quantities of newspapers
and of other matter to be distributed by the British balloons.
The Americans had hardly reached the actual stage of distri-
bution before the end of the war, but they had developed a
small rubber balloon with a very ingenious timing device for
releasing the load. It is a reasonable assumption, however,
that all these methods would be replaced by aeroplanes in any
later war.
Lord Norlhcli/e's Directorate. In Feb. 1918 the Prime
Minister appointed Lord Northcliffe to be Director of Propa-
ganda in Enemy Countries. Lord Northcliffe brought to the
task a limitless faith in the possibility of controlling public
opinion, a unique experience in the methods of publicity, and
direct access to the Prime Minister and the War Cabinet. He
selected a council of advisors and an executive staff of remark-
able authority and talent, and Crewe House, in Mayfair, London,
the headquarters of the new Department, quickly became the
centre of far-reaching activity. A mere catalogue of the opera-
tions undertaken, and of the men who carried them out would
occupy many pages. 1 But two names must be mentioned, as
without them Crewe House would have been little more than a
powerful addition to the existing propagandist agencies. Sir
Campbell Stuart, a young Canadian who had been of great
assistance to Lord Northcliffe on his mission to the United
States of America, was selected as deputy-director of the de-
1 Secrets of Crewe House, by Sir Campbell Stuart (London, 1920),
gives an account of Lord Northcliffe's undertaking.
partment and deputy-chairman of the committee. Lord North-
cliffe's choice was fully justified by the remarkable powers of
tact and conciliation shown by Stuart, who rapidly disarmed all
suspicion on the part of existing organizations, found out how
to get the best work out of all of them and how to combine their
efforts towards a single resolute purpose. Lord Northcliffe
selected Mr. H. Wickham Steed as his chief political adviser.
Steed at the time was foreign editor of The Times, and for many
years had been the representative of that journal in Rome and
Vienna. He had an exceptional knowledge of the political per-
sonalities of modern Europe, the open policies and the secret
aspirations of all the nationalities great or small. He was an
idealist, believing that truth and justice could bring ordered
peace to chaotic Europe ; a realist, conscious of the stubborn ob-
stinacy that would yield only to force and of the ignorance
that misled the accepted leaders of men. Steed provided the
knowledge and lofty enthusiasm which shaped the policy of
Crewe House, Stuart the conciliatory tact which made con-
certed action possible, Lord Northcliffe the swift judgment
between contending views, the experienced instinct for what
was practical, and the driving force to make the practical actual.
The present writer assisted at many intimate deliberations at
Crewe House; he desires to add his own observations to the
varying estimates that have been made of Lord Northcliffe.
The Director of Propaganda in Enemy Countries was patient
in listening to the facts and arguments put before him, decisive
in coming to a judgment on them, swift and powerful when
action began. Steed's knowledge, Stuart's organizing tact,
and Lord Northcliffe's driving force and far-reaching influence,
made Crewe House different in quality and energy from any
preexisting agency.
The inspiring principle of the new organization was that
propaganda should depend upon policy. It may be argued,
although not convincingly, that a definite constructive Allied
policy could not have existed in the earlier stages of the war,
when fortunes were changing and the nature of the ultimate
decision was uncertain. In any case, if a concerted policy did
exist, it was unknown to those who were conducting propaganda.
The wiser propagandists in most countries therefore endeavoured
to limit themselves to a restricted field from which declared
" war aims " and ultimate terms of peace were excluded.
Rasher agents plunged, with results that were often ludicrous
and sometimes disastrous. Dr. Lamprecht, the German his-
torian, for example, confessed that the consequences of the
German propaganda were often gruesome. Probably, he wrote,
more harm came to the German cause from the efforts of the
German professors than from all the efforts of the enemy.
" None the less it was done with the best intentions. The self-
confidence was superb, but the knowledge was lacking. People
thought that they could explain the German case without prep-
aration. What was wanted was organization." A single exam-
ple will illustrate the results of lack of organization amongst
the Allies. The French military authorities complained to the
War Office that German propaganda appeared to be entering
France in large quantities through England. They sent exam-
ples, and asked that precautions should be taken. On enquiry
it was found that the incriminated documents were the product
of one of the British civilian propagandist agencies. Doubtless
it was a matter of opinion whether the French or English judg-
ment of the efficacy of the leaflets was the more correct, but
the real fault was the absence of harmonious effort. In 1918,
the fifth year of the war, it became of vital importance that the
Allied peace aims should be explained with a clear and unan-
imous voice to the war-weary enemy. It was to this purpose
that Lord Northcliffe addressed himself. He used his influence
first to extract from the British Government the broad lines
of a definite policy, in order that the propaganda of his Depart- 1
ment might not be in conflict with the casual and sporadic
utterances of ministers, next to secure unity of purpose among
the British and Allied propagandist agencies.
The first campaign was against Austria-Hungary. The British
Government, hampered by the secret Treaty of London, hesi-
182
PROPAGANDA
tated between the policy of working for a separate peace with
the Habsburg dynasty, leaving its territory almost untouched,
and the alternative of trying to support and encourage all the
anti-German and pro-Ally elements in the Austria-Hungarian
Empire. The objective selected by Crewe House was to support
the national desires of the Czechs, Southern Slavs, Rumanes,
Poles and Italians for independence, so as to form a strong non-
German chain of Central European and Danubian States, and
thus to encourage the disinclination of these peoples to fight
for their German masters.
The chief obstacle to the policy of the British propaganda
was the pledge given to Italy in 1915, to give her certain Austrian
territories inhabited by Southern Slavs. In 1917, the Serbs,
Croats and Slovenes had assembled in Corfu, and under the
leadership of Dr. Trumbitch, president of the Southern Slav
Committee, and M. Pashitch, prime minister of Serbia, had
proclaimed the unity of the three Southern Slav peoples. Early
in 1918, after recovery from the disaster of Caporetto had
begun, the united Southern Slavs, on the initiation of Mr.
Wickham Steed and Dr. Seton Watson, came into conference
with leading Italians and agreed to settle amicably the ter-
ritorial controversies in dispute. Lord Northcliffe took up the
position at that point, and almost the first step of his campaign
was to send Mr. Steed and Dr. Seton Watson to the Congress
of Oppressed Habsburg Nationalities which took place at Rome
with the consent of the Italian Government. Meantime he
urged on the War Cabinet the need of coming to a decision be-
tween the alternative policies and of obtaining the agreement of
the French, Italians and Americans to the choice. He got only a
dubious and halting opinion from the British Foreign Secretary,
who urged that the same propaganda could be adapted at least
to the earlier stages of either polity. This indecision, main-
tained through the war and through the peace negotiations, led
to the disastrous adventure of D'Annunzio, for the Italians, like
other peoples, flushed with the unexpected joy of complete
victory, forgot the wise concessions to which they had been
willing when the issue was doubtful. But Lord Northcliffe's
mission achieved a temporary and successful unity of purpose.
A joint commission consisting of representatives of Italy, Great
Britain and France, was established at the Italian general
headquarters, with the special object of conducting propaganda
directed to the oppressed nationalities in the Austrian armies.
Representatives of committees of each of the oppressed nation-
alities were attached to the commission. A polyglot printing
press was acquired, and large quantities of propaganda of all
kinds were distributed by aeroplane, rockets, grenades and
contact patrols. The latter consisted of deserters of Czecho-
slovak, Southern Slav, Polish and Rumanian nationalities, who
volunteered for this service against their former oppressors.
The effect was soon apparent. Deserters belonging to the subject
races came over to the Italian armies in large numbers, so that
the attack planned by the Austrians had to be postponed. Un-
fortunately, the complete success of the effort, apparently
assured early in May, was prevented by the reactionary tend-
encies within the Italian Government, supported by the un-
certain attitude of the Governments of France, Great Britain
and the United States. But even in the face of this difficulty,
the success was so great that, after the battle of the Piave, mem-
bers of the Inter-Allied Propaganda Commission were received
and thanked by the Italian commander-in-chief.
While this great campaign was taking place on the Italian
front, the propaganda addressed to Germany was being in-
tensified. On assuming office, Lord Northcliffe found the
War Office propaganda department, described above, in full
operation. Except that he at once began to press the Govern-
ment to renew the original permission for the use of aeroplanes,
he suggested no change in the War Office work. His committee
at Crewe House, however, first with the assistance of Mr. H. G.
Wells and after a few weeks with that of Mr. H. Hamilton Fyfe,
set to work to frame a general propaganda policy directed against
Germany, and to produce leaflets and other matter. Some of
this material was given to the War Office Department; much of
it was distributed by special means chiefly through neutral
countries. In July, when the work in Italy had been estab-
lished on permanent lines, and Mr. Steed had returned to London,
it was decided to concentrate all the production of propaganda
at Crewe House, with the object of bringing it more into line
with a concerted policy. Accordingly, the writer of this article
was transferred from the War Office to Crewe House, but kept in
touch with the War Office as liaison officer, the army remaining
the agent for distribution.
The General Committee met daily at Crewe House, receiving
the reports of the different branches, collecting information
from all possible sources, and stimulating the propagandist work
against Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Germany. It became
more and more obvious during the summer of 1918 that the spirit
of the enemy was breaking on every front, that they were alert
to every suggestion as to the approach of peace, and that the
supreme necessity was a clear statement of the intentions of the
Allies. Lord Northcliffe, with varying success, continued to
press the Government for such a definition of policy as would
serve as a true basis for propaganda. The fundamental principle
on which he wished to act was that when a line of policy had
been sanctioned as a basis for propaganda, the Allied Govern-
ments should be asked for their assent to it, so that their propa-
ganda departments might act in concert. Failing to obtain a
clear lead from the British Government, who at that time
appeared to have no definite policy with regard to any issue of
the war, Lord Northcliffe convened an inter-Allied propaganda
conference at Crewe House. It was attended by Lord Beaver-
brook, Minister of Information, representatives of the British
Foreign Office, War Office, Admiralty and Air Ministry, and by
delegates from France, Italy and the United States, the U.S.A.
delegation, however, being instructed to attend only as ob-
servers. The conference, after a plenary session, divided into
committees to discuss details of policy, methods of publicity
and methods of distribution. At a final plenary session the
reports of the committees were adopted, and it was agreed that
they should be submitted by the heads of the four missions to
their respective Governments for approval. The conference
then constituted a permanent Inter-Allied Body for the conduct
of propaganda in enemy countries. Steps were at once taken to
secure the permanency of contact between the propagandist
agencies which had been established at the conference, and these
became increasingly effective until, when the Armistice came,
there was almost complete unity of action amongst the Allies.
As the possibility of peace drew nearer, it became still more
urgent that propaganda should be kept free from any trace of
confusion. To secure this, a Central Body, called the Policy
Committee of the British War Mission, was formed at Crewe
House; it consisted of representatives of Lord Northcliffe's
department and of the War Cabinet, the Admiralty, War Office,
Foreign Office, Treasury, Ministry of Information, Air Ministry,
Colonial Office, India Office, War Aims Committee and Official
Press Bureau. It decided to undertake the following activities:
Study of peace terms, study of utterances by important enemy
representatives, their real significance and the nature of the
response to be made to them. It had to take action almost at
once, since the German Peace Note, with its reference to the
publication of President Wilson's " fourteen points," required
immediate attention from British propagandists. Lord North-
cliffe's committee had been studying the fourteen points with a
very close attention. It was plain that they could not be under-
stood as a full recitation of the conditions of peace, and that it
was therefore a matter of honesty and of prudence to define the
interpretation put on them by Great Britain before accepting
the surrender of Germany. This view was accepted by the
Policy Committee, and, after detailed discussion, a statement
drafted by the Crewe House Committee was adopted in prin-
ciple. It was approved, by a representative of the Government
designated for the purpose, for unofficial use as propaganda
policy. Each department henceforward made it the text of its
productions. As this document is of historical interest, it is here
printed in full.
PROPAGANDA
183
Confidential.
PROPAGANDA PEACE POLICY
The following conditions are indisputable:
In no sense shall restoration or reparation in the case of Belgium
be taken into consideration when adjusting any other claims arising
from the war.
1. The complete restoration, territorial, economic and political, of
Belgium.
2. The freeing of French territory, reconstruction of the invaded
Provinces, compensation for all civilian losses and injuries.
3. The restoration to France of Alsace-Lorraine, not as a terri-
torial acquisition or part of a war indemnity, but as reparation for
the wrong done in 1871, when the inhabitants of the two Provinces,
whose ancestors voluntarily chose French allegiance, were incor-
porated in Germany against their will.
4. Readjustment of the frontiers of Italy as nearly as possible
along the lines of nationality.
5. The assurance to all the peoples of Austria-Hungary of their
place amongst the free nations of the world and of their right to enter
into union with their kindred beyond the present boundaries of
Austria-Hungary.
6. The evacuation of all territory formerly included in the bound-
aries of the Russian Empire, the annulment of all treaties, contracts
or agreements made with subjects, agents or representatives of
enemy Powers since the revolution and affecting territory or inter-
ests formerly Russian, and cooperation of the Associated Powers in
securing conditions under which the various nationalities of the
former Empire of Russia shall determine their own form of Govern-
ment.
7. The formation of an independent Polish State with access
to the sea, which State shall include the territories inhabited by pre-
dominantly Polish populations, and the indemnification of Poland
by the Powers responsible for the havoc wrought.
8. The abrogation of the Treaty of Bucharest, the evacuation
and restoration of Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro, the Associated
Powers to aid the Balkan States in settling finally the Balkan ques-
tion on an equitable basis.
9. The removal, so far as is practicable, of Turkish dominion over
all non-Turkish peoples.
10. The people of Schleswig shall be free to determine their own
allegiance.
11. As reparation for the illegal submarine warfare waged by
Germany and Austria-Hungary, these Powers shall be held liable
to replace the merchant tonnage belonging to the Associated and
neutral nations illegally damaged or destroyed.
12. The appointment of a tribunal before which there shall be
brought for impartial justice individuals of any of the belligerents
accused of offences against the laws of war or of humanity.
13. The fornfer Colonial possessions of Germany, lost by her in
consequence of her illegal aggression against Belgium, shall in no
case be returned to Germany.
The following conditions of Peace are negotiable:
1. The adjustment of claims for damage necessarily arising from
the operations of war, and not included amongst the indisputable
conditions.
2. The establishment, constitution and conditions of member-
ship of a League of Free Nations for the purpose of preventing future
wars and improving international relations.
3. The League of Free Nations shall be inspired by the resolve
of the Associated Powers to create a world in which, when the con-
ditions of the Peace have been carried out, there shall be opportunity
and security for the legitimate development of all peoples.
The action taken thereon by the Enemy Propaganda Com-
mittee at Crewe House was as follows: At their suggestion Lord
Northclifle made it the basis of an address to the United States
officers in London on Oct. 22 1918. The Production Depart-
ment of the Committee got to work on a series of pamphlets
and leaflets dealing with the different points of the memoran-
dum. The memorandum was sent to the French, Italian, and
American members of the inter-Allied Body for Propaganda
in enemy countries, with the request that they should take
similar action on it to that taken by the British Policy Com-
mittee and bring it up for discussion at the next meeting of
the inter-Allied body. Lastly they decided to prepare and give
wide publicity to an article covering the whole ground of the
memorandum, so that the policy could be presented in the same
terms to the British people, to their Allies and to the enemy.
The steps taken by Crewe House, and the corresponding action
taken by other departments concerned, were reported and
approved at a meeting of the Policy Committee at Crewe House
on Oct. 28 1918, the last meeting actually held.
Events were moving swiftly, and Crewe House found that
there was no time to carry out the original intention of cir-
culating the general statement through one of the more im-
portant monthly periodicals. It was therefore decided to ask
Lord Northcliffe to give the peace policy the wide and immediate
publicity possible by the use of his name and by the sources
of distribution at his command. He agreed at once, and so
consummated the efforts of British propaganda. On Nov. 4
1918 an article under his name appeared in The Times and
The Daily Mail, The Paris Daily Mail, and the leading papers
in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, S. Africa, Newfoundland,
India, the British Dependencies, the United States of America,
S. America, France, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Holland, Norway,
Sweden, Denmark, Japan and elsewhere, and very soon after-
wards in Germany. The arrangements for this wide publicity
were made personally by Lord Northcliffe, and the cost of
cabling was borne by him. The final form of the article was
due to him, but its substance represented the unanimous views
of his advisory committee, the members of which he had selected,
and over whose deliberations he had presided.
ALLIED PROPAGANDA. The principles and methods of propa-
ganda have been so fully illustrated in the foregoing account
of the British effort, that little would be gained by a detailed
description of the operations of England's Allies. France went
through a history much like that of Great Britain. In the earlier
stages of the war, propaganda was conducted by a number of
agencies, for the most part in extension of their normal func-
tions. As the war proceeded, concentration and intensification
were achieved, ending in the work being placed under the control
of a single minister with a large staff. The control of home
opinion was less difficult than in England, as it was already in
the tradition of the Government to regulate the dissemination
of information and of official views. As, however, a consider-
able part of the French population was in territory occupied by
the Germans, there had to be an extensive distribution of propa-
ganda through the army and by secret agents. An intensive
campaign was conducted in Alsace and Lorraine, the services of
distinguished Alsatians of French descent being employed
with great success. Neutral opinion was influenced by special
missions and by resident agents. Much care was given to
French propaganda amongst the Allies. Distinguished civilians
of British and American nationality were frequently invited
to France, and given every opportunity of seeing the spirit in
which France was making her prodigious effort and the enormous
difficulties she had to face. French agents kept in close touch
with British opinion of every class, and in every part of the
Empire, not neglecting Ireland and Quebec. In one respect this
branch of French propaganda was more far-seeing than most
of the British work; it was not content with the actual problems
of the war, but anticipated and prepared for many of the
difficulties and possible causes of friction that might arise in
the making even of a victorious peace. France early foresaw
that, as German colonies were unlikely to be restored to Ger-
many, it would be necessary for France and Britain to be in
general agreement with regard to extra-European territories.
The French effort to reach the enemy directly was on a smaller
scale, but was similar to the work done by the British War
Office. By exchange of views and materials a high degree of con-
cord was reached.
Belgium was in the unfortunate position of being able to
operate directly only in a very small part of her own territory.
By direct effort, and with the willing cooperation of France
and Britain, she was able to keep in close contact with her own
people. The unmerited calamities which fell on Belgium secured
her in advance the sympathy of neutral and Allied nations,
so that special propaganda was unnecessary. Italy was rather a
theatre for propaganda than a direct propagandist. She spoke
with so many different voices that, except for a certain amount
of direct propaganda addressed to the enemy, she was unable
to explain her attitude very clearly either to neutrals or to Allies.
On the other hand, she issued a series of magnificent photo-
graphic descriptions of her arduous campaigns, which explained
well the immense difficulties of military operations on the
Italian front, and the brilliant technical methods by which
184
PROPAGANDA
they were overcome. The Americans devoted the same energy
to propaganda as to preparation for actual warfare. 'Repre-
sentatives were at once sent to Europe to examine and report
on the methods of propaganda employed by the Allies. BySept.
1918, an American Propaganda Department had been estab-
lished with branches in London, Paris and near Verdun. Much
literature was produced, and its distribution by aeroplane and
by balloon had been arranged when the Armistice came.
GERMANY. It would be difficult to say how far the exaltation
of the German spirit in 1914 was due to official inspiration, or
how far the long campaign of German intellectuals and in-
dustrials, before 1914, for the aggrandizement of Germany, had
inspired official opinion. In any event, the outbreak of the war
let loose a flood of literature unanimous in sentiment and appar-
ently spontaneous. Professors and pastors, politicians of every
section, pan-Germans and socialists were united in proclaiming
the necessity of the war and the certainty of victory. But even
in these early days there were striking differences of opinion.
One school urged that the war was defensive, forced on Germany
by the " encircling policy " of her enemies. German militarism
was a necessary consequence of a position surrounded by power-
ful enemies, of the Russian danger, and of English jealousy of
her commercial success. As it was difficult to reconcile this theory
with the actual German plan of campaign and with the fate of
Belgium, much stress was laid on the theme that an offensive
was only the best means of defence. When victory came,
annexations were to be limited to what might be necessary for
future security. Another school proclaimed the historic mission
of Germany, her high culture and civilization, the advantage to
the world of her victory. The great empires of the past had
expanded and developed for selfish ends; Germany wished to
free the seas for all the nations, and to open up the world so
that all the peoples great or small could develop on their own
lines. England, France and Russia had been the great oppressors
of smaller nations and races; Germany would liberate them. The
unification of Germany had been the first stage in a beneficent
process which would lead, first, to a great federation of Middle
Europe, and then to a federation of the whole world. A third
school expounded a somewhat careful form of the Bernhardi
and Treitschke doctrine. The great and expanding German
people required land within the German Empire in which the
surplus population might find room and yet remain German.
Outlet must be found for German talent, organizing capacity,
capital, manufactures, and the necessary supplies of raw ma-
terial must be forthcoming. These objects Germany would have
preferred to attain peacefully. But she was a late arrival on the
world-scene, and her rapid development had aroused such envy,
particularly from England, that her legitimate rights could be
secured only by force. Yet a fourth school, relatively small in
numbers but of great influence in the navy, army and among
the big industrials, appealed directly to cupidity. The riches,
natural resources and possibilities of all parts of the world in
which German influence could be extended or which Germany
could take from her enemies were described elaborately. The
growth of the British Empire was displayed in almost affectionate
caricature as an accomplishment of successful piracy; England,
however, must now disgorge to the younger and stronger pirate.
It was an odd but possibly significant circumstance that, in all
these diverging views, little attention was' paid to the events
immediately preceding the various declarations of war.
So far we are dealing with the unofficial home propaganda
of Germany. It consisted to a much larger extent than in Great
Britain of books and pamphlets, some oi which doubtless were
subsidized, but most of which apparently were spontaneous.
These served also for the German peoples in foreign lands, and
were exported in very large quantities, often in their original
form, often in translation so as to serve as propaganda for
neutrals. It was a characteristic of German self-confidence
that they appeared to think that explanations good enough for
Germans were good enough for neutrals and even for enemies.
But in addition to such private or at least apparently unofficial
efforts, there was an official propaganda on a large and highly
organized scale. The German Press was organized for war,
with the object not only of influencing home opinion but
neutral opinion, directly through the circulation of German
papers in Switzerland, Holland, and Scandinavia, and by their
effect on foreign editors. Dr. Theodor Wolff, the well-known
editor of the Berliner Tageblatt, said that " German censorship
passed news concerning facts, but forbade discussion of war
events or internal politics and of many other subjects." The
Government suppressed criticism or the giving of information
with regard to the internal conditions of the country. Every two
or three days the newspapers received printed orders indicating
what they were forbidden to publish, the attitude they were to
assume on particular topics, and the articles from other papers
they were free to reproduce. Editors were usually allowed to
produce their papers without a preliminary examination of the
proofs, but transgression of .the regulations was followed by
prosecution or suspension. One form of punishment was to
place a paper on " preventive censorship," under which all
proofs had to be submitted, and any matter could be struck out,
without, however, removing responsibility for what remained.
The Norddeutsche Allgeineine Zcitung was a purely official organ,
and several other papers, notably the Kolnische Zeitung and
the Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger, were semi-official.
With regard to the Press generally, there were several agencies
of direction and inspiration. The Press Department of the
Foreign Office issued a regular news-sheet containing the state-
ments and views the propagation of which was desired; it also
acted directly on newspaper correspondents. The Admiralty
had a very active publicity department, for some time under
the direction of Mathias Erzberger and Paul Rohrbach. The
Ministry of the Interior had a separate organization and also
circulated " tendencious " sheets. The War Press Bureau,
controlled by the Higher Command, was the most important
propagandist organ. It issued commands to the censorship,
laying down the prohibitions and the special attitudes which were
circulated through the local authorities, and it had a special
foreign section. Moreover, daily Press seances were held by
three officials, representing respectively the Foreign Office,
the War Office and the Admiralty, at which instructions and
directions too delicate to be committed to paper* were issued.
German propaganda in neutral countries was officially con-
trolled by a branch of the Foreign Office, the Zenlralstelle fiir
Auslandsdienst. It issued material for propaganda and propa-
ganda for distribution through the official representatives in
foreign countries. Every Germany embassy or legation had
at least one organ under its immediate control, sometimes pub-
lished in German specially for German readers, more often in
the language of the country in which it was issued. The material
consisted of copies of a special newspaper, the Nachrichten der
Auslandspresse, prepared by the War Press Bureau, a daily
paper containing telegrams and notes on current events, and
often selected news cuttings issued by the general staff. Another
official agency, believed to be directed by the Admiralty, issued
an attractive and well-illustrated periodical, the Kriegs Kronik,
as well 'as the Kriegs Nachrichten, the latter consisting of
prepared articles on war subjects and a " Berlin " letter, for the
edification of the foreign Press.
In addition there were several highly important private
organizations for foreign propaganda. The Deutscher Uebersee-
dienst Transocean was a syndicate established before the war by
big German industrials to supplement and correct the service
of the official Wolff Bureau. It issued the daily German wireless,
had a special foreign news-service consisting chiefly of selected
cuttings from German and foreign newspapers, and a very fine
illustrated monthly periodical in five languages Der Grosse
Krieg in Bildern. It had an intelligence division which reported
on the standing and personality of newspaper editors in every
country, and suggested means of influencing them. The Kriegs-
ausschuss der deulschen Industrie, formed originally to repre-
sent industrialists in their controversies with the Government,
became an extensive propagandist chiefly on trade matters. A
bureau at Frankfort-on-Main, partly official, dealt chiefly
PROPELLANTS
185
with Latin countries. The Deutsch-Stidamerikanisches Institut,
and the Hamburgischer Ibero-Amerikanischer Verein were oc-
cupied chiefly with Latin and Latin-American countries, and
had agents and usually press organs in every country where
Spanish or Portuguese is spoken. The Far East was served
through the Ostasiatische-Lloyd, which supplied a distributing
centre in Shanghai.
Until the United States of America came into the war, there
was a very active German campaign to influence American
opinion in favour of Germany. A great part of it was con-
ducted from the German embassy in Washington, and through
the German consuls throughout the United States. Much work
was done by special missions such as that of Dr. Dernburg, a
former Colonial Secretary, and every German bank or trading
corporation was a centre of organized effort. A very large
number of serious books by well-known German authors were
translated into English for American readers. These followed
certain main lines. They drew contrasts between the peaceful
progress of Germany since her unification, as compared with
the violence of other Powers. They represented Germany as
being engaged purely in self-defence. They offered veiled threats
or bribes to the United States with reference to Japan. They
insisted on the moral basis of German culture and civilization.
Closely similar lines were followed by many leading Americans
of German descent. Perhaps the most effective of these American-
Germans was Hugo Miinsterberg, professor of psychology at
Harvard, who advocated the cause of his natal country with
eloquence and apparent moderation. His main point was that
the war was really a struggle between Russian barbarism and
the western culture of Germany, France taking sides because
of Alsace-Lorraine, England because of her commercial rivalry
and desire for German colonies. If Germany were beaten, it
would be a triumph of Asiatic Russia and of Japan over the cul-
ture of Europe and America. It was suggested that the task of
America was to give Europe an honourable peace, which she
could do only by the strictest neutrality, with a leaning to
Germany. Some true Americans also engaged in propaganda
in favour of Germany. Some of these, doubtless, were mere
hirelings; the better were chiefly persons of standing in the
literary, scientific and musical world, who had been much in
Germany. Some of the exchange professors were leaders in this
work, and very naturally advocated with zeal and knowledge
the best side of the German character and the great part Ger-
many had played in the arts and sciences. Still more vocal were
the Irish-Americans, who devoted themselves with a malignant
bitterness to propaganda against England.
As regards direct German propaganda against the enemy,
comparatively little was done, as compared with other com-
batants, in the distribution of propagandist literature from Ger-
many amongst the actual troops opposed to her. The Gazette
des Ardennes was the most successful effort. It was a regular
newspaper, written in French and often with an illustrated
supplement. It was sent into France by balloons, and occa-
sionally by aeroplane, and sometimes gained entrance through
a neutral country. It was eagerly sought, as it was baited with
genuine information as to French prisoners. Otherwise it con-
sisted of well-arranged propagandist matter of the usual type.
The Continental Times, written in English, was founded before
the war as a genuine newspaper for Americans travelling in
Germany and Austria. During the war, probably with the
aid of a German subsidy, it developed into a propagandist
organ, chiefly anti-English, and almost ludicrous in its exag-
gerated malevolence. It was freely circulated among English
prisoners in German camps, where, fortunately, it was the occa-
sion of a good deal of amusement. The Russkiya Iszvestia,
written in Russian, was distributed to Russian prisoners of war,
and to a smaller extent in Russia. It was a competent piece of
work, addressed to the task of persuading the Russian peasant
that his two chief enemies were England and his own Govern-
ment, and that the victory of Germany would mean liberation.
Germany's greatest propagafidist effort against her enemies
was carried out by indirect means. Wherever she thought that
there was opportunity, she endeavoured to excite the discon-
tented subjects of her enemies. She sought to get in touch with
Irishmen, Indians, Arabs, Egyptians, Boers, Algerians and
Georgians, and with various black races. A special organization or
committee in Berlin attended to each of these peoples, and to
many others. Where possible, representatives were lured to
Berlin, and, if thought useful, were provided with funds. Mis-
sions, sometimes accompanied by Germans, were sent wherever
they could be sent with safety. On the negative side the effort
had some success, and existing discontent was sedulously
fomented. But on the positive side there was little gain, for the
Germans were seldom able to persuade the actual or tentative
rebels that their future position would be any better under the
domination of Germany. (P. C. M.)
PROPELLANTS (see 10.83). A propellant explosive should
burn comparatively slowly, and thus allow the use of a suitable
charge for the required muzzle velocity without causing a high
chamber pressure, and enable the maximum pressure to be kept
low while better sustained; it should burn regularly which
depends upon the area of surface exposed to burning and the
rate should be easily capable of regulation; it should be smoke-
less, without bright flash; it should not give excessive heat dur-
ing combustion, but be easy of ignition and not leave any solid
residue; it should have both chemical and ballistic stability
while in storage. The method of manufacture and the propor-
tionate mixture of cordite, the British smokeless propellant
(see 7.138), have been very largely controlled by the postulated
requirements, particularly as regards keeping qualities.
With cordite manufactured by the methods in vogue before
the World War the nitrocellulose used was highly nitrated,
necessitating the use of acetone as a solvent. This involved a
serious disadvantage in that the supply of the solvent mate-
rially governed the output of cordite. The enormous amounts of
propellant required and the . demand for rapid supply during
the war made this disadvantage seriously felt, and thoughts
were turned in the direction of discovering some expedients in
which a state of lower nitration would render possible the use
of some other solvent, which could be more easily obtained, as
well as the devising of new methods by which the time expended
in manufacture might be materially reduced. At the same time
it was postulated that disturbance of the ballistic and heat
value of cordite M.D. was not to be incurred.
Experiments resulted in the introduction of a class of cordite
known as R.D.B. (Research Department, mixture B.), with which
ether-alcohol is used as the solvent. It consists in a percentage com-
position of nitroglycerine (42 %), nitro-cotton (52 %), mineral jelly
(6%). A larger percentage of nitroglycerine was included in this
mixture in order to compensate for the lower nature of nitrocellulose,
and a higher proportion of mineral jelly to reduce the higher tem-
perature produced by the extra proportion of nitroglycerine. The
appearance of this class of cordite, as compared with cordite M.D.,
is not so clear, generally warped, with a rougher surface. With this
mixture, not only was there the advantage in employing a solvent,
of which supply was assured, but also the time required for drying
in manufacture was considerably reduced.
Originally, the tubular form was introduced for cordite in order
to maintain an equal area of burning surface, and so permit a more
equally sustained pressure during combustion. In the form of strips,
cordite gives very similar action as in the form of tubes ; this form in
manufacture and otherwise has other advantages which favoured its
use for cartridges. But since, when made up into charges, strip
cordite is apt to become packed tight, and so practically form a solid
bundle, the result on explosion may not be as desired.
The provision of cellulose for conversion into nitrocellulose de-
pended during the war very largely on the obtainable supplies. In
Germany different expedients were tried, amongst them an un-
successful attempt to use an artificial silk made by dissolving wood-
cellulose in suitable solvents. But practically all the nitrocellulose
made in that country, during the war, was made from a certain
kind of paper, probably from some form of wood-cellulose (see
CELLULOSE).
The American service propellant N.C.T. (nitrocellulose tubular)
is a soluble nitro-cotton powder gelatinized by ether-alcohol, and
containing a small percentage of diphenylamine added to act as a
stabilizer. The powder is practically a pure nitrocellulose powder,
and consists of nitrocellulose (97%), stabilizer (0-5%), volatile
matter (2-5%).
The nitration of the cellulose is similar to the process in the case of
cordite, but the drying of the powder is not carried so far, a con-
186
PROTHERO PROTOZOOLOGY
siderable proportion of the solvent being retained. The stabilizer,
being a substance with an affinity for nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), is
intended to prevent the free presence of nitrous acid should any
decomposition occur. It is claimed for the stabilizer that it at the
same time acts as a detector and shows when decomposition is
occurring, by means of the resulting discoloration; but this claim
does not appear to have been clearly established. The shape of the
powder is different from that of cordite. The mixture is extruded
through dies, for charges for smaller guns in a tubular form, and for
larger guns as a stick with several longitudinal holes; as it is ex-
truded, it is cut into short lengths, the lengths having a proportion-
ate relation to the diameter of the hole in the stick. This shape en-
ables greater ease in making up cartridges than with cordite, re-
quiring merely the weighing of the charge on scales as against cutting
lengths of cordite according to size and weight. Nitrocellulose
tubular is not so powerful as cordite, and therefore larger charges are
required; it is hygroscopic, and consequently, if cartridges become
damp, considerable variations in ballistics may result ; it is not so
stable in storage as cordite. On the other hand, it is more uniform
in burning (at a slower rate and with a lower temperature than
cordite), and so causes much less erosion in a gun; and, further, the
loading temperature has less effect on ballistics than with cordite,
and the regularity in worn guns is better. The colour of the grains
varies very much and may be buff, brown, dark blue or even nearly
black, perhaps owing to slight changes in the stabilizer present ; but
practically no difference in stability has been detected, except when
the colour becomes brick-red, or rusty, when it may be concluded
that corrosion has set in.
A nameless powder has been made in America for which it is
claimed that, with field guns firing this kind of powder, it is possible
for the eyes of the gunner to see the muzzle of the gun at the moment
of firing, and that the flash is imperceptible at a distance of a mile.
The composition of the American powder is approximately 60 % of
nitro-cotton, stabilized only with potassium carbonate, 25-28 % of
nitroglycerine treated in the same way, 5-7 % of diphenylphthalic
diethylester of the phthalic acid obtained by estenfying phthalic
anhydride with ethyl-alcohol in the presence of sodium bisulphate
and 35% of neutral potassium tartrate; vaseline or mineral jelly
up to 5 % is used to balance the composition. The dimensions of the
powder-sticks and the exact composition depend upon the form to
be used and have to be calculated.
The German propellant used with the 77-mm. gun was in the form
of tubular sticks, and was a ballistite containing a stabilizer of " cen-
tralite " type, the stabilizer being the thio-urea derivative corre-
sponding to diphenyldimethyl-urea. This last substance has been
found frequently in German powders; it is very resistant to the
action of acids and alkalis and is oxidized by fuming nitric acid
only after prolonged heating at a high temperature.
A ballistite containing 60% of nitrocellulose and 38% of nitro-
glycerine has been used by the Germans; and also a mixture of
nitrocellulose (66-16%), nitroglycerine (25-97%), sym. diethyl-
diphenyl-urea (5-64%), volatile matter (0-91%), mineral matter
(1-32 %). With certain guns the Germans tried a mixture of ammo-
nium nitrate (84-5%), carbon (15-0%), ammonium chloride (0-5%),
in a compressed block, in the shape of an annulus, which was in-
serted in the cartridge-case above a charge of ordinary nitrocellulose
powder. What was the exact result of this combination is not clear.
Among sporting powders which were tried during the war as
propellants might be quoted as an example E.G. 3 a powder made
by a private company which was used rather largely in trench
warfare. This also is a nitrocellulose powder, which after forming
to required shape is treated with acetone so that the outer surface is
hardened. It is claimed for this process that the pressure during
burning is more evenly distributed and more regularly maintained,
since the hardened skin of the powder allows of slow burning to
commence with and the porous interior allows more rapid action,
later on. (F. M. R.)
PROTHERO, SIR GEORGE WALTER (1848- ), English
man of letters, was born in Wilts. Oct. 14 1848. Educated at
Eton, King's College, Cambridge, and the university of Bonn,
he became fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and was history
lecturer there from 1876 to 1894, when he became professor of
history at the university of Edinburgh 1894-9. He was a
member of the Royal Commission for Ecclesiastical Discipline
1904-6. In 1899 he succeeded his brother Rowland (afterwards
Lord Ernie) as editor of the Quarterly Review. He was also editor
of the Cambridge Historical Series and co-editor of the Cambridge
Modern History. During the World War he was head of the
historical section of the British Foreign Office, and in that
capacity attended the Peace Conference in Paris (1919). He
was created K.B.E. in 1920. Amongst his publications are
Life and Times of Simon de Mont} art (1877), Memoir of Henry
Bradshaiv (1889), and various volumes of historical papers,
as well as the British History Reader (1898).
PROTOPOPOV, ALEXANDER DMITRIEVICH (1864-1918),
Russian statesman, was born in 1864 and educated in a military
school. He served for some time in the army, but he soon left
the service and went into business. As a big landowner of the
Simbirsk province he took an active part in the Zemstvo life
and was elected member of the executive board of the Simbirsk
Zemstvo and marshal of the nobility of the Simbirsk province.
In 1907 he was elected member of the third and subsequently
of the fourth State Duma, where he joined the left wing of
the Octobrist (Moderate Liberal) party. Later be became vice-
president of the State Duma. The first unfavourable rumours
with reference to him arose in connexion with an interview with
Herr Max Warburg, the German financier at Stockholm. In
March 1916 he visited the capitals of western Europe as one of
the leaders of the Russian parliamentary delegation. On his
return journey he privately met at Stockholm Herr Warburg,
the head of the Scandinavian section of the German Committee
on Food Supplies. The importance of the conversation was,
however, greatly exaggerated by the press, and also by Protopo-
pov himself. At the beginning of Oct. 1916 Protopopov was
appointed, through the influence of the Emperor, Minister of
the Interior, in succession to Khvostov, and thus entered the
Sturmer Cabinet. A former leader of Liberals, he proved to be
now the strongest upholder of reaction. He enforced the cen-
sorship with unexampled rigour, and his interference with the
food-supply work of the Zemstvos and Towns Union created a
serious danger to the activities of these organizations. At a
stormy meeting held at the Duma he was asked by his political
friends to resign his post, and when he refused to do so they
struck his name off the list of members of the party. Hated by
the Liberal circles and the Duma, Protopopov not only supported
the reactionary policy of Sturmer and Prince Galitzin with the
utmost energy, but he is said also to have been one of the secret
organizers of the disturbances of Feb. 1917, which he proposed
to suppress by military force, and which, unexpectedly for him,
resulted in the overthrow of the Empire and of himself. He
was arrested by the Provisional Government and committed
for trial. He remained for many months in the Peter and
Paul fortress and was executed by order of the Extraordinary
Commission in Sept. 1918.
PROTOZOOLOGY (see 22. 479) is that branch of zoology which is
concerned with the group of animals known as the Protozoa.
It is not, as its name might seem to imply, a primitive form of
zoology. As a science it is comparatively young, but, owing
chiefly to the practical importance of some of the animals with
which it deals, it had in 1921 already become one of the largest
and most cultivated fields in biology. The Protozoa are very
interesting animals, from both the practical and the theoretical
standpoint. Nevertheless, they are all small, and most of them
of microscopic dimensions. To the general public they are
therefore invisible, and consequently unknown, except by the
conspicuous results such as diseases which they occasionally
produce. In common speech they are still nameless, though they
are popularly included among " animalcules " and "microbes."
But these are unscientific and unnatural groups, which comprise
all microscopic creatures, both animals and plants; and con-
sequently the Protozoa are still confused, in the popular mind,
with other " microbes," such as the Bacteria, with which they
have no connexion.
It will be evident that protozoology, as an independent science,
must necessarily have arisen as a comparatively late offshoot
of zoology. Its history is bound up with that of the microscope,
an instrument which bears much the same relation to proto-
zoology that the telescope does to astronomy. Before micro-
scopes were invented no Protozoa could have been clearly visible.
With the first lenses, the largest and most conspicuous of them
were discovered; and as microscopes were improved, more and
more minute creatures gradually became known. Out of the
confusion of forms which the microscope has continued to
reveal, the Protozoa have ultimately emerged as a well-defined
group of animals, and, as a result, those who study these animals
have slowly built up a new section of zoological science.
PROTOZOOLOGY
187
As an individual science protozoology only became self-
conscious at a quite recent period. The name itself, though
already in use between 1870 and 1880, only became current
after the opening of the 2oth century that is to say, within the
memory of many living zoologists. But the science was really
born though not baptized when the first Protozoa were
discovered. This far-reaching discovery was made in the latter
half of the i7th century. It was made by a man who was neither
zoologist nor physician, but who occupied the humble position
of chamberlain to the sheriffs of the little town of Delft, in
Holland Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), an amateur
microscopist, who studied at no university, nor under any of the
great professors of his day, but whose title to fame rests upon
the simple and honest application of his own native genius.
This remarkable man made his own microscopes, lenses and all,
and turned them upon almost every object which suggested
itself to his quick imagination. In the course of his work he
examined the water from the leaden gutters of his house, from
the well in his courtyard, and also fresh rain-water, snow-water
and " the water wherein pepper had lain infused." He found
that all these liquids, and many others, were not clear and empty
when viewed by the microscope, but teeming with living crea-
tures. The discovery was promptly communicated by letter
to the Royal Society in London, who published a part of it in
the year 1677. Some of the animals which Leeuwenhoek here
described can now be identified as Protozoa, and his letter may
therefore be regarded as the first page in the history of proto-
zoology.
Leeuwenhoek, the father of protozoology, himself studied and
described many Protozoa. His observations were soon repeated and
confirmed by others, notably by some of the early Fellows of the
Royal Society and his fellow-countryman Huygens, the great astron-
omer. But for many years protozoology made little progress, and
remained essentially what it was originally, an amusement rather
than a science. Although many good observations were made and
recorded, they were always disjointed, and often distorted by fancy
and speculation. Many good zoologists regarded with doubt and
misgiving everything seen with the microscope, an attitude of
mind which has not quite disappeared even in these days of perfect
instruments. Even the great Linnaeus (17071778), who attempted
to catalogue and classify all animals and plants, and thereby founded
modern systematic biology, never really overcame his suspicions
sufficiently to incorporate the Protozoa firmly in his system. His
mental attitude is shown in the name " Chaos infusorium," with
which, in 1767, he dubbed a mixed lot of questionable protozoal
organisms the term Chaos itself having been suggested, no doubt,
by Ovid's " rudis indigestaque moles."
But already at this period many workers were convinced that
the Protozoa or " Infusoria," as they were then called, from their
occurrence in infusions have a real existence. The once notorious
John Hill (1716-1775), in the course of his. journalistic, theatrical,
medical, and botanical adventures, turned his attention to micro-
scopes; and in 1752 he described and, for the first time, scientifically
named, a number of Protozoa which he had seen in infusions. Up
to this time writers had been content to call them by diminutives of
the names of larger and more familiar creatures, or occasionally by
names suggested by comparison with some common object. We
thus find the early protozoologists describing their observations upon
" little insects," " worms," " fishes," and even " reptiles," and upon
" the slipper," " the sun," " the trumpet," " the gimlet," or " the
bell animalcule." It was not until 1773 that a serious attempt was
made to reduce the chaos to order by careful observation and descrip-
tion and classification of the " Infusoria." This notable work was
done by the Danish naturalist, O. F. Miiller (1730-1784); and his
last book, published posthumously in 1786, is the first systematic
treatise on protozoology. It is a remarkable work, full of shrewd
observations, and showing astonishing insight, but containing , of
course, many mistakes which were inevitable at that period. Many
of the Protozoa described and sketched by Miiller mostly from ob-
servations made, as were those of Leeuwenhoek, with the aid of only
a simple lens are easily recognizable now by a protozoologist.
The circumstance that Miiller was able to attempt a comprehen-
sive systematic treatise on the Protozoa implies that a very consider-
able advance had taken place in biological thought since microscopic
organisms were discovered. Many of the earlier workers, like the
uneducated at the present day, believed in spontaneous generation.
They believed, with Aristotle, that many " imperfect " animals were
bred in mud, water, or decomposing matter; and so long as this view
was tenable there was no reason why these misbegotten offspring of
the superabundant vitality of the earth should display any particular
constancy in their appearance or any fixity of form. Consequently,
to attempt to describe and classify the " Infusoria " must have
seemed a futile task to many men of science two hundred years ago.
Spontaneous generation, as a scientific doctrine, was not really
demolished by the admirable experiments of Redi (1668), as is often
supposed, for he disproved it for only the larger and more obvious
animals, such as insects; and the later discovery of microscopic or-
ganisms raised the whole problem once more, but presented it in a
much more difficult form. It was Redi's countryman, Spallanzani,
who, a hundred years later, extended his observations to microscopic
animals, and showed by means of ingenious and exact experiments
that the " Infusoria " spring from living antecedents, and live, grow,
and multiply like larger creatures. Spallanzani helped to lay the
foundations on which Miiller built, though his own work was not
firmly consolidated until, a century later, the last rivets were driven
in by Pasteur and Tyndall.
In the latter half of the 1 8th century many minor contributions
were made to protozoology, and although these were continued dur-
ing the early part of the next century, no considerable advance was
made until about 1830, when the Berlin zoologist, C. G. Ehrenberg
(17951876), began to publish his researches. With amazing per-
severance he studied, described, and named all the " Infusoria " that
he could find : and as he pursued his investigations not only at home,
but also in Egypt, Arabia, Siberia, and elsewhere, the forms which
he discovered were not a few. His chief contribution to proto-
zoology was published in 1838 a monumental folio volume of more
than 550 pages, accompanied by an atlas of 64 coloured plates.
This is still one of the classics of the science. It contained much that
was new and much that was true, everything of note that his indus-
trious reading could find in the works of his predecessors, and withal
a mass of mistakes, to which he clung tenaciously in spite of violent
contradiction and criticism to the end of his days.
Ehrenberg's most dangerous opponent was a Frenchman, Flix
Dujardin (1801-1860). In 1841, with an octavo volume of some 680
pages, but only 23 plates, he undermined the foundations of the big
folio, and thus overthrew, for all time, many of the favourite theories
of his German antagonist. Dujardin's work is also a protozoological
classic. Together with Ehrenberg's volume it marks the end of the
old protozoology of the micrographers and the beginning of the new
science as a special branch of zoology. Rarely does the modern
worker, unless he be a historian, require to consult any earlier trea-
tises than these.
Since the time of Dujardin only one really exhaustive work on the
Protozoa as a whole has been written. This is the great monograph
by O. Biitschli, of Heidelberg, published in 1880-9. It is significant of
the vast modern development of protozoology that up to 1921 no
work on a like scale, by a single individual, had been produced.
It is now, indeed, impossible for any one man even to read all that
has been written on the Protozoa, and the more recent workers have
had perforce to devote their attention to some particular group of
these organisms, or to some special branch of protozoology. To
master a detail of the science is now the work of a lifetime. No one
man could in 1921 claim to be an expert in all protozoology any more
than in all mathematics or all chemistry. The territory already sur-
veyed was so vast that the most he could hope to do was to cultivate
his own small holding properly.
The Modern Science. Since the middle of the ipth century
biological theory and practice have undergone profound changes;
and in more recent years protozoology, with the rest of zoology,
has largely changed its character. This period has seen to
note but a few of its more striking developments the establish-
ment of the Theory of Organic Evolution, the rise of the Cell
Theory, the foundation of Histology and Cytology, and the
unfolding of Physiology and Embryology and Medicine as
experimental sciences. Protozoology has been profoundly in-
fluenced by all these new growths, and has itself contributed not
a little to them. An attempt has been made, and has already
been partly successful, first, to discover all the Protozoa there
are, both living and fossil; then to investigate their structure in
the minutest detail, and to ascertain how they live and develop;
and finally, to understand their relations to other organisms and
their place in nature. Countless monographs have been written
on individual species, on the larger and smaller groups into
which these can be scientifically classified, on collections made
all over the world, and upon the special physiological, medical,
and other problems which the Protozoa, as a whole or in part,
present. But we must content ourselves here with the merest
sketch of the growth and status of modern protozoology.
Before proceeding, we must note some of the peculiar difficul-
ties which differentiate protozoology from the rest of zoology.
The animals with which it deals are, speaking generally, in-
visible to the naked eye. Consequently, they cannot be studied
and anatomized by ordinary methods. The protozoologist has
first to become a master in the use of the microscope, and to
learn its limitations as an instrument of research. When he
i88
PROTOZOOLOGY
has become proficient he must learn or devise methods for
catching, watching, breeding and preserving those Protozoa
that he wishes to study, and must thus become familiar with
a peculiar and varied technique adapted to the investigation
of the lives and habits of animals invisible to the unaided eye.
He must then acquire the power of correctly interpreting what
he sees under these peculiar conditions. If he is an efficient
microscopist and a good observer, endowed with abundant
patience and ingenuity, and if, at the same time, he is a good
zoologist and sound philosopher, then, with experience and
diligence, he may hope some day to become a good protozoologist.
From the very nature 1 of the subject, therefore, it will be obvious
that it is easier to make mistakes in protozoology than in most
other branches of zoology; and there can be little doubt that the
writings on the Protozoa, taken as a whole, contain a larger
percentage of error than those on any other group of animals.
Protozoology is, indeed, still in its infancy, and learning slowly
and painfully by the method of making mistakes.
Protozoology, like most other sciences, is important from two
different standpoints, which may be called the theoretical and
the practical. On the theoretical side we have to consider its
relations to the rest of zoology, and the value of its contributions
to biological philosophy; on the other side, we must consider the
utility of its practical applications, which are chiefly medical.
In other words, we must look at protozoology as a pure science
and as an applied science. It is necessary to distinguish these
two aspects, although they are inextricably blended in reality.
Protozoology was actually applied in medicine before it was
ready; and this led not only to great confusion but almost to
the severance of Medical Protozoology from the rest of the
science. But progress on the medical side has now reacted
beneficially upon the pure science, by bringing to light many
new facts and setting many new problems.
The Pure Science. The theoretical importance of proto-
zoology is not what it appeared to be fifty years ago. It has
not fulfilled some of the high hopes then entertained for its
future. In the earlier period the writer of an article such as
this would have begun, in all probability, by declaring that the
study of the Protozoa would lead to the solution of most of the
outstanding general problems of biology. He would have pointed
out that these animals were of the greatest importance in con-
nexion with the two chief biological generalizations of his time
the Cell Theory and the Evolution Theory and he would prob-
ably have ended by saying that it was only lack of detailed
knowledge which prevented protozoology from answering most
of the fundamental questions of biology. Yet we have now an
abundance of the sort of information then regarded as requisite,
and the great problems are still, for the most part, where they
were. It is both interesting and instructive to inquire how this
has come about.
The cell theory was first definitely formulated, in Germany,
by Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839), and was modelled
into its modern form by Max Schultze (1861): that is to say, it
took shape at the time of the reformation of protozoology by
Ehrenberg and Dujardin, when the science was still feeling
for a foothold. According to the cell doctrine, all organisms,
both animals and plants, are built up of structural units, called
'' cells," in much the same way as a house is built of bricks.
Schultze defined " a cell " as " a little lump of protoplasm with
a nucleus inside it," and this definition was generally accepted.
It should be noted that this proposition, so far as the larger
animals and plants are concerned, is not a " theory " at all, but
a statement of fact easily verifiable by means of the microscope.
The body of a rabbit or a cabbage is, for the most part, actually
composed of " cells " as conceived in the definition. The
" theory " was introduced when the proposition was held to
apply to all organisms at all stages in their development. Dujar-
din had shown that the Protozoa are soft-bodied animals com-
posed of " sarcode " the " protoplasm " of later workers
in which no constituent " cells " are discernible. Like " cells "
Protozoa contain " nuclei," but, unlike the large animals, they
show no internal differentiation into cellular units. It was thus
necessary to introduce some new conception if the cell theory was
to become universally applicable.
The extension of the theory, so as to enable it to include the
Protozoa, was made by von Siebold. Each individual protozoon,
he said, is itself a " cell." It is comparable with a single one of
the innumerable units of which the bodies of large animals are
built. The Protozoa are " unicellular " animals, all others
" multicellular." According to this doctrine, therefore, a proto-
zoon is not comparable, as an individual, with a whole multi-
cellular animal, but with one of the cells in its body: or, the
other way about, a multicellular animal is not an individual
of the same sort as a protozoon, but a colony of such individuals.
This conception appeared so plausible owing, it must be sup-
posed, to the backward state of protozoology and cytology at
that date that it found ready acceptance; and, in spite of
the cogent objections which have been raised against it by Huxley
(1853), Whitman (1893), Sedgwick (1894), Dobell (1911), and
others, it has prevailed down to the present day. The cell
theory is still taught to almost every beginner in biology.
He is still told that he is not an individual, but a community of
individuals; and that the protozoon, which he can see with his
own eyes leading an individual existence, is not an individual
such as he believed himself to be but the equivalent of one
little bit of his body.
When the cell theory was being founded, another great
biological generalization was just emerging the doctrine of
Organic Evolution. Charles Darwin's great work, which
appeared in 1859, created a revolution in biological thinking.
Although Darwin's own work, and his statement of the theory,
appear to be unexceptionable, the doctrine miscalled " Dar-
winism " developed along extravagant lines chiefly, as is
now evident, owing to the wild speculations and dominating
influence of E. Haeckel and other German writers. The " cell
theory " was immediately subpoenaed to give evidence for these
" Darwinists." They wrongly believed that the evolution
theory required the presence of some " most primitive " and
" elementary " animals from which all the " higher " forms
had been derived on the earth at the present day; and the shaky
syllables let fall by the cell theory were eagerly seized upon,
interpreted, and ultimately incorporated as incontrovertible
facts in the case of the " Evolutionists." " Unicellular "
organisms such as the Protozoa thus became the starting-
point of evolutionary speculations. The Protozoa were obviously
the " simplest " animals, since less was known about them than
about the others; and they were clearly the " most elementary,"
each individual representing but one of the structural elements
of which the others were composed. Their insignificant size
made them the " lowest " forms on earth, and their position
according to the " theory " at the bottom of the " Scala
Naturae," made them the " most primitive." It thus became
easy to show, by specious arguments and " question-begging
epithets," that protozoology occupied a position of fundamental
importance in biology. By studying the Protozoa the earliest
stages in evolution would be revealed. The beginnings of life
would be laid bare. Physiology and morphology would appear
in their elemental forms, stripped of all confusing detail. And
optimists were not wanting who divined that, by higher and still
higher powers of the microscope, Nature's inmost secrets such
as the origin of life itself would be divulged.
These fantastic dreams have been slowly dispelled by the
" dry light " of reason. It has become clear that protozoology
was placed in a false position by the devotees of the cell doctrine
and the dogmatic evolutionists. Let us look at the fundamental
conception of the " unicellularity " of the Protozoa from another
angle, and see how it appears in the light of modern knowledge.
In the first place, it is clear that the Protozoa cannot properly
be described as " unicellular." Every protozoal animal has an
independent existence. It has its own peculiar structure, exer-
cises its own proper functions, leads its own life often, indeed,
a very complex one. As an animal it is, from every standpoint,
as much an " individual " as a man is. One protozoon is one
whole animal, just as one man is one whole animal. From the
PROTOZOOLOGY
189
standpoint of common sense, no less than from that of modern
zoology, the whole organism is the unit of individuality. But
when we examine a protozoon under the microscope we still
see as Dujardin saw that its body is not differentiated in-
ternally into cells, as is that of a man. Its body is often sur-
prisingly complex in structure, but it is never composed of cells.
It is clear, therefore, that we can contrast the body of a man with
that of a protozoon by saying that the one is cellular in structure,
the other non-cellular. To call it " unicellular," and thus com-
pare one whole animal with a minute differentiated fraction of
another, is obviously absurd. It is as though a man who had
only seen houses built of bricks were suddenly to encounter
one constructed, all of a piece, of concrete; and then, being unable
to find the familiar individual bricks in its fabric, were to declare
that the concrete house is not a house in the sense that the
brick house is but one large and peculiarly modified brick.
When once it is realized that the Protozoa are not, in any sense,
" elementary " or " unicellular " animals, but a group of
peculiarly constructed creatures, adapted in a special way to
particular conditions of life, then it will also be realized that
we have no reasons apart from preconceived ideas derived from
unsound generalizations for believing that they represent
" primitive " or " first " forms of life. That they are not
" simple " we now know. It is true that they display, on the
whole, less visible structural differentiation than most of the
larger animals; but physiologically they are very complex.
That they are able to perform all the chief functions of " higher "
animals, but with fewer instruments, does not make their
mechanism easier to understand; and it is thus hardly con-
ceivable that the Protozoa can ever offer us the easiest way of
approach to physiological problems. They offer us, indeed, the
most difficult field in animal physiology, owing to their micro-
scopic size and apparent simplicity of structure. As a great
physiologist has well said: " Experience and reflection have
shown me that, after all, the physiological world is wise in spend-
ing its strength on the study of the higher animals. And for the
simple reason that in these, everything being so much more
highly differentiated, the clews of the tangles come, so to speak,
much more often to the surface, and may be picked up much
more readily " (Michael Foster). Attempts to found a " general
physiology " on the Protozoa as " cells " and " elements "
are doomed to failure, for they are based upon an unsound
philosophy; and the speculative and deductive efforts in this
direction such as that of Verworn in Germany have slowly
given way before the experimental and inductive methods of
Jennings and others in America and elsewhere.
As a point of historic interest, it may be noted that the father
of protozoology and his immediate followers had none of the
extravagant later notions regarding the " unicellular " and
" elementary " nature of the Protozoa. For Leeuwenhoek the
Protozoa were animals like any other animals, but delightfully
and marvellously little; and he thus saw more clearly and
naturally than many of his later successors.
There are probably few biologists who now cherish any hopes
of seeing the fundamental problems of biology solved by the
study of the Protozoa, though the majority still speak and write
in the optimistic language of last century. For these mental
survivals there is a psychological basis, which seems worth
noting before we go on to consider the true status and value of
protozoology. There is a curious disposition, apparently in-
herent in the human mind, to suppose that by studying the most
minute creatures we can come nearer to first principles. And it
is the same with the study of the larger organisms. As the cytol-
ogist probes into the structure of an animal with higher and still
higher powers of the microscope, he feels that he is gradually
" getting to the bottom " of his problems. He feels that when his
microscope has resolved the larger animals into their smallest
component parts, and has revealed every detail of the smallest
living thing, he will be face to face with fundamentals. It does
not require much thought to realize that this is a fallacy. The
deeper we delve, the more detail we discover. But it is all of the
same sort: we add to the quantity and not to the quality of our
knowledge. With the highest possible magnification we shall
obtain no information which is qualitatively or fundamentally
different from that to be derived from the study of large organ-
isms, and their gross anatomy, with the naked eye.
The mental bias just mentioned seems to be responsible for
many popular and not a few " scientific " notions about the
Protozoa. It appears, for example, to be at the back of the un-
reasonable but common belief that the Protozoa are " elemen-
tary " and " primitive " animals. Although few biologists now
believe in spontaneous generation, yet many are able to believe
that living things must have been spontaneously generated from
lifeless matter in the past; and to those who hold this belief it
still appears self-evident that the organisms so generated were
microscopic. Consequently, these biologists feel that the
Protozoa must, in some way, be nearer than other animals to
" the beginnings of life," and they find no difficulty in conceiving
that the first animals were " Protozoa." In the same way, when
these same biologists come to consider evolution, and the rela-
tions of living animals to one another, they find in the Protozoa
the easiest starting-point for their speculations. The Protozoa
are " the simplest " animals, and the human mind works most
readily from simple to complex conceptions. Consequently,
evolution is pictured as necessarily moving in the same direction
the simply constructed creatures coming first, and the com-
plex developing from them. But it is surely a poor philosophy
which would constrain Nature to order her infinite events in
that particular sequence in which thoughts happen to follow
one another most easily in the mind of man.
What, then, it may be asked, is the theoretical interest or
value of protozoology? Clearly it is this. Biological theory is
sound in proportion to the truth of its generalizations. When
all the facts are known about all animals and plants, we shall be
able to make true general propositions about them. Before we
know the facts our generalizations can be but partial and pre-
mature more or less lucky guesses, based upon incomplete
knowledge. All biological theory is at present in this condition
and therefore the careful study of any animal or group of animals
such as the Protozoa will, if it yields new facts for generaliza-
tion, be valuable ultimately as a contribution to biology. At
present we cannot hope to do much more than collect facts, by
means of accurate observation and apposite experiment. When
we have collected and critically analyzed them, we can some-
times make tentative generalizations of a lesser order. But the
larger and truer generalizations will come later.
It may be said that if this is all that can be expected from
protozoology, then it is no more important than any other
branch of zoology: there is no reason why we should study the
Protozoa rather than any other group of animals. All this is
quite true and reasonable; but there is also a reason why proto-
zoology is likely to yield results of particular interest. The
Protozoa are a group of animals organized on a different prin-
ciple from the rest. They are, as we have just seen, non-cellular
animals with peculiar lives and habits. Structurally and func-
tionally they differ, in many ways, from all other animals.
Now all the chief biological generalizations almost all general
propositions relating to such phenomena as birth, growth,
development, sex, reproduction, heredity, variation, and death
have been derived from observations made upon the larger
multicellular animals. When general ideas were formulated on
such subjects the Protozoa were practically left out of account.
When the more important facts about the Protozoa are firmly
established, we shall be able to recast many of our biological
theorems in a more satisfactory form. The Protozoa offer
us, in other words, a new world of animals for generalization,
and a new standpoint from which to survey our old-world
zoological knowledge. The discovery of the Protozoa was to
zoology what the discovery of America was to geography. But
we are still, in protozoology, in the i6th century. For our
knowledge of the new world we must still depend upon travellers'
tales, upon reports of things ill-observed and misunderstood,
marvels and myths and mysteries. But some day we shall have
accurate and faithful records, and then protozoology will come
190
PROTOZOOLOGY
into its own. As yet we are hardly on the threshold of the new
biology, but for those who delight in the destruction of error and
the advancement of true learning, the protozoological prospect
is already full of hope.
The Applied Science. The chief practical appli cations of
protozoology are to medicine. Certain of the Protozoa live as
parasites in the bodies of men and animals, and thereby cause
diseases. Some of these are so important that they are widely
known for example, malaria and sleeping sickness and the
elucidation of such diseases is one of the most interesting and
recent chapters in biology. Protozoology also has certain applica-
tions to agricultural science, because many Protozoa inhabit the
soil, but their value is still doubtful.
The founder of protozoology was the first to find Protozoa
inhabiting the living bodies of other and larger animals. In
1681 he described one such " animalcule " which was living in
his own intestine. In 1683 he described and depicted others
from the intestine of the frog. All these are recognizable, with
fair certainty, at the present day. Leeuwenhoek did not suggest
that these " parasites " were in any way concerned in the
causation of disease, and it is probable, indeed, that the forms
which he observed are not. But already at that date the " mi-
crobe " theory of disease-production was in existence, for it was
guessed at long before any " microbes " were discovered; and
consequently we find that, even in Leeuwenhoek's lifetime, the
suggestion was put forward that his " little animals " might be
the " causes " of certain disorders. We find, for example, an
early fellow of the Royal Society remarking, in 1683, of a
" murren " which had raged among the cattle in central Europe,
and of which the cause was undiscovered: " I wish Mr. Leewen-
hoeck had been present at some of the dissections of these in-
fected Animals, I am perswaded He would have discovered some
strange Insect or other in them." Mr. Leeuwenhoek's successors
have, on many a like occasion, fulfilled the expectations of
" the ingenious Fred. Slare, M.D., and F.R.S.," but his " s.trange
insects " they now call " Protozoa " or " Bacteria."
From the time of Leeuwenhoek to the present day the parasitic
Protozoa have been studied with increasing attention. Their
relation to diseases has been gradually elucidated, though we
are still very far from finality in our knowledge of this ab-
sorbingly interesting subject. The history of our knowledge is
long, and the discoveries have followed devious ways too
devious and intricate to be more than touched upon here.
Our knowledge of protozoal diseases diseases colloquially
said to be " caused " by protozoal parasites really begins as
recently as the middle of the ipth century, when Louis Pasteur
(1822-1805) began his researches on a disease of silkworms
called pebrine. Applying to the investigation of this disease
the genius which stamps his work on " microbes " generally,
Pasteur first discovered its causes, and then deduced methods for
its prevention. The " cause " he found to be a microscopic
parasite, now called Nosema bombycis and classified among the
Protozoa. Although Pasteur did not know that the parasite
was a protozoon, his work on pebrine and other microbic diseases
was of fundamental importance for protozoology, because it
demonstrated the methods by which such diseases can be studied
and elucidated. Pasteur's scientific principles were impeccable,
and equalled only by his own practical applications of them.
It is common knowledge that he founded modern bacteriology;
but in so doing he also laid the foundations of medical proto-
zoology. To the casual reader it may seem strange that the study
of silkworms can have any bearing upon medicine, or could in
any way contribute towards the alleviation of human suffering.
But there was another practical result of Pasteur's work which
everyone will immediately appreciate, since it can be expressed in
pounds, shillings and pence. Before pebrine attacked the silk-
worms of France the silk industry yielded an annual revenue of
130,000,000 francs to the State. After the disease had raged for
a dozen years the revenue had fallen to 8,000,000, and the
industry was on the brink of ruin. To have discovered the causes
of the disease, and to have devised, as a direct consequence,
means for its control, and, as a further consequence of this, to
have rehabilitated the whole silk industry these are practical
results which everyone can understand. And one has but to
remember that protozoal diseases may affect man himself and
his larger domesticated animals not merely silkworms to
realize the practical possibilities of protozoology.
Towards the close of the ipth century medical protozoology
became linked up with another branch of zoology entomology,
the science which deals with insects. This connexion has nothing
to do with the silkworms just mentioned, but arose through the
discovery of the part played by certain other insects in the
causation of protozoal diseases. The discoveries in this field
began, once more, with the investigation of a disease of domes-
ticated animals; but the pioneer was not, in this case, the
Frenchman Pasteur, but the Scotsman David Bruce. His work
is of such importance that we must notice it at this point.
The Work of Bruce. Some parts of Africa are the home of
certain large blood-sucking flies called " tsetse." The " Fly
Country " is uninhabitable except for wild animals; and long
before its full significance was understood, the fly itself was
recognized as a serious obstacle to the opening-up of Central
Africa. Livingstone, the greatest of all African explorers, was so
impressed with the fly's importance in this connexion that he
put a vignette of a tsetse on the title-page of his Missionary
Travels (ist ed., 1857). Live stock taken into the " Fly Country"
rapidly succumbs to a disease which is called " nagana " in
Zululand, where Bruce's original investigations were made.
The disease was also called " tsetse-fly disease," since it was
believed by the European settlers to be, caused by the bite of the
fly. The natives believed, however, that it was " caused by
the presence of large game, the wild animals in some way con-
taminating the grass or drinking-water."
Bruce began his work in Zululand after an abortive attempt
in 1894 in Sept. 1895 (the month of Pasteur's death). His full
report on his researches is dated May 1896. In this almost in-
credibly short space of time he demonstrated that nagana is
caused by a protozoal blood-parasite since named Trypanosoma
brucei, after its discoverer; that the parasite lives normally in
the blood of big game, without harming them; and that it is
conveyed from animal to animal by the tsetse. When the fly
sucks the blood of an infected animal it becomes itself infected
with the trypanosomes, which are subsequently re-inoculated
into other animals by the fly when it sucks their blood. If these
other animals are domestic stock, such as oxen or horses, they
become infected with trypanosomes, contract nagana, and die.
If they are wild game, such as antelopes, they also become in-
fected, but develop no disease. In nature the trypanosome
lives in the game and the flies alternately, the fly acting as an
intermediary in the spread of infection from antelope to antelope.
The big game indigenous in the country are habituated to
and proof against the infection; domestic animals foreigners,
introduced by man are not, and when infected usually die.
Bruce thus succeeded in extracting elements of truth from
both the European and the native beliefs, and was able to com-
bine them into a true theory of the causation of nagana. At the
same time he threw a flood of light on many other protozoal
diseases, and suggested all sorts of possibilities concerning their
causation and prevention. He forged new links between proto-
zoology and medicine and between entomology and protozoology.
It is true there were other lights and other links before. Try-
panosomes were known, and known to cause diseases, before
Bruce went to Zululand. Timothy Lewis and Griffith Evans
had observed similar parasites in India more than a decade
earlier; and Theobald Smith and Kilborne, in America, had
demonstrated in 1893 that the disease of cattle known as " Texas
fever " a disease also caused by a blood-inhabiting protozoal
parasite is transmitted from beast to beast by the agency of
ticks. But Bruce's work was solid, complete, and demonstrative.
By clean experiments and right reasoning he contributed more
to science in a few months than hundreds who have followed
up his work have since been able to contribute in many years.
In work of this sort it is the quality, not the quantity, that
counts. Later researches have but served to enhance the
PROTOZOOLOGY
191
magnitude and difficulty of the problem which confronted Bruce
in 1895; and to find a just parallel to the masterly manner in
which he solved it, we must go back to Pasteur. There is, indeed,
the same simplicity, the same directness, the same insight in
the work of both these men. Their works are enduring demon-
strations of the method of science: they are a delight to read,
and illustrate on every page the favourite maxim of Boerhaave:
Simplex sigillum veri.
The following-up of Bruce's discoveries and the working-out
of details and consequences have led to the accumulation of
an immense amount of new knowledge protozoological, ento-
mological, and medical. We can do no more than mention it
here. We must, however, notice one of the first-fruits of his
labours the application of his results to the study of human
dissasss. This application was made mainly by Bruce himself.
A few y^ars after he had done his great work on nagana he
attacked the problem of sleeping sickness, a human disease
which has depopulated large areas of Central Africa. Bruce
and his collaborators were able to show that this disease is
similar to nagana. It is likewise caused by a trypanosome,
which is conveyed to man by the bite of a tsetse-fly, and which is
capable of living in other animals. In this case the parasite had
been previously seen by Forde and Button, and by Castellani.
But its relation to human disease and the part played by the
tsetse in its transmission were first clearly demonstrated through
the work of Bruce.
Malaria and Other Diseases. We must now notice another
disease, which is known by name to all malaria, " the scourge
of the tropics." This disease, as we now know, is also carried
from man to man by the agency of a blood-sucking fly in this
case a mosquito, and it is also caused by a blood-inhabiting
protozoal parasite, though it is one very different from that
which causes nagana. Moreover, this parasite lives in men and
mosquitoes only. After undergoing a peculiar development in
the blood of a human being, it is sucked up with his blood by a
mosquito when it feeds upon him. Provided that the mosquito
is of the right sort, the parasites in the blood if they are in
the proper stage of development undergo further remarkable
changes in the mosquito's body. Thereafter the mosquito is
able to infect other men with the parasites, which it injects into
their blood in the process of sucking. And so the life of the para-
site continues.
The foregoing is the briefest synopsis of a very complicated
story, in which almost every event has been worked out in great
detail. Hundreds have contributed to this work, though some
of them can hardly be said to have cooperated in it. Indeed,
such bitter fights have taken place among them that it has now
become almost impossible to mention the names of some workers
without offending others. The history of these discoveries would
give an unpleasant shock to anybody simple enough to believe
that men of science always labour for truth and the advancement
of knowledge rather than for fame and personal gain. Fortunate-
ly the names of the leading discoverers are now known to almost
everybody, and their individual achievements are no longer in
dispute. Even the " general reader " is familiar with the name
of Laveran, the great Frenchman who, in 1880, discovered the
malarial parasites in human blood; of Patrick Manson, the
founder of modern tropical medicine, who divined, in 1894,
the part played by the mosquito; of Ronald Ross, who, inspired
by Manson, first worked out in 1898 the complete development
of the malarial parasite of birds, and thus solved the general
problem; and of Grassi and his fellow- workers in Italy, who
immediately confirmed Ross's work and extended and success-
fully applied his results to the study of malaria in man. When
the igth century ended the story was almost complete.
It will be evident that malaria, nagana, and similar diseases
are not purely protozoological problems. It will also be obvious
that such diseases might be stamped out and prevented by
attacking either the protozoal parasites which " cause " them,
or the insects which transmit them, though there could have
een but little hope of success in coping with such diseases be-
fore the life-histories of the parasites were discovered. When
protozoology, entomology and medicine have solved their re-
spective parts of such problems, then many tropical regions
which are now forbidden ground will become habitable for man
and beast. The practical importance of protozoology in cases
such as these is self-evident. The facts speak for themselves.
Malaria is a far commoner disease than nagana, and the dis-
coveries relating to it have therefore made a far wider appeal
to the public. It intrigues the public to hear that there would
still be no Panama Canal but for the great discoveries in con-
nexion with malaria. It would excite them but little to hear that
some obscure tribe of Zulus could now keep cattle in places
where it was previously impossible. But the advancement of
science is not measured in such terms, and science values most
highly those who discover and enunciate new principles. Already
we can observe that the problems presented by nagana and
malaria are similar, and that most of the generalizations which
their solution can give us are, indeed, the same. We can see,
too, that history, in the end, is generally just. Consequently,
we may hazard a guess that in years to come the historian of
science, in his impartial search for beginnings and great names,
will not fail to note the sequence of the discoveries which we
have just considered, and will apportion his praise accordingly.
The World War Period. Medical protozoology, like many
another branch of science, received a powerful stimulus from the
World War of 1914-8. Not only was much of the previously
acquired knowledge put into practice, but this practical applica-
tion in turn revealed or emphasized the gaps, defects, and errors
in many current conceptions, and so led ultimately to the
prosecution of new researches and the acquisition of much new
knowledge. Surveyed from the most general standpoint, the war
appears to have taught us little that was new regarding malaria
and the other protozoal diseases already mentioned. Its chief '
protozoological contribution has been to our knowledge of those
Protozoa which live in the human intestine, and more especially
to the elucidation of the disease called amoebic dysentery. We
may therefore say a few words on this subject at this point.
The Protozoa known as " amoebae " form a large and inter-
esting group. Most of the species live independently in such
places as ponds, ditches, or the soil; but some of them live in
the bodies of other animals, and one of them called Entamoeba
hislolytica was already known before the war to live in the
human bowel and " cause " amoebic dysentery. The parasite
was discovered by Losch in Russia as long ago as 1875. Its
real relation to dysentery, however, was not made clear, though
much debated, until just before the war, when the admirable
researches of two American workers in the Philippine Islands
E. L. Walker and A. W. Sellards were published. During the
war their results have been confirmed and greatly extended,
chiefly by the investigations of British workers. As a con-
sequence, we now know as much about amoebic dysentery as we
do about malaria or the diseases due to trypanosomes. There
are several points here which are worthy of mention.
We now know that no less than five different species of
amoebae may live in the intestine of man, though only one of
these the " dysentery amoeba " already mentioned ever does
him any harm. Moreover, we now know also that amoebic
dysentery is a comparatively rare disease. There are many
different kinds of dysentery, and the kind due to amoebae is
far from being the commonest. Before the war amoebic dys-
entery was generally recognized as a disease more or less re-
stricted to the tropics, though certain other kinds of dysentery
occur all over the world. "The curious fact brought into prom-
inence by the war is that the dysentery amoeba itself is very
common almost everywhere. This parasite, which can cause, by
its presence in the bowel, a violent and sometimes fatal form of
dysentery, usually does no such thing. Very many people, in
all parts of the world, are infected with it, but very few ever
suffer any appreciable harm from its presence. The parasite
and the person who harbours it are usually suited to one another
in such a way that they can live together comfortably, oblivious
of the existence of one another. There are, for instance, in the
British Isles at this moment many thousands of people who are
PROTOZOOLOGY
heavily infected with these disease-producing parasites, and
yet enjoying perfect health.
Another curious feature of amoebic dysentery is the circum-
stance that it cannot be contracted from a person suffering from
the disease. The people responsible for the spread of infection
are those who harbour the parasite but themselves suffer no
ill consequences from its presence. The explanation of these
seemingly contradictory facts is really quite simple, now that
we know the life-history of the amoeba and its relation to disease.
It is a popular fallacy to suppose that any parasite is the sole
" cause " of any disease. A disease is a joint result of many
antecedent factors, and in the present case it would probably be
nearer the truth to say that the person who harbours the amoeba,
rather than the amoeba itself, is the " cause " of amoebic dys-
entery. For dysentery results only when the infected person
happens to be abnormally sensitive to infection with the amoeba,
and the condition is as harmful to the parasite as it is to the
patient. Normally man and amoeba fit one another, and there
is no trouble. Abnormally there is a misfit, and amoebic dys-
entery is the consequence. The disease is really an unimportant
side-show in the life-history of the parasite, the result of its
being planted in unsuitable soil.
The foregoing considerations will serve to show once more the
value of protozoology in the study of human diseases. What
hope could there ever be of eradicating a disease such as amoebic
dysentery if we remained in ignorance of the life-history of the
parasites connected with it? We might cure every case of the
disease we might conceivably prevent the death of every
patient who contracted it; but even if we did, it is now clear
that this would have no effect whatever upon the continuance
and prevalence of the disease itself. Such procedure could not
possibly stamp out amoebic dysentery, or even reduce by one
the annual number of cases of this disorder. This is not to
say that protozoology has yet enabled us to do either of these
things; but it has enabled us to formulate the problem cor-
rectly, and has shown the uselessness of expending our energies
in wrong directions. Greater results will follow when our
knowledge is greater and more properly and consistently applied.
It has been supposed for so long that the parasites which
produce protozoal diseases are peculiar to tropical or sub-
tropical countries that the discovery of the dysentery amoeba
in Britain may seem surprising. It is really not so surprising as
the circumstance that nobody, until quite recently, had thought
of looking for it here. And there are many equally remarkable
parallels. To mention only those diseases and parasites which
we have already noted, we can now say that malaria occurs
indigenously in Britain though this was hardly suspected
until recently; and that parasites closely similar to those which
cause nagana and Texas fever have now been discovered in
the sheep and cattle of the United Kingdom. How far these
observations are of practical importance the future will show,
but already they clearly indicate that protozoology may be
studied with profit at home no less than abroad.
Organization and Training of Workers. In conclusion, we
shall now note very briefly what has already been done for the
promotion of protozoology as a branch of science.
As a profession it still hardly exists. Most of those who have
enlarged the science have been zoologists or medical men en-
gaged in teaching other subjects and in practising their pro-
fessions. Many great discoveries have been made by men who
cannot be described as protozoologists^ But the science has now
become so vast, from the amassing of myriads of complicated
details, that it can no longer be regarded as an occupation for
anyone but a highly trained specialist. The amateur toying
with his microscope, the ordinary zoologist or physician working
in occasional vacations or leisure hours snatched from practice,
can no longer expect to make any solid contributions to proto-
zoology. In future all great advances in knowledge must come
from those who are bred up as protozoologists who not only
have the necessary physical and mental gifts for this most
difficult study, but who also are prepared to devote their lives
and energies to it, and to it alone.
Modern science has already developed to such unwieldy pro-
portions that it has ceased to be coherent and has burst asunder
into separate segments. The day of the " scientist," with all
science for his province, is gone for ever. If men of science are
to escape the fate of the builders of the Tower of Babel, it can
only be by conscious cooperation. Each worker must do his
own special work, but must do it with due regard for his fellow-
labourers in adjoining sections, and with the plan of the whole
building constantly before his eyes. Protozoology must, accord-
ingly, develop along its own lines and by the labour of proto-
zoologists, but it must remain in touch with the rest of zoology
and with medicine and with all other sciences whose collaboration
is likely to be mutually beneficial. We can already observe the
bad effects of non-collaboration in the modern school of proto-
zoology which originated with Fritz Schaudinn in Berlin.
Over-specialization has there led after beginning on an ad-
mirable foundation of fact to fantastic speculation and the
promulgation of doctrines which are biologically unsound.
One of the good results of the World War was to encourage
the collaboration of workers in different branches of science,
and in Britain the bonds which previously existed between
protozoology and medicine have been greatly strengthened.
One of the most obvious conditions necessary for the con-
tinuance of this alliance is the growth of protozoology itself.
Unless the protozoologists can build scudly, and not too slowly,
they will lose their advantages. Unfortunately, no adequate
provision has yet been made for the training of workers in
protozoology. At present there are in Britain and elsewhere
few first-rate professional protozoologists and few competent
teachers, but a large number of day labourers and dabblers
from other sciences. Protozoologists are still mainly recruited
from other professions. The remedy for this state of affairs will
be found only when protozoology is recognized as a separate
science an occupation for specialists and not for smatterers;
and when encouragement is given to its development by the
founding of .professorships in the subject or similar appoint-
ments in the larger universities. These professorships must
be primarily for research, and secondarily for teaching purposes.
The professor must have ample time and funds for teaching
himself, and for carrying out his own researches. If he is suffi-
ciently gifted to do both these things, he will be able at the same
time to teach his science to others who would follow in his foot-
steps. But the tune has now gone when the junior demonstrator
in zoology or the lecturer on general parasitology in the medical
schools can expect to " take up " protozoology for a term or two
and thereby profit science or himself. Unfortunately, too little
had been done up to 1921 to create the necessary facilities.
A professorship in the subject, founded on the right lines, was
indeed instituted in London University some years ago, but it
had remained unoccupied up to 1921 since the death of its first
holder in 1915. At Cambridge the Quick professorship of biology,
founded later, at one time appeared likely to develop into a chair
of protozoology, but these hopes were not fulfilled. An assistant
professorship, chiefly devoted to protozoology, recently existed
in the Imperial College of Science in London; but no further
appointment was made to this post after it was vacated by its
first occupant. The medical schools of Great Britain have, in
some instances, lecturers in protozoology, but these are mostly
medical men with other work to perform and no special knowl-
edge of the science as a whole. The schools of tropical medicine
in London and Liverpool have been more fortunate, and have
been able to appoint to their staffs protozoologists who can
devote their undivided attention to the subject. But here again
it is chiefly the practical side of the science, as applied to medi-
cine, that is being fostered. Rothamsted Experimental Station
has a protozoologist to study the subject in its agricultural
aspects, and several universities and other institutions of minor
importance have members who have specialized in protozoology.
Veterinary medicine in Great Britain has, however, still done
little for research or instruction in protozoology.
In the British colonies and dependencies things are no better.
A chair of protozoology has recently been created in India;
PRYOR PRZEMYSL, SIEGES OF
193
but as a general rule protozoological research and teaching are
still being carried out under unfavourable conditions by hard-
worked professors of other subjects. The valuable work already
done by many of these men is surely a sufficient pledge of the
profits that will accrue when more adequate provisions are made.
If we turn to the United States we find that Columbia Uni-
versity has a professor of protozoology and Johns Hopkins an
assistant professor. There is also an American professor of
protozoolory in the Philippines. But with these exceptions, and
a few of lesser importance, protozoology is advancing in America
and elsewhere by the labours of zoologists and medical men
whose appointments were not primarily established for the
furtherance of the science.
RECENT LITERATURE. The most trustworthy of recent books deal-
ing with the Protozoa as a whole are those of E. A. Minchin, An Intro-
duction to the Study of the Protozoa (1912), and F. Dollein, Lehrbuch
der Protozoenkunde (4th ed., Jena, 1916). See abo D. Bruce and
others (19031919), Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission,
i.-xvii. (Royal Society, London); C. Dobell (1911), "The Prin-
ciples of Protistology" (Arch.f. Protistenkund? , vol. xxiii., p. 269) ; C.
Dobell and others (1921), A Report on the Occurrence of Intestinal
Protozoa in the Inhabitants of Britain (Medical Research Council,
Special Report Series, No. 59, London) ; C. Dobell and F. W.
O'Connor (1921), The Intestinal Protozoa of Man (London); S. P.
James (1920), Malaria at Home and Abroad (London); H. S. Jen-
nings (1906), Behavior of the Lou'er Organisms (New York) ; A.
Laveran and F. Mesnil (1912), Trypanosomes et Trypanosomiases
(2 ed. Paris) ; E. L. Walker and A. W. Sellards (1913), " Experimen-
tal Entamoebic Dysentery," Philippine Journ. Sci. (B. Trop. Med.,
vol. viii., p. 253). (C. Do.)
PRYOR, ROGER ATKINSON (1828-1919), American jurist
and politician (see 22.533*), died in New York City March 14
1919. In 1912 he published a volume of Essays and Addresses.
PRZEMYSL, SIEGES OF, 1914-5. The Galician town of
Przemysl (see 22.534) was first fortified in 1854, when Austria
mobilized against Russia. The completely exposed position of
the N.E. frontier made it imperative to lay out fortifications.
The Archduke Charles had already, in 1824, called attention to
this weak point. In case of an invasion of East Galicia by the
Russians, the first natural obstacle capable of bringing them to a
halt would be the river beds of the lower San and the Dniester,
and the obvious thing to do was to strengthen this line by con-
structing a series of fortifications. On the San it was originally
intended to build out Jaroslau as a fortress, but the decision in
1854 fell on Przemysl. In later years a row of smaller bridge-
heads and points d'appui arose along the Dniester, which greatly
increased its value as an obstacle. In the course of one year a
fortified ring of no less than 65 forts had been erected round the
town of Przemysl. The year 1870 saw the building of a perma-
nent ring of forts finished, but the works were not a match for a
bombardment by modern siege guns, owing to the very niggardly
expenditure sanctioned. Although after 1888, and in the last
years before the World War, the modernization of the fortress
from a technical standpoint was begun and some modern self-
contained forts were constructed, it was in 1914 still in a very
unsatisfactory condition. The short time available for equip-
ment between the first days of mobilization and the first siege by
the Russians was indeed spent in feverish activity, but only a
very small part of the neglect of the past 10 years could now be
made good. The works on the ring of forts, which was 48 km.
in circumference, were more or less out of date. Only 1 2 of them
could be considered " bombproof," while all the rest were only
" shellproof ," and even so only against 24-011. bombs and 15-cm.
shells of old-fashioned construction. The points d'appui for the
infantry and the battery emplacements lying between the forts
were almost without exception only splinterproof shelters, and
some were mere field fortifications constructed of wood and
earth. The infantry line running through these was protected by
wire obstacles, generally only three rows deep. In front of the
line of the ring of forts one enormous task had to be undertaken
in preparing for the defence the clearing of the foreground.
No less than 18 villages and from 7 to 8 km. of forest were levelled
to the ground. Numerous barracks, ammunition magazines,
communications, bridges and other buildings, had still to be
erected within the ring. The armament of the fortress was also
on a very low footing, consisting of about 1,000 guns in all, of
which more than half were short-range weapons for ditch defence,
andmtradilores. These were 12- and 15-cm. cannon dating from
1861, 15-cm. mortars dating from the 'eighties, and 8-cm. cupola,
disappearing cupola, and minimum port guns of old construction.
About 450 of the guns were distant defence guns, being for the
most part old g-cm. field guns (M 75/96) with a range of only
6 km. Of modern guns the fortress at the beginning of the war
had altogether only four 30.5-011. mortars, with a range of 9-5
km., and 24 8-cm. field guns dating from 1905, effective up to
7-5 kilometres. The distant defence guns also included some
12-cm., 15-cm. and i8-cm. siege cannon, dating from 1880, 10
lo-cm. and 15-011. cupola howitzers made in 1899, 15-011. mobile
howitzers of the same year, and 24-cm. mortars made in 1898.
As regards munitions the average provision was 500 rounds per
gun, and not even that in the case of the modern mortars. For
all the four 30-5-011. mortars taken together there were 300
rounds in the fortress. Of machine-guns there were altogether
114, one-third of which were built into the forts, leaving two-
thirds for mobile use.
For the purpose of provisioning the fortress an estimate of
85,000 men and 3,710 horses had been established. In peace
tims one month's supplies were stored in the fortress, with the
understanding that an increase to three months' should be made
during the arming period. The Austro-Hungarian Higher Com-
mand did its utmost at this time to increase the store of supplies,
and, by making full use of the available railways and motor
columns, succeeded in provisioning the fortress for four months
and a-half. These precautions were all the more justified as, at
the last moment, the garrison was augmented by the addition of
the 23rd Honved Inf. Div., two field tramway sections and other
minor formations, which brought up its strength to 130,000
men and 21,000 horses. At this strength the fortress was pro-
visioned, not for four and a-half, but for three months.
The actual garrison of the fortress at the beginning of mobiliza-
tion consisted of the Austrian uith and the Hungarian 9 7th
Landsturm Inf. Bdes., one reserve squadron, one reserve bat-
tery, 40 companies of garrison artillery, 44 Landsturm artillery
brigades, 7 companies of sappers, and the essential sanitary
and labour detachments. When the Austro-Hungarian armies
retreated behind the San, after the breaking-off of the battle
of Lemberg-Nawa Ruska, there were added to the fortress
command (under Field-Marshal-Lt. Kusmanek von Burgneu-
stadten) the Austro-Hungarian 93rd and loSth Landsturm Inf.
Bdes. and the 23rd Honved Inf. Division. Earlier additions had
been: two Hungarian march regiments, of which, however, one
was handed over to Jaroslau and Radymno, one Hungarian
Landsturm hussar unit, and lastly a group consisting of four
battalions formed out of various Landsturm formations, auxil-
iary police and others, cut off from the main body. All in
all, the fortress establishment, when the last man of the mobile
armies had left the zone, consisted of: 6i| infantry battalions
(of which 40! were Landsturm), 7 squadrons, 4 field-gun bat-
teries, 43 fortress-artillery companies, 48 Landsturm artillery
brigades, and 8 sapper companies; also sanitary corps, military
and Landsturm labour detachments, fortress and tramway
formations, balloon detachments, telegraph, telephone and radio
formations, and so forth. The value of the troops shut up in the
fortress may best be judged by the facts that two-thirds of them
were Landsturm, including therefore older and less trained men,
and that the formations which had been fighting on the open
field were reduced to nearly half their strength. There had been,
since the beginning of the World War, only two brigades to take
duty in the fortress, and one of these even was sent temporarily
to the IV. Army Command. The rest of the troops in the fortress
were therefore not over-familiar with the duty of the fortress.
The Russian siege army, commanded by Gen. Radko Dimi-
triev, consisted originally of the whole of the III. Army, with the
IX., X., XI. and XXI. Corps and parts of the IV. and VIII.
Armies. When the Austro-Hungarian forces resumed the offen-
sive in the beginning of Oct. 1914, the Grand Duke Nicholas
withdrew three divisions of the III. Army from the circle of
xxxn. 7
' These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
194
PRZEMYSL, SIEGES OF
bombardment and sent them to the lower Vistula, with the ob-
ject of enveloping the enemy. There were now nine and a-half
infantry and two cavalry divisions left behind for the blockade
of the fortress. Three of these divisions were posted on the N.
front, half a division on the S., while the main force of six di-
visions encircled the E. and S.E. front, which was the point
of attack actually fixed upon by Radko Dimitriev, and the two
cavalry divisions were encamped on the W. and S.W. front.
Counting the Russian infantry division at 16 battalions and the
cavalry division at 24 squadrons, the Russians employed no
fewer than 150 battalions and 48 squadrons, 800 guns of the
field army and the heavy guns of the siege-artillery parks in the
siege of Przemysl.
Rokietnica
\
PRZEMYSL
First Sie|e 18 3 I4-9-IO-I4
1,2. etc. Defence Commands
Armouredforts Other works
^ Investment line
C3 etc Russian troops
Sector limits
The First Siege, Sept. i8-Ocl. 9 1914. On Sept. 18 1914, when
the Austro-Hungarian armies had marched off westwards from
the San and the area of the Przemysl fortress, the fortress was
left to itself, with orders issued to Kusmanek on the i6th to
resist " to the uttermost." The building of the ring of forts and
the distribution of the fortress garrison in the defence zone had
now been completed. Only one correction had to be made in the
line of defence on the S.W. front, where it lay too near to the
town itself, thus exposing the town and the San bridges to the
danger of a direct bombardment. Kusmanek therefore selected
a position in the foreground, 2 to 3 km. in front of the ring of
forts, running from Krasiczyn over the height of Pod Mazurami
to that of Helicha, and had this rapidly fortified and occupied by
four battalions. This measure obliged the Russians to fix their
line of investment at a corresponding distance from the town at
this point also.
The Grand Duke allowed only a very cautious pursuit of the
retreating Austro-Hungarians by the Russian armies. The IV.
and V. Armies advanced toward the N. of the fortress and across
the San; the VIII. Army was ordered to push forward through
the Chyr6w and Sambor area, and S. of the fortress to the ridge
of the Carpathians; the III. Army was to take up a position
immediately in front of the E. front of the fortress. On Sept. 20
the first Russian detachments crossed the San at Walawa, to be
followed at once by other troops coming from Radymno and
Jaroslau, where the bridgeheads had been surrendered to the
Russians. These troops surrounded the N. front of the fortress.
Portions of the III. and VIII. Armies now advanced towards
the S. and S.W. fronts, while on the W. front two cavalry divisions
by Sept. 24 completed the hemming-in of the fortress. By means
of numerous very vigorous sorties and by violent artillery fire,
Kusmanek succeeded in his task, which was to draw as many
Russian forces on to himself as possible. He turned the Russian
investiture into an exceedingly difficult undertaking.
PRZEMYSL
Sorties during the first and
second Sie
Nov 14 Dec 14
Fob 15 raxB&>. March 15
note: The Sortie of 27' was in
some direction as on /f V
Bykow
50 Bn. o
f> So.
Hit.
liqgp oKormam
**Szybenice 1
The first great sortie was executed by Maj.-Gen. Weher,
Commandant of the VI. defence zone, with five battalions and
two batteries, on the Grodek road and S. of it, to force back the
Russian line of investment between Medyka and Bykow. Taken
entirely by surprise, the Russians fell back from the first position,
and two infantry divisions brought up to their support suffered
heavy losses from the artillery fire which now began.
Kusmanek's next opportunity was when he learned that
considerable forces were concentrated in the Nizankowice-
Kurmanowice-Fredropol area, with the intention of passing
along the S. side of the fortress to push forward towards the west.
On Sept. 29 he sent Field-Marshal-Lt. von Tamassy with the
23rd Honved Inf. Div. to attack them by way of Halicha in the
direction of the Szybenica height. Here the result was the forced
deployment of considerable Russian forces against the 23rd
Honved Inf. Div., and consequently the delaying of the Russian
westward advance.
Minor sorties on other fronts were also successful, and every-
where a lively artillery battle was kept up in order to rivet the
enemy's attention on the fortress. The Russians, for their part,
maintained a violent bombardment of the forts in the ring. On
Oct. 2 an interruption occurred in the Russian gunfire on the E.
front. A parlementaire distinguished by a white flag brought a
message from Radko Dimitriev demanding the surrender of the
fortress. He was sent back as quickly as he had come bearing
Kusmanek's written answer to Radko Dimitriev: " Herr Kom-
mandant, I consider it beneath my dignity to give your insulting
demand the reply that it deserves." Thereupon the hail of steel
on the forts began afresh.
Kusmanek's refusal had hit Radko Dimitriev hard. It was
scarcely possible to fulfil the Tsar's wish and bring about the
speedy fall of Przemysl. A coup de main was impracticable,
because the siege artillery material was still too far away and
could not be fetched up quickly enough on account of the bottom-
less roads. In the first days of Oct., too, the Austro-Hungarian
offensive was launched, and this might within a very short time
bring Przemysl the looked-for relief. Radko Dimitriev therefore
found himself obliged to revert to a curtailed form of attack, and
now tried to make up for the defectiveness of his artillery and
technical preparations by reckless onslaughts. As the Austro-
German general offensive had necessitated the removal of some
of his N. front divisions to the mobile armies, he made up for
PRZEMYSL, SIEGES OF
195
lost numbers by making excessive demands on his remaining
brave divisions which he sacrificed literally to the last man.
Kusmanek had tried to prevent the withdrawal of the Russian
divisions by a sortie of the 23rd Honved Inf. Div. with 12 bat-
talions and 7 batteries in the direction of Rokietnica. Radko
Dimitriev's plan was, while keeping up the bombardment against
the whole ring of forts, to make a demonstration on the N. front
and direct the main attack on the S. front against the Siedliska
group. The Russian infantry had gradually worked its way up
to the ring of forts. The number of siege batteries had been
successively augmented mainly long-distance lo-cm. field-gun
batteries, but also some is-cm. and 2i-cm. batteries.
When the Austro-Hungarian offensive had begun on Oct. 4
there was no more time to be lost. The bombardment was
doubled in intensity, and on Oct. 5 a coup de main was attempted
by a Russian division against the Siedliska group. But the attack
was broken by the fire of the defenders, and the division streamed
back to its positions, losing heavily. On the 6th three other
divisions met the same fate, when, after a bombardment of the
N. and S. fronts had increased to the utmost violence, they
attempted to take the Siedliska group by storm. Kusmanek,
not to be misled by the Russian demonstrations, had recognized
in time the direction in which the main attack would be delivered
and had raised the strength of the most exposed section of the
defence (Section VI.) from n to 25 battalions and increased its
artillery to some 350 guns.
The crisis came on Oct. 7. The 76th Inf. Regt. of the Russian
igth Inf. Div. had on the previous night crept up unnoticed to
Fort I. and the infantry lines adjoining it. At dawn one bat-
talion of the regiment succeeded in entering the fort. After a
furious battle, heroically led by the commandant, Lt.-Col.
Svrljuga, the 149 survivors of the Russians who had forced an
entry laid down their arms. The courageous garrison had with-
drawn to the interior of the fort, defending it section by section,
and all attempts to smoke them out and kill them failed. The
neighbouring flanking batteries at Hurko were able to prevent
Russian reinforcements from coming in. While this attack was in
progress the 6gth Reserve Div. on the Grodek Road, the 6oth
and I3th in front of Jaksmanici, and the 3rd Rifle Bde. on the S.
front had lost heavily by unsuccessful assaults.
In the night of the 7th to the 8th the Russians renewed their
furious attacks but without penetrating at any point. A general
attack, which was to have followed on the next day, did not take
place; and only the Siedliska group was again the object of
assaults by Radko Dimitriev's decimated divisions, both morn-
ing and evening. This last desperate effort also failed completely,
and bled the Russians so severely as to put a complete stop to
their attacks from that time onward. After more than 7 2 hours
of embittered fighting a gradual detente set in, none too soon for
the overstrained nerves and spirits of the defenders.
On the gth the first effects of the approaching relief were felt.
In the course of the night the Russian cavalry divisions on the
W. front had withdrawn, and during the day the investing ring
began to be opened by the troops on the N. and S. fronts, while
those on the S.E. and E. fronts gradually retired to their posi-
tions in the line of investment. With the entry into the fortress
of the first Austro-Hungarian cavalry patrol on the evening of
the gth and of infantry detachments on the nth, the relief of
Przemysl was accomplished.
Of the Austro-Hungarian armies the III., under Boroevic',
advanced direct on Przemysl. Three corps of this army forced a
battle upon portions of the siege army N. of Przemysl, and, on
the nth, beat them back across the river, now greatly swollen
by a downpour of many days, with enormous losses. The Rus-
sians thereupon entrenched themselves on the E. bank of the
river. The Russian VIII. Army now established itself on the
heights S.E. of Przemysl up to the Chyrow-Sanok area. The
III. Army, at a good distance, faced the E. front of Przemysl.
Radko Dimitriev had imagined that he could subdue Przemysl
in a very short time. But all these enormous sacrifices proved
vain. During a siege of barely three weeks he had lost nearly
K,ooo dead and wounded without having any results to show,
for the works of the fortress had suffered very little, and the
Austro-Hungarian losses were quite small. ,On the other side
the brave conduct of the Austro-Hungarian defenders had saved
a powerful fortress which, in the forthcoming battles on the San,
afforded a good basis as a point d'appui for the field armies and
was able to come to their aid when their supplies failed.
Period Between the First and Second Sieges. When the Austro-
Hungarian armies on the San and S. of the fortress as far as
Chyrow advanced to attack along the whole front, the hope of an
interval for reconstruction, which the fortress so urgently needed,
was by no means realized. On the contrary, lying as it did in the
centre of the battle front, it was obliged to take a most active
part in the battle now developing, lending garrison troops to the
field armies on the one hand and helping generously with the
provisioning and supplies on the other.
Very soon after the relief the 23rd Honved Inf. Div. was with-
drawn to reinforce the III. Army. It played a successful part in
the hardest battles, especially distinguishing itself in the storm-
ing of the strong Magiera height.
Altogether there were taken from the garrison, which also
made repeated sorties onto the foreground of the E. front, 22
battalions and 27 batteries. Further assistance was given by the
artillery support from the ring of forts.
Even greater tean the active part taken in the battle, and far
more lowering in its effect on the garrison, was the support in
material given by the fortress to the field armies. During the
long rainy period before the relief the lines of communication
for the fresh drafts of the armies had become an absolute bog.
In addition to this, the Russians in their retreat had systemati-
cally destroyed roads, bridges and railways (the railway termini
were Rzeszow and Zagorz), to the great detriment of the system
supplying the armies. It was only natural that every deficiency
that arose in the armies, in so far as it could not be made good by
transport from the rear, should be supplied by the fortress, which,
in spite of all, possessed considerable reserves of material. The
fighting armies, from whose attack far-reaching results were
expected at the time, had at all costs to be maintained in good
fighting condition until the railways were reconstructed.
As it was confidently expected that the borrowed stores
about 21 days' rations had been supplied by the fortress and
the munitions and other material could be replaced almost
immediately, the fortress came in the end to be considered as,
to all intents and purposes, the base of supplies for the armies.
Presently the Army Higher Command realized the mistake that
had been made in this matter, and not only forbade all further
withdrawal of supplies from the fortress but, in the days imme-
diately preceding the retreat, ordered the armies in their turn to
provide it with supplies. On Oct. 28, too, railway communication
was restored by way of Chyrow, after the repair of the bridge
at Nizankowice, and masses of supplies began to be hastily
poured into the fortress.
Yet another burden was imposed upon the fortress by the
bringing into it of the wounded and of prisoners, in addition to the
very large number of civilian inhabitants. The wounded, it is
true, were evacuated almost at once into the interior, before the
second siege, but during the second siege 2,000 prisoners were
brought into the fortress, and 18,000 civilians had remained with-
in it. So that, taking the average establishment at 128,000 men
and 14,500 horses, there were, at the time of the second siege,
148,000 men and 14,500 horses to provide for. By eking out
supplies to the utmost, and in the end slaughtering horses, the
provisioning of the fortress would last until the second half of
March. If the working of the railway coming up thrcugh Chyrow
had started one week earlier, no supplies need have left the for-
tress, and its stores would undoubtedly have been replenished on
such a scale that it could have held out until the spring offensive
had come into effect. The starving-out of the fortress, which
forced on its commander the heart-breaking decision to capitu-
late, and the setting free of the Russian armies investing it
would then have been avoided.
Second Siege, Nov. 6 iQi4-March 2 1915. On Nov. 5 the
fortress was isolated for the second time, after the field armies
196
PRZEMYSL, SIEGES OF
had broken off the battle of Przemysl and the San in the night.
Once more Kusmanek was confronted with the same tasks as in
September. Shortly before the retreat of the field armies the
fortress had been reinforced by the 8sth Landwehr Bde. and a
company of airmen. The strength of the garrison was approxi-
mately the same as at the beginning of the first investment. In
order to extend the fortress's sphere of action, and to force the
Russians to keep their line of investment at a greater distance
from the actual ring of forts, at the same time obliging them to
use more forces for the occupation of the longer line, Kusmanek
had new foreground positions laid out. These formed a curve
beginning at the Na Gorach height, and, passing 2-3 km. in front
of the western ring of forts, came out S.E. of Krasiczyn at the old
foreground position. From Helicha this position was extended
to the S. of the fortress through Zlota Gora up to the Siedliska
group. This measure secured a double advantage: it placed
another obstacle in the way of the attacker, who would have to
surmount it before he could assault the ring of forts; and the
works would suffer far less from the bombardment, as the siege
artillery would be forced to remain farther away from the for-
tress. On the pth the investment of the fortress was completed
for the second time. The Grand Duke Nicholas had selected
the Russian XI. Army under Gen. Selivanov for the siege. This
army, consisting of about four infantry and one to two cavalry
divisions, had barely half the forces used in the first siege under
Radko Dimitriev. This circumstance, and the comparatively
small activity shown by the Russians at the beginning of the
second siege, pointed to the conclusion that Selivanov was less
concerned with a rapid seizure of Przemysl than with the idea of
a regular siege, in which he would effect a saving of men on his
own side while exploiting the scarcity of food supplies in the
fortress, leaving the garrison to grow weak from starvation be-
fore he advanced to a serious attack.' Kusmanek, on the othvr
hand, displayed all the more activity. The months of Nov. and
Dec. he employed in aggressive defence, and only desisted when
the decimation of his forces by disease forced him to do so. In
nine sorties he seized every possible opportunity of damaging
the enemy, of preventing any withdrawals from his forces to the
field armies; of destroying his supply trains and lines of communi-
cation, and finally of bringing into the fortress any food-stuffs
such as fruit and vegetables which could be collected. In Dec.,
when the Austro-Hungarian armies took the offensive again, these
sorties gained in importance, for each important action under-
taken by the fortress with the object of containing Russian
forces was necessarily a great disadvantage to the Russians
defeated in the battle of Limanowa-Lapanow. Above all, in the
case of a successful advance by the right wing of the III. Army,
the possibility of cooperation between that wing and the sortie
troops was not excluded.
On Nov. 7 and 1 2 further sorties were undertaken in the di-
rection of Nizankowice and Kormanice. On the I4th, following
on a report by ths airmen of movements of Russian forces
through Pruchnik to the W. and S.W., an assault was delivered
on Rokietnica by 17 battalions and 10 batteries. For the same
reason an equally powerful sortie was made from the S.W. front
on the 2oth, the main force moving on Cisowa, and the side
columns towards Krzywcza and the Szybenica h light.
In Dec. the Russians also became more active. Having let
Nov. go by without doing more than prepare a more or less sys-
tematic siege, they now began their attacks and turned Dec. into
a month of many battles. Quite at the beginning the 82nd Inf.
Div. advanced against the N. front. Kusmanek delivered a
vigorous counter-blow from the area of Mackowice against the
enemy's right flank and repulsed the attack. On Dec. 9 this
action was followed by yet another -sortie by 19 battalions and
10 batteries from the S.W. front, with the object of preventing
the departure of the Russian 8ist Inf. Div.
In the middle of Dec., when the battle of Limanowa-Lapanow
had reached its height, Kusmanek received an order from the
Army Higher Command to deliver a fresh assault. In the hope
of being able to join hands with Krautwald's group, advancing
on the right wing of Boroevic's army, Kusmanek prepared for a
great undertaking. With 23 battalions and 15 batteries, com-
manded by Field-Marshal-Lt. von Tamassy, he pushed forward
on the 1 5th in the direction of Bircza and Krzywcza. After four
days of victorious fighting, the heights halfway between Cisowa
and Bircza were captured, the enemy driven back along the
whole of the S.W. front, and the road to Bircza laid open. But
as Krautwald meanwhile had been forced back by the Russians,
and as the hope of effecting a junction with him had become a
forlorn hope on account of the great distance intervening, and as,
further, a fresh violent attack had been launched against the
northern foreground position, Na Gorach, Kusmanek found
himself obliged to turn his attention to this latter, and to recall
Tamassy on the igth to the fortress.
Once more it was the Russian 82nd Inf. Div. which advanced
on Na Gorach. Portions had already penetrated the advanced
positions when Kusmanck's counter-attack set in on the 2oth,
and on the 2ist threw them back to the line of investment.
At the end of Dec. yet another order from the Army Higher
Command led to a fresh sortie. After the battle of Limanowa-
Lapanow the Russians, taking advantage of their interior lines,
had opened a counter-offensive against the troops of the III. and
IV. Armies which had pushed forward into West Galicia. The
proposal was for a sortie to be made in a south-westerly direction,
falling in with the left flank of the Russian attack on the one hand,
and on the other making a second attempt to effect a junction
with the III. Army's right wing, which was pushing forward
towards Lisko, Sanok and Rymanow. But with the suspension of
the offensive on the 28th the sortie troops were brought back.
This sortie brought the offensive activity of the garrison to a
close for the time being, in consideration of their ever-increasing
losses through fighting and sickness. All forces were now to be
reserved for the effort on a large scale to relieve the fortress,
which was planned for the middle of February.
The month of Jan. saw the beginning of a period of great self-
denial and sacrifice for the garrison, in consequence .of the in-
creasing scarcity of food. The commandant and his staff had in
addition the difficult task of maintaining the striking power of the
garrison with insufficient means, which involved exacting the
maximum of service from each individual soldier in spite of his
lack of nourishment. On Dec. i 1914 Kusmanek, counting upon a
delay in the relief operations, had ordered the first general reduc-
tion of rations for men and horses. At the end of the month the
first horses were killed for the purpose of providing meat and
saving fodder. Had the fortress been consuming its full rations
it could not have held out beyond the end of Jan., but by the
reduction of the ration and further slaughter of horses (up to
7,450), supplies were eked out until the end of March. The
extension of the life of the fortress was in proportion to the estab-
lishment of horses it was necessary to keep up. For the projected
break-through sortie and for the absolutely essential fortress
duties a minimum establishment of 4,500 had to be allowed for.
By means of further reducing the ration, resorting to incredi-
ble makeshifts, and sacrificing 3,500 more horses, the provis-
ioning was made to last until March 24, but there was a rapid
mounting-up of the sick list. By the beginning of March one-fifth
of the fortress establishment had fallen. To the scarcity of food
was added in the winter months that of clothing, footwear and
all the other necessaries of life. The garrison had been equipped,
for the most part, with summer clothing, and even this had been
badly damaged in the fighting. In respect of technical and
artillery supplies also, the fortress gradually lost its power of
resistance. The barrels of the guns had been gradually burnt
out by the excessive demands made on them, and the range of
the guns declined accordingly. The stores of ammunition were
also rapidly coming to an end, despite the utmost economy.
While the striking power of the fortress was suffering sensibly
from all the unspeakable privations imposed by hunger, cold and
want, the besiegers were gradually becoming more active. At
first the Russians confined themselves to increasing the air-
men's activity. Almost every day their airmen circled round
the fortress, with very little hindrance' from its quite inadequate
means of defence, dropping bombs on the forts and the town. In
PRZEMYSL, SIEGES OF
the beginning of Feb. the systematic bombardment of the
fortress set in. In the middle of the month the besiegers brought
up the line of investment nearer to the N.W., W. and S.W. fronts.
On the night of the i8th three regiments attacked the foreground
position at Pod Mazurami, but were beaten back with heavy
losses. It seemed to the Russians that the garrison's striking
power was still too strong; and they let three weeks pass before
equipping themselves for an important attack. On March 13 a
powerful Russian force advanced against the N. foreground posi-
tion Na Gorach-Batycze. Against so strong an attack, delivered
by at least two regiments, the 3$th Light Inf. Regt. could make
no stand. As other powerful Russian forces were advancing
against the N. front from Radymno, and as Kusmanek considered
his own garrison too weak for a counter-blow and also wished to
save his forces for the great final break-through, he gave up the
foreground position and refrained from counter-attacking. At
the same moment the Austro-Hungarian Higher Command had
reached the conclusion that the II. Army's offensive would not
be able to bring about the desired relief of the fortress, which was
therefore inevitably doomed, since the food supplies would be
exhausted by March 24.
A break-through from the fortress might conceivably save a
portion of the garrison for the Austro-Hungarian army forces,
and it had therefore to be attempted. In consideration of the
state of supplies, March 19 was fixed as the latest time limit for
its execution. Kusmanek had already made all the necessary
preparations. He was free to choose the direction in which the
sortie was to be made. His decision fell on the E., as it appeared
to him impossible for his exhausted men to effect a junction
with the II. Army through the mountainous area. On the E.
the ground was practicable, and he might hope to have an oppor-
tunity there of destroying Russian railway lines and communi-
cations, and also possibly to have the good fortune to capture a
Russian supply store. In case the break-through failed, he would
then be abb t take back provisions into the fortress and so
prolong its life oy a few days.
With two infantry divisions and three independent infantry
brigades (50 battalions, 6 squadrons and 18 battalions) the
break-through was begun on the morning of the ipth. After some
opening success the troops, in a heroic seven-hour battle, fought
thdr way up to the Medyka heights, coming to a stand here at
10 A.M. A flanking counter-attack by the Russian s8th Reserve
Div., which had been brought up from the Carpathians, then
forced them to return to the fortress, their losses being heavy on
account of their exhaustion. The fate of the fortress and the
garrison was now finally sealed. The Russians realized the aim
of this last sortie, and they had captured on prisoners the order
regarding it; they therefore knew that the fortress was almost
at the end of its power of resistance. Kusmanek now awaited
their attacks. All the sortie troops had returned to their old
positions on the igth. The same night the Russian masses made
a violent assault on the E. front.- Until the morning of the 22nd
Selivanov exerted himself to the utmost to take the fortress by
storm. An endbss bombardment by the heaviest-calibre guns set
in, and was followed by assaults on the N.W., N. and N.E.
fronts, as well as on the E. front and the foreground position, Pod
Mazurami. But the brave defenders held their ground and
repulsed one attack after another. At last Kusmanek, armed with
authority from the Army Higher Command, decided to destroy
the fortress, since it was now quite impossible to save it. On
March 22 between 5 and 6:30 A.M., just as renewed Russian
attacks had begun, the works were blown up as far as possible;
all guns, the small remaining store of ammunition and the techni-
cal arrangements were demolished, all arms broken, motors and
other vehicles burnt, and the remaining horses shot. Kusmanek
then sent a parlcmentaire to the Russian siege army. When the
conditions for the surrender had been fixed the Russians entered
the town to take over the administration.
Kusmanek betook himself at once with his staff to Selivanov's
headquarters. The garrison, 1 which was allowed all military
1 In round figures 107,000 men, among whom were 28,000 invalids
both fit and unfit for transport.
197
honours and looked upon even by the enemy as a model of mili-
tary bravery, remained about another week in Przemysl, and
was then removed in large detachments by way of Lemberg. On
the 24th the Russian General Artamanov took command.
After four and a half months of heroic defence the fortress of
Przemysl had fallen, through hunger and sickness. To the brave
garrison, and in the first place to the determined commandant,
Gen. von Kusmanek, and to Gen. von Tamassy, leader of most of
the sorties, the highest admiration was due, and the victorious
enemy, whose own courage was proved by the enormous tribute
of lives sacrificed before the forts and ramparts of the fortress,
recognized this in full measure.
Recapture of the Fortress, May jo-June 3 1915. Soon after the
fall of the fortress of Przemysl the Russians had taken in hand
the reorganization of its works. Particularly after the visit of the
Tsar, who inspected the destroyed works in the second half of
April, the reconstruction was taken in hand with feverish haste.
Numerous heavy guns, including French ones, were brought into
the fortress, and a strong garrison was maintained. By the middle
of May Bb'hm's and Puhallo's armies had advanced in a concen-
tric attack on the positions S. of the fortress, as well as on the S.,
S.W. and W. fronts, while Mackensen's army pushed forward
in the area N. of the fortress and over the San. While the Allied
armies were thus advancing on Przemysl the Russians were
undecided whether to hold the fortress or not. By the middle of
May they had begun the work of evacuation and the withdrawal
of troops. But in the second half of the month the idea of holding
the fortress gained ground, and the Grand Duke finally ordered
it to be held " to the last extremity." When Mackensen's army
began its offensive on May 24 on both sides of the Szklo in a
south-easterly direction, the fortress became more and more
closely surrounded to the N. also by the ring of investment. By
the 3oth the necessary heavy artillery had also been brought up,
in spite of the delay caused by the ruined roads and bridges, and
the bombardment of the S.W. and northern fronts immediately
began. These were the two fronts against which the attack was
to be directed. While the X. Corps of Puhallo's army stormed
the S.W. front, the Bavarians of the XI. Army, in conjunction
with one Prussian infantry regiment, one Guard battalion, and
the dismounted troops of the nth Honved Cav. Div., executed
the main attack on the N. front.
Misled by the violence of the attack of the Austro-Hungarian
infantry regiments (the gth and 45th of the X. Corps), who, on
theaoth, stormed the Pralkowce fort, on the S.W. front, Work VII.,
the Russians awaited the main attack there and brought their
whole strength into play against the X. Corps. But although
they were abb to force the Austrians to evacuate the fort, they
could not themselves reoccupy it. Meanwhile the Germans had
done good work on the N. front. Their bombardment was mainly
directed against the forts, X., Xa., XIa. and XI., lying between
Ujkowice and Dunkowiczki, and for this guns of all calibres,
including the 42-cm. mortars, were used. On the 3 ist, after heavy
fighting, ending in a mftee, Forts Xa. and XIa. were taken, as well
as the adjacent infantry positions, and Fort XI. capitulated. On
June i the Russians brought up strong reserves, but not in time
to avert the fate of the fortress. On the morning of the 2nd Fort
X. fell into the hands of the attacking forces after its obstinate
resistance had been overcome by a liberal bombardment. By the
evening Fort XII. had also been captured, and Forts IXa. and
IXb. surrendered to Maj.-Gen. Bcrndt's cavalry. The break-
through of the ring of forts had succeeded. North of Zurawica
the Russians made one more stand; but this line had also been
forced by the evening of the 2nd, and the Russians betook them-
selves to their last line of resistance immediately in front of the
nucleus. But the attack did not get as far as this, for the Russians
abandoned the fortress on the night of the 2nd, influenced prob-
ably by the successes attained by the XI. and II. Armies. Their
rearguards took up new positions on the E. front of the fortress
on the line Medyka-Siedliska.
At 3 A.M. the Bavarians of Lt.-Gen. Kneusel's division entered
the fortress from the north. Maj.-Gen. Berndt followed from
the N.W. with the Austro-Hungarian 4th Cav. Division. By 6
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
A.M. the Austro-Hungarian X. Corps had also come in. But the
attacking forces did not remain long in the evacuated town. In a
hurried pursuit they overran the Siedliska position and pushed
forward to the E. of the town.
The fall of Przemysl fortress, which had been subdued in
barely four days, meant for the Russians the loss of the most
powerful pivot of their San front. Not without reason had the
Grand Duke who had tried to gain a success over the IV. Army
by a violent assault at Rudnik during the hard struggle for
Przemysl ordered the fortress to be held " to the last extremity."
By its fall the forces of the Austro-Hungarian III. Army and
the German XI. Army were set free, and could go to the aid of
the dangerously situated IV. Army. On the 4th the Russians
abandoned the San front. Thus the recapture of Przemysl, apart
from the great moral impression it made, was decisive also in a
strategical sense. (E. J.)
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH (or SPIRITUALISM) (see 22.544).
The matters referred to under the general name " Psychical
Research " are distinguished from ordinary subjects of scientific
interest by two characteristics. They appeal to the sense of
wonder and the love of the marvellous and are concerned with
" superstitions," that is, with beliefs which, after being ingrained
in the human soul by an immemorial past, are now disavowed by
science, but still affect human action. Secondly, they seem to
involve abnormal extensions of human faculty, and are readily
taken to indicate a survival of human personality after death,
and a possibility of obtaining authentic communications from
the departed. They consequently arouse strong emotional
reactions, provoke strong dislikes and are peculiarly susceptible
of vitiation by self-deception, bias and fraud. Hence they are
usually treated in a partisan spirit on both sides, like matters of
politics, and not with scientific impartiality, and the good faith
as well as the competence of the witnesses have always to be tested
and every allegation has to be verified. In all these respects the
subjects of psychical research are intimately bound up with the
religions; but it would be a mistake, nevertheless, to relegate
them to the " supernatural," and hastily to declare them un-
fit for scientific investigation. Their investigation is difficult,
but not impossible, provided that in a given society it is favoured
or permitted. Of course, if it is proscribed as " sorcery " and
made a capital offence, as was the case all the world over until re-
cently, investigation will languish, and.it may well be that the
practice of burning psychics as " witches," persisted in for many
centuries, has effectively eliminated most of the possessors of un-
usual faculties. However, to begin with, the term " supernat-
ural " should be discarded. It merely assumes what is the car-
dinal point at issue, viz. that the realm of nature has been com-
pletely explored; and only omniscience could assert this. The
allegations to be inquired into by psychical research, therefore,
should be described, neutrally, as " supernormal."
Nevertheless, the peculiarities of the subjects of psychical
research condition further differences which should be noted in
any account of their history. They render the influence of
public opinion far more important than it is in the ordinary
subjects of scientific inquiry. It is true, doubtless, that every-
where the progress of any subject of human interest depends on
two factors, on the quantity and quality of human intelligence
devoted to its elucidation, and on the social atmosphere, i.e. the
attitude towards it taken up by public opinion. Of these the
former is ordinarily more conspicuous and important, for it
directly affects the progress made. The latter acts indirectly, by
affecting the amount and sort of the attention paid to a subject,
and its effects do not all lie on the surface. But if there is in a
society a real desire for more knowledge on a subject, research
into it will be organized ; inquiries will be set in motion, adequate-
ly equipped and endowed, and the conduct of such inquiries will
become a career. If, on the other hand, there is little interest,
nothing will be done; as also if knowledge is supposed to be
absolute or adequate, or if its absence is held to be inevitable and
is acquiesced in. If, lastly, the knowledge sought is feared or
disapproved of for any reason, various measures will be taken for
effectively repressing interest in it ; nor must it be supposed that
such social taboos cease to operate merely because witch-burning
has ceased to be a popular entertainment. In general, moreover,
subjects which are inchoate and contentious are far more sensitive
to changes in the social atmosphere than those which are recog-
nized, established and endowed. For toward the latter the social
attitude is fairly stable and changes only slowly, and they possess,
moreover, a permanent organization, which provides for their
cultivation (or is supposed to do so), and on which their progress
mainly depends. In the case of the former, progress may depend
chiefly on the social attitude, and indeed may even consist
chiefly in a change of social attitude. It is unreasonable, for
example, to expect progress in psychical research so long as the
energies of researchers have to be devoted primarily to eluding
the police or the officers of the Holy Inquisition.
The history of psychical research during the decade 1910-20
provides excellent illustrations of all these reflections. It is
composed of a short pre-war period of obscure labour in the cold
shade of social neglect, a short eclipse due to the complete
immersion of all scientific workers in the pursuits and passions
of the World War, accompanied by a grotesque ebullition of
superstitions long supposed to have become extinct, and followed
shortly afterwards by an astonishing revolution in social senti-
ment, which rendered psychical research popular and reputable
as it had never been before, but is now slowly yielding and re-
lapsing into the pre-war tone of feeling. Before the World War
the great bulk of public opinion was either hostile to the sub-
jects of psychical research, or at any rate indifferent to their
scientific investigation. That, at least, seemed to be the obvious
construction to be put upon the general indifference towards
scientific psychical research, and was borne out by the results of a
questionnaire intended to test the extent and depth of the desire
to have knowledge of the most exciting of these subjects, viz. the
individual's survival after death. The answers, as analyzed by
the writer in the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Re-
search (pt. 4q, 1904), seemed to indicate that such a desire was
actively functional only in comparatively few minds at any one
time, and that these were nearly always excited by the stimulus
of a recent bereavement. This explanation seemed, moreover,
to account sufficiently for the ordinary social attitude towards
the subject. For it would follow that under normal circumstances
the great majority, who were not animated by the bereavement-
sentiment, would effectively repress the few who were, and would
mould public opinion and social institutions accordingly as had
manifestly happened both to scientific and to religious " ortho-
doxy." But it would also follow that if for any reason the
bereavement-sentiment should become widespread, powerful
and dominant, it might be predicted that there would ensue a
great outburst of interest in psychical research, and a passionate
demand for any method that held out to the bereaved human
heart the immediate consolation of a direct communication
with the departed.
Accordingly this is what happened in consequence of the
World War. If we put aside, as mere " propaganda " for the
benefit of the superstitious, the crop of bogus prophecies that
accompanied the outbreak of war, and such successful appeals
to primitive credulity as the legends of the " Russians from
Archangel," and of the " Angels of Mons " (the latter, though
published as fiction, was actually taken as fact) , we find that at
first the normal peace-sentiment persisted. It remained en-
grossed in mundane affairs and showed itself by a complete and
exclusive absorption in the war. Nothing else seemed to matter,
and scientific inquiries that did not minister to the war were
simply dropped in an ecstasy of patriotic fervour. It seemed,
therefore, the sheer waste of a guinea to continue to subscribe to
an inquiry whether the human lives that were sacrificed so
prodigally on the battle-fields were really dead and done with.
No wonder the membership of the Society for Psychical Research
in England went down from 1,205 i n i<) l 3 to I >SS in 1916.
Meantime, beneath the surface of social convention, the
bereavement-sentiment was growing to proportions unparal-
leled in civilized history. It was merely awaiting a signal to re-
veal itself. The signal was presently given, in a high academic
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
199
quarter, by the courageous act of a bereaved father, who did
not shrink either from exposing himself to academic ridicule
or from divulging the private evidence which he had
Sir Oliver obtained of his son's survival and declaring that it
"'iffy- S had satisfied him. That a distinguished physicist at
mond. " the head of the university of Birmingham should open-
ly endorse spiritism was a remarkable event: yet Sir
Oliver Lodge's Raymond (1916) was not in itself a remarkable
book. Evidentially it did not show that Mrs. Leonard produced
anything markedly more conclusive and better in quality
than the evidence obtained long before through Mrs. Piper and
other " psychics "; nor was there anything remarkable about the
quantity of its evidential communications. Hardened sceptics
should have had no difficulty in explaining away the "hits" it
narrated, as they had dealt with its many predecessors. Nor did
its version of the after-life differ markedly from the descriptions
of the " summerland " that had been the staple of spiritist litera-
ture for the past 50 years, while its apparent crudities, e.g. of
ghosts smoking " cigars " and drinking " whiskies-and-soda,"
were no less susceptible of a " symbolical " explanation.
But what turned out to be remarkably different was the re-
ception of the book. It was found that patriotism paralyzed the
voice of criticism. The scoffing reviewer, who had been accus-
tomed to say that interest in psychical research was " morbid "
and a sure passport to the lunatic asylum, or that the mystery of
the grave was insoluble and that anyhow no sensible man had
the slightest desire to solve it, was no longer regarded as the
sort of person to express what the public wanted to hear about a
book of that kind. So he was not allowed to touch it, or perhaps
himself experienced a change of heart. Able editors perceived
that, in war-time, consolations that appealed to millions of
bereaved hearts must be treated tenderly, if only to keep the
home front unbroken. So Raymond was reviewed respectfully
and copiously, and enabled to break down the barrier of peace-
time convention. A flood of lesser books followed, ascribed to the
living or returning dead, and mostly 'composed of communica-
tions received by relatives of fallen soldiers, through automatic
writing not without an admixture of pious fraud. Unfortunately
they were mostly written by people who paid little or no
attention to the difficulty of getting evidential communications
and of making their value apparent to their readers, and who
considered the mere form of the communication as a sufficient
authentication, being wholly ignorant of psychology and of
the tricks they were, unconsciously, capable of playing on them-
selves. Nor did amateur automatism alone profit by this in-
novation. Professional " psychics " obtained an enormous
vogue. The resignations from the Society for Psychical Research
ceased, and accessions took their place. The membership went
up from 1,055 in 1916 to 1,305 in 1919; and the new members
were not only willing to pay the two-guinea subscription of a
" member " instead of the guinea of the " associate," but insisted
on a more active and enterprising policy, and came within
measurable distance of " hustling " this eminently respectable
society into an endorsement of spiritism.
Of course a change in the social attitude produced in this way
cannot -be permanent. The old influences persist, and will
inevitably reassert themselves and produce a relapse into the
former apathy, unless the exceptional opportunites are exploited,
and the abnormal will to believe is fortified by positive achieve-
ments. In the long run, therefore, the status of psychical re-
search will depend, not on the mere intensity of the desire to
know and the amount of social approval it can secure, but on the
amount of solid scientific work that will have been accomplished
under the stimulus of the abnormal social conditions. It is
necessary, therefore, to turn to the scientific side of psychical
research, though the developments here will be found to have
been relatively small and by no means commensurate with the
volume of popular interest excited by the war.
Nevertheless a certain amount of scientific progress has been
made, enuring both to the benefit and to the detriment of
psychical research. It may be classified under the following
heads: (a) Psychology, (6) Multiple Personality, (c) Telepathy,
(d) Trance, (e) Automatic Writing, (/) Physical Phenomena,
(g) Dowsing, (h) Thinking Animals.
Psychology during the war made considerable progress
because numbers of academic psychologists were compelled to
practise, and to apply their theoretical conceptions to clinical
problems, while numbers of medical men, finding themselves
unable to cope with the profound disturbances of mental equili-
brium, inaccurately, but conveniently, designated as " shell-
shock," were compelled to reckon with the psychical side of
medicine. Thus were large bodies of intelligent men forced not
only to apply their theories to concrete cases, and to correct them
by their working, but also to recognize the power of the dis-
ordered mind to simulate the most various lesions and diseases
of the body. As might have been anticipated, the older systems
of academic psychology, being compiled out of aesthetic prefer-
ences, metaphysical prejudices, methodological assumptions,
introspective observations of conscious states, and highly arti-
ficial and limited laboratory experiments, did not stand the test
of application to the battle-field at all well.
The " psychoanalytic " method, however, devised long before
by Dr. Sigmund Freud of Vienna, for tapping the unconscious
depths of the mind and bringing their contents to the surface
was found to be capable both of explaining the symptoms and in
many cases of suggesting a cure. Hence though the psychological
theory on which Freud worked had seemed (and been) improb-
able, extreme and crude, and had (justly) encountered the
strongest emotional repugnance, there was no gainsaying the
practical validity of his method, and the reality and importance
of the mind's unconscious structure. The mind had to be con-
ceived, like the spectrum, as having invisible (unconscious)
extensions, as truly characteristic, as susceptible of investigation,
and in some respects as important, as its visible (conscious)
regions. It had in consequence to be admitted that psychic
contents could be " repressed " into this unconscious region
without thereby losing their identity and reality, and could
thence continue to produce effects in consciousness, even by
those who refused to follow Freud in assigning none but an
erotic motive to this repression. These psychological discoveries
had a considerable bearing on several branches of psychical
research. They seemed to throw a flood of light on the mechan-
ism of multiple personality. A " repressed complex " could
explain the growth of a " secondary self." They also modified
the notion of " fraud."
Not only was it clear, as had indeed already long been recog-
nized by investigators, that a secondary or trance-personality
might perpetrate a fraud of which the primary or normal self
might be innocent, incapable and unaware, but a personality of
either kind might become unaware of the fraud it had committed
by " repressing " its knowledge thereof. Thus the problem of the
fraudulent medium was enormously complicated, and it could
be suggested, as by Dr. Culpin (Spiritualism and the New
Psychology, London, 1920), that even the most honest mediums
were frauds, who had cleared their consciences by " repressing "
the knowledge of their delinquencies. Furthermore, this same
process might be used to explain many errors and gaps in the
narratives of observers of supernormal occurrences. Having
" repressed," as unwelcome, the real facts, they might honestly
deny that they had ever possessed or divulged the knowledge
they were bent on regarding as supernormal: it would thereupon
appear to be so. Hence repression of the truth would have to be
added as a third to mal-observation and forgetfulness, as a very
subtle source of error in testimony to the occurrence of the super-
normal, and would further complicate the problem of what the
evidence really proved. On the other side it is fair to remember
that whatever goes to show how little we really know as yet
about the functions of the mind should act as an encouragement
to psychical research, and renders more credible pro tanto
claims to unsuspected powers.
In the field of multiple personality Dr. Morton Prince has
extended and confirmed his brilliant researches, attending
particularly to the proof of the reality of " coconscious "
secondary selves (cf. his Unconscious, 1914). It will doubt^
200
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
less have gratified the readers of his Dissociation of a Personal-
ity (1906) to learn that " Miss Beauchamp " was afterwards hap-
pily and healthily married though her husband did
Multiple not know what a heroine of psychological romance he
aiay a ' had espoused. The most striking and substantial con-
tribution to the subject is, however, contained in the
admirably recorded and narrated story of the strange case of
" Doris Fischer," for which science is indebted to the Rev. Dr.
Walter F. Prince, who in consequence became interested in
psychical research, and subsequently (1920) succeeded the late
Prof. J. H. Hyslop as secretary of the American S.P.R. The
record extends over three large volumes (1915, 1916, 1917) of
the Proceedings of the American S.P.R. , contains almost 2,500
pages of print, and is fully worthy of such elaborate treatment.
It narrates how, as a little girl of three, " Doris Fischer " was
thrown down violently by her drunken father, and so sustained a
psychic fracture, which " dissociated " her into " Margaret "
and " Real Doris," 'the former being a personage very similar
to " Sally " in the " Beauchamp " case. But for 19 years no one
discovered the dissociation, and even her mother only thought
Doris a little odd and forgetful, when as " Real Doris " she
displayed ignorance of what " Margaret " had just said or done.
At the age of 16 another painful scene, at her mother's death-be 1,
led to a further dissociation and the mergence of a new person-
ality. " Sick Doris " was born mature, grave, hardworking and
conscientious, but totally ignorant of everything that had
happened before her birth. Again the dissociation escaped
detection, because " Margaret," whose " mental age " never
rose above 10, undertook to instruct her uneducated partner, and
succeeded, at the cost of all-night sittings and violent quarrels.
Between these two the " Real Doris " was for six years almost
completely crowded out. How she was restored by the skill and
tact of Dr. Prince, after he had taken charge of the girl and
discovered her condition and how first " Sick Doris " and then
" Margaret " were weakened by being put to sleep whenever they
cropped up, and grew younger and younger under this treatment,
and in the case of " Sick Doris " actually infantile, until they
finally evaporated, may be read in Dr. Prince's fascinating record.
Theoretically the case (which was fully reviewed by the
present writer in Proceedings S.P.R., pt. 74: cf. also the article
by Dr. T. W. Mitchell in pt. 79) is important also for two reasons.
In the first place it brings out that the dissociations were plainly
protective, and relieved the strain of an otherwise intolerable life.
Secondly, they were attended by a considerable number of
supernormal incidents which, though not unprecedented in other'
cases of dissociation (e.g. the "Watseka Wonder"), had not
formerly been recorded properly. Indeed, if one can accept the
record in vol. iii. of the sittings " Doris Fischer " had with Dr.
Hyslop'S medium " Mrs. Chenoweth," these incidents were the
clew to the whole affair, and the dissociations were caused by, or
complicated with, spirit -possession. But this interpretation is not
apparently accepted by Dr. Prince, and is something of an ex-
crescence on the main story.
Telepathy. 'Little progress has been made in establishing
telepathy as a process in nature. It remains a sort of half-way
house for those who do not feeF able to deny the supernormal
altogether and yet shrink from the spiritist interpretation. It
fulfils this function best if its nature and operation are left vague,
so that anything and everything may be set down to telepathy
of some sort. Hence beLevers in " telepathy " have not any
strong motive for coming to close quarters with their theory,
while the more intelligent spiritists dislike it as rendering any
conclusive proof of spirit-identity practically impossible. The
opponents of the supernormal first use it freely to disparage
the evidences of spiritism, and thereupon frequently proceed,
somewhat illogically, to cast doubts upon its own reality. Telep-
athy, however, has one great advantage, that of being suscep-
tible of experiment. Unfortunately such experiments as are under-
taken not only do not succeed in increasing our knowledge of its
conditions, but hardly even confirm the earlier experiments on
which the existence of telepathy is based. The most noteworthy
of the experiments that have yielded positive results were those
undertaken by Miss Miles and Miss Ramsden, published in the
S.P.R. Proceedings, pt. 69 (1914). On the principle that any-
thing supernormal may be attributed to some sort of " telepathy,"
one might perhaps chronicle here the very anomalous Adventure,
experienced by two well-known academic ladies of Oxford in the
gardens of Versailles, but not published until six years after the
event, in 1911 (cf. the review in S.P.R. Proceedings, pt. 64).
On the other hand, elaborate attempts made by two psy-
chologists in America to verify the existence of telepathy have
led to results which at first sight appear to be wholly negative.
Dr. J. E. Coover, of Leland Stanford Junior University, was
specially endowed as a psychical researcher by the brother of its
founder, and in due course produced in 1917 a book of 640 pages.
Among its rather miscellaneous contents (it contains inter alia
a pleasing account of the outwitting of a fraudulent " trumpet-
medium " by hidden machinery) he describes too series of 100
experiments with cards (court cards omitted) made by too pairs
of Californian students, for the purpose of testing the existence of
telepathy as a faculty widely dilTused in some slight degree
among human minds. The " agent " was instructed to draw a
card and to determine by casting dice whether to look at it or
not, and in the former case to try to impress his knowledge
(without contact) on the percipient; while the latter had to
answer in both cases, but for about half the time would thus be
really guessing at random. The results, when tabulated and
added up, yielded in the first series of 5,135 genuine " experi-
ments " 153 complete successes (most probable number, 128), in
the second series of 4,865 control experiments or " guesses " 141
complete successes (most probable number, 122).
There was therefore a slight excess of successes, but Dr.
Coover rightly argues that it was too small to be significant of
anything beyond chance. He claims therefore to have disposed
of the idea that telepathy may exist in minimal intensity in all
minds, and evidently thinks that this disposed of the whole case.
This, however, would seem to be going too far, on his own show-
ing. For his figures do not dispose of the possibility that telep-
athy may exist in a faint degree in some minds. Indeed they
rather suggest this possibility. For if we examine them with a
view to testing this hypothesis, we may select, as possibly slightly
telepathic, the series in which the " percipients " got 3 or more
complete successes in their " experiments." There were 14 of
these, in which 54 complete successes were scored in 711 experi-
ments. The most probable number being 18, the excess is now
large enough to be significant of something beyond " chance."
But not, apparently, of telepathy, so much as of a sort of " lucid-
ity " or " clairvoyance." For if we treat the (supposedly fortui-
tous) series of " guesses " similarly, we get still more remarkable
results. The series with 3 or more complete successes once more
turns out to be 14, and yields 49 complete successes out of 690
experiments (most probable number, 17). But curiously enough
5 of the 14 best " guesses " are identical with 5 of the 14 best
" experiments. " As the most probable number for such a
coincidence is only 2, it can hardly be fortuitous. Moreover, if we
add together the " experiments " and " guesses " of these 5
series, we get 41 complete successes out of 500 experiments, as
against a most probable number of 12. Again something- beyond
" chance " is indicated. As, however, this something operates
about equally well whether the percipient is trying to determine
a card which was actually being thought or is only guessing, it can
not be set down to conscious telepathy. This again accords
with the other evidence that goes to show that telepathy, if it
exists, is not greatly dependent on the conscious efforts of the
mind; or otherwise, that if minds communicate telcpathically, it
is by way of the subliminal. For the rest, of course, the moral is
that further experiments should have been conducted with the 5
successful pairs, in order to determine whether they would
continue to produce a surplus of successes; but unfortunately this
idea did not occur to Dr. Coover.
Dr. L. T. Troland also experimented in telepathy, with very
elaborate apparatus, in the Psychological Laboratories of Har-
vard University (1917), in order to utilize an endowment given in
memory of Richard Hodgson (cf. Review in S.P.R. Proceedings,
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
2OI
pt. 80). He, too, got negative results, and did not go on long
enough. In fact, he failed so completely that he failed even to
prove that telepathy did not exist, or that at any rate he and his
colleague were completely devoid of telepathic ability. Only 605
experiments were made, and only 284 complete successes were
obtained. Now this is very sensibly below the most probable
number (302); but, as Dr. Troland observes, an abnormal de-
ficiency is quite as significant of something other than chance as
an abnormal excess. It may mean the presence of some factor
that inhibits success, and if this can be established, it is just as
supernormal as one that produces success. However, Dr. Troland
does not hold that in his experiments the deficiency is sufficiently
great. He has not observed how it arose. His total figures were
arrived at by lumping together two sets of experiments. In
one of these the stimulus shown to the " agent," to which the
" percipient " was to react by pushing an instrument either to
the right or to the left, was exposed for 30 seconds; in the other,
for 15 seconds. Now in the former series there was no de-
ficiency of right reactions; 129 successes out of 249 experiments
are slightly above the probable number, 124. The whole of the
deficiency was incurred in the is-second series, which yielded
only 155 successes out of 354 experiments, instead of a most
probable 177. As the only difference between the two series
was in the duration of the exposure, the idea easily suggests
itself that the i5-second exposure was too short to enable the
percipient to react rightly. And not only that; it seems to have
positively inhibited the right reaction, presumably by inducing
an " anxiety-neurosis." In other words, if the " agent," or more
probably the " percipient," got " flustered " by the shortness of
the exposure, his very knowledge of the right reaction would
lead him to make the wrong one. Thus a marked deficiency in
correct responses over a long series might imply as much super-
normal knowledge, and yield as good evidence of telepathy, as a
marked excess; much as it is implied in the " negative hallu-
cination" of a hypnotic subject that he both sees and does not
see, the object of the hallucination, and indeed that he must
see it (subconsciously) in order to avoid it. Again, however, the
series of experiments was not long enough to make the appeal to
the calculus of probabilities decisive. For the present, therefore,
it is best to conclude that the reality of telepathy is not yet either
proved or disproved: the evidence is just about enough to keep
it alive as a hypothesis.
Trance. The phenomena of trance continue to be studied,
and although Mrs. Piper, the most famous " medium " of this
type, was pensioned by the S.P.R. and retired so long ago as
1910, she has no lack of successors. Indeed, the great majority
of the customers of " psychics " frequent trance-mediums. Their
manifestations continue to be much the same; entranced psychics
become obsessed by one or other of their regular " controls "
usually grotesque personages that cannot be identified, and may
fairly be suspected of being creations, at least to a large extent,
of the medium's subliminal imagination. There are poured
forth (in the " good " sittings one hears about) masses of details
about the sitters and their concerns, often hesitant, incon-
clusive, vague, sometimes wrong, often non-significant, but
sometimes so startlingly apposite as to shake all but the sturdiest
scepticism. The evidence presented in Sir Oliver Lodge's
Raymond was obtained in this way; Miss Radclyffe-Hall and
Lady Troubridge have recorded similar evidential sittings
with Sir Oliver's chief medium, Mrs. Leonard, in S.P.R. Pro-
ceedings, pt. 78. Mrs. Sidgwick produced a final and monumental
review of the Piper case in S.P.R. Proceedings, pt. 71 (1915).
As regards the theoretic interpretation of these trance-
communications, the tendency, even among those most inclined
to believe that they convey authentic messages from the de-
parted, is to complicate the process of communication. It is recog-
nized more and more that there have to be reckoned with, not
only the medium, with his natural limitations of faculty and
:raining, but the medium's " subliminal " or subconscious, the
nedium's " controls," who are supposed to transmit the messages
om the communicator proper, and possibly the effects of ab-
ormal conditions, not only in the medium (trance-personality)
but also in the " control " and " communicator," owing to the
effort to communicate. It is evident that these complications
may account for many errors and obstructions; but they detract
pro lanto from the authenticity of the actual communications.
Automatic Writing. Automatic writing continues to flourish
and to furnish psychical researchers with large masses of raw
material. But its quality is not equal to its quantity, and its
interest is for the most part psychological rather than evidential.
Nevertheless a few cases of automatism laying claim to scientific
importance may be noted. Undismayed by the failure of Mrs.
Verrall to gat, through automatic writing, at the contents of a
sealed letter left, before his death, by Frederic Myers with Sir
Oliver Lodg2 (cf. S.P.R. Journal, Jan. 1905), many of the lead-
ers of the S.P.R. continued to work at cross-correspondences,
and the results of their labours bulk large in the Proceedings of
the society 1911-9. They discovered some curious cases among
the writings of their automatists, the most remarkable perhaps
being that entitled The Ear of Dionysius (1917), which was
worked out by Mr. Gerald Balfour, and held to indicate the
post-mortem agency of Prof. Verrall. But unfortunately the value
of the coincidences on which the method relies is not capable
of exact determination, and the whole method of proving spirit-
identity by cross-correspondences is too literary and recondite to
be appreciated without an intellectual effort, and so fails to
impress the ordinary man. The automatic writing of a Dublin
lady, Mrs. Travers Smith, excited some interest, both on account
of the enormous speeds attained in its method of production (a
planchette travelling over an alphabet under glass), and because
of the claim that communications had been received from Sir
Hugh Lane, before it was known that the Lusitania had been
sunk, and that he had been one of the victims of this outrage.
The case is narrated in Voices from the Void (1919).
Great interest was excited when Mr. Bligh Bond, in his Gate
of Remembrance (Oxford, 1918), announced that he had been
guided in his excavation of Glastonbury Abbey by the automatic
writings of a friend who produced copious communications,
largely in very debased Latin, from a number of the monks who
had inhabited the Abbey from the nth to the i6th century, and
had revealed the correct location and dimensions of the Edgar
Chapel, though all the extant antiquarian evidence had made
these statements seem quite improbable. Mr. Bligh Bond also
had the courage to print in the first edition of his book similar
predictions about the Loretto Chapel, of which the remains had
not then been found: when, after the war, excavation was re-
sumed, these also were found to be correct substantially i.e.
allowing for the facts that the original script was in some points
capable of more than one interpretation and that the excavators
did not always hit upon the right one. Cases of practically
valuable information received in a supernormal manner are
extremely rare, and Mr. Bligh Bond's is one of the best of them.
Physical Phenomena. To pass from automatic writing to
physical phenomena is to pass from the least to the most con-
tentious of the subjects that concern the psychical researcher,
from a region where the facts are" admitted and the interpretation
alone is in dispute, to one where fraud has to be guarded against
at every step and where all the facts are suspected by some to
be due to it. Not that fraud is excluded in the former case:
automatic writing can be simulated (like anything else) and
with a little luck and ingenuity organized deception can be
effectively practised with great success, as is amusingly shown
in E. H. Jones's The Road to Endor (1920), describing how two
British officers beguiled the tedium of their captivity and fooled
both their comrades and the Turkish officials in charge of their
prison camp. In fact, fraud is so easy that nothing depends on it w r
it is recognized by all competent inquirers that the whole value of
automatic writing depends not on the mode of production but
on the evidential character of the contents. In dealing with
physical phenomena, on the other hand, the elimination or
discounting of fraud is the primary consideration; the more so
that fraud is certainly abundant, and that the conditions seem
designed to facilitate it. This should be recognized by both
sides, and should be no reason for refusing absolutely to investi-
2O2
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
gate cases in which prima facie the evidence is good, and fraud
is absent or, apparently, impossible. As for the conditions, it may
conceivably be that just as photographs must be taken in the
light and developed in the dark, so the curious growths to be
described presently can only be developed in more or less com-
plete darkness. But the inadequacy of the lighting, even in cases
where red light is allowed sufficient to distinguish the hands and
faces of the sitters, is a valid reason for demanding that the deeds
done in the darkness of the seance-room shall be mechanically
controlled by adequate substitutes for the sitters' senses of sight
and touch, which the darkness puts out of action or renders
untrustworthy. To secure this control, it would probably be
necessary to construct a special laboratory in which extensive
machinery (incapable of forgetting or being hallucinated) would
record all the physical changes going on during the sitting. It
reveals a curious lack of seriousness in the human attitude
towards psychical research that no such laboratory had yet been
provided anywhere.
In spite of these drawbacks, however, physical phenomena
will not down. There have been plenty of frauds, and plenty of
exposures, including that of an Italian medium of international
fame, Eusapia Palladino, who began the decade well with a
favourable Report by Mr. Everard Feilding and Mr. Baggally
on a series of sittings she had given them in Naples (S.P.R.
Proceedings, pt. 62, 1911). These investigators, though they re-
reported many movements of objects they could not account for,
nevertheless emphasized that Eusapia needed continuous watch-
ing because she always cheated when she was given the chance.
The chance was given her when she went to America in 1909,
and the result was a very handsome and complete exposure, which
eclipsed her reputation, even though many of her patrons
continued to hold that nothing new had been proved against
or about her mediumship, and that it was not wholly fraudulent.
Still she died obscure (i9\8) and fashion took to other mediums.
At present a somewhat different type of physical phenomena
is in vogue, in which puzzling movements occurring within the
radius of the medium's arm or foot are no longer the staple of the
performance, and which it is more difficult to set down to fraud,
because the evidence is largely recorded in flashlight photographs,
which seem on the face of it to involve the supernormal. In
particular two or three cases of " materializations " seem to be
deserving of further study. The first of these is connected with
a French lady known as "Eva C.," whose mediumistic career
goes back to 1906 and the " Villa Carmen " sittings at Algiers,
which ended in the customary charges, and denials, of fraud.
Some years later she turned up in Paris, living in the house of
Mme. Alexandre Bisson, and her materialization phenomena
speedily attracted attention. Early in 1914 the chief German
psychical researcher, a medical man, Dr. von Schrenck-Notzing,
published a lavishly illustrated book, Materialisations-Phaeno-
mene, on the materializations of Eva and the similar performances
of a Polish girl, Stanislava P.; owing to the war it was not trans-
lated into English until 1920. It describes the elaborate pre-
cautions taken against fraud and to secure the genuineness of the
" materializations "; but the extraordinary flashlight photo-
graphs of the plastic substance out of which they were built up
are even more convincing than the physiological reports on its
character. It is shown exuding from various parts of the medium's
body, chiefly the mouth (whether or not the head and the hands
were enclosed in muslin bags), hanging about the body in festoons,
and forming itself into fingers, hands and faces, which are often
incomplete and usually flat and picture-like. This of course
gives a measure of support to the only explanation which the
sceptics have so far been able to excogitate, viz. that the pictures
are first swallowed by the medium and then " regurgitated."
This theory, however, hardly explains how they manage to re-
appear so unruffled, or how the " plasma " is got through the
muslin bag when the medium's head is sewn up, and back again.
Nor does the medical and microscopic examination of small
samples of the plasma which Dr. von Schrenck-Notzing was
allowed to take confirm a stomachic origin: its character appears
to be epithelial. The reports of Mme. Bisson and Dr. von Schrenck-
Notzing were subsequently confirmed by a French medical
man, Dr. Gustave Geley, in a lecture given to the Psychological
Institute at the College de France in Jan. 1918, on " Super-
normal Physiology and the Phenomena of Ideoplasty," and in
the summer of 1920 " Eva C." was very searchingly examined
by a committee of the S.P.R. in a series of sittings held in London:
phenomena were not as copious as in Paris, nor on so large a
scale; but their general character was confirmed, and no trace
of fraud was detected (cf. S.P.R. Proceedings, pt. 81).
The " materializations " of "Eva C." seemed at first to
receive independent support from the mediumship of Miss
Kathleen Goligher of Belfast. This medium, and the family
circle in which she sat, were exhaustively studied by Dr. W. J.
Crawford, a lecturer in mechanical engineering in the local
university, who described his conclusions in a series of books;
The Reality of Psychic Phenomena appeared in 1916, Experi-
ments in Psychical Science in 1919, while the third, The Psychic
Structures at the Goligher Circle, delayed by the author's sudden
death, appeared in Feb. 1921. They formed a graduated series,
growing more and more sensational in their results, and in the end
actually represented as visible facts what had originally been
suggested as hypothetical inferences. In his first book Dr.
Crawford, while candidly admitting that he believed the direct-
ing intelligences concerned to be departed human spirits, set
himself to study the mechanics of the phenomena observed,
raps, levitations of the table, and other movements of objects,
after establishing their supernormal character. For this purpose
he used phonographs, manometers, spring balances and a variety
of weighing machines, in a red light " nearly always " sufficient
to show plainly the hands of the sitters, and proceeded to deter-
mine exactly the amount and incidence of the forces employed in
producing the movements. As a result of his experiments, he
came to the conclusion that the mechanical effects observed
could only be explained by postulating hypothetical structures,
with a definite shape, connecting the bodies moved with the body
of the medium at her ankles. These structures, which he called
" psychic cantilevers " and " psychic rods," though invisible and
intangible, had a size, shape and position which could be mapped
by observing at what points the phenomena could be stopped
by interposing between the medium and the objects moved.
In his second book Dr. Crawford extended these results, and
showed that ordinarily the weight the bodies levitated was
added to that of the medium (as if she held them), while when
this psychic substance was weighed in a weighing pan at a
distance from the medium, her weight would simultaneously
be reduced; he claimed to have observed a temporary loss in
this way of as much as 54 lb., nearly half her normal weight.
He also stated that he obtained impressions on clay of the ends
of such a " cantilever column." Finally these structures became
visible, and his last book is adorned with flashlight photographs
appearing to verify the correctness of his deductions about
their origin and application. Moreover, in appearance they
curiously resembled the "plasma" issuing from "Eva C." By
ingeniously applying moist dyestuffs to various points in the
stockings and underclothing of the medium, Crawford claimed to
have determined the course taken by this " plasma " in issuing
from, and returning into, the body of the medium, declaring also
that he had felt the collapse and recuperation of her muscles
which accompanied these processes. As his narrative stood, the
Goligher case appeared to provide the most impressive evidence
ever obtained for the reality of " materializations." Dr. Craw-
ford's premature death in 1920 made it temporarily difficult to
pursue independent inquiry into the matter; but at the end
of 1921 further investigation by Dr. Fournier D'Albe proved
that the manifestations were fraudulent.
Observations of so-called " telekinetic " phenomena, i.e.
movements of small objects such as celluloid or pith balls, match-
boxes, teaspoons, balances, etc., without contact, in the presence
of a Polish lady, Stanislava Tomczyk (now Mrs. Everard
Feilding), who had been " dissociated " in consequence of
experiences during the Warsaw riots of 1906, were reported by
Prof. I. Ochorowicz of Warsaw in the Annales des Sciences
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
203
Psychiques (1909-12), and confirmed by Dr. von Schrenck-
Notzing in 1913-4. Some of the photographs appeared to give a
clew to the mechanics of these phenomena by showing very fine
threads connecting the hands of the medium and passing beneath
the object levitated. It is argued however, partly on the strength
of the negative results of investigating the medium before and
after the phenomena, partly on the ground of differences in the
appearance of these threads and of cotton, silk and hair (il-
lustrated), that the threads were of a psychic and supernormal
character, and in fact plastic emanations similar to those of " Eva
C." In the summer of 1914 the medium came to London to be
examined by the S.P.R., but the outbreak of war prevented
the continuation of the investigation.
Another branch of physical phenomena is represented by
what is called " spirit-photography." In this, as in the (now
extinct) method of " slate- writing," everything depends on the
prevention of fraudulent substitutions in the plates (or slates).
If this is neglected, the production of " spirit-photographs "
becomes easy enough. One of the earliest practitioners of this
art, William Keeler, has recently suffered annihilating exposure
of his " Lee-Bocock " frauds at the hands of Dr. W. F. Prince
(Am. S.P.R. Proceedings, vol. xiii. 2, March 1920), after having
had his case stated in Proceedings, vol. viii. (1913), of the same
society. Other cases of " spirit-photography " may be said to be
still under investigation, and, though none had in 1921 been
proved genuine, their detection is usually a highly technical matter.
Dr. Prince has also convincingly shown by a critical study of the
evidence that an old " poltergeist " case, " the Great Amherst
Mystery " (1879), was in all probability due to the (unconscious)
fraud of the medium, who had been " dissociated " by a shocking
event in her personal history, which she had, apparently, " re-
pressed" (Am. S.P.R. Proceedings, vol. xiii. i, 1919).
" Dowsing," as a method of finding water in dry places, con-
tinues to be used with considerable success, and it is certainly
impressive to find that certain firms of well-sinkers regularly
employ dowsers, and are so confident about their skill that they
are willing to make contracts on " no find, no pay " terms. It is
said, however, that they then (not unreasonably) protect them-
selves by charging higher rates. The subject was somewhat
actively debated in Germany shortly before the World War,
because the German governor of South-West Africa had a cousin
who was a water-finder, and employed him with great success
(cf. Des Landral von Uslars Arbeiten mil dcr Wiinschelrute in
Siidwesl Afrika, Stuttgart, 1912). A pamphlet by A. J. Ellis,
issued by the U.S. Geological Survey (The Divining Rod,
Washington, 1917), though it dismisses the matter dogmatically
as a mere superstition, has a useful bibliography.
Thinking Animals. Before the World War Germany was also
the chief home of a vigorous dispute about "thinking animals,"
which must be noticed in this connexion, not only because allega-
tions of supernormal faculty were made, but because the logical
problems involved, the difficulties in ascertaining the facts and
in guarding against deception, and the partisanship of the dis-
putants, were identical. For though at first the issue appeared to
be simply a question of zoological fact, to be decided experi-
mentally by biological and psychological experts, it soon appeared
that not only was there the usual divergence between con-
servatives and progressives, but that the experts were divided by
the conflict between the tendencies to emphasize the unity of life
and to affirm the supremacy of the human mind; moreover, when,
as was soon the case, a considerable amount of odium theo-
logicum was imported into the discussion, a similar division was
observable among theologians. The result was a complete
replica of a controversy in psychical research. The trouble
began so long ago as 1904, when Herr von Osten produced a
horse, his " Clever Hans," which he had taught to do simple
sums by tapping with his hoofs. He had proceeded on the
logically false assumption that mathematical thought is pecu-
liarly arduous, and on the biologically false assumption that
to discover unsuspected extensions of animal intelligence would
be particularly cogent in directions remote from the natural
interests of the beast. However, " Hans " indisputably tapped
out the right responses in the presence of his master, and even
(though rarely) in his absence, and the scientific scandal became
so great that an inquiry had to be made (by order of the Ministry
of Education) ; as a result the explanation was adopted, with the
approval of the Berlin psychologist, Prof. Stumpf, that the
observant animal reacted to slight, unconscious indications
given by the experimenter. Thus there was neither thought nor
fraud, but only visual hyperaesthesia (cf. Pfungst, Clever Hans,
English translation, New York, 1911).
Officially this report was supposed to settle the matter.
But an Elberfeld gentleman named Krall was not satisfied. He
bought " Clever Hans " after von Osten's death, and examined
his visual acuity, finding it to be 25 times that of a man. He also
trained up a whole stud of equine mathematicians, that became
famous as " the Elberfeld horses." Among them one turned
out to be a genius, " Muhamed," while another, " Berto," was
blind, and so incapable of visual hyperaesthesia. Elberfeld
became a place of pilgrimage; a multitude of books, pamphlets
and articles appeared (cf. Krall, Denkende Tiere, Leipzig, 1912);
a review was founded for the recording of the prodigies of animal
thought (Tierseele, 1913). Presently, at Mannheim, an invalid
lady took to exhibiting a thinking dog, " Rolf," who, though not
so mathematically minded, appeared to be gifted with a rare
sense both of philosophy and humour. True, the animal refused
to " work " unless held by a chain, and this procedure naturally
fostered suspicions that the natural brilliance of his mind might
have been improved by a little judicious wire-pulling; but there
arose plenty of reputable observers to testify that the chain was
kept slack, and even some to declare that " Rolf " had been
known to answer correctly in the absence of his owner and had
furnished answers not known to any human mind: the opposi-
tion, therefore, could only attack the competence of the observers,
and sometimes succeeded in showing that they had been laxer
than they had imagined. Yet, despite the indignant protests
of those who claimed to have vestiges of common sense or knowl-
edge a priori of where the limits of the possible were laid down,
the open-minded (like Darwin), not afraid of " fool " experi-
ments, went to see, and were duly puzzled: even eminent
psychologists, like Prof. Claparede of Geneva, reported favour-
ably, more or less. A poet, Maeterlinck, came away from the
horses with the conviction that the phenomena were super-
normal; and was satisfied that horses, dogs and cats were by
nature " psychics," while elephants, monkeys and asses were not
and, unlike the former, could not tap the cosmic reservoir of
potential knowledge. The said " reservoir " was hypothetical,
but seemed to be needed to provide for the correctness of
answers not known to any human mind, and so transcending
" telepathy " (which had also been suggested) (cf. The Unknown
Guest, Eng. trans., T9i4, p. 267).
Clearly, this question of "thinking animals" exhibits the
tantalizing perversity of other problems in psychical research.
The truth about it is not a problem in pure science, and is
not susceptible of settlement by its methods. For these demand
that the good faith of the observers can be presupposed and that
undistorted observation of the facts is possible, both conditions
often far less completely fulfilled, even in the established sciences,
than is usually assumed. In the unreclaimed borderland between
superstition and science neither condition can be satisfied; every
" fact " may prove to be real only as a hallucination is real, or
to be distorted into a monstrous mirage by prejudice and bias,
while the will to believe (and equally the will to disbelieve) is
so free to select, to emphasize, to interpret, that it can create
practically any " fact " it chooses. In short, truth in this region
is unmistakably emotional; men's attitude towards it essentially
resembles their attitude in religion or in politics; the abstraction
from human feeling (or rather from every feeling but the desire
for knowledge), which is postulated in the ideal of pure reason, is
simply impracticable here. So long as every " fact " adduced on
either side has to be treated as suspect, and every step is con-
tentious, scientific progress, if it is possible at all, cannot be
otherwise than slow. There is only one way for believers in the
.supernormal to shortcircuit this procedure: if they can apply
2O4
PSYCHOTHERAPY
their beliefs to the ordinary course of reality and show that they
develop so much practical value that they must be reckoned with,
they cannot in practice be treated as false. If, for example,
secrets were regularly discovered, and information transmitted,
by " telepathy," if fortune-tellers frequently told their clients
how to make fortunes, and business " clairvoyants " were
employed by financial houses, this pragmatic proof would be
irresistible, and would suffice to convince the world. Actually,
however, the pragmatic test rather tells against belief in the
supernormal: for the supernormal knowledge believed in is not
taken to be trustworthy normally; nor do believers in it act on it,
thus betraying the fact, which they may not realize themselves,
that they do not take their beliefs quite seriously. In this respect
they are like very many other people. For, as Prof. Carveth
Read (The Origin of Man, ch. viii., London, 1920) has shown,
even among the most benighted savages believers in " magic "
have always to behave sensibly, for all the extravagance of their
beliefs. They pray, but they also keep their powder dry, and thus
their action reveals which of their beliefs are only half-beliefs
or make-believe.
In ultimate analysis the question becomes one of the place,
function and significance of beliefs which are not quite matter-of-
fact about what are not quite matters of fact. To appreciate
these, we have to discard the illusion, traditionally fostered by
logic, that there is no alternative to firm belief but whole-hearted
disbelief. Actually the gradations and fluctuations of beliefs are
infinite, and in many departments of life such unstable beliefs are
normal and dominant. They can easily coexist with others,
abstractly inconsistent with them, in a mind unwilling to
abandon cither, or perhaps unaware that it is entertaining them.
Thus even Herbert Spencer showed that he had some belief in
ghosts by his comical indignation when his hostess told him she
hoped that so stalwart a disbeliever would not mind sleeping
in the haunted room of a country house (A utobiography, i., p. 480) .
The only way of redeeming from this region of incomplete
beliefs that are below proof a subject of general human interest
and no others ever fall into it is to make it part of the ordinary
routine of life, which every one accepts in practice (whatever
the theoretic reason he may give to himself and others), simply
because no one can ignore it and live. But if ever the objects of
psychical research should be effectively subjected to such a
transfer, this would clearly mean a spiritual revolution of the
most far-reaching kind.
LITERATURE. This is still largely contained in periodicals. In
England those of the Society for Psychical Research must be men-
tioned in the first place. Both the Proceedings and the Journal
maintain a high scientific and literary level, and contribute, record or
review all the important developments of the subject. The addresses
which are delivered by presidents of the society on coming into office
form an interesting record of the attitude taken up towards the
subject by a number of eminent thinkers (e.g. Henri Bergson, 1913;
Gilbert Murray, 1916; L. P. Jacks, 1917; Lord Rayleigh, 1919; W.
McDougall, 1920). But the society's publications do not notice all
the tittle-tattle of the movement, for which it is necessary to consult
the weekly Light and the monthly Occult Review. The former is the
official organ of British spiritualism, and the latter is not sufficiently
critical of the material it publishes, which, though entertaining
enough, appears to be often (almost avowed) fiction. In July 1920
The Psychic Research Quarterly began to appear, which promises to
be a high-class periodical, and in its Oct. number published the first
photographs of Miss Goligher's " materializations." In America the
Proceedings and Journal of the American S.P.R. have the same
standards as the English society. But they were long edited by the
late Prof. J. H. Hyslop (d. 1920), who soon became a convinced
(though critical) spiritist, and reflect his work and his views in a
very voluminous and somewhat one-sided way. They are now
edited by his successor, Dr. VV. F. Prince, the brilliant investigator
of the Doris Fischer case, and the acute critic of sundry cases of
fraud. In France the Annales des Sciences Psychiques have published
some good material and continue to give a good idea of the move-
ment in the Latin countries. The Bulletin of the Institut General
Psychologique used not infrequently to contain articles on psychical
research, but now that an Institut Melapsychique has been founded in
Paris, with an ambitious programme, it is probable that in future
these will appear in its Bulletin (no. I, Oct. 1920). In Germany
Psychische Studien continue. In Switzerland the Archives de Psycho-
logic used often to publish valuable studies bearing on psychical
research, while it was edited by the late Prof. Theodore Flournoy
(d. 1920), the author of the famous study on the automatisms of
" Helene Schmidt," Des Indes a la planete Mars (1900), Esprits et
Mediums (10,11), and of the very remarkable study of a modern
mystic " Cecile Ve " (in no. 57, 1915).
As regards books, many have been referred to above. The out-
standing importance of Sir Oliver Lodge's Raymond and of VV. J.
Crawford's works on the Goligher case has been already explained
under " Trance " and " Physical Phenomena." William James's
" Final Impressions of a Psychical Researcher " was reprinted from
the American Magazine in Memories and Studies (1911) and should
be consulted for the conclusions left in the great psychologist's mind
by his prolonged interest in psychical research. As books of a general
character taking a favourable view of the phenomena, there may be
mentioned Sir W. Barrett's On the Threshold of the Unseen (1917);
J. A. Hill's Spiritualism, its History, Phenomena and Doctrine
(London, 1918); J. H. Hyslop's Psychical Research and Survival
(1913), Life after Death (1919), Contact with the Other World (1919);
H. Carrington's Problems of Psychical Research (London, 1914),
Modern Psychical Phenomena (1919), Psychical Phenomena and the
War (1919). Among hostile accounts the best are I. L. Tuckett's
The Evidence for the Supernatural (1912); E. Clodd's The Question,
If a Man Die shall he Live Again? (London, 1917) and J. McCabe's
Is Spiritualism based on Fraud ? and Spiritualism: a Popular History
(both London, 1920). Prof. M. Dessoir's Vom Jenseits der Seele
(1917, 4th ed. 1920) is also unfavourable in the main, though
appreciative of the attitude and work of the S.P.R., and interesting
as coming from an academic psychologist who has not disdained to
investigate the phenomena alleged. Dr. A. von Schrenck-Notzing's
works are important (Materialisations-phaenomene, Munich, 1914,
2nd. ed. announced for 1921, Eng. translation by Dr. Fournier
d'Albe, London, 1920; Der Kampf um die Materialisations-Phaeno-
mene, 1914; Physika'ische Phaenomene des Mediumismus, 1920).
Dr. G. Geley's De I'Inconscient au Conscient (Paris, 1919) is an
attempt to form a theory of the supernormal physiology of " Eva
C." A translation by S. de Brath cams out in 1920 (London).
Lastly A. J. Phil;x>tt s Quest for Dean Bridgman Conner (London,
1915) may be instanced as an instructive investigation of an auto-
matic romance (communicated through Mrs. Piper), which, though
plausible and partially correct, turned out to be essentially false, and
to illustrate how untrustworthy information obtained, through
supernormal channels at present is. As medical works dealing with
esychotherapy and dissociations of personality, those of Dr. Boris
iclis, who made his mark by narrating the strange case of the Rev.
Mr. Hanna (cf. Si-Jis and Gooclhart, Multiple Personality, New York,
1905), The Foundations of Normal and Abnormal Psychology (Lon-
don, 1914), Symptomatology, Psycliognosis and Diagnosis of Psycho-
pathic Diseases (Boston, 1914) and The Causation and Treatment of
Psychopathic Diseases (Boston, 1916), may be mentioned; also
VV. H. R. Rivers' Instinct and the Unconscious (London, 1920) and
VV. Brown's Psychology and Psychotherapy (London, 1920).
(F. C. S. S.)
PSYCHOTHERAPY. The modern branch of medicine to
which has been given the name of "psychotherapy" may be re-
garded as covering all attempts made to mitigate or remove such
symptoms as may be attributed to the operations of an un-
healthy mind. These symptoms may be mental, for instance
confusion of mind, or delusions, or obsessions, and may not be
associated with any bodily symptoms or only with such as are
trifling. On the other hand the symptoms may be bodily, for
instance paralysis, or some form of loss of sensation, or indiges-
tion, and may not be associated, with any but trifling mental
symptoms. The treatment of symptoms due to mental ill-
health by physical agents such as rest, exercise, change of
climate, baths, electricity or drugs is not psychotherapy.
Psychotherapy has been practised in all ages, sometimes upon
those patently suffering from mental or moral disorders, but
perhaps even more often upon those whose symptoms in fact
depended upon mental or moral weakness or disorder but in
whom the affection appeared, from the superficial character
of the medical knowledge of the moment, to be due to organic
disease of the body. In such cases psychotherapy has enjoyed
considerable success, whether practised in connexion with
religion and philosophy or with superstition and charlatanism
(see FAITH HEALING, 10.135). Under circumstances such as these
there has always been, and indeed still is, a formidable admix-
ture of the miraculous, and it is not intended here to examine
systems like that of Christian Science or the miracles of Lourdes.
The term " psychotherapy " is of comparatively recent origin and
has received wide acceptance in that it usefully stands for treat-
ment based upon scientific psychology, normal and morbid.
Three methods of psychotherapy will here be considered, from
the purely medical point of view: those of Moral Suasion,
Suggestion and Psycho-analysis.
PSYCHOTHERAPY
205
Moral Suasion is historically the oldest method, and was
advanced to a high level of excellence by the Stoic Philosophers.
Illness, whether mental or physical, involves, to an extent de-
pending upon the circumstances of the case and the character
of the patient, pain and discomfort, disability with the fear of
its consequences upon economic and social position and the fear
of death. It is principally in the relief of discomfort and pain
that persuasion has its success. Many patients are seriously
alarmed at any abnormal feeling in any of their organs, are
apt to call such feelings painful and to colour their descriptions
with such adjectives as " awful " and " terrible." Others
will ascribe symptoms of a commonplace character to serious
disease of some important organ, for example, when flatulence
is mistaken for heart disease or turbid urine or pain in the back
is regarded as indicative of kidney disease. Merely to induce
such patients to be more precise in language and then in simple
terms to offer some proximate explanation of their symptoms
will often, without the association of any remedial agent, place
their ideas in better proportion and mitigate or abolish their
pains. Therapeutics have, very naturally, up till quite recent
times been dominated by the endeavour to treat the symptom
of which the patient complains rather than to attack the disease
which is producing the symptom. For the most part treatment
has been either by frankly miraculous methods or by those
which have been in part empirical and in part miraculous, that
is, by those in which some wonderful and unknown factor has
seemed to cooperate with the supposed remedy. It has more
recently become increasingly apparent that remedial agents not
uncommonly owe their seeming success firstly to the fact that
most disorders pass away whether treated or not, and secondly
to the fact that the mental attitude of the patient can in itself
assist at his cure and that this attitude may in many persons be
modified for good or ill by the physician or other attendants
of the sick man. Galen long since pointed out that " when the
imagination of a sick man has been struck by the idea of a
remedy, which of itself is without efficacy, it becomes endowed
with beneficent power." The method of persuasion seeks to
use this recuperative power which lies in the patient's mental
field and to set it to work either without or with the assistance
of physical agents. It seeks by reasonable explanation to impress
upon the patient that his symptoms are transient and that his
malady is curable, that it is important for him to aid in his own
cure by taking a balanced view of the ills which afflict him and
to face them with hope and courage. There is not, as in treatment
by suggestion, an endeavour to impose an authoritative assertion
to be blindly accepted as a matter of faith, but an endeavour to
secure the penetration of an idea by the power of reason, to
discuss the situation with the patient and to obtain his accept-
ance of the case as put forward by the physician. The fear of
the disabling effect of illness may also be dealt with by the
physician, who may point out, where he is so justified, that on
recovery the disability will pass away or that if any be left it
will be of an entirely trifling character. In serious disable-
ment and in cases of which the end is likely to be death, it be-
comes the duty of the philosopher and the priest to fortify the
courage and resignation of the patient. Not infrequently, how-
ever, the physician, willing or not, has himself to assume their
functions and to adapt his exhortations to the needs of men of
various creeds and levels of culture.
That persuasion on these lines is of value as a therapeutic
agent there can be but little doubt, but its chief disadvantage
lies in its limited scope, in that its appeal is to highly developed
and organized faculties, just those faculties with which the
neuropathic are not for the most part particularly gifted and
which are the first to be weakened in disease. In practice, per-
suasion is apt to degenerate into partial explanations author-
itatively enunciated, in which the physician has to make the best
he can of the ignorance of the patient and of his own necessarily
meagre scientific acquisitions, and in which pure ratiocination
plays a small part. In short, persuasion merges into suggestion.
Suggestion, as a formal method of therapeutics, is but of recent
origin (see 26.48). In large measure it has been, from the
earliest times, ancillary to miraculous, magical and professional
modes of healing. Under other names it has often been the only
curative agent and has been used uncombined with physical
agents or ritual performances, but for the most part it has been
practised in combination with these. Professional or scientific
medicine, though seeing no way of escape, has often sought and
still seeks to have as little to do as possible with so indeterminate
and varying a mode of cure. It struggles after more exact and
precise results, in the fond hope that at some distant date each
disorder, psychic or somatic, shall either be prevented from
occurring at all or if it occurs shall be met forthwith by some
one rapidly acting and efficacious medicament.
The first great impetus to the use of suggestion as a formal
method of therapeutics came from Mesmer during the latter
part of the eighteenth century, and for well nigh a century
suggestion, employed as such, was associated with hypnotism
(see 14.201). The artificial induction, but not by drugs, of a
state in some ways resembling sleep was first called by this
name rather before the middle of the nineteenth century, and
it was found that the hypnotized person was, in a great majority
of cases, in a condition in which suggestions made to him
were acted upon with astonishing accuracy either at once or at
some subsequent time as determined by the hypnotizer, in short
that his suggestibility or capacity for receiving and acting upon
suggestion had been much increased. The word "suggestion"
used in association with mental therapy has lost some of its preci-
sion. Few are agreed as to its meaning: no one can do more than
speculate as to the mode of action implied by it. It is common
to hear detractors of some cure, whether it be miraculous, or of
the character of those relied on by Christian Science, or emanat-
ing directly from orthodox medicine, explain it as being " merely "
due to suggestion. What is really meant by such an explanation
is not always apparent, and it is desirable to restrict the meaning
of the term " suggestion " as applied to therapeutics to the process
in which it is sought authoritatively to instil an idea into the
patient's mind with a view to the relief of some morbid process.
From the catalogues of cases set forth by some practitioners it
would appear that almost any affection is capable of ameliora-
tion or cure by suggestion. A more modest and a more generally
held estimate would limit the cases amenable to this treatment
to those of functional disorder and of organic disease in which
super-added functional symptoms are a prominent feature.
The difference between persuasion and suggestion, as indicated
above, is that in the former an appeal is made, at least in theory,
to the highest levels of the patient's mind, whereas in sug-
gestion (and particularly is this the case when it is combined
with hypnosis) directions are delivered to levels of which the
patient is only partially conscious, or which he is not aware of
as being concerned in the production of his symptoms, or which
he does not hold to be capable of activation in their amelioration,
or of which, indeed, he is wholly unconscious. In the endeavour
to make use of such levels it is plain that it may be necessary
to endeavour to inhibit the operations of those that are higher,
since these are occupied largely and sometimes almost wholly
by the miseries of the patient.
Suggestion suffers from the essential vice of the older therapy
in that it is directed rather to the treatment of the symptom
than to the disorder of which the symptom is but part. Move-
ment may, for example, be restored to a paralysed limb, but the
mental processes of which the movement is the outcome may
nevertheless remain unhealthy. A coordinated purposive action
is not wholly explained in terms of the movement c; a limb, but
involves preliminary sensual, perceptual, rational and volitional
activities, one or several or all of which may be affected. Criti-
cism has largely been directed against the method of suggestion
in that it would seem to convert the patient into an automatic
machine which responds to activation without knowing what it
does or why it does it : there is obedience without reflection or
judgment. Whether this be always so or not, the physician
in any case is in ignorance as to which part of the whole psycho-
logical system he is operating upon; indeed he is ignorant as to
which part of it is in a morbid state. Hysteria is held by many
2O6
PSYCHOTHERAPY
psychologists to lie in mental dissociation, that is that the various
mental processes do not cooperate harmoniously and that some
are active while others are dormant. Suggestion in the hypnotic
state seems artificially to procure this very state of dissociation,
and in fact is widely held to induce a mental state analogous to,
if not identical with, that of hysteria. To avoid so unhappy a
result of a therapeutic measure as the establishment of a morbid
state, endeavours have been made to practise suggestion when
the patient is not under hypnosis, that is, when he is awake.
It is nevertheless usual to direct the patient to allow his mind
to adopt an attitude of passive receptivity, and when, if he can,
he has done this to make suggestions to him. Only so far as
the critical faculties are dormant are such suggestions likely to
be efficacious, and if the critical faculties are dormant the method
is open to such objection as may be made to hypnotism. This
mode of suggestion is probably but little removed from the
method of persuasion, the physician hoping that his case may be
accepted under the guise of suggestion with a minimum of ad-
verse criticism.
The term " auto-suggestion " has been used to denote a
process in which the patient himself attempts to exercise a
salutary influence upon his malady by concentrating his thought
upon the idea of his cure or by, as it were, commanding his
symptoms to disappear. The operation may be assisted by the
withdrawal of the patient to a quiet place, by his placing himself
in an attitude of repose and by his endeavour to empty his mind
of all ideas save the one which is curative. Given sufficient
intensity of purpose a man may by such treatment of himself
rise superior to the ills that afflict him, think or act in spite of
them, and, indeed, in certain cases annihilate them. It is not,
however, given to many to reach success on these lines. Afflicted
man seeks two things, one to know what really is the matter with
him and the second to obtain succour from forces external to
himself; he ardently desires a diagnosis and a healer. The
desire for correct diagnosis is necessarily shared by him who
aspires to be a scientific physician, prompts the constant search
for the cause of symptoms and inspires the hope that, a cause
being discovered, treatment will be more radical and effectual.
Such ideas have led to the inquiries which of recent years have
been instituted into the development of the human mind, both
from the racial and from the individual aspects, and have resulted
in new methods of mental analysis.
Psychological analysis (or " psycho-analysis ") has been prac-
tised by the method of introspection for centuries. It involves
the examination of his mind by the individual himself and
the attempt to differentiate between such mental operations
as those of feeling, knowing, reasoning, wishing and willing.
Such inquiries eventuated in difference of opinion and ceaseless
controversy as to the spheres of these faculties, as they were
called; nor was the introspective method, owing to the difficulty
of getting it efficiently practised by patients, of much value in
morbid psychology. The newer methods of analytical psychol-
ogy as applied to morbid mental manifestations, or to such bodily
symptoms as might be supposed to be due to disordered mental
processes, have addressed themselves to the discovery of a
presumedly basic causative idea, its association with other
ideas, and its genesis.
The earliest signs of mind in the individual have the character
of reflexes, that is, that upon the reception of a certain stimulus
by the organism a particular series of movements ensues. Some
of these pass by the name of instincts, are of a complicated char-
acter, and appear to occur without previous experience and with-
out education or direction from without. Very early, however,
in the History of the child the play of instinct is controlled, re-
pressed or supplanted by positive injunctions from others, by
the inculcation of habits, by lines of thought and conduct sug-
gested to him by his observations of those about him, by his
desire to imitate their doings and to repeat their sayings, and by
his personal experience. The purely natural development of the
child is interfered with in order that he .may be fitted for life in a
civilized society. During this process certain actions initially
pleasurable come to be regarded as unconventional, or repre-
hensible, or shameful, or immodest, or all of these together, and
so gradually rules of thought and conduct come into being.
Almost all, and perhaps all, thoughts and actions are associated
with some emotional tone, that is, with feelings of pleasure or
displeasure or pain. Such feelings are of varying intensity,
being in some cases so weak that they can scarcely be discerned
and in others so powerful as to occupy and command the entire
personality. During the education of the child a separation may
be brought about between an action and the associated emotional
tone or affect, as it is termed. If a child has learnt to regard a
pleasurable act as blameworthy and in fact acts no longer in
this particular way, the affect which was associated with the
act may become partially or wholly detached from it and may
perhaps be replaced by its opposite. It is one of the hypotheses
of psycho-analysis that a dissociated affect of this character may
produce symptoms at once or in later life, either because the
affect has not been passed on to some other important or more
legitimate object of activity and remains as a quantum of unused
psychic energy, or because it has become attached to a sub-
stitute for its original partner of unworthy or ridiculous charac-
ter. The gradual passing on of affects from lower levels of activ-
ity to those that are higher has been called sublimation, and their
progress from the satisfaction of very lowly bodily wants to the
highest ethical and aesthetic acquirements of the mind has been
elaborately examined. The failure in attachment of an affect
to any sort of substitute for its original partner may result in
those indefinite emotional states, sometimes of a distinctly
morbid character, in which the individual may be happy or
miserable or excited or apathetic for no reason which is obvious
to himself or to anyone else; while the attachment of affects to
somewhat trifling and comparatively valueless objects is seen
in the inordinate interest taken by some in domestic pets,
bric-a-brac, pastimes, or fantastic and inane social entertain-
ments. Sometimes, however, the affect remains unconverted
and still attached to the original act, so that a conflict arises
between the primitive and personal desires on the one hand
and desires of later acquisition weighted with civilized, ethical,
legal and religious authority, on the other. Many such con-
flicts are plainly carried on in full consciousness, and are examples
of the lust of the flesh against the spirit and of the spirit against
the flesh and of the contrariness of the one to the other, but others
are by no means so obvious, and their existence may only betray
itself by trifling, though odd, deviations from ordinary conduct,
by unexplained prejudices and habits, or by symptoms of
functional nervous disorder or by the yet more pronounced
symptoms of insanity. The conflicts which lie in the field of
consciousness may largely be dealt with, in so far as they come
under the notice of the physician, in that field. The mere dis-
closure to another of the existence of a conflict may suffice to
produce a therapeutic effect, and this may be further enhanced
by the discussion of the subject and its illumination by another
mind, but there are conflicts in which the opposing elements and
their origin and genesis are not apparent or recognized or indeed
discoverable without much labour. Such conflicts are said to
lie in the field of the unconscious and to be due to the per-
sistence in that field of repressions made at that time of life
when the instinctive desires of the individual, tutored by early
environment and education, have undergone a process of re-
straint. By a wide, and as it seems to some, unnatural extension
of the term "sexual" the interest of the infant in its excretory
functions and its relations with its parents is ascribed to the
sexual instinct, and is that which, owing to existing social con-
ventions, is most subject to repression. It is held that the rela-
tions of the child to his mother have an element of sexuality
hitherto not determined. Hence the frequent occurrence of such
terms as the " Oedipus Complex " and " incest " as descriptive
of certain infantile affects. It is further held that the earliest
interest of a child in itself is of a sexual character, that it is
" auto-erotic." Progress is made from this stage to another in
which the child's sexual admiration for himself is termed " nar-
cissism"; then to one in which the interest is extended to other
members of his own sex, and finally to one in which sexuality
PSYCHOTHERAPY
207
becomes centred upon the normal object, that is upon the op-
posite sex. This development may be arrested at any point, and
the arrest may later in life be displayed in various sexual perver-
sions. If a person in whom such an arrest has occurred, say, at
the stage of homosexuality, is living in a civilized society,
difficult internal conflicts are likely in later life to ensue between
the strength of his desires and his fear of outraging both social
convention and legal enactment; or, owing to the fixation of his
affect upon an object, not the normal end object of the sexual
instinct, he may find himself impotent in his relations with one
of the opposite sex. The efforts of psycho-analysis are directed
towards the discovery of repression, arrest of development and
the conflicts which are thus generated. If these can be brought
to light there is hope that further development may occur, that
unattached or badly attached affects may find appropriate and
fitting objects, and that conflicts may be resolved by the co-
ordinating action of the conscious.
Analysts are not, however, in complete agreement as to whether
sexuality is the sole or essential cause of functional nervous
symptoms. Some find in the desire of the individual to express
his influence upon others, or his " will to power," an active
determining cause of the internal conflict which arises when
he finds himself in opposition to social conventions and to such
activities of those about him as tend to impede his progress.
Others again seek to find conflicts not so much in the past
development of the individual as in the difficulties which arise
when he endeavours to attain such ideal ends as he has proposed
to himself. But whatever the value attached to the elements
of causation of morbid states there is general agreement that it
is not only the conscious field with its obvious conflicts which,
has to be explored but that the unconscious field should also
be examined in as much detail as is possible.
The form of the content of the unconscious and of the conscious
mind appears to be determined by analogous processes. Percep-
tions are apparently not invariably noted by the conscious.
It is not an uncommon experience to discover perceptions which
must have been made at a certain time and place which only
well up into consciousness at some later date, while the details
of a perception which were not clear or even considered at all
at the time they were received, may be placed in their true
position by analysis. In certain morbid states, for instance,
delirium and mania, memories of events and even of languages
which have been forgotten for many years, may be recovered.
Such memories Me in depths of mind to which the term " un- j
conscious " alone seems applicable. Constructive ideation and ;
ratiocination appear also to proceed in the unconscious mind.
Problems which have been propounded and set aside for a while
receive, as it were suddenly and unexpectedly, a solution ; indeed
such solutions are recorded as having been reached during sleep.
Similarly the execution of works of art, pictorial, musical or
literary, is, especially in the case of genius, often effected without
immediately preceding conscious mental effort, while the ideas
of preachers, orators, wits and ordinary conversationalists
often seem voiced automatically. Indeed the obtrusion of con-
scious effort not uncommonly mars rather than enhances the
value of artistic expression. Conventionally the term "sub-
conscious " has become restricted to those states of mind which,
though not at the focus of conscious thought, can be brought to
that focus at the will of the individual, but the differentiation
between such states and those which are brought to conscious-
ness only at exceptional times or by analytic methods seems to
be of a very indeterminate nature. A much more particular
meaning is assigned to the unconscious by some who make of it
a rather sharply denned collection of primitive and instinctive
infantile affects. Whatever may be the view adopted on this
point, there is but little division of opinion as to the view that
the affects which impel conduct, whether primitive or elaborated
and sublimated, lie to a great extent in the unconscious, and the
search for and examination of these affects when brought into
consciousness constitute the great merit of knowledge of self.
Not only does the unconscious seem to contain the powers
already alluded to, but it has been sought to establish that there
is in it a something which has been termed the " censor " which
seeks to prevent the emergence of unacceptable affects from the
unconscious into the sub-conscious and thence into the con-
scious. To this " censor " is also attributed powers of trans-
mutation of ideas and symbolization which render the crude and
unpalatable operations of the unconscious less unacceptable to
the conscious. The examination of dreams by the analytic
method is held to have demonstrated the existence of such
operations. The ideas of a given dream are one by one examined,
with a view to the discovery of their associations, that is of their
immediate relation with other ideas, and it is found that the
manifest content of the dream is but a condensation of a much
wider range of ideas and only indirectly and allegorically
expressive of them. The dream is found to be the expression
of an affect whose existence may perhaps not hitherto have
been recognized and whose passage into the conscious has been
prevented. On these points also there is not a complete con-
sensus of opinion, and by some the analysis of dreams is held to
disclose not only or so much the expression of the most primitive
affects but also the ends which the individual in fact desires but
of which he is but unconfessedly and dimly, if at all, aware.
Indeed the interpretation of dreams seems not infrequently to
depend not so much upon a thoroughgoing analysis as upon
the psychological views and imagination of the interpreter.
Another method of exploration is that by free association.
The patient is placed in a comfortable position and is directed
to close his eyes and then to say whatever idea comes into his
head, no matter how absurd or rude or otherwise offensive it
may be. Ordinary volitional precautionary control being in this
way relaxed, vent is given to the repressed content or at least
various groupings of ideas are disclosed. Analogous results are
obtained when, owing to intoxication or disease, patients reveal
trains of thought remote from those to which in healthy states
they give utterance, the very existence of which has been un-
known to them and which when known is repulsive.
A third method of analysis is that by the " time-association "
test. In this again the patient places himself in a comfortable
position and relaxes his attention to what is going on or to any
particular line of thought so far as is possible. He is directed to
listen to certain words pronounced by the analyst, and on hearing
one forthwith to say the word which first arises in his mind. The
time between the signal word and the reply is noted. Normally
the length of time is two to three seconds, and if it is prolonged
or if after some 45 seconds no reply has been given the reaction
is considered to be worthy of further examination and to indicate
the existence of a group of ideas associated with a definite and
perhaps marked emotional tone, that is, with a " complex," as
such a group has come to be technically called. But the time
element is in fact not the only one of importance in this test,
since the character itself of the reply word is put to valuation.
Test words may elicit replies of a rhyming character, or altogether
commonplace, but on the other hand they may be so incon-
sequential and unexpected that a surmise at once arises that they
imply the existence of a complex.
Such then are the methods adopted in analysis, and it must
be plain that if carried out in detail they must necessarily occupy
a considerable amount of time. Unhappily in practice analysis
is apt, owing to the limitation of available time, to be slip-shod,
while deductions are hastily drawn from hastily gathered data;
this is by so much the greater a misfortune in that the out-
standing merit of analysis lies in its claim to be something of
an exact method of examination and thus to supply in psycho-
therapy a way of discovering, and so of treating, ths basis of the
symptoms complained of. Though an analysis may not be
thorough or the results of a thorough analysis may be incorrect,
yet some amelioration of symptoms may occur, and in such an
event it is possible that the process of cure is somewhat similar
to that obtaining in treatment by suggestion. Though in an
impartial analysis the physician should be little more than a
recording machine, it is extremely difficult for him to avoid
making, or at least being the occasion of, suggestions. The
patient seeks a cure at the hands of one whom he regards as
208
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE
having special knowledge; he is hopeful of a good result and is
prepared to act upon the advice proffered. In a multitude of
cases such factors seem to constitute the essentials of the cure,
while the subsequent particularity of method is but of secondary
importance; and however much analysis may scorn suggestion,
and it does so quite ostensibly, it, like other methods, can
hardly hope to escape such vitiations of its pure practice. In
analysis the patient must necessarily feel a more than ordinary
degree of confidence in one to whom, through a species of psychic
vivisection undergone by himself, he is prepared to reveal such
facts about himself as the penitent reveals only under the safe-
guards of the seal of confession, and indeed possibly to go further
and reveal much more that is revolting and that is not present
in consciousness. Such confidence in itself implies a faith which
would move mountains and a mental state singularly receptive
of suggestion. From deductions based upon their experience
some analysts regard an examination as incomplete until and
unless a sexual complex has been discovered. This probably
accounts, at least in part, for the fact that the time occupied runs
sometimes into years, and that even then the results are not
wholly illuminating and satisfactory: while it almost certainly
does account for an unfortunate persistence of thought along
sexual lines which sometimes develops in patients treated by
this method. It is, however, in the detailed elaboration of in-
vestigation and in the consequent establishment of unsuspected
relationships between ideas and trends of thought and action
that the undisputed merit of later psychological methods is to
be found. Hitherto psychological examination of the normal
mind has for the most part been by the subject of the subject,
that is, the subject has been artificially objectified by itself;
while examination of the abnormal mind has mostly been con-
fined to the conscious superficies. Analysis has made examination
both of the normal and of the abnormal a definite study of
objective mental phenomena.
Many diseases in general and many functional nervous dis-
orders and mental affections in particular get better or well by
a natural process of cure, and it is difficult to distinguish among
the antecedents of the process of betterment those which
especially have a causal relationship with it. Some such are
artificial and have been devised on various grounds, religious,
magical, philosophical and scientific, for therapeutic purposes;
but the essential difficulties in therapeutics are to determine the
efficacy of such artificially introduced antecedents and whether
the desired result might have been attained without them.
Hence the remarkable discrepancies of opinion as to the value
of modes of treatment, even when they have been originated and
practised by those trained in scientific method and of ample
knowledge. The frequent apparent absence of adequate physical
factors in the causation of many functional nervous and mental
diseases, the dualism which distinguishes between the spheres
of action of mind and body, and the apparent potency of the
psychic activities of one person directed upon the mental state
of another, combine to justify the practice of psychotherapeutics.
Nevertheless, even with a proper respect for most recent develop-
ments, it is still difficult to be sure as to which is the most success-
ful method, or whether a combination of physico- and psycho-
therapeutics may not be better than either alone. It is strange
to note how exceedingly exclusive the methods of therapy are
apt to be. Those who perform miracles or heal by processes such
as those of Christian Science claim no technical skill in medical
diagnosis or any regard for it, but variation in treatment accord-
ing to variation in diagnosis or at bast according to the various
aetiological factors discovered might be expected from the
scientifically trained. Nevertheless too frequently the per-
suasionist, the hypnotist or the analyst apply their methods,
much in the way that their precursors of long ago apph'ed their
nostra, with entire lack of discrimination. Perhaps lying behind
their particular methods there is a common factor, one of per-
sonal influence, in which certain outstanding practitioners excel
and which the remainder conspicuously lack. That there is
such a factor is apparent when an ignorant practitioner is seen
to be highly successful and one who is learned to be unsuccessful.
In truth, however, the nature of this influence, like so many of
the antecedents of improvement in cases of functional nervous
and mental disorders, is at present unknown. There must be a
very considerable advance before we obtain accurate knowledge
of the relative value of the many therapeutic factors that are
perhaps concerned. At present treatment is largely haphazard,
and improvement is ascribed to the treatment, if any, imme-
diately preceding it; treatment which, maybe, has nothing
whatever to do with the improvement that occurs.
LITERATURE. The most important works on psycho-analysis
are four by S. Freud, the most prominent investigator of the subject,
translated for English readers by Brill : Collected Papers on Hysteria,
(1912), The Interpretation of Dreams (1913), The Psycho pathology of
Everyday Life (1914) and Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex
(1918). Brill has given a good account of these in his Psycho-analy-
sis. Jung's deviation from Freud's position is set forth in Collected
Papers on Analytical Psychology, edited by Constance E. Long
(1917). Dream Psychology by M. Nicoll (1920) expounds an inter-
pretation of dreams of a less sexual character than that given by
Freud. P. Janet criticised the methods and findings of psycho-analy-
sh in his report to the I7th International Congress of Medicine
(Proceedings of the Congress, Sect. 12, pt. I, p. 13). This criticism is
somewhat elaborated in Janet's Les Abdications Psychologiques
(1919). On hypnotism the following works are good and ample:
J. M. Bramwell, Hypnotism (1913); A. Forel, Hypnotisme (tr. by
H. W. Armit 1906) ; C. Lloyd Tuckey, Treatment by Hypnotism and
Suggestion (7th ed. 1921). On persuasion the following may be com-
mended: Paul Dubois. De I' Influence de I' Esprit sur le Corps (Engl.
tr. 1910) and [.'Education de Soi-meme (Eng. tr. 1911); J. Camus
and P. Pasrniez, Jsolemcnlet Psychotherapie (1904); J. Dt'jerine and
E. Gauckler, Psychonevroses (1911). A book from a di --tinctively
Christian point of view !; the Spiritual Director and Physician by
Rev. V. Raymond, tr. by Dom Aloysius Smith (1914). (E. D. M.)
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE. A marked feature in the social-eco-
nomic history of the 2oth century, and one which became even
more marked in its second decade, has been the growth in
public expenditure in relief of private wants. " Public Assistance "
is of two kinds, direct and indirect. Direct public assistance is
the receipt of any benefit in money or in kind at the expense of
the rates or taxes which is wholly or partly unpaid for by the
reiipient. Direct public assistance includes objects like old-
age pensions, unemployed benefit, children's meals and medical
assistance. Indirect public assistance includes cheap baths and
wash-houses, main drainage, cheap railway tickets, sanitary
inspection and regulation generally, the control and maintenance
of water supply and roads. It is with direct public assistance
only that this article deals.
In the form of general doles, public assistance has always
exercised a most disastrous influence on the countries where it
prevailed. In the ancient world the State was founded on slavery
an 1 the citizens were a minority. In Athens the payment of
citizens for attendance at the public assemblies and religious
ceremonies known as the theoric fund, exercise! a corrupting
influence on the democracy from the time of Pericles, and
Aristotle lays down the general proposition: " Demagogues
distribute surplus revenue to the poor. These re-eive them and
are again in want. For such heH to the poor is li';e ' the cask
with holes in it." " The free distribution of corn at Rome had the
same results. At first it was sold cheap to the poor in 121 B.C.;
then in 58 B.C. it was made free. At first only one-eighth of
the citizens took part in the distribution, but within little more
than a decade the proportion had increased six-fol.l, and the
number reached 320,000. Caesar reduced the number to 150,000,
but in Augustus' time it rose ajain, and the rise continued till
as Gi jbon relates " in the aje which preceded the fall of the
Republic only 2,000 citizens were possessed of an independent
substance." When the itmeriil granaries, namely Sicily and
Carthage, were lost, the wretched people, by this time quite
Destitute of self-help and self-reliance, were thrown back upon
voluntary charity and the Church.
GREAT BRITAIN. In modern times England has been the
" classic land " for State-regulated public assistance. The sys-
tem dates from 1601, the 43rd year of the reign of Elizabeth.
During the Middle Ages the poorer classes depended on the feudal
chiefs and the Church. As the feudal system decayed the poor
fell back on the ecclesiastical foundations, and in the oft-quoted
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE
209
words of Fuller, the abbeys " dispensed mistaken charity,
promiscuously entertaining some who did and many who did not
desire it: yea! these abbeys did but support the poor whom they
themselves had made." With the dissolution of these abbeys
these poor people were thrown back on the State, and under the
Statute of Elizabeth, which lasted unimpaired till 1834 and in
1921 was still the basis of the Poor Law, a compulsory assessment
was made " for the relief of the impotent and the setting of
the able-bodied to work." (See under CHARITY and CHARITIES,
5.880 seq.)
The administration of the Poor Law proceeded for 230 years
with variations of leniency and severity till 1785, when a period
of excessive expenditure set in, which in some cases swallowed up
the whole of the annual rateable value of the land and reduced
the nation to the verge of bankruptcy, leaving the population in
a state of complete demoralization. In 20 years from 1783 the
Poor Law expenditure had more than doubled itself, and in 1817
it had reached the enormous total of 7,871,811 for a population
of about 11,000,000. In 1832 a Royal Commission was ap-
pointed which conducted a thorough inquiry and collected
striking evidence on the moral deterioration. It appeared from
the evidence that the change made in the character and habits of
the poor by once receiving public relief is quite remarkable.
They are demoralized ever afterwards. " The disease is heredi-
tary," it was contended, "and when once a family has applied
for relief they are pressed down for ever." The receipt of relief
by a man has been compared in its results to the loss of virtue
in a woman. They are never the same again. The commis-
sioners state that pauperism seems to be an engine for the pur-
pose of disconnecting each member of the family from all
others : of reducing all to the state of domesticated animals fed,
lodged and provided fcr by the parish without mutual depend-
ence or mutual interest.
The Commissioners showed that the bulk of the abuses and
evils disclosed were the direct result of indiscriminate outdoor re-
lief. They laid down the principbs: (i) that the pauper's condition
shall be less eligible than that of the independent labourer of the
lowest class who has to bear the charge; (2) that the function
of the State should be limited to the relief of destitution, such
destitution to be tested by the willingness to enter a workhouse
or institution; (3) that remedial relief as opposed to the relief of
destitution should be left to voluntary charity. The main truth
is that in all public relief there must be an element of deter-
rence and some check or test to prevent general pauperism.
On these principles the new Poor Law, the administration of
which was handed over to the Commissioners, was based, and it
was exercised with such efficiency that in 1871 with a population
of 22,500,000 the cost was almost exactly the same as in 1817 with
a population of 11,000,000; in other words the cost of pauperism
per head of the population had sunk from 145. to 75. Between
1873 and 1883 the percentage of those in receipt of direct public
assistance was slightly over 3% of the population, the lowest
point reached being 2-9 in 1878 and 1879. In the meanwhib the
working-classes had not only recovered their self-respect and
self-reliance but had through their own organization, the trade
unions, the friendly societies, the cooperative societies and the
building societies, provided a complete answer to all the difficul-
ties of the Labour problem. In these trade unions and friendly
societies they themselves without help from the State had
elaborated methods by which provision was made for sickness,
accident and old age. Their cooperative societies provided them
with the necessaries of life of excellent quality at little over
cost price; their building societies provided them with the means
to acquire their own houses. At the beginning of the 'nineties
a complete survey of the whole problem was taken by the Royal
Commission on Labour, and it appeared that the income of 542
trade unions was 1,790,000 and the membership 1,080,000.
There were 29,742 friendly societies with a membership of
8,320,262 and funds of more than 26,000,000; also 1,624
cooperative societies with 1,119,000 members and 17,000,000
capital; the sale of foods amounted to 48,500,000 and the profits
to 4,774. 00 ; while the assets of the building societies
(50,700,000) brought the total capital funds traceable to the
working-classes up to between 90,000,000 and 100,000,000,
quite apart from their deposits in savings banks, etc., which a
competent authority estimated at another 160,000,000 at the
very least. So different was the position that Mr. Ludlow (the
chief registrar of the friendly societies) could say in his evidence
before the Commission: " Now the black spots in the country
may I think almost be counted on the fingers. In former days
it was very nearly black, with but few white spots." This wonder-
ful development of self-help embraced all skilled labour and was
gradually taking hold of the unskilled, giving the English working-
man a knowledge of business and a training in self-government
such as the working-man in no other non-English speaking
country possessed in anything like the same degree, if at all.
The serpent however was in the grass. The politicians saw
capital in the working-man as a voter. In 1886 the first breach
was made in the Poor Law system by the institution of municipal
distress committees which withdrew the unemployed to a certain
extent from the workhouse test. In 1890 the fees for elementary
education were remitted, that the poor might have more where-
with to pay for the food and clothing of their children, but it was
not till the beginning of the 2oth century that, to use Aristotle's
expression, more hobs were made in the cask. In 1905 the
Unemployed Workmen's Act was passed. In 1906 the Children's
Meals Provision Act was passed, in 1907 the Administrative
Provisions Act, in 1908 Old Age Pensions were adopted and in
1911 the system of National Health Insurance was introduced
with its famous bribe of " gd. for 4d." By 1913 it was no longer
possible to form any idea of what proportion of the population
was living on its exertions and what was depending on public
subsidy, or what was the administrative cost. In January of that
year therefore, the writer, with the support of friends on both
sides of politics, began to ask for a return which would give the
facts and figures. In 1919 the fourth edition of that return
was published, and later information enables the following pic-
ture to be given in 1921.
In 1890 the expenditure on public assistance from rates and
taxes was 25,000,000, in 1901 40,000,000, in 1911 68,800,000,
in 1919 172,800,000 according to a return which includes
figures as old as 1916 (No. 160, 1920), and for the year ending
March 31 1921 no less than 332,000,000 (including war pensions)
as far as can be gathered from statements in Parliament. The
beneficiaries from the last-mentioned return appear to number
not fewer than 28,000,000 out of a population which cannot be
put higher than 48,000,000. In other words 58% of the popula-
tion ia 1921 were receiving help from public funds, at a rate of
about 6 us. per head, as compared with 4-6% at a rate of
73. per head in 1871.
With regard to the total of 28,000,000, on the one hand there
is, as will be seen, a great deal of fraud and overlapping which
may tend to reduce the number, but on the other hand there are a
great many gaps in the figures of the return, the figures relating
to the National Insurance Unemployment Act being given at
58,000 much too few for the year ending March 31 1921.
We must now say a few words as to some of the holes in the
cask, and on the means, if anv, of regulating the money poured in
or stopping the leaks.
The principal British Acts concerned are (i) the Education
Act with the Provision of Meals Acts, etc.; (2) the Old Age
Pension Acts; (3) the National Health Insurance Acts; (4) the
Public Health Act, (a) as to hospitals and treatment of disease,
(b) as to maternity and child welfare; (5) War Pensions and
Ministry of Pensions Acts; (6) Housing of the Working Class
Acts; (7) Acts relating to the relief of the poor; (8) Unemployed
Workmen's Act; (9) Unemployed Insurance Act. No account
is here taken of the bread, coal and railway subsidies, which
amounted in 1920-1 to about 87,000,000; they are omitted
because they affected the whole population and were temporary.
The Education Act would not at first sight seem to fall
under the heading of public assistance, but educationists take an
entirely new view of their work to that of other days. "Formerly,"
says an education report of the London County Council in 1910,
2IO
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE
"education was in the main confined (i) to the growth of char-
acter, (2) to the growth of the mind. Now it looks increasingly
at the social problems which present themselves for solution in
the case of the individual child, the problem of physical deteriora-
tion, of under-feeding, of impoverished homes and unsuitable
employment." In regard to necessitous children, the same
authority remarks: " Necessitous children are not necessarily
ill-nourished at the time of application, though they would become
so if relief were withheld." Not a word is said about the duties
of the parent. The same is true of the Public Health Acts, the
administrators of which do not consider the character of the
individual, but solely the health point of view.
With regard to the vast expenditure under the Education
Acts, the select committee on national expenditure reported
in Dec. 1918 that they had been impressed by the atmosphere
of financial laxity in which questions involving education are
apt to be considered, and state that under the Act of 1918 neither
Parliament nor the Board of Education nor the local authorities
can control education.
With regard to the Old Age Pensions Acts which were to
diminish Poor Law expenditure and empty the workhouses, the
minister who introduced the proposal in 1008 stated that no
Chancellor of the Exchequer in his senses would think of adding
3,000,000 to the sum of 6,000,000 which he proposed. In 1921
the amount voted was 28,000,000, and a proposal to add
15,000,000 thereto was only defeated by a majority of 12, the
proposer stating that this was but an instalment and that he
was in favour of raising the amount of the pension from los. to j
2os. and reducing the pensionable age from 70 to 60. As to the
administration of those Acts it is noteworthy that Ireland with
a pop. of 4,390,000 drew 3,329,000 for 181,000 pensioners,
while Scotland with a pop. of 4,760,900 drew 1,664,000 for
90,000 pensioners. This looks as if there was a leak somewhere.
Old-age pensioners have from the first received medical
relief from the Poor Law, and now, if necessitous, are entitled to
receive other relief as well. The separation of the local adminis-
tration from that of the Poor Law for political reasons has had
unsatisfactory results, apart from the extra expense.
With regard to the administration of the National Health
Insurance Act, Sir Arthur Newsholme, a well-known authority,
has stated that "the system is not actuarially, financially or
medically sound, and has invol^d expenditures in administra-
tion entirely incommensurate with the benefit received."
The overlapping of the insurance system with the Poor Law
has involved endless difficulties, and it appears from the Return
No. 160 (1920) that the annual expenditure for the year given
(1919 is the latest available) was 4,294,000 out of a total
expenditure of 20,311,000. It was stated as long ago as 1912
that overcoats, underclothing and fdbd were given under
sanatorium benefit, thus relieving public health and Poor Law
funds, and sanatorium benefit was only a rechristened form of
outdoor relief. As to the Poor Law, it may be observed in passing
that its expense increased between the years 1911 and 1919
from 15,000,000 to 18,000,000 for England and Wales alone,
and as old-age pensioners left the workhouse their places were
filled by those under 70 years of age.
With regard to the unemployed insurance it appears that the
reserve of 20,000,000 which existed after the World War was
exhausted by June 1921, and that the Treasury was drawn upon
for another 10,000,000, while as to the unemployed dole the
magistrate at the Thames police court on May 18 1921 said:
" It has been said from this bench over and over again that such
doles lend themselves to and almost induce fraud."
All that can be said with certainty as to the national housing
scheme is that the losses to the central and local Government
on each house annually will amount to an enormous sum. Origin-
ally 1,000,000 houses were to be built. In May 1921 the annual
loss to the State on each house was placed officially at 60 apart
from loss to the rates. This makes an annual loss of about
18,000,000, or a total eventual loss at the end of 60 years of
700,000,000. Thus a privileged class of house-holders will be
created at an enormous loss.
The attitude of Parliament to such expenditure gives little
hope of a check from that quarter. There is a constant complaint
of the apathy and slight attendance at debates on economy, and
the late Speaker of the House of Commons pointed out that since
1900 there has been a great change in the attitude of the House
towards economy and that now the advocates of economy " do
not get a look in." The Chancellor of the Exchequer frankly
said in March 1920 that with such items as old-age pensions,
a national unemployment scheme and a national housing scheme,
it was impossible to offer a blunt uncompromising refusal to
proposals for new expenditure.
With regard to the central authority, economy is unlikely
from that direction, for enormous increases have been made
either in the shape of additional salary or temporary bonus by
Whitley Councils consisting of civil servants to the lower grades
and by the Government to the higher grades (including the
Treasury), which in both cases, without previous knowledge or
sanction of Parliament, the central authority has by circular
invited local authorities to follow, and the central authority
has a means in the Exchequer grants (which it can give or with-
hold at will) for stirring up the local authority to spend money.
On the whole then, there seem few weapons in the hands of
those who would stop the progress of a democratic nation on
the road to ruin. But they comprise, first, a complete statement
of accounts showing how the money is raised, how it is spent, what
is the administrative cost and who are the beneficiaries, whether
worthy or unworthy. Secondly, the institution of a strong but
small central commission, as in 1832, to ration the administra-
tion of the whole of the new system of public assistance, taking
care not only to punish fraud and put down overlapping but also
to make the position of the beneficiaries (apart from war pension-
ers) less eligible than that of the lowest class of independent
workmen, and introduce some stringent and deterrent test.
Lastly, to make it clear that all this vast expenditure from the
rates and taxes, however carefully disguised, falls in the long
run most heavily on the working-classes, by wasting the fund
from which come new enterprises and increased wages on
myriads of officials who make the poor man's life a burden to him.
(G. DR.)
UNITED STATES. Owing to the fact that the United States
is still a new country with a comparatively small number of
poor, the need in its communities for public assistance in the
relief of poverty and attendant ills has been much less urgent
than in European countries. One consequence is that the " right
to relief " has been recognized in the laws of only a few of the
states. That every man ought to support himself and his family
is, or has been, the working social theory of Americans of all
classes. They have looked with disfavour on continued subsidies
and other payments which might seem to be part of a routine,
preferring to provide temporary assistance when necessary,
treating each case as an emergency, in the expectation that the
beneficiary will soon be able to shift for himself. They have
declined to recognize formally the existence of a necessitous
class. Hence much of the relief work in the United States up
to 1921 was still done by privately supported agencies.
In the decade 1910-20 it became obvious, however, that a
change had begun. Americans seemed to be losing their aversion
to paternalistic government, and the newer proposals for social
betterment tended to call for some kind of legislation involving
an extension of state or municipal activity and for an appropria-
tion. Among the more progressive states and cities it became the
rule to establish departments of public welfare, which, though
their duties and perhaps their theories were somewhat vague,
nevertheless made incessant demands for further appropriations
and for fresh welfare legislation. It is characteristic of the
American point of view, however, that this welfare movement
concerned itself less with the lowest forms of poverty or with the
most helpless layer of the dependent than with improving the
conditions of life among wage-earners in general.
The tendency to extend the range of Government activity
in welfare work did not escape serious criticism. This criticism
was perhaps most emphatic with respect to the ever-widening
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE
21 I
scope of the work undertaken by public health departments. The
point was made that in so far as these bodies exceeded the limit
of indispensable activities they were " pauperizing " the public.
The accepted view was that the duty of sanitary authorities
was not to help any one family to be healthy, but to prevent any
one family from disseminating disease. But it is almost impos-
sible to draw a line between necessary functions and those which
are largely philanthropic. Thus many cities maintained a large
staff of physicians and nurses whose duty it was to visit schools
and even households, giving advice and treatment free. From
the private practitioner's point of view this work was an encroach-
ment on his legitimate sources of income, but free medical
treatment in the case of school-children, for example, is merely
an incident of free education, for the ability to receive education
is in large degree dependent on physical fitness. It should be
said, moreover, that in most cities free treatment was not
given unless the recipient was unable to pay, and that in any
case the community was only protecting itself by promoting the
health of its individual members. The same question was
involved in the establishment of sanatoriums in many parts of
the United States for the treatment of tuberculosis and other
communicable diseases, both aiding the sufferer and safeguarding
the public from him, as had been done in the case of the insane
for many years. In some of such institutions a nominal charge
was made, but by far the greater part of the expense was paid
by taxation. Hospitalization came to be expected as a right,
regardless of the ability of the patient to pay the cost of treat-
ment. Thus the American public was being taught to feel that
the state or county or city was bound to provide certain kinds
of public assistance which had been regarded as outside the scope
of state subsidies.
Of the newer proposals for public assistance none gained more
rapid headway than that for mothers' allowances or pensions.
The first such law was- passed by Missouri in 1911, and granted
allowances to widows with children and to deserted mothers;
by 1920 there were similar provisions in 39 states. These
allowances ranged from $2 a week for each child up to $25 a month
for the first child and $15 a month for each additional child.
The age limit, after which the allowance was to cease, was
placed at 13 years in some states and as high as 18 in others.
Up to 1920 the aggregate of these allowances had not become
so large as to alarm taxpayers, and in so far as the system saved
the children from being committed to public institutions orphan
asylums and the like it was undoubtedly beneficial. Legisla-
tion for mothers' allowances, no doubt, tends to create a demand
for old-age pensions, but up to 1921 no state had yet undertaken
this form of subsidy. Taxes for mothers' allowances were most-
ly levied and administered by the county governments.
Another form of public assistance which grew rapidly in the
decade 1910-20 was that connected with the health of children,
particularly those attending school. As early as 1892 New
York City provided for the inspection by health officers of
school-children, and by 1920 practically every city had organized
some form of health examination for all pupils attending public
schools. In later years the scope of the work was considerably
expanded; skilled medical examiners were employed to give
especial attention to eyes, throats and teeth, and, where neces-
sary, treatment was often given at public expense. Special
open-air schools were opened in many places for tubercular
children; and proper conditions maintained for giving the
children adequate fresh air, rest and nourishment. In many
poorer districts, where the educational progress of the children
was found to be retarded by under-nourishment, it became
customary for the school authorities to provide a daily luncheon,
which was served either free or at a nominal price. In 1919 cities
having each a pop. of more than 30,000 expended an aggregate
of $1,849,624 on medical work for school-children, and an
additional amount of $908,742 on other child conservation work,
such as the employment of trained nurses to visit mothers in
congested districts and the establishment of infant welfare
stations where mothers could obtain medical advice and free
treatment for their babies.
To determine the aggregate amount of public assistance in
the United States it is necessary to state that such items as those
for sanitation, prevention of epidemics, protection to life and
property cannot properly be regarded as public assistance.
The following tables, based on U.S. Census Bureau reports,
show the increase in public expenditures in the period 1913-9
for health conservation and maintenance of charities, hospitals
and correctional institutions:
HEALTH CONSERVATION
Expended by
States .
Counties
Cities .
Total
1919 1913
$12,249,333 (1918) $ 6,388,114
5,000,000 (est.) 2,815,466
20,208,615 12,000,000 (est.)
S37,457,948
$21,203,580
CHARITIES, HOSPITALS AND CORRECTIONS
States . . . $118,084,025 (1918) $ 87,585,903
Counties . . 60,000,000 (est.) 37,815,508
Cities . . , . 55,086,145 32,896,351
Total . . $233,170,170 $158,297,762
Grand total . $270,628,118 $179,501,342
Thus the increase in expenditures for the purposes noted was
somewhat more than $90,000,000 in six years. These figures,
however, include the cost of certain activities which cannot
rightly be classed as public assistance, and which are approxi-
mately one-third of the total. With respect to the more recent
compilations of the Census Bureau, it is possible, because of
the greater fullness of data, to exclude those items. Thus a tab-
ulation of the expenditures by the states for public assistance in
1918 would include the following:
HEALTH CONSERVATION.
Treatment of tuberculosis
In institutions $5, 105,556
Elsewhere 643,981
Treatment of other communicable diseases . . 1,488,186
Conservation of child life . ' 285,674
Other health activities 764,497
CHARITIES AND HOSPITALS.
Supervision 849,727
Outdoor relief 517,827
Care of poor
In state institutions 211,995
Elsewhere 121,101
Care of children-
In state institutions 1,328,441
Elsewhere 2,023,205
Care of blind, deaf and mute
In state institutions 4,458,758
Elsewhere 1,713,274
Other charities
State institutions 8,924,208
All other 530,862
Hospitals
General 2,613,951
All other 3,149,100
Hospitals for the insane
State 47,860,528
All other 2,091,304
Total $84,682,175
The expenditures of cities for similar purposes in 1919 were as follows:
Prevention and treatment of communicable diseases
Tuberculosis . . ._ . . . . $5,145,280
Other communicable diseases in hospitals . . 4,427,510
Other treatment 2,271,364
Conservation of child life
Medical work for school-children. . . . 1,849,624
Other child conservation work .... 908,742
Charities and hospitals
General supervision 854,466
Outdoor poor relief 4,631,697
Poor in institutions 7,715,94
Care of children 7, ' 2 5>436
Other charities 3,57,5I
General hospitals 16,735,615
Insane hospitals 3,871,082
Welfare commissions 47,37
Total $59,154,114
212
PUBLIC TRUSTEE
With respect to conservation of health, items representing
general administrative expenses have not been included in the
two preceding tables, although a certain percentage of these un-
doubtedly belongs under the heading " public assistance." What-
ever their amount may be it is offset by the unavoidable inclusion
of certain expenditures for preventive health measures, most of
which are undertaken for the benefit of the community at
large rather than with the definite purpose of aiding needy persons.
Detailed figures showing the expenditure of counties were not
available, and it is possible that if the aggregate expenditure
for mothers' allowances were kno'wn, it would materially in-
crease the totals given in this article.
The available data indicate that, exclusive of Federal provision
for former soldiers and their families, and for other agencies for
dependents which come under the jurisdiction of the Federal
Government, the total expenditure for public assistance in the
United States in 1920 was more than $200,000,000, the ap-
propriations originating as follows: states, $90,000,000; counties,
$45,000,000; and cities, $65,000,000. It seemed probable that
these appropriations would rapidly increase as the more recent
projects for public assistance became more fully developed and
as the economic reaction following the World War spent itself.
(F. H. H.)
PUBLIC TRUSTEE (see 27.334). The Office of the Public
Trustee, created in Great Britain by the Public Trustee Act
1906, was opened at Clement's Inn, London, on Oct. i 1907,
under Sir Charles John Stewart, K.B.E. (1918), who organized
and controlbd the Department during a period of rapid growth
until his retirement in 1919. He was succeeded in office by Mr.
Oswald Richard Arthur Simpkin, to whom fell the equally
difficult task of post-war reorganization. The other principal
officers of the Department in 1921 were Mr. Ernest King Allen,
Assistant Public Trustee (at Kingsway), and Mr. Thomas
Moffat Young, Deputy Public Trustee, at Manchester. The
staff in 1921 numbered 874 in London and 86 at Manchester.
The number of trusts and estates accepted for administration
by the Public Trustee in the first year (1907-8) was 63, valued
at 384,000. In 1913-4 the acceptances were 1,573 cases
valued at 13,500,000, and at the end of that period the Office
was administering 5,480 cases, representing a value of 43,500,-
ooo, and had distributed 450 cases and 5,834,691 of trust funds.
Meanwhile the staff had grown in number from 19 to 370, the
annual fee income from 502 to 55,283, and the expenses from
3,312 to 49,428. On April 1*1914 a Northern Branch of the
Department was opened at Manchester (Northern Assurance
Buildings, Albert Square) under a Deputy Public Trustee, and
following on the Report of the Royal Commission on the Civil
Service the Public Trustee's staff was made a part of the per-
manent Civil Service.
The outbreak of the World War found the Department
manned almost entirely by officials of military age, and probably
no Government Office suffered so much from the transfer of
members of its staff to the fighting services. During the greater
part of the war period most of its work had to be done by women
clarks and by such temporary men as could be recruited under
the existing conditions. In Sept. 1914 new and onerous duties
were laid upon the Public Trustee by his appointment under the
Trading with the Enemy Act and Proclamation as Custodian
for England and Wales of enemy property. The Act provided
that all sums payable to enemies by way of interest, dividends
or share of profits should be paid over to the Custodian; that
firms with enemy partners and companies with enemy share-
holders should make returns to the Custodian disclosing such
enemy interests, and that all persons holding or managing prop-
erty on account of enemies should give particulars to the Custo-
dian. Under the Patents and Designs Act 1907, the Public
Trustee was also appointed to receive royalties in respect of
patents avoided or suspended under the.Patents, etc., Temporary
Rules Act 1914. A separate " Trading with the Enemy " Branch
was opened at 2, Clement's Inn on Nov. 30 1914. Further legis-
lation in 1915, 1916 and 1917, and also the Peace Treaty, threw
additional duties upon it, and in 1921 it employed a special
staff of 327 persons at Kingsway and Cornwall House. The
fees collected by the Public Trustee as Custodian from 1914 to
1921 amounted to 412,000.
In 1915 the Public Trustee Office was removed from Clement's
Inn to new Government buildings in Kingsway, Sardinia Street,
and Lincoln's Inn Fields, but the continued growl h of the work
and staff made it necessary to invade the adjoining buildings,
Queen's House and Victory House.
The progress made during and after the war is indicated by
the following table:
Gases Accepted
Value
Fees
Expenses
1914-15 . . 1,543
1915-16 . . 1,595
1916-17 . . 1,811
1917-18 . . 1,876
1918-19 . . 1,767
1919-20 . . 1,950
1920-21 . . 1,559
11,624,000
16,622,000
16,544,000
17,862,000
17,192,000
21,864,000
15,682.402
65,390
74,762
95,238
107,139
119,619
148,756
283.499
1,074,109
61,632
72,171
98,330
130,457
175,581
241,787
398,389
Total since
Oct. I 1907 . 18,030
166,164,701
1,345,652
Two facts stand out conspicuously from this record. The first is
the large business annually brought to the Department by a " volun-
tary " public and the very large number and value of the estates
under the Public Trustee's care. The second is that whereas the
Department was apparently self-supporting from 1907 to 1916,
after 1916 the fees earned under the Public Trustee Act were in-
sufficient by an increasing margin to cover the cost of the work done
under that Act. The explanation in a nutshell is that the scale of
fees which was in force until April 1920 was nicely calculated to cover
(without a profit) the cost of staffing, housing and working the Depart-
ment under the conditions which existed before the war, with a
non-pensionable staff of young men who were content to look to the
future of a rapidly growing office, rather than to the immediate pres-
ent, for adequate pay. Such a scale of fees was bound to prove too
low when the Department had to pay (in part) the salaries of an
absent staff as well as those of their temporary substitutes, to make
provision for pensions, to meet the charges for larger and more ex-
pensive buildings, completely to reorganize its personnel after the
war on an entirely new basis of salary values, and finally to conform
with the new and much more generous treatment of Civil Servants
in the matter of base salaries and " cost-of-living " bonus which fol-
lowed the institution of Whitley Councils in the public service.
On the retirement of Sir Charles Stewart the Lord Chancellor
appointed in April 1919 a strong Committee, with Sir George Mur-
ray, G:C.B. t as chairman, to review the whole position of the De-
partment and to report upon questions of staffing, pay, policy, de-
centralization and fees, and it did so in Nov. 1919. With one dissen-
tient the Committee approved the general lines on which the office
had hitherto been conducted and recommended as a basic policy that
" trust estates should, while retaining the service of outside agencies,
secure the further advantages afforded by a Public Department hav-
ing at its disposal within its own walls independent experts capable
of criticizing and possibly correcting or supplementing the advice re-
ceived through the ordinary channels available to the private trus-
tee." The Committee recommended the modification and strength-
ening of the internal organization in certain respects, and in order
to restore the financial equilibrium, upset by the war, suggested a new
scale of fees calculated to increase the income of the Department by
about 120,000 a year. With regard to branch offices, the Committee
recognized the successful and economical management of the Man-
chester office and approved the principle of decentralization, but
hesitated to recommend further experiments in this direction " until
the possible deterrent effect of the increased fees on new business
has been ascertained." Mr. S. Garrett in his Minority Report advo-
cated a restricted service and somewhat lower charges, and doubted
whether " business would be obtained in the provinces at the fees
proposed by the Majority Report." The Majority Report was ac-
cepted by the Lord Chancellor, and the new scale of fees became
operative on April I 1920.
The increase of fees was still too recent in 1921 for its effects to be
accurately measured, and the calculations upon which it was framed
had already been to some extent upset by unforeseen circumstances.
It remained to be seen whether Civil Service conditions strictly ap-
plied to a Department which, like the postal, telegraph and tele-
phone services, was essentially a business undertaking, but unlike
them was not a monopoly, were compatible with commercial success
in a field open to competition. The competitors of the Public Trustee
are (a) banks, insurance companies and other corporate trustees, and
(b) solicitors, who are the active managers of thousands of trusts and
estates nominally administered by others. If the Public Trustee's
charges were to rise beyond a certain level his services would not be
sought, and his competitors, who as employers are entirely untram-
melled, would be greatly stimulated and assisted. In 1921 there
was as yet no indication that this level had been reached, and those
who resorted to the Department had at any rate the satisfaction of
PUCCINI PUTUMAYO
213
knowing that the Public Trustee's fees, if and when they showed a
commercial profit, would be reduced.
On the administrative side the Public Trustee Office may be
regarded as an established success and an institution of great
public utility in protecting beneficiaries against the loss of trust
funds through incompetence and dishonesty. Its work has been
brought up to a high standard of efficiency, and the system of
organization under which every trust is administered by an in-
dividual trust officer, who is personally responsible for its proper
conduct, disarms the criticism that the functions of a private
trustee cannot be performed by a department of the State. Another
fear, viz. that the aggregation of a vast body of investments under
the control of a single official might be a public danger, has found no
justification in experience. Although the Public Trustee is re-
sponsible for investments of one kind and another (apart from
enemy " property) of a nominal value exceeding (in 1921) 143,-
000,000, they are in fact so multitudinous in character, represented
by so many separate earmarked holdings, governed by so many
different trust instruments, and in so many cases controlled jointly
by co-trustees, that it would be impossible to deal with them en
masse. As a further safeguard the Public Trustee, from 1914 on-
wards, has enjoyed the advantage of the counsel of an Investment
Advisory Committee composed of representatives of finance in the
City of London; in 1921 it consisted of the Rt. Hon. Frederick
Huth Jackson, Mr. R. 'Martin-Holland, C.B., Sir R. M. Kindersley,
G.B.E., and Mr. J. A. Mullens, Junr. This Committee meets
monthly to review and discuss with the Public Trustee all invest-
ments and sales for reinvestment made by him.
Public Trustee in Other Countries. The first country to possess
a Public Trustee was New Zealand (1872), and the Public Trustee of
New Zealand had in 1921 offices at Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin
and Wellington. In Australia there are Public Trustees at Sydney
(N.S.W.), Adelaide (S.A.), and Hobart (Tasmania), and Public
Curators (with similar functions) at Melbourne (Victoria), and
Brisbane (Queensland). In Canada there is a Public Trustee at
Toronto. In India and Burma there are Administrators-General
and Official Trustees (offices at Allahabad, Bombay, Calcutta,
Madras and Rangoon) who have some of the functions of the
Public Trustee in England. Ireland has a Public Trustee (at Dublin),
who receives only purchase moneys paid under the Irish Land Acts.
PUCCINI, GIACOMO (1858- ), Italian composer (see
22.632). His recent works include La Fanciulla del West (The
Girl of the Golden West, 1910); Le Rondine (1916); // Tabarro,
Snor Angelica, and Gianni Schicchi (1918).
PULITZER, JOSEPH (1847-1911), American editor and news-
paper proprietor, was born in Budapest, Hungary, April 10
1847. He came to America in 1864, entered the Union Army, and
served to the end of the Civil War. In 1868 he became a reporter
on the Westliche Post, a German newspaper in St. Louis, and in
1871 managing editor and part owner. In 1869 he was elected to
the Missouri House of Representatives; in 1872 was a delegate
to the Liberal Republican National Convention which nominated
Horace Greeley for president; and in 1874 was a member of the
Missouri Constitutional Convention. In 1876-7, during the
Hayes-Tilden controversy, he was in Washington, D.C., as
correspondent for the New York Sun. In 1878 he purchased the
St. Louis Evening Dispatch and Evening Post, combining them
as Post-Dispatch. In 1880 he was a delegate to the National
Democratic Convention. In 1883 he bought from Jay Gould the
New York World (see 19.569), which fearlessly attacked political
corruption. In 1884 he was elected Democratic member of
Congress from the state of New York, but resigned after serving
a few months. In 1896 he allied himself with the " Gold "
Democrats and opposed the nomination of William Jennings
Bryan. During his later years he was blind and spent much of
his time cruising about the world in his yacht, but to the end
continued to direct his New York paper. He died on board his
yacht in Charleston harbour, S.C., Oct. 29 1911. Interested in
improving the profession of journalism, ha worked out a plan
for establishing a school for training journalists. In 1903 he
set aside $1,000,000 for establishing a school of journalism at
Columbia University. His own idea as to the object of such a
school is set forth in an article, " The College of Journalism,"
contributed to the North American Review for May 1904. In
Sept. 1912 the School of Journalism of Columbia was opened.
He left $500,000 each to the New York Philharmonic Society
and the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
His son, RALPH PULITZER (b. 1879), succeeded him in control
of his newspaper properties. He married (1905) Miss Frederica
Vanderbilt Webb of New York City.
PUTNIK, RADOMIR (1847-1917), Serbian general, was born
on Jan. 25 1847 at Kraguyevats. Like many other prominent
figures in the life of his country, he came of a family which had
emigrated to the Banat during the Turkish conquest and returned
to Serbia after the expulsion of the Turks. Passing through the
artillery school (which afterwards became the Serbian military
academy), he obtained his commission in a line regiment. In
1876 he commanded a brigade in the war against Turkey, and
when war was renewed in 1877 became chief-of-staff of the
Shumaja Division. In the Serbo-Bulgarian War of 1885 he
held a similar post in the Danubian Division, and in 1889 was
made deputy-chief of the general staff, and taught as professor
at the military academy in Belgrade. Like many other brilliant
officers, he suffered from the favouritism which Kings Milan and
Alexander had introduced into the Serbian army and from the
consequent atmosphere of intrigue and personal rivalry. He
was placed on the retired list, and it was only after the military
revolution which destroyed the Obrenovic dynasty in 1903 that
he obtained his real opportunity of service. In that autumn he
was appointed general and chief of the general staff. In 1906 he
succeeded Gen. Grui6 as Minister of War, and again held that
office in 1912, during the decisive period when the military con-
vention with Bulgaria was being negotiated. On the outbreak
of war with Turkey he was made wiiiode or marshal (being the
first holder of that title) and commander-in-chief, and was
responsible for the rapid success of the Serbian arms at Kuma-
novo, Prilep and Monastir. It was largely owing to his vigilance
and foresight that the treacherous night attack by which the
Bulgarians opened the second Balkan War (June 29 1913) was
so complete a failure. In the preceding months of suspense he
and his staff had worked out a careful plan of action, and when
Gen. Savov on July i gave his amazing order for the cessation
of hostilities, Putnik was able to launch a counter-offensive,
which resulted in the long-drawn-out battle of the Bregalnitsa
and the final retreat of the Bulgarians. When the World War
broke out he was undergoing a cure at an Austrian watering
place a very practical proof that the Serbian High Command
was not preparing for an armed conflict. At first placed under
arrest, he was released by special order of the Emperor Francis
Joseph and conveyed to the Rumanian frontier. His impaired
health did not prevent him from resuming the position of Serbian
generalissimo and organizing the resistance of the country to
invasion; and he inflicted upon the forces of Gen. Potiorek three
successive defeats the battles of the Yadar (Aug. 16-20), of the
Drina (Sept. 8-19) and of Rudnik, which ended on Dec. 14 1914
with an Austrian rout and the complete evacuation of Serbia.
On the latter occasion Putnik's success was rendered definitive
by the genius of Gen. Misic, the commander of the I. Armv.
Putnik retained the supreme command during the triple invasion
of Serbia by the German, Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian
armies in Nov. 1915, and shared the retreat of the Serbs through
Albania. When, however, the exiled Government established
itself at Corfu, he and most of his staff were placed on the
retired list. He himself withdrew to France. He died on May
17 1917 at Nice.
PUTUMAYO, or ICA (see 1.788), one of the larger tributaries
of the Upper Amazon, rising in Ecuador in the Cordillera of the
Andes, near Pasto, flowing in a S.E. direction and joining
the Amazon at a point somewhat S. of lat. 4 S. The middle
reaches of the river are also known as the Caqueta, the lower
reaches being called the Caqueta or Yadura. The Putumayo,
which gives its name to the whole region through which it
flows a wilderness of tropical forest of which the sovereignty
has been long in dispute between the republics of Peru, Ecuador
and Colombia obtained an evil notoriety in 1912 after the
publication by the British Government of the Blue Book con-
taining the evidence, collected by Mr. (afterwards Sir Roger)
Casement, of the atrocious methods employed in this district
by the agents of the Anglo-Peruvian Amazon Rubber Co. in
order to force the natives to collect rubber. These crimes,
which recalled those of the Congo and covered the whole gamut
of hideous atrocity (there were some too horrible to publish
214
PYLE PYROMETRY
even in the Blue Book), were first denounced in La Felpa and
La Sancion, papers published at Iquitos, in 1907, shortly before
the Peruvian firm of Arana Brothers who had exploited this
territory since 1896 was merged in the Anglo-Peruvian Co.,
with its headquarters in London. It was not, however, till 1909
that the attention of the British Government was directed to
this matter by the revelations of Mr. Hardenburger, an American
traveller, in the British periodical Truth. Since certain British
subjects, negroes from Barbadoes, were implicated in these
charges, Mr. Casement, then British consul-general at Rio de
Janeiro, was commissioned in 1910 to proceed to Iquitos and
the Putumayo and institute inquiries on the spot.
As a result of the report submitted by him a Select Com-
mittee of the House of Commons investigated the matter, and
its report was issued on June 9 1913 as a White Paper (148).
This analysed the evidence with great care, and, as the result,
decided that Senor Julio C. Arana (who had come over to give
evidence) , together with other partners of the firm, was responsible
for the atrocities committed by his agents in the Putumayo.
The Committee, however, was satisfied that he did not com-
municate his knowledge of them to the British directors of the
company before the Truth revelations. These directors were
severely censured for culpable negligence in respect of the labour
conditions under the company, but it was found that they had
not individually laid themselves open to any charge under the
Slave Trade Acts. The Committee further reported that existing
enactments might be extended so as to cover the gravest offences
against the person and against the practices of forced labour
which are akin to slavery. A committee, consisting of members
of Parliament and others, subsequently met to devise and
press forward legislation to this effect; but its labours were
interrupted by the outbreak of the World War.
The Putumayo atrocities called attention to the whole system
of " loan slavery " and forced labour as practised throughout
Latin America. For it was clear that the treatment of the
Putumayo Indians was exceptional only in the maddest demon-
strations of its inhumanity, and that the slave-driving habit
which made it possible was not confined to one region of the
continent. The Putumayo region, though vast, is but a small
part of the rubber-producing territory of the Amazon; and in
all there was evidence that similar conditions prevailed to a
greater or less degree. The root of the whole evil was the so-
called patrdn or " peonage " system a variety of what used to
be called in England the " truck system " by which the
employee, forced to buy all his supplies at the employer's store,
is kept hopelessly in debt, while by law he is unable to leave his
employment until his debt is paid. Not only natives but many
foreigners including British immigrants have been caught by
this system. The peon is thus, as often as not, a de facto slave;
and since in the remoter regions of the vast continent there is
no effective government, he is wholly at the mercy of his master.
His main safeguard against the worst forms of cruelty is his
commercial value; for labour is scarce and, as was said to the
present writer by a planter from the Beni in Bolivia, " You do
not kill a man who is worth 80."
This safeguard has, however, in effect, proved insufficient;
for the rubber-gatherers have been more concerned to make
rapid fortunes than to look to the future. One result has been a
hideous wastage of labour. In 1906 the Indian population of the
Putumayo was estimated to number 50,000; five years later Mr.
Casement put it at 10,000 at most; while a writer in the South
American Supplement of The Times (Feb. 25 1913) spoke of
the labour difficulty in the Brazilian rubber districts, due to
" the dying-out of the native races from disease and bullets."
That the same process of extermination was proceeding in
other districts is shown by a pastoral letter " on the ameliora-
tion of the actual condition of our Indians," issued on March
14 1913 by Dr. Manuel Polit, Bishop of Cuenca in Ecuador:
" Our Ecuadorian Oriente has nevertheless not been free from the
man-hunts (corrias) and outrages of these inhuman traffickers,
rubber-gatherers (caucheros) and others, who, ascending unhindered
our navigable rivers, have despoiled of their poor possessions and
of their liberty hundreds of savage Indians, torturing and killing
those who resist. And if formerly the action of our missionaries,
supported by the Government, was able to prevent or to remedy a
great part of these evils, nowadays, when the missionary has been
expelled, the hunters of men can operate unchecked; and the banks
of the Napo, Aguarico and Curaray, of the Pastaza, Morona and
Santiago, have more than once presented scenes similar to those
enacted on the Putumayo."
Similar evidence is given in the reports of Padre Estanislao
de Las-Corts, Apostolic Prefect of the Caqueta and founder of
the Colombian settlement of Puerto Asis on the upper Putumayo,
who speaks of " the arms of the devil for dragging the poor
Indians down to hell, some with the title of corregidor, others
calling themselves doctors, and all in league with the caucheros,
who style themselves patrdnes."
In addition to the martyrdom and partial extermination ot
the Amazon Indians, this savage exploitation of the wealth of
the Amazon forests has produced another result the rapid
destruction of the wild rubber trees, tapped by unscientific
methods, never replaced, and of late years deliberately destroyed
by the Indians as the source of all their woes. Many solutions
of the problem have been suggested, of which the most notable
is perhaps the proposal of an international control of the whole
rubber-producing region by a commission representing the
Amazon States, and scientific exploitation of these regions by
means of imported Chinese and Japanese labour. There are
already Japanese colonies on the upper Amazon, and both
Chinese and Japanese mix and intermarry freely with the more
civilized native " Indians," whose ultimate affinity with the
Mongol race is at least highly probable.
The Putumayo revelations led to movements for reform in
Latin America itself. Apart from the devoted work of Capuchin
Friars, Marist Fathers and Franciscan Sisters in the Colombian
districts of the upper Amazon, by the Salesian Fathers in the
recently established diocese of Cuenca in Ecuador, by the com-
munity of the " Discalced " Franciscans of Lima in Peru, or by
the Franciscan missions of Guarayos in Bolivia, 1 lay effort has
not been wanting. In Peru the Sociedad Pro-Indigena of Lima
took up the cause of the natives with great zeal, and the Colom-
bian and Bolivian Governments both passed remedial legislation.
But the Colombian reforms were necessarily limited in scope
and, indeed, till the international boundaries are fixed all effec-
tive reform is impossible while the Bolivian decree of Nov.
25 1913 regulating " loan slavery " remained a dead letter in a
country whose vast distances made any effective supervision
impossible. To provide that " all contracts between master
and man shall be registered at the nearest police office " is not
much use in a country where the police offices are scattered
hundreds of miles apart, and " where a journey of 200 m. by
launch is a serious undertaking, and much more so when runners
and canoes are alone available."
AUTHORITIES. Hardenburger, The Putumayo; G. Sidney Pater-
noster, The Lords of the Devil's Paradise (1913); N. Thompson, The
Putumayo Red Book (1913), inspired partly by desire to vindicate the
Colombian claims to the Putumayo region; Joseph F. Woodroffe,
The Upper Reaches of the Amazon (1914), the outcome of eight years
of personal experience; J. F. Woodroffe and H. H. Smith, The Rub-
ber Industry of the Amazon (1915). Several valuable articles on the
Amazon rubber industry, the peonage system, etc., were published
in The Times South American Supplement during 1913 (see index,
in the issue of Jan. 27 1914). (W. A. P.)
PYLE, HOWARD (1853-1911), American artist and writer
(see 22.679), died in Florence, Italy, Nov. 9 1911.
PYROMETRY (see 22.693). The term " pyrometer " is now
applied to any device intended to measure temperatures beyond
1 The work of these missions, actively supported by the Govern-
ment at La Paz, has produced astonishing results. At Urabicha,
a " model town," for instance, silverware and jewelry are made,
and there are workshops for cutting and polishing ebony to be used
in making fine furniture. At Yotau expensive machinery for crush-
ing and refining sugar has been installed. At Ascension carpentry
is taught on a large scale. The " Discalced " Franciscans of Lima
conduct a flourishing school of agriculture. The Capuchins of
Colombia, turned sappers and engineers, constructed a wonderful
mule-road over the Andes from Pasto to Mocoa. These and other
instances of effective zeal are, however, it must be confessed, ex-
ceptions which only serve to heighten by contrast the effect of the
inertia of the Church in Latin America.
PYROMETRY
215
the upper limit of the mercury thermometer. The success of
many metallurgical and other operations carried out in furnaces
often depends upon correct regulation of temperature, and for
this reason pyrometers are extensively used to control processes
conducted at high temperatures. A number of different types of
pyrometer are in use, each having its special advantages; and
the choice of instrument depends upon the nature of the opera-
tion. In order that pyrometers of every pattern may agree
in their readings, each is calibrated by reference to a number of
fixed points, determined by the gas thermometer. The National
Physical Laboratory scale is used in Great Britain, and represents
the melting-points or boiling-points of a number of pure materials,
chosen so as to be separated by convenient intervals of tem-
perature. Suitable points for graduating pyrometers are the
melting-points of zinc (419-4 C.), antimony (630), common
salt (801), silver (961), copper (1083), nickel (1452) and
palladium (1549). Above 15 50 C. direct comparison with the
gas scale is not possible at present, and instruments designed to
read higher temperatures than this are calibrated by reference to
the laws of radiation. The features of the different types may
conveniently be considered in separate categories.
Thermo-electric Pyrometers. These depend upon the electromo-
tive force developed when a junction of two dissimilar metals is
heated. The couple used should show a steady increase in E.M.F.
with rise in temperature, and should not be destroyed or show an
alteration in E.M.F. on prolonged heating. These conditions are
best fulfilled by couples made of the platinum series of metals, but
owing to the high cost of these, " base metal couples are now largely
used, which can be renewed when necessary at a trifling expense.
The upper limit of temperature at which a thermocouple may be
used must be some degrees below the point at which destruction
or change in E.M.F. would commence. Thermocouples in common
use are platinum and rhodio platinum (10 % Rh), which may
be used to 1400 C. and generates an E.M.F. of i-l millivolts per
100 C.; iron and constantan, upper limit 900 C., E.M.F. 6-7 milli-
volts per 100 C. ; and two different nickel-chromium alloys (Hoskin's
alloys), upper limit liooC., E.M.F. 7-4 millivolts per iooC. Vari-
ous other couples are also used. It will be noted that the base-metal
couples develop a much higher E.M.F. than those made from the
platinum group. Most couples require protection from furnace
gases, which would cause corrosion, and are provided with shields
of silica, porcelain, fireclay, or other refractory material, which
should be non-porous.
The indicator used with a thermocouple is usually a millivolt-
meter, the range of which is determined by the couple used, and the
temperature to be measured. The deflections shown when the
couple is subjected to the standard temperatures enable the scale
to be marked so as to read temperatures directly. Due allowance
must be made for the temperature of the other junctions in the cir-
cuit, as the deflection, in general, depends upon the excess tem-
perature of the heated junction over the " cold " junction or junc-
tions. Errors in this direction may be avoided by (i) locating the
cold junctions in oil in a thermos flask, so as to maintain a constant
temperature; (2) by water-cooling the cold junctions; (3) by the use
of compensating junctions (Peake and others) ; or (4) by compensated
indicators (Bristol, Paul, Darling and others). For measuring special
ranges such as 500 to 1000 an opposing E.M.F. from an ex-
ternal source is appliel to the indicator, so that deflection does not
commence until the junction has attained 500. Instead of a milli-
voltmeter, the indicator may take the form of a potentiometer, in
which the E.M.F. due to the junction is balanced against a known
difference of potential (Northrup, Brown, Rosenham and others),
with the advantages that a delicate galvanometer may be used, and
that the indications are independent of the resistance of the leads.
Continuous records of temperature may be obtained by photo-
graphic means (Roberts-Austen), a mirror galvanometer being used
as indicator, and the spot of light directed on a sensitized paper mov-
ing at a known rate. Records in ink are obtained by depressing the
pointer of the indicator at regular intervals, and causing it to make a
dot in ink on a chart mgving at a known rate, thus recording the
deflection at any moment. In the " Thread " recorder (Cambridge
and Paul Instrument Co.) an inked thread is pressed onto the
chart ; in Siemens' and Paul's recorders an inked ribbon is made
to touch the paper; in Foster's recorder a special pen, at the end of
the pointer, makes the dot. Recorders may be actuated by clock-
work or electric motors.
The present practice is to employ thermo-electric pyrometers
for all ordinary work up to noo or 1200 C., when an accuracy of
5 or 10 suffices. This range embraces the temperatures involved
in the heat treatment of ordinary steel and other metals and alloys.
Resistance Pyrometers. These instruments were introduced by
Siemens in 1871, and are still in use. The principal utilized is the
increase in resistance to electricity shown by elementary metals
when heated, which, in the case of platinum, has been proved by
Callendar to bear a definite relation to the rise in temperature. The
working part consists of a coil of platinum wire, suitably shielded
from furnace gases, and connected by platinum leads to one arm of
a Wheatstone bridge, or to one branch of a differential galvanometer
circuit. Compensation for the leads is effected by dividing the bridge
at one end of the coil, so that the leads are in opposing arms (Sie-
mens), or by dummy leads connected to the opposing arm of the
bridge (Callendar). The reading consists in adjusting the bridge
until a balance is obtained, when the resistance of the coil may be
read, and the corresponding temperature deduced. For industrial
use, indicators are provided in which the temperature is indicated
on a dial when the bridge is adjusted to balance, so as to avoid
calculation (Whipple, Siemens). Paul's indicator is a special form
of ohmmeter, which requires no adjustment, and gives direct readings
of temperature. Callendar's recorder is an automatic Wheatstone
bridge, controlled by the galvanometer, a pen moving over the
bridge wire giving an inked record. The Leeds-Northrup recorder
achieves the same end by automatically balancing the pyrometer
resistance against an opposing resistance in a differential galva-
nometer circuit. The resistance pyrometer is not now greatly used for
industrial purposes, and is not suited for continuous use above
1000 C., owing to an alteration fn its indications due to the va-
pourizing of the platinum (Crookes). It is more costly and difficult
to use than a thermo-electric pyrometer, but is capable of giving
closer readings under steady conditions.
Total-Radiation Pyrometers. The energy radiated by a " black
body " or full radiator is proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature, and if the energy be measured the temperature
can be deduced from the above relation. An enclosure at a constant
temperature, such as a furnace, gives black-body radiations, and
enables the laws of radiation to be applied to measuring tempera-
tures without serious error. In most existing forms of total-radiation
pyrometers, the rays from the heated enclosure are directed on
to a blackened thermal junction, the temperature of which is raised
in the proportion of the energy received. A galvanometer in circuit
with the junction serves to indicate, by its deflections, the relative
amounts of energy absorbed by the junction, and its scale may there-
fore be marked to read temperatures directly by applying the fourth-
power law.
In the form due to Fery, the rays are focussed by means of a con-
cave mirror on to a small metal disc to which the junction is attached,
a different focus being required for different distances from the
furnace. In Foster's fixed-focus instrument a concave mirror is
placed at the closed end of a narrow tube, the radiations being ad-
mitted through a diaphragm at the open end, and reflected on to a
thermocouple. So long as the lines joining the extremities of the
mirror with the edges of the diaphragm fall, if produced, within the
heated source, the reading will be the same at any distance. In the
form due to Thuring, and made by Paul, the rays are made to enter
a polished cone, at the apex of which a thermal junction is placed.
Various other modifications have been used by different makers.
Records may be taken by attaching the junction to any form of
thermo-electric recorder, and employing a chart divided in terms
of the fourth-power law.
Radiation pyrometers are used for temperatures ranging from
800 to 2000 C., and are particularly valuable under circumstances
which preclude the introduction of an instrument into the furnace,
as in the case of rotary cement kilns.
Optical Pyrometers. In the most reliable of these instruments the
brightness of the red rays from the heated source is matched against
a standard, and calibration effected by applying Wien's laws for the
distribution of energy in the spectrum. The red rays from standard
and source are obtained either by spectroscopic means, or by viewing
through monochromatic red glass. In Wanner's pyrometer, and the
Cambridge optical pyrometer, a polarizing device is used for match-
ing the colours, the position of the analyser being made to indicate
the temperature. In the Holborn-Kurlbaum type, made by Siemens,
the filament of an electric lamp is placed in the focal plane of a tele-
scope, and the image of the heated object brought into the same
plane. The adjustment consists in increasing or decreasing the bright-
ness of the lamp by means of a rheostat in its circuit, until the fila-
ment disappears into the background, the current taken by the
lamp being then read and the temperature deduced from a law
connecting this current with temperature. In Fery's optical pyrome-
ter equality of tint of standard and source is obtained by means of
absorbing wedges of glass which slide over each other. In all these
cases experience is needed to secure an exact match. Optical
pyrometers of the " extinction " type depend upon the complete
absorption of the rays from the heated object, which may be ef-
fected by lowering a wedge of dark glass in front of the image as
received in a telescope, as in the " Wedge " pyrometer, or by using
a layer of densely coloured liquid, the depth of which may be ad-
justed, as in Heathcote's pyrometer. The temperature calibration
in both these cases is obtained by taking readings at standard tem-
peratures, and marking the instruments accordingly.
No satisfactory recording apparatus for optical pyrometers has
yet been devised. Their chief advantages are the indefinitely high
range from 800 C. upwards and the possibility of obtaining
readings from a considerable distance, and under conditions which
would make it difficult to use any other type of pyrometer.
2l6
PYROMETRY
Miscellaneous Devices. Amongst these may be mentioned: (i)
Fusion pyrometers, which consist of pieces of materials of progres-
sive melting-points, which are placed in the furnace, the temperature
of which is represented by the melting-point of the highest in the
series that undergoes fusion (Seger cones, Sentinel and Watkin's
pyrometers) ; (2) Calorimetric or Water pyrometers, in which a
piece of hot metal taken from the furnace is dropped into a known
quantity of water, and the temperature deduced from the extent to
which the water is heated ; (3) Expansion pyrometers, based on the
linear expansion of solids; and (4) the Clay-Contraction pyrometer of
Wedgwood. All these methods are at best approximate, and are not
employed to the same extent as formerly, when accurate instru-
ments were not available.
REFERENCES. Measurement of High Temperatures, Burgess and
Le Chatelier (contains bibliography). Transactions of the Faraday
Society, vol. xiii., Part 3; discussion on Pyrometers and Pyrom-
etry, with bibliography by Sir Robert Hadfield. Pyrometry, Darling
(deals with industrial uses). Also accounts of research in pyrometry
in the publications of the National Physical Laboratory, the U.S.
Bureau of Standards, and the Reichsanstalt (C. R. D.)
QUARITCH QUEBEC
217
QJARITCH, BERNARD ALFRED (1871-1913), British
bibliophile, son of Bernard Quaritch, the famous book-
collector (see 22.711), was born Jan. 13 1871. He was
educated at Charterhouse, and afterwards went to
Leipzig and France. He joined his father's business in 1880,
becoming its head in 1899. He played a very important part
in the development of the firm, and purchased many rarities.
He paid several visits to America, exhibiting there a large number
of valuable books and MSS., and was a prominent purchaser
at the Hoe sale (1911). He died at Brighton Aug. 27 1913.
QUEBEC (see 22.724*). Through the addition of Ungava in
1912 the area of the Canadian province of Quebec was doubled,
and it became the largest in the Dominion. From 227,500 sq. m.
in 1891 it had increased to 351,873 sq. m., which with the addi-
tion of 354,961 sq. m. of Ungava (known as New Quebec) gives
a total area of 706,834 sq. m. (about one-fifth of Canada), of
which 690,865 sq. m. are land and 15,960 sq. m. water.
The pop. was 2,003,232 in 1911. It was estimated in 1921 at
2,350,000. About 98% are Canadian-born, and of these over
80% are of French descent.
The number of Indians in the province (including Ungava)
was 13,366. The principal tribes are: Iroquois at Caughnawaga,
Lake of Two Mountains, and St. Regis (the Indians of Lorctte
are also of Iroquoian stock) ; the Montagnais, who are of Algon-
quin stock, at Persimis, Mingan, Lake St. John, and Seven Is.;
the Abenakis, also of Algonquin stock, at Berancour and St.
Francis; the Micmacs, of Algonquin stock, at Maria and Resti-
gouche; and the Malecites, Algonquin, at Viger.
Quebec, the capital of the province, had in 1917 a pop. of 103,000.
R-'ontreal (pop. in 1917, 700,000) is the largest city in Canada,
du'ieull (pop. 28,392^, just across the Ottawa river from Ottawa, is
a luridber centre with a rapidly growing population. Three bridges
connect it with Ottawa. The water-power of the Chaudiere Falls
furnishes power for electric railways and for the lighting system as
well as for saw mills, pu'p and paper mills and match factories.
Sherbrooke (pop. 22,583) is a close rival of Hull in industrial
importance. It is located in the Eastern Townships, and its cotton
and woollen factories and machine shops are amongst the largest in
Canada. St. Hyacinthc (pop. 16,540) and Valleyfield have also
large manufacturing establishments. Three Rivers (pop. 25,000) and
Sorel have large shipping interests.
The Government of the province consists of a lieutenant-
governor, a Legislative Council of 24 members appointed by the
lieutenant-governor in council, a Legislative Assembly of Si
members elected by the people, and an Executive Council of n
members chosen from the Legislative Assembly and the Legisla-
tive Council. The province is represented in the Dominion
Parliament by 65 members in the House of Commons, and 24
senators. Either French or English may be used in addressing
either House of Parliament, but French is the language largely
used. The Civil law is the old French code existing prior to the
conquest in 1760. The Criminal law is the same as exists
throughout the Dominion.
Education. Very difficult problems presented themselves to
the statesmen of Canada in connexion with education in the
province of Quebec, for not only are 85% of the population
Roman Catholics but 80% speak French as their mother tongue;
and had it not been for the wise provision made as a condition
precedent to confederation the Protestant minority of 15%
would have found themselves in a very uncomfortable position.
The superintendent of education for the whole province, who
is a non-political officer, is assisted by a council divided into a
Roman Catholic and Protestant committee, each with a secretary
who is the chief administrative officer for both classes of schools
respectively. These committees meet separately as a rule,
though they may, and occasionally do, meet together as a
council. Each committee supervises the expenditure of the pro-
portion of public money allotted to it, and each has its own
normal school, appoints its own teachers and exercises control
by inspectors over its own schools under the general law. The
legislative grant for higher education is divided according to
population, the Protestants receiving one-seventh; of the grant
for normal schools the Protestants receive one-third, and the
elementary school branch is divided according to population.
This is supplemented by a local municipal taxation through
trustees. In 1918 there were 6,103 elementary schools, with a
teaching staff of 8,189 and a total enrolment of 247,531; the
expenditure on education was $14,481,494.
A leading feature of the educational system is that all the
public schools are denominational. Instruction in religion and
morals given in Protestant schools is based on reading from the
Old Testament, the Gospels and the Acts, and the children
commit to memory portions of the Gospels and Psalms, together
with the Apostles' Creed, the Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer.
The religious instruction in the Roman Catholic schools is
substantially part of the educational system, the Roman Catho-
lic schools being controlled by the clergy, the episcopate forming,
ex officio, one-half of the Catholic section of the council.
The chief universities are McGill at Montreal, founded in
1820; Laval (R.C.), founded in 1852, the headquarters being in
the city of Quebec; and the newly founded university of Mont-
real, which was formerly the Montreal branch of Laval. McGill
University stands very high academically, and has an especially
well-equipped department of applied science. Laval has a
professorial staff of 79, the university of Montreal 525, and
McGill 322. The total numbers of students were in 1918 686,
5,460 and 2,444 respectively. Bishop's College, Lennoxville,
is a small Anrlican university in connexion with which is a
school on the lines of an English public school. To McGill is
affiliated the well-equipped agricultural college established at
Ste. Anne de Bellevue by Sir William Macdonald, who is also
noted for his liberal endowment of McGill University; and to
Laval an agricultural school at Oka founded by the Trappist
Fathers. There are numerous model and normal schools, the
most important being that of Ste. Anne de Bellevue in connexion
with Macdonald College.
Agriculture. In recent years great progress has been made in
agriculture, especially in dairying and live stock. The products of
the soil are abundant, and large quantities of hay and oats are ex-
ported from Montreal and the city of Quebec; live stock, bacon,
beef, eggs, butter, and especially cheese, to the value of millions of
dollars yearly, are also shipped abroad. The field crops reach an
annual value of $271,600,000. Apples, plums and melons are
produced in large quantities, together with many varieties of small
fruits. Nearly 87,000,000 is realized annually from the maple trees
in sugar and syrup. In 1920 there were 813 butter and cheese fac-
tories in operation. More than 92,000,000 Ib. of butter and cheese,
worth over $35,000,000, are produced each year. Fully two-thirds
of the tobacco grown in the Dominion comes from Quebec. The live
stock of the province was in 1920 valued at more than $205,000,-
ooo, and the total annual value of the field crops, principally hay,
oats, barley, and some wheat, at about $305,000,000.
Forests and Lumber. Quebec, though second to Ontario in the
production of lumber, exceeds it in the value of its pulp and paper
products. Of the enormous forest area but a small portion has been
cut over, and since Quebec has been a pioneer in scientific methods
of forest conservation, copying the method of old France, the timber
resources promise to be maintained indefinitely. In the N. the pre-
dominating trees are pine, spruce, fir, and other coniferous varieties,
while farther S. appear maple, poplar, basswood, oak and elm trees
and many other hardwoods. The value of the lumber cut in 1918
was $20,916,604, of which spruce formed 66'3% of the output and
white pine 13-1, the other commercial varieties in a smaller way
being hemlock, balsam fir, birch and cedar. The capital invested
in the lumbering industry amounted to $57,201,820.
Fish and Fur. The value of the annual catch of fish is estimated
at $3,000,000, the industry employing more than 3,000 men. Fish
hatcheries have been established by the Dominion Government at
several places for the purpose of stocking the lakes and rivers of
the province. With considerable tidal waters along its coast Quebec
may be regarded as one of the Maritime provinces. The principal
fish are cod, lobsters, herring, salmon and mackerel. The mainland
waters abound in trout, pickerel, whitefish, pike and sturgeon.
The forests, especially in the northern part, abound in game, both
fur-bearing and otherwise. Nearly 200,000 sq. m. of territory in
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article
218
QUEBEC QUILLER-COUCH
Quebec have been set apart by the Legislature for forest reserve and
for the preservation of fish and game. Quebec is scarcely surpassed
in Canada in its interest for sportsmen. In the Laurentides National
Park, a district of 2,640 sq. m. N. of Quebec, caribou, partridge and
trout are found in abundance. Bear and moose are also numerous.
Minerals. Of the economic mineral product, cement alone yields
$3,000,000 annually. Molybdenite was mined extensively, during the
World War, in the district of Quyon, Pontiac county, this mine
becoming the largest producer in the world. Magnesite, found in the
vicinity of Grenville, Argenteuil county, was also a valuable war-
time mineral. The annual production of minerals in Quebec is
valued at about $23,000,000.
Manufactures. Quebec ranks next to Ontario in the amount and
value of its manufactures. There is limitless water-power almost
everywhere, and at Shawinigan and Valleyfield power is being
developed for commercial purposes. The chief manufactures are
sugar, woollen and cotton goods, pulp and paper, tobacco and cigars,
furs and hats, machinery, leather goods, boots and shoes, railway
cars, rifles, musical instruments, cutlery and gunpowder. The annual
value of the manufactured products of the province has reached
$920,000,000. The pulp mills in 1918 produced 288,952 tons valued
at $12,018,258, and the total product of all mills, paper and pulp, was
valued at $19,620,051. Paper of all kinds was manufactured to the
extent of $27,546,791, of which $17,500,000 was newsprint. The
total capital invested amounted to $24,490,175, and 11,793 persons
employed in the industry received $ 1 1,546,596 in salaries and wages.
Communications. The province is well provided with railways.
The headquarters of the Canadian Pacific railway is at Montreal,
and various lines of this railway connect Montreal with Toronto,
Ottawa, Winnipeg, Vancouver, Quebec and St. John. The Canadian
National railways connect Montreal with Halifax, passing across the
St. Lawrence at the city of Quebec, and the line from Moncton, in
New Brunswick, to Prince Rupert, in British Columbia, also crosses
the St. Lawrence at the city of Quebec, and proceeds on its way
through the northern part of the province. The National lines con-
nect various local points, and by means of the old Grand Trunk
system reach important centres in the United States, while there are
a number of other railway companies, with lines running in various
directions, especially in the extreme eastern section of the province.
Both Montreal and Quebec are connected by steamship during the
summer months with all parts of the world. The St. Lawrence
route, which by reason of its shortness is a favourite both for freight
and passengers proceeding to Europe, has been rendered perfectly
safe for navigation. During the summer season steamers ply on the
rivers and inland waters, carrying a great deal of freight and taking
care of the tourist trade. (W. L. G.*)
QUEBEC (see 22.727), the oldest city in the Dominion of
Canada, had a pop. of 78,710 in 1910 and 116,850 in 1920.
Quebec had for some years prior to 1911 been displaced by
Montreal in the shipping trade, but after 1911 the older port
steadily improved its commercial and industrial position. As a
manufacturing centre Quebec has profited by the cheap electric
power supplied from the Shawinigan and Montmorency Falls.
The harbour has been improved, and the largest dry -dock in the
world has been built at a cost to the Dominion Government of
$7,000,000. Important factors contributing to the increased
commercial importance of Quebec were the successful completion
of the famous Quebec bridge, and the building of the Grand
Trunk Pacific railway from Prince Rupert on the west coast
of Canada to Quebec on the east. The distance from Quebec to
Winnipeg by this railway is 145 m. shorter than that from
Montreal to Winnipeg by any other line. The Quebec bridge,
connecting the north and south shores of the St. Lawrence river
at Cap Rouge, 9 m. from the centre of the city, was completed
in 1917 by the St. Lawrence Bridge Co. for the Dominion
Government. This achievement marked the end of more than
10 years of effort, two accidents to portions of the huge struc-
ture having delayed the work in 1907 and again in 1917. The
Quebec bridge is larger than the Forth bridge in Scotland,
which was previously the world's largest bridge. Its total
length is 3,239 ft., the cantilever span is 1,800 ft. long and the
suspended span 640 ft. long. The weight of the suspended
span is 5,510 tons. The completion of the bridge made possible
the running of six railways simultaneously into Quebec from the
south shore. Quebec has always been a base of supplies for a
large region of mines, lumber camps and farms, but has gained
further importance in this regard of late years owing to the rapid
development of the water supplies of the province for purposes
of electric power, particularly for the manufacture of wood pulp.
The Lake Saint John district north of the city, a centre for pulp-
milling, finds its outlet through Quebec. Buildings erected
recently in Quebec include a large Government technical school,
the erection and equipment of which cost $150,000.
QUILLER-COUCH, SIR ARTHUR THOMAS (1863-^
English man of letters (see 22.750), published subsequently to
1910 The Vigil of Venus and other poems and an anthology,
The Oxford Book of Victorian Verse (1912), as well as books On
the Art of Writing (1916), and On the Art of Reading (1920); a
memoir of Arthur John Butler (1917) ; a volume of Shakespearean
studies in 1918; Hocken and Hunken, a new Tale of Troy (1912) ;
and various collections of short stories, including Hicky-Nan,
Reservist (1915).
RACHMANINOFF RADIOACTIVITY
219
RLCHMANINOFF, SERGEI VASILIEVICH (1873- ),
Russian composer and pianist, was born at Onega, in
Russia, March 20 1873; his grandfather, an excellent
pianist, had been a pupil of the Irish musician John
Field. He began his studies under his mother, but at nine he
became a pupil of Anna Ornadtskaya. In 1882, however, the
Rachmaninoff family removed to St. Petersburg, and Sergei
entered the Conservatorium, where he remained till 1885, when,
on the family again removing to Moscow, he joined the Conserv-
atorium there, and was on terms of friendship with Scryabin,
Siloti, Taneyeff and Arensky. When, in 1892, Rachmaninoff left
the Conservatorium, he won the large gold medal for a one-act
opera Aleka and followed it by many other works. About
1893 he composed a pianoforte suite, another for two pianos,
a dozen songs, his first piano concerto, the symphonic picture
The Rock and the elegiac trio on the death of Tschaikovsky.
Next there followed his first symphony, produced by Glazounoff
at St. Petersburg. In 1897-8 Rachmaninoff became conductor
of Mamoutoff's private opera, a post he resigned after the
season, and in 1899 he came to London to conduct a Royal
Philharmonic concert. A second piano suite, another concerto
and a violoncello sonata were quickly composed, and were
followed by the one-act opera The Miser Knight (Moscow
1900, Boston 1910) and Francesco, da Rimini (Moscow, same
evening); during 1904-6 he directed the Moscow Opera, and
from 1906 to 1908 he lived in Dresden as composer and pianist,
visiting Paris in 1907. In 1009-10 he visited the United States
for the first time, and then returned to Russia, where he wrote
The Island of Death, the D minor piano Sonata, and the third
and fourth piano concertos (1909 and 1917). In 1912 he pro-
duced The Bells, which was produced in Liverpool by Sir Henry
J. Wood in 1921. Among his other compositions Spring, for
chorus and orchestra, is particularly noteworthy, and his devo-
tional music includes a wonderful setting of the Liturgy of St.
Chrysostom (1910). In 1917 Rachmaninoff left Russia, and in
1918 he settled in New York.
RADIOACTIVITY (see 22.793*). Among points" of special
interest that have arisen since the earlier article was written
may be mentioned the preparation of metallic radium by Mme.
Curie and Debierne by electrolysis of a radium salt with a
mercury cathode. Radium resembles metallic barium, melts at
about 700 C. and is rapidly attacked when exposed to the air.
The atomic weight of radium was found by Mme. Curie to be
226-45, using for the purpose about 0-4 gram of pure radium
chloride. A recent careful redetermination by Honigschmid
with about one gram of radium gave a value 225-9 an d is prob-
ably correct to i in 1,000. An International Radium Standard
consisting of about 22 milligrams of pure radium chloride has
been prepared by Mme. Curie, and is preserved in the Bureau
International des Poids et Mesures at Sevres, near Paris.
Secondary radium standards have been issued to all governments
who wished to purchase them. These have been calibrated by
7-ray methods both in Vienna and Paris and are supposed to
be correct within i in 200. During the last few years the purchase
and sale of radium have generally been conducted on certificates
given in terms of this international standard.
The wide use of radium for therapeutic purposes, and its high
cost from 25 to 30 per milligram element have led to
close search for uranium deposits. The amount of radium in
an old mineral is always proportional to its content of uranium
in the ratio of 3-3 parts of radium by weight to 10 million parts
of uranium. Consequently an old mineral containing 1,000
kgm. of uranium should contain 330 milligrams of pure radium.
Initially several grams of radium were separated from the
uraninite deposits in Joachimsthal, Bohemia, and some of the
material, which was the property of the Austrian Government,
was generously loaned to representative workers in radioactivity
in England. A part of this radium is in the charge of the Radium
Institute of Vienna, which is specially devoted to radioactive
investigations. The increasing demand for radium has led to the
working of low-grade uranium ores on a large commercial scale.
Much of the radium to-day is derived from the mineral carnotite,
of which there are extensive deposits in Colorado and other
parts of the United States. Although the carnotite contains
only a few per cent of uranium and a correspondingly small
quantity of radium, the separation of the latter is a profitable
industry operating on a large scale. Large quantities of radium
were employed by the Allies during the World War for night
compasses, gun-sights, etc. The radium is mixed with phos-
phorescent zinc sulphide to form a paint which becomes con-
tinuously luminous, but, owing to the destruction of the zinc
sulphide by the rays, this luminosity gradually decays.
Radium Emanation. The atomic weight of the radium em-
anation is now known to be 226 4= 222, as was inferred earlier.
This was confirmed by direct weighing with micro-balance by
Ramsay and Gray.
The radium emanation has proved of great service not only in
radioactive researches but also in therapeutic work. The radium
salt is dissolved in an acid solution and the emanation is pumped off
with the large quantity of hydrogen and oxygen liberated by the
action of the radiations on water. After sparking the mixture, the
emanation can be purified by condensation with liquid air. A very
intense source of /3 and 7 radiation can be obtained by introducing
the purified emanation into fine capillary tubes. Such emanation
needles have been widely used for therapeutic purposes, while the
use of very thin-walled tubes provides a powerful line source of a
rays. The |8 and 7 activity of such tubes rises to a maximum about
four hours after introduction of the emanation and then decays with
the period of the emanation, viz. 3-85 days. The quantity of emana-
tion liberated from one gram of radium is called a curie and from
one milligram a millicurie. The quantity of radium emanation in a
tube can be accurately determined by comparison of its 7-ray
activity with that of a radium standard, since the penetrating 7
rays, both from the radium and the emanation in equilibrium, arise
mainly from the same product radium C.
As regards other radioactive substances large quantities of meso-
thorium have been obtained as a by-product in the separation of
thorium from monazite sands. This substance, which is half trans-
formed in about 6-7 years, emits only /3 rays, but gives rise to radio-
thorium and subsequent products which emit a rays and penetrating
/3 and y rays. As a source of powerful and 7 radiation, this sub-
stance is very analogous to radium and can be obtained in about the
same concentration. Since radium and mesothorium are isotopic
elements, they are always separated together. Most commercial
sources of thorium contain also uranium and radium, and con-
sequently radium is always separated with the mesothorium and in
relative amount depending upon the proportion of uranium to
thorium in the mineral. Since mesothorium has a radioactive life
short compared with radium, it commands a smaller price. The
amount of mesothorium is standardized by comparison of its 7-ray
effect with a radium standard.
Mme. Curie separated the polonium from several tons of pitch-
blende and obtained an exceedingly active preparation of a few milli-
grams, but was unable to obtain it in a pure state, although several
of its spectrum lines were detected. It was hoped by this experiment
to decide whether polonium was transformed directly into lead, but
this was found difficult to establish owing to the presence of im-
purities with the very small quantity of polonium.
The three types of radiation, known as the o, ft, 7 rays, emitted
by radioactive substances are analogous in many respects to the
types of radiation observed when a discharge passes through a vac-
uum tube, but are of much more penetrating character. It may be
noted here that for the electrons in a vacuum tube to obtain the
velocity of the swift /3 rays from radium, a potential difference of at
least two million volts would have to be applied. The very penetrat-
ing 7 rays are identical in all respects with X rays of very short wave-
length. Intense 7 rays are only observed in substances which emit
swift ft particles, and apparently owe their origin to the passage of
the swift /3 particle through the distribution of electrons surrounding
the atomic nucleus. To produce X rays as penetrating as the 7 rays,
about two million volts would have to be cut on the discharge tube.
The a rays, shown in 1903 by Rutherford to consist of a stream of
positively charged atoms projected with high velocity, are now known
to consist of charged atoms of helium which are projected with veloc-
ities of about 10,000 m. per second. While the majority of products
break up with the expulsion either of an a particle or a swift /3 par-
ticle, in a few cases no detectable radiation has been observed. Such
products were at first called " rayless " products, but the sequence of
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
22O
RADIOACTIVITY
chemical properties, discussed later, shows that a particle must be
liberated but at too low a speed to detect with certainty. Actinium
and mesothorium are examples of such products.
A number of new products have been discovered, particularly in
the uranium and actinium series. The results are included in the
appended table of radioactive elements.
TABLE OF RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS
Element
Atomic
Weight
Atom-
ic
Num-
ber
T
Rays
Range
cms.
o rays (15
and 760
mm.)
Uranium-Radi-
um Series.
Uranium I.
238-18
92
4-5Xioyrs.
a
2-50
Uranium Xi
234
90
23-8 days
0, 7
Uranium Xj
234
9'
1-15 min.
f,y
Uranium II.
234
92
about 2X10"
a
2-90
yrs.
Uranium Y
(3 per cent)
230
90
24-6 hrs.
Ionium
230
90
about 9X10'
a
3-07
yrs.
Radium
226
88
1700 yrs.
a
3-52
Radium
Emanation
222
86
3-85 days
a
4-16
Radium A
218
84
3-05 min.
a
4-75
Radium B
214
82
26-8 min.
ft, y
Radium C
214
83
19-5 min.
a.0, 7
6-94
Radium D
2IO
82
1 6 yrs.
0,7
Radium E
210
83
4-85 days
0,7
Radium F
(Polonium)
2IO
84
136-5 days
a.
3-83
Radium C (end-
product ura-
nium-lead)
2O6
82
Thorium Series.
Thorium
232-I
90
2-2Xlo'yrs.
a
2-72
Mesothorium I
228
88
6-7 yrs.
0,7
Mesothorium 2
228
89
6-2 nrs.
0,7
Radiothoritim
228
90
1-90 yrs.
a
3-87
1 horium X
224
88
3-64 days
a
4-30
Thorium
Emanation
22O
86
54 sees.
a
5-00
Thorium A
216
84
0-14 sec.
a
5-/o
Thorium B
212
82
10-6 hrs.
0,7
Thorium C
212
83
60 min.
a
/4-8o
\ 8-60
Thorium D
208
81
3-2 min.
0,7
Thorium E
(end-product
thorium-
lead)
208
82
Actinium Series.
Protoactinium
23<>
91
about 10*
a
3-31
yrs.
Actinium
226
89
20 yrs.
Radioactinium
226
90
19 days
a
4-6
Actinium X
222
88
1 1 -2 days
a
4-26
Actinium
Emanation
218
86
3-9 sees.
a
5-6
Actinium A
214
84
002 sec.
a
6-3
Actinium B
2IO
82
36 min.
0.7
Actinium C
210
83
2-16 min.
a
5-'5
Actinium D
2O6
8l
4-76 min.
0,7
Actinium E
(end-product
actinium-
lead)
2Ofi
82
In the table T is the time-period of a product or the time required
for the product to be half transformed. It will be seen that the value
of T, which is a measure of the relative stability of atoms, varies
between 2-2 Xio 10 years (Thorium) and -002 second (Actinium A).
The atomic weights and atomic numbers of uranium, radium, ura-
nium-lead, thorium, thorium-lead have been directly determined.
The atomic weights and atomic numbers of the others are deduced
on the assumption that the expulsion of an o particle (helium atom)
of charge 2 and mass 4 lowers the atomic number of the succeeding
element by 2 units and the atomic weight by 4. The expulsion of a
ft particle raises the atomic number by I unit, but it is not sup-
posed to influence the atomic weight to a detectable degree.
Branch Products. In the great majority of cases each of the
radioactive elements breaks up in a definite way, giving rise to
one a or /3 particle and to one atom of the new product. Un-
doubted evidence, however, has been obtained that in a few
cases the atoms break up in two or more distinct ways, giving
rise to two or more products characterized by different radio-
active properties. A branching of the uranium series was early
demanded in order to account for the origin of actinium. While
the latter is always found in uranium minerals in constant
proportion with the uranium, Boltwood showed that the activity
of the actinium with its whole series of a-ray products in a
uranium mineral was much less than that given by a single a-ray
product of the main radium series. The head of the uranium
series is believed to be uranium Y, the branch product of the
uranium series first observed by AntonofE. The branching is
supposed to occur in the product uranium Xi, 4% going into the
actinium branch and the other 96 % into the main uranium series.
The atomic weights of actinium given in the table are calculated
on this basis. The recently discovered product, protoactinium, is
the hitherto missing link between uranium Y and actinium.
The most striking cases of branching occur in the " C " products
of radium, thorium and actinium, each of which breaks up in two or
more distinct ways. In the case of radium C, a new substance
called radium Ct was obtained by recoil from a nickel plate coated
with radium C. This product emitted only rays and had a
period of 1-4 minutes. Fajans estimated that the amount of the
product wasonly 1/3,000 of that of radium C. To account for these
results, the following scheme of transformation has been proposed :
* End.
Radium
19 min.
^ "*
c<i
^
o
Radium f, fc
-^ 1-4 min.
L RaHiMm C, Q J
T0~6 sec.
Radium D.
etc.
where in the main branch a particle is first expelled, giving rise to
radium C, which emits an o particle. The reverse process is assumed
to take place in the other branch. Radium Ci, which emits a swift
o particle, is supposed to have an exceedingly short period of trans-
formation. It is uncertain whether the radium C 2 branch ends after
the expulsion of a particle. The resulting product is an isotope
of lead like radium D in the main branch.
In the case of thorium C, two sets of o particles are observed, one-
tliird of the total number of range 5-0 cms., and the remainder of
range 8-6 centimetres. Recently another set of rays, about 1/10,000
of the total, has been found by Rutherford and Wood to have the
great range in air of 11-3 cms. and has been shown to consist of a
particles. These results suggest that the thorium C atom breaks up
in three distinct ways, each marked by the expulsion of an a particle
with characteristic but different velocity. Marsden showed that
actinium C emits two sets of a particles, 99-84% of range 5-15 cms.
and 16% of range 6-4 cms., indicating a dual transformation of
actinium C. It is quite possible that a close examination of radioac-
tive substances may reveal other examples of such complex methods
of transformation, for, after the violent explosion that occurs during
the breaking-up of an atom, more than one state of temporary
equilibrium may be possible for the residual atom.
Relation between Range of a. Rays and Period of Transformation.
We have seen that each a-ray product emits o particles of charac-
teristic velocity which have a definite range in air. It was early ob-
served that there appeared to be a connexion between the period of
transformation of a product and the velocity of the a particles
emitted. The shorter the period of transformation, the swifter is the
velocity of expulsion of the a particle. This relation was brought out
clearly by the measurements of Geiger and Nuttall, where it was
shown that if the logarithm of the range was plotted against the
logarithm of X, the constant of transformation, all the points lay
nearly on a straight line. A similar result has been observed for the
thorium and actinium products. This relation is at present purely
empirical and no doubt only approximate, but it is of great in-
terest as indicating a possible relation between the stability of the
radioactive nucleus and the velocity of the expelled helium atom.
This relation has proved very useful in forming estimates of the
period of transformation of ionium and other substances before the
results of more direct determinations were available. From this
relation also the change which gives rise to the swift a particle of
radium C is believed to be exceedingly rapid, and a similar con-
clusion is drawn for the products emitting the very swift o particles
from thorium C.
Chemistry of the Radioelements. Apart from uranium and
thorium and a few special cases like radium and polonium, the
radioactive products of short life exist in too small quantity to
examine by the ordinary chemical methods, but, by the use of
the radioactive method of analysis, it was possible to form some
idea of their chemical behaviour. Certain very interesting points
RADIOACTIVITY
221
soon came to light. Soddy found that the two elements, radium
and mesothorium, although quite dissimilar in radioactive
properties, were chemically so identical that it was impossible by
chemical methods to separate one from the other. Other cases
of this kind had long been suspected, viz. thorium and radio-
thorium, thorium and ionium, and radium D and lead. He named
such inseparable elements isotopes, since they appeared to oc-
cupy the same place in the periodic classification of the elements.
Following the chemical study of the radioelements by Soddy,
Fleck and von Hevesy, an important generalization connecting
the chemical properties of the radioelements was announced
independently in 1913 by Russell, Fajans and Soddy. After the
expulsion of an a particle from a radioactive substance, the
resulting product shifts two places in the direction of diminishing
mass when the elements are arranged in families according to the
Mendeleef classification.
The expulsion of a j3 particle causes a shift of one place in the
opposite direction. For example, by the loss of an a particle
from ionium of group IV., the resulting product, radium, belongs
to group II., while the loss of another particle gives rise to the
emanation which occupies the group O, and so on. By this
method the chemical properties of all the known radioelements
can be predicted from a knowledge of the radiations emitted from
the products. This generalization can be viewed from another
important standpoint. From the work of Moseley, the properties
of an element are defined by the atomic number which is believed
to represent the resultant positive charge on the nucleus. The
loss of an a particle of mass 4, carrying two positive charges,
lowers the atomic number by two units, while the emission of a
/3 particle raises it by one unit. On looking through the table of
the radioelements given above, it will be seen that many of them
can be grouped under the same atomic number. These represent
the radioactive isotopes, of which some of the more important
are given below, preceded by the atomic numbers:
81 Tellurium (204), thorium D (208), actinium D (206).
82 Lead (207), uranium-lead (206), thorium-lead (208), radium D
(210), thorium B (212), radium B (214), actinium B (210).
83 Bismuth (208), radium E (210).
84 Polonium (210), thorium A (216), radium A (218), actinium A
(214).
86 Radium emanation (222), thorium emanation (220), actinium
emanation (218).
88 Radium (226), thorium X (224), mesothorium (228), actinium
X (222).
90 Thorium (232), radiothorium (228), ionium (230), uranium Xi
(234), uranium Y (230), radioactinium (226).
It will be seen that many of the radioactive elements are isotopic
with known chemical elements. These radioactive isotopes
differ not only in atomic weight but also in radioactive properties.
The isotopes of lead are of special interest as they include the
end-products of the uranium, thorium and actinium series a
question that will be discussed more fully later. It has been
found that the X-ray spectrum of the y rays from radium B is
identical with that given by ordinary lead exposed to cathode
rays in a vacuum tube, a result to be anticipated from the
identity of their atomic number. It is of interest to note that
polonium is a new type of chemical element which has no
counterpart among the ordinary inactive elements.
Transformation of Uranium. In 1900 the late Sir W. Crookes
found that the /3-ray activity of ordinary uranium could be removed
by a single chemical operation and concentrated in an active res-
idue. This is due to the separation of the product uranium X, of
period 24 days, which emits /3 and 7 rays. A complete analysis of
the transformations of uranium has been a matter of much difficulty.
Boltwood showed that the o-ray activity of uranium was about
twice as great as that of a corresponding a-ray product in the urani-
um-radium series, indicating that uranium contained two successive
a-ray products: This was confirmed by Geiger, who showed that
the a rays from uranium consisted of two groups with ranges 2-5
and 2-9 cms. respectively. These two a-ray substances, called
uranium I. and uranium II., are isotopic, with atomic weights
238 and 234 respectively. The latter, whose period is estimated at
about 2 million years, exists in relatively very small quantity com-
pared with uranium I. Following the generalization connecting the
radiations and chemical properties of the series of radioelements,
Fajans predicted the presence of a new product with properties
analogous to tantalum, and promptly succeeded in isolating it
experimentally. The new product uranium X 2 , sometimes called
brevium, has a period of 1-15 minutes and emits swift rays. The
series of changes is thus:
Ur. !.-> Ur. X ,- Ur. X r-> Ur. II.-> Ionium.
We have seen that Antonoff discovered another /3-ray substance
called uranium Y, separated with uranium Xi, which has a period
of 24-6 hours. This exists in too small quantity to be in the main
line of succession, but is to be regarded as a branch product of ura-
nium Xi and is believed to be the first element of the subsidiary
actinium series.
Rutherford and Geiger found the number of a particles emitted
per gram of uranium per second to be 2-37 X IO 4 . From this the
period of uranium is calculated to be about 6,000 million years.
Thorium. The first product observed in thorium was the emana-
tion of period 54 seconds, and this gives rise to the active deposit,
which has been shown to consist of at least four successive products
called thorium A, B, C, D. The emanation, after the emission of an
a particle, changes into a product of very short life emitting a rays.
Its period was found by Geiger and Moseley to be about i/io
second. The succeeding product, thorium B, emits only weak j3 and
7 rays with a period of 10-6 hours, changing into thorium C of
period one hour. We have seen that thorium C breaks up in a com-
plex way, emitting three distinct groups of particles. Thorium D is
readily separated from C by the method of recoil. It emits pene-
trating /3 and 7 rays with a half-period of 3 minutes. The active
deposit as a whole decays ultimately with the period of thorium
B, viz. IO'6 hours.
A special interest attaches to the product thorium X, first sep-
arated by Rutherford and Soddy, since experiments with it laid the
foundation of the general theory of radioactive transformations.
A close analysis of thorium has led to the discovery by Harm of a
number of other important products. When the thorium X is
separated from a thorium mineral or old thorium preparation, there
appears with it another product called mesothorium I, of period 6-7
years, which is transformed with the emission of weak /3 rays into
mesothorium 2, of period 6 hours, which emits swift /3 particles and
penetrating 7 rays. This changes into an a-ray product, radio-
thorium, of period 2 years, which is transformed into thorium X.
Radiothorium is an isotope of thorium, while mesothorium I
is an isotope of radium. The radiothorium can readily be separated
from a solution of mesothorium and obtained in a concentrated
form. Mesothorium when first separated would show a very weak
activity, but in consequence of the growth of its subsequent product
radiothorium, its activity would increase for several years. After
reaching a maximum it would ultimately decay with the period of
mesothorium, viz. 6'7 years.
Actinium. Actinium of period about 20 years is believed to emit
weak /3 rays changing into radioactinium, an a-ray product of
period 19 days, first separated by Hahn. This changes into actinium
X, an a-ray product of period 1 1 days, discovered by Godlewski.
Then follows the actinium emanation of period 3-9 seconds, which
gives rise to four further products named actinium A, B, C, D.
Actinium A has the shortest life of any product whose rate of trans-
formation has been directly determined. Its period, as determined
by Geiger and Moseley and Fajans, is -002 second. After emitting
an a particle, A changes into B, a product of period 36 minutes
emitting weak /3 and 7 rays, analogous to thorium B. Actinium C
of period 2-16 minutes undergoes a complex transformation, giving
rise to two distinct groups of a particles. The main branch gives
rise to actinium D of period 4-8 minutes, which is readily isolated
by the recoil method. Actinium D, which emits /3 and 7 rays, is
analogous in all respects to thorium D.
In the discussion above on branch products it has been shown
that the parent of actinium, called protoactinium, has been recently
isolated by Hahn and Soddy. This substance emits a rays and has
an estimated period of 10,000 years. We have seen that the actin-
ium series is believed to have its origin in a dual transformation of
uranium X. The first branch product, representing about 4 % of the
total, is believed to be uranium Y, a /3-ray product of period one
day. This is directly transformed into protoactinium.
While very active preparations of actinium have been made, it
has not been found possible to separate it entirely from the rare
earths with which it is mixed. Protoactinium exists in much larger
amounts and should be ultimately obtained in a pure state.
End-products of the Transformations (re-stated). After the
radioactive transformations have come to an end, each of the
elements uranium, thorium and actinium should g ; ve rise to an
end or final product, which may be a known element or an
unknown element of very slow period of transformation. Since
the expulsion of an a particle lowers the mass of the atom by four
units, and there are eight a-ray products, the atomic weight of
the end atom should be 2388X4 = 206. The atomic weight of
radium by this rule should be 2383X4 = 226, a result in good
accord with experiment. The atomic weight of the end-product
of uranium is close to that of lead, viz. 207, and Boltwood early
suggested that lead was the end-product of radium. Since in
222
RADIOACTIVITY
old minerals the transformations have been in progress for inter-
vals measured by millions of years, the end-product should
collect and be an invariable companion of the radioelement.
Boltwood showed that lead is always present in old radioactive
minerals and in amount to be expected from their uranium con-
tent and geologic age.
In recent years this problem has been definitely attacked in the
light of the chemical generalization already given. It was clear
from this that the end-products of uranium, thorium and
actinium should all be isotopes of lead but with atomic weights
206, 208 and 206 respectively. In other words, uranium-lead if
uncontaminated with ordinary lead should show a smaller
atomic weight than ordinary lead (207), while thorium-lead
should give a higher value. By the work of Richards, Soddy and
Honigschmid, these conclusions have been definitely confirmed.
The lowest value for uranium-lead is 206, and the highest for
thorium-lead 207-7.
Since any admixture with ordinary lead tends to give a value
nearer 207, these results may be considered as a definite proof of
the nature and atomic weight of the end-products. In minerals
containing both uranium and thorium the atomic weight of the mix-
ture of the isotopes will depend on the relative amounts of these two
elements and their relative rates of transformation. In unaltered
minerals the determination of the amount of lead coupled with its
average atomic weight allows us to determine the amount of ura-
nium-lead even if some ordinary lead be present. In this way it
should be possible to make a reliable estimate of the age of selected
minerals and thus indirectly the age of the geologic strata. The
amount of helium in the mineral gives a minimum estimate of its
age, for, except in the most compact minerals, some of the helium
must undoubtedly escape.
Nature and Properties of the a. Rays (re-stated). Although the
o rays from active substances are of small penetrating power
compared with the /3 or 7 rays, they are responsible for most of
the energy evolved by radioactive substances and contribute
most of the ionization. Rutherford showed in 1903 that the
o rays were deflected in a powerful magnetic and electric field
and consisted of positively charged particles projected with
high velocity. From the first it seemed probable that the a
particle was an atom of helium and this was subsequently
confirmed in a number of ways. The value of e/m the ratio of
the charge on the particle to its mass and the velocity can be
determined from observations on the deflection of the pencil of
rays by a magnetic field and electric fields. In this way Ruther-
ford and Robinson showed that the o particle, whether from the
radium emanation, radium A or C, gave a value of e/m = 4820
e.m. units, while the electrochemical value of e/m = 48 26, assuming
that the mass of the helium atom is 4-00 and that it carries two
unit positive charges. The magnitude of the charge carried by
each particle was measured by Regener and Rutherford and
Geiger and found to be twice that carried by the electron. The
velocity of the a particles expelled from radium C (of range 7-06
cms.) was found to be 1-92X10' cm. per second, or about Vis
the velocity of light. From this result the velocity of expulsion
of all a particles can be calculated from the relation found by
Geiger, that V 3 =KR where V is the velocity of the particle and
R its range in air. The evidence indicates that the a particles
from active products are in all cases atoms of helium. The a
particles from a given product are all emitted with constant
velocity which is characteristic for that product. We have
already mentioned that the velocity of expulsion appears to be
connected with the period of transformation of the element. The
laws of absorption of the a particle were first worked out by
Bragg and Kleeman. On account of their great energy of motion,
the a particle travels in nearly a straight line through the gas,
producing intense ionization along its track. The effects produced
by the a particle, whether measured by ionization, phosphores-
cence or photographic action, vanish suddenly after the a particle
has traversed a definite amount of matter. This definiteness
of the end of the range of the a particle of given velocity is
remarkable. The range of the a particle is usually expressed in
terms of cms. of air traversed at 15 C. and 760 mm. pressure.
On account of its great energy of motion the effect due to a single
a particle can be detected in a variety of ways. Sir William Crookes
first noted that the o rays produce scintillations when they fall on a
screen of phosphorescent zinc sulphide. It is now known that each
of these scintillations is due to the impact of a single a particle.
The number of scintillations can be counted with the aid of a suit-
able microscope, and this method has proved of great utility in
many investigations. Scintillations due to o rays are observed in
certain diamonds, but they are usually not so bright as in zinc
sulphide. Kinoshita has shown that a single a particle produces a
detectable effect on a photographic plate. When the a rays fall on
a plate nearly horizontally the track of the a particle is clearly
visible under a high-power microscope. By the expansion method
developed by C. T. R. Wilson, the track of the a particle through
the gas is made visible by the condensation of the water on each of
the ions produced. In a similar way the track of a ft particle can be
easily shown. The photographs of these trails bring out in a striking
and concrete way not only the individual existence of o and ft par-
ticles, but the main effects produced in their passage through matter.
Properties of ft andy Rays (re-stated). We have seen that the /3
particles, which are emitted by a number of radioactive products,
consist of swift negative electrons spontaneously liberated during
the transformation of active matter. The velocity of expulsion
and the penetrating power of /3 rays vary widely for different
products. For example, the rays from radium B are much more
easily absorbed by matter than the swift /3 rays from radium C.
Moseley showed that in the case of these two products each
disintegrating atom gave rise on the average to one j3 particle.
There is undoubtedly a close connexion between ft and y rays,
and swift ft rays are usually accompanied by penetrating y rays.
For example, radium C, which emits very swift ft rays, some of which
reach a velocity more than 0-98 of the velocity of light, gives rise
to the most penetrating y rays observed in the uranium-radium
series. There is one very notable exception, viz. radium E, which
emits swift ft particles but weak y rays. Gray has shown that rays
in passing through matter give rise to y rays, and that these in some
cases correspond to the characteristic X radiations observed by
Barkla. The absorption of the y rays has been determined by the
electrical method. Radium B has been found to emit several groups
of y rays which differ widely in penetrating power. The greater
part of the rays from radium C consist of penetrating y rays which
are exponentially absorbed by matter. The ionization in an elec-
troscope falls off according to the equation I/Io = e~Md where d
is the thickness of matter traversed and /* the coefficient of absorp-
tion. When lead is used as an absorbing material the value of
jj=o-5 for the most penetrating y rays from radium C. The ab-
sorption coefficient for different kinds of matter is roughly propor-
tional to the density, indicating that the absorption depends only
on the mass of matter traversed.
The general evidence indicates that the y rays consist of types of
characteristic radiations which are excited by the passage of the ft
rays through the electronic system of the atom, but the y rays
from radium C are far more penetrating than any type of charac-
teristic radiation observed in X rays generated in a vacuum tube.
Rutherford and Andrade have determined the spectrum of the
y rays from radium B and C by reflection from rock-salt. The
most intense lines due to radium B are identical in wave-length with
the X-ray spectrum of lead. This is to be expected, since radium B
is an isotope of lead. The lines due to the " K " characteristic radia-
tion are also observed. General considerations, however, indicate
that the wave-length of the most penetrating y rays is much too
short to resolve or detect by the crystal method. In order to excite
such rays in an X-ray tube potential differences of the order of two
million volts will be necessary.
When the y rays from a product like radium B or radium C are
bent by a magnetic field and fall on a photographic plate, a kind of
magnetic spectrum is obtained. Superimposed on the continuous
spectrum clue to particles of all velocities (between certain limits)
certain sharp lines are observed, each of which represents a definite
group of ft rays which are emitted at the same speed. The velocity
corresponding to each line in the spectrum has been determined for
a number of /3-ray products by Hahn and Miss Meitner. The mag-
netic spectrum of radium B and radium C was examined in detail
by Rutherford and Robinson and more than 50 lines were observed,
representing ft particles projected over a wide range of velocity.
The appearance of these lines in the spectrum appears to be connected
with the emission of y rays and is believed to be due to the conver-
sion of the energy of the y ray of definite frequency into the energy
of an electron according to the quantum relation. When a thin layer
of absorbing material is placed over the source, the primary ft rays
diminish in velocity and the lines become broad and diffuse. At the
same time, however, new groups of ft rays are formed by the con-
version of y rays into ft rays in passing through the absorbing ma-
terial, and these give well-marked bands on the photographic plate,
occupying very nearly the same position as those due to the primary
ft rays before absorption. Results of this kind have an important
bearing on the general problem of radiation, and give us indications
of the facts to be accounted for in dealing with the conversion of
swift ft rays into y rays of high frequency, and vice versa.
RADIOTHERAPY
223
Production of Helium. It was stated in the earlier article
that, since the particle is an atom of helium, all radioactive
matter which emits a particles must produce helium. This has
been found to be the case for every a-ray product that has
been examined. The rate of production of helium by radium in
equilibrium has been measured with accuracy by Dewar, Bolt-
wood and Rutherford. In terms of the International Radium
Standard, the rate of production of helium by one gram of
radium in equilibrium with its three a-ray products has been
found to be 164 cub. mm. per year. This value is in excellent
accord with that calculated from the rate of emission of a
particles, viz. 163 cub. millimetres. The rate of production of
helium by the radium emanation, ionium and polonium has been
found by Boltwood to be in fair agreement with calculation.
Soddy has observed the production of helium by purified uranium,
while Strutt showed that the rate of production of helium in
uranium and thorium minerals accorded with calculation.
Strutt has made a systematic examination of the amount of
helium present in many minerals and rocks which contain minute
quantities of radium and has utilized the results to estimate the
age of the geological deposits. On account of the tendency of
the helium to escape from minerals in the course of geologic
ages, this method gives only a minimum estimate of the age of
the mineral, except in the case of very dense and compact
specimens. The measurement of the lead content should ulti-
mately prove a more reliable method of estimating the age.
Heat Emission of Radioactive Matter As was stated earlier,
there is no doubt that the evolution of heat by radium and
other radioactive matter is mainly a secondary phenomenon,
resulting mainly from the energy of the absorbed radiation.
Since the particles have a large kinetic energy and are easily
absorbed by matter, all of these particles are stopped by the
radium itself or by the envelope surrounding it and their energy
of motion is transformed into heat. The evolution of heat from
any type of radioactive matter is thus proportional to the
energy of the expelled a particles, together with the energy of
the /3 and 7 rays absorbed in the envelope. The energy supplied
by the recoil of the radioactive atom after the expulsion of an
a particle is about 2 % of the energy of the a particle.
These conclusions have been confirmed by the measurements of
Rutherford and Robinson, who found that each of the a-ray prod-
ucts gave a heating effect proportional to the energy of the a particle
and absorbed /3 and y rays. The emanation and its products when
removed from radium were responsible for three-quarters of the
heating effect of radium in equilibrium. The heating effect of the
radium emanation, radium A and radium C decayed at the same rate
as their activity. From their measurements they found that the
total heating effect of radium in equilibrium surrounded by sufficient
material to absorb the a rays was 134-7 gram-calories per hour per
gram. Of this, 123-6 gram-calories were due to the a particles,
4-7 to the /3 rays and 6-4 to the y rays. The energy of the /3 and y
rays comes from radium B and radium C, but on account of their
great penetrating power it is difficult to measure the /3 energy with
accuracy. The results, however, show that the energy of the y
rays is even greater than that of the /3 rays, and the two together
are equal to about 28% of the energy of the a particles from radium C.
Measurements have been made of the heating effect of radium,
uranium and thorium and of uranium and thorium minerals. In
each case the evolution of heat is of about the magnitude to be
expected from the energy of the radiations.
Radioactivity of Ordinary Mailer. Apart from the well-
known radioactive elements of high atomic weight, only two
other elements have been shown to exhibit the property of
radioactivity to a detectable degree, viz. potassium and rubid-
ium. Campbell showed that these elements emit only ft rays
and in amount small compared with uranium. This property
appears to be atomic, but no evidence has been obtained of any
subsequent changes. If the ft particle comes from the nucleus
of the atom, potassium should be transformed into an isotope of
calcium, and rubidium into an isotope of strontium.
Radium and thorium have been found to be distributed, but
in very minute amount, in the surface rocks and soil of the earth.
The emanation from the soil diffuses into the atmosphere and
causes a small ionization which can be readily measured. A
penetrating 7 radiation, no doubt due to the presence of radium
and thorium in the earth's crust, has been observed near the
earth's surface, but becomes very small over a lake or the sea.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Mme. Curie, Traite de Radioactivite (2 vols.
1910); E. Rutherford, Radioactive Substances and their Radiations
(1913) ; St. Meyer and E. V. Schweidler, Radioaktivitat (1916) ; F.
Soddy, Chemistry of the Radioelements, parts I. and II. (1914-5);
see also under " Radioactivity " in annual Reports of the Chemical
Society. (E. Ru.)
RADIOTHERAPY. Since 1910 there have been notable
developments, extending the practice of X-ray treatment (see
28.887) m t the wider field now included in radiotherapy, a term
which had not then come into general use. Strictly speaking,
under this term should be included treatment by all kinds of
rays; thus treatment by heat, by sun's rays, by ultra-violet
rays, by X-rays and by the rays of radio-active substances,
all come under the etymological term of radiotherapy. In
practice, however, it is restricted to the application of ultra-
violet rays, X-rays and radium rays. Amongst radiologists,
the term has undergone an even sharper definition, so that
radiotherapy is applied by them to treatment with X-rays
alone, the terms radiumtherapy (or, in France curietherapy,
in honour of the discoverer of radium) being applied to treat-
ment with the rays of radium and other radio-active substances.
Treatment by means of high frequency currents and diathermy
are included rather under the term electrotherapy.
Ultra-violet Rays. These rays to a large extent are the es-
sential feature of those forms of medical treatment which depend
upon exposure to sunlight (heliotherapy). Probably this is
not the whole story. Even though heat rays may also play
some part, experience of the treatment of wounds by sunlight
in France during the World War indicated that a degree of
benefit arises from exposure to sunlight which cannot be entirely
attributable to warmth and ultra-violet rays. On the other
hand, in the Finsen light treatment of lupus and in the treat-
ment of tuberculosis at high altitudes, ultra-violet rays probably
play a predominant part. It is uncertain how these rays act;
they penetrate but a fraction of a millimetre into the epithelium
and yet the fact that in tropical countries where sunlight is
great, the white races show a proverbial irritability which does
not characterize the pigmented native races, suggests that in
the one, effects are produced by the ultra-violet rays which the
pigment of the other is able to eliminate. Certain it is that
under ultra-violet light, persons vary in the appearances they
present, those who freckle or tan easily when exposed to sun-
light showing the potential freckles or bronzing of their skin
by dark marks which are absent from the skins of those who do
not freckle or tan easily. In this connexion, it is noteworthy
that those tuberculous persons are said to derive greater benefit
from a sojourn at high altitudes who normally tan easily under
sunlight, than those who do not. The rays are bactericidal,
but whether part of their action lies in this direction, is unknown.
X-rays. The X-rays which were discovered by Rontgen in
1895 are employed in medicine in two ways, firstly, as an aid to
diagnosis when they form those branches of the subject known
as radioscopy and radiography, and secondly, for the actual
treatment of conditions when diagnosed. Thus by means of
radioscopic or radiographic examination it may be found that
there is a tumour in the chest, and as a result of that diagnosis
it may be decided to institute treatment (radiotherapy) by
means of X-rays or radium rays or the two combined.
X-radiation has the advantage that considerable doses can
be employed. It has the disadvantage that the X-rays are
frequently not of sufficiently penetrating power to serve for the
treatment of tumours deep within the body. Three varieties
of X-rays are used, the difference consisting in variations in
wave lengths and in penetrating power. These varieties are
known clinically as " soft," " medium " and " hard " X-rays,
the soft rays being those of longer wave length and less pene-
trating power, and the hard rays being those of shorter wave
length and greater penetrating power. The softest X-rays
are not used clinically; those employed in the treatment of ring-
worm for example are " medium soft " since it is necessary for
penetration to reach as deeply as the hair follicles. Medium
224
RADIOTHERAPY
hard and hard X-rays are used where a layer or mass of tissue
some little distance beneath the surface is to be treated.
For the better treatment of new growths removed some
distance from the surface of the body, there is a tendency at the
present time (1921) to increase the hardness of the rays to the
utmost extent with the object of producing a radiation that
approximates in some degree to the gamma rays of radium in
penetrating power. Chief amongst the new growths that are
the subject of this " deep therapy " with intensely penetrating
X-rays are uterine fibroids. The production of soft to medium
X-rays requires an apparatus capable of generating about 100,000
volts, for deep therapy a voltage of about 200,000 is necessary
and the aim of radiologists is to get a still higher voltage. The
method -employed is essentially use of a series of transformers.
It is unnecessary here to enter into a detailed examination
of the methods whereby X-ray dosage is determined, but it is
obvious that estimation of the dose is one of the most important
points in connexion with radiotherapy. In the case of radium,
the matter is relatively simple, for the output of rays from the
radium is constant, but in the case of the X-ray bulb, quite
apart from variations in the primary current, the conditions
of the bulb vary within wide limits, and the output of the bulb
in X-rays varies accordingly. An important advance has been
made in recent years by the introduction of the Coolidge tube
in which by means of a different working principle the output
of X-rays can be kept fairly steady. Under all circumstances,
the output of an X-ray bulb is heterogeneous, the bundle of
rays emitted is partly penetrating, partly soft, and in order to
produce a more or less homogeneous bundle of rays for purposes
of treatment, it is necessary to eliminate the softer varieties
by means of niters. These filters are of different kinds but the
chief are aluminium, zinc, copper and lead. For absorption
of the specific secondary radiations produced when gamma or
X-rays impinge upon metals, such substances as rubber, gauze,
cardboard are used.
When a more or less homogeneous beam has been produced,
it is necessary to calculate the dose employed in any given case
for comparison with other cases. Various means have been
adopted to this end, of which the commonest is the Sabouraud's
pastille which consists of barium platinum cyanide and changes
colour from green to yellow under a certain dosage of the rays.
It was thought at first that this colorimetric test would be
generally applicable, but it was soon found that the change is
nDt brought out by X-rays of all degrees of penetration and is
fallacious as a guide to gamma radiation of radium. It is now
largely employed as a test of dosage during the X-ray treat-
ment of ringworm and other skin diseases, but it is recognized
that it must only be employed with caution, with rays of medium
hardness, and for superficial conditions. Another form of test
is electrical (ionto quantimeter) in which the rate of dischargs
of a charged gold leaf forms a measure of the output of X-rays.
Another method depends upon the chemical reduction of iodine
from iodoform in a chloroform solution and is probably the
most scientifically accurate of all the methods which have been
devised. Yet other methods depend upon the correlation be-
tween the effects produced by X-rays on the one hand and the
gamma rays of radium on the other. Here the production of
identical degrees of fluorescence on the fluorescent screen or of
silver deposit on the photographic plate or of biological effects
on the animal cell has been aimed at in standardization.
So far as treatment is concerned, it is obvious that a biological
test is the most satisfactory. The one commonly used is known
as the " erythema dose," meaning thereby that dose of X-rays
which leads to a reddening of the skin a few days after applica-
tion and subsequently to slight bronzing, without blistering or
other damage. On the other hand there is no doubt that the
various cells of the body do not react to radiations in the same
degree and partly on this account and partly because of the
operation of the law of inverse squares, it is obvious that the
skin over a tissue being irradiated may itself receive an injurious
dose while the tissue in question is receiving the correct dose.
Hence when a tissue some distance beneath the surface is under
treatment it becomes necessary to irradiate it through different
portals, so that each area of skin shall receive less than the
erythema dose, although the tissue in question gets the full
amount that the radiologist wishes to give it; this method of
cross fire is largely employed.
Radio-active Substances. Treatment by means of radio-
active substances largely resolves itself into treatment by means
of the beta and the gamma rays of radium or occasionally meso-
thorium. Just as X-rays vary in degree of penetration, so do
the rays of radium. The so-called alpha rays are little pene-
trating, being stopped by about 35cm. of air. The beta rays,
which are particulate negative electrons, are more penetrating
but their penetrating power varies over a wide field, some of
the softest being as easily absorbed as alpha rays, some of the
hardest approximating to the soft gamma rays in penetrating
power. Gamma rays are aether vibrations and they, too, vary
in degree of penetrating power. Their wave length is the short-
est of any form of vibration known, and the most penetrating
gamma rays can be detected through several inches of lead.
The alpha rays are but little used, the only methods of em-
ployment being in the way of radium emanation dissolved in
saline solution, or of needles upon which " active deposit " from
radium emanation has been collected. In either case the emana-
tion water or the active deposit needles must be introduced into
the system whether intravenously or into the solid tissues
otherwise the alpha rays would have no power to act. In either
case, too, they act along with the beta and gamma rays pro-
duced by the active deposit.
Beta radiation is always used in conjunction with gamma
radiation, but inasmuch as the ionizing power of the beta ray is
about 50 times as great as that of the gamma ray, it follows
that when beta radiation is being employed, the gamma radia-
tion may probably be ignored. Beta radiation is used for merely
superficial conditions and the radium salt which supplies it is
spread over a flat or curved applicator and is covered with a
thin layer of varnish, mica or aluminium or is placed in a thin
glass tube; the beta rays which traverse thin solid filters act
upon the tissue in the neighbourhood of which the radium is
placed. Instead of a radium salt one of its products, viz. radium
emanation is often employed clinically. No essential difference
is introduced by the use of this emanation excepting that its
intensity undergoes a progressive diminution with time since it
falls to half value in 3-85 days. Early rodent cancer, certain
conditions of the eyelids, some cutaneous non-malignant tumours
and birth-marks, are treated successfully in this way.
Gamma radiations are used where deep penetration is required,
but the law of inverse squares approximately holds good in their
case also, a matter of fundamental importance in treatment.
The substances used as filters when radio-active materials are
employed in treatment are not quite the same as those used
along with X-rays. Since one of the main objects in employ-
ing radium is to utilize the highly penetrating gamma rays,
the filters employed are generally of the higher atomic weights,
silver, brass, gold, lead, platinum, and there is some reason for
believing that the more highly penetrating the rays, (i.e. the
denser the filter through which they have passed) the less is
undesirable damage suffered by the tissues.
Mode of Action of Radiations. The method by which X-rays
and radium rays produce their effects are not thoroughly under-
stood, but it is certain that dosage must vary according to the
type of cell which it is desired to influence. Thus the vulner-
ability of skin is not the same in different individuals nor even
in different regions in the same individual; the vulnerability
of the squamous cell is not the same as that of the columnar
cell; the vulnerability of renal cells differs in the convoluted
tubules and in the conducting tubules. Even in the fur of
animals it is possible to recognize a differentiation, for a certain
amount of X-radiation will lead to a destruction of the pigment
forming cells in the hair of a black rat, while a little more radia-
tion will affect the cells themselves. In the former case there
is no epilation but the hair comes white instead of black, in the
latter the hair falls out and baldness results.
RAEMAKERS RAILWAYS
225
If the question be carried still further back and the behaviour
of the cells themselves under radiation be considered, it has
been found that the rays may act principally, though not ex-
clusively, upon the nucleus or upon the cytoplasm or upon the
cell membrane or upon any paraplastic material within the cell.
The greater amount of work in this direction has been carried
out with radium but there is little doubt that the effects of
X-rays are similar. In part, changes are produced owing to the
fact that the radiations break down complex chemical substances
into simpler constituents. In this way, the osmotic tension of
the cell or nucleus affected is raised and a dropsical condition
results which can often be recognized microscopically. Other
forms of degenerative change produced are fatty and mucoid.
Thus radiation, 'if in great doses, will lead to fatty change in
voluntary muscle of man and most animals or in renal cells of
the cat. Under large doses of radium, mucoid changes are
excessively common in all parts which normally produce mucus,
but in addition, there is a great tendency for cells which ordi-
narily do not form mucus to undergo mucoid degeneration.
Sometimes the cytoplasm of the cells disappears, though not
obviously by way of either of these changes, with the result that
the nucleus lies naked in the middle of the cell and separated
from the cell membrane by a considerable distance. So far
as the nucleus is concerned, changes produced by radiations
may be intense. In cells such as those of testicle or intestine
which are often found in mitotic division, mitosis is arrested or
abolished. In other nuclei there may be evidence of vacuola-
tion or the nucleus may be converted into a mere empty sac,
or the nuclear membrane may disappear, or the entire nucleus
may be represented by a few points of stained material or,
finally, the nucleus may disappear altogether.
Thus in one or other way, changes are produced as the result
of irradiation in the tissues upon which those rays impinge and
the effects produced will depend upon (i) the type of cells
affected, (2) the quantity of rays employed, (3) the length of
time those rays have acted.
It must be remembered that the biological cell usually acts
in one or other of two opposite directions when exposed to a
physical agent according to the intensity with which the agent
acts. Thus we distinguish between a stimulating or beneficial
effect and an irritative or injurious effect. There is reason to
believe that both of these may follow upon irradiation. In
the case of malignant new growths, there is no doubt that death
and destruction of the neoplastic cells occur where the rays act
in all their intensity, but there is equally no doubt that because of
the law of inverse squares and the specific absorption by the
tissues a point is reached at which the injurious effect on the
malignant cells which we desire passes into a stimulant effect
which we may have reason to deplore. If this stimulus act on
young and actively growing malignant cells at the periphery of
the growth our irradiation will do more harm than good to the
patient. There can be little doubt that in the early days of
radiotherapy, some cases of malignant disease ran a more rapid
course as the result of the irradiation treatment than other-
wise they would have done. For this reason, the essential point
of their treatment by means of radium consists in an endeavour
to deal with the peripheral neoplastic cells.
On the other hand, changes may be produced in cells which
we are unable to recognize microscopically. Recently the treat-
ment of exophthalmic goitre has been largely and for the most
part, successfully, carried out by irradiation and yet if the
thyroid body be examined from animals exposed for many
hours to the gamma radiations of radium bromide, it may be
doubtful whether histological changes can be detected. Similarly,
ntense gamma radiation of the male frog produces no testicular
changes that can be detected with certainty, and yet far less
diation produces marked changes in the tadpoles derived
from normal ova fertilized by such radiated spermatozoa.
It follows from what has been said above, that radiotherapy
. not without its special dangers. Amongst the disadvantages
to which the irradiations may give rise, too extensive destruc-
tion of tissue on the one hand or stimulation of new growth on
xxxii. 8
the other are relatively obvious but the dangers are more in-
sidious. Recent work has shown that long continued exposure
to minute doses of radiation (in addition to the well-known
occasional production of skin cancer) leads to blood changes
which in course of time become a pronounced menace to life.
Not only are red and white blood cells destroyed, but the rays
appear to exert a deleterious effect upon the blood-forming
tissues with the result that an aplastic anaemia becomes estab-
lished. Obviously, the protection of the personnel in hospitals
and similar institutions where X-rays and radium are used
becomes a matter of great importance.
It is probable that X-rays and radium will always continue
to be employed side by side owing to the special advantage
which each form of radiation possesses, and in some cases it is
certain that the best results are obtained in combination.
It will have appeared from what has been said above that
radiotherapy is largely though by no means exclusively
concerned with the treatment of new growths. Irradiation
by one or other method is used in cases of uterine fibroid and
in cases of inoperable cancer, sometimes with astonishingly
good results. It is also used in conjunction with operation for
cancer with the object of warding off recurrences. Sometimes
cancers, inoperable when they first come under observation,
are rendered operable by treatment with radium. And, fre-
quently, when surgery has done all that is possible a consider-
able degree of relief is given by irradiation.
In addition to their use in the treatment of new growths,
X-rays and radium have been tried in most of the chronic forms
of disease. When surgery or medicine fails to relieve a case,
it is usual to try irradiation. Sometimes the results are sur-
prisingly beneficial, but the limits of utility of the rays still
need to be determined. (W. S. L-B.)
RAEMAKERS, LOUIS (1860- ), Dutch cartoonist, was
born at Roermond, Holland, April 6 1869. He received his
education in art at various schools, and finally at Amsterdam,
where he obtained several prizes. He subsequently became
director of an art school at Wageningen, in Gelderland. About
1908 he started drawing political cartoons, but it was not until
the outbreak of war in 1914 that his work attained world-wide
reputation, by his anti-German cartoons, illustrative of the
devastation of Belgium and Northern France. Many special
exhibitions of his war cartoons were held, and his work had a
great effect as propaganda. Several volumes of his work have
been published: The Great War in igi6; The Great War in igiT,
Devanl I'Histoire (1918); Cartoon History of the War (1919).
RAILWAYS (see 22.819; a ^ so LIGHT RAILWAYS, MILITARY).
UNITED KINGDOM. In 1910 British railways had reached a high
standard of completeness and development, and, although a
number of new lines were subsequently brought into use, two
only are of primary importance in regard to through main-line
traffic. One of these is the first section of the Enfield-Stevenage
line of the Great Northern railway, opened for traffic as far as
Cuffley on April 4 1910. On the same date the Ashenden-Aynho
line of the Great Western railway was brought into use for
goods traffic. The former was part of a new line designed to
afford an alternative route into London avoiding duplication
of the Welwyn Viaduct and, by adopting a new route, opening
up a new district near London for suburban development. From
1916 onwards the northern portion was laid with a single line
and used for goods traffic, and towards the end of 1920 a second
track was laid. In June 1921 this section had not yet been
opened for passenger traffic, but was already being largely used
for goods and mineral trains. The Ashenden-Aynho line was,
however, on July i 1910, brought into regular use as part of a
shortened main route between London and Birmingham, and
a two-hourly schedule then came into force for the principal
Great Western expresses.
Among other important new lines brought into use the following
may be mentioned: June I 1910, Filton Junction and Avonmouth
Docks, and the Camerton and Limpley Stoke lines, G.VV.R. ;
Armagh, Keady & Castleblaney railway, worked by G.N.R. (I.),
completed December I 1910; April 13 1911, Shropshire & Mont-
gomeryshire light railway; May 12 1911, Lampeter and Aberayron
226
RAILWAYS
line, G.W.R. ; May I 1912, Goole and Selby line, N.E.R.; June 3
1912, Dearne Valley railway (worked by L. & Y.R.); June 16 1913,
Mansfield railway opened for goods traffic, and on April 2 1917 for
passenger traffic (worked by G.C.R.); and July I 1913, Kirkstead
and Little Steeping Line, G.N.R. On July I 1912 the London &
North-Western railway brought into use a part of the " Watford
new lines," and the branch to Croxley Green, the remainder being
opened on Feb. 17 1913'. On June 2 1913 the Great Western railway
opened part of trie remarkable series of lines designed to improve
railway communication in South Wales and referred to generally as
the Swansea District lines. Other sections were added at various
later dates. On Sept. 26 1915 the North British railway brought
into use a series of new lines in the Edinburgh district, designed
mainly to facilitate mineral traffic working, known as the New
Lothian lines. On May 22 1916 the Great Central railway opened
the Keadby deviation line, including a new bridge over the Trent
with a Scherzer rolling-lift bridge of 200 ft. span, jn July 1915 a
section of the old Ravenglass and Eskdale railway in Cumberland
was reopened on the 1 5-inch gauge, using locomotives of model or
" exhibition " types, but catering to public passenger and goods
traffic. Extensive reconstruction works at Waterloo, L. & S.W.R.,
were nearing completion in 1921.
Electric Railway Extensions and New Lines. On July 27 1912 the
Central London railway was extended to Liverpool Street. On
December I 1913 the " Bakerloo " section of the London Electric
railway was extended to Paddington, and on February n 1915 to
Queen's Park, there connecting with the L. & N.W.R. pn April 6
1914 the loop under the river at Charing Cross on the " Hampstead "
section of the London Electric railway was brought into use. On
May 31 1915 the four-track section, from Finchley Road to Harrow,
of the Metropolitan railway was completed over Kilburn Viaduct.
On Aug. 3 1920 the Ealing and Shepherd's Bush railway, connecting
the Central London railway at Wood Lane with the G.W.R. at Ealing
Broadway, was completed and opened for traffic.
Railway Electrification (see also ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING).
Equipment of existing railways for electric working has been con-
siderably extended. On May 12 1911 the L.B. & S.C.R. commenced
to work electric trains between Victoria and the Crystal Palace. On
March I 1912 the London Bridge routes via Tulse Hill were added,
the complete electric service becoming operative on June I 1912.
Since that date equipment of various other routes has been in hand
but owing to interruption of the war no further sections are yet
electrically operated. On the London & South-Western railway
electric traction was inaugurated between Waterloo and Wimbledon,
via East Putney, on Oct. 25 1915; on the Kingston " Roundabout "
route Jan. 30 1916; on the Hounslow loop March 12 1916; to Hamp-
ton Court June 15 1916; and to Claygate Nov. 20 1916. Electric
working on the North London and L. & N.W. railways was com-
menced between Willesden Junction and Earl's Court on May I
1914, and between Broad Street and Richmond and Kew Bridge on
Oct. I 1916. On May 10 1915 the London Electric railway com-
menced to work through to Willesden Junction via Queen's Park,
and from April 18 1917 this service was continued to Watford over
the " Watford New Lines," though it was not until 1920 that the
L. & N.W.R. was able to take its share in the working of this service,
as the specially constructed joint rolling stock began to be delivered
after the war from the makers. During 1919 L. & N.W.R. electric
trains began to work from Broad Street to Watford via Hampstead
Heath. Work was in 1921 well advanced upon the new " tube "
tunnel under Primrose Hill and the entire reconstruction of L. &
N.W.R. lines at Chalk Farm to enable " flying " or " burrowing "
connexions to be made between the Eustpn and Broad Street routes
and between the three sets of running lines, but electric operation
could not be inaugurated via Chalk Farm and from Euston until this
was sufficiently completed. On March 31 1912 Metropolitan railway
electric trains commenced to work over the East London railway
between Shoreditch and the two New Cross stations, with through
trains, via Aldgate East, to and from Hammersmith. Principal
developments in regard to electric traction in the provinces are the
electrification in 1916 of the Newport-Shildon section of the North-
Eastern railway to enable heavy mineral traffic to be operated by
electric instead of steam locomotives, and of the L. & Y.R. route
from Manchester (Victoria) to Bury, via Prestwich, in Feb. 1916,
following the experimental high-tension electrification between
Bury and Holcombe Brook which had been used from July 1913.
Mention may also be made of the installation in 191 1 of escalators
at Earl's Court, connecting the " Piccadilly " section of the London
Electric railway with the, Metropolitan District station above.
Escalators were also provided at Liverpool Street on the opening of
the Central London railway extension in July 1912, since which date
these have been systematically adopted at all new tube railway
stations. They have also been introduced at several existing sta-
tions, as at Oxford Circus, London Electric railway, and on the
L. & S.W.R. at Waterloo to connect the Waterloo and City station
with the terminus above.
Dock Improvements. Principal developments in regard to dock
and similar facilities affecting railways are the opening of Imming-
ham Dock, G.C.R. (by the King and Queen) on July 22 1912; of the
new Methil Docks, N.B.R., on Jan. 22 1913; of the King George
Dock at Hull, H. & B. and N.E. railways (by the King and Queen)
on June 26 1914 ; and the opening of a new lock entrance, designed to
enable the largest vessels to enter at all states of the tide, at Newport,
Alexandra Docks & Railway, on July 14 1914.
New Locomotive Works. During 1910 and 1911 the new locomo-
tive works at Eastleigh of the L. & S.W.R. were brought into use,
and the old works at Nine Elms dismantled and the area thus
cleared handed over to the Goods Department. The Great Eastern
railway added several new workshops to the rolling-stock plant at
Stratford in 1914-6.
Signalling. Automatic and power signalling had already become
well established in 1910, but only a limited amount of further devel-
opment can be recorded. In Jan. 1911 two-position upper-quadrant
electric signals were introduced on the Metropolitan railway, and
have since been adopted where semaphores are retained on the
" Underground " sections. On the Keadby deviation line of the
G.C.R., already mentioned, three-position upper-quadrant signals
have been in use since May 1916, while the Ealing & Shepherd's
Bush railway is the first line in the United Kingdom to be opened
with all signals of this type. In Jan. 1920 a complete power signal-
ling installation on three-position upper-quadrant principles was
brought into use at Victoria, S.E. & C.R.
Express-Train Running. During the years 19104 express
passenger-train facilities reached their highest level, and the time-
tables arranged for the summer of 1914 showed the following
numbers of non-stop runs of 100 m. or more: Caledonian railway
10 runs, the three longest being between Carlisle and Perth, 150! m. ;
Great Eastern railway 7 runs, the two longest being of 131 m. between
Liverpool Street and North Walsham; Great Northern railway 29
runs, the longest being from Wakefield to King's Cross, 175^ m.;
Great Central railway 6 runs, the longest being from London to
Sheffield, 164} m.; Great Western railway 40 runs, the longest from
Paddington to Plymouth (North Road), 225! m.; London & South-
western railway 4 runs, three of which were operated between Water-
loo and Bournemouth (Central), 108 m.; London & North-Western
railway 74 runs, the longest being between Euston and Rhyl, 2ogi
m. ; Midland railway 25 runs, the longest from St. Pancras to Shipley
(a stop to change engines only, not advertised) 206 m.; North-
Eastern railway 14 runs, all between Newcastle and Edinburgh,
working through over N.B.R. north of Berwick, 124^ m. Average
speeds for the best of these runs were respectively: C.R. 49-7;
G.E.R. 49-7; G.N.R. 57; G.C.R. 55-85; G.W^R. 54-8; L. & S.W.R.
54; L. & N.W.R. 52-7; M.R. 50-86; and N.E.R. 54-1 m.p.h. On
several of these lines, however, trains making somewhat shorter
runs provided even higher averages. The following non-stop runs
exceeding 55 m.p.h. may be noted:
Miles
Min-
utes
Average
N.E.R.
G.C.R.
L. & S.W.R.
G.W.R.
L. & N.W.R.
G.N.R.
C.R.
MR..
Darlington to York
Leicester to Arkwright
St., Nottingham
Dorchester to Wareham
Paddington to Bristol .
Willesden to Coventry
Grantham to King's
Cross ....
Forfar to Perth
St. Pancras to Kettering
44i
22*
I IS}
88 J
I05l
32*
72
43
22
15
1 2O
92
no
7*
61-7
61-3
60
59-2
577
57-5
57-2
56-8
G.E.R.
C.L.C. . .
Halesworth to Wood-
bridge ....
Manchester to West
Derby ....
215
Hi
23
34
56-6
55-1
It may be remarked that the short L. & S.W.R. run mentioned
was due to an error in time-table compilation, but was worked to for
some time. The S.E. & C.R., L. & Y.R., and G. & S.W.R. had runs
exceeding 54 m.p.h., while the Great Southern & Western and the
Great Northern railways in Ireland, the L.B. & S.C.R., the London,
Tilbury & Southend section of the Midland railway, and the Hull &
Barnsley railway also had runs averaging 50 m.p.h. or over.
Many of the runs mentioned had been operated for several years
before the outbreak of war in 1914, but in two cases at least, the
highest level was reached between 1910 and 1914. Thus, on the
Great Western railway, the opening of the Ashenden-Aynho line,
shortening the distance between London and Birmingham to I loj m.,
provided four down non-stop trains in the even two hours. These
conveyed from one to three slip coaches, detached at Banbury,
Leamington or Knowle, but the over-all time of two hours was also
given to several up trains, though these had to include stops at
Leamington or Banbury or both. On the London & North-Western
railway a number of London-Birmingham trains were similarly accel-
erated to 120 minutes for the distance of 1 13 miles. On the London &
South-Western railway two hours became the standard for Waterloo-
Bournemouth non-stop trains as from July 3 1911.
Train Service Developments. The following developments in train
service facilities may be noted. On Feb. I 1910 the L. & N.W.R.
introduced "city-to-city" expresses between Wolverhampton and
Birmingham and Broad Street. A novelty on these trains was the
provision of a typewriting compartment, in charge of a qualified
stenographer. In the following May similar arrangements were
RAILWAYS
227
introduced on certain Birmingham-Euston expresses. In Juty 1910
restaurant cars were introduced on through trains between Man-
chester, Birkenhead and Bournemouth, L. & N.W., G.W., and
L. & S.W. railways. In July 1910 certain Midland Anglo- Scottish
expresses were diverted to run over the L. & N.W.R. between Pen-
rith and Carlisle. At the same time several Caledonian expresses to
and from Aberdeen began to use Glasgow Central Station instead of
Buchanan Street. In Oct. 1910 the G.W.R. introduced through
trains via the Ashenden-Aynho line between Wolverhampton and
Victoria, S.E. & C.R. In July 1910 the L. & S.W.R. improved their
Southampton-Havre route to the European Continent. In May 191 1
the S.E. & C.R. Continental service from Queenborough to Flushing
was transferred to Folkestone. On June I 1911 tea cars were intro-
duced on the afternoon expresses between London and Manchester
and Liverpool, L. & N.W.R. From July 3 IQII through carriages
forming parts of S.E. & C.R. Kent Coast and other expresses were
run to and from King's Cross, G.N.R. On the same date the N.E.R.
introduced hourly expresses between Newcastle, Sunderland, West
Hartlepool, Stockton and Middlesbrough. In March 1910 Metro-
politan District trains commenced to work through over the Metro-
politan railway to Uxbridge, and in June of the same year through
trains between Ealing and Southend were added. In July 1913 the
G.W.R. introduced the " Devon and Cornwall Special " express
(third class only) between London and the West of England.
Pullman Cars. Hitherto used only on the L.B. & S.C.R., on
March 21 1910 Pullman cars were added to certain S.E. & C.R.
Continental expresses via Dover, and in the following December
to those via Folkestone. In June 1910 they were adopted by the
Metropolitan railway on the extension line to Aylesbury. In
June 1914 Pullman cars were introduced on a considerable scale
by the Caledonian railway, some of them replacing first- and third-
class restaurant cars, while others were available only for first-class
passengers on payment of a supplement as usual. In Sept. 1915 the
L.B. & S.C.R. added third-class Pullman cars to certain trains.
From June 16 1919 Pullman cars were added to Folkestone and
Kent Coast expresses, S.E. & C.R. In July 1921 the S.E. & C.R.
added a special Pullman express, the " Thanet Limited," between
Victoria and Ramsgate Harbour on Sundays. From Nov. II 1920
Pullman cars began to run on the G.E.R. Both first- and second-
class cars now run on its Continental expresses, and first- and third-
class cars on other routes.
Withdrawal of Second-Class Accommodation. Several railways
had already withdrawn second-class accommodation, partially or
wholly, before 1910, but in Oct. of that year the G.W.R. discon-
tinued provision for second-class passengers. From June I 1911 the
L.B. & S.C.R. adopted the same course; the L. & N.W.R., Cambrian,
North Staffordshire, and Maryport & Carlisle from Jan. 1912, and
from July 22 1918 the L. & S.W.R.
Season Tickets. In regard to season tickets several interesting
items may be referred to. In May 1910 the G.W.R. commenced to
issue season tickets at stations on application. In Dec. of the same
year the G.N.R. discontinued calling for deposits on season tickets,
this practice being now general on most lines. From Jan. I 1912 the
Metropolitan railway issued " limited season tickets to the wives of
season-ticket holders, a corollary to the shopping tickets which had
been issued from Jan. 1910, available only between 10 A.M. and 4
P.M., the first-class fares being little more than for third class.
Working Arrangements. Several important working arrange-
ments and agreements between leading railways were already in
operation as between the L. & N.W., L. & Y. and Midland railways,
and in May 1910 a similar working arrangement was entered into
between the G.W. and L. & S.W. railways. In Aug. 1912 the London,
Tilbury & Southend railway was taken over by the Midland com-
pany, being thereafter known as the L.T. & S. section. In Oct. of the
same year the Great Northern & City railway was incorporated into
the Metropolitan system, and in Nov. 1912 the City & South London
and Central London railways were brought into the group controlled
by the Underground Electric Railways Co. of London, Ltd. In
Jan. 1915 a reorganization of the " Underground " companies, co-
ordinating the several managements, was adopted. In April of the
same year the Great Eastern railway adopted a reorganization of the
chief departments, while the operating and commercial departments
were separated as from July I 1915.
Strikes, etc. In Aug. 1911 there was a short strike of railwaymen
which led to the appointment of a special Royal Commission. The
principal result of this was the establishment of Conciliation Boards,
including representatives of the respective managements, of the
various grades of staff and of the Board of Trade, for the purpose of
dealing with questions of pay, duties and other problems affecting
railway staff. In Sept. 1911 there was a strike of Irish railwaymen.
In March 1912 a coal strike entailed many difficulties upon the rail-
ways, the Great Eastern being the only large company which was
able to maintain approximately full train services throughout. In
Dec. of the same year there was a strike on the North-Eastern rail-
way owing to the suspension of a driver named Knox, for alleged
drunkenness, but this did not spread to any serious extent. Knox
was actually fined for being drunk by the Newcastle magistrates on
Oct. 26. He was off duty at the time. But eventually an inquiry by
Mr. Chester Jones, the London police-magistrate, resulted in his
reporting (Dec. 14) that Knox (though " not quite sober ") had not
been " drunk in the police-court sense," and he was then reinstated.
In March 1913 the National Union of Railwaymen was formed from
the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, the General Rail-
way Workers' Union, and the United Signalmen's and Pointsmen's
Society. In Oct. 1913 a Royal Commission on Railways began its
sittings, which were not completed at the outbreak of the war.
Railway (Accounts and Returns') Act IQII. Commencing Jan. I
1913, the Railway (Accounts and Returns) Act 191 1 came into force,
from which date the methods of preparing the annual returns of all
railway companies were unified and systematized, and the previous
half-yearly periods, with their Scottish variations, gave place to
accounts and returns for the calendar year, providing for annual
meetings in Feb. in every case. The year 1913 is the only one for
which complete accounts and returns were prepared in accordance
with the Act, the conditions of railway control and guarantee during
and subsequent to the war having prevented later returns being
presented in complete form. Indeed, during the actual war period
the accounts and returns were reduced to bare essentials, and some
tables are still necessarily in abeyance.
" Safety First." In 1914 the Great Western railway adopted
systematic " Safety First " propaganda, immediately followed by the
London " Underground " railways, and since that date the matter
has been closely followed up by other companies, several having
issued publications to their staff setting forth " Safety First '
principles. On Dec. I 1916 the London " Safety First " Council was
constituted, including representatives of several railways.
Locomotive Development. Superheating was already recognized
as a desirable feature of locomotive practice in 1910, and has since
become firmly established as an essential part of almost every loco-
motive design, including tank and shunting as well as main-line
passenger and goods classes. The Schmidt and Robinson types are
both widely employed, the former in the hands of the firm known as
Marine & Locomotive Superheaters, Ltd., and the latter in those of
the Superheater Corp., Ltd. Both have been developed, and
dampers or draft retarders are now seldom employed, improved
designs of release, snifting and other valves or adjuncts, or the use of
a steam circulating system, being found to meet the needs of the
situation. The designs mainly used in each case are the types A and
B of the respective firms. Several other designs are, however, now in
considerable use; Mr. G. J. Churchward's " Swindon " apparatus
on the Great Western railway; Mr. G. Hughes's " top and bottom
header " and " twin plug header " designs on the Lancashire &
Yorkshire railway; Mr. R. W. Urie's " Eastleigh " superheater on
the London & South- Western railway; Mr. H. N. Gresley's " twin-
tube " superheater on the Great Northern railway; Mr. R. E. L.
Maunsell's special form of header (M.L.S. superheater, Type C) on
the South-Eastern & Chatham railway; and Mr. E. A. Watson's
design on the Great Southern & Western railway of Ireland. Mr.
J. G. Robinson, of course, uses the " Robinson " pattern on the
Great Central railway and his designs are largely used also on other
railways. High-degree superheating is now invariably employed.
Feedwater heating is used to a limited extent on certain lines, and
the Weir apparatus has been experimentally installed on several
others, but the practice is still far from general. The use of oil for
fuel continues to be the subject of experiment, but is still exceptional,
though during the 1921 coal strike engines were adapted on many
lines. Mention may be made of trials of the " Scarab " system on
the L. & N.W.R. and other lines, while on the Great Central railway
Mr. J. G. Robinson is stated to have obtained notable results from
pulverized fuel and a "colloidal" mixture of pulverized coal and
oil, also with the " Unolco " oil-burning equipment.
Recent locomotive practice tends towards the systematic adop-
tion of the 4-6-0 type for express and ordinary passenger and fast-
goods locomotives, while the 2-6-0 type has appeared on several
lines for mixed-traffic duties. The former is often associated with
the use of four high-pressure cylinders, and on se% r eral railways
three-cylinder locomotives of various types have been placed in
service, but the ordinary two-cylinder system is still the most
general. Walschaert valve gear is becoming more and more widely
used. On many railways large tank engines have been introduced,
notably of the 4-6-2, 2-6-4, 4~4~4i o-6~4. and 4-6-4 wheel arrange-
ments, with 0-8 2 and 28-0 locomotives for heavy local goods and
shunting work.
Rolling Stock. In the carriage department there have been no
special developments since 1910, though improvements in designs
already in use have, of course, been made. To some extent, steel
panels are being employed, and for electric rolling stock steel con-
struction is now largely used. On the L. & Y.R. all-steel coaches are
used on the Manchester^Bury electric route. To provide for rapid
detraining and entraining of passengers at busy " Underground
stations, new designs of rolling stock have been adopted, including
three sets of double doors on each side, one midway and the others
towards, but some distance from, the ends. Steadying pillars and
hand-holds are superseding the straps hitherto provided for the
convenience of standing passengers. On the goods and mineral side
no special developments in rolling stock need to be referred to,
except that the use of high-capacity wagons up to 50 tons' capacity
is extending, though as yet to a limited extent only.
Miscellaneous. During 1910 express locomotives of the G.W.
and L. & N.W. railways were exchanged for comparative trial ; also
228
RAILWAYS
between the Highland and North British, the L. & N.W. and North
British, and the Great Southern & Western and Great Northern in
Ireland. On April 4 1914 the well-known horse " Dandy," which had
so long worked the Port Carlisle branch of the North British railway,
at last gave place to a steam train. On Dec. 19 1915 occurred the
disastrous landslide at " The Warren," Folkestone, necessitating the
closing of the S.E. & C.R. main line between Folkestone and Dover
throughout the war period. It was not reopened until Aug. n 1919.
BRITISH RAILWAYS UNDER WAR CONDITIONS
Railway Executive Committee. As far back as 1865 an Engi-
neer and Railway Staff Corps had been formed to provide an
organization of railway managers, engineers and contractors
who, in the event of war, would, under the direction of the mili-
tary authorities, superintend the operation of railways and carry
out such additional works as might be necessary. In 1896 the
Army Railway Council was constituted, this body being known
from 1903 as the War Railway Council. From these bodies was
formed in Nov. 1912 the Railway Executive Committee, com-
prising the general managers of certain leading railways. The
work of the Committee was mainly advisory, but included
certain preparatory measures which bore good fruit when, on
Aug. 4 1914, on the declaration of war, nearly all railways in
England, Scotland and Wales were taken over by the Govern-
ment under the Regulation of the Forces Act 1871, and directed
on behalf of the State by the Railway Executive Committee.
It may be explained that this Committee was never intended to
supersede the actual management of railways, but to issue
directions and to coordinate the working of all lines concerned
as required by the various emergencies as they arose. Otherwise,
and notwithstanding the many uncontemplated developments
in the scope and operation of the Committee throughout the
war period, the ruling principle was always that the officers of
the respective railways should continue to operate their lines
without State interference.
Railway Control and Guarantee. The Act of 1871 provided
that, to avoid the complexities of payment for services rendered
and other difficulties which necessarily would have arisen, the
Government guaranteed to make up any ascertained deficiency
in the aggregate net receipts of all the railways taken over as
compared with the aggregate for the corresponding period of
1913. Throughout the war period, therefore, all ordinary finan-
cial arrangements on the operating side ceased, and the work
of the Railway Clearing House in regard to the division of
receipts according to ownership of lines and various arrange-
ments between companies was discontinued. The original agree-
ment provided for adjustment according to the conditions dur-
ing the first half of the year 1914 as compared with the corre-
sponding period in 1913, but, when the question of war bonuses
to railway workers to meet the higher cost of living arose early
in 1915, it was agreed that this proviso should cease to operate
in consideration of the first 25% of the war bonus conceded in
Feb. 1915 being borne entirely by the companies, though all
subsequent increases were undertaken by the State. In Aug.
1915 the Government accepted the principle of making allow-
ances to the railway companies supplementary to the periodical
compensation payments in respect of deferred maintenance and
renewal. At a later stage agreements were made as to the pay-
ment of interest upon various capital works unproductive at
the time of the outbreak of war, or completed and brought into
use during the earlier war period, and in regard to many other
complicating factors which arose. Some of these agreements
occasioned severe strictures by Lord Colwyn's Committee on
Railway Agreements, whose report was issued early in 1921, but
during the period of hostilities, and notwithstanding the very
wide and to some extent undefined scope of control which was
eventually forced upon the Railway Executive Committee, the
arrangements made by the Committee on behalf of the State
with the railway companies are generally regarded to have been
reasonable and equitable.
The Government Profit on Railways. It may be pointed out
that, according to a Government return issued under date of
April 30 1919, if all Government traffic had been charged for at
authorized pre-war rates the amounts would have been as fol-
lows for the periods stated:
Aug. 5 to Dec. 31 1914 3,500,000
Year 1915 10,279,104
Year 1916 20,649,126
Year 1917 35-698,554
Year 1918 41,917,024
Total 112,043,808
For the corresponding periods the amounts which the Govern-
ment had to provide by way of compensation were:
Aug. 5 1914 to Dec. 31 1915 15,946,839
Year 1916 14,039,674
Vear 1917 24,075,768
Year 1918 41,251,326
Total 95.313.607
Beside the actual working of the railways, the use of railway
steamers, docks, canals, etc., represented a value estimated at
from 10,000,000 to 15,000,000, while munition and similar
work done (to the value of about 17,000,000) in railway work-
shops at cost price and therefore without profit to the companies,
also the provision of locomotives, rolling stock, permanent way,
etc., for use overseas, indicate the complexities of the arrange-
ments ultimately entailed and the tremendous scope the utiliza-
tion of the home railways for war purposes eventually attained.
The Irish railways were not concerned at first in the Govern-
ment control and guarantee. They were, however,- taken over
under similar conditions from Jan. i 1917. The appended table
shows the manner in which the control of railways in association
with the Government guarantee operated.
In other words, the aggregate of all the freight, munition,
troop and passenger traffic carried on Government account, if
charged for, would greatly have exceeded the sum payable by
the Government to bring up the annual net receipts to the pre-
war level. It has to be remembered, however, that arrears of
maintenance and cost of replacement of stock, etc., apart from
what was essential at the time, could not figure very prominently
in the accounts until after the termination of hostilities. After the
Armistice, however, heavy costs were entailed under these and
other headings, while the reduction of Government traffic to the
relatively very small figures of the post-war period converted the
profit of the war years into a serious deficit. The fact remains,
however, that while the war emergency continued the bargain
made was a very good one for the State, and it was only in 1918
that the, by then, generous wage and war-bonus concessions to
the railway staff tended to convert the profit to the State into
a deficiency even then a relatively small one.
War Bonuses and Concessions to Staff. As showing the tre-
mendous effect of these concessions it may be mentioned that
for the financial year ended March 31 1920, as compared with
1913, the increased cost of working the railways was estimated at
57,000,000 on account of war wage and other concessions, and
OPERATION OF GOVERNMENT GUARANTEE
1915
1916
1917
1918
Revenue earned by railways over expenditure '
Amount of compensation paid by Government to railway companies
on basis of published accounts for 1913
Profit or Loss to Government
45,1/1.403
46,130,000
958, .SO?
49,420,063
46,319,000
+ ?, 101,061
I
53,85,849
46,515,000
+ 7.-?TO,8dQ
44,068,105
46,576,000
2,507,895
1 Includes estimated value of services rendered by railways to the Government free of charge, as shown in White Paper, Cmd. 402,
apart from value of services rendered to the Government in respect of steamboats, canals, docks, hotels, etc., estimated at from 10,000,000
to {15,000,000 for the war period.
RAILWAYS
229
from 20,000,000 to 25,000,000 due to the eight-hour day and
further concessions then recently granted or under discussion.
In the opinion of experts it is thought, however, that even these
difficulties would not have arisen, at least in so acute a form, had
it not been for the maintenance of pre-war rates and charges
for goods traffic throughout the war period, while it was not
until Jan. i 1917 (June i 1918 in Ireland) that ordinary passenger
fares were increased by 50 per cent., and then mainly with the
object of restricting travel rather than of raising revenue. Had
adjustments been made stage by stage, as was done in the case of
prices in general trade and industry, the financial situation in
regard to railways would have been very greatly improved,
and there would have been relatively little objection to the
increase which became imperative in the post-war period.
Mobilization Traffic. Very complete plans for mobilization
had been prepared by the Railway Executive Committee long
before there was any probability of war, and continually revised
and brought up to date, so that everything was ready for
the wonderful transportation achievements which followed the
declaration of war. Thus between Aug. 10 and 31 no fewer than
670 trains, coming from all parts of the country and conveying
horses, guns, baggage and stores, as well as approximately
120,000 men of all ranks, were dealt with at Southampton Docks
with little interference with ordinary civilian traffic. Through-
out the war period achievements of this character were regularly
accomplished at all the chief embarkation centres and there is
no instance on record of the breakdown of railway arrangements
at any time, even when the tremendous volume of munition and
other traffic conducted in national interests, but not directly
for war purposes, was also placed upon the railways.
Public Railway Transport. During the war period it was
necessary to impose many restrictions upon both passenger and
goods traffic. Excursion and many cheap-fare facilities were
early discontinued, as also tourist and certain other classes of
tickets carrying special facilities. Continental traffic was, of
course, subject to special regulations and from the outbreak of
war Dover became a closed area, such continental steamer
services as were maintained being diverted to other ports. In
fact, at all the great railway ports there were severe restrictions
upon civilian traffic. During 1916 further regulations came into
force for passenger travel, following a process of deceleration of
express trains, partly due to the insertion of stops to enable
them to serve the purpose of trains which were withdrawn in
order to free the lines for Government traffic, and partly in view
of the exceptional loading which became general, and to ease
the strain on permanent way, bridges, etc., which could not be
maintained to usual standards. From Jan. i 1917 still further
restrictions were imposed upon railway travel and conveyance of
luggage; restaurant cars were withdrawn entirely on many lines
and reduced on others, and passenger traffic was allocated to
specific routes where alternatives had hitherto been available
for the same journeys. An increase of 50 per cent, was made
upon ordinary passenger fares and from 10 to 20 per cent, on
season tickets, the issue of which was regulated, while it was
required that they should be shown by each passenger on every
journey made. Certain branch lines were closed, most of the
rail-motor intermediate services withdrawn, and a large number
of stations closed.
Release of Railwaymen. An important object of these reductions
in train services and facilities was to enable railwaymen to be
released to serve with the forces, and altogether no fewer than
184,475 men were thus contributed. This figure represented 49 per
cent, of the staff of military age in railway employ on Aug. 4 1914.
Large numbers of men, apart from Reservists and Territorials, had,
of course, joined voluntarily quite early in the war, but the general
enlistment of railwaymen was not favoured until 1916, by which
time a definite scheme of release had been adopted on a system which
reduced inconvenience to the railway companies to a minimum and
yet enabled reasonable proportions of men to be supplied.
Railway Officers in Government Service. Throughout the war
railway officers of many grades were freely utilized by the Govern-
ment, some for special duties involving commissioned rank in the
army or navy, and others for rendering expert assistance in civilian
capacities to various Government departments. In fact, a con-
siderable number of railway officers in high positions were given
important Government appointments in connexion with various
existing and new State departments. In other instances, railway
officers were temporarily loaned to the Government.
Employment of Women. Comparatively early in the war women
were introduced into many ranks of the railway service, and in due
course they were seen on a wide variety of work at passenger and
goods stations and depots, in engine sheds, on electric trains as
" gatemen " and in a few instances as guards, on cartage and
delivery vans, and in the railway workshops, in addition to more
obvious employment as clerks, waitresses and in booking-offices.
To some extent these measures were rendered practicable by the
discontinuance of the more complicated travel facilities, the reduc-
tion of record-keeping to a minimum, the abolition of detailed state-
ments between railway companies and Railway Clearing House
work; but to a great extent women were employed in direct replace-
ment of men who had been released with but little adjustment of
their duties. A total of 55,000 women were thus employed in rail-
way working, and about 6,000 on munition work in railway shops.
Goods and Mineral Traffic Allocation. Goods and mineral traffic,
especially when the manufacture of munitions on a very large scale
was going on all over the country under Government direction,
became of vital importance, and all other traffic was made sub-
servient thereto. For the control of non-Government traffic a
system of allocation was widely adopted, requiring consignors to
despatch their goods by specified routes and from particular depots
and sometimes on particular days, according to destination, while
at times it was necessary to refuse to accept traffic for a time.
Arrangements had already been made between the leading railway
companies in regard to " common user " of wagons of ordinary type,
while private owners' wagons were brought into the " pool."
Coal Control. A system of coal control was adopted in 1917,
partly due to the necessary discontinuance of a large proportion of
the normal coastal water-borne conveyance of coal, by which each
part of the country drew its coal supplies from specified colliery
areas, and this traffic alone represented an enormous burden.
Military and Naval Traffic. For the needs of the Army and Navy
facilities on a very large scale had to be provided. Apart from the
movements of troops for service overseas, continual streams of
traffic passed to and from the training camps. Leave travel, however
restricted, was inevitably a very big factor, and, as the war pro-
gressed, ambulance trains passed very frequently between the
Channel ports and hospitals in various parts of the country. Among
special facilities which had thus to be afforded may be mentioned the
naval leave trains which ran regularly between the north of Scotland
and London in connexion with the fleet in northern waters, while a
continuous stream of coal trains had to be run between South
Wales and other suitable coal areas and the far north of Scotland for
the use of naval vessels. One of the chief difficulties, indeed, was the
need for using the Highland railway for naval traffic on so large a
scale, and parts of this were doubled during the war in order to
relieve the congestion which necessarily followed the lengthy single-
track mileage of this, as it proved, vitally important line.
Munition Traffic. Widespread munition manufacture necessarily
occasioned a great deal of civilian traffic directly and indirectly in
national interests, while in a number of places ordinarily quiet sta-
tions or branches became very busy owing to the erection of army
camps or of munition works. A few stations had to be specially
erected and several new branch lines made.
Railway Docks and Harbours. As owners of several of the best-
equipped docks and harbours, including new ones such as Imming-
ham, G.C.R., and the King George Dock at Hull, H. & B. and N.E.
Railways, and the new lock entrance at Newport, Alexandra
(Newport & South Wales) Docks & Railway, brought into use
shortly before the outbreak of war, in addition to the older ones,
such as Southampton, the railways provided the nation with some
of the most complete embarkation depots. Most of these became
closed areas, and all of them were used to their fullest capacity,
either for direct war traffic or when the submarine menace diverted
shipping traffic from its accustomed ports.
Railway Steamers. Railway steamers also were widely used, and
of a total of 218 vessels 126 were taken over and 36 lost from various
causes. They were used as transports, for the maintenance of
national supplies, as minesweepers, and as hospital ships. Fre-
quently even those which remained on regular services had to assist
in meeting emergencies, such as the evacuation of Belgian refugees.
Railways and Air Raids. An important difficulty with which the
railways had to deal was that due to the numerous air raids over
Great Britain. Relatively little serious damage was done, but the
fact that traffic had often to be or worked under difficulties, the re-
duced lighting generally maintained throughout the more vulner-
able parts of the country, and the congestion which followed each
cessation of traffic constituted serious hindrances to railway working.
Armoured Trains. Throughout the war period, too, the possi-
bility of invasion had to be faced, and many special arrangements
made with a view to the possible need for transferring the civilian
population from the coast towns to the interior. Several armoured
trains were constructed in the railway workshops, though they were
never called upon for use under service conditions.
Miscellaneous. At many of the principal railway stations free
buffets were installed for the benefit of soldiers and sailors, and in
230
RAILWAYS
some cases these provided special facilities, as at Victoria, S.E. &
C.R., where arrangements were made for the exchange of French
for English money, the amount dealt with reaching a total of approxi-
mately 10,000,000. At one period the railways were severely con-
gested by the traffic due to the evacuation of Belgium, and one result
of this was the continual stream of Belgian soldiers coming to
England on leave to visit their families, a total of 237,000 thus
travelling. At many stations local bodies, such as the V.A.D., etc.,
made very complete arrangements for providing refreshments to
soldiers travelling through and for attendance upon the ambulance
trains. Frequently valuable assistance was given by the various
ambulance associations belonging to the railway service.
BRITISH RAILWAY WORK IN THE WAR
During the war period British railways rendered essential
services on a very large scale, both in regard to traffic require-
ments at home and those associated with active service in the
various war areas. To some extent the former has already been
covered by general reference, but further details must be given.
Military and Naval Special Trains. Between the declaration
of war and the date of the Armistice all the larger railways were
called upon to run special trains conveying officers and men,
frequently with guns, ammunition, horses and equipment, when
passing to a port for embarkation to France or other theatres of
_war. There were also transfers of units between camps, leave
travel and special events, such as the arrival of Canadian, S.
African and other contingents from abroad and their journeys
from ports of arrival to training centres, together with that por-
tion of the American army which passed through the United
Kingdom. In the aggregate the numbers of special trains
operated by the leading railways were very great, and the follow-
ing table shows, as far as information is available, the number
of special trains mainly, if not exclusively, on the passenger side,
run by the railways mentioned, with the numbers of officers and
men who travelled:
Trains
Officers and Men
conveyed
L. & S.W.R.
L. & N.W.R.
G.W.R
N.E.R
L.B. & S.C.R. .
G.E.R
G.C.R
58,859
56,470
33,615
24,172
27,366
13,000
5,663
20,223,954
22,268,000
11,810,290
6,231,293
2,656,726
Three other railways may be mentioned, though their totals
include also ambulance trains, goods and other specials:
Trains
Officers and Men
conveyed
S.E. & C.R. 163,000
M.R 11,502
N.B.R 45,ooo
12,141,933
2,282,000
The numbers of special trains required on the freight side
are more indefinite, as they included many trains run to meet
the needs of the Government munition undertakings and of
coal traffic passing from the colliery areas to the Fleet bases,
and, to some extent, in connexion with the coal control scheme.
However, it may be mentioned that on the London, Brighton &
South Coast railway no fewer than 53,376 special trains were
run mainly for traffic to and from the ports on the system. On
the Great Western railway the total was 63,349 and on the
Great Eastern railway 11,000. To meet the needs of the Fleet
several railways ran 20 or even more trains per day conveying
Admiralty coal. The arrival of the American army in Great
Britain entailed the running of 1,684 special trains on the London
& North-Western railway and 1,139 on the Great Western rail-
way. When the Canadian contingents first arrived in England
the London & South- Western railway was required to run 92
specials from Plymouth alone.
Ambulance Trains. For home service a total of 20 trains was
equipped for army use: G.C.R. 3; G.E.R. 2; G.W.R. 4; L. & Y.R.
2; L. & N.W.R. 5; L. & S.W.R. 2; M.R. 2. There were also two in
Ireland, one each equipped by the G.N. and G.S. & W. railways.
Five naval ambulance trains were also in use, these differing some-
what in regard to internal arrangements and equipment. Many
individual vehicles were also fitted for the purpose of conveying small
numbers of men in ordinary trains, and there were nine other trains
sufficiently equipped to be brought into use as emergency ambulance
trains. For service overseas 30 ambulance trains were equipped by
the home railways, each consisting of 16 bogie coaches. These were
supplied as follows: G.C.R. i; G.E.R. 4; G.W.R. 8; L. & Y.R. 3;
L. & N.W.R. 7; L. & S.W.R. I ; L.B. & S.C.R. I ; M.R. 2; N.E.R. I;
L. & N.W.R. andG.E.R.i jointly; L. & N.W.R. and L.B. & S.C.R. I
jointly. Two trains presented by the United Kingdom Flour Millers'
Association were constructed by the G.E. and G.W. railways joint-
ly, and the Lord Michelham (or " Queen Mary ") presentation train
was equipped by the L.B. & S.C. and L. & N.W. railways. A further
train, known as the Princess Christian Hospital Train, was built by
the Birmingham Carriage & Wagon Company. A majority of these
trains was employed in France, but two went to Egypt and one to
Salonika. When the American army came arrangements were made
for 19 other trains, of the same general type as those previously
supplied for overseas service, to be equipped by British railways for
the use of the U.S.A. forces in France, as follows : G.C.R. I ; G.E.R.
i ; G.W.R. 4; L. & Y.R. 3; L. & N.W.R. 4; L. & S.W.R. I ; M.R. 5.
Twenty-nine others were on order at the date of the Armistice, when,
of course, work was at once suspended. Including spare and extra
vehicles, a total of 822 vehicles was thus adapted for the Government
trains, and 304 for the U.S. trains.
The following numbers of journeys made by ambulance trains on
various railways will indicate the enormous volume of this traffic,
these figures applying, of course, only to the ambulance trains run-
ning on the home railways: L. & N.W.R. 13,318; L. & S.W.R.
io,i73;S.E.&C.R.7,5i5;G.W.R. 5,000; M.R. 3,982; N.B.R. 1,800;
G.E.R. 1,172. This traffic was dealt with at various ports, but it is
worthy of note that no fewer than 3,166 were despatched from the
new Marine station at Dover, uncompleted at the time of the out-
break of war, but finished off at an early date sufficiently to serve
for the transfer of wounded men.
Troop Movement and other Military Traffic. The numbers of
special trains given above will indicate the enormous dimensions
which the traffic entailed by troop movement involved. At suitable
places large numbers of both passenger and goods vehicles had to
be kept in reserve to provide for movements of troops at short notice,
and many of the cross-country or connecting lines proved of special
value in enabling through journeys to be made from one system to
another and by providing alternative routes to avoid congestion.
The North London, Hampstead Junction, and North and South-
West Junction railways carrie.d nearly 14,000 special trains, and on
several dates public traffic was entirely discontinued. The
" widened " lines of the Metropolitan railway, through Farringdon
Street and the connexion to the South-Eastern & Chatham railway
at Ludgate Hill, were used by no fewer than 626,000 special passenger
or goods trains, though this route was restricted by the limited
loading gauge and could not, therefore, be used for ambulance trains
and certain other traffic. The West London railway dealt with
about 150 troop or special trains per month, and the East London a
gross total of about 1,000. Bearing in mind that the magnitude of
the forces involved a tremendous amount of leave travel, it may be
mentioned that, during 1917 only, over 28,000,000 of H.M. forces
travelled free by warrant on the home railways, while nearly 2,000,-
ooo journeys were similarly made by civilians in Government service.
Traffic at Ports. Dover was largely used as a centre for ambulance
train traffic, but at Southampton a very large volume of stores,
munitions and other material was dealt with, besides a considerable
amount of shipping traffic necessarily continued. The Southampton
train ferry to Dieppe was brought into use in Nov. 1917, that at
Richborough, near Sandwich, being completed in Feb. 1918. Both
enabled goods wagons to be sent across without transshipment, and
they were especially useful for the conveyance of tanks, heavy guns,
locomotives, etc. Avonmouth, Devonport and Liverpool were used
as ports for supplying the Mediterranean and Mesopotamian forces.
Immingham and other East Coast ports were largely used for supply-
ing the fleets in more southern waters, while Leith, Aberdeen, Inver-
gordon, Thurso and other Scottish centres were kept very busy in
meeting the demands of the Grand Fleet. Newhaven and Little-
hampton together dealt with nearly 7,000,000 tons of traffic on war
account. In addition to the steamer traffic across the Channel the
South Coast ports, including Richborough, sent over 1,000,000 tons
by means of sea-going barges.
Munition and Admiralty Coal Traffic. Besides the traffic directly
required for the army and navy, the railways had to meet many other
traffic requirements, as indicated by the following: The South-
Eastern & Chatham railway alone conveyed nearly 200,000 tons of
army mails, parcel-post packages and lighter stores not dealt with in
bulk, via Dover and Folkestone. On the London & North- Western
railway nearly 16,000 trains were run for the conveyance of Admir-
alty coal. In many parts of the country extensive forestry work was
undertaken, and the conveyance of the cut timber amounted to
hundreds of thousands of tons on many railways. On the North-
Eastern railway the tonnage of goods conveyed on Government
account amounted to 5,500,000, and of Admiralty coal nearly 12,000,-
ooo tons, while to serve the numerous munition centres in the north-
eastern area involved the conveyance of some 84,000,000 workpeople.
On the Great Western railway at one time no fewer than 360 addi-
tional trains had to be run daily, solely for the conveyance of
workers to the various war factories.
RAILWAYS
231
Locomotives and Rolling Stock sent Overseas. A number of loco-
motives under construction for various colonial and foreign railways
were commandeered by the Government and diverted for use in
France and elsewhere, while large orders were given for the building
of engines by British firms for use in France. A total of 247, of a
contemplated order for 500 of the 28-0 type alone, was con-
structed. But to meet immediate needs it was necessary for British
railways to supply considerable numbers of engines from their own
stocks, mainly for France, though some went to Egypt, Mesopo-
tamia, and Salonika. The total locomotives thus supplied num-
bered 675, of which the L. & N.W.R. provided in; G.W.R. 95;
M.R. 78; N.E.R. 50; G.C.R. 33; and G.N.R. 23; the remainder
being sent by other companies. In addition, 30,000 goods wagons
were sent overseas, together with 100 special wagons and 40 3O-ton
coal wagons. The Great Central railway constructed six engines to
the design adopted for the War Department 2-8-0 locomotives
which were, in fact, substantially to G.C.R. designs; 2,500 2o-ton
covered wagons were built in railway workshops.
Besides the standard-gauge rolling stock, large numbers of steam,
petrol, and petrol-electric locomotives of small types, and wagons
of various designs, for use on the light railways in France, were built
by various firms, though not much of this work was done by the
railway companies beyond the equipment of Ford cars as rail trac-
tors at Crewe Works. A considerable amount of permanent way was,
however, sent overseas by the home railway companies, partly by
taking up certain light-traffic branch lines or by converting double
lines to single track, and also to a considerable extent from stock.
A great quantity of bridge parts, machinery, cranes and other
material was also supplied from stock, while the equipment of the
army railway workshops in France was largely provided by the
various railway companies.
War Work in Railway Shops. As already mentioned, this was
undertaken to the value of about 17,000,000, and covered a wide
range of products from ambulance stretchers, road vans and gun-
carriages to the repair of cartridge cases and the production of shell
cases, frequently of large sizes. Several travelling workshop trains
were also equipped in the British railway shops. In a number of
instances, too, railway companies undertook the repair of Belgian
and other locomotives sent over from France.
The Railway Troops. -As already mentioned, a total of 184,475
men was released from railway service to join H.M. forces. They
were largely utilized in the formation of, or transferred to, the various
sections known generically as the Railway Troops attached to the
Royal Engineers. A number of the companies were recruited mainly
from the men of a particular railway, especially in the case of the
L. & N.W.R. (115th) and the G.W.R. (n6th, 262nd and 275th),
while the n8th was recruited chiefly from the G.E. and N.E. rail-
ways. There were two principal sections, the Railway Construction
Troops and the Railway Operating Division, the former numbering
35 companies and the latter 42^ companies, including those dealing
with the light railways. Besides these there were Labour, Roads,
Canadian Overseas Construction, Canadian Operating, S. African
and Australian companies, bringing the total to n8J companies.
The various camp railways were also supplied from these bodies.
THE POST-ARMISTICE PERIOD
On the cessation of active hostilities the pressure of war traffic
at once eased, though it was some weeks before Government
traffic materially decreased in volume. Necessarily, for some
time afterwards the completion of work in hand and the traffic
occasioned thereby kept the railways fairly busy, though with
less urgency and strain. Leave travel was even more freely
given, and the demobilization of the forces for many months
placed a big strain upon the railways on the passenger side.
National traffic on the goods side, too, remained heavy, as
systems of control of food-stuffs, coal and necessities could not
at once be discontinued, and was further complicated by the
public call for the return of unrestricted transit conditions, for
improvements in facilities, and for a resumption of the relative
freedom of pre-war conditions. There were also tremendous
arrears of construction and maintenance of railway permanent
way and rolling stock to be overtaken.
Demobilization of the Forces. This traffic was a very big
thing in itself, and numerous special trains had to be run between
the ports and the demobilization centres. It was estimated that
40,000 men would be dealt with daily, and that was about the
number realized. But the effect of public pressure caused great
irregularity, and, as a result, the railways had to deal with much
of this traffic -which also included the dispersal journeys of
men from the demobilization centres as best they could. One
dispersal depot alone thus dealt with over 1,000,000 men.
Horses had also to be conveyed in large numbers, many being
brought back in through trucks ilia the Channel train-ferries.
Their sale, also the large traffic occasioned by the return of
rolling stock and material from overseas, and the sale of army
stocks of all kinds under the direction of the Disposals Board,
added appreciably to the work of the railways.
Arrears of Maintenance and Construction. The work thus
involved was necessarily of great volume and expense. It
entailed relaying of lines, repair and reconstruction of bridges,
completion of deferred new works, repair of locomotives and
rolling stock, and the construction of overdue replacements.
In addition certain war extensions had to be dismantled, and
workshops cleared of special machinery, and not a few new
machines added in place of those which had become worn out.
Public opinion ceased to look quite so favourably upon the
large expenditure thus incurred. The companies had, of course,
placed to reserve large sums in view of this work, but as they
had been limited to net receipts on a pre-war basis, these were
necessarily on pre-war standards, though usually with increases
as far as practicable, whereas when the money had to be spent
costs of materials and labour had increased approximately
threefold. Agreements made between the Government and the
companies provided for the difference being made up, but the
amounts involved became so great that in Oct. 1920 a Commit-
tee was appointed to report upon these agreements. In large
measure this was little more than a sop to public opinion, for
the report of Lord Colwyn's Committee, as it is generally
called, took little account of the merits of the case, and appeared
mainly concerned with a solution which presented very much
the appearance of repudiation of agreements when they became
unpleasantly expensive. However, it was generally realized
that these costs were the inevitable corollary to the great bene-
fits, and actual profit as shown in a previous section, obtained
by the nation from the railways during the war period; and a
settlement was ultimately arrived at in May 1921, providing
for the payment in two instalments of 60,000,000, after the
termination of Government control in Aug. 1921. Until then
the arrangements already adopted for monthly payments in
respect of arrears of construction and maintenance were con-
tinued. This solution avoided much prospective litigation and
represented a reasonable degree of give-and-take on both sides.
The Colwyn Report suggested that a total of 156,000,000
would thus be involved, but this was given without data and
was almost certainly overstated. Payments already made must
be considered in conjunction with the 60,000,000 accepted
in settlement. The corresponding amount agreed upon in
respect of the Irish railways was 3,000,000.
Railway Guarantee and the Subsidy. As Government traffic
diminished in volume, and more and more national traffics were
returned with de-control to private enterprise, the effect of the
high cost of materials and supplies, and the generous wage and
other concessions, quickly resulted in the . railways requiring
considerable subsidies. At the end of 1919 belated action was
taken to increase railway charges to an economic level, the lack
of which action had largely caused the very serious position which
arose after the conclusion of active hostilities. Thus, whereas the
amount of Government compensation in 1918 was 46,576,000,
and the receipts, including the estimated value of Government
traffic, 44,068,105 on account of railway working alone, for
the year ended March 31 1920 the realized deficit amounted to
41,349,530, even after allowing for certain increases in charges
which came into force during that period. And for the 1920-1
period the net Exchequer liability was estimated at 54,500,000.
Wage Concessions and Increased Costs. These provide the
chief explanation for the large subsidies entailed, expenses hav-
ing risen nearly 200% and receipts an average of only 80% as
compared with 1913, the year upon which the Government
guarantee of net receipts was based. Thus the gross receipts,
expenditure and net receipts for 1913, 1919 and 1920 were:
1913
1919
1920
Gross Receipts
Expenditure .
Net Receipts (Rail-
way) .
129,194,000
83,385,00
45,809,000
226,363,000
180,098,000
46,265,000
298,249,000
25i,575,ooo
46,674,000
RAILWAYS
In the case of four representative railways, English, Scotch,
Irish and Welsh, wages and salaries alone showed the following
increases:
1913
1920
London and North- Western
North British
Great Northern (Ireland)
TaffVale ....
6,000,000
1,660,000
357.ooo
384,000
20,000,000
6,600,000
1,406,000
1,187,000
War-time concessions consisted mainly of the flat-rate allow-
ances of 333. per week, reached by successive increases in view
of the rising cost of living, but after the Armistice action was
taken by the Railwaymen's Unions in respect of the eight-hour
day (granted from Feb. i 1919), standardizing of wages and
grading. The eight-hour day caused many difficulties and is
necessarily costly, especially as it had to be equalized for many
men whose wages were not calculated on that basis. Throughout
1919 there were continual labour difficulties, and a serious strike
lasted from Sept. 26 until Oct. 5, settled by an agreement that
no reductions in wages should occur before Sept. 30 1920, and
the whole matter thoroughly explored. In Oct. 1919 Central
and National Wages Boards were set up. In Jan. 1920 an
agreement was announced providing for an addition to the wages
of each grade of 383. per week and for cost of living allowances
rising or falling in accordance with Board of Trade figures, with
standardized rates of pay which should not fall below 100%
over pre-war rates. This was at first objected to, but was
accepted on Jan. 15 1920. Subsequent negotiations dealt with
supervisory and other grades. Certain further advances were
given in June 1920, and in view of the accompanying costs of
materials and supplies it will be understood that these additions
much more than balanced the alleged railway " subsidies."
Ministry of Transport. An announcement, apparently un-
authorized, by Mr. Winston Churchill in Dec. 1918, that nation-
alization of the railways was contemplated caused a great
deal of misunderstanding. There were, however, many matters
requiring attention, and these together resulted in the bill for
establishing a Ministry of Ways and Communications presented
to Parliament in Feb. 1919. As first introduced its contemplated
scope and powers were considered to be too far-reaching, but
in a modified form it was passed as the Ministry of Transport
Act, receiving Royal Assent on Aug. 26 1919, the Ministry
being established as from Sept. 23 1919. The Ministry took
over several sections of existing departments, including the
Railway Department of the Board of Trade and the Roads
Board. The Railway Executive Committee continued as such
until Jan. i 1920, but most of its members were retained on the
Railway Advisory Committee. Various other advisory and
reporting committees have since been established.
Rates, Fares and Charges. Apart from the 50% increase in
ordinary passenger fares, and of 10 to 20 % increases in season-
ticket charges, railway rates remained as in pre-war years until
the Ministry of Transport announced increases in demurrage
rates as from Jan. i 1920, and of 50% on goods rates as from
Jan. 1 5 1920. These were followed on Aug. 6 by further increases
bringing ordinary passenger fares up to 75% and season tickets
50% over pre-war rates, and from Sept. 1920 workmen's tickets
were increased, and goods rates raised to substantially 100%.
On Dec. 22 1920 the Rates Advisory Committee of the Ministry
of Transport reported on the general question of rates and
charges, and their recommendations materially influenced the
Railway Bill placed before Parliament on May n 1921.
Grouping and the Future of Railways. One of the provisions
of the Ministry of Transport Act was that a policy for the future
of the home railways should be promulgated within two years.
An outline of proposals was issued in July 1920, suggesting,
inter alia, the amalgamation of railways into groups as follows:
(i) Southern, combining the South-Eastern & Chatham, the
Brighton, and the South- Western; (2) Western, the present
Great Western system with the Welsh lines ; (3) North-Western,
combining the North- Western, the Midland and the Lancashire
& Yorkshire, North Staffordshire and Furness; (4) Eastern,
combining the Great Northern, the Great Central, and the
Great Eastern; (5) North- Eastern, the present North-Eastern
system and the Hull & Barnsley; (6) London Group (local lines) ;
and (7) a Scottish Group for the whole of Scotland. These pro-
posals were severely criticized, and the Railway Companies'
Association adopted the following alternative: Group i, London
& North-Western, Midland, Lancashire & Yorkshire, North
Staffordshire, Furness, Caledonian, Glasgow & South-Western,
and Highland railways; Group 2, Great Central, Great North-
ern, Great Eastern, Hull & Barnsley, North-Eastern, North
British, and Great North of Scotland railways; Group 3, Great
Western and Welsh lines; Group 4, London & South-Western,
London, Brighton & South Coast, and South-Eastern & Chatham
railways; Group 5, London railways (local lines). On May u
; 1921 the promised bill was placed before Parliament, and embod-
ied the following modified scheme: (i) Southern Group, London
& South-Western, London, Brighton & South Coast, South-
Eastern, and London Chatham & Dover railways; (2) Western
Group, Great Westernand Welsh railways; (3) North-Western and
Midland Group, London & North-Western, Midland, Lancashire
& Yorkshire, North Staffordshire and Furness railways; (4)
North-Eastern and Eastern Group, North Eastern, Great Cen-
tral, Great Eastern, Great Northern and Hull & Barnsley rail-
ways; (5) West Scottish Group, Caledonian, Glasgow & South-
Western and Highland railways; (6) East Scottish Group, North
British and Great North of Scotland Railways. During pro-
ceedings in Committee of the House of Commons the sth group
was combined with the ist, and the 6th with the 2nd, substan-
tially as proposed by the Railway Companies' Association,
and the Act, which received Royal Assent on Aug. 19 1921,
therefore provides for four groups only: Southern; Western;
North-Western, Midland and West Scottish; North-Eastern,
Eastern and East Scottish. Amalgamation is to become effec-
tive on July i 1923. The proposed London group was dropped
in view of proposals for the setting-up of a London Traffic
Board. Provisions were also made for the inclusion of repre-
sentatives of the Railwaymen's Unions in association with rail-
way officers on advisory councils, etc. (not as directors as at
first claimed), and for the continuance of the Central, National
and local Wages Board. It was considered that these provisions,
some of which represented agreements already made in conjunc-
tion with the fare and rate increases in force according to the
proposals of the Rates Advisory Committee, would enable the
railway companies to operate under solvent and economic condi-
tions on the termination of control on Aug. 15 1921. In regard
to amalgamation it may be mentioned that early in 1921 prelim-
inary arrangements of this character had already been made in
regard to the North-Eastern and Hull & Barnsley railways, and
the London & North-Western and Lancashire & Yorkshire rail-
ways, in addition to several smaller companies to be absorbed
by their larger neighbours. The chief difficulty, in fact, was in
regard to Scottish railways, which, it was claimed, would be so
seriously affected that they could not hold their own in a group
by themselves, the alternative of amalgamation with appropri-
ate associated English companies being favoured. Hence the
altered grouping adopted by the Act as finally passed. Control
was actually terminated at midnight on Aug. 15 1921.
Restoration of Facilities. During the war many usual facilities of
travel were withdrawn, but during 1920-1 a number were restored,
as follows: pre-war luggage allowance for passenger-train traffic,
June 14 1920; passengers' luggage in advance, July I 1920; day
excursion tickets, Aug. 12 1920; period excursion tickets, Dec. 24.
1920; week-end tickets, May II 1921 (deferred, owing to the coal
strike, until Aug. 20, and Aug. 19 in the case of commercial travel-
lers). G.E.R. continental services were resumed Feb. 25 1919;
L.B. & S.C.R., June I 1919; the Dover-Calais route, S.E. & C.R.,
Jan. 8 1920; and the Hull and Zeebrugge route, N.E. and L. & Y.
railways, May 14 1920. Express-train running was rapidly restored
to a good level during 1920, and though still below pre-war stan-
dards the main line services on all routes became very creditable in
July 1921, both for speed and number. On some lines, indeed, pre-
war schedules were definitely reinstated, and in certain instances
facilities were even better than before the war. The suburban
traffic problem was, however, still serious. On the " Underground "
lines new rolling stock, when delivered, materially eased the inevi-
table congestion. An arrangement had been made during the war
whereby the associated " Underground " railways, of which the
RAILWAYS
233
Metropolitan District only was controlled and subject to Govern-
ment guarantee, should pool their receipts, including also the London
General Omnibus Company. To meet the peculiar conditions of the
situation a special Act of Parliament was passed, and from Sept. 26
1920 these lines were empowered to charge " revised fares," the
Metropolitan District railway ceasing to come under the guarantee.
Allocation of passenger travel to specific routes, already partly in
desuetude, partially disappeared during the early months of 1921,
and finally in July of that year.
Goods Traffic. During 1920 most of the special regulations
imposed under war conditions disappeared, though the common-
user of wagons still continued, and by cooperative action it had
become possible to realize a higher standard of wagon loading.
Commencing with the four weeks ending Jan. 29 1920, the Ministry
of Transport commenced to issue detailed statistics of goods traffic
operation, and on the completion of twelve months these were
altered to agree with the calendar months, in combination with
corresponding passenger traffic statistics. (J. A. K.)
UNITED STATES
The decade 1910-20 was marked by many fundamentally
important developments in organization, management, and
public regulation of American railways. During the early part
of the period a tendency, which had begun during the latter
half of the preceding decade, toward a decreasing rate of return
on the investment in railways caused serious financial distress
and a marked decline from the normal rate of development of
railway facilities, equipment and service. The years 1915 and
1916 brought large increases in freight tonnage through the
transportation of war materials for the Allies. The active par-
ticipation of the United States in the World War, beginning in
April 1917, made even greater demands upon facilities already
overtaxed. To meet these demands the railways tried the ex-
periment of .voluntary unification through a committee of rail-
way presidents clothed with plenary power by the boards of
directors of practically all railway companies to operate the rail-
ways as one national system during the war. In the national
emergency, in which the closest possible coordination of the
agencies of transportation with the several branches of the
Federal Government was absolutely essential, the experiment
of voluntary unification was not satisfactory, and on Jan. i 1918,
as a temporary war measure, the railways were taken over by
the Government, to be operated by a director-general respon-
sible to the President. Federal operation continued until March
i 1920, when the railways were returned to private operation
under the terms of the Transportation Act of that year. That
Act fundamentally amended the existing policy of national reg-
ulation of railways and extended the powers of the Interstate
Commerce Commission. Principally because of the serious busi-
ness depression of 1920-1, and the decline in the volume of railway
traffic, the results of the first year of operation under the Trans-
portation Act were disappointing. In the summer of 1921 the
subject again was commanding national attention. A choice
among three policies was then incumbent upon Congress: (i)
to rely upon private ownership and operation under the prin-
ciples of the Transportation Act (hereinafter described) to take
care of the situation when business conditions became normal;
(2) to make some compromise between a policy of private con-
trol and initiative and Government operation or ownership;
and (3) completely to nationalize the railways.
Pre-War Conditions and Legislation. The 1910 amendment to the
original (1887) Act to regulate commerce (see 22.830) created the
Commerce Court to act upon appeals from decisions of the Inter-
state Commerce Commission. The new court was intended to spe-
cialize in the technique of transportation and to expedite the
determination of cases theretofore passed upon by Federal courts of
general jurisdiction with crowded dockets containing cases of
all kinds. In many of its early decisions the Commerce Court
overruled the Interstate Commerce Commission and, because it
appeared to limit the effectiveness of the Commission, the Court
became unpopular. The public attitude toward railways at that
time was unfriendly, and Congress responded to public pressure by
abolishing the Commerce Court in 1913.
In response to an insistent public demand, growing out of the
belief that the railways were being allowed to earn returns on ficti-
tious capitalization, the Federal Valuation Act was passed in 1913.
The Act required the Interstate Commerce Commission to deter-
mine the physical valuation of the railways individually, as of June
30 1914, and to cause records to be kept which would accurately
reflect all changes in property values after that date. Three bases
were prescribed tentatively: (i) original cost to date, in the cases
where the information could be obtained ; (2) estimated cost of
reproduction, new; and (3) estimated cost of reproduction, new,
less depreciation. The work of determining values had been in
progress since 1914, but no final figures were available in 1921 or
expected until 1923 at earliest, although tentative valuations of a
few properties had been made public.
Another piece of legislation, known as the Clayton Act, of 1914,
contains a section which has an important bearing upon railways.
The Act was intended to strengthen the so-callea Anti-Trust Act
and to prevent collusion between directors and officers of railways
and directors and officers of manufacturing and other concerns deal-
ing in railway equipment, coal and other supplies. It requires that
contracts for supplies which will cost more than $50,000 must be
open to competitive bids invited by advertisements. A railway com-
pany is prohibited from having dealings in excess of $50,000 per
year with a concern having a director, officer or agent who is also a
director, officer or agent of the railway. The Act was to be in
force from 1916, but because of war conditions the effective date
was postponed until Jan. I 1921.
About 1906 a downward tendency began to be apparent in the rate
of return on railway investment. This change restricted the flow of
new capital into railway development new lines and improvements
of existing lines. The traditional policy of American railways had
been to keep their facilities well ahead of the demands of growing
traffic. In view of the fact that the volume of freight traffic doubles
about every 12 years, and that the numbers of passengers carried
one mile doubles about every 15 years, the need of such a policy is
apparent. The practice of the conservative railways was to plough
in ' a substantial part of their net income each year by making
improvements out of income instead of issuing new securities. Such
a policy, however, could not be continued with constantly dimin-
ishing net income. The downward tendency in the rate of return was
caused in part by a hardening of the rate structure through a more
inflexible policy of public regulation, in part by steadily increasing
costs of wages and materials, and in part by the greater difficulty
of finding means through economies and new operating methods of
overcoming increasing costs. With declining net returns, and a
general lack of confidence on the part of the public toward railways,
railway securities lost their attraction, and investors sought other
fields. The railways experienced much difficulty in obtaining new
capital for the additional facilities required to keep their plants in
step with traffic growth, and many of the weak lines reached such
financial straits that they could not maintain their solvency. The
cumulative effect of these tendencies reached the climax in 1915 when
42,000 m., or about one-sixth of the entire mileage of the country,
was in the hands of receivers, and when less new mileage was built
than in any year since the period of the Civil War.
Effects of the World War. This was the situation when the effect
of the World War was first felt by American railways. The orders
from the Allies for munitions and other war supplies caused a sud-
den increase in freight tonnage. The additional revenues acted as a
stay against financial distress, but the railways found their traffic-
carrying capacity taxed to the full. Then came the added traffic
burden when the United States entered the war in April 1917.
To meet the emergency the railways, through the American
Railway Association, organized a railroad war board and delegated
to its five members complete control over operation. The purpose
was to coordinate management under private ownership and con-
trol so that the railways, during the war emergency, would merge
their merely individual and competitive activities in the effort to
produce the maximum of transportation efficiency. The board did
much to increase the capacity of the railways through unified opera-
tion and common use of facilities, and during the first six months
following voluntary unification, the heavily increased traffic was
handled satisfactorily. But during the late autumn and early
winter of 1917 acute traffic congestion occurred at the Atlantic
seaboard ports, through which the greater part of the war supplies
was exported, and the blockade extended back to the important in-
land industrial centres. The congestion was caused by several fac-
tors, among which two were outstanding. One has already been
mentioned the financial inability of the railways to keep up their
former programmes of providing additional facilities in advance of
traffic needs. The second was the lack of effective coordination
between the railways and the several branches of the Government,
each of which demanded priority of movement for its freight, there-
by creating great confusion. The congestion and its interference
with traffic, the perilous financial condition of the railways, the
spirit of unrest among railway employees because of the greatly
increased wage rates paid by manufacturing and ship-building plants,
and the need of better coordination of all agencies essential to the
successful prosecution of the war, led to the President's proclama-
tion of Dec. 26 1917, taking over the railways to be operated by the
Government from Jan. I 1918. The Government could advance
the funds required to provide the additional facilities urgently needed
for war purposes; by paying a rental equivalent to pre-war net
operating income it could prevent further bankruptcy of railway
companies; by paying higher wages than the railway companies
were able to pay, it coula remove the cause of unrest among em-
234
RAILWAYS
employees ; by making the railways a branch of the Government it
could more effectively coordinate transportation with other Govern-
ment activities ; and by the complete temporary elimination of lines
of corporate interest a more effective unification of all facilities and
equipment would be possible.
Federal Control in the War. The Federal Control Act of 1918
provided that the railways should be operated for the President
by a director-general of railroads. Practically all of the rail-
ways were taken over, and were operated, with little change in
the individual units, by Federal managers (in nearly all cases
the former operating executive) reporting to regional directors,
seven in all, who in turn reported to the director-general. The
latter was assisted by staff-directors in charge of the several
divisions law, finance, purchasing, traffic, operation, labour,
accounting, public service and capital expenditures. With few
exceptions the entire organization, from the Federal managers
to the regional and division directors, was made up of men
carefully selected from the railway service. Political influence had
no play in appointment. The Act provided that the railways
should be returned to their owners for private operation within
21 months after the signing of the treaty of peace. The Govern-
ment during the period of Federal control was required to keep
up the usual standards of maintenance, so that the properties
would be returned at the end of Federal control in as good con-
dition and as complete in equipment as when taken. Failing
to do this, the railway companies were to be compensated for the
deficiencies. The annual rental was set as a sum equal to the
average annual net operating income earned by the companies
during the three years ended June 30 1917. The principles of
unification and consolidation of facilities and equipment were
carried much further by the director-general than by the Rail-
road War Board. Terminals and other facilities, and locomo-
tives and cars, were used in common. Advertising, soliciting,
off-line agencies, and other normal competitive activitives were
abolished. Traffic was routed by the most convenient lines, re-
gardless of shippers' directions, or of the effect of diversions on
the earnings of the individual units in the national system. The
aim was to utilize every instrumentality of transportation to
the highest degree of traffic-handling efficiency.
The results of Federal control during the year 1918 while the war
was in progress were satisfactory in that they met the emergency.
The traffic of that year, both in ton-miles and in passenger-miles,
exceeded all previous records. What was more important, the
coordination of railway management with other branches of the
Government had the effect of producing the kind of transporta-
tion most necessary for war purposes. The congestion of the
early winter of 1 9 1 7 was quickly relieved. The heavy demands of
troop movements were completely met. The loaded cars on hand
at the seaboard were always a little ahead of the ocean-going
tonnage capacity, and the railways, after May i, kept up their
part of the programme of moving export food supplies for the
civilian population of the Allies. The insistent preference given
to war traffic naturally entailed some curtailments in service
for civilian population of the United States. These curtailments
were patriotically accepted. A system of centralized control
established priority for the various kinds of freight and con-
trolled traffic at the source by requiring permits before freight
would be accepted. Such permits were not issued unless trans-
portation conditions at destination were such that the freight
could be quickly unloaded. Manufacturers and dealers were
asked to load cars with larger shipment units, or otherwise to
conserve car space by changing methods of packing. One of the
first acts of the director-general was to appoint a commission to
make recommendations as to wage increases. The commission
made its report in May and. its recommendations were adopted
and made retroactive to Jan. i 1918. The increases in pay-roll
expenditure were substantial. Coincident with the promulga-
tion of the new wage scale, the director-general created the
Board of Railway Wages and Working Conditions and later he
appointed three Boards of Adjustment to pass upon disputes
as to working rules and discipline. Both the wage and the ad-
justment boards were bi-partisan with equal representation
from the officials, representing management, and from the execu-
tives of the labour organizations, representing the employees.
During 1918 there were no strikes or other labour disturbances.
The director-general was given almost autocratic authority to
increase freight and passenger rates and other transportation
charges or regulations. The Interstate Commerce Commission
and the state commissions temporarily were shorn of power.
An increase of 25% in freight rates and about 20% in passenger
rates was made effective in June, a few days after the wage
increases were announced. While in a general way it was hoped
that the advances in rates, coupled with the expected econo-
mies in unified control, would offset the higher wage rates and
other increases in operating costs, the net financial results were
regarded as of secondary importance as compared with the
increase of transportation capacity. The rate advances were in-
sufficient to meet rising costs and the final result of the first year of
Federal control, with no allowances for deficiences in main-
tenance or depletion in stocks of materials and supplies, was
a deficit of over $200,000,000. In other words, the net operat-
ing income earned by the director-general was that much less
than the rentals paid to the railway companies. This deficit,
however, may properly be regarded as one item of the cost of
carrying on the war. In view of the satisfactory transporta-
tion service, particularly during the summer of 1918 when the
armies of the United States were at the height of their activi-
ties, and comparing the deficit with the expenditures of other
branches of the Government, the cost was not great. ,
The second phase of Federal control was the period from
the signing of the Armistice in Nov. 1918, until March i 1920,
when the roads were returned to private management. This
post-war period of Federal control was not marked by results
as satisfactory as those of 1918. It would have been much
better if the period of Federal control had ended Dec. 31 1918.
Immediately after the Armistice the moral factor of patriotism,
which had been so effective during the first ten months of Fed-
eral control, almost entirely disappeared. As soon as the war
was over the employees through their organizations began a
campaign to hold and to extend further the concessions which
had been made freely under the exigencies of war; the thoughts
of the officers began to turn to their corporate and personal inter-
ests; and among a minority of the administration officials active
steps were taken to bring about an indefinite extension of Fed-
eral control with the ultimate aim of nationalization. The
public, however, had little patience with the director-general's
proposal to Congress that Federal control should be extended
five years, and the suggestion had little support outside of the
labour organizations and the political forces aligned on the side
of nationalization. Chambers of commerce, shippers' organiza-
tions, and the general public, in the natural reaction against
perpetuating war-time governmental control of business, in-
sisted that the railways should be returned to private control.
This general attitude toward the subject, and the alarming
deficits which were being added to that of 1918, influenced
Congress to take active steps to restore the railways to their
pre-war status, but great difficulty was experienced in agreeing
upon a plan which would be satisfactory in detail to both the
House and the Senate. While the hearings and the debates
dragged throughout the year 1919, the transportation service
suffered in efficiency and among the more radically inclined
employees there were frequent and serious strikes. It was
found necessary to grant further increases in wages and to enter
into the so-called " national agreements " containing many
burdensome and restrictive rules such as, for example, the
abolition of piece-work in shops. Most of these national agree-
ments were made almost on the eve of the return of the rail-
ways. They were drawn by the labour advisors to the director-
general and were adopted over the protest of the railway operat-
ing officials. These national agreements were partially abrogated
July i 1921, by order of the Railway Labor Board created by
the Transportation Act of 1920.
The final cost to the Government for the 26 months of Federal
control was estimated by the director-general at a minimum of
" ,200,000,000. It seemed probable that it would be much
RAILWAYS
235
greater, as this estimate allowed only about $300,000,000 for
under-maintenance and for differences in the quantities of ma-
terials and supplies on hand at the beginning and at the end of
Federal control.
A great deal of controversy arose over the question of rela-
tive maintenance during and prior to Federal control, but the
differences hinge mainly upon the degree of under-maintenance.
There can be no doubt that the condition of the properties was
not so good at the end of Federal control as at its beginning,
but the exact degree of deterioration cannot be determined as
no inspection or survey was made when Federal control began.
The records show conclusively that the normal rate of renewals
of rails, ties and ballast was not kept up during Federal control,
and the universal complaint of the railway executives that
freight cars were not maintained at normal standards is sup-
ported by the opinions of experts. On the whole, the conditions
of locomotives did not suffer, but less than the normal amount
of work was done on passenger cars. Bridges and buildings
suffered because of neglect in painting, but on the other hand
many improvements were made in shops and in engine-house
facilities. Whatever may be the degree of under-maintenance
it should be remembered that it was impracticable during the
greater part of the period of Federal control to obtain the nec-
essary amount of materials and full forces of men. These diffi-
culties were partly removed in 1919, but in that year the serious
decline in traffic and in earnings made it inexpedient, in the
judgment of the director-general, to attempt to make up the
deficiences. A proviso in the contract between him and the
railway companies gave the director-general the option of
measuring his maintenance obligations by the amounts actually
spent by each company during the three years prior to Federal
control, these amounts to be properly equated to allow for
increases in the cost of wages and materials, and he chose to
limit the expenditures so as to keep them within that obliga-
tion, leaving the accounting and the settlement to be worked
out after the termination of Federal control. Instructions were
issued, however, that nothing essential to safety in operation
was to be left undone. An inspection of the amounts spent for
maintenance, particularly for maintenance of equipment, indi-
cates that even with a generous allowance for the higher wage
rates and material costs, the director-general expended amounts
which were equivalent to those spent by the railway companies
prior to Federal control. This method of comparison, how-
ever, takes no account of the important factor of relative effi-
ciency of labour. During 1918, when so many railway men
were drafted or had volunteered for military service, the per-
centage of inexperienced employees was abnormally large, and
during 1919 the general lowering of the morale and the frequent
strikes of men engaged in maintenance work led to a much
lower degree of efficiency. The director-general held to the
view that the Federal Control Act and the standard contract
based upon it did not require him to take account of relative
efficiency that his obligation ended when he had expended
an amount equivalent, when properly equated for the higher
wage rates, to that spent in the test period. The railway com-
panies on the other hand insisted that if in the test period too
man-hours cost $30 and produced 10 units of work, and if during
the year 1919 the same number of man-hours cost $60 but pro-
duced, say, 8 units of work instead of 10, the spirit of the Act
is not followed unless the director-general spent enough in
excess of $60 to produce 10 units of work. This is the real point
of difference. In the settlements made since the termination
of Federal control this issue has been avoided by a policy of
compromise and by lump-sum adjustments in which mainte-
nance is but one factor, but it is probable that some of the com-
panies which have large claims for under-maintenance pending
may prefer to take the case to the courts for decision.
Too much emphasis, however, should not be placed upon the
financial results of Federal control. Deficits might have been
reduced or entirely avoided, and a surplus laid aside for the set-
tlement of claims, if the 1918 advances in rates had been greater
or if supplementary advances had been made in 1919 to take
care of the further wage increases granted in that year. The
attitude of the administration was that it made little difference
whether the higher operating costs were met indirectly through
taxes or were directly collected from shippers and passengers in
higher rates. As between the two alternatives the administra-
tion chose the first on the ground that another rate advance
would have a serious effect upon the already much disturbed
business conditions, and would be made the excuse for further
profiteering. Speaking in general terms it may be said that the
policy of the Government in taking the railways and operating
them while the war was in progress was vindicated by the
favourable operating results which flowed from a centralized
and unified control. On the other hand it may be said that the
experience of the post-war period of Federal control was not such
as to justify a peace-time policy of Government operation or
ownership under a democratic form of Government which relies
upon the free play of the forces of competition. The unfavour-
able reaction of public opinion may be traced primarily to the
elimination of competition in service. The railways were finally
returned in response to an overwhelming public demand that
private operation be restored, and almost immediately after its
restoration, the desire for competitive service caused the aban-
donment of practically all the innovations of unification under
Government control and operation.
The Transportation (Esch-Cummins) Act of 1920. The conditions
under which the railways were returned, and the policies of public
regulation as they existed in 1921 were fixed by the Transportation
Act of Feb. 1920, amending the original (1887) Act to Regulate Com-
merce. Besides providing for the restoration of operating control
to the owning companies the Act provided that during the first
six months, the so-called transition period, while railway rates and
wages were in process of further upward revision, the Government
would continue the guaranteed rentals paid during the period of
Federal control. A Railroad Labor Board was created to pass upon
wage matters, and made substantial increases in July 1920. The
Interstate Commerce Commission was instructed to establish rates
so that on the basis of current costs and under honest, economical
and efficient operation, they would yield net operating income suffi-
cient to pay a fair rate of return upon the value of the railway
properties held for and used in the service of transportation. For
the first two years the fair rate of return was set at 55 %, with an
extra 0-5 % (6 % in all) to make provision for improvements charge-
able to capital accounts. This mandate to the Commission, how-
ever, applied to the railways as a whole, or as a whole in territorial
groups. For the purposes of the Act the Commission later divided
the railways into three general groups, the eastern, the western and
the southern. The mandate did not apply to individual roads in a
group. Obviously a rate scale which will yield 6% to all of the
railways in a group will yield more than 6 % to some and less than 6 %
to others. No relief is provided for the railways which earn less than
6 %, but when more than 6 % is earned by a railway, the excess is to
be evenly divided with the Government. The railway is to hold its
proportion of such excess in a reserve fund and the one-half which
goes to the Government is to be held by it as a general railroad
contingent fund to be administered by the Commission in assisting
the weak roads by loans. The reserve fund created by a railway from
its excess earnings is to be held for interest charges or dividends
in lean years, but whenever that fund is more than 5 % of its property
value, the excess over 5 % may be used for any lawful purpose.
The problem of the weak railway has been for many years the
principal obstacle in the path of a satisfactory solution of the railway
question. In the determination of competitive rates, for example, a
scale which will give a reasonable return upon the value of a weak
railway will give too much to the strong railway. Conversely, when
the scale gives a reasonable return, but not more, to the strong
railway, the weak one cannot live. In practice the regulating au-
thorities have been forced to adopt a middle ground with, perhaps,
a tendency to lean more toward preventing an unreasonably high
return to the strong than an unreasonably low return to the weak. An
attempt has been made to meet this problem in the Transportation
Act which provides for the ultimate elimination of the weak rail-
ways by consolidation with the strong. The Commission is ordered
to prepare and adopt a plan for the consolidation of railway proper-
ties into a limited number of systems. Such a plan is to preserve a
reasonable degree of competition and to maintain so far as practi-
cable the existing routes and channels of trade and commerce. The
desiderata are that the several systems shall be so arranged that the
cost of transportation as between competing systems, and as related
to the values of the properties, shall be approximately the same, so
that these systems can employ uniform rates in the movement of
competitive traffic, and can earn, under honest and efficient man-
agement, substantially the same rate of return upon the value of
their respective properties. The Commission in June 1921 was
engaged upon the formulation of such a plan, but as the Act pro-
236
RAILWAYS
vided no way in which its recommendations might be enforced when
objections were raised against its terms, there seemed likely to be
long-drawn-out controversy and additional legislation before an ideal
scheme of consolidation into a small number of systems of fairly
equal financial strength would be made effective. The new Act en-
larges the powers of the Commission over financial management and
requires it to exercise a general supervision over all new issues of se-
curities. The Railway Labour Board (consisting of nine members
divided equally among representatives of management, labour and
the public) is empowered to fix wages and working rules.
The foregoing outline mentions most of the important new features
in the 1926 legislation amending the original Act to Regulate Com-
merce and the amendments up to 1920. The fundamental provisions
of the original Act remained in force in 1921 and had been extended
or otherwise strengthened. Briefly, the Commission is required to
see that rates and charges are just and reasonable; to prescribe the
rules under which rates may become effective; to prevent unfair
discriminations between shippers, carriers or localities; to prevent,
except when specifically authorized, the charging of a higher rate
for a short haul than for a longer haul over the same route in the
same direction; to prevent the pooling of freight or earnings; to
require complete reports from carriers in prescribed form ; and to
prescribe and enforce uniform rules for accounting and for compila-
tion of statistics of operation.
In addition to the Federal legislation just described, each state
exercises its powers of regulating intrastate traffic and of exercising
what may be termed " police powers " over railway management
and service within its own borders. The line between Federal and
State regulation is not clearly drawn, and controversies between the
two authorities have been frequent. On the whole, the tendency of
court decisions during the decade 1910^20 was toward according
greater powers to the Federal commission and less power to the
State commissions, as it has been shown that the states, when ex r
ercising control over intrastate rates and service, may indirectly
discriminate against interstate traffic and service.
In addition to the changes in the Act to regulate commerce, new
legislation was enacted during the decade which strengthened and
extended the laws pertaining to safety appliances and accident pre-
vention. These laws govern certain features of design and main-
tenance of locomotives and cars and of operating' methods in train
service. For example, the use of high-power headlights has been
made compulsory, and the requirements as to boiler inspection and
the general condition of locomotives have been made more rigid.
The scope of the laws governing maximum hours of service was
enlarged. The eight-hour basic day, prescribed for train service
employees by the Adamson Act, passed by Congress in 1916, was
extended during the period of Federal control to apply to practically
all classes of railroad employees.
Statistics. The salient features of mileage, investment, income
and transportation production in ton-miles and passenger-miles,
are shown in Table I. compiled by the Bureau of Railway Economics,
Washington, D.C., under date of March 21 1921. The figures apply
only to Class I. railways, i.e. those which have operating revenues
in excess of $i ,000,000 per year. These railways comprise about 92 %
of the total main-track m., about 95% of the total capitalization,
and they earn about 97 % of the total operating revenues.
In interpreting the figures in Table I. it is necessary to bear in
mind that the results of 1917-20 were very much affected by war
conditions and by Federal operation of railways from Jan. I 1918
until March I 1920. The period was one of abnormally high operat-
ing expenses and of greatly diminished net income, notwithstanding
the large operating revenues. Obviously a continuation of the low
income of 1919 and 1920 would cause universal railway bankruptcy.
The aim of the Transportation Act of 1920 was to restore the pre-
war earning power, to enable the railways to give better service, and
to provide revenues which with reestablished credit would permit
expansion and improvements in facilities and equipment.
Details for 1917. Instead of figures for a later year, those of 1917
are selected to give an indication of the normal characteristics
financial, operating and public service of American railways.
On Dec. 31 1917 the total route mileage of railways of all classes
was 253,626 miles. This was equivalent to 8-53 m. of railway
for each 100 sq. m. of territory, or 24-39 m. for each 10,000 inhabi-
tants. The relation of route mileage to track mileage (for Class I.
roads only) is shown in Table II. :
TABLE II. ROUTE AND TRACK MILEAGE. CLASS I. ROADS,
DEC. 31 1917
Item
Miles
Per cent,
of route miles
First main track (route m.)
Second main track . .
Third main track
All other main tracks
Yard tracks and sidings ....
Total all tracks
232,697
29,913
2,775
2,190
101,108
IOO-O
12-9
1-2
9
43-5
368,683
158-5
The total route m. for railways of all classes in 1917 was owned
by 1,874 separate companies. Of these, 186 were railways of Class I.
with route mileage as shown in Table II., made up of 178,707 m.
owned and 53,990 route m. operated under lease or similar arrange-
ment. The average route mileage operated per Class I. road was
1,251 miles. For railways of Classes II. (those with operating revenue
$100,000 to $i, 000,000 per year) and III. (those with operating
revenues below $100,000 per year, including switching and terminal
railways) the average was 44 miles. The greater part of the mile-
age owned by the large number of small companies is leased to and
operated by Class I. roads.
Finances. The total railway capital outstanding Dec. 31 1917
was $21,249,357,241. This, however, included certain duplications
in securities of one company held by another company and used by
the second company as the basis for additional securities. Eliminat-
ing the intercorporate holdings and other duplications, the net
capitalization on that date was $16,401,786,017, or $66,699 P er
route mile. Of this net capitalization, $39,930 per route m., or 59-9 %
of the total, was in capital stock, and $26,769, or 40- 1 % of the
total, was in bonds or other forms of funded debt. In that year the
average dividend paid on all stock was 4-24 %, but no dividends
whatever were paid on 36-7% of the stock. The average dividend
rate on the dividend paying stock alone was 6-81 per cent. The
average rate of interest paid upon funded debt may be estimated
as about 4 per cent. The number of stockholders was approximately
670,000 and the number of bondholders about 300,000.
Table III. gives the income account of all railways considered
as one system, including switching and terminal companies, for the
year ended Dec. 31 1917:
TABLE III. INCOME ACCOUNT, ALL RAILWAYS. 1917
Railway operating revenues ....
Railway operating expenses ....
Net revenue from railway operations .
Railway tax accruals
Uncollectable railway revenues
Railway operating income ....
Equipment and joint facility rents (net
deduction)
Net railway operating income
Other income (non-operating)
Gross income
Net interest charges
Other deductions from gross income .
Net income . . . _ .
Net dividends (including dividend appropria-
tions from surplus)
Income above dividends.'
$4,178,784,652
2,956,770,809
1,222,013,843
227,301,093
711,879
994,000,871
26,573,773
967,427,098
101,808,148
1,069,235,246
475,646,748
24,371,700
569,216,798
293,291,805
275,924.993
Of the total operating revenues about 70% came from the trans-
portation of freight and about 25% from passenger-train service
including mail and express. The remaining 5% was miscellaneous
operating revenue. The operating expenses were divided as follows:
maintenance of way and structures, 15-6%; maintenance of equip-
ment, 24-2%; traffic (solicitation, advertising, etc.), 2-3%; trans-
portation (operation of stations, yards, terminals and trains), 53-6 %;
general expenses, 3-4%; and miscellaneous, 0-9%.
On Dec. 31 1917 the equipment owned by railways of all classes
was as follows :
Steam locomotives 65,699
Other locomotives . 371
Freight train cars 2,408,518
Passenger train cars 55,939
Company service cars 103,916
Steamboats and tugboats 411
Barges, car-floats and canal boats .... 1,868
Other floating equipment 163
The item "other locomotives" is made up almost entirely of
electric locomotives. " Freight train cars" do not include private
freight cars (numbering about 80,000) owned by meat-packers,
oil companies and similar industrial concerns. " Passenger train
cars " do not include parlour and sleeping cars owned by the Pull-
man Co., of which there were 7,706. Company service cars " in-
clude ballast cars, construction cars, wrecking cranes, etc.
The average number of employees during the year 1917 for all
railways was 1,833,732. For Class I. railways only, the number was
1,732,876, divided as follows:
Class
Number
Per-
centage
General and divisional officers
18,446
i-i
Clerks, messengers and attendants
192,569
ii-l
Maintenance of way employees
448,720
25-9
Maintenance of equipment employees
388,837
22-4
Traffic department employees
8,333
5
Dispatchers and telegraphers
67,455
3-9
Station employees
132,562
7-6
Yard and engine-house employees
183,877
10-6
Train-service employees
226,936
IS"'
All other employees
65,141
3-8
Total
1,732,876
IOO-O
KAIL W A
YS
237
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NOTE: Net Rai
these roads (i.e. the
amounted to approxii
238
RAILWAY STATIONS
The subsequent application, during Federal control, of the eight-
hour day (instead of the former basis of 10 hours for a large propor-
tion of employees) to practically all of the classified employees had
the effect of increasing the number of men required to do a given
number of hours of work. At the end of Federal control the total
was about 2,000,000 employees, not including conductors and porters
on Pullman cars employed by the Pullman Company.
Construction and Equipment. The tendency in the decade 1910-20
was toward the use of heavier rails. On heavy traffic lines, using
the most powerful locomotives, rails weighing 100 Ib. per yd. were
being replaced by rails weighing 105 to no Ib. On other lines which
had used 85-lb. raijs, the tendency was toward loo-lb. rails. Greater
attention was paid to the relative proportions of the chemical
elements in steel and the mills were turning out rails ol improved
design and of greater strength and wearing qualities. The marked
development in the weight of locomotives and cars placed much
greater strains on the track superstructure and roadbed. In 1921
American Railway Engineering Association standards for depth of
ballast had not been changed recently, but some of the heavy traffic
roads were increasing the amount of ballast from 12 in. to 20 in.
below the ties. The experiments in the use of steel and concrete
ties as substitutes for wood ties (sleepers) had not given satisfactory
results under the heavy axle loads of American equipment, and
there was little inclination to use substitutes for wood, notwithstand-
ing the marked depletion of the lumber supply. There was, however,
a more general use of preservatives in treating ties chemically to
strengthen their resistance to decay, and a more general use of tie
plates, between the base of the rail and the top of the tie, to lessen
the mechanical wear on the tie. The screw spike, in place of the
cut spike, for fastening the rails to the ties, was having greater use,
but was not common. The heavier axle loads required a general
strengthening of bridges, and throughout the whole field of main-
tenance engineering the adoption of higher standards during the
decade was noticeable.
There was a marked development in the art of signalling. The
use of electrically controlled automatic block signals is distinctively
an American characteristic. There was a steady tendency to sub-
stitute automatic block signals for the older type which are manually
operated. In 191 1 there were about 29,000 m. of main track equipped
with automatic block signals. In 1920 the mileage so equipped was
over 61,000 miles. The use of these modern signals not only in-
creases the safety of train operation but it also has the effect of
increasing the capacity per mile. In the interest of safety there was
a popular demand that block signalling should be made compulsory
by law, and the Interstate Commerce Commission has repeatedly
recommended legislation which would require the railways to adopt
an annual programme under which all railways would eventually be
completely equipped with block signals. Congress, however, had
not by Jan. 1921 legislated on the subject, mainly because of the
difficulty of formulating a plan which would fit the varying needs of
roads with differing degrees of traffic density, and because of the
heavy financial burden which compulsory block signalling would
place upon the railways. There was also a widespread demand for the
adoption of a device of some kind which would automatically stop
the train when the engineman failed to observe the signal and ran
past one which was in the stop position, but Congress appears to
take the position that it is more important first to extend the in-
stallation of block signals before insisting upon the expensive supple-
mentary safeguard of the automatic stop.
In 1910 the average weight of all locomotives, exclusive of tender,
was about 73 short tons. In 1920 it was about 90 short tons. The
tendency was steadily toward the use of more powerful locomotives
and the retirement of the lighter types. The locomotives ordered
in 1920 weigh from too to 200 tons, with a few of the Mallet com-
pound type of much greater weight. The use of steel passenger cars
calls for larger locomotives in that class of service, and the American
policy, consistently followed for years, of increasing the freight-train
load, required the use of more powerful locomotives in freight service.
The average freight-train load, in tons of freight, grew from less than
400 tons in 1910 to more than 700 tons in 1920. Not all of this in-
crease is to be attributed to the heavier locomotive. Reductions in
grades and curvature have made heavier trains possible. There
was also a general improvement in the technique of tonnage ratings
for locomotives. In addition there was a more general use of the
superheater on locomotives. This device reduced the loss in steam
pressure between the boiler and the cylinder and increased the draw-
bar pull. The use of automatic stokers on the most modern type of
freight locomotive removed one limiting point: the capacity of the
fireman in shovelling coal into the fire box. A recent device for in-
creasing locomotive capacity is known as the " booster." It is a
small auxiliary engine geared to the trailing axle (on locomotives
which have a pair of wheels not connected with the main drivers)
and may be used in starting the train or in giving an extra drawbar
pull on the limiting grades.
While not so marked as in the case of the locomotive, there has
been a steady increase in the weight and capacity of freight cars,
particularly in those designed to carry coal, ore, or steel or iron prod-
ucts. The standard coal car of 1921 had a capacity of 100,000 Ib.,
and in some cases cars of double that capacity were used locally
on the owning road in coal or ore traffic. There was no appreciable
increase in the capacity of box cars as the commercial standards do
not call for larger units than 60,000 to 80,000 Ib. per car.
Reference has already been made to the more general use of steel
in passenger-car construction. Virtually no new wooden cars were
built for passenger service after 1915. On Jan. I 1911 the passenger-
train equipment consisted of 50,201 wooden cars, 1,636 of steel
underframe construction, and 3,133 of all-steel construction. On
Jan. I 1919 the numbers were: wood, 36,810; steel underframe,
8,805; all-steel, 18,652. The use of the old wooden cars was gener-
ally confined to local trains and branch lines.
Accidents. A comparison of the latest available complete ac-
cident statistics (in Bulletin 74, Interstate Commerce Commission,
published in Nov. 1920) with the statistics for 1907 and 1908 (see
22.832) indicate a gratifying improvement. The casualties in 1019
were less than those of 1907 or 1908, notwithstanding the fact that
the volume of traffic in 1919 was nearly double that of 1907. The
improvement may be attributed to several factors, but it is difficult
to list them in the order of their importance as the influence of
any one factor cannot be measured separately. Among them are
(l) higher standards of construction and maintenance of way,
structures and equipment; (2) enforcement of laws relating to safety
appliances, boiler inspection, and hours of service; (3) extension of
block signalling; (4) other improvements in operating methods;
(5) the psychological effect of the " Safety First movement, begun
about 1910 (a nation-wide movement to interest railway employees
in accident prevention); and (6) the publication of results of in-
vestigations made by the Interstate Commerce Commission in
specific accidents. The data contained in the appended table were
taken from Bulletin 74.
CASUALTIES TO PERSONS IN TRAIN ACCIDENTS AND TRAIN
SERVICE ACCIDENTS
Item
1919
Killed Injured
1918
Killed Injured
1917
Killed Injured
Passengers:
In train accidents
IIO
4,549
286
4-655
131
4,460
In train service
accidents
191
3,598
233
3,427
212
3,914
Total passengers
301
8,147
519
8,082
343
8,374
Employees on duty:
In train accidents
359
2,955
547
'4,179
439
4,214
In train service
accidents .
1-334
33.325
2,212
42,782
2,i/7
48,022
Total employees
on duty .
1,693
36,280
2,759
46,961
2,616
52,236
Employees not on
duty: Total
66
321
109
595
165
544
Other persons, not
trespassing:
In train accidents
9
61
117
433
109
473
In train service
accidents*
1-873
5,134
1,878
5,268
2,091
5,5H
Total other per-
sons .
1,882
5,'95
1,995
5,701
2,200
5,987
Trespassers:
In train accidents
32
1 63
39
67
68
76
In train service
accidents .
2,521
2,595
3.216
2,738
4,175
3,753
Total trespassers
2,553
2*58
3,255
2,805
4,243
3,829
Grand Total
M'>5
52,601
8,697
64,144
9.567
70,970
*Includes persons struck by trains at highway crossings.
The analysis of train accidents in 1919 shows that the total num-
ber was 25,596, divided as fpllows: collisions, 6,904; derailments,
15,897; locomotive accidents, 674; and miscellaneous, 2,121. These
figures include all train accidents, with and without personal injury.
Collisions caused the death of 238 persons and the injury of 3,931.
The casualties in derailments were 175 deaths and 2,979 injuries.
The casualties in locomotive and miscellaneous accidents were
relatively few. (W. J. C.)
RAILWAY STATIONS. The improvements made during the
decade 1910-20, especially in the United States, in the con-
struction and operation of railway passenger stations, may be
said to have revolutionized railway terminal construction; and
the newer stations, of which the Grand Central terminal in
New York is the outstanding example, demonstrated even after
a short period of operation their superiority from practically
every point of view. The substitution of electricity for steam as
a motive power was the basic factor in the newer methods of
construction. As long as steam was used little could be done to
mitigate the noise or noxious gases that made the old-fashioned
railway yard a public nuisance. It was virtually necessary to
operate these yards on the surface where the products of com-
bustion could make a free escape to the open air. In any con-
fined space steam operation is not only dangerous, owing to the
tendency of smoke to obscure the signals, but unpleasant for pas-
RAILWAY STATIONS
239
sengers. The use of electricity eliminates the noxious gases
and reduces the noise of the locomotive. An electrified yard can
be depressed and completely covered over. This permits the
reclamation of streets and valuable areas hitherto obstructed by
tracks, with the result that what was formerly a railway yard
filled with steam and smoke can be utilized for public and pri-
vate buildings of the finest character.
In Europe, the completion of the passenger station at Leipzig
(1915) was practically the only terminal improvement that was
not interrupted by the World War, although the Gare St.
Lazare in Paris was somewhat enlarged, and in London, Waterloo
station was partly reconstructed and a number of tracks equipped
for electric operation. The Leipzig station was under construc-
tion from 1907 to 1915, and cost 6,500,000, of w"hich, following
the German practice, 2,900,000 was borne by Saxony, 2,550,-
ooo by Prussia, 810,000 by the city of Leipzig and 240,000 by
the imperial Post Office Department. The main building has a
frontage of 984 ft. and occupies an area of 172,000 sq. feet.
The train shed has a high roof of steel and glass, built in the
form of six arches; it is 785 ft. long, with an area of 710,500 sq.
ft., and covers 26 tracks. The station serves as a junction for
the passenger traffic of Magdeburg, Thuringia and Dresden,
and the larger part of the traffic between Prussia and Saxony
[passes through it.
At the close of the decade the Leipzig station was the largest,
though not the busiest, station in Europe. It was smaller than
the Grand Central and Pennsylvania stations in New York, and
was in 1920 handling considerably less than half as much traffic
as the Gare St. Lazare, the busiest station in the world. It was
said in 1916 that the number of persons passing through the St.
Lazare in a single month equalled the total number of soldiers
fighting on all fronts. Plans were then undertaken to electrify
the suburban traffic, which is very heavy, and to depress the sub-
urban tracks to a level beneath the steam trains. Even without
these increased facilities, the station furnished accommodations
for 200,000 to 250,000 passengers a day, a record, however,
Very nearly equalled in London by Liverpool St. station. Both
the Gare St. Lazare and Liverpool St. station handled on busy
days twice as much traffic as the South station in Boston, the
busiest American station.
TABLE I. Largest Railway Stations.
Station
Ac.
No. of
Tracks
Trains
per day
Passengers
per day
Grand Central, N.Y.
80
6?
600
110,000
Pennsylvania, N.Y.
28
21
500
75,000
Leipzig
20
26
400
St. Lazare, Paris
12
31
1,700
200,000
Liverpool St., London
IO
2D
1,500
175,000
Waterloo, London
9
18
I, IOO
100,000
South, Boston
IO
28
1,000
125,000
Kansas City .
18
18
400
65,000
Northwestern, Chicapo
8
16
450
70,000
Outside of Europe and North America two important stations
were erected, one in Argentina and one in Japan. The Retiro
station of the Central Argentine railway at Buenos Aires, said
to be the finest station in South America, was opened in the
latter part of 1915. The terminal, including buildings, train
sheds and approaches, occupies 744,000 sq. ft., and in point of
size and design compares with any of the newer stations else-
where. Much of its equipment was supplied by English con-
tractors. The Central Railway station in Tokyo, completed in
1915, was erected at the verysmall cost of 270,000, although
it is built on a scale which in the West would cost 10 or 20 times
as much. The explanation lies in the extremely low price paid
for Japanese labour, lod. ($.20) a day (of 10 to 12 hours) for
common labourers, and 5 a month for carpenters and masons.
Estimated in days' labour, the cost was 730,000 labourer-days.
The main building is of brick and granite, 1,104 ft- l n g> 66 to
132 ft. wide and 54 ft. high, with a dome (152 ft.) at either end.
The terminal took the place of three stations which formerly
served the three main-line Government railways.
In the United States and Canada a constantly increasing
railway traffic made necessary the construction of a large num-
ber of new stations. Terminals that had been erected with the
expectation that they would serve their purpose for 50 years or
longer became inadequate in less than half that time. The
result was that the newer stations were built on what would
otherwise be considered too extravagant a scale. The designers
were looking to the future.
One distinctively American contribution to the advance of
terminal architecture was the invention of an improved roof
to take the place of the great arched train shed, once considered
the most necessary adjunct of a railway station. Cold in winter
and hot in summer, these sheds were expensive to build and
expensive to maintain. Even at the height of their popularity
there were some designers who preferred the umbrella or butter-
fly types of shed, consisting of a series of low arches which,
viewed in cross section, suggest the names by which they are
known. After 1905 the Bush type of shed began to supersede
all others, especially where steam was still tolerated in the termi-
nal area. This shed was the invention of Lincoln Bush, who
made the first installation at the Hoboken terminal of the
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railway, of which he was
chief engineer. The Bush shed is similar to the butterfly and
umbrella sheds; it differs principally in that it affords a continu-
ous roof except for an overhead slot above the centre of each
track for the escape of steam and gases from locomotives. A
shed of this pattern affords protection from the weather, is free
from smoke and dirt, and costs about one-half as much as the
large arched shed. Within ten years after its invention the
Bush shed had been adopted in n American and Canadian
terminals, notably the Michigan Central station at Detroit, the
Northwestern at Chicago, the Grand Trunk at Ottawa and the
Canadian Pacific at Montreal. In England there was developed
a somewhat different type known as the " ridge and furrow,"
of which the Snow Hill station of the Great Western railway at
Birmingham, reconstructed in 1914, furnishes an example. The
Snow Hill train shed consists of a series of transverse girders
(275 ft. long with four supporting columns) spanning the entire
width of the station. The best results, however, can be attained
only where the smoke and dirt of steam operation are elimi-
nated altogether. The problem of the train shed was most
completely solved in the Grand Central terminal, New York,
where electricity was adopted as a motive power. Here the
" sheds " closely resemble the stations on a subway or under-
ground railway.
Less successful in this respect, though of first-rate impor-
tance among the new stations of the period, was the Pennsyl-
vania station in New York. Being of the so-called through-
station type, this station is essentially a monumental bridge
over the tracks, which traverse Manhattan Island in tunnels
under the city. The main building was designed after the Roman
Doric style of architecture and occupies two complete blocks (8
ac.), on Seventh Avenue from 3ist to 33rd Streets. The gen-
eral waiting-room is 277 ft. by 103 ft., with a height of 150 feet.
The train yard or shed (340 ft. by 210 ft.) is an " undisguised
example of modern engineering in glass and iron," and suggests
somewhat the old-fashioned train shed. The station was built
primarily to provide the Pennsylvania railway with a termi-
nus in New York (before 1910 the terminus was in Jersey
City), and the construction of the river tunnels, which were
necessary to make a connexion with Manhattan Island, was
an engineering feat of considerable magnitude. The improve-
ment extends from Manhattan Transfer, i m. east of Newark
(about 75 m. from the terminal), to a connexion with the Long
Island railroad at Woodside, L.I., which also used the Penn-
sylvania station as a terminus. At Manhattan Transfer in-
coming Pennsylvania trains change to electric operation and
are hauled by electric locomotive, operating with a direct cur-
rent of 600 volts from a third rail. At the New Jersey shore
they descend into one of the two approach tunnels and pro-
ceed under the Hudson river and New York to the Pennsyl-
vania station. As soon as empty they leave the station to
the east, still travelling underground in one of four tunnels
which pass under eastern Manhattan and the East river to Long
240
RAILWAY STATIONS
Island, where they emerge not far from the railway yards. The
terminal was completed in 1910 at a cost of $115,000,000.
The Grand Central terminal, undoubtedly the most success-
ful modern terminal of any type, was begun in 1903 and opened
to the public in 1912. The primary purpose was to provide not
only the necessary traffic facilities for an enormous number of
passengers ultimately expected to reach at least 250,000 a day
but to ensure pleasant and comfortable accommodations for
every passenger, even at times when the crowds were heaviest.
Subsequent development of the terminal area has made the
Grand Central terminal not merely a railway station but a civic
" center " of impressive beauty and utility. A railway station
should form a harmonious unit in the architectural develop-
ment of the city, but the designers of the Grand Central termi-
nal accomplished something more than that: they actually
transformed the architectural aspect of a very considerable
section of New York. They achieved this result partly by set-
ting a high standard themselves and partly by causing practi-
cally every property owner and builder within that section to
measure up to it. The achievement was the more remarkable
in that the entire project was conceived and carried out by the
New York Central lines, a private corporation, without assist-
ance of the city or state. The extraordinary architectural and
economic success of this terminal was largely due to the intensive
utilization of areas immediately adjoining the tracks and even
over the tracks themselves areas that were formerly incapable
of being used or were suitable only for cheap dwellings or cer-
tain kinds of factories. Early plans did not contemplate build-
ings of a greater height than six stories in the immediate termi-
nal area, but as soon as it was evident that noise, smoke and
dirt had been successfully eliminated there arose a demand for
hotels and office and apartment buildings of 25 and even 30
stories. This development was favoured by the fact that in
constructing the terminal the engineers were able to restore to
public use a number of streets that had hitherto been entirely
done away with or existed only as foot bridges. The under-
ground areas, yards, etc., occupy about 80 ac., which above the
surface are covered with a great variety of buildings. It was
not long before the enormous expenditure on the terminal, about
$150,000,000, came to be economically justified by reason of the
high return obtained from the lease of the space over the yards,
etc., for building purposes, the so-called " air rights." In 1920
this return was sufficient to meet the fixed charges on the entire
investment. The problem of building the station was extraor-
dinarily complicated, and the closest coordination between
the operating and engineering departments was necessary to
carry out the new construction while tearing down the old
station and at the same time keeping in operation some 800
trains a day, including those run for construction purposes.
There were excavated 3,250,000 cub. yds. of material (more than
two-thirds of which was solid rock), and in the construction
there were used about 1,000,000 bar. of cement; and all this
work was performed without interruption to the service rendered
the public. The architects, Reed & Stem and Warren & Wet-
more, adopted a modified Doric style. The " head house,"
or station proper, is of monumental proportions and the facade
(on 42nd St.) consists of three great portals designed to carry
out the idea of a gateway. The exterior is granite and Indiana
limestone. The main concourse, with a length of 275 ft. and a
width of 1 20 ft., can accommodate 30,000 people at one time. Its
great height (125 ft.) gives it an effect of unusual spaciousness.
From the concourse the passenger walks directly out on the same
level to the " express " platforms. In winter the main con-
course is kept warm by indirect heating, and the station plat-
forms are protected against inclement weather so that even on
the coldest days the passenger can board his train in comfort.
The tracks occupy two levels. The express level is 20 ft. below
the level of the street (Park Ave.) and occupies 45-4 ac.; the
suburban level is 44 ft. below the street and occupies 32-8 acres.
There are 42 tracks on the upper level and 25 on the lower; a
special waiting-room (the suburban concourse) gives access to
the latter. Leading from the main concourse are connexions
with the incoming waiting-room (or station), the Commodore
and Biltmore Hotels, the Yale Club, the Vanderbilt Concourse
office building and various other buildings. The incoming
waiting-room, located beneath the Biltmore Hotel, has separate
passage-ways of its own leading to the concourse, the subways,
the street, etc., so that passengers arriving in the terminal do
not interfere with the flow of people to trains. The use of
ramps, or inclined passage-ways, instead of stairways, facilitates
the movement of passengers and lessens the danger of accident.
Nearby hotels include the Bclmont and Chatham.
A vital necessity in designing the Grand Central terminal was
a signalling system for each level that could be operated by a direc-
tor who could not possibly see the train movements which he
controlled. Interlocking machinery, which in its simplest form is
locking mechanism designed to control the signals so that they will
automatically indicate the position in which the switch is set, was
originated in England about 1856, but its use did not become general
for many years. To operate the complicated network of trackage in
a modern terminal requires interlocking machinery of an extremely-
elaborate character; the mechanism must safely control traffic and
permit train movements with the greatest possible despatch. In
the Grand Central terminal the interlocking machinery is of the all-
electric type. Each track level is controlle^ by a director who is
guided by a diagram on which the movement of trains is indicated
by small electric lights. The largest of, the signal machines is oper-
ated by 400 levers, each of which moves electrically a switch or sig-
nal, and to each 40 levers is assigned a man working under the
instruction of the train director. The machinery is as nearly auto-
matic as possible. Alternating-current track circuits are used to
prevent the operation of switches while trains are moving over
them and to indicate the presence of trains in proximity to danger
zones. These circuits also operate electric locks which automatically
hold the levers so that they cannot be moved except when the track
is clear. Alternating current is used because of the 66o-volt direct-
current circuit employed for electric motive power. There are five
main interlocking stations. The procedure in the case of an incom-
ing train is as follows: At Harmon (33 m.) the steam locomotive is
detached and an electric locomotive substituted. From Mott Haven
Junction (5-3 m.) the train is announced to the director by tele-
graph or loud-speaking telephone (a telephone instrument with a
horn similar to that ofa gramophone instead of a receiver). After
the train has passed 72d St. the director can trace its further progress
by means of the electric buttons on his diagram, and he then decides
upon which track to receive the train and 'gives his order to the
levermen accordingly. When the incoming track is determined an
announcement is made by means of the telautograph to various
parts of the terminal. This instrument notifies the attendant at the
incoming bulletin board and, in the case of through trains, serves
to summon the station porters.
The Grand Central terminal was built by the New York Central
lines under the direct supervision of W. H. Newman, then chairman
of the board of directors. The terminal is owned 60% by the New
York Central lines and 40% by the New York, New Haven & Hart-
ford railway, and is used by both railways under a detailed operating
agreement. In 1920 the traffic capacity of the station was far from
being reached, yet more than 110,000 passengers used the station,
arriving and departing on some 600 trains daily. Besides these there
were every day from 50,000 to 100,000 people who passed in and out
of the station without using the trains. Of the daily traffic about
65,000 were suburban passengers, and this kind of traffic was
steadily increasing. From 1903, when the construction was begun,
to 1920 the total passenger traffic very nearly trebled.
Reference to Table II. will indicate the more important new sta-
tions besides those already described. In addition to the terminals
listed, two new stations of large proportions were planned for
Chicago. One of these, the new Union station, was already under
construction in 1921, while the designs for the other, the Illinois
Central or I2th St. station, had been approved by the railway and
by the city authorities.
TABLE II. Representative Railway Stations erected 1007-32.
Station
Date
com-
pleted
Dimensions:
main building
ft.
Cost*
Washington, D.C.
1907
663 x 211
$120,000,000
Pennsylvania, N.Y. .
1910
430 x 430
115,000,000
Northwestern, Chicago
1911
320 x 218
24,000,000
Grand Central, N.Y.
1912
673 x 301
150,000,000
Ottawa, Quebec
1912
281 x 141
Michigan Central, Detroit
1913
345 x 266
7,000,000
Kansas City
1914
510 x 150
55,000,000
Havana, Cuba .
1914
240 x 70
Buenos Aires
1915
850 x 606
Tokyo ...
1915
1,104 (Frontage)
1,350,000
Leipzig.
1915
984
32,500,000
St. Paul. Minn. .
1922
315 x 220
20,000,000
*Includes entire cost of terminal development.
RAINER RAMSAY
241
Whether the expense of the more elaborate American terminals i
justified in view of the limited profit obtained from passenger busi
ness is a question which gave rise to no little discussion. Estimates
were made as to the number of miles of new track that could be lak
with the money expended for terminals, and it was demonstrated in
some instances that terminal charges were making serious inroads or
passenger profits. " As showing what some railways are up against,'
said John A. Droege, general superintendent of the New York, New
Haven & Hartford railway, writing in 1916, " it is worth noting that
the New Haven has to pay 29 cents for each passenger it brings into
the Grand Central terminal in New York." ' The U.S. Interstate
Commerce Commission, in its report in the Anthracite case (35
I.C.C. 270), under the head of " Unproductive Betterments," said:
" The Pennsylvania has expended on its new passenger terminal
properties in New York City approximately $114,000,000. These
properties are operated by the Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal
railway company, and the operations result in a deficit each year.
The deficit in the year ended June 30 1913 was $2,087,000. . . .
Thus the question is presented: Must the present effective freight
rates of the Pennsylvania earn an annual return of 6 % on the invest-
ment in these terminal properties? The record shows that $47,000,-
ooo of the expenditures in this property has been charged to profit
and loss and to income of the Pennsylvania that is, its past sur-
plus income has already contributed $47,000,000 to the cost of this
property." In answer to such criticisms Samuel Rea, president of
the Pennsylvania lines, stated in 1917 that in seven years the traffic
of the Pennsylvania station had increased from 9,862,434 to 18,135,-
311 annually, and that if the probable period of its usefulness was
considered it could not be regarded as an unproductive betterment.
He pointed out also that had the Pennsylvania waited longer to pur-
chase a site in Manhattan the prices would have become prohibitive.
By leasing " air rights " and retail privileges within the station,
the owners of the Grand Central terminal were able in 1920 to make
an effective answer to criticisms of this sort. Following the example
of the Grand Central, many railways sought to make their stations
productive investments. Thus the Michigan Central constructed a
seventeen-story office building in connexion with its station at Detroit,
while the designers of the proposed Union station at Chicago,
estimated to cost nearly Si 00,000,000, altered their plans to provide
for a huge office building over the head house and train shed.
Closely connected with the criticism of expense was the criticism
on the score of excessive size. Ironic references were made to the
" magnificent distances " which passengers were compelled to walk
between the street and trains. Examples of the distance walked by
passengers purchasing tickets and checking baggage were given as
follows: South station, Boston, 1,100 ft.; Northwestern, Chicago,
940 ft. and 20 ft. climb; Pennsylvania, New York, 480 to 950 ft.,
depending on the entrance used ; Grand Central, New York, 450 ft. ;
Union, Washington, 1,200 feet. It should be said, however, that space
is required if immense crowds are to be handled, and a slight extra
walk is a small price to pay for freedom from the discomfort of
crowded passage-ways. Nevertheless there were some leading rail-
way men who believed that future development would be in the
direction of more and smaller terminals located at various parts of a
city. One proposal was to construct a system of subways, making
each stop a Union Railway Station.
See J. A. Droege, Passenger Terminals and. Trains (New York, 1916).
(H. B.*)
RAINER, ARCHDUKE OF AUSTRIA (1827-1913), noted as one
of the most cultivated and liberal-minded members of the
' Austrian imperial house, was born on Jan. n 1827. His father,
also named Rainer, the seventh son of the Emperor Leopold II.
and of his consort Maria Luisa of Spain, was born in Florence in
1783, and from 1818-48 was viceroy of the kingdom of Lombardo-
Venetia; his mother was the Princess Elizabeth, sister of Charles
Albert, King of Sardinia. After serving in the army, the Archduke
Rainer was in 1857 placed at the head of the permanent Imperial
Council organized in 1851, which stood immediately under
the Emperor and had among its functions the preparation of
laws, and his experience in this office convinced him that the
transition to a constitutional form of government on a liberal
and centralized basis was necessary. In 1860 he conducted the
negotiations for a strengthened Imperial Council; in 1861 he
became head of the Government as president of the council of
ministers of the Liberal Schmerling administration. His name
is associated with the promulgation of the charter of the Con-
stitution of Feb. 26 1861. In the same year Rainer became
curator of the Academy of Sciences, a position which he filled
till his death. In July 1865, when politics had shifted from the
basis of the 1861 Constitution, he laid down office, and retired
from public affairs. In 1872 he was appointed to the supreme
1 In 1921 36 cents (23 cents terminal entrance and 13 cents toll-
age), representing charges from Woodlawn (n m.), not including
cost of operation.
command of the newly established Austrian Landwehr, to the
organization of which he devoted many years of work. He
continued to take a keen interest in art and science. As patron
of the Arts and Crafts Museum (1862-98), and as curator of the
Academy of Sciences, he won a high reputation. He greatly
furthered the general knowledge of antiquity by the purchase of
the papyrus discovered at Fayum, which was called, after him,
the " Rainer papyrus." He married in 1852 Marie Caroline!
daughter of the Archduke Charles, the victor of Aspern. There
were no children of the union. He died on Feb. 27 1913.
RALEIGH, CECIL (1856-1914), English actor and playwright,
was born Jan. 27 1856. He was the son of Dr. John Fothergill
Rowlands, and took the stage name of Raleigh. He played for
a time in musical comedy, but deserted acting for playwriting
and, either alone or in collaboration, produced an immense
number of melodramas, staged at first chiefly at the Comedy
theatre, London, and in later years at Drury Lane. Cheer, Boys,
Cheer (1895); Hearts arc Trumps (1899); The Best of Friends
(1902) and The Whip (1909-10) are typical examples. He also
acted as dramatic critic to two or three London papers, and
became secretary to the School of Dramatic Art in Gower St.,
London. He died in London Nov. 10 1914.
RALEIGH, SIR WALTER (1861- ), English man of letters,
was born Sept. 6 1861 in London, and was educated at Univer-
sity College, London, and King's College, Cambridge. He was
professor of modern literature at University College, Liverpool,
and professor of English literature at Glasgow, and in 1904 was
appointed professor of English literature at Oxford. He 1 was
knighted in 1911 and elected to a fellowship at Mcrton College in
1914. His publications include The English Novel (1894); The
English Voyagers (1904) ; Six Essays on Johnson (1910) ; Romance
(1917) and many essays on literary subjects.
RAMPOLLA, COUNT MARIANO DEL TINDARO (1843-1913),
Italian cardinal (see 22.877). When Pius X. was elected Pope,
Cardinal Rampolla resigned all his appointments, retiring into
the background. He had always been filled with a high sense of
the dignity of his office, and while secretary of state had enter-
tained in princely style; but personally he was a man of austere
habits, and after his retirement he led the simplest life. A sound
scholar, he devoted his last years to study, particularly to
hagiography and Christian archaeology. He died in Rome
Dec. 17 1913.
RAMSAY, GEORGE GILBERT (1830-1921), British classical
scholar, was born at Fontaineblcau July 19 1839, the third son
of Sir George Ramsay of Banff and a member of a well-known
family of scholars. He was educated at Rugby and Trinity
College, Oxford, where he graduated first-class in Literae
Humaniores (1861). He then became assistant to his uncle
William Ramsay, professor of Humanity at Glasgow, and
succeeded him in 1863, occupying the chair until 1906 and becom-
ing a great teaching force in defence of a classical education.
He was the first president of the Classical Association of Scotland
which he helped to found. He was also a keen politician and
a considerable athlete. His published work includes a Manual
of Latin Composition (3 vols., ist ed. 1884, 4th ed. 1897); an
annotated version of The Annals of Tacitus (2 vols. 1904-9)
and of the Histories (1915), as well as translations of Juvenal
and Persius for the Loeb Library. He died at St. Andrew's
March 8 1921.
RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM (1852-1916), British chemist (see
22.880), died at High Wycombe July 23 1916. In 1904 he was
awarded the Nobel prize, and in 1911 was president of the
British Association. In 1913 he resigned his professorship of
chemistry at University College, London. After his death a
'und amounting to 53,772 was raised to perpetuate his memory
jy providing a laboratory of chemical engineering in connexion
with University College, London, and founding Ramsay
Memorial research fellowships of 300 a year each, tenable in
any university in the United Kingdom for the advancement of
chemical science.
RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL (1851- ), British
archaeologist (see 22.880), resigned his professorship at Aberdeen
242
RANGE-FINDERS AND POSITION-FINDERS
in 1911, and subsequently published The Imperial Peace and
The Teaching of Paul in Terms of the Present Day (1913);
Recent Research and the New Testament (1914); The Making of a
University (1915) and the Life and Letters of William Black (1918).
RANOEGGER, ALBERTO (1832-1911), musical composer and
conductor, was born in Trieste April 13 1832. He settled in
London in 1854 after holding various musical appointments in
Italy. Both as an orchestral conductor, and as a teacher of
music and singing he held for many years a leading position in
London. Besides conducting on various occasions at the Royal
Opera, musical festivals and elsewhere, he did much, as conductor
of the Carl Rosa company from 1879, towards the popular revival
of opera in England. He died in London Dec. 18 1911.
RANGE-FINDERS AND POSITION-FINDERS (see 22.888).
Recent improvements have rendered many of the earlier types
of range-finders obsolete, and the following features are com-
mon to all modern coincidence range-finders. The range-finder
usually consists of two main parts, viz: a strong outer tube
and an inner frame which supports the delicate telescopic
system, any slight derangement of which would seriously upset
the accuracy of the range-finder. The outer tube is made as
strong and rigid as possible, having regard to the weight which
can be allowed. The inner frame is supported in such a way that
any slight bending of the outer tube will not affect it.
Some form of double end reflector is always used. This at
one time consisted of a pentagonal prism, but large pentag-
onals are very costly; they absorb a good deal of light and are
liable to slight distortion with changes of temperature. There is
therefore a tendency to replace them by a combination of two
silvered plane mirrors inclined to one another at 45, and either
fixed in a mount made of a metal having the same coefficient of
expansicn as glass, or rigidly attached to an upper and lower
glass support, to prevent change in their relative positions.
The central reflectors usually take the form of two or more
prisms balsamed together, and are known as the centre prism
combination. Their object is to deflect the rays received through
the two ends of the range-finder into the eye-piece, and to
present the two images of the target in the field of view immedi-
ately above and below a thin separating line. Their construction
is usually rather complicated. The fine separating line is as a
rule obtained by means of a special separating prism ; or by the
edge of a silvered surface on one of the prisms, so arranged that
the rays forming one image pass through the prism, and those
forming the other image are reflected by the silvered surface.
The centre prism combination is also used for erecting or
inverting the images, and for defining the limits of the fields of
view received from each half of the range-finder. The arrange-
ments of fields of view usually met with are the following:
1. The field of view is divided into two equal halves and the
images in both are erect. When a coincidence has been made, the
separating line cuts straight through the image of the target. This
system is used with naval and coast defence range-finders which
have to deal with targets having long vertical features, e.g. masts
and funnels. It is known as the ' erect " system.
2. The field cf view is divided into two parts by the separating
line. One field (in field range-finders usually the lower) is erect, and
the other one is a replica of it, being inverted up for down but not
right for left. With this system it is much easier to make an accurate
coincidence on small targets, but it has the slight drawback that the
total actual field of view is necessarily considerably smaller than
with the erect system, and a slight elevation or depression of the
range-finder may cause the target to pass the separating line and
disappear. This, however, is not of much importance if the target is
a stationary or slowly moving one. The upper field is often made
smaller than the lower, so that as much ground as possible may be
seen in the field of view. This system is known as the " invert," and
is used in many field range-finders.
3. The whole field is erect with the exception of a small central
rectangle in which the image is inverted. The advantage of this
system is that the field of view is as large as that of a range-finder of
the erect type, except that the part covered by the rectangle is
missing. It is known as the " invert rectangle " and is used in many
field range-finders, especially in foreign armies.
4. The whole field is erect with the exception of a narrow hori-
zontal strip which passes right across its centre. The field in the
strip may be either erect or inverted. This system, known as the
" strip " system, is used in the British height- and range-finder.
In early range-finders the axis of the eye-piece was horizontal
when targets in the horizontal plane were being viewed. It is
now usually inclined downwards at angles of 45, 60, or even
90 for anti-aircraft work, so that the range-taker can observe
from a more comfortable position. Eye-pieces can be focussed
for individual observers, the two images of the target and the
separating line coming to focus simultaneously. Coloured and
neutral tinted glasses are useful in cutting out excessive glare,
haze, etc. In some range-finders, the magnification of the
eye-piece can be altered so as to obtain the best effect under
various atmospheric conditions. Astigmatisers are sometimes
used for drawing out a point of light or small object into long
lines or bands. Coincidence, which without their use would be
almost impossible to effect, can then easily be made. They
consist of two negative cylindrical lenses with horizontal axes,
one being placed at each end of the range-finder between the
pentagonal and the objective.
Range-finders are provided with halving and coincidence
adjustment heads, which, when turned slowly, move the optical
systems mentioned above. Correct adjustment is of course
essential for accurate work.
Accuracy of One-man Range-finders. The accuracy of the
range-finder, other things being the same, depends upon its
base length and magnification; but there are limits to the
magnification which can be conveniently used. It is usually
between 10 diameters (for the smaller range-finders) and 30
(for the largest). Under good conditions, two images can be
aligned across a fine separating line, with an error of only a
few seconds. There is little doubt that this degree of accuracy
can be obtained under the best atmospheric conditions and when
the target is stationary, as the mean result of several observations
being taken as the range. If, however, the atmospheric condi-
tions are bad and the target is moving rapidly, such accuracy
cannot be expected.
The base lengths of range-finders used in the field usually
vary between half a metre and two metres. The Barr and
Stroud range-finder with a base of one metre, which is used for
field artillery by the British and other armies, is typical.
German field coincidence range-finders, such as the Zeiss
and Goerz, are used in a similar way to the Barr and Stroud,
although their construction differs materially in details. Many
of these were introduced to avoid infringements of earlier
patents. The chief features of Zeiss coincidence range-finders
are that they have only one eye-piece in which are seen a small
rectangular inverted field in the centre of a large erect field
and on the left of these a range scale. Coincidence is effected
by revolving a working head which rotates two wedge-shaped
prisms in opposite directions.
Stereoscopic Range-finders. The principle of the stereoscopic
range-finder is entirely different. Stereoscopic rapge-finders
have not found much favour in the British services; but they
have been extensively used by the Germans. Speaking generally,
a stereoscopic range-finder contains the elements of a stereoscopic
telescope rigidly mounted in a tube. It is very similar in outward
appearance to a coincidence range-finder with two eye-pieces.
Objects viewed through a stereoscopic range-finder are seen to
stand out in stereoscopic relief; and it is comparatively easy
for the observer to judge their relative distances. The actual
distance of a target is obtained with the assistance of one or
more marks which are seen in stereoscopic relief in the field of
view. By means of suitable optical arrangements the stereoscopic
relief of either the objects in the field of view or of the mark can
be varied until the target and mark appear to the observer to
be the same distance away from him. The range of the target
can then be read off a range-scale attached. The mark which
is seen in stereoscopic relief, really consists of two similar marks
which are photographed on glass diaphragms mounted in front
of the eye-pieces of the range-finder. If the two marks are on
the optical axes of the two halves of the range-finder, they will
appear to the observer as one mark at an infinite distance. If
the two marks on the diaphragms are made to approach one
another, the resulting single mark will appear to come towards
RANGE-FINDERS AND POSITION-FINDERS
243
the observer. In the later stereoscopic range-finders, marks
in the eye-pieces are adjusted so as to appear to be at a fixed
distance when seen stereoscopically. The view containing the
target appears to approach or recede from the observer when the
working head is turned; and the range is read off from an
external range scale or drum.
Stereoscopic range-finders suffer from the disadvantages
that very few people are able to see stereoscopically with
sufficient exactness to obtain good results and the degree of
accuracy obtained by a range-taker appears to vary from time
to time. Under the same atmospheric conditions, stereoscopic
range-finders do not appear to give such good results as coinci-
dence ones. Owing to the marks on the diaphragms in the
eye-pieces being more distinct than the image of the target,
there is difficulty in deciding when they are at the same apparent
distance. On the other hand, owing to both eyes being used,
the target should be seen more distinctly than through a coinci-
dence range-finder. Ranges of targets with the sky as a back-
ground, e.g. aircraft, masts of ships, and trees on a crest line,
are comparatively easy to take with a stereoscopic range-finder;
but those of comparatively indistinct objects, objects with near
backgrounds and objects in a shadow, e.g. a gun under a tree,
are very much more difficult to take.
Directors. The director is an instrument employed chiefly
for the measurement of azimuth angles and angles of sight.
There are numerous patterns of these instruments. Some are of
simple form ; while others are complicated and are provided with
quick and slow motion movements for their azimuth and altitude
movements and for laying on a gun or target without the setting
of their azimuth scales being altered. Some are used as directors
pure and simple, whilst others are provided with powerful
telescopes for observing fire. British directors are graduated in
degrees and minutes, whereas those of nearly all other powers
are graduated in milliemes. Instruments graduated in milliemes
can be made much more compact than those graduated in degrees
and minutes, as the main azimuth plate has only 64 divisions
instead of 360. The azimuth scales of some German directors
are graduated in i6ths of a degree and i6ths of a degree are
also sometimes used for angle-of-sight scales.
The German director for field artillery is a good example of
modern types of this instrument. Powerful telescopes like the
stereoscopic or scissors telescope are often provided with fittings
which enable them to be used as directors as well as for observing
fire. Azimuth angles can be measured by means of an azimuth
scale, and angles of sight by means of a small bubble and
scale. In one pattern of German stereoscopic telescope, the
angle of sight is measured by means of a device which is com-
pactly pla'ced between the two arms of the telescope, above its
elevating gear.
The Field Plotter is an instrument used for obtaining the
gun range when the range-finder is not near the gun. It consists
of two similar nickel-plated steel plates, having azimuth scales
and a scale of yards (upon which the distance of the gun from
the range-finder can be set) engraved upon them, and two
range arms which are pivoted at the centres of the azimuth
scales and connected by means of a slider. The two plates
are slid along one another until the distance between the gun
and the range-finder is opposite the reader. The slider is then
moved until an arrow upon it reads on the arm the distance from
the range-finder to the target. The arm is then moved until
another arrow reads the angle, recorded by the director, between
the target and the gun. The plotter is then turned over, and
the range from the gun to the target and the angle at the gun
between the target and the director are read off. When fire has
been opened, it is necessary to' observe the results, so that
corrections for both range and direction may be made. Also if
time fuzes are used, the angular height above the target at
which they burst the shell must be observed and corrected if
necessary. Various instruments, e.g. graticuled binoculars,
stereoscopic telescopes and periscopes, are used for this purpose.
The binoculars used in the British service are of the prismatic
type having a magnification of six diameters and are fitted with
a glass diaphragm in front of the right eye-piece on which are
engraved the vertical lines 5 apart; their heights above the
horizontal line being alternately 5 and i. The central line
is longer, extending 15 above, and 5 below the horizontal
line. When observing fire, the point of intersection of the
centre vertical line with the horizontal line is laid on the target ;
and, when the burst of the shell is observed, its angular distance
to the right or left of the target and above it can be ascertained
by noting its position with reference to the lines on the
diaphragm. Graticules used by other continental powers vary
very much in design and often consist of a very large number of
short lines at definite distances from the axis of the telescope.
The stereoscopic or scissors telescope was very largely used in
the World War, especially by the Germans. The British pattern
has a magnification of 10 diameters and a field of view of 4.
The two arms can be used either vertically for observation from
below cover, or in line with one another for observation from
behind vertical cover.
FOR COAST DEFENCE
Coast defence range-finding instruments are usually either
range-finders or position-finders. A range-finder measures
ranges from itself to the target and may also record the bearing
of the target. A position-finder measures ranges and bearings
to the target from the point for which it has been adjusted. This
would usually be a gun which may be many hundred yards
away from the position-finder. The position-finder sometimes
also records the range and bearing of the target from its own
position. Coast defence range-finding instruments may be
divided into classes, depending upon the nature of their bases,
as follows:
1. Depression instruments, having vertical bases (either range-
finders or position-finders) the accuracy of which depends upon
their height above the sea-level. They measure ranges with equal
accuracy in all directions; and, if sufficient height is available, they
are most reliable instruments. It is usually considered that, to
obtajn ranges with an error not exceeding I %, loo ft. of height is
required for every 5,000 yd. of range. All that the range-taker has
to do is to keep a cross wire in the telescope of his instrument laid on
the water line of the target.
2. Instruments having a fixed horizontal base (usually position-
finders). Each usually consists of two instruments installed at the
ends of a base which may be several thousand yards in length, the
length required depending upon the range and arc of fire of the gun
for which the instrument has been installed. The instrument at one
end of the base is known as a transmitter and usually consists of a
telescope mounted above an azimuth circle. It measures the bearing
of the target and transmits it to the instrument at the other end of
the base which is known as the receiving instrument. The bearings
may be transmitted by telephone; or, as the telescope is traversed,
electric impulses may cause some portion of the receiving instrument,
e.g. a metal arm or a dial, to move automatically. The receiving
instrument is usually an accurate, solidly constructed plotter, made
to a certain scale, e.g. 500 yd. to an inch. In its simplest form it would
consist of a base plate upon which two straight arms were pivoted,
the relative positions of the pivots being, to the scale of the instru-
ment, the same as those of the transmitter and receiving instrument.
The first arm would be kept set to the azimuth angles received from
the transmitter, and the second arm would be kept in line with the
target by means of a telescope attached to it. The point where the
two arms intersect would represent the relative position of the target.
The arms being graduated in ranges and moving over azimuth
scales, the range and bearing of the target from either end of the
base could be read off. By means of a third arm, pivoted to the base
plate in the position representing the position of the gun, the range
and bearing of the target from the gun could be ascertained if the
arm were brought above or below the point of intersection of the two
other arms. Horizontal-base range-finding instruments are often
designed to allow of several alternative bases being used, the pivots
of the arms in the receiving instrument being set for the base which
is most suitable for the conditions prevailing at the time. Thus for
very long ranges a very long base would be used ; but, if the visibility
were bad, a much shorter one might be preferable. Horizontal-base
instruments have certain disadvantages. For a definite range, their
accuracy varies with the position of the target. It is greatest when
the target is opposite the centre of the base, decreases as the target
moves to the right or left, and disappears altogether when the target
is in line with the base. It is somewhat difficult for the receiving
instrument to indicate to the transmitter the target whose range is
to be found. There are difficulties in passing azimuth angles from
the transmitter to the receiving instrument. If they are telephoned,
delay and errors are involved, and owing to the fact that they may
244
RANGE-FINDERS AND POSITION-FINDERS
alter at greatly varying rates there is usually some uncertainty as to
the most suitable intervals in which they should be called out. If
they are electrically transmitted, so as to move some part of the
receiving instrument, the mechanism must be capable of moving in
small steps of, say, one minute, in order to obtain the required
accuracy, and at the same time it must be capable of moving quickly
through a large angle when getting on to a target.
3. One-man Range-finders used for coast defences are constructed
on the same general principles as those used in the field ; but, as their
weight and size must not be limited to the same degree, many
modifications to make them as accurate and convenient as possible
are introduced. Their base lengths are usually between 9 ft. and 10
metres, but even longer bases have been considered. They are
practically always of the coincidence type with both fields erect.
The Mark III Depression Range-finder (fig. 2) will be taken as a
type of a depression instrument. In this range-finder the range-
finding triangle is reproduced in the instrument on a small scale.
Figure I shows diagrammatically how this is effected by means of
FIG. i.
two arms. AB represents the height of the axis of the telescope above
the surface of the sea BC. Ab represents the distance between the
pivot of the telescope arm Ac and the range arm be, and this to the
scale of the instrument, represents the height AB. When the instru-
ment is level, the arm cb is horizontal, and therefore parallel to the
FIG. 2. Depression Range-finder Mark III.
surface of the sea. cb is subdivided and graduated in equal divisions
to the scale of the instrument. Ac, which has a telescope mounted
on it, is pivoted at A and can be directed on to the water-line of a
target at C. The triangles ABC and Abe are similar, and the length
of be therefore represents to the scale of the instrument, which is
1,000 yd. to an in., the actual range BC. Similarly bd will represent
the range BD of a target at D. If the instrument is required for
use at any other height than AB, the telescope arm pivot A would
be raised to a height above cb corresponding to the new height of
the range-finder above the sea. In the foregoing, the surface of the
sea has been considered as a plane surface, whereas it is really the
surface of a sphere with its centre at the centre of the earth. Allow-
ance for this curvature could be made by making the arm be the
arc of a circle instead of a straight line. It is, however, found to be
more convenient to curve the telescope arm Ac in the opposite
direction, the effect being the same. Corrections for mean refrac-
tion are made in the same way as those for the curvature of the
earth, but in the opposite direction; the arm Ac being curved to
allow for the combined effect of curvature and refraction.
The Small German Position-finder may be taken as a typical
position-finder. It was used during the World War for coast artillery
on low sites. Very much larger instruments based pn the same
general principles were also used. Air communication was by
telephone. Other nations often use automatic electrical transmission
for moving parts of the receiving instrument when the transmitter
telescope is traversed, and for actuating range and bearing dials on
the gun mountings when the gun arm is traversed.
The Barr and Stroud Range-finder having a base-length of 30 ft.
is typical of the one-man range-finder used for coast defences.
None of the range-finders or position-finders mentioned above is
of any use if it cannot see the target ; the position of a -moving target
can then only be ascertained by aerial observation.
Naval Range-finders, which must necessarily be of comparatively
small size, are nearly always of the one-man type. They are gen-
erally similar to those used in coast defences, but in order to obtain
better illumination their optical parts are often made larger. Their
mountings are designed to enable the range-finders being kept on the
target in a sea way. They are nearly always of the coincidence type
with both images erect; but some stereoscopic range-finders have
been used by the Germans. It is thought by some that a range can
be more rapidly taken from a ship having considerable motion with
a stereoscopic range-finder than with a coincidence range-finder;
as with the latter it is difficult to keep the separating line across
the target. The coincidence range-finder will, however, give more
accurate results. Range-finders with a base-length of 10 metres are
the largest which can conveniently be used on board ship. Base
lengths vary with the size of the ships on which the range-finders
are employed and the uses for which they are intended ; one of less
than a metre being employed for navigational purposes. Anti-
aircraft range and height-finders used on ships must be provided
with some form of pendulum to keep certain of the parts horizontal,
as the mountings cannot be kept level. Certain small ranee-finders
have been made which can measure the range to a ship if the height
of its mast or funnel is known. This height is used as the base of the
range-finding triangle, the angle of parallax being measured by the
instrument and read off it as a range. Such a base is obviously
longer than that of a range-finder which could be carried on a
ship. This type, however, has not been generally adopted.
FOR AIR DEFENCE
Range-finders and height-finders used in connexion with
anti-aircraft guns have a much more difficult task to perform
than the range-finding instruments used in the field or in coast
defences. In the latter cases the target, if it moves at all, will
move in one plane only and its speed will not approach that of
aircraft. As the result of experience, the range of an aerial
target which may alter by several thousands of yards in a minute
is not taken into account; but its height, which will not vary to
the same extent, is used as the basis of laying 8 and is measured
by a height-finder. The rate of burning of the fuze has also
to be considered, as it will not be the same for a definite range
if the target is at different heights.
When laying a gun on aircraft, the setting of the sight is
therefore based on the height and angle of sight of the target
and on the setting of the fuze. At the beginning of the World
War, no height-finders were available, so existing one-man
range-finders, e.g. the Barr and Stroud, were used, and long base
height-finders which could be rapidly made were introduced.
FIG. 3.
One-man range-finders were usually of two metres base length, and
coincidences were made on the target in the usual way. In order to
convert the ranges into heights, a slide-rule attached to the range-
finder was employed. One scale of this slide-rule was automatically
set to the angle of sight of the target, by means of a cam, as the
elevation of the range-finder was altered. The other scale was set
to the range recorded by the range-finder, and the height of the
target could then be read off.
Long base height-finders usually consist of two instruments at the
ends of a base about a mile in length. Sighting planes in these
instruments are kept laid on the target; the triangle formed by the
intersection of a vertical plane with three planes, one of which is a
horizontal plane passing through the base and the other two are
extensions of the sighting planes, is mechanically solved; and the
height of the point where the two planes of sight intersect (i.e. the
height of the target above the base) is plotted at the same time.
The principle of this method is shown in fig. 3. AX and BY are
two horizontal lines, parallel to each pther. The sighting planes of
RANGE-FINDERS AND POSITION-FINDERS
245
th_> instrument would be attached to axles whose axes were on any
parts of AX and BY. AXQZ and BYQZ represent planes of which
the sighting planes form small parts. It is obvious that QZ is hori-
zontal, and that ZK, PL or any vertical line between QZ and the
horizontal line KL (which is parallel to the axes of the sighting
planes) represents the height of an aircraft in the line ZQ, say at P.
In the simplest form of height-finder, the plotting is done on a board
fixed beneath B, the triangle AZB being reproduced there on a small
scale and upside down. A straight edge is attached to the sighting
frame at B and consequently moved round B in front of the board
as the elevation of the frame is altered. Another straight edge is
pivoted on the right of B at a distance from it which represents AB
to the scale of the instrument. It is kept set to the altitude angle
which is measured at A and telephoned to B. The point where the
two straight edges intersect consequently represents the point Z.
Upon the board below B, a series of horizontal lines are marked,
their distance from a zero line passing through the pivots of the
straight edges representing heights above the ground, to the scale
of the instrument. The height of the target can therefore be ascer-
tained by noting against which of the horizontal lines on the board
the intersection of the two straight edges comes. Such height-
finders have serious disadvantages, the principal one being the
difficulty in getting the two instruments on to the same target.
Height- and Range-finder. Towards the end of the war Messrs.
Barr and Stroud produced a most ingenious instrument which
recorded both the height and range of aircraft, and which was at
once adopted by the British Government.
It is used in a similar manner to an ordinary one-man range-
finder, and the observer has only to keep the aircraft in the field of
view and make coincidences. As will be explained later, if the height
of the aircraft remains constant the coincidence will not alter as the
range alters. The field of view is so arranged that the rays of light
entering by the left window of the instrument form an erect image
over the whole field, with the exception of a narrow central hori-
zontal strip in which an inverted image is formed by the rays enter-
ing by the right window. The lower separating line is the one on
which coincidences are made. The advantage of this " strip "
system is that it is considerably easier to keep the aircraft in the
field of view than if the field were divided into two equal parts, one
of them being inverted. As in field instruments, the inversion of the
image in the field above the separating line is found to facilitate
making accurate coincidences.
The eye-piece of the range-finder is placed at right angles to the
plane of triangulation, so that if the angle of sight to the target is 60
the observer looks down at an angle of 30. It is provided with two
lens combinations on a rotatable cap which give magnifications of
15 and 25 diameters, and also with light filters for varying atmos-
pheric conditions. There is a window above and to the left of the
eye-piece, through which the usual ivory range scale can be seen.
In a small casing on the top of the range-finder there is a most
ingenious mechanism which converts ranges into the heights corre-
sponding to them as the angle of sight varies. The ranges and
heights can be read through two windows in close proximity to one
another. This mechanism actually solves the trigonometrical for-
mula r sin o = h; where r is the range of the target, a the angle of
sight to it, and h its height. This formula may be written as:
log r+log sin a = log h; and it is mechanically solved as follows: a
differential gear is employed, the upper member of which is rotated
in accordance with a logarithmic sine scale of angles of sight, and the
lower member is rotated in accordance with a logarithmic scale of
ranges, the jockey wheel accordingly revolving around the axis of
the differential with a motion corresponding to a logarithmic scale of
heights. It will be noted that the angle of elevation and the range
are known, or rather are determined by the instrument, so that the
duty of the gears is to convert the angle and range scales to logarith-
mic form and then to add them together by means of the differential
gear as explained above. The conversion of the reciprocal range
scale motion of the range-finder deflecting prism gear into logarith-
mic range scale motion, and the angular motion, of the range-finder
in elevation into motion corresponding to a logarithmic scale of sines,
is done in each case by means of toothed spiral gears.
The gearing is connected through three couplings to the working
head, the elevation gear and the deflecting prism gear respectively.
By means of suitable gearing the jockey wheel of the differential is
driven from the working head, the upper member by the elevation
gear, and the lower member by the deflecting prism gear. The range
scale is connected to the lower member, and the height scale to a
level wheel carrying the jockey wheel.
The advantage of arranging the working head to operate the
jockey wheel is that in the frequent case of aircraft flying at a con-
stant height the images in the field of view, when once set, can be
kept in coincidence by simply elevating the instrument so as to keep
the target in the centre of the field, without any rotation of the work-
ing head. The movement of the instrument in elevation auto-
matically controls the position of the deflecting prism, the height
scale remaining unaltered so long as the working head is not rotated.
When the target rises or falls, the images will move out of coin-
cidence and must be brought back into alignment by rotating the
working head, thus altering the reading of the height scale by the
appropriate amount. The working head and elevating gear may, of
course, be worked at one time, in which case the combined effect of
the spiral gears and the differential is that the two scales always
read correctly as long as the coincidence is maintained.
The instrument has a base length of two metres, and is carried in
the mounting forks in two eccentric bearing rings, the object of the
eccentricity being to balance the weight of the height-scale gear box
as the instrument is rotated in elevation. The elevating gear with
a handwheel on the left of the observer, is of the worm-wheel type.
The handwheel is provided with a two-speed clutch ; the speed being
changed by merely pressing in or releasing, with the palm of the
hand, a small lever connected with the hand grip.
The azimuth training gear is also of the worm and worm-wheel
type and has a two-speed clutch. Its handwheel is on the right of
the eye-piece, and in a convenient position for the man who, looking
through a small prismatic telescope near the right-hand end of the
instrument, keeps it laid for direction on the target.
The worm wheels for movements in both azimuth and altitude
are mounted on friction slip-bearings, so that the instrument can be
rapidly moved and the target brought into its field of view. An
elevating lever is fitted near the left-hand end of the instrument to
allow of rapid elevation. An adjustable azimuth scale and reader are
provided; and a means of levelling the upper part of the mounting.
Before using the instrument, its correct levelling must be attended
to and checked by means of two bubbles attached to the upper part
of the mounting. The lower part of the mounting is a very rigidly
constructed tripod with pointed feet having discs to prevent their
sinking into soft ground.
Three operators are required for working the instrument, viz. :
(l) The observer who makes " coincidences " by turning the working
head on the top of the instrument with his right hand, and who also
keeps the separating line on the target by turning the elevation
handwheel with his left hand. (2) The operator for line who, looking
through the prismatic sighting telescope, traverses the instrument
with the handwheel and keeps the cross line in his telescope accu-
rately laid for line on the target ; and (3) the scale reader, who, stand-
ing in front of the instrument, reads heights off the height scale; and,
if required, also reads the range and angle of sight scales.
In anti-aircraft gunnery, where the target may move at a
speed of two or more miles a minute, there is great difficulty
in ascertaining what deflections are required to compensate for
the travel of the target during the time of flight of the projectile.
There is not only the lateral deflection to be considered, as with
a ship moving in one plane; but also a vertical one. It is obvious
that if an aircraft is flying at a constant height, the angle of
sight to it from the gun will not remain constant. Vertical
deflection equal to the alteration of the angle of sight during
the time of flight of the projectile must therefore be allowed for.
Another difficulty arises in connexion with the setting of the
fuze. The fuze will not burn at the same rate if the projectile
is fixed at different angles of sight, owing to the variation of
atmospheric pressures at different heights. To help to overcome
these difficulties a most ingenious apparatus was brought out
during the war by Messrs. Brocq of Paris, and was adopted by
most of the Allied Powers.
The general principle of the instrument is as follows: The height
of the target must first be measured by a height-finder and set on the
instrument. Two operators, who face one another, follow the target,
looking through two telescopes which are rigidly connected. One
keeps a vertical cross line in his telescope in line with the target
by turning a traversing handle; and the other keeps a horizontal
cross line in line, by turning an elevating handle. Connected with
the traversing and elevating handles are the armatures of two
magnetos which, when turned, generate electric currents, the
voltages of the currents depending upon the speed at which they are
turned. These currents are transmitted to two special voltmeters
(attached to the gun mountings near the layers) from which the
lateral and vertical deflections required can be read off, and then
applied to the sights. On their way to the voltmeters the currents
pass through rheostats which modify them in such a way that the
deflections recorded are correct for the time of burning of the fuze.
The exact length of fuze required to burst the shell at the target
can also be read off another part of the instrument.
The general arrangement of the apparatus is shown diagrammati-
cally in fig. 4. It consists of three main parts, viz. :
I. The double telescope, which consists of a metal drum upon
which are mounted, on the same spindle, the two right-angle tele-
scopes referred to above. The traversing and elevation handles are
placed conveniently for the two operators. Each has a quick and
slow motion (four to one), the ajteration from one to the other being
effected by pushing in or putting out the handle. When a quick
release knot at the top of the instrument is pressed down, the gears
are put out of action, and the telescope can be quickly moved until
the target is in their fields of view. Angles of sight and bearings can
be read off conveniently placed scales, if required. When the handles
are turned, the currents generated by the magnetos pass along
246
RANGE-FINDERS AND POSITION-FINDERS
cables to the " fuze indicator and time rheostat " and thence to the
" deflection voltmeters."
As the body of the " double telescope " traverses about a vertical
axis, but laying is dene in the plane of sight, it is necessary to
multiply the angular velocity of the body of the instrument by the
cosine of the angle of sight in order to obtain the angular velocity
of the target. This is effected electrically by passing the current
from the lateral magneto through a rheostat, whose resistance is
varied by a rubbing contact passing along it, as the telescopes are
elevated or depressed.
Another rheostat and an accumulator (connected to the fuze
indicator and time rheostat) cause an angle of sight needle in the
fuze indicating voltmeter to move to the same angle of sight as that
of the telescopes ; this needle is controlled by another circuit.
2. The fuze indicator and time rheostat consist mainly of the time
rheostat, a fuze indicating voltmeter, a microphone and an external
accumulator of three cells.
As explained above, the currents generated by the magnetos pass
through rheostats on their way to the deflection voltmeters. These
rheostats are situated beneath the time adjusting dial, and their
resistance is altered as the dial is turned. The setting of the dial is
dependent upon the height of the aircraft and the setting of the fuze,
and is effected as follows: A graduated height arm is moved by
means of a milled head until it reads the height obtained from a
height-finder. On its right-hand upper edge is a reader for reading
the fuze curves on the time adjusting dial. The latter is turned until
the reader of the height arm is on the fuze curve representing the
length at which the fuzes have been set.
I JAM/ftM
ru INDICATOR AND
TIMC RHEOSTAT
DOUail TELESCOPE
FIG. 4. Arrangement of Brocq apparatus.
The angle of sight needle in the fuze indicating voltmeter is con-
trolled by two circuits, viz,: that referred to in (i) which tends to
set it at the angle of sight of the telescopes, and another in which are
the vertical magneto armature in the double telescope, the rheostat
beneath the time adjusting dial and another rheostat which auto-
matically adds eight seconds to the time of flight. This eight seconds
is an allowance for the time taken to set the fuze, load, lay and fire
the gun. The angle of sight needle therefore makes with its zero or
horizontal line an angle equal to the angle of sight to the predicted
position of the target at which the shell will burst. When the height
arm is moved, a height strip inside the fuze indicating voltmeter is
also moved. Its height above the zero line of the angle-of-sight needle
represents, to the scale of the instrument, the height of the target.
The intersection of the needle and strip therefore represents the
position of the target at the moment of the shell burst. Fuze curves
are marked on the glass cover of the voltmeter, and the curve which
is nearest to the intersection of the needle and strip will indicate the
length at which fuzes are to be set. This fuze length is called down
the microphone to the fuze setters, and is transmitted to the sight
setter by the man taking up the shell.
3. The deflection voltmeters are of the dead-brat type and read
to 10 on either side of zero. Two are provided for each gun ; one for
lateral and the other for vertical deflection. As a rule, two guns can
be worked by one Brocq equipment, four deflection voltmeters
being provided. The required deflection is read by the upper pointer.
Corrections for wind are applied by moving the scale by means of a
knob beneath the voltmeter, the amount of correction being indi-
cated on the scale by the lower pointer.
Stereoscopic range-finders were extensively used by the Cen-
tral Powers for anti-aircraft work. (A. C. W.)
SOUND-RANGING
The method of locating hostile guns by the sound, or sounds,
consequent on their discharge was introduced on the British
front in France during 1916. It had at that time already been
in use in the French army for many months. It speedily proved
its usefulness, especially in circumstances which rendered other
methods of location very difficult or impossible. The system
of concealment known as " camouflage " added considerably
to the difficulty of finding the position of gun-pits on photographs
taken from the air, and, further, these photographs offered no
certain method of deciding whether a gun position, once
identified, were occupied or no. The locations given by sound-
ranging frequently enabled well-concealed positions, which had
previously been missed on air photographs, to be detected, and
offered a sure index as to whether known positions were active
at a given time. Although air photographs always offered
valuable confirmation of the sound-ranging locations, and were,
when available, consulted with this object in view, the method is,
of course, quite independent of such support. It works as well
at night, or when, owing to fog, mist, or smoke, the visibility
is poor, as on clear days; it can detect batteries so well hidden
as to be invisible from the air or on air photographs; it is always
ready when once the apparatus has been installed; and a location
can be obtained, under favourable conditions, within a minute
or two of the arrival of the report of the piece. On the other hand
the instalment of the apparatus necessitates the laying of
several miles of wire, and involves considerable preliminary
labour in other ways; the method will not work during a heavy
bombardment; and certain weather conditions, to be discussed
later, render locations almost impossible. The difficulty first
mentioned will quite possibly be surmounted or diminished;
the other two seem, at present, insuperable.
The method has been elaborated to permit the directing of
fire on a hostile piece by comparing the record of the sound of
discharge of the piece with that of the burst of the shell directed
against it. With iz-in. and o-2-in. howitzers destructive shots
have been directed very successfully by sound-ranging.
Principles. The method generally adopted in the British, French,
and American armies is to record the instant of the arrival of the
sound made by the hostile piece at certain fixed and carefully sur-
veyed posts, spaced at intervals varying from 1,000 to 2,000 yards.
If it be assumed that the sound spreads out from the source with a
known velocity, the same in all directions, then a known interval
between the arrival of the sound at two fixed posts will determine a
curve on which the source must lie. This curve is a hyperbola with
the two posts Pi and Pi as foci, for the determining condition is that
the difference of the radii vectores SPi, SPi be constant. If, in addi-
tion, the time of arrival at a third post be known, then the interval
between this and the time of arrival at either Pi or P 3 will fix a second
hyperbola on which the source must lie, and so determine the posi-
tion of the source. In practice three posts are not sufficient, since
any uncertainty caused by the recording of a spurious sound at a
post would falsify the location. In general six posts are used, which,
taken consecutively in pairs, give five lines which should all inter-
sect. Any accidental selection of the record of a spurious sound at
one or more of the posts is then at once detected by the non-inter-
section of the curves. Records of the sound at five, or indeed four,
of the posts are generally sufficient for the experienced sound-ranger,
even when several guns are being recorded at short intervals, so that
the use of six posts allows for the sound not being successfully re-
corded at one or two of the posts.
Nature of Sounds from High- Velocity Guns. In the preceding
argument it has been assumed that the sound spreads out with
uniform velocity in all directions from the source. There is little
doubt that this is true, in a still atmosphere of uniform temperature,
of the sound of the discharge of the piece. With the modern high-
velocity gun, however, a second sound, originating in the motion
of the shell through the air, always accompanies the sound of dis-
charge. This second sound is due to a pulse of compression ^set up
by the shell, known as the " shell-wave," or " onde de choc." It is
perceived by an observer in front of the gun as a sharp crack, which
is followed after an interval depending on the type of gun, the
elevation of the gun, and other factors, by the duller, heavier sound
of the discharge, or gun-wave. To examine the formation of the
shell-wave by the passage of the projectile, consider the resultant
disturbance produced by the pulses of compression travelling out
with the velocity of sound from every point of the path of the shell.
For simplicity take in the first case a projectile travelling horizon-
tally with a uniform velocity greater than that of sound; let G be
the position of the gun, Si, Si, . . . SH> be the positions of the
projectile at the end of the 1st, 2nd, . . . loth second (fig. 5).
When the shell is at Sio the compression originating at G has travelled
out as a spherical shell with G as centre for 10 seconds, that originat-
ing at Si has travelled out as a spherical shell with Si as centre for o
seconds, and so on. The envelope of all these spheres is a cone with
its apex at Sio ; if the shell be travelling close to the surface of the
earth the trace of this cone on the surface is ASuC, which represents
the pulse of compression under discussion. If the velocity of the shell
be considered to decrease with time, as in any actual case, the
RANGE-FINDERS AND POSITION-FINDERS
247
interval of space between centres of successive generating spheres
will decrease as the shell travels, and the enveloping cone will be
modified (fig. 6). The form of the shell-wave will resemble roughly
a paraboloid of revolution, the vertex being at the shell as long as the
latter has a velocity exceeding that of sound, and consequently
travelling with a velocity greater than that of sound. After the
velocity of the shell has dropped below that of sound the shell-wave
travels out in all directions with the velocity of sound normal to the
surface.
FIG. 5.
The exact form of the shell-wave will depend upon the range table
of the gun and the interval since the shell left the gun, and cannot
be specified as being any familiar surface. The trace of the wave on
the plane of the earth's surface, with which the observer is in general
concerned, depends further upon the elevation at which the gun is
firing. Since the sphere representing the position of the gun-wave is
one of the generating spheres the shell-wave will touch this sphere.
In fig. 6 where G is the gun, ABC the trace of the gun-wave on the
horizontal plane, ASC the trace of the shell-wave, within the cone
represented by AGC both sounds will be heard, outside the cone
only the sound of discharge. The interval between the two sounds is
FIG. 6
clearly greatest on the line of fire, decreasing as the observer moves
to a flank. As the gun is elevated the interval detected by a listener
in a fixed position decreases, the trace of the shell-wave approaching
that of the gun-wave. This is illustrated in fig. 7. If the gun be
sufficiently elevated no shell-wave is heard by a listener at any
position on the ground, though it may be heard in an observation
balloon. Thus the double sound has been heard by an observer so
situated in the case of a g-2-in. howitzer, firing with full charge
(M.V. 1,500 f.s.), while observers on the ground heard only the
single sound.
Owing firstly to the selective sensitiveness of the human ear, and
secondly to the fact that the shell-wave is generated well above the
surface of the earth, and travels down to the ear without meeting
obstacles and without being hindered by refraction effects, the shell-
wave alone is usually heard when the hostile piece is distant, and is
spoken of as the sound of the piece by the casual listener. Any
attempt to take rough bearings on a gun by estimating the direction
from which the sound appears to be coming then leads to a very
erroneous result, since it is the normal to the shell-wave that is
selected. Unless the listener is on the line of fire such a bearing will
pass considerably in front of the piece. To calculate the position of a
gun from the intervals between the arrival of the shell-wave at
different posts requires a knowledge of the exact form of the wave in
question at various times of flight, and this presupposes a knowledge
of the range table of the gun, and the elevation at which tt is firing
(given by the approximate range). It is clear that to apply the sound-
ranging method to records made by the shell-wave is a matter involv-
ing information not always available, and considerable preliminary
work on the construction of curves representing shell-waves for
different hostile guns firing at various elevations when it is available.
FIG. 7.
In the case of howitzers the horizontal component of the muzzle
velocity is less than the velocity of sound in all ordinary cases, so
that only one sound, the gun-wave, is heard on the ground.
Instruments. The instruments comprise : (a) detectors, placed at
each of the six surveyed posts, which give an electrical response to
the arrival of the sound, and (b) a recording instrument, placed at a
central station and connected by a separate circuit to each detector,
which registers the exact time at which each detector responds.
When the method was first tried by the French the detector used
was a soldier, who pressed a key when he heard the sound of a
hostile piece, the key closing a circuit which actuated a pen on a
smoked paper chronograph at a central station. This method
FIG. 8. Hot- Wire Microphone.
*
involves inevitable errors due to the personal equation of the
observer, and is further invalidated by the fact that, in the case of
guns, the observer frequently hears only the shell-wave. The diffi-
culties of working from records of this kind have already been dis-
cussed. Later, carbon microphones with large wooden diaphragms
were introduced, small cells being included in circuit with the
microphone and a primary coil, all at the post; the circuit leading
back to the recording instrument included a secondary coil wound
on the primary. These microphones suffered from the fact that they
had a range of sensitiveness similar to that of the human ear; they
responded readily to chance sounds, such as the clatter of equip-
ment, or to shaking, and they registered the shell-wave in preference
to the gun-wave. They were superseded (first in the British army,
and ultimately in all the Allied armies) by the hot-wire microphone
invented by Maj. W. S. Tucker (British patent No. 13123 of 1916,
248
RANGE-FINDERS AND POSITION-FINDERS
and No. 8948 of 1918: sec also Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., A, vol. 221,
p. 389). This depends on the principle utilized in the hot-wire
anemometer, i.e. the change of electrical resistance consequent on the
change of temperature of a heated wire which ensues when the air
round it is set in motion. A very fine wire of platinum, whose
resistance at atmospheric temperature approaches 100 ohms, is
mounted in the form of a grid over a circular hole some 7 mm. in
diameter (fig. 8). It is provided with terminals. It is included in
one arm of a Wheatstone bridge, and sufficient current passed
through the network to heat the wire to a dull red. The bridge
is balanced so that when the air round the wire is undisturbed no
current passes through the galvanometer. Motion of the air causes
the resistance of the wire to decrease, upsets the balance, and so
causes a current to pass through the galvanometer.
The microphone wire is mounted in front of an air container of
some 16 litres capacity. Resonance effects in this container may be
partly eliminated by small openings made in the wall. The instru-
ment so completed is insensitive to all sounds of speech, musical
sounds, traffic, or even rifle fire. It responds readily, however, to gun
sounds (which arc low frequency disturbances), even when they are
inaudible, and records also the shell-wave. Its reaction is very
rapid, and the small lag which does occur appears to be the same for
all similarly constructed instruments.
An essential part of the recording instrument is a galvanometer
for each circuit which shall respond very rapidly to the current caused
by a sound reaching the microphone. For rapid response it is
necessary that the moving part of the galvanometer shall be very
light indeed the movinjj coil or moving magnet type is out of the
question. The condition is satisfied by the Eirithoven galvanometer,
in which the moving part is a very fine wire (through which flows
the current to be detected) mounted in a magnetic field. The wire
moves in a direction normal to its length and to the direction of the
field. Six wires, insulated from one another, and provided with
separate terminals, can be mounted side by side in the field pro-
duced by a single small electromagnet. This provides in a small
space what is essentially six independent galvanometers, one of
which is included in the bridge belonging to each microphone. As
the sound reaches successively different microphone posts the corre-
sponding galvanometer wires move in rapid response.
The instant at which each wire begins to move is registered on a
moving photographic film. The camera in which the film runs
vertically is furnished with a horizontal slit, a cylindrical lens in
front of the slit reducing its effective breadth. Shadows of the per-
pendicular galvanometer wires, cast by means of an electric lamp
and an optical svstem mounted in the pierced poles of the galvanom-
eter magnet, fall on the slit, and are focusscd on the film, appearing
there as six points of shadow on a horizontal line of light. A_s long as
the wires are still each point leaves on the running film a straight line;
the movement of a wire registers itself as a break in this trace.
If the film ran at a uniform speed measurement on the developed
film of the distance between the breaks would give the required time
intervals. As this is not the case the following device is adopted: a
wheel provided with ten flat spokes, one of which is somewhat wider
than the others, is mounted in the case containing the lamp, so that,
when it is rotated, the spokes successively interrupt the light which
illuminates the galvanometer wires. The wheel is actuated by a
synchronous motor controlled by a tuning fork, and rotates ten times
a second. As a result of this arrangement there appear on the film
lines perpendicular to the direction of the motion, the intervals
between which correspond to hundredths of a second, every tenth of
a second being marked by a wider line. This recording apparatus
was devised by Dr. Lucien Bull, of the Institut Marey, near Paris.
Originally the film was cut off after the required record had been
taken, and developed in a small dark room adjacent to the instru-
ment. Later a method of automatic development was devised, by
which the film passed successively through developer and fixer while
running, and emerged ready for interpretation.
Fig. 9 shows some typical records, (a) and (b) are records of two
differently situated 5'9-in. howitzers taken by six posts in each case.
The burst of the shell was also registered on these films, but as it
occurs several seconds later space docs not permit the inclusion of
the part of the record in question, (c) is a record of a field gun,
showing both shell-wave and gun-wave. Only five posts were used
for this record. The varying interval between the two sounds at the
different microphones is well shown: at the flank microphone,
corresponding to the lowest trace, only one sound is heard, (d) is a
record of the burst of a British shell on a German position.
Influence of Weather Conditions. The method in use demands that
to every time interval shall correspond an exact distance, a standard
velocity of sound being assumed, which corresponds to some standard
temperature, and still air. (The velocity of sound does not, of course,
vary with the pressure, and the effect of humidity is in general
negligible.) Hence the time interval read off from the film has to be
corrected for temperature and wind before it is used on the board
prepared for location. For the temperature variations which occur
in ordinary circumstances the increase of velocity of sound may be
taken as proportional to the increase in temperature, so that the
temperature correction is easily applied. Simple geometrical con-
siderations show that the correction for wind depends only on the
velocity and direction of the wind and the position of the microphone,
and not at all on the position of the gun. With given microphone
positions a diagram can be prepared which allows the rapid graphical
determination of the correction for a known wind.
It has been found by experiment that the temperature and wind
which are concerned in these corrections are not those prevailing at
ground level, but at a height of between 250 and 500 ft. up.
Owing to the refraction of sound by wind the record of a given
sound at ground level is greatly influenced by the variations of wind
velocity at different heights above the ground. This wind gradient
determines largely whether the conditions are favourable or un-
favourable for the detection of sounds. In the case of a wind increas-
ing in velocity with height, a following wind, besides increasing the
velocity of the sound, tilts the wave front so that the sound con-
verges on the listener or instrument on the ground, and is well
heard. An opposing wind causes the sound to tend to pass up-
wards and leave the ground. Hence a wind blowing from the instru-
ments towards the hostile piece often renders sound-ranging
almost impossible if it be of any strength. The temperature gradient
also plays a part in the refraction of sound.
(C) -
(d)
FIG. 9. Typical records of Bull apparatus.
Location from Record. -Having seen how the intervals between the
arrival of thr sound at different posts can be accurately obtained and
corrected to standard conditions it remains to discuss how these
intervals can be made to supply the position of the gun with as little
delay as possible. A map board is prepared with an accurate " grid "
(coordinate system of squares) covering the region in which loca-
tions are expected. On tnis the microphone positions are accurately
marked. The posts are usually taken consecutively in pairs; with
each pair as foci a family of hyperbolae may be drawn giving the loci
corresponding to various time intervals (at standard velocity of
sound). In practice, however, to avoid the labour of preparing the
hyperbolae it is usually preferred to use the asymptotes instead of the
curves themselves: for these it is only necessary to have a thread
attached to each mid-point between pairs of consecutive posts, and a
scale plotted round the edge of the board for each base, graduated in
time intervals, so that when the thread is placed to pass through a
given graduation it is the asymptote to the hyperbola corresponding
to the interval. To allow for the divergence of the asymptote from
the hyperbola, which becomes serious as the base is approached,
tables are prepared giving the corrections (always additive), in
terms of the length of the base and the distance from the mid-point
of the base, to be applied to the time intervals obtained from the
record. The asymptote corrections having been applied to the
various intervals, already corrected for temperature and wind, the
asymptote corresponding is laid out for each base. The various
lines should all intersect at a point : in general they do not, but form
a small polygon from which the position of the gun can be estimated.
Estimation of Calibre. The position of the hostile burst may be
obtained from the record of its sound in the same way as the position
of the piece, and the interval between the departure and burst of the
shell, i.e. the time of flight, can be computed from the record on one
microphone. Thus the record gives the time of flight corresponding
to a given range, which affords an indication of the calibre of the
piece. In the case of guns, as distinct from howitzers, a further indi-
RANGER RASPUTIN
249
cation can be obtained from the interval between shell-wave and gun-
wave at the different posts.
Work in the Field. It is not feasible to have the film running con-
tinuously during any period when records are expected. It should
be started a second or two before the sound reaches the first micro-
phone. In. the field this is effected by having two forward observers
in front of the line of microphones, so placed, one to each flank,
that either the one or the other of them must hear the sound of the
hostile piece a few seconds before it reaches any of the microphones.
These observers are provided with keys, the depression of which
starts the film running. They also report by telephone informations
judged useful as to the estimated calibre, the approximate location
of the burst, if seen, and so on.
The line of microphones in general covers a front of some 8,000 yd.
and is some 2,000 yd. or more from the front line. It is usually pre-
ferred to place the instruments at approximately equal intervals on
a smooth curve, which may be a straight line, or the arc of a circle
either convex or concave towards the enemy, according as guns well
to a flank have to be located, or attention is concentrated on a more
central group of guns. Such arrangements lead to greater ease of
identification of a record than is possible if the microphones are very
irregularly placed.
The microphones may be placed anywhere where the hearing is
good : the only obstacles which seem to cast sufficient sound shadow
to affect them are high hills just in front of them. They may be put
in shallow depressions dug for them, and should be protected from
splinters, and also from wind and draughts. Canvas and hurdles
may be used for this latter purpose without appreciably affecting
the sensitiveness of the instruments.
Ranging on Hostile Pieces. A heavy burst near a hostile gun
position will furnish a sound record of its position just as does the
gun itself. Fire may be directed on a piece which is in action by
comparing the records which it supplies with those of the bursts of
one's own answering shell. Since both gun and burst are located by
the same method all uncertainties introduced in an ordinary location
by ignorance of the precise atmospheric conditions are eliminated.
A differential method is adopted, the difference of times of arrival
of the sound of the hostile gun and of the friendly burst at each micro-
phone being plotted as ordinates against a certain simple function of
the relative positions of the microphones and the hostile gun as
abscissae. A horizontal line then corresponds to a direct hit; a
straight line sloping to left or to right to an error of line to one side or
the other; a curve (approximately an elliptical arc) convex or con-
cave downwards to an error of range. The magnitude of the cor-
rections necessary is easily estimated from curves previously pre-
pared. (E. N. DA C. A.)
RANGER, HENRY WARD (1858-1916), American painter
(see 22.891), died in New York City Nov. 7 1916.
RASPUTIN, GREGORY EFIMOVITCH (1871-1916), Russian
monk and court favourite, was born in 1871 in the village of
Pokrovskoe, near Tyumen, in the province of Tobolsk, Siberia.
He was the son of a poor peasant whose disorderly behaviour
resulted in his being given the name of Rasputin, meaning
" debauchee." He received no education, and till the end of his
life was unable to write properly. He spent the first part of his
life till the age of 33 in his native village; he married in 1895 a
well-to-do girl, Olga Chanigoff, and they had two daughters and
a son. In 1904 Rasputin resolved to change his mode of living.
He left his family and devoted himself to religious exercises,
declaring to his people that he was inspired by God. His
passionate nature, his great physical strength, and the supersti-
tious atmosphere in which he had been brought up, gave an un-
expected direction to his religious exaltation. He adopted the
views of the sect known under the name of " Khlysty," the
leading idea of whose teaching was that salvation could be
achieved only by repentance.
" Sin in order that you may obtain forgiveness " was the
practical rule which he drew from this doctrine. " A particle
of the Supreme Being is incarnated in me " he told his hearers.
" Only through me you can hope to be saved; and the manner of
your salvation is this: you must be united with me in soul and I
body. The virtue that goes out from me is the source of light, the >
destruction of sin " (E. J. Dillon, The Eclipse of Russia). This
extravagant and dangerous teaching, which resulted in practice
in the most wild orgies, not only created for Rasputin immense
popularity and the reputation of a holy man among his fellow-
peasants, but opened before him the doors of some of the most
fashionable Russian houses and even those of the Imperial
Palace. Looking for new experiences Rasputin left his native
village, and made long pilgrimages to various holy places, and
even went to Mount Athos and Jerusalem. He spent some time in
different monasteries and applied himself to the study of holy
books, but his lack of elementary education reduced the results
of his labours almost to nothing. He only retained by heart
some incomprehensible passages, and often used them in his
prophecies. He had, however, a strong magnetic power, the
influence of which was recognized by his bitterest opponents.
In 1907, during a stay in St. Petersburg, Rasputin was
introduced to the Archimandrite Feofan, rector of the Theologi-
cal Academy and confessor to the Empress, who took an interest
in the story of his conversion. The Archimandrite, with the
assistance of the_ Grand Duchesses Militza and Anastasia, pre-
sented Rasputin at court, and he produced a deep impression on
the Empress and Emperor. The mystic atmosphere which always
prevailed at the Russian court, and which was especially
strengthened by the disasters of the Japanese War, the internal
troubles in 1905, and the constant fear for the health of the
Tsarevich, created a convenient background for the appearance
of such a man. His disdain for all rules of good behaviour, his
dark prophecies, and, above all, the eventual improvement in
the health of the Grand Duke Alexis, which more than once
seemed to result from his influence when medicine was ineffectual,
created an exceptional position for him with the Empress.
Disgusted with the Russian intellectual classes and the bureau-
cracy, she saw in Rasputin the representative of the mass of
peasantry, the only sure support of orthodoxy and autocracy,
specially sent by God to save the heir to the throne and preserve
the dynasty. Rasputin took advantage of this belief, and did
his best to persuade the Empress that his fate was closely tied
with that of the imperial family. The example of the court
was followed by a large section of the upper class, and many
doors were opened for the " Saviour," as the Empress used to
call him. For some time Rasputin was satisfied by this side of
his social success, and at first he did not interfere in politics.
But his activity was felt in church questions. His friendship
with the famous monk, Heliodor, and the Bishop of Saratov,
Hermogen, which resulted in a complete rupture between them
and in a series of scandals, had a painful echo in the country.
The appointment of Varnava, an illiterate peasant and a
friend of Rasputin, to be Bishop of Tobolsk in 1911, and the
extraordinary servility with which the Holy Synod followed
the wishes of the favourite, provoked a strong opposition among
all classes of society. The most prominent upholders of ortho-
doxy demanded a complete reorganization of the Russian church,
and denounced the servile attitude of the Holy Synod. Guchkov,
the Octobrist leader, in a famous speech delivered at the State
Duma, made direct allusions to the nefarious influence exer-
cised by Rasputin. But the influence of the " Saviour " was too
strong to be checked by any expression of feeling in the country,
and Rasputin triumphed over all his enemies.
An unsuccessful attempt to kill him, made by a certain Guseva
in .1914, incited by the monk Heliodor, only strengthened his
influence, which became especially powerful during the two
last years of the imperial regime. No important nomination
was made without his approval, and the most unexpected people
rose to the highest offices as result of his interference. Rasputin
was too ignorant to have any opinion on political questions: he
was in most cases an instrument of the reactionaries. Numberless
stories of the debauchery practised at the court, in which the
name of Rasputin was coupled not only with some of the court
ladies but even with that of the Empress herself, became a com-
mon topic of conversation in all classes of Russian society. At
length a supreme effort to free the Empire and the dynasty from
his influence was made by a small group of men of the high-
est social position, which included the Grand Duke Dimitri
Pavlovich, Prince Yussupoff and M. Purichkevich. Rasputin
was invited to a supper at the Yussupoff Palace on Dec. 15 1916,
and shot dead, after an attempt at poisoning him with a strong
dose of cyanide potassium mixed with wine had not produced
the desired effect. His body was thrown under the ice of a
canal. The death of Rasputin was a terrible shock to the
Empress; she transferred his body to the park of Tsarskoye Selo,
where a special chapel was erected, and came every night to
250
RATHENAU RATIONING
pray on his grave. The Grand Duke Dimitri Pavlovich was
sent to Persia to join a fighting column. Yussupoff was ordered
to leave Petrograd, and interned in his estate. Purichkevich,
protected by his immense popularity in the army and by his
title of member of the Duma, returned to his work on the front.
(P. Vi.)
RATHENAU, WALTER (1867- ), German industrialist and
political economist, president of the Allgemcine Elektricitats-
Gesellschaft, was born Sept. 29 1867 in Berlin. He came into
prominence in Aug. 1914 as the founder and director of organiza-
tions for providing raw materials, during the World War, for
Prussia and the German Empire. On the formation of the
Wirth ministry in May 1921 he was appointed Minister of
Reconstruction, and in that capacity negotiated with the French
minister, Louchcur, a convention for supplying German mate-
rials for the restoration of the devastated area in France, and thus
paying in kind part of the reparation which the German Reich
had undertaken to pay in gold. Rathenau published various
books, pamphlets and articles, on social and economic questions,
some of which attracted world-wide attention, especially his
Von kommenden Dingen (1920). In Jan. 1922 he became
Foreign Minister in the Wirth Ministry.
RATHMORE, DAVID ROBERT PLUNKET, IST BARON (1838-
1919), Irish lawyer and politician, was born Dec. 3 1838, the
third son of John, 3rd Baron Plunket (1793-1871). He was
educated at Trinity College, Dublin, taking his degree in 1859,
and was called to the Irish bar in 1862. He was made Q.C. in
1868, and the same year became legal adviser to the Irish
government. In 1870 he stood successfully as Conservative
member for Dublin University, holding the seat for twenty-five
years. From 1874 to 1877 Plunket was solicitor-general for
Ireland, and in 1880 was for a short time paymaster-general.
In 1885 he was first commissioner of works in Lord Salisbury's
ministry, and resumed this post in 1886, when the Conservative
party returned to power, holding it till 1892. In 1895 he was
raised to the peerage. He died at Greenore Aug. 22 1919.
RATIONING. In the articles FOOD SUPPLY and SAVINGS
MOVEMENT the general question of food control during the
World War is dealt with. During 1914-8 most of the European
states, belligerent and neutral, were driven, by shortage of
supplies, to ration the consumption of the more important foods,
and in some cases of other articles, by the civilian population.
" Rationing," of course, is a term of military origin; it denotes
the supplying to each member of a fighting force or a beleaguered
population of a definite " ration," based upon calculation of
his needs, of the supplies available, and of the period for which
they must serve. The process of rationing, therefore, has two
sides negative and positive: the negative side of preventing
any individual from obtaining, by purchase or otherwise, more
than the authorized quantity of the rationed article, and the
positive side of making it possible for each individual in fact
to obtain that quantity. It is thus a problem both of restriction
and of distribution, and the success of any rationing system may
be judged even more by the degree to which the positive side
is carried out, than by the completeness with which the prohibi-
tion upon excessive consumption is enforced.
In this respect the British system of food rationing had for
the reasons mentioned below a relatively high measure of success
and is therefore described here in some detail. The modified
system adopted in the United States is dealt with in a final sec-
tion. Besides food and feeding stuffs for animals, fuel and light
were rationed in the United Kingdom, and both these and many
other things, such as clothing, tobacco, matches and housing
accommodation, were rationed in various enemy and neutral
countries in Europe.
BRITISH FOOD RATIONING
Historical Sketch. The earliest steps to the introduction of
compulsory rationing in Great Britain were taken in relation
to sugar. Since the first month of the war sugar had been
subject to Government control, under a Royal Commission on
the Sugar Supplies, constituted in Aug. 1914. By the end of
1916 the quantity of sugar that could be obtained for the United
Kingdom as a whole began to fall far short of the public demand,
and in the first part of 1917 this reduced quantity was being
distributed on the basis of giving so far as possible to each trader,
whether wholesale or retail, 50% of the quantity which he had
received in 1915, it then being left to the retailer to divide his
supplies as best he could among his customers, subject to a
limit of price. This simple system was necessarily very imperfect
in action, and grew steadily less satisfactory owing to changes
in the distribution of the population. With the development of
the munitions campaign new towns sprang up as at Gretna or
Birtley; old towns like Coventry or Sheffield or Woolwich
doubled or trebled their population or acquired new suburbs;
from many country districts and provincial or university towns
in the south of England the population ebbed away. Distribution
of sugar or any other article of food on the 1915 basis became
manifestly inequitable.
During the first half of 1917, while the acute difficulties of the
new munition areas were being relieved by temporary palliatives,
such as the dispatch of additional supplies after enquiry by
inspectors in each case, schemes for recasting the whole system of
distribution on the basis of a complete fresh registration of the
population were worked out and several alternative schemes were
submitted to the War Cabinet in June 1917. The Cabinet
adopted one of the alternatives, under wh'ch each household was
to be invited to register for sugar with a particular retailer, to
whom supplies of sugar would be sent in accordance with the
numbers and size of the households registered with him, at a
specified ration per head, but under which there would be
nothing to prevent a retailer from using any surplus sugar in his
hands to supply others, or to prevent persons from getting sugar,
if they could, in excess of the ration, or from any retailer other
than the one with whom their household was registered.
The scheme, while applied in the first instance only to sugar,
involved the setting up of extensive administrative machinery,
which could thereafter be used both for rationing other foods and
for any other local work of the Ministry. This machinery
consisted in essence of some 1,800 Food Control Committees
appointed by the local authorities, but with their expenditure
met from national funds, together with Divisional Food Commis-
sioners appointed directly by the Ministry of Food for the 15
main divisions into which the country was divided, and having
the special function of supervising, assisting, and coordinating
the work of the committees. Immediately after the presentation
of these proposals to the Cabinet (June 1917) the first food
controller, Lord Devonport, resigned his office, and the proposals
were approved by the Cabinet, subject to their receiving the
subsequent assent of his successor, Lord Rhondda. The latter
did in fact assent, and proceeded at once with the schemes both
for redistribution of sugar and for divisional and local organiza-
tion. The i, 800 local sanitary authorities in Great Britain were
invited by circular (issued Aug. 2 1917) to appoint Food Control
Committees, and did so during Aug. and the first part of
September. Each committee set up a local " Food Office," usually
in one of the municipal buildings, appointed an " Executive
Officer," and during Sept. and Oct. issued to each household in
the district a sugar card showing the number of persons in the
household, and having a counterfoil to be detached and deposited
with the retailer from whom the householder proposed to get
his sugar. There was thus carried out a complete registration of
the population by households in each district. The intention was
to bring the distribution of sugar to each district on to the new
(population) basis, as opposed to the old (1915 trade) basis as
from Jan. i 1918.
The sugar scheme, however, was never brought into force in
the form approved by the Cabinet. In that form it was a
distribution not a rationing scheme, was based on households
not individuals, and deliberately made no formal provision for
transfer of individuals from one household to another, or for
persons too migratory to form part of any household. An
alternative scheme for rationing by means of individual cards,
entitling the holder to a fixed quantity and no more, had been
RATIONING
251
submitted to the Cabinet in June 1917 but was rejected, because
at that time the Cabinet was not prepared for rationing as such.
It seemed doubtful whether the public would submit to compul-
sory restriction of their food consumption; there was further
an objection to giving the enemy the encouragement of seeing
Britain apparently driven to extremities by the success of the
submarine campaign.
By the end of Sept. it became clear that the public were
prepared and anxious for definite rationing, that is to say for a
system under which nobody could get more than a certain
quantity and everybody could be certain of getting that. In
Oct. and the following months accordingly the scheme was
entirely revised and provision made for the household sugar
cards to be exchanged for individual cards, and for any person
who belonged to no household to obtain a document which
should be the sole title to sugar supplies.
Another and more drastic change was also contemplated,
namely, the substitution of a single centralized register of sugar
consumers, that is to say of the whole population, for the 1,800
separate local registers which had resulted from the registration
of households under the original scheme. The first steps to the
formation of this central register in the Imperial Institute
buildings at South Kensington were taken in Nov. 1917, and
a good deal of preliminary work was done. The change over from
local to central registration, however, was only to be made
gradually, and was in fact never completed. After the success
of the schemes described below for rationing fats and meat
on the basis of local registration (Feb.- April 1918), the idea
of making a central register of the population was abandoned.
The public, though at times mildly puzzled by the changes of
the cards with which they had to deal, remained for the most
part unconscious of the successive revolutionary changes in the
ideas which dominated the administration of rationing.
The scheme, which had been started as one for the distribution
of sugar to households in July 1917, came into force as a scheme
of rationing by individuals on Jan. i 1918 without a hitch. The
reserve stocks at the disposal of the Sugar Commission were at
that time considerable, and, since sugar is not highly perishable,
the Commision had been able to distribute those stocks widely
and to provide each retailer with an ample margin to meet
contingencies. With insignificant exceptions, every person in
every part of the country was able from the outset to get week
by week the ration of half a pound of sugar to which his ration
document entitled him.
Meanwhile, in the last quarter of 1917, the public became
aware of serious shortages of other commodities, in particular
tea, margarine, bacon and cheese. These shortages led to the
appearance of queues at the shops and threatened to arouse
grave industrial unrest. The centralized rationing scheme which
was then the accepted policy in London could not come into
force for many months. On the other hand the Food Control
committees were established and at work; it was natural for
Lord Rhondda to ask the committees to deal with the difficulty
of the queues in the interim as best they could. One or two of
the committees, among whom the Birmingham committee was
conspicuous, started their own schemes for registering consumers
with retailers and controlling the distribution of supplies to
the retailers by the exercise of powers of requisition granted by
the Ministry. General provision for such schemes was made by
an Order of the Food Controller of Dec. 22 1917, which was
called a Food Control Committees (Local Distribution) Order,
but was in fact an order authorizing committees to introduce
complete local rationing of any or every article, subject to
approval of the scheme by the Ministry of Food. An important
memorandum issued to the committees on Dec. 29 1917 outlined
model schemes and gave advice and suggestions. The formula-
tion of local schemes in congested industrial areas at once showed
the impracticability of purely local action. It was clearly
impossible for several Food Control committees in neighbouring
districts forming part of a single industrial town to have
different rationing systems, or for some to ration while the
others did not. It was equally impossible for local committees
to control the distribution of foods, such as frozen meat or
margarine, which are stored or manufactured at a few main
centres for distribution throughout the country. These dif-
ficulties came to the fore at once in London and its suburbs.
At a general meeting of executive officers of the London
committees held on Jan. 4 1918, it was resolved to have a
single rationing scheme for the whole Metropolitan area and
to ask the Ministry of Food to prepare such a scheme for
approval by the committees as a whole. It became clear almost
immediately that no convenient break could be made between
London and the districts immediately surrounding it, and the
home counties were included. The scheme was originally
asked for to deal with fats (margarine and butter) alone, but
the meat shortage became acute at a moment's notice in Jan.,
and estimates of the quantities available in the first quarter of
1918 made it imperative to include meat as well.
A scheme covering both fats and meat was worked out
accordingly by the Ministry, approved at another meeting of
executive officers, embodied in a " London and Home Counties
(Rationing Scheme) Order," and brought into force on Feb. 25
1918 for an area containing something like 10,000,000 people.
It involved the issue of two ration cards to each individual, one
with detachable coupons for meat, and one for butter and mar-
garine, without coupons, but with numbered spaces in which the
retailer marked off the customer's purchases as they were made;
each card had a counterfoil to be deposited with a retailer,
and the supplies were distributed to retailers on the basis
of the counterfoils deposited with them. The scheme had an
almost melodramatic success. The London queues, which, ac-
cording to the observations made by the Metropolitan Police,
had included, in each of the weeks just before rationing, over
1,300,000 people, fell to 191,000 in the first week and to 15,000
in the fourth. Before rationing about 550,000 persons stood
in food queues every Saturday in London; on the first Sat-
urday after rationing the number was 110,000, on the next
24,000, and on the fourth Saturday under 7,000. In effect
the queues for meat and fats disappeared altogether; there re-
mained only queues for cheese, jam and other unrationed
articles. The success of rationing was one of organization; the
total amount of meat and fats available for consumption and
actually consumed in London was not greater after rationing
than before. It was simply better distributed and made
obtainable without the labour of standing in a queue.
Meanwhile local schemes under the Order of Dec. 22 1917 had
made considerable headway in the diminution or abolition of
queues for butter and margarine outside London and the home
counties. The local rationing of meat, however, presented
insoluble difficulties, and even before the introduction and
success of the London scheme the decision had been taken to
introduce a national scheme for meat rationing as soon as
possible. This was done on April 7.
The extension of meat rationing to the whole country was
as successful as its introduction in London. The queues dis-
appeared and everyone everywhere got his ration. This result
decided incidentally the fate of the sugar scheme. The attempt
to form in London a central ration register of the population
was abandoned; the staff, till they could be dispersed, were
used on other work in the checking of coupons, and arrangements
were made to include sugar in the uniform scheme of national
rationing through local committees which was introduced on
July 14 1918, when each member of the public received a single
book with different coloured leaves of uniform coupons for meat
and bacon, fats, sugar, and lard. These, with jam included for
the first time in Nov. 1918, were the only articles of food which
were rationed nationally, i.e. throughout Great Britain. In
addition tea was rationed in most of the great industrial centres
under local schemes, and came within an ace of being included
under the national scheme of July 1918. Cheese was rationed
by a number of committees, but the varying consumption in
different parts of the country and by different classes of consumers
made any uniform system difficult; it continued to the end
to be distributed on a " trade basis," that is to say by giving
252
RATIONING
to each trader a fixed percentage of his supplies in a datum year.
Tea, on the other hand, though never rationed nationally,
came to be distributed on a registration basis, i.e. in accordance
with the actual population in 1918. In addition to articles for
human consumption, feeding stuffs for animals were also
controlled by the Ministry of Food, and in the latter part of 1918
were brought under a formal rationing system; this system hardly
had time to come into full operation when the war ended.
The first national ration book had a currency of 16 weeks,
and was succeeded by a fresh issue with no material change
except an extension of currency to six months on Nov. '4 1918.
After May 3 1919 coupons were abolished, but a limited system
of rationing without coupons, by means first of the old ration
books and later of identification cards, was continued for many
months. Bacon and ham were freed from rationing in July 1918,
lard in the following Dec., margarine in Feb. 1919, jam in April
1919, and meat in Dec. 1919. With the freeing of butter in May
1920 and sugar in Nov. 1920 rationing came to an end.
The foregoing sketch applies only to Great Britain. No
rationing of meat or fats was attempted in Ireland, but a sugar
distribution scheme, on the lines of the first British scheme, was
put into force in Ireland by the Irish Food Control committee
under powers conferred by the Food Controller.
National Rationing Scheme. The Rationing Scheme, as
finally established in July 1918, was a uniform national system
administered by autonomous local committees, and having as its
main features the use of individual ration books, the tic of each
customer to a particular retailer, and the systematic supply to
each retailer of the quantities required to meet the needs of
his registered customers. A single application form had to be
filled in by each household and forwarded to the Food Office,
which thereupon issued a separate ration book for each member
of the household. The ration book was a book containing
different coloured leaves for various foods. Each leaf consisted
of (a) a counterfoil to be signed, detached and given to the
retailer with whom the holder of the book wished to register,
and (b) coupons for each week's supply to be detached by the
retailer when actual purchases were made. On registration of
the customer the retailer besides detaching the counterfoil
was required to enter his name and address on the appropriate
part of the ration book. In addition to the leaves for foods
rationed, such as sugar or meat, there were spare leaves which
could be used for rationing other foods at short notice, and one
of these was in fact adapted to deal with bread should the
occasion ever arise. The book contained also a reference leaf,
which served as an application form for subsequent issues.
There were special books for children under six years of age
(who got half rations of meat), books authorizing supplementary
rations of bacon for manual workers and growing boys, and
special books or leaves of coupons for invalids, travellers,
vegetarians, Jews, soldiers and sailors on leave, and other
particular classes.
The tie of each customer to a particular retailer was the
essence of the scheme, the main safeguard against fraud, and
the basis of distribution. Behind rationing as the public saw
it a paper affair of application forms, counterfoils and cou-
pons was a not less extensive and intricate machinery for
distribution of the appropriate supplies through all the complex
channels of trade week by week to every retailer in the country.
The precise form of this machinery was naturally different for dif-
ferent articles of food; the common feature in all cases was that
the retailer had to make an indent on a wholesaler in accordance
with the number of persons registered with him, and each
wholesaler in turn made application to a primary supplier
(manufacturer, importer or other) based upon and accompanied
by copies of the retailer's indents. The supplies flowed down-
wards through the various channels of trade in accordance with
the applications and indents. The retailer's indents had in
some cases to be approved in advance by the Food Control
committees; in all cases their correctness was liable to be checked
by examination of their registers of customers and of the counter-
foils detached from the ration books.
In the case of meat, where the civilian supplies were mainly
homegrown, there was needed in addition an elaborate organiza-
tion, under Livestock Commissioners appointed by the Ministry
of Food, for controlling the bringing of beasts to market, and
their slaughtering and distribution, and for supplementing home
supplies from the reserves of imported meat. In the case not only
of meat, but of butter and margarine, there was a further
difficulty that the food was highly perishable and the retailers
could not carry reserve stocks.
The importance of the tic to the retailer became apparent
when it came to be realized that it would be perfectly possible
to have a rationing scheme without coupons at all, if every
individual consumer had to register at a particular shop and the
supplies to that shop were adjusted strictly to the registration.
The value of the detachable coupon was, first, in enabling the
retailer to know whether he had already given a particular
customer his supply for that week, and second, in affording a
check upon the retailer, who could be required to make returns
of supplies received, sold or retained, and to account for the
supplies sold by producing an equivalent number of coupons.
The staff collected for central rationing was used from April
1918 onwards to check the retailers' accounts by counting the
coupons they had collected.
Apart from the points mentioned the technical details of most
importance in the rationing scheme were the following:
(1) The fixing of the ration for uncooked butcher's meat by
value rather than by weight. Under the London scheme and the
general meat scheme of April 1918 each card had for each week
three coupons entitling the holder to buy sd. worth per coupon,
i.e. is. 3d. worth altogether of uncooked butcher's meat. As
the price per Ib. for each cut of meat was regulated by an
elaborate schedule having regard to quality, to proportion of
bone and to other matters, the fixing of the ration by value
afforded an automatic means of adjusting the ration according
to the cut selected. This device proved quite satisfactory and
was continued in all subsequent schemes.
(2) The classification of " establishments," ranging from
prisons and asylums to schools, hotels, living-in establishments,
tea-shops and seaside boarding houses. With the single exception
of the problem of the " self-supplier " this is technically the
most difficult part of rationing, and the relatively efficient
treatment of establishments in the British system was a consider-
able element in its general success. It is probably true to say
that Britain was the only European country which made
serious inroads on the comfort of living in first-class hotels or
lunching at first-class clubs during the war.
(3) The provision for transfers of registration from one
retailer to another, or from one district to another. This part
of the scheme was framed with considerable care; the wide-
spread organization of the Food Control committees bringing
a food office within easy reach of every considerable number of
inhabitants, and the reasonable latitude allowed to their officers
in dealing with local and personal emergencies, prevented
registration formalities from becoming intolerable.
The problems of " self-supply " and " direct supply," i.e.
of persons producing food for themselves or obtaining food
direct from the producer and not through a trader, arose in Great
Britain only to a limited extent, and cannot be said to have been
fully solved. Restrictions were imposed but were not pressed
to the utmost.
The articles rationed and the amounts allowed at various
dates are set out in the appended table.
Comparison with Other Countries. The problem of rationing
was simpler in Britain than in most European countries, and
far simpler than in Germany and Austria, for the following
main reasons: first, the deficiency of supplies below normal was
less; second, the bulk of the British supplies were imported,
not home-grown; third, the supplies of cereals could be and
were kept at a point high enough to allow rationing of bread
stuffs to be avoided altogether.
The difference in supplies is clearly illustrated by a table
given in the article FOOD SUPPLY and published by the Ministry
RATIONING
253
of Food at the end of 1918, comparing the estimated consumption
per head of certain essential foods in the United Kingdom,
Germany and Holland before and during the war. Another
striking contrast emerges in the report of a committee appointed
at the Ministry of Food at the end of 1917 to prepare a com-
prehensive scale of rations covering meat, cereals, fats and
Rationing in Great Britain 191720.
Article.
Period of Rationing
(whether local or
national).
Amount of Weekly
Ration per Head.
Sugar .
Nationally from
8 oz. Dec. 31 1917 to
Dec. 31 1917 to
Jan. 27 1919; there-
Nov. 29 1920
after sometimes 12
oz. and sometimes 8
oz. with a drop to 6
oz. for a few weeks
in Sept.-Oct. 1919,
and again Jan.-
March 1920.
Butter and Mar-
Locally from Dec. 14
5 or 6 oz. for both fats
garine
1917 to July 1918
under national
(38,000,000) ; there-
scheme. The Lon-
after nationally to
don scheme started
Feb. 16 1919 for
with a ration of 4
both fats, and to
oz. The separate
May 30 1920 for
butter ration after
butter alone.
Feb. 1919 varied
from I to 2 oz.
Lard
Locally from Jan.
2 oz. nationally and in
1918 (1,500,000);
most local schemes.
nationally from
July 14 1918 to
Dec. 16 1918.
Meat (Uncooked
London and home
Under the London
Butcher's Meat)
counties from Feb.
Scheme 3 coupons
25 1918 (10,000,-
entitling to 4d.
ooo) with a few
worth each, or is.
other local schemes ;
altogether (about I
nationally from
Ib. with average
April 7 1918 to Dec.
bone), subsequently
15 I9I9-
changed to is. 3d.
Under the national
scheme varying val-
ues as follows: is.
3d., is., is. 4d., is.
8d., is. 4d., is. 8d.,
2S.
Bacon and Ham.
London and home
Under the London
counties from Feb.
scheme 4 oz. with
25 1918 (10,000,-
bone per coupon.
ooo) with a few
Under the national
other local schemes;
scheme 5 oz. and 8
nationally from
oz.
April 7 1918 to July
29 1918.
Other Meats
All meat (including
Varying rations.
preserved meat,
poultry, game, offal,
venison and horse-
meat) was included
in original London
scheme, but control
was gradually re-
laxed.
Jam
Locally from early
4 oz. under national
part of 1918 (500,-
scheme.
ooo) ; Nationally
from Nov. 4 1918
to April 15 1919.
Cheese .
Locally from early
1 5 OZ. tO 2 OZ.
part of 1918 (2,-
000,000).
Tea ...
Locally from Dec.
I J OZ. tO 2 OZ.
1917 (17,500,000).
Notes. The numbers in parentheses give the maximum numbers
covered by local schemes of rationing. The number covered by
national rationing, i.e. the civilian population of Great Britain, in
1918 was 39,000,000.
In the London scheme and the first national meat scheme (April 7
1918) four coupons were provided to cover all meat of every kind.
Three of these coupons only might be used for uncooked butcher's
meat ; any of them could be used for bacon, poultry, preserved meat,
etc. The normal ration at the outset was thus is. worth ( = f Ib.
with average bone) of uncooked butcher's meat, together with 4 oz.
of bacon with average bone, or in place of the bacon, varying quanti-
ties of offal, poultry, game, etc. Later the rations were raised.
sugar. The committee based their scale on estimates of the
minimum numbers of calories per day required by various
classes of persons, according to age and occupation, and of the
proportion that, having regard to other foods available, should
be provided by these essential foods. Comparing their scale
with the actual rations in force during 1917 in Hamburg (taken
as typical of German industrial conditions), the committee
found that the latter scale represented in respect of these
essential foods and potatoes not more than J of the minimum
requirements, while the shortage of less essential foods was
probably even greater. The German ration of fat was reduced
still further as from Jan. i 1918, making the Hamburg rations
per week for ordinary adults as follows: Bread 4! Ibs.; Meat
9 oz.; Fats 25 oz.; Sugar | Ib.; Potatoes i\ Ibs. Men engaged in
physical labour received a supplementary ration of if Ibs. of
bread (per week), and those engaged in exceptionally hard
physical labour received altogether 7! Ibs. of bread, j Ib. of
meat, 45 oz. of fats, \ Ib. of sugar and 9! Ibs. of potatoes.
These men would be few in number.
The weekly rations in Vienna by the end of 1918 were even
lower: Bread 2j Ibs. (with an additional 2 Ibs. for heavy
workers); Meat 4^ oz.; Fat ij oz.; Sugar nil, and Potatoes
it Ibs.
The Austrian figures represent a breakdown of supplies and
society. The German rations are those on which the civilian
population of Germany sustained the war and made munitions
during 1917 and 1918. They show a power in the human body
to endure over months and years, at whatever cost in permanent
loss of health and vigour, a scale of nutrition far below the
minimum prescribed by scientific authority. They indicate at
the same time the intensity of the strain to which the rationing
regulations of the enemy countries Were subjected.
The advantage to the British food controller in obtaining so
large a part of his supplies from overseas was equally decisive.
Imports were all brought automatically and completely under
public control; nothing remained save distribution and the
fixing of prices. The German and Austrian food controllers
had to rely almost exclusively on home-grown supplies; they were
faced by and failed to solve the problem of obtaining from the
home producers a fair proportion of their produce for distribution
under the rationing system. To a small extent this fact must
be taken as a correction of the previous statement of rations as
showing the actual consumption; an appreciable part of the
total supplies escaping public control altogether was sold as
contraband (Schleichhandel) to the urban consumers. The
actual consumption in each family was the ration plus a varying
proportion of contraband. The contraband trade, however, in
Germany at least cannot have benefited more than a small
proportion of the industrial population and was mainly an
advantage to the well-to-do and to the hotels. It had a disastrous
reaction on the general respect paid to the rationing regulations,
and deprived them of that support of public opinion which was
so marked in Great Britain.
The third great advantage of the British food .controllers was
that, by securing adequate tonnage for cereals, they were able
to avoid the rationing of bread stuffs, and the elaborate and
contentious system of graduated rations for different classes of
workers which would otherwise have been inevitable. So long as
rationing is confined to articles other than bread, a flat scale of
rations for all adults, whether engaged in sedentary or in severe
physical work, is possible; the larger amount of calories which
the latter classes must have, in order to perform their work,
can be obtained by increasing their consumption of bread.
If bread as well as meat, fats and sugar are rationed this
individual adjustment of consumption, according to the physical
energy required, becomes impossible. The rationing system
itself must provide differentiated rations for men doing varying
kinds of physical labour or doing little or no physical work at all.
All the continental countries which rationed bread-stuffs had
accordingly to introduce " supplementary " rations for heavy
workers of different grades; the classification of the population
for this purpose was one of the most difficult and contentious
254
RAVEL RAVENSTEIN
parts of the whole system ; it appears to cut at the root of the
principle of equality upon which rationing is based. In Great
Britain a scheme of supplementary rations of bacon, for growing
boys and for men engaged in physical labour, was introduced in
April 1918, not so much for its own sake as in order to get the
recipients classified, and so to prepare the ground, in case bread
rationing became necessary, as at that time appeared possible.
Fortunately the danger to the British bread supplies passed
over; the supplementary rations of bacon, though they received
the general support of the Food Control committees and were
clearly right in principle, were strongly criticized by labour
representatives, and were abolished when bacon was freed from
rationing in July 1918.
While for the three reasons stated it must be recognized that
the British rationing problem was immeasurably simpler than
the German or the Austrian one, it may still be claimed that
even allowing for this the British system was definitely superior
in itself. First, the proper balance between centralization and
decentralization of responsibility was attained. The British
system was national and therefore uniform and fair in principle,
but was carried out by local authorities with ample power to
adjust it to local conditions. German rationing was local in
origin; the central authorities had the impossible task of securing
coordination subsequently; the traveller from one part of the
country to another found himself under different regulations in
every town. Second, the British food controllers never issued a
ration book without a distribution system to back it. Third,
the British system was probably superior in the ingenuity of
many technical details. In respect of one of the main articles
of food, namely meat, the British like the German controllers
had practically to rely upon home-grown produce for the
civilian population and had the same problem of collecting
supplies from the producer. Fourth, and finally, the British
system was more successful in giving equal treatment to rich
and poor. This was its corner stone. Lord Rhondda had many
doubts as to the practicability of rationing. He feared that the
public would never submit to being limited in their purchases,
tied to one retailer and subjected to transfer formalities every
time they moved from one district to another. He found that
the British people in war were prepared to submit to any and
every restriction on their freedom of action so long as it applied
fairly to all alike. (W. H. B.)
UNITED STATES
Food rationing, properly speaking, was resorted to in the
United States during the World War only in a modified form,
and as to two commodities, wheat flour and sugar. That is to
say, the rationing system under which a strict limit was set by
law and regulation to the amount of food any person might
purchase, as was the case in European countries where the
rationed foods were issued only on presentation of official food
cards, was practically unknown in the United States. The food
saving there was accomplished in general as explained in the
articles FOOD SUPPLY: United Slates and SAVINGS MOVEMENT:
United States, through the voluntary self-denial of citizens in
response to Government appeals and recommendations.
Sugar. In the last three months of 1917 a serious shortage of
sugar developed, and American householders, particularly in the
eastern states, had difficulty in obtaining even small quantities for
table use. This shortage emphasized the necessity for special at-
tention to its conservation. As a first step, manufacturers of " soft "
drinks, candy and related commodities, were directed to reduce their
consumption to 80 % of the amount used by them during the first
six months of 1917- This attempt at conservation was not wholly
successful in its operation as some of the less patriotic manufacturers
ignored the direction. On May 15 1918, when the urgent need for
shipping had resulted in a diversion of tonnage from traffic with
Cuba to longer voyages, regulations were issued requiring that sales
of sugar to manufacturers of the less essential foods and drinks should
be made only upon presentation, by these manufacturers, of certifi-
cates which they were required to obtain from the federal food ad-
ministrator of the state. These certificates were issued only upon
proof that the applicant had not used since Jan. I 1918, 80% of the
amount of sugar used by him in the first half-year of 1917, and the
certificate enabled the manufacturer to obtain only enough sugar
to bring his total to this 80 per cent. The sugar shortage became
still more serious, and with the prospect of a repetition of the ex-
perience of the fall of 1917, a rationing plan modelled upon certain
European systems was put in force beginning July I 1918. The
refiner or manufacturer of sugar was forbidden to ship sugar to a
purchaser except upon the receipt of a certificate issued by the
federal food administrators. These certificates were issued to re-
tailers on the basis of the number of their customers. Customers
were allowed to purchase only on the basis of I Ib. per person per
month. This was increased to 2 Ib. on Oct. 15 1918, and the re-
striction was removed in Nov. 1918. The local administrators were
also authorized at all times during the home canning season to issue
certificates permitting housewives to buy sugar in 25 Ib. lots for
canning purposes after the giving of satisfactory proof that it was
desired for such purposes. A further regulation for manufacturers
using sugar divided them into classes, with respect to the necessity
for their products, and they were permitted to buy only on the
presentation of certificates issued to them on the basis of their
classification. Comparing the figures for war-time consumption of
sugar in the United States with pre-war and post-war consumption,
a saving of from 400,000 to 600,000 tons is shown to have been
accomplished through conservation measures. Assuming it to have
been 500,000 tons, it would have supplied people in France for a
year, at their ration of 35 Ib. per head.
Wheat Flour. In addition to the appeals for voluntary conserva-
tion, which were particularly stressed with reference to wheat flour,
compulsory regulations were put in force as to certain dealers and
distributors of this commodity in Jan. 1918. This step was deter-
mined upon as a result of a particularly serious appeal addressed
in that month to Mr. Hoover by Lord Rhondda, British Food Con-
troller. Lord Rhondda cabled that unless the United States could
furnish 75,000,000 bus. of wheat by July to the Allies, he could not
be responsible for their remaining steadfast in the war. Accordingly
flour mills were required to raise their percentage of extraction to
74% and to eliminate altogether the sale of patent flours. On Feb.
3 1918, the bakers were required to use 5% of substitute flour in all
bread, and this amount was raised to 20% on Feb. 24 and on May
3 to 25 per cent. Rules were also promulgated early in 1918 re-
quiring manufacturers of cake, breakfast cereals, macaroni and the
like to limit their consumption of wheat flour to 70% of the amount
they had used in 1917 for the same purposes. Since more than 50 % of
the flour consumed in the United States is used in home baking, it
was necessary to require housewives as well as bakers to use sub-
stitutes for wheat flour. Regulations were accordingly issued, about
Feb. I 1918, requiring that no dealer or miller should sell wheat flour
to an individual consumer without an equal amount of substitutes.
The substitutes specified included all substitute flours, corn meal
corn grits, oatmeal and rice. Although this was not, strictly speak-
ing, a rationing measure, it is estimated that it accomplished a
saving of approximately 25 % in the household consumption of wheat
flour. Notwithstanding a shortage instead of a surplus at the be-
ginning of the year 1918, the American people saved out of their
own consumption sufficient wheat to send to the Allies, between Jan.
I and the harvest, not merely the 75,000,000 bus. for which Lord
Rhondda pleaded, but a total of 85,000,000 bushels.
The rationing measures described were withdrawn in Nov.
1918, and after that date there was no governmental limit upon
the purchase for consumption of any food, commodity in the
United States. Although a sugar shortage developed there in
1919 as a result of the continuing world shortage, no revival of
control over consumers' purchases was attempted in the United
States. The Sugar Equalization Board, which had been con-
tinued in existence for distribution of the 1919 crop, revived,
for a short time and to a limited extent, its control over distribu-
tion by directing to what sections of the country refiners should
ship their product. The fact remains, however, that such
rationing measures as the U.S. Government employed were in
force only for a few months in 1918. (W. C. M.)
RAVEL, MAURICE (1875- ), French musical composer,
was born at Ciboure, France, March 7 1875, and received his
musical education at the Paris conservatoire, under Faure, Pes-
sard and Beriot. His compositions include, besides songs, piano-
forte music, and chamber music, the Scheherazade overture (1911),
Rhapsodie Espagnole (1907), and the one-act opera L'Heure
Espagnole (1907), first produced at Covent Garden in 1919.
RAVENSTEIN, ERNST GEORG (1834-1913), British geog-
rapher, of German origin, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on
Dec. 30 1834, and was educated there. In 1852 he became a
pupil of August Petermann, and came to England, where he
served in the topographical department of the War Office from
1855 to 1872. As a geographer he was less of a traveller than a
research student, and his studies led mainly in the direction of
the practice and history of cartography. He compiled many
original maps and atlases, bringing a fine critical faculty to bear
RAWLINSON RED CROSS WORK
255
upon the data where these were not of the first order of scientific
accuracy, as in his series of eastern equatorial Africa, scale
1:1,000,000 (1881-3), an d of British East Africa, 1:500,000
(1889). One of his earliest writings was The Russians on the A mur
(1861), but he was concerned mainly with the history of geog-
raphy, as exemplified in his V asco da Gama's First Voyage (1898)
and Martin Behaim, his Life and his Globe (1908), as also in his
history of cartography in the E.B. (see 17.633). He was an
active member of the Royal Geographical Society and of the
British Association, over the geographical section of which he
presided in 1890, and in which he served as chairman of a
committee which made a valuable enquiry into the climatology
of Africa. He had also a particular interest in gymnastics, and
published a handbook on them in 1867. He died at Hofheim in
the Taunus, Germany, March 13 1913.
RAWLINSON, HENRY SEYMOUR RAWLINSON, BARON (1864-
), British general, was born Feb. 20 1864, son of Maj.-Gen.
Sir H. Rawlinson, Bart. He joined the army in 1884 and a year
later became A.D.C. to Sir F. Roberts in India on whose staff
he served intermittently for some years. He took part in the
Burma operations in 1886-7, and he was on the staff on the Nile
in 1897-8, for which he was promoted brevet lieutenant-colonel;
he had succeeded to the baronetcy in 1891. He went out to S.
Africa on the staff in 1899, served through the defence of Lady-
smith, and afterwards joined Lord Roberts and accompanied
him to Pretoria and into the eastern Transvaal. Throughout
the later stages of the war he commanded a column, and he was
rewarded with a brevet colonelcy and the C.B. for his services.
Then, after some months at the War Office, he became Com-
mandant of the Staff College, passing on from there in 1906 to
the charge of a brigade. He was promoted major-general in
1909 and commanded the 3rd Division from 1910 to May 1914.
He was at first employed at the War Office on the outbreak of
the World War, but was in Oct. 1914 selected to command the
IV. Army Corps that was being organized. He was in charge of
the forces sent to assist Antwerp, and took part in the first battle
of Ypres and in the Neuve Chapelle and the Loos offensives,
being given the K.C.B. in 1915. He commanded the I. Army
temporarily at the end of that year, was promoted lieutenant-
general, and on the formation of a IV. Army was placed at its
head. He commanded this during the battle of the Somme,
achieving important successes, and was promoted general in
recognition of his services. At the end of 1917 he was transferred
temporarily to the command of the II. Army during Gen.
Plumer's absence in Italy, and in Feb. and March 1918 he acted
for some weeks as British representative on the Supreme War
Council. But he was recalled from this to the field in April to
resume command of the IV. Army before Amiens at a critical
juncture. On Aug. 8 his troops in conjunction with the French
attacked the enemy in this region and they gained a signal
victory, which heralded the general advance of the Allies. His
army played a prominent part a few weeks later in the storming
of the Hindenburg line and in the subsequent victorious advance
eastwards. On the final distribution of honours for the war he was
raised to the peerage as Baron Rawlinson of Trent, received a
grant of 30,000, and was given the G.C.B. In the latter part
of 1919 he was sent to N. Russia to conduct the withdrawal of the
Allies from Archangel and Murmansk, and on his return he
commanded at Aldershot for a year. At the end of 1920 he went
out to India as commander-in-chief.
RAYLEIGH, JOHN WILLIAM STRUTT, 3RD BARON (1842-
1919), English physicist (see 22.933), died at Witham, Essex,
June 30 1919. He was succeeded as 4th baron by his eldest son,
ROBERT JOHN STRUTT (b. 1875), already so well-known as a
physicist and F.R.S. that he is commonly cited as Strutt when
references are made to his scientific papers.
REA, SAMUEL (1855- ), American railway official, was
born at Hollidaysburg, Pa., Sept. 21 1855. In 1871 he joined
the engineering corps of the Pennsylvania railway as chain and
rod man, working on several branch lines. From 1875 to 1877
he was engaged, as assistant engineer, in the construction of the
chain suspension bridge over the Monongahela river at Pitts-
burgh. He was next appointed assistant engineer for the
Pittsburgh and Lake Erie, then under construction. He returned
to the Pennsylvania lines in 1879, but ten years later joined the
Baltimore and Ohio. For the latter road he was chief engineer
for construction of the belt-line tunnel under Baltimore. In 1892
he was appointed an assistant to the president of the Pennsylva-
nia railway and five years later first assistant. In 1899 he was
elected fourth vice-president of the Pennsylvania, rising through
the various grades to first vice-president in 1911, and when the
numerical grades were discarded in 1912 was made vice-presi-
dent. In 1913 he was elected president. He was also presi-
dent at times of several other lines, including the Philadelphia,
Baltimore and Washington; the West Jersey and Seashore;
the Long Island; the Northern Central; and the Pittsburgh,
Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis. He was in charge of the
construction of the Pennsylvania station in New York City
(completed in 191 1) and the connecting tunnel under the Hudson
river, as well as the New York connecting railway and Hell
Gate bridge over the East river (opened in 1917). In 1917,
after the United States entered the World War, he was appointed
by the American Railway Association a member of the special
commission on national defense of the Railroads War Board.
He was also appointed director of the department of railroads,
electric railways, highways, and waterways, of the division of
transportation of the Committee of Public Safety of Pennsyl-
vania. In 1917 he presented his private yacht to the U.S.
Government for patrol duty in the Atlantic. In 1918, when the
railways were taken over by the Government as a war measure,
he was replaced as operating head of his road, but remained in
charge of its corporate affairs. He was a member of the New
York Chamber of Commerce, the American Society of Civil
Engineers, the Institution of Civil Engineers of London, and
the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers. He
was the author of The Railways Terminating in London (1888).
READING, RUFUS DANIEL ISAACS, IST EARL OF (1860- ),
British lawyer and statesman, was born in London Oct. 10 1860,
of a Jewish family. He was educated at University College
school, and later at Brussels and Hanover, and after a brief
experience of the London Stock Exchange he was called to the
bar in 1887. He speedily earned the reputation of a brilliant
lawyer, and in 1898 became a Q.C. In 1904 he entered the House
of Commons as Liberal member for Reading, and in 1910 was
made solicitor-general and knighted. The same year he became
attorney-general, and in June 1912 was given a seat in the
Cabinet the first attorney-general to be so distinguished. In
Oct. 1912, Sir Rufus Isaacs's name came under unfavourable
discussion during the course of the enquiry into the Marconi
contracts, but on the retirement of Lord Alverstone in 1913 he
was appointed Lord Chief Justice of England. On the outbreak
of the World War his advice on financial questions was of
great value to the Government, and he was responsible for some
of the most important measures immediately taken by the
Treasury in connexion with the situation in the " City." Both
at this time and later, his services in the sphere of national
finance were, indeed, invaluable. In 1915 he went to the U.S.A.
as head of the Anglo-French loan mission, earning golden
opinions. He was raised to the peerage as Viscount Reading
in 1916, and in 1917 again went as special envoy to America.
On his return he was created Earl of Reading, and in 1917, on
the retirement of Sir Cecil Spring-Rice, owing to ill-health,
went to Washington for a brief period as high commissioner and
special ambassador. At the beginning of 1921 he was appointed
Viceroy of India in succession to Lord Chelmsford, and resigned
the lord chief justiceship. Lord Reading married, in 1887,
Alice, daughter of Albert Cohen. His only child, Gerald Rufus
Isaacs, Viscount Erleigh (b. 1889), married in 1914 the daughter
of Sir Alfred Mond.
RED CROSS WORK. (i) BRITISH. The British Red Cross,
organizations existing before 1905 were, in that year, amalga-
mated and formed into a new body called the British Red Cross.
Society. The immediate object of the society was preparation
in time of peace for the ultimate work of rendering voluntary
256
RED CROSS WORK
aid to the sick and wounded in war. The War Office, which in
the past had been somewhat embarrassed by casual offers of
similar help from private individuals, undertook that, in the
future, all such offers, other than the supply of certain personnel,
should reach them only through the channel of the B..R.C.S.,
which accordingly began its task under powerful auspices. But
it was not at first easy to interest the necessary numbers of
people in proceedings depending for fruition on a contingency
which most of them believed to be remote. The advance of
science, also, together with modern ideas of humanity, had
naturally resulted in the creation of an efficient army medical
service, possessed of its own military hospitals and nurses, as
well as complete equipment for the transport and treatment
of wounded men. It was uncertain, therefore, what scope there
would be for only partially trained helpers, even if there should
be another great war in the future. The formation of the
Territorial Force in 1908 provided a solution of the difficulty.
Being a volunteer body called into existence for the purpose of
home defence, its medical department was not such as would be
self-sufficing in a campaign. The War Office accordingly invited
the British Red Cross to apply itself to the formation of what
are now known as Voluntary Aid Detachments, both of men and
women, for service in connexion with the Territorial Force.
The members of these detachments were to be prepared by in-
struction in first aid, sanitation, nursing, ambulance, cooking
and other work, and to make provisional arrangements in
respect of transport and temporary hospitals for the assistance
of regular medical units during military operations in Great
Britain. When war broke out in 1914, the B.R.C.S. and the
Order of St. John, which was also engaged in organizing V.A.D.'s,
had between them 2,374 detachments with a personnel of
70,352. Before the Armistice they numbered 4,083 with a
personnel of 125,993. The original idea of the V.A.D. provid-
ing supplementary aid to the Territorial medical service was,
owing to the exigencies of a European war, thrown into tempo-
rary abeyance. Their usefulness, however, was quickly adjusted
to the necessities of the hour. They turned to excellent account
the arrangements already made in accordance with the War
Office scheme, and took a leading part in the transport and
reception into auxiliary hospitals of the wounded.
But although the British Red Cross owed to the V.A.D. the
advantage of having been able to enroll and educate voluntary
workers in time of peace, its main object extended much farther
afield. The root idea of the Red Cross is that whatever it ,
can do to save the life or limb of a wounded soldier, or to alleviate '
his suffering, it is willing to do, without question, whenever and
wherever its assistance can be usefully employed; and whatever I
can be provided to cheer or comfort him, in addition to what j
the taxpayer supplies, it will provide so long as its funds permit. ,
On the other hand, the medical service of the army exists in
order to do all that is reasonably necessary for its patients.
That service may fail under stress, as may the army itself; but
in principle it does not admit that voluntary aid is indispensable,
except in so far as some of it may avoid the necessity for com-
pulsory measures. No doubt, however, arises in connexion
with additional comforts. Common sense draws the line be-
tween what a Government can be expected to give its wounded
men, and what luxury, which must be left to spontaneous gener-
osity on the part of the public acting through the Red Cross.
The ostensible appeal of the British Red Cross was therefore for
funds to enable the sick and wounded to be given comforts which
they would not otherwise receive. But in practice a large part
of Red Cross expenditure never strictly meets this description,
and much but not all of it relies for defence on the ground that
it has been the means of saving life. Thus, the Red Cross war
library, which during the war provided over 5,000,000 books
for hospitals, etc., and the 2,800 Red Cross work parties and
depots, in so far as the articles they produced were not among
those in army schedules, may be described as pure Red Cross
efforts. But the ambulance launches sent to Mesopotamia for
the transport of wounded, though they saved innumerable lives
and their cost probably yielded better results, pound for pound,
than any other department of Red Cross work, were nearer the
dividing line which separates the field of Red Cross activities from
what should be army work. These launches alone carried 414,000
passengers and travelled 683,000 m., while at the various seats
of war and in the British Isles Red Cross motor ambulance cars
moved 10,000,000 sick and wounded cases. Yet, in fact, the
transport of wounded, on which considerably more than 2,-
000,000 were expended by the Red Cross, was not strictly Red
Cross work. It is the business of the army to clear up its own
battle-fields at its own cost and take the wounded to hospital.
Nevertheless, the enormous number of cases which the Red
Cross was allowed to carry remains the best justification for the
expenditure incurred until we know what would have happened
had voluntary aid not been at hand. It is less easy to account
for grants such as those made to the King George Hospital, a
military establishment of 1,655 beds set up in the buildings of
the Stationery Office, which was equipped by the Red Cross, and
towards the expenses of which 154,000 were contributed, two-
thirds of that sum being for payment of salaries, wages and
ordinary expenses.
On the outbreak of war the B.R.C.S. appealed for funds, as
did also the Order of St. John, which had rendered much service in
the S. African War. The emergency was altogether exceptional,
and the War Office soon broke away from its own regulation as to
the sole agency of the B.R.C.S. in respect of voluntary assistance.
In the result a joint war committee of the two organizations was
formed, subscriptions were pooled, and this committee carried out
all Red Cross war work undertaken in Great Britain with some ex-
ceptions. Scotland, which elected to proceed separately, raised
over 2,000,000, thus providing for a fine independent effort. In
addition the principal Dominions Red Cross societies sent commis-
sions to the areas of war where their own contingents were serving,
and made generous contributions to the work. Canada, Australia,
S. Africa and Egypt were conspicuous examples. India was closely
associated with the joint committee in connexion with Mesopotamia
and E. Africa, and the American Red Cross gave valuable support.
No voluntary collection in Great Britain had ever before reached
the amount raised by the Red Cross during (he war. Its success was
very largely due to the generosity of The Times, which opened its
columns freely to the advocacy of British Red Cross claims and the
acknowledgment of subscriptions. The Times fund reached over
16,500,000 and covered many special efforts, such as the annual
collections throughout the Empire, known as " Our Day." These
produced for the four years in which they were held, over 8,500,-
ooo, of which more than five-eighths came from overseas. The
farmers sent 1,000,000; the coal-owners and miners nearly 500,-
ooo; sales of pictures, jewels, etc., at Christie's amounted to
322,000; church collections to 283,000; and pearls given by ladies
from their necklaces were sold for 94,000. Every class of society
contributed either in money, work, or kind, and the sums received
from individuals varied from 3-d. to 25,000.
In addition to the cash which passed through The Times fund,
gifts of stores to the value of 1,000,000 were made, and a very large
unascertained sum was given locally through the auxiliary home
hospitals above referred to. These latter, each of which was con-
nected with one of the military centres, were set up in most of the
principal towns throughout the country. Private houses, schools
and suitable buildings of various kinds were converted into tem-
porary wards, to which, in most instances, the minor cases were sent.
They were, as a rule, served by V.A.D. members under a trained
nursing staff and local medical men. In some a high degree of effi-
ciency was reached, and to a few wounded were sent direct from the
hospital ships. Rent and equipment were provided by subscriptions
in the neighbourhood or private munificence, with, when necessary,
grants from Red Cross headquarters; and the Government paid a
capitation fee in respect of each patient, also affording through the
country directors special facilities for rationed food supplies. It
is estimated that over 3,200 auxiliary home hospitals were opened
during the four years of the war. Their work received warm ap-
proval from the Army Council, who issued an inscribed scroll to each
building as a permanent memorial of the patriotic purpose to
which it had been devoted. That these institutions may claim to
have afforded special comfort to wounded soldiers is indicated by
the fact that the disciplinary measure most severely felt by refractory
patients was their return to the military quarters from whence they
came. Apart from the auxiliary home hospitals, a large sum was
expended in equipping and maintaining hospitals abroad, special
hospitals at home, and convalescent homes. Responsibility for the
British Red Cross Society's hospital at Netley and the St. John
Ambulance Brigade hospital at Etaples was undertaken by their
respective associations. Mention should also be made of the British
Reel Cross Society's Star and Garter home at Richmond for totally
disabled men, an institution intended to provide a harbour for those
suffering from incurable spinal paralysis. In all, a sum exceeding
RED CROSS WORK
257
5,000,000 was spent by the joint committee on hospitals and stores,
excluding local expenditure on the auxiliary home hospitals. The
stores department covered a great variety of items under general
headings, such as textiles, provisions, tobacco, furniture, medical
requirements, etc., and involved extensive business arrangements,
with warehouses, buyers, and all the machinery of a large commercial
establishment. Speed in delivery was a distinguishing feature, and
the services of this department were on many occasions invited by
the War Office. It was claimed with justice that no reasonable
request which it was possible to comply with was ever refused.
A kindred department to the stores was the Central Prisoners of
War Committee. The necessity for sending food to prisoners of war
had resulted in various efforts which required coordination. The
Government, as such, being prevented by Germany from supplying
food to British prisoners of war, approved the formation of a com-
mittee under the Red Cross, which, by resolution of one of its in-
ternational conferences, was entitled, and was consequently allowed
by the enemy, to regard prisoners as coming within its duties. The
committee administered a sum of over 4,000,000 and regularly
dispatched parcels of bread, other food and clothing to the prison
camps. Enquiries for wounded and missing, undertaken by the
Red Cross from early in 1915 onwards, were also a much appreciated
effort, resulting in over 384,000 reports being obtained at a total
cost of less than 33. 6d. each. Work for interned prisoners in Switzer-
land and Holland was another undertaking of high character, one
of its chief objects being educational and industrial training. Much
attention was bestowedby the Red Cross on the after-care of dis-
abled men, both in connexion with accommodation for convalescents,
and institutional treatment for patients suffering from neurasthenia,
epilepsy, tuberculosis, paralysis and the results of wounds. It is
obvious that medical or surgical treatment in such cases may be
prolonged and yet not be inconsistent with some form of employment.
The Government, realizing this, was prepared to maintain the pa-
tients, but difficulties arose on the question of capital outlay:
" In any case," says the report of the joint committee, " as far as
the Government was concerned, we were faced by delay in circum-
stances where promptitude was of vital importance to the success
of the work. Being ourselves unhampered by restrictions other than
the broad objects for which the public had subscribed to the Red
Cross, and our funds being immediately available, we were able to
obtain the sanction of the Joint Finance Committee for grants which
met the necessities of the case. Thus, once again, was demonstrated
one of the most valuable uses of such a fund as that administered
by the Joint War Committee."
The report from which the foregoing extract is taken deals in
detail with Red Cross activities in the various theatres of war, at
all of which the joint committee was represented by a commissioner
and staff suited to the circumstances. The most extensive work, of
course, was that carried out in France and Belgium. There the first
commission was sent in Aug. 1914, while the last of many proceeded
to Vladivostok a fortnight before the Armistice in 1918. Some idea
of the number of people employed by the joint committee will be
gained from the fact that the total staff at home and abroad on Oct.
20 1918, was 9,234. Of these 1,353 worked at headquarters in Lon-
don, 850 of whom were paid and 503 were honorary workers. It is
only possible in this article to mention some of the efforts which were
specially associated with the Red Cross during the war and have not
already been alluded to. The supply of provisional limbs was a
useful measure; invalid diet kitchens at Malta, Salonika and Egypt
were a new and very successful experiment; and in Italy the ambu-
lance units, among which may be mentioned one devoted to X-ray
work, attained some remarkable results. Wherever it was possible
to set up recreation rooms or to entertain the wounded, especially
at Christmas time, the Red Cross undertook to do so; and at the
conclusion of the war, after assisting in repatriation at Berlin and
elsewhere, it continued, as it will continue for some years, to look
after and help wounded men, particularly while they are waiting
for final decisions as to pensions. Although the general direction of
Red Cross business was in the hands of men, it is not too much to
say that its outstanding feature was women's work. By hospital
nursing and organization at home and abroad, motor-driving, rest-
station attendance, and general service including the humblest
domestic occupations, to which ladies turned their hands for long
periods British women established a lasting claim to national
gratitude ; and it may be said that the example they set did more
to gain for them their present place in the constitution than several
decades of propaganda.
At the end of the war the joint committee was left with a consider-
able surplus, which approximated roughly to the amount received
from the " Our Day " collection taken a few weeks before the Armis-
tice. An Act of Parliament enabled such part of this balance as
might not be required for the sick and wounded to be applied to
'indred objects. A sum of 1,339,700 was given to civil hospitals
nd other institutions in England and Wales, and 544,300 to similar
'urposes in the dominions and colonies.
A heavy distribution of, for the most part, well-earned honours
as made to Red Cross workers during and after the war, the chief
:riticism in connexion with which was that the higher grades allotted
o the honorary and paid staff at headquarters in London were out
proportion to those recommended for commissioners and others
xxxii. 9
who had served for long periods abroad, often under trying conditions
and sometimes in no small personal danger. On the whole it may
safely be said that the Red Cross war fund was managed on sound
business lines which gave general satisfaction to the subscribers, the
Government, and the participators in its benefits, and reflected
great credit on those who carried out the work.
AUTHORITIES. Charters of Incorporation of the British Red
Cross Society, 1908 and 1919; Field Service Regulations, Part II.;
Organization and Administration (1905) ; Royal Army Medical Corps
Training (1911). Schemes for the Organization of Voluntary Aid
in England and Wales, 1909 and 1910. Reports of the Joint War
Committee and the Joint War Finance Committee of the British
Red Cross Society and the Order of St. John of Jerusalem in Eng-
land on voluntary aid rendered to sick and wounded at home and
abroad and to British prisoners of war, with appendices (1914-9,
H.M. Stationery Office). (J. D. P.)
(2) UNITED STATES. The " American Association of the
Red Cross " was organized in 1881, by the special efforts of
Clara Barton (see 3.452) and with the approval of President
Garfield and Secretary of State Elaine. Miss Barton was its
first president. In 1905 the name was changed to National
Red Cross, and the organization was incorporated and national-
ized; the President of the United States became its president,
and the War Department its auditor. By 1912, state relief
boards operating under the National Relief Board of the Red
Cross had been organized in practically all of the states in the
Union as well as in the Philippine Is. and Porto Rico. In 1913
there were 60 chapters with about 12,000 members. In that
year the association provided " disaster relief " in response to
13 calls in the United States and five from abroad. $3,000,000
were used in relief operations, of which sum one and a third were
contributed directly through the Red Cross. In the same year
steps were taken to erect a national memorial building in Wash-
ington as a tribute to the heroic services, in connexion with the
Sanitary Commission and other activities for the benefit of
soldiers, rendered by women of the North and South in the Civil
War. To an appropriation by Congress of $400,000, as much
more was added by private gifts, and the corner-stone of the
building was laid on March 27 1915. The building was occupied
as national headquarters early in 1917.
World War Work. Early in the World War, before Ameri-
ca's entry, trie Red Cross, with the consent of the Government
and in conformity with the treaty of Geneva, offered through
the State Department the aid of its trained personnel and con-
tributions of hospital supplies to every country involved in the
war. The offer was accepted by all the belligerents with the
exception of Belgium, which at first desired only supplies and
did not ask for personnel until the spring of 1915. Japan, at
first accepting, later declined assistance, as its own Red Cross
was able to meet all demands, while Italy, when it entered the
conflict, asked only for certain supplies. The Red Cross called
the attention of the American people to the contributions made
by European Red Cross societies during the Spanish-American
War, and the President made a public appeal for funds. As a
result, sufficient money was soon at the disposal of the Red
Cross to undertake active aid to the various belligerents. Large
quantities of hospital supplies and about 200 nurses were sent
to Europe and distributed in England, Belgium, France, Ger-
many, Austria, Serbia and Russia. Seventy-one physicians and
surgeons were also sent, and a special sanitary commission of 43
doctors and nurses went to Siberia to fight the typhus plague
there. The value of the relief supplies sent to Europe by the Red
Cross before the United States entered the war exceeded $1,500,-
ooo, of which about $350,000 worth went to Germany and
Austria. In the latter part of 1915, when the sanitary and gen-
eral medical services of the belligerents had become sufficiently
developed to make outside personnel aid unnecessary, the
American surgeons and nurses were withdrawn from Europe.
In May 1917, a few weeks after the United States entered
the war, President Wilson, as titular head of the American Red
Cross, appointed a special Red Cross War Council of seven
nationally known men, headed by Henry P. Davison of New
York, to direct all the activities of the organization during the
war. The first task of this War Council, besides effecting an
expansion and elaborate reorganization, was that of obtaining
258
RED CROSS WORK
funds on a large scale to support the extensive work planned.
It was decided to appeal at once to the people for a special war
fund of $100,000,000, and President Wilson designated the week
of June 18-25 as " Red Cross Week " for the collection of money.
Quotas were assigned to each state and city and a vigorous
nation-wide campaign was begun. The result was a popular
subscription of over $114,000,000. The second great campaign
undertaken by the War Council was a Christmas membership
drive during the week of Dec. 17-24 1917. When the United
States entered the war the Red Cross membership was about
500,000, comprised in about 500 chapters. By Nov. i 1917 the
membership had increased to 5,000,000, distributed among
3,287 chapters. The first aim of the special membership drive
was for 5,000,000 further memberships, but when the campaign
was actually launched the goal was set at 10,000,000. At the
end of the drive week over 16,000,000 new members had been
added to the organization. By the spring of 1918 it was found
necessary to launch a new drive for funds, so extensive had been
the war undertakings of the Red Cross. Again a nation-wide
appeal was made, and during the week May 20-27, approxi-
mately $170,000,000 was subscribed. These two great collec-
tions of 1917 and 1918, together with membership dues of about
$37,500,000 and special funds and supplies from various other
sources, made up a grand total of a little more than $400,000,000,
of which about two-thirds was available for the needs of the
national headquarters and one-third for the special needs of the
3,500 chapters. These special needs were such as purchase of
materials to be made into relief articles, local canteen and home
service, general operating expenses, etc. The undertakings of
the American Red Cross during the war-time and armistice pe-
riod can be classified under two heads: first, the relations of the
Red Cross to the armed forces of the Government both at home
and abroad, and, second, civilian relief abroad. With regard
to the first category a paragraph in a report of the American
Red Cross, prepared for the tenth International Red Cross
Conference at Geneva on March 30 1921, sets out so admirably
the manifold activities carried on that it may well be quoted.
It is as follows: " The primary function of the Red Cross in
war, of course, is to provide volunteer relief to the sick and
wounded, and to serve as a medium of communication between
the soldiers, sailors and marines and their families and the
American people, but in the late war the American Red Cross
activities for the fighting men covered a much wider field. From
the time the American soldier entered the service until he had
been demobilized, the Red Cross, at the request of the War
Department, assisted him in many ways possible only to a large
volunteer organization officially recognized. The American
Red Cross recruited, organized and equipped hospitals and
ambulance units, assisted in the care of the sick and wounded in
emergencies, and mobilized nurses for the army and navy. The
labour of volunteer Red Cross women provided the men in the
service with knitted garments not a part of the army equip-
ment, as well as an unlimited quantity of surgical dressings and
supplemental medical supplies. Canteens established at many
points in the home country and in the war zone provided the sol-
dier en route with food, tobacco and other creature comforts.
Home Service helped to maintain moral by rendering assist-
ance in many forms to soldiers' and sailors' families. American
fighters held prisoners in enemy camps, after being located
through the International Red Cross, were supplied by the
American Red Cross with food and other comforts. The sick
and wounded behind our own lines were cheered and aided in
their convalescence, the home-coming and demobilized troops
were helped in readjusting themselves to civil life, and, finally,
the graves of the fallen were photographed at the request of the
War Department for the comfort of the home folks."
The details of the manner and extent of these various activities
cannot be described here in detail. Place can be given to only a few
special facts. Fifty Red Cross Base Hospital units, each consisting
of 22 surgeons and physicians, 65 Red Cross nurses, and 152 En-
listed Reserve Corps men, were sent to England and France and
one to Italy for duty with the American Expeditionary Forces.
Forty ambulance companies of 124 trained men each were likewise
sent abroad. Over 23,000 trained nurses were mobilized, of whom
nearly 20,000 saw active service, one-half of these in Europe. Sani-
tary service in America was carried on by 29 units of trained person-
nel assigned to districts in 16 states. A Woman's Volunteer Motor
Corps of 11,000 members organized in 300 communities covered
over 3,500,000 m. in their activities. Seven hundred canteens staffed
by 55,000 women workers were operated in railway stations and
camps. Ninety-two convalescent homes were built in the training-
and embarkation camps. One hundred and thirty canteens were
established in France. Also, in France, the Red Cross maintained
24 military hospitals and 12 convalescent hospitals. Thirty-three
canteens were established in Italy. Twenty-eight military hospitals
and 82 canteens were established just behind the lines in that small
part of Belgium never overrun by the Germans. A Home Service
with 50,000 workers helped soldiers' families in many ways in
America. Finally, 8,000,000 Red Cross women were engaged all
through the war in producing comforts and hospital supplies for the
American soldiers and sailors. Under the general category of " civil-
ian relief abroad " is included the work done by the American Red
Cross, from the time the United States entered the war up to 1921
when this work was still going on, in relieving the civilian populations
of the war-ravaged regions of Europe. The distress during the war
of the people of the Allied nations, especially in the devastated
regions of Belgium, France, Italy, the Balkan States, Poland and
Russia, seriously menaced the moral of those countries, so that this
" civilian relief abroad " by the American Red Cross during the war
period was of actual military assistance to the Allies. After the war
this assistance, no less necessary, took on a more purely benevolent
aspect and was extended in some measure to former enemy countries
as well as to the Allies. The largest need and the largest response by
the Red Cross was in France. A million and a half refugees from the
10 invaded French departments were scattered throughout other
parts of the country. Besides, many Belgian refugees came into
France. Disease, especially tuberculosis, threatened to become epi-
demic. The Red Cross undertook the task, for a time at an ex-
pense of $1,000,000 a month, of housing, clothing, feeding and
extending hospital and general medical aid to these civilians. This
work was constantly done in association with national and local
French organizations. Over 150 such organizations were aided.
Sixty-seven hospitals and dispensaries, primarily for refugees, were
operated by the Red Cross. Over 30,000 tuberculosis patients were
directly reached and helped. A child-welfare campaign was also
undertaken, partly of educational character. Special doctors and
visiting nurses not only directly helped the children but organized
instructional meetings and held special child clinics where modern
methods were explained to nearly 300,000 French attendants. Per-
haps the second largest item in civilian relief during the war was that
of aid to Russia. A special commission was sent to Petrpgrad by
way of Vladivostok, arriving in 1917, while Kerensky was in power,
and provided 500,000 cans of condensed milk for children. An am-
bulance train of 125 cars was also sent to Russia, and $1,500,000 was
devoted to the assistance of Russian soldiers who were returning
from the prison camps.
During the war the Red Cross lent assistance to 75 Belgian refugee
colonies in free Belgium, France, Switzerland, Holland and England.
In Italy 50 kitchens were maintained for needy civilians and direct
financial assistance was given to the families of 326,000 Italian
soldiers. In Rumania two hospitals and an orphanage were taken
over and maintained, and in three districts 40,000 persons were fed
daily. Special commissions went to Serbia and Greece and aided
materially in caring for refugees and poor families in those countries.
In 1918, at the height of the war activities, the American Red Cross
had over 20,000,000 adult and 11,000,000 child (junior Red Cross)
members comprised in over 3,500 chapters. Eight million of these
members were listed as " war workers." The total revenues of
the national headquarters and chapters together for the 20 months
ending Feb. 28 1919 were $400,178,000, of which $272,676,000 was
actually expended in war relief work in America and 25 foreign
countries during the 20 months' period named, which covered all the
time during which the United States was in the war plus the first
three and a half months of the Armistice. Of this sum $169,096,000
was expended by the national headquarters and $103,580,000 by the
various chapters. The former included $28,978,000 for relief in
America; $57,207,000 in France; $63,841,000 elsewhere overseas;
$4,660,000 for collections, enrolments, and publications; $2,727,000
for operation of relief bureaus; 85,530,000 for operation of bureaus
handling relief supplies and transportation in America of these sup-
plies; and 84,360,000 for operation of administrative bureaus at
national headquarters and divisional headquarters. The expendi-
tures of the chapters included 860,660,000 for materials purchased ;
$8,790,000 for home service; 83,070,000 for military hospitals and
ambulances; $2,320,000 for canteen service; $1,680,000 for in-
fluenza relief; and $7,490,000 for general operating expenses. The
total resources (cash and supplies) of the national headquarters
Feb. 28 1919 amounted to 8110,756,000, including unexpended
appropriations of 816,714,000; in addition the chapters had in
hand a balance of $33,460,000. A total of 101,000 tons of relief
supplies had been sent overseas; 3,780 French and more than 1,500
Italian hospitals had been aided. The relief articles (surgical dress-
ings, hospital garments and supplies, refugee garments, and various
REDESDALE REDMOND
259
articles for soldiers and sailors) produced by Red Cross volunteer
workers during this time numbered over 370,000,000 of an estimated
value of nearly $100,000,000. Eleven million of these items were
knitted articles given to soldiers and sailors in the United States.
Post-war Work. On March I 1919, the War Council dissolved
and all authority and responsibilities were taken over by the Ex-
ecutive Committee with Dr. Livingston Farrand as chairman. The
foreign commissions were gradually closed and withdrawn, although
late in 1919 over 1,000 Red Cross workers still remained in Europe.
The total membership after the roll-call of Nov. 1919 was about
10,000,000. After the Dec. 1920 roll-call it was about 7,000,000.
Relief work was carried on after the war in Albania, Belgium, Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Czechoslovakia, France, Great Britain, Greece,
Germany, Italy, Montenegro, N. Russia, Palestine, Poland (where
more than 100 workers were engaged), Serbia (where 30 doctors,
50 nurses and five dentists worked at various points), S. Russia,
Switzerland (caring for American soldier prisoners coming from Ger-
man prison camps), Siberia (where 600 workers fought against
typhus, cholera and other epidemics), and western Russia and the
Baltic states. During a part of 1920 operations still continued in
most of these countries, but by the end of the year the list had been
reduced to Poland, S. Russia, Czechoslovakia, Montenegro, Serbia,
the Baltic states, Austria (Vienna), Hungary (Budapest) and Turkey
(Constantinople). In Poland 258 hospitals with 26,123 beds were
established in 1920. Thirty dispensaries and 207 orphanages were
aided, clothing was distributed to over 80,000 children and 2,316
towns with a total population of more than 700,000 were given gen-
eral relief. In Rumania six hospitals were operated, 322 soup kitchens
maintained, and relief supplies provided for 219 schools and 232
orphanages. In western Russia and the Baltic states 300,000 civilian
poor, 21,000 refugees and 2,500 war prisoners were helped. In
Vienna 98 hospitals were aided. Similar work was done in Budapest.
In Siberia the cargoes of 30 American relief ships, and part cargoes
of 92 ships from other countries were distributed. Eighteen hos-
pitals were operated and numerous sanitary trains organized and an
average of seven articles of clothing was given to each of 387,500
women and 775.000 children. Late in 1920 it was decided to restrict
further operations in Europe so far as possible strictly to medical
care, and $5,000,000 was appropriated for this work. Twenty child
medical units were put into the field. In America the peace pro-
gramme of the Red Cross in 1920 contained as its most notable
features the further development of its nursing service. Enrolment
in this service increased in 1920 from 35,426 to 36,705. The number
of Red Cross public health nurses grew from 162 to 908 and the num-
ber of women and girls completing the Red Cross course in home
hygiene and care of the sick increased during the year from 34,033
to 93,093. There were 57 major disasters in the United States in
1920 which required Red Cross relief. Altogether $780,000 was ex-
pended in this relief. (V. L. K.)
REDESDALE, ALGERNON BERTRAM FREEMAN-MITFORD,
BARON (1837-1916), British politician and writer (see 22.968),
in 1906 accompanied Prince Arthur of Connaught on his mission
to Japan to invest the Mikado with the Order of the Garter.
In 1915 he published his memoirs. He died at Batsford Park,
Glos., Aug. 17 1916. His eldest son was killed in action in
May 1915, and he was succeeded as second baron by his second
son, David Bertram Ogilvy Freeman-Mitford (b. 1877).
REDMOND, JOHN EDWARD (1851-1918), Irish politician (see
22.968*), obtained for the first time a position of real power in
Parliament after the first general election of 1910. After he had
amalgamated the two Irish Nationalist parties under his own lead
in 1900, he had never hitherto been able, owing to the large
Unionist majority of 1900, and the independent Liberal majority
of 1906, to hold that balance of power in the House of Commons
which had proved such a formidable weapon in the hands first of
O'Connell and afterwards of Parnell. But the great reduction
of the Liberal forces in Jan. 1910 made it impossible that Mr.
Asquith's Government should long continue unless it found
favour in Mr. Redmond's eyes. The first use which he made
of this new authority was to insist that Mr. Lloyd George's fa-
mous budget of 1909, on which the dissolution had turned, but
which was in itself not very congenial to the Irish party, should
be postponed till after the constitutional resolutions directed
against the House of Lords his one object being to remove the
veto of the Upper House, which was the main barrier against
Home Rule. This order of procedure was also demanded by
the Labour party and by the Radicals; and the Government
complied. But Redmond did not trust them completely, and
pressed for an assurance that the Royal prerogative would be
at the Prime Minister's disposal to overbear any rejection by
he Lords of the veto resolutions. He regretted King Edward's
death as being a momentary " check to the onward march of
the constitutional struggle," and he was impatient at the con-
stitutional conference which was called early in the new reign
in order to endeavour vainly, as the result proved to dis-
cover a solution by consent. He himself occupied the months of
its session by a successful expedition to America to secure sympa-
thy and funds. In spite of a harassing movement on his flank
by a small party of Independent Nationalists who had Mr.
O'Brien and Mr. Healy as their spokesmen, and who accused
him of having sold the Irish vote to the Government, he subse-
quently conducted a strenuous campaign on behalf of the minis-
terial programme for the second general election of the year. He
denounced the House of Lords as the special enemy of Ireland,
and said that this was not only a Home Rule election, but the
great Home Rule election. When the result of the polling had
confirmed him in his tenure of the balance of Parliamentary
power, he forwarded the progress of the Parliament bill in 1911
by the steady vote of his party rather than by speech. In the
autumn he was regularly consulted on the details of the forth-
coming Home Rule bill, and delivered speeches assuring the
English that the Home Rule Parliament would be duly subordi-
nate to the Imperial Parliament, and that the Protestants had
nothing to fear from Roman Catholic domination, and assuring
the Irish that they would find the provisions of the bill satis-
factory. When the bill was introduced in April 1912, he wel-
comed it in the House on behalf of the Nationalists as a great
and adequate measure. He disclaimed Separatism, and said
that Irish Separatists, once numerous, were now very few, and
would disappear when Home Rule was granted. He went over
to Ireland and succeeded in almost silencing adverse National-
ist criticism of details, and procured an enthusiastic accept-
ance of the bill from a Nationalist convention. His speeches
during the passage of the bill through Parliament were of
a moderate character and accepted the measure as a final settle-
ment; but, while professing goodwill towards Ulster, he resisted
any attempt to take her out of the bill as a mutilation of Ireland.
In token of the union of feeling between Nationalists and Liber-
als, he attended the autumn meeting of the National Liberal
Federation at Nottingham in Nov. 1912, and spoke for the first
time on the same platform as Mr. Asquith, saying that, on
every great item of. the Liberal programme, the Nationalists
were sincerely with them. When, in the next year, these began
to talk, in view of the determined attitude of Ulster, of a settle-
ment by consent between parties, he was very slow to agree
and was criticised by the Independent Nationalists for his uncon-
ciliatory attitude. He professed himself ready to discuss further
safeguards; but he would not go into a conference at which Home
Rule would be " put into the melting pot "; Ireland, he said, was
a unit, and the two-nations theory an abomination. In a speech
at Newcastle-upon-Tyne on Nov. 14, he denounced the passionate
opposition of the Unionists and Ulster as " a gigantic game of
bluff and blackmail." He would pay a large price for settle-
ment by consent; but it must be consistent with national self-
government for Ireland. He constantly insisted that the bill
would, under the Parliament Act, automatically become law
in 1914. But, in deference to the general feeling, he said in the
debate on the Address in that year that he would consider in
the broadest and friendliest spirit any proposals for an agreed
settlement that the Government might make, though he pro-
tes ed against the idea of an Amending bill. When Mr. Asquith
proposed the scheme of provisional exclusion, by county option,
for six years, he treated this as the extreme limit of concession,
and consequently this was the proposal which the Government
embodied in their Amending bill. He absolutely refused to
consider the total exclusion of Ulster. He had difficulties with
the extremists in Ireland that spring and summer. The enrol-
ment of the Ulster Volunteers had suggested the idea of similar
formations in the other three provinces to defend the National-
ist idea; and under the fostering of leaders like Casement and
of the rising Sinn Fein organization, these forces had reached
large numbers over 100,000 by the spring of 1914. Their
growth had been discouraged by Mr. Redmond and his colleagues;
' These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
260
REDWOOD, SIR B. REID, SIR G. H.
but he felt it necessary now to obtain control, and, after a
somewhat sharp struggle with the extremists, succeeded in doing
so in June. At the end of July he took part, in spite of National-
ist criticism, in the abortive Buckingham Palace Conference.
Then came the World War, and in the debate succeeding
Sir E. Grey's famous declaration on bank holiday, Aug. 3,
Redmond created a profound sensation by a speech in which
he declared that the events of recent years had completely
altered the Nationalist feeling towards Great Britain. The
Government, he said, might withdraw its troops from Ireland,
whose coasts would be defended by her own sons, Nationalist
Volunteers joining with Ulster Volunteers in the task. This
generous attitude was met by the decision of the Government
to pass the Home Rule bill into law, suspending its operation
till after the war. Redmond took an active part in promoting
recruiting in Ireland. He stood on the platform in Dublin
Mansion House on Sept. 25 by the side of the Prime Minister
and the Lord Lieutenant, and said that Ireland would feel
bound in honour to take her place beside the other autonomous
portions of the King's dominions. " You have kept faith with
Ireland," he said; " Ireland will keep faith with you." Unfortu-
nately, owing partly to the anti-recruiting agitation promoted
by Sinn Fein and other extremists, and partly to red tape at the
War Office, his efforts were only moderately successful. But he
constantly opposed the application of conscription in any shape
to Ireland, and in consequence neither of the military service
bills of the spring of 1916 applied to that country. He had
refused Mr. Asquith's request for his help in office in the Coali-
tion Government of June 1915; and the fact that he stood out,
while Sir E. Carson was included, no doubt intensified the
smouldering dissatisfaction in southern Ireland, which broke
into a blaze in the Dublin Rebellion of Easter 1916. This was
a stunning blow to Redmond, who had not realized the growing
strength and virulence of the Sinn Fein movement. He expressed
in the House of Commons his detestation of the crime, and lent
his assistance to the attempt that was made by the Government
in the summer through Mr. Lloyd George to arrange an agreed
settlement of the whole Irish question. At first it looked as
if the negotiations would be successful, on the basis of bringing
the Home Rule Act into immediate operation, while excluding
the six Ulster counties by an Amending bill which should cover
all the period of the war, and a short interval after it. The
consent was obtained of all Irish parties, except the southern
Unionists; but certain modifications which the Unionists in the
Cabinet demanded were treated by the Nationalists as amount-
ing to a breach of faith; and Redmond announced his intention
of criticising ministers for their procrastination not only with
regard to Ireland but also with regard to the whole conduct of
the war. The negotiations having failed, and the Government
having restored the ordinary civil administration of Ireland,
with Mr. Duke, K.C., a Unionist, as Chief Secretary, Redmond
treated this as a fresh outrage on Ireland; and on Oct. 18 he
moved a resolution charging ministers with maintaining a sys-
tem of government in Ireland inconsistent with the principles
for which the Allies were fighting in Europe. The result, he said,
was that Irish regiments could not be kept up to their full
strength, and that his efforts to aid recruiting had been nullified.
The motion was, of course, rejected by a large majority. He
criticised Mr. Lloyd George's administration in March 1917 on
similar lines, and threatened a return by his party to the old
obstructionist opposition. In May, however, the Prime Minister
suggested among other alternatives that an Irish convention
should be assembled for the purpose of producing a scheme of
Irish self-government. To this Redmond agreed; and in the
convention he played a prominent and conciliatory part, making
in particular a favourable impression on the southern Unionists.
During its sittings, however, his health failed. He died of heart
failure in London on March 6 1918.
In private life, John Redmond was much liked among his
friends, but he never went much into society. He was happily
married to an Australian lady, Miss Dalton, by whom he had
a son and two daughters.
His younger brother, WILLIAM HOEY KEARNEY REDMOND
(1861-1917), intended, as a young man, to adopt the army
as his profession, and in 1881 he was a lieutenant in the co.
Wexford militia battalion of the Royal Irish Regiment. But
he resigned his commission to take part in the Land League
movement, was imprisoned as a " suspect " in Kilmainham,
and went to Australia with his brother to raise funds for the
Nationalist agitation. He was returned for Wexford borough
in 1883, and sat in Parliament, though for different constit-
uencies, from that time till his death. He was of an ardent and
ebullient temper, which resulted in his spending three months
in Wexford gaol in 1888 for inciting to resistance to the sheriff,
on the occasion of an eviction, and in many agitated scenes at
different times in the House of Commons, where, however, he
was personally very popular. Like his brother, in the Nationalist
split he adhered to Parnell, and also like his brother, on the
outbreak of the World War he instantly recognized the duty
of Ireland to fling herself into it on the side of the Allies. Though
53 years old, he joined at once the Irish Division, receiving a
commission in the Royal Irish Regiment. He was promoted
major for services at the front and mentioned in despatches.
In his intervals of service he made two thrilling speeches in the
House of Commons one in Dec. 1916, in which he advocated
a new Ireland built up out of the war, and declared that Nation-
alists and Ulstermen came together in the trenches and were
friends, and that if they were brought together on the floor of
an assembly in Ireland they would be friends too; the other in
March 1917, when he besought the House to let the dead past
bury its dead, and to make a new start between England and
Ireland. He died of wounds in Fran.ce on June 7 1917.
REDWOOD, SIR BOVERTON, BART. (1846-1919), British
chemist, was born in London April 26 1846. He was educated at
University College school, London, and by the Pharmaceutical
Society, specialized in the study of petroleum and became in
1869 secretary to the Petroleum Association. In this connexion
he gave evidence before a sclect'committee of the House of Lords,
and his investigations throughout Europe and America qualified
him to be the adviser of the Government as to the best use of
petrol and oil fuel both before and during the World War. He
founded the Institution of Petroleum Technologists and became
its first president. He was knighted in 1905 and created a
baronet in 1911. He died in London June 4 1919.
REHAN, ADA (1860-1916), American actress (see 23.48),
died in New York City Jan. 8 1916.
REID, SIR GEORGE (1841-1913), British painter (see 23.50),
died at Oakhill, Som., Feb. 9 1913.
REID, SIR GEORGE HOUSTOUN (1845-1918), Australian
statesman, was born at Johnstone, Renfrewshire, Feb. 25 1845.
His father, a Presbyterian minister, emigrated to Australia
seven years later, and the boy was therefore Australian by
education though not by birth. At the age of 13 he became a
junior clerk in a business house in Sydney, but later entered the
N.S.W. civil service and began to read for the bar, being finally
called in 1879. Politics attracted him more than law, and in
1880 he was elected member for E. Sydney, together with Sir
Henry Parkes but above him in the poll. He stood as a free
trader, a policy to which he adhered throughout his political
career, and with one short break (1884-5) he represented E.
Sydney in the N.S.W. Legislature until 1901 when he was
elected its representative in the Federal Parliament. He first
held office in N.S.W. for a brief period in 1883-4 as Minister of
Public Instruction. In 1894 he became its Premier and during
his term of office (1894-9) introduced reforms into the civil
service and represented the Colony at Queen Victoria's Diamond
Jubilee. He did much to promote Federation and from 1901-0
led the free-trade party in the Federal Parliament, becoming
Premier for a short period (1904-5) but being for the most
part leader of the Opposition. When the Act to constitute an
Australian High Commissionership was passed in 1909 Sir
George Reid became the first High Commissioner and was
created K.C.M.G. He represented his country in London in
genial fashion until 1916, and at the end of his term of office
REID, W. RELATIVITY
261
stood for the British House of Commons and was elected for the
St. George's Hanover Square division of London Jan. 1916.
He was created G.C.M.G. in 1911 and G.C.B. in 1916. He
published My Reminiscences (1917), as well as Five Free Trade
Essays (1875), and other economic papers. He died suddenly in
London, Sept. 12 1918.
REID, WHITELAW (1837-1912), American journalist and
diplomatist (see 23.52), died in London Dec. 15 1912. His last
public address was delivered before the students of the University
College of Wales, Aberystwyth, on " Thomas Jefferson." In
1912 appeared The Scot in America and the Ulster Scot and
posthumously, in 1913, American and English Studies.
See Royal Cortissoz, The Life of Whitelaw Reid (1921).
REINACH, JOSEPH (1856-1921), French author and politician
(see 23.55), was not reelected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1914.
During the World War his series of articles, " Les Commentaires
de Polybe," in the Figaro, were remarkable for their clear vision.
He died April 18 1921.
REJANE.GABRIELLE [CHARLOTTE REJU] (1857-1920), French
actress (see 23.58), died in Paris June 14 1920. During the
World War she visited England and appeared at the Court
theatre, London, in a patriotic play, Alsace, and at the Coliseum
in The Bet, when she played the part of a Frenchwoman visiting
the English battle-zone. She was made Chevalier of the Legion
of Honour for her war services.
RELATIVITY. The progress of physical science during the
decade 1910-20 was specially remarkable for the definite
emergence into general public discussion of the principle of
Relativity, as expounded by Prof. Albert Einstein, professor of
Physics in the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut, Berlin. Its meaning
and its history as part of present-day physical theory are
discussed below.
Introduction. The primary aim of the investigator in pure
science is the discovery of natural laws. As a secondary and
hardly less important aim, he tries to invent a mechanism which
shall account for the laws already known. The secondary aim
is forced upon him partly by the constitution of the human mind;
our intellects, unsatisfied with a mere accumulation of facts,
impel us ever to search for the causes underlying the facts:
Vere scire est per causas scire. But to the working scientist the
discovery of a mechanism has an additional and more practical
value. When he has found a mechanism which will account for
certain laws, he can proceed to examine the complete set of laws
which the mechanism demands. If his mechanism corresponds
with sufficient closeness to reality he may in this way be led to
the discovery of new natural laws. On the other hand, the
new laws deduced from the supposed mechanism may be false.
If the falsity of the new laws is not at once revealed science may
for a time be led into wrong paths. When more accurate experi-
menting or observation discloses that the laws are not true, a
recasting of ideas becomes necessary, and the branch of science
concerned may experience a time of revolution followed by a
period of rapid growth.
An obvious illustration of these general statements is provided
by the history of astronomy. The laws of the motions of the
planets, as observed from the earth, were tolerably well known
to the Greeks. They had also evolved an explanatory mechanism,
starting from the metaphysical premise that the paths of the
planets must necessarily be circles. The earth was the centre of
the universe and round this revolved spheres to which the
planets were attached. To explain the retrograde motion of the
outer planets, these were supposed attached to secondary
spheres revolving about points on the primary spheres which in
turn revolved about the earth. This mechanism of cycles and
epicycles held the field as an explanation of planetary motion
for eighteen centuries. Finally the observations of Tycho Brahe
provided a test which revealed the falsity of the whole structure.
The position of Mars was found to differ from that required by
the mechanism of epicycles by an amount as great as eight
minutes of arc. " Out of these eight minutes," said Kepler,
" we will construct a new theory that will explain the motions
of all the planets."
The history of the succeeding century of astronomy need not
be recapitulated here (see 2.811). The earth yielded its place as
the centre of the universe, and the structure of cycles and
epicycles crumbled away. The laws of planetary motion were
determined with a precision which for the time appeared to be
final. The mechanism underlying these laws was supposed to be
a " force " of gravitation. This force was supposed to act
between every pair of particles in the universe, its intensity
varying directly as the product of the masses of the particles
and inversely as the square of the distance separating them the
famous law of Newton.
In science, history repeats itself. Recent years have provided
a further instance of the general processes we have been con-
sidering. Under the Newtonian mechanism every planet would
describe a perfect ellipse about the sun as focus, and these
elliptic orbits would repeat themselves' indefinitely except in so
far as they were disturbed by the gravitational forces arising
from the other planets. But, after allowing for these disturbing
influences, Leverrier found that the orbit of the planet Mercury
was .rotating in its own plane at the rate of 43 seconds a century.
Various attempts have been made to reconcile this observed
motion with the Newtonian mechanism. The gravitational
forces arising from the known planets were demonstrably
unable to produce the motion in question, but it was possible
that Mercury's orbit was being disturbed by matter so far
unknown to us. Investigations were made as to the disturbance
to be expected from various hypothetical gravitating masses a
plajiet, or a ring of planets, between Mercury and the sun, a
ring of planets outside the orbit of Mercury, a belt of matter
extended in a flattened disc in a plane through the sun's centre,
an oblateness, greater than that suggested by the shape of the
sun's surface, in the arrangement of the internal layers of the
sun's mass. In every case the mass required to produce the
observed disturbance in the motion of Mercury would have
also produced disturbances not observed in the motions of the
other planets. The solution of the problem came only with the
theory of relativity. Just as Tycho's eight minutes of arc, in
the hands of Kepler and Newton, revolutionized mediaeval
conceptions of the mechanism of the universe, so Leverrier's
43 seconds of arc, in the hands of Einstein, has revolutionized
our igth-century conceptions, not only of purely astronomical
mechanism, but also of the nature of time and space and of the
fundamental ideas of science. The history of this revolution is
in effect the history of the theory of relativity. It falls naturally
into two chapters, the first narrating the building of an earlier
physical theory of relativity, and the second dealing with its
extension to gravitation.
The Physical Theory of Relativity. The earliest successful
attempt to formulate the laws governing the general motion of
matter is found in Newton's laws. The first law states that
" Every body perseveres in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a
right line unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed
tliereon."
In this law no distinction is made between rest and uniform
motion in a straight line, and the same is true of the remaining
laws. Hence follows the remarkable property to which Newton
draws explicit attention in his fifth corollary to the laws of
motion:
" The motions of bodies included in a given space are the same among
themselves, whether that space is at rest, or moves uniformly forwards
in a right line without any circular motion."
As a concrete application of this principle, Newton instances
" the experiment of a ship, where all motions happen after the
same manner whether the ship is at rest or is carried uniformly
forward in a right line." Just as a passenger on a ship in a still
sea could not determine, from the behaviour of bodies inside
the ship, whether the ship was at rest or moving uniformly
forward, so we cannot determine from the behaviour of bodies on
our earth whether the earth is at rest or not. We believe the
earth to be moving round the sun with a speed of about 30 km.
a second, so that there can be no question of the earth being
permanently at rest, but we are unable to determine whether
262
RELATIVITY
it is at rest at any specified point of its orbit, or, in the probable
event of its not being at rest, what its absolute velocity may be.
There is no more reason for thinking the sun, than the earth, to
be at rest. Newton wrote as follows:
" It is possible that in the remote regions of the fixed stars, or
perhaps far beyond them, there may be some body absolutely at
rest, but impossible to know, from the positions of bodies to one
another in our regions, whether any of these do keep the same posi-
tion to that remote body. It follows that absolute rest cannot be
determined from the position of bodies in our regions."
The above quotations are all from the first book of the
Principia Malhematica. Previous to them all Newton writes:
" I have no regard in this place to a medium, if any such there
is, that freely pervades the interstices between the parts of
bodies." The two centuries which elapsed after the publication
of the Principia witnessed a steady growth of the belief in the
reality of such an all-pervading medium. It was called the
aether, and by the end of these two centuries (1887) it was
almost universally believed that light and all electromagnetic
phenomena were evidence of actions taking place in this aether.
Light from the most distant stars was supposed to be transmitted
to us in the form of wave motions in the aether, and we could
see,the stars only because the sea of aether between us and these
stars was unbroken. It had been proved that if this sea of
aether existed it must be at rest, for the alternative hypothesis
that the aether was dragged about by ponderable bodies in
their motions had been shown to be incompatible with the
observed phenomenon of astronomical aberration and other
facts of nature (see 1.292). On this view it was no longer neces-
sary to go to Newton's " remote regions of the fixed stars, or
perhaps far beyond them," to find absolute rest. A standard of
absolute rest was provided by the aether which filled our
laboratories and pervaded all bodies. Owing to our motion it
would appear to be rushing past us, although without encounter-
ing any hindrance " like the wind through a grove of trees,"
to borrow the simile of Thomas Young. The determination of
the absolute velocity of the earth was reduced to the problem
of measuring the velocity of an aether current flowing past us
and through us.
In this same year (1887) the first experimental determination
of this velocity was attempted by the Chicago physicist A. A.
Michelson. The velocity of light was known to be, in round
numbers, 300,000 km. a second, a velocity which was believed
to represent the rate of progress of wave motion through the
aether. If the earth were moving through the aether with a
velocity of 1,000 km. a second, the velocity of light relative to
a terrestrial observer ought to be only 299,000 km. a second
when the light was sent in exactly the direction of the earth's
motion through the aether, but would be 301,000 km. a second
if the light was sent in the opposite direction. In more general
terms, if the earth were moving through the aether, the velocity
of light, as measured by a terrestrial observer, would depend
on the direction of the light, and the extent of this dependence
would give a measure of the earth's velocity. The velocity of
light along a single straight course does not permit of direct
experimental determination, but the same property of depend-
ence on direction ought to be true, although to a less extent,
of the average to-and-fro velocity of a beam of light sent along
any path and then reflected back along the same path.
It was through this property that Michelson attempted to
measure the earth's velocity through the aether.
The apparatus was simple in principle. A circular table ABCD
was arranged so as to be capable of slow rotation about its centre O.
Light sent along CO was divided up at O into two beams which
were made to travel along perpendicular radii OA, OB. The arms
OA, OB were made as equal as possible and mirrors were placed at
A and B to reflect the beams of light back to O. An extremely sensi-
tive optical method made it possible to detect even a very slight
difference in the times of the total paths of the two beams from O
back to O. There would in any case be a difference owing to the
necessarily imperfect equalization of the lengths of the arms OA, OB,
but if the earth is moving through the aether in some direction OP,
and if the table is made to rotate slowly about O, then this difference
ought itself to vary on account of the earth's motion through the
aether. Michelson, and afterwards Michelson and Money in
collaboration, attempted to estimate the amount of this variation.
No variation whatsoever could be detected, although their final
apparatus was so sensitive that the variation produced by a velocity
through the aether of even I km. a second ought to have shown itself
quite clearly.
Thus to the question " What is our velocity through the
aether ? " Nature appeared to give the answer " None." It
was never suggested that this answer should be accepted as
final; it would have brought us back to a geocentric universe.
Clearly either the question had been wrongly framed or the
answer wrongly interpreted. It was pointed out in 1893 by
Fitzgerald, and again, independently, in 1895, by Lorentz,
that the nidi result of the Michelson-Morley experiment could
be explained if it could be supposed that motion through the
aether altered the linear dimensions of bodies.
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
To be explicit, it was found that the experiment would invariably
and of necessity give a null result if it was supposed that every
body moving through the aether with a velocity was contracted
in the direction of its motion in the ratio
u 2 , . - ,
f I ~, C being .the
c
velocity of light. The supposition that such a contraction occurred
was not only permissible it was almost demanded by electrical
theory. For Lorentz had already shown that if matter were a purely
electrical structure, the constituent parts would of necessity read-
just their relative positions when set in motion through the aether
and the final position of equilibrium would be one showing precisely
the contraction just mentioned.
On this view, there was no prima-facie necessity to abandon
the attempt to measure the earth's velocity through the aether.
The answer to the problem had merely been pushed one stage
farther back, and it now became necessary only to measure the
shrinkage of matter produced by motion. It was obvious from
the first that no direct material measurement could disclose the
amount of this shrinkage, since any measuring rod would shrink
in exactly the same ratio as the length to be measured; but
optical and electrical methods appeared to be available. Experi-
ments to this end were devised and performed by Rayleigh, Brace,
Trouton and Noble, Trouton and Rankine and others. In
every case a null result was obtained. It appeared then that if
the earth moved through the aether this motion was concealed
by a universal shrinkage of matter, and this shrinkage was in
turn concealed by some other agency or agencies whose wit, so
far, appeared to be greater than that of man.
At this time the word " conspiracy " found its way into the
technical language of science. There was supposed to be a
conspiracy on the part of the various agencies of nature to
prevent man from measuring his velocity of motion in space.
If this motion produced a direct effect x on any phenomenon,
the other agencies of nature seemed to be in league to produce a
countervailing effect x. A long train of experiments had not
revealed, as was intended, our velocity through the aether;
they had merely created a conviction that it was beyond the
power of man to measure this velocity. The conspiracy, if such
there was, appeared to have been perfectly organized.
A perfectly organized conspiracy of this kind differs only in
name from a law of nature. To the inventor who tries to devise
a perpetual-motion machine it may well appear that the forces
of nature have joined in a conspiracy to prevent his machine
from working, but wider knowledge shows that he is in conflict
not with a conspiracy, but with a law of nature the conservation
of energy. In 1905 Einstein, crystallizing an idea which must
RELATIVITY
263
have been vaguely present in many minds, propounded the
hypothesis that the apparent conspiracy might be in effect a
law of nature. He suggested, tentatively, that there might be
a true law to the effect that " it is of necessity impossible to
determine absolute motion by any experiment whatever."
This hypothetical law may again be put in the equivalent form :
" The phenomena of nature will be the same to two observers
who move with any uniform velocity whatever relative to one
another." This may be called the hypothesis of relativity.
The hypothesis in itself was not of a sensational character.
Indeed, from the quotations which have already been given
from Newton's works, it appears probable that Newton himself
would have accepted the hypothesis without hesitation: he
might even have regarded it as superfluous. The true significance
of the hypothesis can only be understood by a reference
to the scientific history of the two centuries which had elapsed
since Newton. The Newtonian view that absolute rest was to
be found only " in the remote regions of the fixed stars, or perhaps
far beyond them," had given place to a belief that absolute
rest was to be found all around us in an aether which permeated
all bodies. What was striking about the hypothesis was its
implication either that we could not measure the velocity
relative to ourselves of a medium which surrounded us on all
sides, or else that no such medium existed.
The hypothesis demanded detailed and exhaustive examina-
tion. It was for the mathematician to test whether the hypothe-
sis was in opposition to known and established laws of physics,
and to this task Einstein, Lorentz and others set themselves.
If a single firmly established law proved to be in opposition to
the hypothesis, then of course the hypothesis would require to
be abandoned. It was unlikely that such an event would occur
among the well-established laws, for if it did, the phenomena
governed by that law would enable direct measurement to be
made of the earth's velocity through the aether, a measurement
which had so far eluded all attempts of experimenters. It was
among the more obscure and less well-established laws, if any-
where, that discrepancies were to be looked for.
It is impossible here to give a complete account of the many
tests to which the relativity hypothesis has been subjected. The
result of all can be summed up in one concise and quite general
statement: Wherever the hypothesis of relativity has appeared
to be in conflict with known or suspected natural laws, further
experiment, where possible, has, without a single exception,
shown the laws to be erroneous, and has moreover shown the
alternative laws suggested by the hypothesis of relativity to be
accurate. It is only in somewhat exceptional cases that the
hypothesis of relativity of itself suffices to determine fully the
form of a natural law; these cases constitute the most striking
triumphs of the theory. As instances may be mentioned the
determination of the law connecting the mass of an electron with
its velocity; of the law expressing the velocity of light through
a transparent medium rn motion (Fizeau's water-tube experi-
ment); and of the formulae for the magnetic forces on moving
dielectric media (experiments of Eichenwald and H. A. Wilson). 1
Befo e passing on from the general statement which has been
made, particular mention must be made of one special case.
A natural law which was at an early stage seen to be in conflict
with the hypothesis of relativity was Newton's famous law of
gravitation namely, that every particle of matter attracts
every other particle with a force proportional to the product of
the two masses, and to the inverse square of their distance
apart. Either, then, Newton's great law had to be abandoned,
or els; the hypothesis of relativity had to be discarded, in which
case it would immediately become possible, in theory at least,
to determine the earth's velocity through space by gravitational
m~ans. It is the choice between these two alternatives that has
led to the most surprising developments of the theory of relativity;
and to these we shall return later.
1 For references to the original papers dealing with these and
other tests of the hypothesis of relativity see Cunningham, The
Principle of Relativity, or J. H. Jeans, Mathematical Theory of
Electricity and Magnetism (4th ed.).
Space and Time. The hypothesis of relativity, as has already
been explained, postulates that the phenomena of nature will
be the same to any two observers who move relative to one
another with any uniform velocity whatever. The hypothesis
has been so amply tested as regards all optical and electromag-
netic phenomena that no doubt is felt, or can rationally be felt,
as to its truth with respect to these phenomena. The hypothesis
can be examined and developed in two opposite directions. We
may, on the one hand, proceed from the general hypothesis to
the detailed laws implied in it; this has already been done, with
completely satisfactory results as regards confirmation of the
hypothesis. Or we may regard the hypothesis of relativity as
being itself a detailed law and attempt to generalize upward to
something still wider. It is this possibility which must for the
moment claim our attention.
In 1905 Einstein examined in full the consequences of the
hypothesis that one simple optical phenomenon namely, the
transmission of a ray of light in free space was, in accordance
with the hypothesis of relativity, independent of the velocity
of the observer. If an aether existed, and provided a fixed
framework of reference, then light set free at any instant would
obviously travel with a velocity which would appear to an
observer at rest in this aether to be the same in all directions,
and the wave front at any instant would be a sphere having the
observer as centre. On the hypothesis of relativity the phenom-
enon of light transmission must remain unaffected by the motion
of the observer, so that the light must appear to a moving observer
also, to travel with a uniform velocity in all directions, and-thus
to the moving observer also the wave front must appear to be a
sphere of which he will be the centre. It is, however, quite
obvious that the same spherical wave front cannot appear to
each of two observers who have moved some distance apart to
be centred round himself, unless the use either of the common
conceptions of science or of the ordinary words of language is
greatly changed. In fig. 2 it is not possible in ordinary language
that both O and P should at the same instant be at the centre of
the sphere ABC. The change to which Einstein was forced is
one which has an intimate bearing upon our fundamental
conceptions of the nature of space and time; this change it will
be necessary to explain in some detail.
Suppose that two observatories, say Greenwich and Paris,
wish to synchronize their clocks, with a view to, let us say, an
exact determination of their longitude difference. Paris will
send out a wireless signal at exact midnight as shown by the
Paris clock, and Greenwich will note the time shown by the
Greenwich clock at the instant of receipt of the signal. Green-
wich will not, however, adjust their clock so as to show exact
midnight when the signal is received; a correction of about -ooi
second must be made to allow for the time occupied by the
signal in traversing the distance from Paris to Greenwich. To
turn to mathematical symbols, if t is the time at which a
signal is sent out from one station, the time of receipt at a second
X
station is taken to be t -\ , where x is their distance apart, and
c
c is the velocity of light. This represents the ordinary practice
of astronomers, but it is clear that if the earth is travelling through
a fixed aether with a velocity in the direction of the line joining
the two observatories, the velocity of transmission of the signal
relative to the two observatories will not be c but c+u, and the
time of receipt at the second station will be t a -\
c+u
Thus it
appears that it is impossible to synchronize two clocks unless
we know the value of , and that the ordinary practice of
astronomers will not, as they expect, synchronize their clocks,
but set them at an interval apart equal to
which may, to an approximation, be put equal to
C
According to the hypothesis of relativity, it is impossible
ever to determine the value of u, and so is impossible ever truly
264
RELATIVITY
to synchronize two clocks. Moreover, according to this hypoth-
esis, the phenomena of nature go on just the same whatever
the value of u, so that the want of synchrony cannot in any way
show itself in fact, if it did, it would immediately become
possible to measure the effect and so arrange for true synchrony.
As the earth moves in its orbit, the value of u changes, so
that its value in the spring, for instance, will be different from
its value in the autumn. One pair of astronomers may attempt
to synchronize a pair of clocks in the spring, but their synchro-
nization will appear faulty to a second pair who repeat the deter-
mination in the autumn. There will, so to speak, be one syn-
chrony for the spring and another for the autumn, and neither
pair of astronomers will be able to claim that their results
are more accurate than those of their colleagues. More generally
we may say that different conceptions of synchrony will cor-
respond to different velocities of translation.
These elementary considerations bring us to the heart of
the problem which we illustrated diagrammatically in fig. 2.
The observer at O in the diagram will have one conception of
simultaneity, while the second observer who moves from O to P
will, on account of his different velocity, have a different con-
ception of simultaneity. The instants at which the wave front
of the light signal from O reaches the points A, B, C in the diagram
will be deemed to be simultaneous by the observer who remains
at O, but the observer who moves fron O to P will quite un-
consciously have different ideas asto simultaneity. At instants
which he regards as simultaneous the wave front will have
some form other than that of the sphere ABC surrounding O.
If the hypothesis of relativity is to be true in its application to
the transmission of light signals, this wave front must be a
sphere having P as its centre.
Einstein examined mathematically the conditions that this
should be possible. Unfortunately a precise statement of his
conclusions can only be given in mathematical language.
The observer who is supposed to remain at O in fig. 2 may be
supposed to make exact observations and to record these
observations in mathematical terms. To fix the positions of
points in space he will map out a " frame of reference " consisting
of three orthogonal axes, and use Cartesian coordinates x, y, z,
to specify the projections along these axes of the radius from the
origin to any given point. He will also use a time coordinate t
which may be supposed to specify the time which has lapsed since
a given instant, as measured by a clock in his possession. Any
observations he may make on the transmission of light signals
can be recorded in the form of equations between the four
coordinates x, y, z, t. For instance, the circumstance that light
travels from the origin with the same velocity c in all directions
will be expressed by the equation (of the wave front):
The second observer who moves from O to P will also construct
a frame of reference, and we can simplify the problem by
supposing that his axes are parallel to those already selected
by the first observer. His coordinates, to distinguish them from
those used by the first observer, may be denoted by the accented
letters x', y', z', t'. If his observations also are to show light
always to travel with the same velocity c in all directions, the
equation of the wave front, as observed by him, must be:
*' 2 +y 2 +2 /2 -^'=o. 2 ... (2)
A 19th-century mathematician would have insisted that
x, y, z, t must be connected with x', y', z', t' by the simple rela-
tions:
x' = x u t
y'=y
Z'=Z
t'=t
(A)
but it is obvious that if these relations hold, then equation (i)
cannot transform into equation (2). Einstein finds that equation
t (i) will transform into equation (2) provided the coordinates
*, y, z, t of the first observer are connected with the coordinates
*', y', z', t' of the second observer by the equations:
y'=y
z'=z
(x-ut) 1
(B)
/ ^ ^
where j3 stands for ( I ^?
To form some idea of the physical meaning of these equations,
it will be advantageous to consider the simple case in which
the first observer is at rest in the aether while the second moves
through the aether with velocity u. The points of difference
between equations (B) and (A) then admit of simple explanation.
The factor /3 in the first of equations (B) is simply, according
to the suggestion of Fitzgerald and Lorentz already mentioned,
the factor according to which all lengths parallel to the axis of
x must be adjusted on account of motion through the aether
with velocity . The moving observer must correct his lengths
by this factor, and he must correct his times by the same factor
in order that the velocity of propagation of light along the axis
of x may still have the same velocity c; this explains this presence
of the multiplier /3 in the last of equations (B). The one remain-
ing difference between the two sets of equations, namely the
replacement of t in (A) by / - in (B), represents exactly the
C
want of synchrony which, as we have already seen, is t be
expected in the observations of two observers whose velocity
differs by a velocity .
Although the equations admit of simple illustration by con-
sidering the case in which one observer is at rest in a supposed
aether, it will be understood that the equations are more
general than the illustration. They are in no way concerned
with the possibility of an observer being at rest in an aether, or
indeed with the existence of an aether at all. Their general
interpretation is this: If one observer O, having any molion
whatever, finds, as a matter of observation, that light for him
travels uniformly in all directions with a constant velocity c,
then a second observer P, moving relative to O with a constant
velocity M along the axis of x, will find, as a matter of observation,
that light, for him also, travels uniformly in all directions
with the same constant velocity c, provided he uses, for his
observations, coordinates which are connected with the coordi-
nates of O by equations (B).
This is the meaning that was attached to the equations by
Einstein in 1905, but the equations had been familiar to mathe-
maticians before this date. They had in fact been discovered by
Lorentz in 1895 as expressing the condition that all electro-
magnetic phenomena, including of course the propagation of
light, should be the same for an observer moving through the
aether with velocity u as for an observer at rest in the aether.
For this reason the transformation of coordinates specified
by these equations is universally spoken of as a " Lorentz
transformation." What Einstein introduced in 1905 was not
a new system of equations but a new interpretation of old
equations. The two obs0vers who used the coordinates x, y,
z, t and x 1 ', y', z', I' had been regarded by Lorentz as being one
at rest in an aether and one in motion with a velocity u; for
Einstein they were observers moving with any velocities what-
ever subject to their relative velocity being u. Lorentz had
regarded t as the true time and t' as an artificial time. If the
observer could be persuaded to measure time in this artificial
way, setting his clocks wrong to begin with and then making
them gain or lose permanently, the effect of his supposed artifici-
ality would just counterbalance the effects of his motion through
the aether. With Einstein came the conception that both times,
/ and /', had precisely equal rights to be regarded as the true
time. The measure t' is precisely that which would be adopted
naturally by any set of observers, or race of men, who disregarded
their steady motion through space; their adoption of it would
be above criticism if, as Einstein suggested, their motion
through space had no influence on material phenomena, and it
represents, as we have seen, the usual practice of astronomers
in comparing time at different places. From this point of view,
RELATIVITY
265
neither measure of time is more accurate or more logical than
the other. There are as many ways of measuring time as there
are observers, and all are right.
The investigator who is trying to discover laws of nature will,
in general, require to measure either directly or indirectly
both time and space. If, to take a simple case, he is studying
the motion of a single particle, he will measure out the position
of the particle at definite instants as determined by his clock.
He may specify the position of the particle at any instant by
three measurements in space for instance, he may say that
two seconds after his particle started it was 6 ft. to the E. of the
point from which it started, 9 ft. to the N. and 12 ft. vertically
upward. The mathematician would express this by taking
axes x, y, z to the E., to the N. and vertically upwards, and
saying that at time t=2 the particle had coordinates * = 6,
y = 9, 2=12. Or he might, putting his time coordinate / on the
same footing as the space coordinates x, y, z, simply say that
x=6, y = 9, 2=12, t=2 represented one position of the particle.
A complete set of readings of this type, each consisting of values
of four coordinates, would give the complete history of the
motion of the particle.
Such sets of simultaneous measurements form the common
material of investigations in both pure and applied science.
For instance, the engineer may measure the extension of a
sample of steel corresponding to different loads; the electrician
may measure the amount -of light given by an electric filament
corresponding to different amounts of current passed through it.
In each of these cases there are only two quantities to be meas-
ured simultaneously, and an investigator can conveniently
represent the result of the whole series of his measurements in
graphical form; a single reading is represented by a point whose
distances from two fixed perpendicular lines represent the quanti-
ties measured, and the curve obtained by joining these single
points will give all the information contained in the whole set
of readings.
We have seen that, in studying the motion of a particle in
space, four sets of quantities must be measured, so that the results
obtained cannot be plotted graphically on a piece of paper.
Their proper representation demands a four-dimensional space,
in which x, y, z and t are taken as coordinates. The practical
importance of such graphical representation is nil, since it is
impossible to construct a four-dimensional graph, but its theoreti-
cal importance to the theory of relativity is immense. For if
the hypothesis of relativity is true, then the four-dimensional
graphs of any natural event constructed by all observers, no
matter what their relative motions, will be identical. The
influence of their motion will be shown only in that the axes of
x, y, 2 and t will be different for different observers, and the
relations between these sets of axes will be those given by the
foregoing equations (B).
The importance of this conception can hardly be overestimated,
and it may be well to consider it further with the help of an
illustrative example. Imagine a number of aeroplanes flying
over England, and, in order to eliminate one of the three direc-
tions in space -the vertical let us limit them to fly always at
the same height, say 1,000 ft. above sea-level. Imagine a number
of similar plates of glass prepared, each marked faintly with an
outline map of England and with lines of latitude and longitude.
Suppose that at 12 h. o m. G.M.T. a plate is taken and the
position of each aeroplane marked by a thick black dot. At 12 h.
i m. let a second plate be taken and similarly marked, and let
this be done every minute for an hour. The 60 plates so marked
will constitute a record of the motion of each aeroplane within
this hour. If, now, we place the plates in order, one above the
other, on a horizontal table, the mass of glass so formed will
present a graphical representation, in three dimensions, of the
motions of all the aeroplanes. In this graph the two horizontal
coordinates represent motions in any two rectangular directions
over England, say E. and N., while the third coordinate the
vertical represents time. The individual black dots which
represent the positions of any one aeroplane will form a dotted
curve, and this curve gives a graphical representation of the
motion of the particular aeroplane. Our rectangle of glass
contains the history, for one hour, of all the aeroplanes in graphi-
cal form.
To represent the motion of particles in the whole world of
space a four-dimensional graph is required. The four-dimensional
space in which it is constructed may, following the usual termi-
nology, be spoken of as a four-dimensional continuum. The
history of any particle in the universe just as that of any
aeroplane flying over England will be represented by a con-
tinuous line in the continuum, and this is called the " world
line " of the particle. If the hypothesis of relativity is true the
same continuum and the same world lines will represent the
history of the particles of the universe equally well for all
observers, the influence of their motions being shown only
through their choosing different axes in the continuum for their
axes of space and time. Thus the continuum must be thought
of as something real and objective, but the choice of axes is
subjective and will vary with the observer, the relation between
different choices being expressed mathematically by our equa-
tions (B), the equations of the Lorentz transformation. An
inspection of these equations shows that the sets of axes chosen
by different observers have different orientations in the con-
tinuum, so that what one observer describes as a pure space
interval will appear to another to be a mixture of time and space.
The instant of time and point in space at which any event
occurs can be fixed by a single point in the continuum, so that
the interval between two events will be represented by a finite
line. The events and the interval between them are absolute,
but the interval will be split up into time and space in different
ways by different observers. The interval between any two
events, such as the great fire of London and the outBurst on
the star Nova Persei, may be measured by one set of observers
as so many years and so many millions of miles, but another set
of observers may divide the interval quite differently. For
instance a terrestrial astronomer may reckon that the outburst
on Nova Persei occurred a century before the great fire of London,
but an astronomer on the Nova may reckon with equal accuracy
that the great fire occurred a century before the outburst on
the Nova. A third astronomer may insist that the events were
simultaneous. All will be equally right, although none will be
right in an absolute sense. At this stage we may notice one
respect in which our pile of glass plates failed to represent the
true continuum. The mass of glass was stratified into different
plates which represent different times for one particular observer.
To obtain a section which would represent what an observer
in motion relative to this first observer could regard as simul-
taneous positions of the aeroplanes, we should have to cut the
mass of glass on the slant. The continuum is more closely
represented by our plates of glass if they are annealed into a
solid mass from which all trace of the original stratification is
made to disappear. All observers, no matter what their motion,
are then equally free to cut a section to represent their individual
ideas of simultaneity.
Thus space and time fade into subjective conceptions,
just as subjective as right hand or left hand, front and behind,
are in ordinary life. The continuum alone is objective and may
be thought of as containing an objective record of the motion
of every particle of the universe. The curve in which this
record is embodied is spoken of as the world line of the particle
in question. To use the words of Minkowski: " Space in itself
and time in itself sink to mere shadows, and only a kind of union
of the two retains an independent existence."
Gravitation and Relativity. Since all the phenomena of light
and of electromagnetism are believed, on almost incontrovertible
evidence, to be in accordance with the hypothesis of relativity,
it is necessarily impossible to determine absolute velocity by
optical or gravitational means. On the other hand, as we have
already mentioned, the Newtonian law of gravitation is readily
seen to be inconsistent with the hypothesis of relativity. Three
alternatives are open:
(i.) The Newtonian law may be true, in which case it must be
possible to determine absolute velocity by gravitational means.
266
RELATIVITY
(ii.) The Newtonian law may be untrue in its original form,
but may become true when amended so as to conform to the
relativity hypothesis.
(iii.) Neither of the foregoing possibilities may be true.
Alternative (i.) was explored by Sir Oliver Lodge, who,
assuming the exact truth of the Newtonian law of gravitation,
deduced that the observed motion of the perihelion of Mercury
could be accounted for if the sun were moving through space
with a velocity of about 70 km. a second in a certain direction.
This investigation had to be abandoned when it was shown by
Eddington that a similar discussion of the motions of the other
planets would lead to vastly different values for the sun's
velocity. Alternative (ii.) was explored by Einstein and others,
but was found to lead to a motion of the perihelion of Mercury
equal only to one-sixth part of that actually observed.
Alternative (iii.) remained with its innumerable possibilities.
Einstein commenced his attack on the problem by eliminating
all possibilities which did not conform to two general principles.
Thi first of these was the principle of relativity. Inasmuch as
all physical phenomena except gravitation were believed to
conform to this principle, it was natural to try, as a working
hypothesis, the effect of assuming gravitation also to conform.
Th: second principle was the so-calbd principle of equivalence,
and this demands a word of explanation.
To our children we explain that an apple falls to the ground
because a force of gravitation inherent in the earth's mass impels
the apple towards the centre of the earth. Most schoolboys
know that this is not quite the whole story; the path of the
apple is more accurately determined by supposing the apple to
be acted on simultaneously by two forces a gravitational
force of'attraction towards the earth's centre and the centrifugal
force arising frpm the earth's rotation. It is only because the
earth's rotation is comparatively slow that the conception of an
attraction towards the earth's centre gives a tolerably plausible
account of the fall of the apple. If the earth rotated at 17 times
its present rate objects would not fall, even approximately,
towards the earth's centre; they would fall always parallel to
the earth's axis, and the inhabitants of the northern hemisphere
might explain this as arising from a force of repulsion inherent
in the pole star. If the earth rotated many times faster even than
this, bodies would fall always perpendicularly away from the
earth's axis, and this might be interpreted as arising from a
gravitational repulsion residing in the earth's axis.
These illustrations will show that it is easy to confuse accelera-
tion arising from the earth's rotation with gravitational attrac-
tion. We may go further and say that it is impossible to dis-
tinguish between the effects of gravitational attraction and the
effects of acceleration of any kind whatever. Every aeroplanist
knows this to his sorrow; it is inherently impossible to devise
any instrument which shall show the direction of the vertical
in an aeroplane, since an acceleration of the aeroplane produces
on any instrument whatever, effects which are indistinguishable
from those of gravity. From such considerations Einstein was
led to his principle of equivalence, which may be enunciated as
follows:
" A gravitational field of force at any point of space is in every
way equivalent to an artificial field of force resulting from accelera-
tion, so that no experiment can possibly distinguish between them."
Guided by these two principles relativity and equivalence
Einstein was led to the view that all gravitational " fields of
force " must be illusions. The apparent " force " arises solely
from acceleration and there is no other kind of gravitational
force at all. In this statement, as in the statement of the
principle of equivalence above, the word acceleration is used in
its widest sense. Acceleration results not only from change in the
amount of a velocity, but from a change in its direction also.
For instance a motor-cyclist riding in a circle at a uniform speed
of 60 miles an hour will be the subject of an acceleration towards
the centre of the circle. He knows that the apparent force so
produced is just as real in its effects as gravitation, and to save
himself from falling as a result of its influence he must incline
the direction of his machine to the vertical.
It is clear that the acceleration or curvature of path which
figures as gravitation cannot be an acceleration or curvature
in ordinary three-dimensional space. Before the apple starts
to fall from the tree there is neither acceleration nor curvature,
and yet the apple is undoubtedly acted on by gravitation.
Moreover, this three-dimensional space is, as we have seen,
different for different observers it is a subjective and not an
objective conception, and the gravitation resulting from such a
curvature could not conform to the relativity condition. Einstein
was accordingly led to suppose that gravitation arose from
curvature in the four-dimensional space, or continuum, in which
time formed the fourth dimension. This continuum, as has
been seen, is objective and if the path of the particle can also
be made objective, the resulting gravitation will conform to the
relativity principle. The path of the particle in the continuum
is, however, simply its " world line," which we have already
had under discussion. This world line is determined by natural
laws, and if these are to be objective the specification of the
world h'ne must also be objective. There is, however, only one
specification of world lines in the continuum which is objective
in the sense that the same specification will give the same world
lines to observers moving with different velocities. It is that every
world line must be so drawn as to represent the shortest path
between any two points on it. Mathematically, lines which
satisfy this condition are known as geodesies. Thus Einstein
was led to suppose that world lines must be geodesies in the
four-dimensional continuum.
Consider for a moment a page of this volume as presenting
a two dimensional analogy of the continuum. The shortest
distance between any two points is of course the straight line
joining them, so that the geodesies are simply straight lines.
These possess no curvature of path and if they formed a true
analogy to the geodesies in the continuum there could clearly
be no explanation of gravitation of the type we have been
contemplating. There is, however, another type of two-dimen-
sional surface. It is represented by the surface of a solid body
such as a sphere say the earth. On the earth's surface the
geodesies are the great circles; every mariner or aeronaut who
desires to sail the shortest course between two points sails along
a great circle. To take a definite instance, the shortest course
from Panama to Ceylon is not along the parallel of lat. (about
9 N.) which joins them the aeronaut wishing to fly the shortest
course between the two countries will fly N.E. from Panama,
he will pass over England and finally reach Ceylon from the
north-west. The reader may rapidly verify this by stretching
a thread tightly over the surface of an ordinary geographical
globe. Let him now trace out the course on an ordinary Mercator
chart, and it will be found to appear very curved indeed the
course of the aeronaut will look surprisingly like that of a comet
describing an orbit under the attraction of a sun situated
somewhere near the middle of the Sahara.
The reader who performs these simple experiments will
understand how Einstein was led to suppose that gravitation
could be explained by a curvature inherent in the continuum.
The world lines of particles are geodesies but the space itself,
so to speak, provides the curvature. The curvature of path is
thrust upon the particle by the nature of the continuum, but
we, who until recently have been unaware even of the existence
of the continuum, have been tempted to ascribe it to the action
of a special agency which we have invented ad hoc and called
" gravitation." According to Einstein, it is no more accurate to
say that the earth attracts the moon than to say that the pockets
of an uneven billiard table repel the balls.
This train of thought may seem artificial. If so, the reason
is that we have not been able to explore the other possibilities
which have branched off our main line of thought. In point of
fact, Einstein found himself practically limited to the conclusion
we have stated. Not only so, but the actual type and degree of
curvature in the continuum prove to be uniquely fixed in terms of
the masses of the gravitating bodies. Thus Einstein, knowing
the mass of the sun, found himself in a position to predict
absolutely what the motion of the perihelion of Mercury ought
RENEVIER RENNENKAMPF
267
to be. It was found to be 42-9" a century, a figure which agreed
with observation to well within the limits of error of these
observations. The motions of the other planets, as predicted
by the theory of relativity, have also been found to agree with
those observed to within the errors of observation. This latter
test, however, is not a very stringent one, since the departures
from the motion predicted by the Newtonian law are too small
to admit of very precise measurement.
Einstein's theory requires us to suppose that the world line
of a ray of light also shall be a geodesic in the continuum. In
a gravitational field the curvature of the continuum will impose
a twist on the path of a ray of light. Einstein found in particular
that a ray of light which comes from a distant star and passes
near the edge of the sun on its journey ought to be bent, in its
passage past the sun, by an angle which should be 1-75" if
the ray just grazes the sun, and would be less in proportion to
the inverse distance from the centre of the sun for other rays.
The observatories of Greenwich and Cambridge dispatched
expeditions to test this prediction at the eclipse of 1919. It was
found that the stars which appeared near to the sun at the
instant of eclipse showed an appreciable displacement, as
compared with their normal positions, of the type required by
Einstein's theory. Exact measurement confirmed that the dis-
placement varied approximately as the inverse distance from the
sun, and that the displacement at the limb was sensibly equal to
Einstein's predicted value of 1-75". The Cambridge observers,
hampered by cloudy weather, obtained for this quantity the
value 1-61" =*= 0-30". The Greenwich observers obtained a
value of 1-98" =t 0-12", but it has sincebeen pointed out by
Prof. II. N. Russell that their photographs indicate a horizontal
and vertical scale difference of the order of i part in 12,000,
almost certainly due to a distortion of the coelostat mirror
under the sun's rays, and if the measures are corrected for this
the result is brought much closer to the theoretical prediction.
The theory makes one further prediction which admits of
experimental test. The atoms of any element, say calcium, may
be supposed to be formed according to a definite specification,
the terms of which depend neither on the velocity of a particular
observer nor on his position relative to the gravitational fields
of the universe. It can be deduced that the light received from
a calcium atom situated in the intense gravitational field near
the sun's surface ought to be of slower period, and therefore of
redder colour, than the similar light emitted by terrestrial atoms.
To be more precise, the Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum
ought to show a displacement to the red; this displacement
ought to be homologous, and should be of amount 0-008 A
units at the cyanogen band X 3883 at which observations
have been chiefly made. Attempts to test this prediction led
to strangely discordant results. All observers agreed in finding
some effect of the kind predicted, but its amount was always
less than the predicted amount, varying from almost nil (St. John,
1917) to nearly the full amount to be expected (Evershed, 1918;
Grebe and Bachem, 1919). In 1921 the position with regard to
this test still remained one of great uncertainty and confusion.
It will have been seen that the restricted physical theory of
relativity introduced a revolution into the foundations of
scientific thought by destroying the objectivity of time and
space. The gravitational theory has effected a hardly less
important revolution by destroying our belief in the reality of
gravitation as a " force." The physicist has, however, to deal
with other " forces " besides those of gravitation, and the
question inevitably arises as to whether these too must be
regarded as illusions, arising only from our faulty interpretation
of the special metrical properties of the continuum. Prof. H.
Weyl has pointed out that the continuum imagined by Einstein,
and found to be adequate to explain gravitational phenomena,
is not, in respect of its metrical properties, the most general
type of continuum imaginable. A further generalization is
possible and the new curvatures introduced must of necessity
introduce new apparent forces other than gravitational. Wcyl's
investigation shows that these new forces would have exactly
the properties of the electric and magnetic forces with which we
are familiar. Indeed, the predicted forces coincide so completely
j with known electromagnetic forces that no experimental test of
\ Weyl's theory is possible. Had there been the slightest divergence
between the forces predicted by Weyl and those predicted by
ordinary electromagnetic theory, experiment could have been
i asked to decide between the two, but no such divergence exists.
It may, however, be said that Weyl's theory makes it highly
probable that all forces reduce to nothing more than our sub-
jective interpretations of special properties of the continuum in
which we live our lives.
Finally a thought may be given to the position, under the new
conceptions introduced by the theory of relativity, of the electro-
magnetic aether. At one stage in the history of science there was
a tendency to fill space with aethers, to the extent almost of one
aether for every set of phenomena requiring explanation. That
stage passed, and by the end of the igth century only one aether
received serious consideration, the so-called electromagnetic
aether of Faraday and Maxwell. This aether gave a plausible
mechanical explanation of electrostatic phenomena, although it
was more than doubtful whether it could account for (-he
electromagnetic phenomena from which it took its name, and it
was comparatively certain that it could not account for gravita-
tion. It gave, however, a satisfactory explanation of the prop-
agation of waves of light they were simply waves in the
aether and travelled with an absolute velocity c determined
once and for all by the structure of the aether. On this view it
was quite certain that an observer moving through the aether
with a velocity u would measure the velocity of light travelling
in the same direction as himself as c-u. Relativity teaches that
this velocity is always precisely c, and this in itself disposes of the
aether of Faraday and Maxwell. Whether any new aether will
be devised to replace it remains to be seen, but none appears
to be necessary. Any aether which can be imagined would
appear to depend upon an objective separation of time and
space. Relativity does not deny that such an objective separation
may, in the last resort, really exist, but it shows that no material
phenomena are concerned with such a separation. By a very
slight turn of thought, the primary postulate of relativity may
be expressed in the form that the material world goes on as
thouh no aether existed.
To the relativist the essential background to the picture of
the universe is not the varying agitation of a sea of aether in a
three-dimensional space but a tangle of world lines in a four-
dimensional space. Moreover, it is only the intersection of the
world lines that are important. An intersection at a point in the
continuum represents an event, while the part of a world line
which is free from intersections represents the mere uneventful
existence of a particle or a pulse of light. And so, since our whole
knowledge of the universe is made up of events, it comes about
that the tangle of world lines may be distorted and bent to any
degree we please; so long as the order of the intersections is not
altered, it will still represent the same universe. And so the last
function of the aether, that of providing a scale of absolute
measurements in space, becomes a superfluity. To the physicist
who urges that space measurements without an underlying
aether become meaningless, the relativist can reply that time-
measurements without an underlying " time-aether " are equally
meaningless. A " time-aether " has never been regarded as a
necessity, and the relativist feels that the " space-aether " has
no greater claim to retention. (J. H. JE.)
RENEVIER, EUGENE (1831-1906), Swiss geologist (see
23.98), died at Lausanne May 4 1906.
RENNENKAMPF, PAUL (1854-1918), Russian general, was
born in 1854 and entered the army in 1873. On passing out
of the Academy of the General Staff in 1882, he was appointed
to the General Staff. From 1895 to 1899 he commanded a
regiment and in IQOO he was promoted to the rank of general.
In the war with China in 1900 he distinguished himself by his
resolute action when commanding a column in Manchuria. In
the war with Japan 1904-5 he commanded first a Cossack
division, and later large forces of all arms, and again won dis-
tinction by his energy. From 1905 to 1913 he was a corps
268
RENNER RHODE ISLAND
commander and in 1913 he was appointed to command the
troops of the Vilna Military District. At the beginning of
military operations in Aug. 1914 he commanded the I. Army
which invaded Eastern Prussia. His inaction during the battle
of Tannenberg, where the neighbouring army of Samsonov was
destroyed Aug. 26-29, was a bitter disappointment, and, by
the masses of the people, he was even accused of treachery.
Personally brave, daring in small actions, Rennenkampf, as an
army commander, showed himself in the strategic sphere alter-
nately rash and timid, owing to his inability to grasp the situa-
tion as a whole. At the beginning of 1915 he was recalled from
his duties of army commander, and later, under the pressure
of public indignation, he was dismissed from the service. In
1918 he was killed by the Bolsheviks.
RENNER, KARL (1870- ), Austrian politician, was born
on Dec. 14 1870, the son of a peasant, at Unter-Tannowitz,
Moravia. He studied law at the university of Vienna, occupying
himself especially with questions tof administration, and early
attached himself to the Social Democratic party. He became an
official in the library of the Rcichsrat, and under the pseudonyms
of " Synopticus " and " Rudolf Springer " showed a fertile
literary activity, especially in connexion with the problems of
the Austrian State, whose existence he justified on geographical,
economic and political grounds. On the nationality question
he upheld the so-called "personal autonomy," on the basis
of which the super-national state should develop, and thereby
influenced the programme and tactics of the Social Democratic
party in dealing with it. As a theorist he was reckoned as
one of the leaders of Neo-Marxism. He had been a deputy since
1907 and after the revolution of Oct. 1918 he became state
chancellor of the republic of Austria, headed the Austrian peace
delegation at St. Germain, and took over, after Otto Bauer's
retirement, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which he conducted
from the time of the retirement of the Coalition Cabinet in the
summer of 1920 until the new elections in Oct. 1920. His princi-
pal works are: Grundlagen und Entwicklungsziele der oeslcrrcich-
ischen-ungarischen Monarchic (1906); Der Kampf dcr oester-
reichischen Nalionen um den Staat; Marxismus, Krieg und
Internationale.
RENOIR, AUGUSTS (1841-1919), French painter (see 23.101),
died on the Riviera Dec. 3 1919.
REPARATION COMMISSION: see PEACE CONFERENCE; also
31.123 and 246.
REPIN, ILJA JEFIMOVICH (1844-1918), Russian painter
(see 23.105), died at Knokkala, on the Finnish frontier, July 17
1918.
REPPLIER, AGNES (1858- ), American writer, was born
in Philadelphia April i 1858. She was of French extraction
and was educated at the Sacred Heart Convent at Torresdale,
near Philadelphia. She* was one of America's chief representa-
tives of the discursive essay, displaying wide reading and apt
quotation. Her writings contain much sound literary criticism
as well as caustic comments on contemporary life. These
characteristics were already apparent in the first essay which
she contributed to the Atlantic Monthly (April 1886), entitled
" Children, Past and Present." In 1902 the university of
Pennsylvania conferred upon her the degree of Litt.D. She
was the author of Books and Men (1888); Essays in Miniature
(1892); Essays in Idleness (1893); Philadelphia the Place and
the People (1898); Compromises (1904); In our Convent Days
(1905); Americans and Others (1912); Counter-Currents (1915).
RESZKE, EOOUARD DE (1855-1917), operatic singer (see
23.201), died at Garnek, Poland, May 29 1917.
REVILLE, ALBERT (1826-1906), French Protestant theologian
(see 23.224), died in Paris Oct. 25 1906. His son, JEAN REVILLE
(b. 1854), died in 1908.
REYER, ERNEST (1823-1909), French musical composer
(see 23.225), died at Lavandou-sur-Huyeres Jan. 15 1909.
REYNOLDS, OSBORNE (1842-1912), British engineer, was
born at Belfast in 1842. He was educated at Dedham grammar
school and at Cambridge, and in 1868 became professor of
engineering at Owens College, Manchester, holding that post
for nearly 40 years. He was elected F.R.S. in 1877. He was
the author of over 70 papers on mechanics and physics published
in the transactions of learned societies, notably Sub-Mechanics
of the Universe, issued by the Royal Society, whose gold medal
hewonini888. (For his work .see 3. 581; 5.6458.783; 14.61; 22.806;
25.444; 28.428.) He died at Watchet, Som., Feb. 21 1912.
REYNOLDS, STEPHEN (1881-1919), English author, was born
at Devizes May 16 1881. Educated at Manchester University
and the Ecole des Mines at Paris, he became sub-editor of an
Anglo-French review in 1902 and the following year began an'
association with the Woolley brothers, fishermen of Sidmouth,
which lasted for some years. He thus familiarized himself with
fishing and the fisherman's point of view so far as to become a
recognised authority on the subject and a medium of communica-
tion between fishermen and the Government. He was a member
of the committee of inquiry into Devon and Cornwall Fisheries
(1912), and of the departmental committee on Inshore Fisheries
(1913), and in that year he was appointed adviser on Inshore
Fisheries to the Development Commission. In 1914 he became
also resident inspector of fisheries for the S.W. area. His
publications included A Poor Man's House (1908); Alongshore
(1910); The Lower Deck, the Navy and the Nation (1912); as well
as a novel, The Holy Mountain, (1909) and a volume of talcs.
He died at Sidmouth Feb. 14 1919.
RHODE ISLAND (see 23.248). The pop. of the state in 1920
was 604,397; in 1910, 542,610; an increase for the decade of
61,787, or 11-4 per cent. Rhode Island was still in 1920 the
most densely populated state, having 566-4 inhabitants to the
sq. m. (1910, 508-5)^ Every Federal census since 1790 has
shown an increase in density, and at a rate faster than that of
the United States as a whole.
The percentages of urban and rural pop. were in 1920: urban,
97'5%; rural, 2-5%; in 1910: urban, 96-7%; rural, 3-3%. The fol-
lowing are the cities of Rhode Island having a pop. of over 20,000
in 1920 and their percentage of increase in the decade 1910-20:
Providence .
Pawtucket .
Woonsocket
Newport
Cranston
Central Falls
East Providence
1920
1910
Increase
per cent
237.595
64,248
43.496
30.255
29,407
24,174
21.793
224,326
51,622
38,125
27.149
21,107
22,754
15,808
5-9
24-5
14-1
n-4
39-3
6-2
37-9
The proportion of native-born in 1915 (state enumeration) was
68-8%; of foreign-born, 31-2%. The foreign-born whites numbered
in 1920, 173,366, a decrease of 2-6% from 178,025 in 1910. During
the 10 years there has been a steady change in the proportions of
the various foreign elements in the population. Up to 1910 the largest
foreign-born element was Irish. In 1920 the Irish were numerically
inferior to the British and English-Canadian, the Italian, and the
French-Canadian. There has been a remarkable increase in the
number of Italian, Portuguese and Polish immigrants, and a notice-
able influx of Armenians and Syrians. " Foreign stock," i.e. foreign-
born and native-born of foreign parents, constituted, in 1915, 63-3%
of the whole population.
Agriculture. There has been a decline in farm acreage of 29-3%
in 30 years to 331, 600 ac. in 1920, and an even greater decline, Si' 2 %>
in improved acreage to 132,855 ac. in 1920. The number of farms
has fallen from 5,292 in 1910 to 4,083 in 1920. On the other hand
there has been a rise in both the aggregate and the average value of
farms, and in the value of crops (value of land and improvements,
1900, $26,989,189; 1920, $33,636,766; value of crops, 1909, $2,986,-
816; 1919, $5,340,378).
Fisheries. Fishing has, on the whole, declined in relative im-
portance. The shell-fish industry suffered severe loss, owing to the
pollution of the Providence river and the upper waters of Narragan-
sett Bay. From 1907 to 1920 the leased oyster grounds declined
from 21,000 to 7,000 ac. ; the state rentals, from $136,000 to $40,000;
and the output during the oyster season from 10,000 gal. daily to
2,ooogallons. In 1920 the Commissioners of Shell Fisheries reported:
" The Providence river has been practically destroyed as a suitable
place for the production or growth of shell-fish as food," the result
of contamination.
Manufactures. Rhode Island is preeminently a manufacturing
state. In 1914 it ranked igth among the states in the value of its
manufactures. The number of persons engaged in manufacturing
and mechanical pursuits nearly doubled in 20 years (1900, 101,162;
1910, 156,898; 1920, 196,205). The number of factories increased
from 1,678 in 1900 to 2,829 in 1919; the capital invested in manu-
RHODES RHODESIA
269
facturing from $183,784,587 in 1900 to $304,595,000 in 1914; and
the value of all manufactured products from $184,074,378 in 1900
to 8346,962,500 in 1916. Wages paid to factory employees in 1914
totalled $58,784,000; value added to products by manufacture, $116,-
030,000. Children under 16 years employed in factories numbered,
in 1920, 7,243, of whom nearly 5,000 were in textile mills. The effect
of the World War upon child labour in Rhode Island may be seen
from the following statistics: in 1915 children under 16 years con-
stituted 3-16% of all the factory operatives; in 1918, 4-44%; in
1919, 3-96%; in 1920, 3-69%. Textiles still held in 1920 the first
place among the manufactures of the state, employing 83,204 per-
sons. From 1910 to 1920, woollen and worsted mills increased in
number from 88 to 103 (with 463,342 spindles and 9,304 looms) ;
in employees, from 24,924 to 29,500; in value of products, from $74,-
600,000 to 890,000,000. Cotton mills increased in number from 106
to 130 (with 2,595,395 spindles) ; in employees, from 28,786 to
37,382; and in value of products, from $50,313,000 to $67,500,000.
Over 7,000 were persons employed in bleaching and finishing, 6,000
in the manufacture of silk and silk goods, and nearly 3,000 in the
manufacture of hosiery and knit goods. The combined value of the
products of these factories exceeded $20,000,000. Webbing and
braid were also produced in large quantities; and in recent years
tire fabrics have become an increasingly important article of
manufacture. Third among the industries of Rhode Island in 1920
were the machinery and metal trades, with 25,197 employees, and
products valued at $45,000,000. In the manufacture of jewelry and
silverware Rhode Island ranked first among the states. In 1914 the
value of the jewelry produced was more than one-fourth of the total
for the whole United States. The number of persons employed in
making jewelry, silversmithing, reducing and refining gold and silver
in 1920 was 14,052, in 322 establishments; and the value of the
product was estimated at 837,500,000.
Transportation. The railway mileage within the state in 1920 was
209-49 m -i electric and street railways, 351-5 miles. The construc-
tion of a branch of the Grand Trunk Railway system from Palmer,
Mass., to Providence was projected in 1910; but work was sus-
pended in Nov. 1912, and has not been resumed. Considerable sums
have been spent by the Federal Government for the deepening of the
channel of Narragansett Bay, for harbour improvement at Provi-
dence, Newport, Westerly and Pawtucket, ana for the construction
of harbours of refuge at Block I. and Pt. Judith. The foreign im-
ports of the customs district of Rhode Island amounted in 1920 to
$8,252,046. Foreign and domestic commerce passing through Narra-
gansett Bay in 1914 amounted to 8320,195,277.
Finance. The position of the state, Dec. 31 1920, was: assessed
valuation, $988,061,741 ; rateable wealth, $1,745,715,365 (about 82,-
890 per capita); receipts, $6,909,172; expenditures, $6,187,173;
bonded debt, 810,832,000; sinking fund, $1,631,917. June 30 1920
there were in Rhode Island three state banks, 17 national banks, 13
trust companies, 15 savings banks, and 10 other institutions for
savings and loans; with total resources of $416,339,951. From June
30 1918 to June 30 1920 the assets of the state banks increased 47 %;
of the trust companies, 21 %; of the savings banks, 20%; and of the
national banks, II %. Deposits in the savings banks, June 30 1920,
were 8113,200,366, an average of $630 per account. The average
savings deposit in 1918 ($582.95) was the largest in any state.
Charitable and Penal Institutions. In 1917 the Board of Control
and Supply and the Board of Charities and Corrections were super-
seded by a State Penal and Charitable Commission. The number of
the inmates in the institutions under the supervision of the Com-
mission was, in 1919, 3,241 (468 less than in 1918); and the amount
expended was $1,189,956. The budget for 1921 called for $1,562,394,
to which should be added about 821,000 in aid of various private
charitable organizations.
Education. The total school population (age 5 to 15) in 1920 was
123,705, of whom 106,142, or85>5 %, were in school. There were 83,-
525 in public schools; 20,690 in parochial schools; and 1,927 in
private schools. The total expenditure for education in 1920 was
$4,493,772, of which $999,850 was contributed by the state, the
remainder by the towns. In addition to its expenditure for primary
and secondary instruction and for normal training, the state annually
votes modest subsidies for the R.I. State College; the R.I. School
of Design; the R.I. College of Pharmacy; the R.I. Historical So-
ciety; the Newport Historical Society; and about 70 public libraries,
with over 700,000 volumes. In April 1920 the name of the State
Normal school was changed to the R.I. College of Education. The
enrolment of the institution in 1920-1 was 774 students and 57
instructors; state appropriation, $86,000. The state also maintains
observation and training courses in various schools, and likewise
makes an annual grant of $5,000 to Brown University in support of
graduate courses in education. The R.I. State College at Kingston
had,mi92O-i, 345 students and 55 instructors, an income of $168,000,
and buildings valued at $500,000. The R.I. School of Design, Prov-
idence, has doubled in size since 1910; the number of students has
increased from 923 to 1,856; instructors from 50 to 108; funds from
$186,310 to $2,849,322; buildings from $220,000 to $650,000. Its
museum is considered the most valuable in New England, outside
of Boston. Providence College (Roman Catholic) was chartered in
1917, and opened for instruction in 1919, under the direction of the
Dominican Order, In 1920, $200,000 was raised for buildings. The
enrolment in 1920-1 (two classes) was 163 students; faculty, four-
teen. Brown University, the oldest (founded 1764) and largest
academic institution in the state, from 1911 to 1921 increased its
faculty from 85 to 107; its students from 944 to 1,367 (plus 881 in
extension courses); funds from $3,758,926*0 $6,600,000, with about
$1,750,000 of endowment subscriptions still to be paid in; volumes
in the library from 180,000 to 270,000. The Arnold Biological
Laboratory and Metcalf Hall have been added to the buildings;
and a new Chemical Laboratory and a Hall of Modern Languages
were in 1921 about to be erected. Providence is unusually rich in
libraries. Among the most important collections are those of the
Providence Public Library, 230,000 vol. ; the Providence Athenaeum,
95,000; the R.I. Historical Society, 50,000; the Annmary Brown
Memorial (founded by Gen. Rush C. Hawkins), containing a rare
collection of incunabula; and the Shepley collection on R.I. history,
25,000 volumes.
History. The political history of the state from 1910 to 1920
was comparatively uneventful. In 1911 an amendment to the
constitution provided for biennial election of the state officers
and Legislature. In 1909 the number of representatives in the
Lower House was fixed at 100; but repeated attempts to reform
the Senate and institute representation according to popula-
tion have uniformly been defeated. The city of Providence,
with 40% of the population of the state, has but one member
in a Senate of thirty-nine. The property qualification for the
full municipal franchise is still in force. In 1912 the number
of Congressional districts was increased from two to three. But
under a new apportionment on the basis of the census of 1920
the state would stand to lose a seat, unless the National House of
Representatives is enlarged. The presidential vote of the state
was cast in 1912 for Wilson, Democrat; in 1916 for Hughes,
Republican (though at the same time a Democratic U.S. Sena-
tor was elected) ; in 1920 for Harding, Republican. Rhode Island
ratified the Nineteenth (Woman Suffrage) Amendment to the
Federal Constitution; but, with Connecticut and New Jersey,
failed to ratify the Eighteenth (Prohibition) Amendment. In
1920 the state brought suit in the U.S. Supreme Court to test
the validity of the Amendment and of the Volstead Act. The
suit was dismissed. For the service in the World War Rhode
Island furnished 28,817 men. The National Guard in 1918
numbered 4,625 officers and men. Subscriptions to Liberty and
Victory loans amounted to $209,444,110.
The governors since 1910, all Republicans, were: Aram J.
Pothier, 1909-14; R. Livingston Beeckman, 1915-20; Emery J.
San Souci, 1921- .
BIBLIOGRAPHY. H. M. Chapin, Bibliography of Rhode Island
(1914); Cartography of Rhode Island (1915); Documentary History
of Rhode Island (2 vols., 1916, 1919); Rhode Island in the Colonial
Wars (1918); T. W. Bicknell, editor, History of the State of Rhode
Island and Providence Plantations (1920); The Story of Dr. John
Clarke (1915); A. B. Strickland, Roger Williams, Prophet and Pio-
neer of Soul-Liberty (1919); R.I. Historical Society, R.I. Historical
Collections, issued quarterly; Massachusetts Historical Society,
Commerce of Rhode Island 1726-1800; Charles Carroll, Public Edu-
cation in Rhode Island (1919). (T. C.)
RHODES, JAMES FORD (1848- ), American historian
(see 23.257), was awarded in 1910 the gold medal of the National
Institute of Arts and Letters. He published in 1913 Lectures on
the American Civil War (delivered at Oxford in 1912); in 1917
History of the Civil War; and in 1919 History of the United
States from Hayes to McKinley, being the eighth volume of his
History of the United States, of which the first appeared in 1893
and the seventh in 1906.
RHODESIA (see 23.259). The three divisions of which this
territory had consisted were reduced in 1911 to two by the amal-
gamation of North-Eastern and North- Western Rhodesia, thence-
forward known as Northern Rhodesia simply. The Zambezi is
the line of division between Southern and Northern Rhodesia,
and whereas geographically and in its political developments
Southern Rhodesia is part of South Africa, Northern Rhodesia
belongs geographically to Central Africa, it is not " a white man's
country " and its political future is not necessarily the same as
that of Southern Rhodesia. The administration of the two
regions was kept distinct, and in the present article this dis-
tinction is preserved wherever necessary. In 1921 Rhodesia
was still governed by the British South Africa (Chartered) Co.,
but measures were in progress to terminate its rule.
270
RHODESIA
Inhabitants. At the census of May 3 1921 the white inhabitants
of Southern Rhodesia numbered 33,621,' compared with 23,606
in 1911 and 12,596 in 1904. In 1921 males numbered 18,987 and
females 14,634. The increase per cent, in the male pop. in the 10
years was 21-87, that of the female pop. 82-23. The natives in 1921
numbered 845,593, compared with 744,559 in 1911 and 591,493 in
1904. Asiatics in 1921 numbered 1,250 and the coloured pop. 1,997.
Salisbury and Bulawayo, the chief towns, had in 1921 a white pop.
of 5.654 and 6,830 respectively. Gwelo (white pop. 1,148) and Umtali
(white pop. 1,874^) were made municipalities in 1914, and Gatooma
was made a municipality in 1917. All these places have most of the
amenities of European towns.
In Northern Rhodesia the white in 1911 numbered about 1,500,
and in May 1921 3,585, of whom 2,223 w-ere males and 1,326 females.
A considerable proportion of the white residents are officials and
missionaries and their families. The native pop. in 1920 was esti-
mated at 928,000.
Communication. Little was done during 191021 to extend com-
munication in Rhodesia itself, but from Sakania on the Rhodesian-
Belgian Congo frontier the railway was continued through Katanga
with the result that the valuable mineral output of that region was
carried over the Rhodcsian lines. The completion of the line from
Zeerust (Transvaal) to Mafeking (Cape province) shortened the
distance between Rhodesian stations and Johannesburg by 250 miles
and enabled Durban to compete for the Rhodesian trade. On the
completion in 191 3 of the line through the northern Transvaal to the
Limpopo at Messina, proposals were made to bridge the gap left
some 130 m. between the Union railways and the West Nicholson
branch of the Rhodesian system. As the bridging of the gap would
place Lourengo Marques as closely in touch with Bulawayo as is
Beira (its existing port), there was much opposition from interested
parties to the building of the line and construction had not begun in
1921. Among other projects the most important was the so-called
Sinoia-Kafue cut-off, to give Salisbury and Beira a much shorter
line to Northern Rhodesia and Katanga. The line in 1921 had been
built as far as Sinoia only. In south-eastern Rhodesia the branch line
from Gwelo had been extended to Victoria.
There was a good deal of road-making, the largest piece of work
being the cutting of a road 4^00 m. long through the bush from
Broken Hill to Lake Tanganyika. This wasdone for military reasons
during the campaign in German East Africa. In 1919 aerodromes
were made at Bulawayo and other stations on the Cairo-Cape route.
For the year ended Sept. 30 1919 the report of the Rhodesian Rail-
ways Ltd. showed that the gross revenue was 1,058,000; expenditure
568,000 and net earnings 490,000. For the year ended Sept. 30
1910 the corresponding figures were 789,990, 362,000 and 427,000
respectively. The gross revenue of the Beira-Salisbury and Kalomo-
Broken Hill sections of the Mashonaland Railway Co. for 1918-9
was 647,000; expenditure 367,000 and net earnings 280,000,
compared with 502,000, 184,000 and 317,000 respectively in the
year ended Sept. 30 1910.
Agriculture. At the end of 1919 the area under crops, excluding
vegetable gardens and land cultivated by the natives for their own
benefit, in Southern Rhodesia was 215,276 ac.,of which 1 77,470 ac.
were under maize. In 1911 the area under crops was 132,105 acres.
The production of wheat increased in Mashonaland, the quantity
produced in 1919 (13,432 bags) being double theamount of theoutput
five years previously. Tobacco became one of the principal crops, the
production of leaf in 191920 being about 2,500,000 pounds. Cotton-
growing had not got beyond the experimental stage in 1921. The
citrus industry made headway and considerable quantities of
oranges, etc., are now exported. Over 6,000 boxes were shipped
to the United Kingdom in 1920.
The Mazoe dam, which has an effective storage capacity in a
normal season, after allowing for evaporation, of 4,000,000,000 gal.,
was completed in March 1920. This dam enables sufficient water
to be stored for the irrigation of 6,000 ac. with 2 J ft. per annum.
Cattle-breeding in the decade 1911-21 became one of the leading
industries of Rhodesia. By the importation of pedigree bulls the
native breed was steadily improved. In 1919 29,510 nead of cattle
was exported by rail or on the hoof to the colrl-storage works in the
Union or to Portuguese East Africa and the Belgian Congo. By the
end of 1919 the number of cattle owned by Europeans (673,431) ex-
ceeded the number belonging to the natives. In 1910 the total
(European and native owned) was 371,000. The Liebig Co. acquired
extensive ranching areas.
In Northern Rhodesia maize and tobacco are the principal crops;
wheat was grown under irrigation. Experimental work in the cul-
tivation of wheat and other cereals, fodder plants, fruit and forest
trees, fibres and in the investigation of plant diseases was carried on
at the Chilanga estate of the B. S. A. Company. Orange-growing
was started an'l a small quantity of cotton grown in the Fort Jame-
son district adjoining Nyasaland. Large areas of wild rubber exist.
Cattle ranching became popular, a good market being found in
Katanga for slaughter beasts. Except for the settlement at Fort
Jameson, the white residents are mostly concentrated along the rail-
way line from the Victoria Falls to Katanga.
Mining. Gold is now found in a large variety of formations,
1 The figures for 1921 are the unaudited return.
including quartz, schists, granite, sandstones, banded ironstones,
conglomerates and dolorite. 2 The value of the output steadily in-
creased from 2,566,000 in 1910 to 3,895,000 in 1916, when the
yield in ounces was 930,356. The effects of the World War, increased
working costs and labour difficulties then brought about a decline and
the value of the output had fallen in 1919 to 2,499,000. In 1920
the value of the output went up to 3,056,000, though the yield
measured by weight (552,497 oz.) was 40,725 oz. less than in 1919,
the rise in value being due to the premiums obtained on sales of gold
in 1920. The silver output reached its highest level (211,989 oz.)
in 1917 and this was also the case with coal (584,954 tons) and copper
(3,911 tons). The largest output of chrome iron ore (88,871 tons)
was in 1916. After the end of the World War production was con-
siderably reduced. Asbestos is becoming an important industry,
the chief mines being in the Bulawayo and Victoria districts. The
output rose from 55 tons in 1908 to 18,823 tons in 1920. Valuable
mica deposits are being worked in the Sinoia district, the output in
1920 being 97 tons. Small shipments realized up to 6co per ton.
Arsenic (1920, 437 tons) and tungsten (1920, 17 tons) are worked.
The output and value of the principal minerals of Southern Rhodesia
in 1920 were as follows: Gold 552,497 oz. (3,056,549); silver
158,982 oz. (58,178); copper 3,109 tons (333,111); chrome iron
60,269 tons (245,378); coal 578,492 tons (252,000); asbestos
18,823 tons (459,572). The total value of mineral production in
Southern Rhodesia up to the end of 1920 was 56,164,325.
Northern Rhodesia. The chief mining centres in Northern Rhode-
sia are Broken Hill (lead and zinc) and Bwana Mkubwa, near the
Congo border (copper). The mineral production in 1920 was as fol-
lows, the figures for 1916 being given in parentheses for purposes of
comparison: Gold 569 oz. (719 oz.), value 2,998 (2,980) ; silver
5,583 oz. (8,777 ozj, value 706 (877); copper 145 tons (1,298
tons), value 7,601 (39,362); lead 16,345 tons (1,392 tons), value
335,000 (25,121). Up to Dec. 31 1913 13,156 tons of zinc ore,
valued at 84,577, had been produced. Mining for this ore then
ceased. The total value of the mineral production of the northern
territory to Dec. 31 1920 was 1,534,000.
Commerce. Bacon-making, oil-crushing and soap-making, cheese-
making and meat-canning, in addition to creameries and tobacco
factories and flour-mills, are established. The following table shows
the value of the imports and exports of Southern Rhodesia (exclusive
of specie and goods reexported) in 1910, 1915 and 1919.
Imports
Exports
1910
1915 .
1919 .
2,786,000
2,949,000
4,500,000
2,812,000
4,536,000
4,432,000
In Northern Rhodesia the value of imports increased from
168,000 in 1911 to 424,000 in 1919. Exports in 1911 were valued
at 107,000 and in 1919 at 452,000.
Revenue. For the year ended March 31 191 1 the revenue of
Southern Rhodesia was 773,000 and expenditure 752,000. In
1918-9 the revenue amounted to 961,000 and the expenditure was
858,000. The chief items on the revenue side of the account were:
customs duty 298,000; native tax 238,000; posts and telegraphs
100,000 ; stamps and licences 59,000 ; income-tax and excess-profits
tax 60,000. For the year ending March 31 1920 the revenue was
1,031,000, the expenditure 1,061,000.
The revenue of Northern Rhodesia for the year ended March 31
1912 was 116,000, expenditure being 190,000. In 1919-20 the
revenue was 169,000 and expenditure 260,000. Native tax pro-
duced (1918-9) 83,000 and customs duty 36,000.
Education. In Southern Rhodesia in 1919 public expenditure on
education was 125,000, the sum of 39,000 being received from
fees. At the end of that year there were 77 public schools open, with
4,775 pupils. There are schools of domestic science at Bulawayo
and Salisbury. There were 670 native schools, with 38,284 pupils,
conducted by missionary bodies, receiving grants in aid.
In Northern Rhodesia in March 1920 European children attending
Government schools numbered 222. The Administration established
boarding-houses at three centres.
Native Affairs. No radical change was made in the system of
native administration in Southern Rhodesia during 1910^21. The
office of Secretary of Native Affairs was filled by the administrator
and in each district a commissioner was appointed to direct and pro-
tect the natives. The conduct of the white settlers and of the Char-
tered Co. towards the natives was the subject of strict scrutiny.
* The Geological Survey of Southern Rhodesia showed that the
majority of the productive gold-mines do not lie in the " schist
belt," as previously supposed, but occur in a peculiar granite mass,
known as the Mont d'Or granite. Important chrome iron-ore de-
posits occur in a mass of serpentine and talc-schist, which is related
to the Mont d'Or granite in structure and probably in origin. The
two masses together, according to the Director of the Geological
Survey, Mr. H. B. Maufe (formerly of the Geological Survey of the
United Kingdom), constitute an important plutonic complex, which
had remained unrecognized until then. The result of the _map-
ping by the Survey was to give a view of the nature of the mineral
field totally different from that generally held.
RHODESIA
271
Cases of grave injustice had occurred in the earlier history of the
territory and in the period under review further charges were brought
against the Company in connexion with the rearrangement of the
reserves. Settlers complained that certain lands in native reserves
were not being beneficially used by them ; the natives made similar
complaints. In ign4 a commission under the chairmanship of Mr.
(afterward Sir) R. T. Coryndon, then resident commissioner of
Swaziland, was appointed by the Cojonial Office to inspect and re-
port upon the reserves. The commission concluded its sittings at the
end of 1915. It recommended that 5,610,595 ac. should be assigned as
additional reserves or extensions to existing reserves, but that 6,673,-
055 ac. then included within the reserves were not required for that
purpose. The total reserve area recommended was 19,428,691 ac.,
a net reduction of 1,062,460 acres. The Imperial Government de-
cided to accept these recommendations in their entirety in 1917.
There was, however, owing to war conditions, delay in adopting the
commission's recommendations and attacks were made on the Com-
pany's native administration during the greater part of 1919. A
Parliamentary White Paper issued in Feb. 1920 contained corre-
spondence between the Aborigines' Protection Society and the Co-
lonial Office on the subject. The charges against the Company were
replied to by Lord Buxton (then high commissioner) at Salisbury jn
Aug. 1919, and by Col. Amery (Under Secretary for the Colonies) in
the House of Commons in March 1920. Col. Amery said : "I believe
this House can with confidence endorse the very high testimony of
Lord Buxton to the native administration of Rhodesia and the atti-
tude of the civil population generally towards the natives. It is a
model, not only in Africa, but for any part of the world where you
have the very difficult problem of the white settler living side by side
with the native." An Order in Council was passed giving sanction to
the Coryndon commission's recommendations. The changes it
recommended were gradually carried out and gave rise to little fric-
tion. Lord Milner (then Colonial Secretary) set forth in an official
despatch that the settlement reached was regarded as final, not only
as to the present, but also the future requirements of the natives.
To ensure them security of tenure the reserves were vested in the
high commissioner for South Africa and would be inalienable save
for certain limited purposes and only in exchange for other land.
In Aug. 1921 Prince Arthur of Cpnnaught (the new high commis-
sioner) visited Rhodesia and received a deputation of Matabele.
He told them that the decision as to the reserves must stand and that
their desire to have a son of Lobenguela recognized as paramount
chief could not be granted. " You cannot go back," said the Prince;
" you must go forward."
The general condition of the natives of Southern Rhodesia had
distinctly improved between 1910 and 1920, and their value as an
asset of the country became generally recognized. They were not
only producers on their own account, but considerable purchasers of
European goods. They paid an annual poll-tax of l the only
levy made upon them by the administration. In 1911 several ordi-
nances designed to secure better housing, feeding and medical
supervision of native labourers outside the reserves came into effect.
Steps were also taken to provide agricultural and industrial training,
and to cope with cattle disease in the native reserves.
Vaccination and medical examination of natives applying for
domestic service was made compulsory and the Bulawayo munici-
pality introduced by-laws providing for a standard of housing accom-
modation for native servants.
Sleeping sickness along the Congo border of Northern Rhodesia
necessitated precautions oeing taken to prevent its southward ex-
tension. Some cases of the disease occurred in the Loangwa valley,
but they appeared to be sporadic.
History. The outstanding feature of the history of the terri-
tory in the period 1910-21 was the steady growth cf political
consciousness on the part of the white residents of Southern
Rhodesia. The framers of the constitution of the Union of
South Africa left open the door for the adhesion to it of Rhodesia.
The ultimate joining of Rhodesia to the Union was taken for
granted by most South Africans, but the actual formation of the
Union in 1910 seemed to have a contrary effect. It appeared to
give a distinct stimulus to the already nascent desire of the South-
ern Rhodesians for independent self-government. A distinct ad-
vance in that direction was made in May 1911, when, by Order in
Council, the elected members were given a majority of the seats
in the Legislative Council, provision being made for safeguarding
the interests of the British South Africa Company.
The legal position at that time was that the British South
Africa Co. exercised under its charter sovereign rights subject
only to such control as was exercised by the Colonial Office
through the high commissioner for South Africa and a Resident
in Rhodesia. While the Company's administrative expenditure
was by this time slightly exceeded by the revenue, there was no
means of making good the heavy losses incurred in opening up
the country save by the sale of unalienated lands. Of their
ownership of the land and of their rights of disposal the Company
entertained no doubt and this fact had much influence upon
the attitude of the directors. Sir Starr Jameson, on resigning
towards the close of 1912 his leadership of the Unionist party
in the South African Parliament, became president of the
Chartered Co. and retained that position until his death in
Nov. 191 7. 1 The administrator in Southern Rhodesia was Sir
William H. Milton, a man of great experience and tact in his
dealings both with the white residents and the natives. After
over 16 years' service in the territory Sir W. H. Milton resigned
in Oct. 1914 and was succeeded by Mr. (afterwards Sir) Drum-
mond Chaplin. But while the administrator and his executive
could do much to make the machinery of government work
smoothly, there was no power, locally, to shape policy. Disputes
arose between the Company and the settlers, who desired a still
larger share in the administration. The controversy became
acute in view of the fact that in Oct. 1914, under the terms
upon which the charter was originally granted, the Crown
would have the right to revise its terms with regard to admin-
istration. Sir Starr Jameson, Mr. Rochfort Maguire and other
representatives of the Chartered Co. visited Rhodesia in 1913,
when a further increase was announced in the numbers of elected
members of the Legislative Council. As to the financial position
the directors said that, as " the land and minerals belonged to
the Company," no debt in respect to past deficits would be placed
on the country when the Company relinquished its administra-
tion. Mr. Maguire described the Company's proposals as a
means for bridging the period antecedent to self-government,
the ideal towards which, he claimed, the Company was working.
In accordance with the promise given, a redistribution ordinance
was passed, the elected members being increased to 12, while
the number nominated by the Company was fixed at six. At the
general election in March 1914 n of the 12 elected members
returned were pledged to support the maintenance for the
time being of the Company's administration, but, the Council
declared, its continuance should not affect the right " at any
time " thereafter to the institution of self-government.
The Council in April 1914 definitely challenged the right of
the Chartered Co. to the ownership of unalienated lands. The
question had been raised in 1908, but was then allowed to drop.
It was now recognized as essential that the matter should be set-
tled before the political status of Rhodesia was altered. On
behalf of the Rhodesians (i.e. the white settlers) it was claimed
that the Chartered Co.'s power to deal with the land was only a
delegated right granted by the Crown, and secondly, that if the
Company had acquired ownership rights such rights were vested
in it " as an administrative and public asset only "; that as a
trading body the Company had no title to the land or its revenues.
Consequently it was contended that, on the Company ceasing
to exercise administrative rights, all unalienated lands should
go as public domain to the Government which succeeded it.
In July 1914 the claim of the Legislative Council was referred
to the judicial committee of the Privy Council for adjudication.
In the meantime it was decided that the Crown should not
exercise its right to vary the terms of the charter, which there-
fore, in virtue of the original provisions, would legally continue
unaltered for ten years from Oct. 2,9 1914. The directors of the
Company intimated, however, that they would offer no objection
to the earlier establishment of responsible (i.e. self) government
should it be deemed necessary and had the concurrence of the
British Government. A supplemental charter giving effect to
this agreement was issued on March 13 1915.
Meanwhile the outbreak of the World War for a time forced
the constitutional question into the background. But the war
itself had an important bearing on the political question. The
party which desired the indefinite continuance of Chartered
Co. rule had nearly disappeared, but an influential party had
advocated, as the alternative to self-government, joining the
Union of South Africa. This party lost ground as Rhodesians
1 After Sir Starr Jameson's death Mr. Philip Lyttelton Gell acted
as chairman of the board of directors and in Oct. 1920 was appointed
president of the Company.
272
RHODESIA
saw what was happening in the Union. The growth of separatist
and republican sentiment among the Dutch population, evi-
denced by the increasing support gained by Gen. Hertzog and
particularly the rebellion of 1914, inevitably influenced the polit-
ical orientation of the almost solid British population of Rho-
desia. Disinclination to be swallowed up in the Union and dis-
like of the introduction of bi-lingualism a necessary result of
Rhodesia becoming a province of the Union were strongly rein-
forced by real if perhaps exaggerated fears as to the strength
of the Dutch nationalist movement. It was possibly due in
part to these developments that a proposal put forward by the
Company in 1915 for the amalgamation of Northern and South-
ern Rhodesia secured (in 1917) a majority in the Legislative
Council, though it was not proceeded with.
After an exhaustive inquiry the judicial committee of the
Privy Council gave its decision as to the ownership of unalien-
ated lands on July 29 1918. It had had before it not only the
claims of the Crown and of the Chartered Co. but those of the
natives, whose case was put forward without much evidence
that it was being pressed by the natives themselves. The
judicial committee reported in favour of the Crown. While,
however, it decided that the Company could not claim owner-
ship of unalienated land in Southern Rhodesia, it held that it
was entitled to be reimbursed for expenses and outlays of admin-
istration in current or past years, and that while it continued to
administer Southern Rhodesia it was entitled to apply the pro-
ceeds of any sale of land towards the reduction of such expend-
iture. The Company's exclusive rights to all minerals in the
country were confirmed and grants or sales of land made by it
were finally legalized.
The next step was to ascertain the amount which would be
due to the Company in accordance with the judicial committee's
report should the administration of Southern Rhodesia by the
Company cease. At the request of the Chartered Co. a royal
commission, of which Lord Cave was chairman, was appointed
in July 1919 to ascertain the amount which would have been
due to it for its administrative expenses if its governing powers
had ceased on March 31 1918. The claim filed by the Company
was in round figures for 8,000,000 plus interest on the accumu-
lated deficits. The Cave commission took evidence in Rhodesia
and its award was issued in Jan. 1920. The commission rejected
the Company's claim for interest and fixed the amount due to
the Company at 4,435,000, subject to deductions (i) in respect
of the value of lands appropriated by the Company for commer-
cial purposes, and (2) the proceeds or value of lands and rights
alienated by the Company for considerations other than cash,
but plus the value of the public works which might be taken
over by its administrative successor, estimated at 830,000.
In the interval the campaign for the grant of self-government
had been renewed vigorously in Southern Rhodesia. In view
of a coming general election the Legislative Council in May
1919 passed a resolution asking the Colonial office publicly to
state what proof of fitness " financially and in other respects "
would be considered sufficient to justify the grant of responsible
government. Lord Milner (then Colonial Secretary) replied in
Aug. that he could not regard the territory in its then stage of
development as equal to the financial burden of responsible
government, and as there appeared to be no great desire for the
inclusion of the territory in the Union he advised that matters
should be left as they were until the situation became clearer.
This reply caused a good deal of dissatisfaction amongst the
advocates of responsible government in Rhodesia. The strength
of the movement was shown at the general election in May 1920,
when the responsible government party secured 12 of the 13
elective seats in the Legislative Council. The I3th member
advocated representative government, a half-measure which
Lord Milner had considered impracticable. 1 Owing to the suc-
1 The following is an analysis of the returns, one member being
elected unopposed. Votes for responsible government 4,663; for
representative government 420; for joining the Union of South
Africa 814; for continuance of Chartered Co.'s rule 868; total poll
(out of 11,098 electors) 6,765.
cesses gained by the Dutch Nationalists at the general election
in the Union a few months earlier, opinion in Rhodesia, which,
in view of the discouraging attitude of the Colonial Office
towards responsible government, had tended to consider more
favourably entry into the Union, swung round completely.
The new Legislative Council, at its first meeting in May 1920,
passed a resolution praying the Imperial Government to estab-
lish responsible government and affirming that
" The record of the people of Southern Rhodesia establishes that
they are capable of fulfilling in the interests of all the inhabitants
thereof, irrespective of race, the duties of self-government, and are
equally as able to bear the responsibility thereof as other peoples
of the Empire to whom the rights of self-government have been
granted in the past."
Lord Milner, in a despatch dated Dec. 22 1920, again urged
delay. " In principle " he favoured the Rhodesian demand and
the Chartered Co. was willing, he said, to be relieved of its
responsibilities, but, chiefly on the ground of finance, he pro-
posed that the Company's rule should continue till after the
next general election, which in the ordinary course would be
held early in 1923. If Rhodesia was then still in the same mind,
responsible government could be brought into force not later
than Oct. 1924. The elected members of the Legislative Council
strongly traversed Lord Milner's arguments and in the end the
Colonial Office sought the advice of still another committee.
This committee, of which Lord Buxton, lately governor-
general of the Union and high commissioner, was chairman,
was appointed on March 7 1921. It acted with promptitude
and reported on April 12 following. The electors having so
recently expressed their views in favour of the abstract principle
of self-government, no advantage would be gained (the com-
mittee stated) by another vote on the principle. It recommended
therefore that a scheme for responsible government should be
drawn up in detail and that by means of a referendum the opin-
ion of the electors on such a definite scheme should be ascertained
If the electors accepted the scheme a proclamation or Order in
Council should issue annexing Southern Rhodesia to the domin-
ions of the British Crown and that annexation should be fol-
lowed by letters patent setting up responsible government. The
draft of the constitution, it was suggested, should be drawn
up by the Colonial Office in consultation with the elected mem-
bers of the Legislative Council. Two special provisions were
proposed:
(i) That with regard to the natives the existing authority and
control by the high commissioner should be retained; and (2) that
control of unalienated land should lie exercised through the high
commissioner on the advice of a specially created land board. This
unalienated land would be charged with the payment of the sums to
which the Chartered Co. was entitled under the Cave award.
Many objections might be and were raised to the proposed
manner of dealing with the land question, but the elected mem-
bers of the Legislative Council, under the leadership of Sir
Charles Coghlan, accepted the recommendations of the Buxton
committee, and Rhodesian delegates were appointed to confer
with the Colonial Office.
Meanwhile the general election in the Union in Feb. 1921 had
resulted in the defeat of the Dutch Nationalists (though not in
any diminution of their voting strength), and it was arranged
that, before any irrevocable step was taken, the Rhodesian
delegates should consult with Gen. Smuts, the Prime Minister
of the Union, as to the alternative plan of Rhodesia becoming a
province of the Union. The conference with Gen. Smuts was
held at Cape Town in Sept. 1921, before the delegation left
for England. It was made clear that if the Rhodesians had
changed their minds and desired admission to the Union they
would be welcomed, but that the Union would require the
ownership of the unalienated lands.
The influenza epidemic of iqi8 took a heavy toll of the natives
of Rhodesia; the death-roll was estimated at fully 30,00x5.
A national tribute was paid to Sir Starr Jameson on May 22
1920, when his body, brought from England, where it had been
temporarily interred, was given a last resting-place close to the
grave of Cecil Rhodes at the World's View in the Matoppo Hills.
RHONDDA
273
Survivors of the pioneers Jameson had led into Mashonaland in
1890 were present, and Matabele and Mashona indunas.
Rhodesia's Part in the World War. The Rhodesian frontiers
in 1914 touched German protectorates both on the west and
east. The Caprivi " Finger " of German S.W. Africa came up
to the Zambezi, west of the Victoria Falls. It was occupied by
the Rhodesian forces with little difficulty. On the east a more
serious situation was presented, as the Germans, in compara-
tively strong force, entered Rhodesian territory between Lakes
Tanganyika and Nyasa. Aided by and giving aid to the troops
of the Belgian Congo, Rhodesian volunteers and the British
South Africa police rendered excellent service and held their
own against the Germans. Subsequently Rhodesians played a
notable part in Gen. Northey's offensive. A small Matabele
contingent took part in the fighting, and a combatant battalion
was raised from the natives of Northern Rhodesia.
From the first the Rhodesians were not content with the
defence of their own territory. A regiment (ist Rhodesian)
was raised for service in the 1914 rebellion and in the campaign
in S.W. Africa, and early in 1915 another regiment (2nd Rhode-
sian) was sent to British East Africa, where it gained a deserv-
edly great reputation. Many Rhodesians also enlisted in the
British army. Altogether 6,859 Rhodesians (Europeans) were
on active service during the war, a number much more than
half the adult male population. Rhodesian natives engaged as
combatants in E. Africa numbered 2,721, and in addition there
were 40,732 " first-line " carriers. Some 152,000 other carriers
were engaged on war service in Northern Rhodesia alone.
In the last days of the war (Nov. 2 1918) Gen. von Lettow
Vorbeck, with all that was left of the German forces, turning
westwards from his pursuers, entered Northern Rhodesia and
had reached the Chambezi near Kasama on the day the Armis-
tice was signed in Europe. It was in Rhodesia, therefore, that
the last act in the war was played, von Lettow surrendering to
the magistrate at Kasama on Nov. 14.
Northern Rhodesia. The amalgamation of North-Eastern and
North-Western Rhodesia was carried into effect on Aug. 17 1911,
when Mr. (afterwards Sir) Lawrence Wallace was appointed ad-
ministrator, a post he held for nearly ten years. 1 The defence of the
territory, which had been shared with Nyasaland, had been taken
over entirely by the Rhodesian authorities a short time before the
amalgamation was carried through. The number of British settlers
gradually increased and missionaries did valuable work in training
the natives and introducing higher standards among them. The
proposaj of the Chartered Co. to amalgamate Northern and Southern
Rhodesia has already been referred to; the project was dropped.
The war, which deeply affected Northern Rhodesia, at first caused
marked depression, which was removed by the military expenditure
in 1916-7, while the building of the Katanga railway and the mining
activity in Katanga brought about a revival. An elective, but purely
advisory, council was established in July 1913.
The Chartered Co. was faced with much the same difficulties in
Northern as in Southern Rhodesia, nor in the north did revenue meet
administrative expenditure. Up to March 31 1919 the deficit was
placed at over 1,250,000. As in Southern Rhodesia, the Company
claimed the land and minerals and the repayment of administrative
deficits, and, equally, the white settlers claimed a greater share in the
government, notably control of finance. The consideration of these
questions was remitted to the Buxton committee, which in its second
report, dated April 29 1921, advised that the legality or otherwise of
the Company's claims should be settled by the Privy Council before
the future status of Northern Rhodesia was decided. Meanwhile the
immediate creation of a legislative council was recommended.
Barotseland (see 3.424). Barptseland, the S.W. part of Northern
Rhodesia, continued to be a native reserve in which Europeans, other
than the officials of the Chartered Co. and missionaries and traders
approved by the paramount chief, were not allowed to settle. The
paramount chief in the exercise of his authority is aided by a ngam-
bella (prime minister) and a kotla (council); he has no jurisdiction
over Europeans. Relations between the Barotse and the Company
were satisfactory^ and missionary enterprise prospered. Distinct
interest in education was shown; in 1912 there were 413 scholars at
the Barotse national school, 251 being boarders. Lewanika (see
16.519), who had placed his country under British protection and who
won and retained the reputation of an enlightened ruler, died in 1916.
He was succeeded by his eldest son Yeta III. (formerly known as
Litia). Lealui, the native capital, and Mongu, the residence of the
'On the retirement of Sir L. Wallace (1920), Sir D. Chaplin, the
administrator of S. Rhodesia, took charge of N. Rhodesia also.
chief British officials, are both on the Zambezi and seven miles
distant from one another.
A list of parliamentary papers relating to Rhodesia is given in the
Colonial Office List, published annually in London, and annual re-
ports are issued by the British South Africa Company. See also C.
Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia
(1911); A. Darter, The Pioneers of Mashonaland (1914); the Report
of the Rhodesia Resources Committee (1921); H. Rolin, Les lois et
I' administration de la Rhodesie (1913) ; J. H. Harris, The Chartered
Millions (1920); and A. S. and G. G. Brown, The South and East
African Year Book and Guide (annually).
In the preparation of this article the writer is indebted to G. H.
Lepper, of the Trade Supplement to The Times. (F. R. C.)
RHONDDA, DAVID ALFRED THOMAS, VISCOUNT (1856-
1918), British colliery owner and Food Controller in the World
War, was a Welshman, born March 26 1856 in Aberdare, grand-
son of a Monmouthshire yeoman farmer, and son of a Merthyr
grocer. His father had prospered in his trade, and in later life
enriched himself by speculations in coal. Young Thomas was
sent to Clifton College, and afterwards to Caius College, Cam-
bridge, where he graduated as a senior oplime in the mathe-
matical tripos in 1880, and immediately joined his father in the
coal business. He threw himself with great energy and ability
both into that and into local Liberal politics; and was so success-
ful in both spheres that he was returned to Parliament for
Merthyr in 1888. His extraordinary commercial gifts, his in-
sight, his foresight, and the sympathy which he brought to
bear on the conditions of life in the mining industry, soon made
him a prominent, and eventually the leading, figure in the
industrial world of S. Wales. " D.A.," as he was always called,
by his initials, in his own part of the country, endeared him-
self to the miners by becoming their champion in the 'nine-
ties against the undercutting of prices by middlemen, and by
the generous wages which he paid in the collieries under his
control; and though in subsequent years he sometimes had dif-
ferences with the men, he always retained their respect. His
business combinations brought him great wealth and culminated
in the Cambrian super-combine, which produced some six mil-
lion tons of steam coal a year. Other important undertakings
in which he took a leading share were the Ebbw Vale Steel, Iron
and Coal Co., the Rhymney Iron Co., and the Taff Vale Rail-
way Company. So extensive were the ramifications of his inter-
ests that, when he accepted office in 1916, the number of director-
ships from which he retired was no fewer than forty. He had
much longer to wait for success in the political than in the com-
mercial field. Though he sat in the House of Commons for
Merthyr for 22 years and afterwards for some months for
Cardiff, no use was made by the political chiefs of his party of
his great capacities for public service, and he therefore retired
from Parliament in 1910.
The outbreak of the World War gave him his opportunity.
He rendered substantial help to Mr. Lloyd George both at the
Exchequer and in the office of munitions, by organizing British
industrial resources for war. He took a lead in " capturing
German trade," carrying through, for instance, the acquisi-
tion of the Sanatogen business. He went to America to com-
plete important war contracts for the Government, and on his
return was saved, with his daughter, Lady Mackworth, from
the sinking of the " Lusitania." He went back to America
almost immediately, and spent seven months there at his own
expense, expediting the output of munitions, and regulating and
systematizing the prices charged. He was created a baron, as
Lord Rhondda, for his services in Jan. 1916; and it was natural
that, when Mr. Lloyd George, in forming his ministry in the
following Dec., made up his mind to introduce captains of in-
dustry into office, he should turn at once to his old ally, who
became president of the Local Government Board. His princi-
pal business in this post was to prepare for the establishment
of the Ministry of Health. Before this was effected he ac-
cepted, in June 1917, at the Prime Minister's pressing request,
the onerous burden of the Food Controllership, vacated by Lord
Devonport. He was no respecter of persons, and immediately
took strong steps to put an end to the speculation in the necessi-
ties of life which was becoming a public scandal. Then he
274
RHYS RICHBOROUGH
gradually fixed prices and brought supplies under control, in
regard to almost all articles of food except vegetables. Thus
he eliminated profiteering in food-stuffs. He also carried through
a great decentralization in the administration of his office. But
he will be mainly remembered as the author of the system of
compulsory food rationing, which was carried out with absolute
fairness and impartiality, putting an end to the queues waiting
at butchers' and bakers' shops that had rendered the house-
keeper's life a burden. As Food Controller, Lord Rhondda ran
the biggest trading organization that the world had ever seen.
The turnover of his Ministry, apart from the work of the wheat
and sugar commissions, amounted to 1,200 millions sterling;
with them 2,733 millions sterling. Supplies never failed, and in
spite of the German submarine menace there was no hunger in
the United Kingdom. His strenuous labours affected his health,
and in April 1918 he tendered his resignation; but his work was
so invaluable that pressure was put upon him to remain, and
he was created a viscount. But the strain was too great. He
was attacked by pneumonia and died on July 3. Tributes to
his work and to the public loss sustained by his death were paid
in both Houses of Parliament.
He married Sybil Margaret Haig, a cousin of Lord Haig, who
survived him. They had one child, a daughter, who married
Sir Humphrey Mackworth, and who succeeded to the viscounty
of Rhondda under a special remainder. (G. E. B.)
RHYS, SIR JOHN (1840-1915), British archaeologist and
Celtic scholar, was born in Cardiganshire, the son of a yeoman
farmer, and educated at the Bangor Normal College and Jesus
College, Oxford. In 1877 he was elected professor of Celtic at
Oxford, the first occupant of the newly created chair, and he
held that post till his death. In 1895 he became principal of
Jesus College. He was Hibbert lecturer in 1886, Rhind lecturer in
archaeology at Edinburgh in 1899 and president of the anthropo-
logical section of the British Association in 1900. He also served
on several royal commissions and was knighted in 1907. He
died at Oxford Dec. 16 1915. His published works include
Lectures on Welsh Philology (1877); Celtic Britain (1882, last ed.
1904); Celtic Heathendom (1886); Studies in the Arthurian
Legend (1891); Celtic Folk-lore (1901); as well as editions of
Welsh texts (with J. G. Evans); The Welsh People (with D. B.
Jones, 1900), and numerous other papers and studies of Celtic
inscriptions and literature. For his work on the Arthurian
legend see 12.300, 321, 669.
RIAZ PASHA (.1835-1911), Egyptian statesman (see 23.281),
died June 18 1911.
RIBOT, ALEXANDRE FELIX JOSEPH (1842- ), French
statesman (see 23.285). On Jan. 3 1909 M. Ribot was elected a
member of the French Senate, and in Feb. of the following year
was offered, but refused, the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in the
Monis Cabinet. After the formation of M. Poincare's Govern-
ment on Jan. 14 1912 he took the place of M. Leon Bourgeois as
president of the committee appointed to deal with the Franco-
German treaty, the necessity for the ratification of which he
demonstrated. In 1913 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the
presidency of the Republic, and on the fall of M. Barthou's
Government was invited by President Poincare to form a Cabi-
net, but refused. In 1914 he became, with M. Jean Dupuy,
leader of the Left Republican group which refused to accept the
decisions of the Radical Socialist congress at Pau in Oct. 1913.
On June 9 1914 he became prime minister and Minister of Jus-
tice, but his Government was bitterly assailed by the Radical
Socialists as well as other groups, and only lasted one day.
With the outbreak of the World War M. Ribot's great repu-
tation as an expert in finance and foreign affairs brought him
effectively into office. On Aug. 27 1914 he became Minister of
Finance in M. Viviani's Ministry of National Defence, an office
which he retained when, on Oct. 28 1915, M. Briand succeeded
M. Viviani as prime minister. On Feb. 7 1916 he visited London
and held a conference with the Chancellor of the Exchequer at
the Treasury. When Briand reconstituted his Cabinet, in Dec.
1916, Ribot retained the portfolio of Finance. On the fall of the
Briand Ministry (March 17 1917) President Poincare again
called upon M. Ribot to form a Government, and this time he
consented, himself taking the portfolio of Foreign Affairs in
addition to the premiership (March 19). In the statement of
his policy made to the Chamber on March 21 he declared this to
be " to recover the provinces torn from us in the past, to obtain
the reparations and guarantees due to France, and to prepare a
durable peace based on respect for the rights and liberty of
peoples." On July 31, in a reply to the German Chancellor
Michaelis, he admitted that in 1917 an agreement had been
made with the Tsar to erect the German territories on the left
bank of the Rhine into an autonomous state, but denied that
there had been any question of their annexation to France. His
Government resigned office on Sept. 7; but he accepted the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the Painleve Cabinet constituted
six days later. He resigned office finally on Oct. 16, owing to the
violent criticism of his refusal to fall into the " trap " of the
German peace offers.
RIBOT, THEODULE ARMAND (1839-1916), French psycholo-
gist (see 23.286), died in 1916.
RICHARDS, THEODORE WILLIAM (1868- ), American
chemist, son of the artist William Trost Richards (see 23.299),
was born at Germantown, Pa., Jan. 31 1868. He was educated
at home, at Haverford College (S.B. 1885), Harvard (A.B. 1886;
Ph.D. 1888), Gottingen, Leipzig and the Dresden Technical
School. After passing through the various grades of promotion
he was appointed professor of chemistry at Harvard in 1901
and was made director of the Wolcott Gibbs Memorial Laboratory
in 1912. He was best known for his researches on atomic weights,
of which he revised over a score, including that of radioactive
lead. The results were generally accepted and for his contribu-
tions he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1914. He also
gave much time to physicochemical investigation, especially
concerning electrochemistry and chemical thermodynamics,
piezochemistry and surface tension. Of these his contributions
to atomic compressibility, to the relation between the change of
heat capacity and the change of free and total energy, and to the
thermodynamics of amalgams have perhaps been the most
noteworthy. In 1907 he was Harvard exchange professor at
Berlin, and in 1908 Lowell lecturer. He was president of the
American Chemical Society (1914), the American Association
for the Advancement of Science (1917) and the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences (1919). He was a member of the
National Academy of Sciences and of most of the European
academies. He received hon. degrees from Yale, Harvard,
Haverford, Pittsburgh, Clark, Pennsylvania, Oxford, Manches-
ter, Christiania, Prague and Berlin. He was awarded the Davy
(1910), Faraday (1911), Willard Gibbs (1912), and Franklin
(1916) medals. He was made a member of the National Research
Council in 1916.
RICHBOROUGH, a port on the left bank of the mouth of the
Stour river, Kent, England, ij m. N. of Sandwich, created by
the Government during the World War as a base for the expedi-
tion of materiel to the armies in France and Flanders. The port
was planned in June 1916, primarily to relieve Dover of this
class of transport. The site chosen consisted of an expanse of
marshland through which the Stour flowed as an insignificant
stream. The work of construction was under the control of the
Inland Waterways and Docks Section of the Royal Engineers,
and involved the reclamation of a large tract of swampy foreshore,
the widening and deepening of the waterway, the construction of
a wharf and jetty nearly a mile in length equipped with powerful
cranes and of docks for the building and repair of certain kinds
of craft, the erection of acres of hutments and store-sheds, and
the laying of some 50 m. of railway sidings. The work was
rapidly pushed forward, the workers at one time numbering
20,000; and eventually a self-contained cantonmen. arose, having
its own postal, police, lighting and other services.
The base was operated in a comparatively small way at first
but developed into an undertaking of gigantic proportions. At
the outset, steamers and barges were used to convey the war
material across, until the French ports became congested; then
special barges were introduced to take goods direct into the
RICHMOND RIFLES
275
French canals and thence as close to the firing line as possible.
In 1917, speed of transport of material becoming extremely
urgent, it was decided to establish a train-ferry service; it came
into operation at the end of that year, and the hoisting of cargoes
by cranes into barges was largely superseded. Three ferries
plied incessantly between Richborough and Calais and Dunkirk,
connecting railhead in England with railhead in France. In
all, 4,000 barge loads of ammunition, 17,818 guns and limbers,
and over i| million tons of other stores were sent across.
The ferries, specially designed and built at the works of Sir
W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co. of Elswick, were of 363 ft.
overall length, 61 ft. beam and 3,654 tons displacement. Four lines
of rails on deck gave accommodation for 54. ten-ton wagons carrying
an average load of 900 tons. A lifting bridge at the wharf-end, which
the ferry approached stern on, enabled accurate connection of rails
at all stites of the tile, the process of embarking a train requiring
ordinarily not more than 15 minutes.
For the protection of the base, a monitor was stationed in Pegwell
Bay, and searchlight? and heavy and anti-aircraft guns were mounted
at many points. Repeated air-raids took place in the vicinity and
there were several bombardments from the sea, but Richborough
itself was never seriously damaged, the low-lying, featureless ch r-
acter of the marshland probably affording its best protection, more
especially at night.
For a year after the Armistice, Richborough continued to
deal with vast quantities of material returned from the western
front. After the sale and disposal of the surplus military stores
and equipment, the port, with the remaining equipment and the
fleet of ferries and barges, was sold by the Disposal Board for
1,407,000 (plus the cost up to 40,000 of acquiring the land by
the Government) to the Queenborough Development Co., who
thus acquired 1,500 ac. of land including 250 ac. that were
reclaimed from the swampy foreshore. In 1921, the company
proposed to work Richborough as a barge and train-ferry port,
ancillary to Queenborough, both centres to serve the requirements
of a comprehensive scheme of industrial development in the
surrounding districts including the Kent coal-fields.
RICHMOND, SIR WILLIAM BLAKE (1842-1921), English
painter (see 23.307), died at Hammersmith Feb. u 1921.
RICHTER, HANS (1834-1916), Hungarian musical conductor
(see 23.312), died at Bayreuth Dec. 5 1916.
RICKETTS, CHARLES (1866- ), English artist, was born
at Geneva Oct. 2 1866, and was educated in France. In 1889 he
became joint editor with Charles Shannon of the Dial. In 1896
he founded the Vale press, the output of which was a series of
beautifully designed and printed books. Of his pictures, " The
Plague " (1911) is in the Luxembourg at Paris, and " Don Juan "
(1916) in the National Gallery of British Art. He published
The Prado and its Masterpieces (1003), Titian (1906) and Pages
on Art (1913).
RICOTTI-MAGNANI, CESARE (1822-1917), Italian general
(see 23.316), died at Novara Aug. 4 1917.
RIDDELL, GEORGE ALLARDICE RIDDELL, IST BARON
(1865- ), British newspaper proprietor, was born in London
May 25 1865 and educated privately. He became a solicitor in
1888 and settled in practice at Cardiff. There he acquired an
interest in the Western Mail, and he eventually turned his
energies mainly to newspaper management. He went to London
and obtained control over the Sunday paper, the News of the
World, which he developed on popular lines, so that it obtained a
huge circulation during the first decade of the 2oth century and
made its proprietor a very wealthy man. He gradually extended
his newspaper connexions, becoming a director also of George
Newnes Ltd., Country Life Ltd., and C. Arthur Pearson Ltd.,
etc. By the year 1909, when he received a knighthood, he had
become one of the most influential personalities in the London
press, and he took an active part in giving a more efficient
organization to various forms of press work, by way of collective
action between proprietors themselves and their organs. He was
a prominent member of the Newspaper Proprietors' Association
at the outbreak of the World War, and owing to his intimate
relations with Mr. Lloyd George he gradually became the
principal liaison between the Press and the Government so far as
aH matters of publicity were concerned. In this capacity he
represented the British Press at the Peace Conference in 1919 and
at all the important Allied conferences subsequently. He was
created a baronet in 1918, and raised to the peerage as Baron
Riddell of Walton Heath in 1920.
RIDGEWAY, SIR WILLIAM (1853- ), British archaeolo-
gist, was born in Ireland Aug. 6 1853 and educated at Portarling-
ton, Trinity College, Dublin, and at Caius College, Cambridge,
where he was fifth in the classical tripos. In 1880 he was
elected fellow of Caius College, Cambridge, and in 1883 became
professor of Greek at Queen's College, Cork. In 1892 he returned
to Cambridge as professor of archaeology and in 1907 became
also Brereton reader in classics. He was made a fellow of the
British Academy, and president of the Royal Anthropological
Institute (1908-9). He was knighted in 1919. Amongst his
publications are The Origin of Metallic Currency and Weight
Standards (1892); The Early Age of Greece (1901); The Origin
and Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse (1907); Who were the
Romans? (1907); The Oldest Irish Epic (1907), etc. His views on
early Greek civilization are described in 12.442; those on the
origin of the Romans in 23.616, and those on the horse in 13.717.
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS (see 23.323 and
17.237). Since 1910 there have been few important changes in
the design of the military bolt-action rifle. The adoption by
many countries of the pointed bullet in lieu of the round-nosed
(see 23.328) has led to some strengthening of parts so as to
withstand increased chamber pressures. Modifications in the
patterns of sights used have also been made here and there. 1
The military rifle had practically reached its zenith before 1914,
and the opening of the World War found all armies equipped
with rifles of practically equal merit. With the exception that
the French continued to use the tube-magazine Lebel rifle and
the British and Americans had adopted a shorter barrel than
the rest, it might be said that the military rifles of the world
were not only equal in merit but similar in design.
This initial equivalence of the opposed rifles continued through-
out the war period. Further changes of detail were made.
Special rifles were sometimes brought into use for snipers, and
fittings were added to the standard service rifle to adapt it as a
grenade-thrower and as a sniper's weapon to be used from a deep
trench. A heavy single-loader was designed in Germany as an
anti-tank weapon, and many changes were made in the ammuni-
tion. But the rifle itself, the rifle of the average infantryman,
was practically the same at the end of the war as it had been
for the past 1 5 years, or, setting aside the change of bullet type,
for twenty-five. The German army of 1918 carried the 1898
rifle, the French the Lebel model 1886-93, the Italians the
Mannlicher-Carcano of 1891. The Russian three-line (-3-in.)
rifle of 1900 was only a modification of the earlier Moussin
and Nagant models. The most modern patterns were the
British and the American, and these were characterized by hav-
ing a relatively short barrel, experience in the S. African War
having brought " snap shooting " and the consequent need of
handiness into relief. Otherwise the elements and their functions
were the same, and the dimensions of the same order, in all
rifles except the French.
This standstill of progress, in a time when the design of every
other kind of weapon was developing at an unprecedented rate,
is very remarkable and indicates clearly enough that the mili-
tary rifle of the conventional type had reached its zenith. As a
type, it was not capable of much further development. Design-
ers had already by 1914 produced the first practical models
of automatic and semi-automatic arms. Governments were
unwilling to re-arm their troops and re-stock their armouries
with new models of an obsolescent class. Even the French,
whose rifle was not only the oldest but also possessed a type of
magazine long discarded by others, made no attempt to replace
it by a weapon of the class of the British and American rifles.
When war came, all Powers were waiting on events.
In the war itself the machine-gun proper very soon and
decisively asserted itself, driving the simple rifle into the back-
1 For further information see AMMUNITION and SIGHTS.
276
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
ground. Further, trench warfare took unforeseen shapes.
Grenades, trench mortars, bombs and man-to-man weapons,
even clubs and daggers, became normal infantry arms in minor
and subordinate combats, while in the battle proper it was the
artillery and the machine-gun rather than the firing-line of
rifle-armed infantry that governed the issue both in attack and
in defence. Thus when, from the latter part of 1 9 1 6 onwards, the
" break-through," with its sequel of free infantry fighting in the
background of the broken-through trench systems, became the
ideal of tactics, the main infantry weapon was inevitably the
machine-gun in some form. And thereupon the machine-gun of
the pre-war and early war period began to develop on two distinct
lines the heavy machine-gun with its own role and characteris-
tics (see MACHINE-GUN), and the light machine-gun or infantry
machine-gun. When this evolution set in, the machine-rifle or
automatic rifle (some forms of which were already in use as
machine-guns, especially with aircraft) was more or less ready
to take up the place allotted to it by tactics.
The light machine-gun or machine-rifle " infantry machine-
gun " is a better designation than either for the class as a whole
is differentiated from the heavy machine-gun, technically and
tactically, by being: (a) portable by one man; (b) unprovided
with a mounting in the proper sense; (c) as inconspicuous in
action or movement as an ordinary rifle; and (d) limited for
various reasons to short bursts of fire. On the other side, as
against the rifle, it possesses: (a) fire power with which no
hand-operated weapon can compete, which indeed is equivalent
for some moments at a time to that of the machine-gun proper;
(b) an accuracy that, while less than that of the heavy type, is
greater than that of the rifle, owing to the absence of trigger
jerk and disturbance of the firer by recoil and to the fact that a
muzzle support is (usually) provided; (c) ease and certainty in
the matter of fire control, a mechanical organ in the hands of
one man being far more manageable in the confusion of battle
than a squad of extended riflemen. These advantages it gains,
of course, at the expense of being more cumbrous, more delicate
in mechanism and more expensive than the rifle, and it requires
a fuller ammunition supply, or may do so. Further, it lacks one
of the characteristics of the old infantry firearm it cannot serve
as the haft of a bayonet, and thus the infantryman ceases, at
least for the time being, to be self-sufficing, and infantry organ-
ization at its lowest level returns to the lyth-century form, in
which a fire element and a shock element are combined in the
tactical group rather than in the individual soldier.
The characteristics of automatic rifle and light machine-gun
fire, which thus become the most important element of infantry
tactics, are briefly as follows. (For convenience, the term " auto-
matic rifle " will be applied to the lighter and that of " light
machine-gun " to the heavier members of the class under con-
sideration. The definition by weight adopted in the following
article fixes the frontier between the automatic rifle and the
light machine-gun at about 20 Ib.)
The trajectory of an individual round, whether fired from a
rifle, an automatic rifle, a light machine-gun or a heavy machine-
gun, is the same for the same ammunition and barrel character-
istics, though its relation to the object aimed at will vary to
some extent according to steadiness of man or mounting, smooth-
ness or shock of recoil and other factors. On the other hand,
the cone or sheaf of fire formed by a group of rounds will be
denser with the automatic rifle and denser still with the light
machine-gun than it is with a number of rifles representing the
same volume of fire per unit time. The grouping of shots is
densest of all in the case of the heavy machine-gun fired from
a steady mounting.
In proportion, therefore, as the steadiness in position, due to
man, ground or mounting, enables an automatic rifle or light
machine-gun to group its shots more and more closely, these
weapons tend to acquire more and more of the peculiar tactical
powers of the heavy machine-gun the ability: (a) to support
close-fighting infantry groups by overhead or acute flanking
fire; (b) to pour a direct and intense fire into small but danger-
ous posts of the enemy, such as machine-gun nests; (c) to enfilade
enemy trenches and harass bridge approaches, cross-roads, and
other points of very small area by day or night. It may be
admitted at once that no existing light machine-gun and, a
fortiori, no automatic rifle, is fully capable of (a) and (c), and in
particular of overhead fire or fire through intervals between
moving or fighting bodies of friendly troops without endanger-
ing them. However, in (b) the light machine-gun is ballisti-
cally scarcely inferior to the heavy machine-gun. This is its
true function, which it performs as a rule better than the heavy,
because its mobility allows of a closer approach, easier observa-
tion and freer choice of position. The automatic rifle also
possesses this power in some measure, but the light weapon of
the future to be evolved from the two types must, before unity
of type is acceptable, be made quite as capable of performing
this tactical service as is the light machine-gun of to-day. At
present the automatic rifle seems to be looked upon in some
quarters as a weapon to be used normally as a semi-automatic,
firing perhaps 50 or 60 rounds where the bolt-action rifle would
deliver 10 and to that extent economizing men, reducing con-
fusion, and minimizing casualties in the firing line, but in the
last analysis always a rifle in the tactical sense. Its automatic
power is reserved for special emergencies, just as, at the beginning
of the evolution of the magazine rifle, the magazine was regarded
as a reserve of fire power added to a single-loader.
Considering, next, volume of fire, we can safely say that for
practical purposes all automatic rifles and light machine-guns
have or can be made to have the same rapidity of fire as the
heavy machine-gun. The rapidity is purely a function of the
design. Whether recoil-operated or gas-operated, the cycle of
operations is gone through as fast as the mechanism can take
up the motive impulse. On the other hand, the possibility of
maintaining the automatic rate for long without damaging the
mechanism depends on (a) the solidity of the working parts;
and (/>) the capacity of the barrel to resist overheating. In both
respects the light machine-gun and the automatic rifle are
definitely inferior to the heavy. Solidity of working parts and
the incorporation in the design of cooling devices both involve
deadweight, and it is the designer's first object to eliminate dead-
weight. In the automatic rifle not only are weights of parts lim-
ited but cooling devices are omitted altogether. 1 The possibility
of automatic continuous fire is therefore definitely sacrificed.
In light machine-guns, on the other hand, the working parts are
not greatly different in solidity from those of heavy machine-
guns, and some form of cooling device radiator, circulator or
both is invariably fitted. The extra weight translates itself
into greater power of sustained fire. With a positive cooling
system, such as the water-jacket of the German L.M. 6.08/15,
the volume of fire from a light machine-gun is practically equal
to that of a heavy, if tactical conditions allow of equal ammuni-
tion supply to each. Even the air-cooled guns are capable of
delivering many hundred rounds without a pause other than
those for changing magazines or belts. It is true that the devel-
opment of full fire power for several minutes continuously is
exceptional and even very exceptional, and it is a matter of
opinion how much importance should be attached to this factor
relatively to others in the arm of the future. But it seems clear,
in any event, that the infantry machine-gun which constitutes
the backbone of the attack or the defence ought to possess, at
least at the shorter ranges, that power of focussing a storm of
bullets on the enemy's machine-gun group, nest, or other centre
of effort as soon as it is located. Otherwise the attack or counter-
attack must wait for the heavy machine-guns to come well up,
or at least to wait till exact information as to the target and the
situation has been communicated to them.
This line of reasoning would exclude the automatic rifle alto-
gether but for certain other considerations. The blotting-out
by destruction or neutralization of well or strongly posted enemy
groups in key positions is not the only function of the infantry
machine-gun. It prepares by its fire every local advance of the
groups of its own side, whether against or past important hos-
tile nuclei or against simple parties of infantry using fortuitous
1 Except in the Chauchat, which is on the border line as to weight.
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
277
cover, which constitute the rest of the hostile " line." It is the
latter which is the average, though not the decisive, incident
in mobile warfare, especially when, as in 1918, the principle is to
" drive a nail where it will go." In these average incidents
sustained fire is the rare exception German light machine-gun
squads in the spring offensive of 1918, for instance, seem to have
found that 2,000 rounds daily per L.M.G. sufficed and mobility
is of supreme importance as the machine-guns must push along
as fast as the rest of the infantry, and, indeed, get ahead of it
in many cases. This is a strong, and indeed the principal,
argument in favour of the automatic rifle of less than 20 Ib.
weight, as against the light machine-gun of 20-40.
In sum, therefore, the light machine-gun, by reason of its
greater weight and steadiness, can deliver a fire of greater
accuracy and more sustained intensity than the automatic rifle,
and so can perform functions for which the heavy machine-gun
would otherwise have to be called in. The automatic rifle, on
the other hand, possesses a greater mobility than does the light
machine-gun and can for a few moments at a time develop a
fire power practically as heavy. In four-fifths of a day's work
in battle, then, it is as useful as, or more useful than, the light
machine-gun. But the last fifth, often more important than the
rest put together, it cannot undertake with much hope of success.
Both have the disadvantage that they must be fed with ammu-
nition in very difficult conditions. They must, therefore, be
squad weapons and not personal weapons, and there is a tendency
for the squad to group itself about the gun and so to reveal itself
for what it is. Both, on the other hand, have the advantage
that very few of these squads are needed, as compared with
rifle-armed infantry, to attack or defend a given front.
On the whole, it seems probable that a type of the future,
evolved from both, will take the form, not of the lightened
machine-gun, but of the automatic rifle provided with increased
magazine capacity, a cooling device, and a mount sufficiently
steady, with the weight of the gun, to give a bullet grouping at
short ranges as close as that of the heavy machine-gun at longer.
The rise of the light machine-gun to importance as the main
weapon of the infantry battle has been followed by another
development of some interest, viz. a change of principle in what
may be called the personal armament of the infantry soldier.
Hitherto self-sufficing, but now become a member of a gun
detachment, he has felt the need of possessing some handy weapon
of his own which would give him intense fire power in emergen-
cies. The same is the case with the artilleryman and, in the
present day, with many specialists such as range-takers, observ-
ers and others, who have to work in the front line but are not
armed with the normal battle weapon. For these, first an
increase in the capacity of the pistol magazine was tried, and
later an altogether new class of weapon was designed the
machine-pistol, which is a fully automatic arm of the carbine or
long pistol kind, capable of firing pistol ammunition as fast as a
heavy machine-gun fires rifle calibre ammunition. Such weap-
ons may also usefully replace the light machine-gun itself in
certain conditions, e.g. bush or mountain-warfare. Some exam-
ples of this new class of arm are described below.
As to whether the semi-automatic rifle that is, the military
rifle fitted with self-loading mechanism but fired by the trigger
shot for shot will become a universal infantry weapon, opinions
differ. On the whole, it seems unlikely that it will do so. On
the one hand, for group action the light machine-gun or per-
fected automatic rifle is definitely superior in accuracy, volume,
and control of fire to an equivalent number of semi-automatic
rifles in individual hands, whatever the discipline and team
work of the individuals. On the other hand, as a personal
armament for fighting at close quarters the new machine-pistol
is superior in intensity of fire and at least equal in handiness.
The semi-automatic rifle may develop as a weapon for sniping
and skirmishing, and as the soldier's personal armament in
theatres of war where the country is very open and troops are
required to do a good deal of individual patrolling and stalking.
Of these services, however, all except sniping can be performed
by the machine-pistol; and, in sum, the semi-automatic rifle
seems likely as a military arm to become a sniper's rifle pure
and simple the military analogue of the sporting rifle, for
which the semi-automatic principle is already well established.
Speculation as to the nature of the cavalry firearm of the
future is now difficult, depending as it does on the tactical ques-
tion of how far dispersion will be carried in the dismounted fire
fight. (C. F. A.)
PRACTICAL DEVELOPMENTS
The improvement of the rifle has been confined mainly to the
development of auto-loading, or semi-automatic, rifles for both
military and sporting purposes, and the development of the
automatic or machine-rifle for military purposes.
The semi-automatic shoulder-rifle has become an efficient
and reliable weapon for sporting purposes, but no military
weapon of this type has been adopted by any of the leading
powers to replace the bolt-action shoulder-rifle, although some
fairly successful weapons have been produced. The principal
difficulty in the way of perfection of an arm of this type is the
weight limitation. The present bolt-action rifles are considered
by many designers to be as light as is consistent with the pres-
sures obtained with modern powders, and the automatic action
can only be obtained through additional parts, and consequently
additional weight. Successful automatic rifles of 12-20 Ib.
weight have indeed been produced. Such rifles are somewhat
less heavy than the light machine-gun, the latter being defined as
an automatic, rifle-calibre weapon, with a tripod as muzzle
support weighing from 20 to 30 Ib. complete, and it is possible
that further developments in the type may lead to its superseding
the light machine-gun as above defined.
Bolt-Action Military Rifles. It has already been noted that
no important progress was made in the design of the bolt-action
rifle during the World War. Quite apart from the manufactur-
ing difficulties attending upon an alteration of model in the
midst of a great crisis, and setting aside also the changes in the
tactical relations of rifle, gun and machine-gun in the war, the
rifles used by the various belligerents were so nearly equivalent
that no one possessed any advantage over the rest which could
not be compensated for by slightly better training or slightly
higher moral on the other side. And not only was the invention
of necessity wanting, but also the conventional type of rifle had
reached a point of development beyond which it was difficult
to see possibilities of radical improvement.
Substantially, then, the rifles in use at the end of the war
were the same as those in use at its beginning, and this is the
less surprising as many peace-time criticisms levelled at one or
another model proved to be useless, or practically unimportant,
in war. Thus, rifles looked upon as obsolete revealed unsus-
pected good qualities in the severe test of war service, and modern
rifles failed to show the superiority expected. The German
Mauser had been popularly credited with being the best military
shoulder arm; while the British short Lee-Enfield had been
severely criticized on the score of its weak body and poorly
designed bolt. Yet, under service conditions, the performance of
the latter was excellent; the simple action, good balance, and
rapidity with which it could be worked compensating for the
superior ballistic qualities of the German arm. Similarly, the
French Lebel, one of the oldest service rifles (1886-93), has been
looked upon as being outclassed by modern arms, it being the
only military rifle with a tubular magazine; yet this rifle with
the " Balle D " cartridge has greater velocity and greater strik-
ing power at ranges in excess of 800 yd. than the American
Springfield, which has 360 f.s. greater initial velocity. In only
one instance, apparently, did a rifle prove so unsuitable that it
was withdrawn from use. The Ross rifle, the original arm of the
Canadian forces, while a good sporting and target rifle, proved
unsatisfactory in the mud and dirt of trench fighting.
Another factor which tended to stabilize the rifle in its existing
form was the interchangeability of rifle and machine-gun ammu-
nition. Before the war there was a distinct tendency towards
reducing the calibre of the rifle and employing a lighter bullet,
in order to obtain flatness of trajectory at ranges within about
800 yards. But the modern light-weight high-velocity bullet
2 7 8
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
loses its velocity very rapidly, which renders it less suitable
than a heavier bullet for employment in machine-gun work,
where effectiveness at long range is required. So long, therefore,
as the ammunition of rifles and machine-guns remains interchange-
able it is probable that no further reductions of calibre and
bullet weight will take place. At the same time, the develop-
ment of the heavy machine-gun itself may quite possibly call
for not merely the retention of the present common calibre but
an actual increase of calibre beyond what is admissible for the
rifle. The principle of interchangeable ammunition has recently
been questioned by some experts who would prefer that each
class of weapon should be free to develop along its own lines;
and already experiments have been carried out in the United
States, not indeed with two calibre, but with two bullet weights,
a bullet of 180 grains being designed for the machine-gun (and
for occasional use for special purposes in the rifle) while the
old bullet of 1 50 grains is retained for the shoulder weapon.
The only new model service bolt-action rifle produced by
belligerents during the war on a large scale was the British rifle,
303, pattern 1914, which was later adapted to -30 U.S. ammuni-
tion and manufactured for the United States; about 2,500,00x5
rifles of this type being produced in that country during the
eighteen months preceding the Armistice.
British Riflss of the War Period. Before the war, the British
service rifle, the short Lee-Enfield of -303-^. calibre, had been
subjected to a good deal of criticism, and the War Office, after
much experimenting with various types of cartridges, found that
it was not possible to obtain as high a velocity with this rifle as
was desired. An improvement was effected, however, in the
adoption of the Mark VII. ammunition, the pointed bullet of
which weighs 174 grains instead of 215 grains as in the Mark VI.,
the muzzle velocity being 2,440 f.s., with a chamber pressure of
45,000 Ib. This ammunition, however, did not give the ballistic
qualities desired and the design of a new rifle was taken up. A
rifle was finally evolved with a bore -276 in. in diameter, and
chambered for a rimless cartridge, giving a muzzle velocity of
about 2,800 f.s., and a chamber pressure of 51,000 Ib., and it
is probable that this model would have been further perfected
and adopted but for the beginning of the war. Military con-
siderations then prevented its adoption in its original form, and
it was modified to take the existing Mark VII. -303 ammunition,
and manufactured in the United States as the " British Rifle,
Pattern 1914." The short magazine Lee-Enfield with Mark
VII. ammunition, however, remained the standard British arm
throughout the war; though the new rifle was also used.
Upon the entrance of the United States into the conflict,
as a number of American factories were equipped to manufacture
this rifle, it was again modified to accommodate the U.S. service
ammunition and used as a substitute for the calibre -30, model
of 1903 (Springfield), under the name of the " U.S. Rifle Model
of 1917." As chambered and bored for the U.S. ammunition,
the rifle had approximately the same ballistic qualities as the
Springfield. The British and American models of this rifle are
the same in their essential features, except that the latter has
not the long-range (dial and aperture) sights of British rifles. A
remarkable feature common to both rifles is the position of
the rear sight between two protecting lugs on the bridge of
the receiver. This position of the rear sight gives a distance
from back sight and fore sight of 31-76 in., that is, almost exactly
over the trigger instead of in the customary position, a hand's
breadth or more in front of the magazine. Further details will
be found in the article SIGHTS. The length of the rifle overall
is 46-3 inches. The weight without bayonet is 9 Ib., 3 oz.; the
sword bayonet is about 22 in. long (blade 17 in.) and weighs
15 oz. The magazine holds five cartridges which are loaded
from a clip. The bore has five grooves, left-hand uniform
twist, one turn in 10 inches.
The action of this rifle is as follows (figs. I and 2). The cycle of
operations is assumed to start with the extraction of a' fired cartridge
case. The bolt handle is raised and the cocking piece forced to the
rear in the bolt by the half-cocking cam. This also withdraws the
striker into the bolt. When the locking lugs on the bolt are clear
the extracting cams on the bolt and receiver engage and the continued
rotation of the bolt retracts the latter and loosens and partly with-
draws the cartridge case (primary extraction), the extractor and
sleeve being prevented from turning by the receiver. When the limit
of the turning movement in the bolt is reached, it is drawn to the rear,
withdrawing the empty cartridge case; during this movement the
cocking piece rides over the sear nose and depresses it ; the safety
stud rises in the clearance cut in the bolt. When the cocking piece
clears the sear nose, the sear spring returns the sear to normal posi-
tion. The slotted locking lug (left hand) of the bolt now reaches the
ejector, the latter protruding in the slot sufficiently to strike the rear
of the empty case and eject it to the right. After a further slight
backward movement the bolt lug comes in contact with the bolt
stop, preventing further movement. If the magazine is now empty
the follower rises and its rib prevents the closing of the bolt. If not,
the magazine spring has pushed another cartridge up and into the
path of the bolt, the forward movement of which forces it forward
and up over the cartridge ramp.
During the early part of the closing movement of the bolt, the
ejector is pushed outward by the bolt. Later, the sear notch in the
cocking piece engages the sear nose, and is arrested. The bolt then
slides forward over the striker, further compressing the main spring.
When the rotation of the bolt by the handle begins, the locking
lugs engage the locking cams, and force the bolt home, seating the
cartridge, and further compressing the main spring. The rotation
of the bolt restores the half cocking cam, so that it is out of the path
of fall of the cocking-piece lug.
The bolt is now locked, the mainspring is fully compressed, and
the cocking piece is held by the sear nose.
When the trigger is squeezed, the bearing of the trigger first acts
on the bearing of the receiver, slowly depressing the sear nose. Then
the heel of the trigger engages the receiver, and completes the de-
pression of the sear nose, which ends in the release of the cocking
piece by the sear nose. The striker is then acted upon by the main-
spring, and, striking the primer of the cartridge, detonates the same.
FIGS, i and 2. British Rifle (Pattern '14) U.S. Model of 1917.
During the depression of the sear nose, the safety stud rises through
the hole in the bottom of the well and enters the interlock slot in the
bolt. If the bolt is not fully locked, the interlock slot will not register
with the safety stud, and the trigger cannot be pulled.
United States. When the United States entered the war its
standard rifle was the " U.S. Rifle, Model of 1903 " (Spring-
field). There were only about 600,000 of these on hand, and
very limited possibilities of immediate expansion. To obviate
delay, therefore, it was decided, as above mentioned, to adopt
the British Pattern '14 rifle which had been manufactured in the
United States in large quantities. This rifle, modified as pre-
viously noted, was used very successfully by a large portion of
the U.S. troops; only the regular army and part of the National
Guard continuing to use the Springfield. The Springfield, how-
ever, is still (1921) the official arm, the 1917 rifles having been
withdrawn after the Armistice.
Other Nations. The Lebel magazine rifle, calibre 8 mm.,
model of 1886-93, is still the standard arm of the French infantry.
The magazine is tubular, lies under the barrel, and holds eight
cartridges which are loaded singly. The carbine, model of 1890,
and the rifle, model of 1907-15, were also used to a considerable
extent. These are magazine rifles, having a one-piece stock and
a bolt with a turning head. They are loaded with a charger
containing three cartridges. A box magazine was later designed
for these rifles, increasing the capacity to five cartridges. Several
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
279
other types were used by the French, many of the old single-
loading " Gras " rifles of the 1874 model being adapted. 1
Mauser rifles in different calibres were used by Germany, Turkey,
China, Portugal, Serbia and Brazil? The Japanese " Arisaka,"
or "38th Year," also has a Mauser action. Many of these
rifles were purchased from Japan by Russia early in the World
War and also by Great Britain for training purposes. It was
reported that since the Armistice Japan has increased the calibre
both in new rifles and in the existing stock from 6-5 mm. (256)
to 7 mm., the reason given for the change being that the 6-5-mm.
bullet is too small to develop sufficient wounding power. This
calibre is used by several other nations and is the smallest
used in military rifles. The change is interesting, since the ten-
dency had been towards reduction of calibre.
The standard arm of the Russian infantry is the " Three line "
magazine rifle, 7-62-mm. (-3-in.) calibre. A new type of ammu-
nition has been adopted for this rifle, having a pointed bullet
weighing 148 grains and giving 2,820 f.s. velocity with 50,000
Ib. pressure. The Russian Government also bought large quanti-
ties of Winchester, model of 1895, magazine rifles of the same
calibre, the only lever-action magazine-rifle used in the war.
Austria-Hungary used the 8-mm. Mannlicher, " Straight
Pull " rifle, model 1895, and carbine. Mannlicher type rifles
were also used by Italy, Bulgaria, Rumania and Greece. The
Belgians used the magazine rifle, calibre 7-65 mm., model of
1889, which has a Mauser action. The latest ammunition for
this rifle has a pointed bullet weighing 1 54 grains with a velocity
of about 2,740 f.s. The Swiss Schmidt-Rubin rifle has been
redesigned to chamber a new rimless cartridge having a 170-
grain streamline bullet with a velocity of 2,660 f.s.
SPECIAL BOLT-ACTION RIFLES
Snipers' Rifles. Several types of rifles have been developed by
the various Powers for the use of " snipers," whose function it is
to pick off with single shots individual scouts, officers, men of working
parties, enemy snipers, etc. Snipers work as a rule in pairs wherever
feasible, one acting as an observer, the other as a rifleman. The rifle
used for this purpose is usually a very carefully selected specimen
of the standard service rifle, fitted with telescopic sights of low power,
or some other variety of optical sights, though plain sights are some-
times used. The British snipers used the short Lee-Enfield rifle with
various forms of telescopic and other optical sights, and also the 1914
rifle with a special back sight. The U. S. rifle is fitted with a Warner
and Swasey telescopic sight, 6-power, 4^ field, which is attached to
the standard rifle by side brackets, but this combination is not en-
tirely satisfactory and a new telescope and method of mounting
are being developed. The German sniper's rifle was the standard
Mauser with brackets fastened by screws to the top of the magazine
to take aCoerz, Luxor, or Zeiss telescope, generally of 2f or 3 power.
The mounting of the telescope over the bolt and magazine makes it
necessary to use the rifle as a single-loader and prevents the use of
the regular sights while the telescope is attached. This method is,
however, preferred by riflemen as aim may be taken with the cheek
against the stock in the usual manner; the superior accuracy ob-
tained offsetting these disadvantages. In the German sniper's rifle
the telescope can be very quickly removed from its brackets and
the rifle used the ordinary way.
'The German infantry throughout the war carried the 1898 pat-
tern Mauser (7-9 mm.). The cavalry carbine of the same pattern and
calibre was also occasionally used by infantry as well as by cavalry
serving dismounted in the trenches, and by the personnel of light
machine-gun squads. During the trench-warfare period of the war,
spare magazines holding 25 cartridges were designed for attachment
to the underside of the ordinary magazine, in order to obtain an in-
creased volume of fire for emergencies ; these were, however, clumsy
and unpopular with the troops, and were not generally used. The
only important modification of the standard arm was the introduc-
tion in summer 1915 of a short rifle (43-5 in.) known as the Erfurt
rifle. This has the same trench action, calibre, and magazine as the
1888 rifle, and, apart from the reduced length, differs from it only in
having the sliding parts of the breech covered by a dustproof
metal casing, the barrel cased in wood (as in the British and other
short rifles) and the muzzle filled with a flash-reducing attachment.
The bolt-handle is curved down close to the stock. This weapon was
only issued for service in the last months of the war, but seems to have
been retained as a standard weapon in the post-war army and police.
Troops of older categories employed in garrison and line of commu-
nication duties had the old magazine rifle of 1888 (7'9-mm. calibre).
3 The new Brazilian 7-mm. ammunition has the highest muzzle-
velocity of any military small-arms ammunition, although several
of the new cartridges closely approach it.
Periscopic Rifle Holders or " Sniperscopes " have been designed
and used with some success, although it cannot be said that these
devices were ever popular or capable of very accurate or rapid fire.
The tendency when using them is to shoot high and they are only
reasonably accurate at ranges up to 200 yards. In the instrument
developed by the Munition Invention Department of the British Gov-
ernment (fig. 3) the periscope (aa) and shoulder piece (c) are rigidly
combined with each other and with a shoe (d) which takes the butt
of the rifle. A trigger on the shoulder piece is connected to the rifle
trigger by a cord (eee). Pivoted to the right side of the shoe is a
system of levers (bbb) which enables the firer to open and close the
bolt by means of a handle close to his right hand. The periscope
itself is a simple mirror-periscope.
FIG. 3. Periscopic Rifle Holder (British Type).
Anti-tank Rifle. The German anti-tank rifle (fig. 4) is a single-
shot calibre 13-mm. Mauser action rifle brought out as an emergency
weapon 3 and intended to serve as a stop-gap pending the construc-
tion of a 13-mm. machine-gun. The weapon is intended for short-
range work only, as the sights are graduated to only 500 metres.
It is very heavy (37 lb.)and has a total length of nearly 66 in., the
barrel being 39 in. long. It is provided with a bipod. The bullet,
which weighs 801 grains, is pointed and armour-piercing, has an
initial velocity of about 2,450 f.s., and a penetration of 20 millimetres
in the best steel is claimed at a range of 500 yards. It is, however,
very heavy for a portable arm, and, being a single-shot weapon, it
has a very slow rate of fire. On account of the heating of the barrel
and the heavy recoil, the fire cannot be sustained for more than 20
shots at a time. Each rifle was served by two men, carrying 124
cartridges as well as the rifle and accessories and their personal
armament. The rifles were used in squads of three rifles, or singly, or
in cooperation with heavy machine-guns using armour-piercing
bullets, according to circumstances. The Germans had a high regard
for this weapon.
FIG. 4. German Anti-Tank Rifle.
High-power Rifles. Sporting rifles with an initial velocity of 3,000
f.s., or slightly more, are now in use. These rifles have no particular
feature except the additional strength necessary to withstand high
pressures. The so-called " explosive " effect of nigh-velocity bullets
upon striking make them extremely effective for sporting purposes.
SEMI-AUTOMATIC RlFLES
As already mentioned, efforts are being made to produce a semi-
automatic shoulder-rifle to replace the bolt-action rifle. The success-
ful sporting weapons of this type which have been devised are not
considered suitable for military use, as the powder pressures and
velocities obtained from their cartridges are much below those ob-
tained with military ammunition. Sporting rifles are not subjected
to the severe conditions that are usually encountered by the military
3 The order for a design was given in Dec. 1917 and in spite of the
manufacturing difficulties which naturally presented themselves with
an arm of such unusual proportions, the Mauser works were able to
begin quantity supply in April 1918 (Schwarte, Technik im Welt-
kriege, p. 21). (C. F. A.)
280
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
arm; the sportsman seldom fires more than three or four shots in
quick succession and is usually in a position to give the self-loading
rifle the care which its more complicated mechanism requires.
The principal requirements in a semi-automatic rifle are that
the rifle shall not weigh more than nine or ten pounds, and shall
have a simple mechanism which will stand the shock of service
ammunition and the wear and tear of campaigning. The weapon
must be capable of being used either automatically or by hand as an
ordinary rifle, and for the rest must possess all the qualities now
demanded of a good bolt-action rifle. The automatic action, there-
fore, is not considered a substitute for any of the qualities of the
present shoulder-rifle. No semi-automatic weapon so far designed has
fulfilled these conditions to such a degree that it has been adopted in
place of the bolt-action rifle. The Mondragon, a Mexican invention,
has, however, been used by the Mexican Government to some extent,
and in a modified form. A modification of this weapon was also used
by Germany in the war, notably for the armament of aeroplanes. Two
French models, the St. tienne and the " Carabine Meunier," were
brought out toward the close of the war, but not extensively used.
FIG. 5. Winchester Auto-Loading Rifle.
The U.S. Ordnance Department recently (1920) held competitive
tests, and further developments and tests have been made.
The principal advantages expected from the semi-automatic
rifles are : increased rapidity of fire, less physical labour on the part
of the soldier, and better moral, due to the knowledge that he can
devote all his attention to the enemy and shoot without exertion or
haste when necessary. On the other hand, the desirability of the
semi-automatic rifle is not universally conceded. Some authorities
consider the rate of fire of the present rifle to be quite as high as is
consistent with accurate shooting and lay stress on the difficulties of
ammunition supply. 1
Semi-automatic Sporting Rifles. The Winchester auto-loading
system for rifles (fig. 5) utilizes the inertia of a heavily weighted bolt
working against the compression of a coiled spring in the fore end to
delay the rearward motion of the bolt at the moment of firing until
the bullet has left the barrel. After this inertia is overcome, there
still remains enough force to the recoil to move the bolt to the rear,
eject the empty cartridge case, cock the hammer against the com-
pression of the hammer spring, and finish the compression of the bolt
12
FIG. 6. Browning Auto-Loading Rifle.
spring. When this has been accomplished, the bolt moves forward
actuated by the bolt spring and feeds another cartridge into the
chamber. A pull of the trigger now fires another shot. This rifle is
made in various calibres, the most powerful being -401 in. The 200-
grain bullet in this size gives a muzzle- velocity of 2,132 f.s. and has a
muzzle-energy of 2,020 foot pounds. The French Air Service used
this type of rifle to a limited extent in the armament of aeroplanes.
The Browning auto-loading system (fig. 6), used by Remington
(U.S.A.) and the Fabrique Nationale (Belgium), differs from the
Winchester in that the barrel (i), breech bolt (2), and bolt carrier (3)
are locked together at the moment of firing, these parts recoiling
together against a powerful spring (7) in a casing surrounding the
barrel and in which the barrel slides. The rearward motion pushes
the hammer (4) backward, cocking the action and compressing the
1 The incorporation of the light machine-gun in the small fighting
unit of infantry bears on this question. (C. F. A.)
action spring (5) through the link (6) and the recoil spring (7).
A buffer spring (8) also serves to retard the recoiling parts. At the
completion of the backward motion the bolt-carrier latch (9) springs
into a notch (10), locking the bolt in its rearmost position. The barrel
and bolt carrier now start forward actuated by the recoil spring around
the barrel ; the bolt carrier after moving a short distance is held by
the bolt-carrier latch; the barrel continues its forward movement,
turning the bolt by means of a helical cam slot in its side and un-
locking it. The empty cartridge case is held until the forward motion
of the barrel withdraws it from the chamber, after which it is ejected.
When the barrel has reached its forward position, the barrel exten-
sion (n) has forced the barrel lock down. This reacts against the
bolt-carrier latch and allows the bolt carrier to be pushed forward by
the action spring (5), carrying a fresh cartridge from the magazine
(12) into the chamber and rotating the bolt so that the locking lugs
are forced into their seats in the barrel extension, thus locking the
bolt to the barrel.
FIG. 7. Mondragon Semi-Auto Rifle.
This rifle is made in -25-in., -3O-in., -32-in., and -35-in. calibres.
In the last-named the 2Oo-grain bullet has a muzzle-velocity of 2,020
f.s. and an energy of 1,776 Ib. The magazine is loaded with a clip
of five cartridges similar to military rifles. Owing to the locked bolt
and recoiling barrel, high pressures can be used in this arm. The
cartridge is reduced in diameter or necked down for the bullet. The
mechanism is, however, much more complicated than in a rifle where
the breech only is blown back.
Semi-automatic Military Rifles. The Mondragon semi-automatic
military rifle (fig. 7) is the invention of Gen. Mondragon of the
Mexican army. It was invented about 1891 and developed to its
present state by Germany about 1915. The rifle is gas-operated, the
gas being taken from a port in the barrel. It weighs about nine
pounds, has the general appearance of the ordinary service rifle, is
fitted for a bayonet, and is made in 7-mm. calibre. The characteristic
feature of this rifle is the bolt mechanism, which permits the rifle
to be used either as an auto-loading weapon or as a hand-operated
shoulder rifle. The bolt (i) has three locking lugs on the forward end
of the bolt and four on the rear end of the bolt, which are locked into
locking recesses of the receiver (2). The bolt is made to rotate by two
helical cam slots (3) in the side; two cam lugs, which are carried by
the bolt handle, work these slots. The bolt handle is connected with
the gas piston so that when the powder gases enter the gas chamber
and drive the pisjon to the rear, the bolt handle is carried with it and
causes the bolt to rotate and unlock, and move to the rear, extracts
the empty case and compresses the recoil spring (4) which is coiled
round the gas cylinder, and drives the mechanism forward after it
has been arrested in the rear by the buffer spring. A gas adjustment
is provided to regulate the amount of gas delivered to the gas cylin-
der, so that the rate of working can be to some extent regulated.
The magazine has a capacity of 10 rounds. Another form of maga-
zine, for aircraft purposes, is of the Luger "snail," or barrel type
(see PISTOL), and holds 30 rounds. The rifle is provided with a sep-
arate hammer (5) which is linked up with the trigger mechanism as
FIG. 8. St. tienne Semi-Auto Rifle.
shown in the section. The change to hand-loading is done by means
of a releasing catch on the bolt handle which disconnects this from
the gas piston. The gas port in the barrel may also be closed by means
of a valve. A safety device (6) is provided which disconnects the
trigger if carried in a safe position.
The German pattern was officially known as the Aviator's Auto-
matic Carbine (Flieger-Selbstlader Karabiner) , model 1915, and was
chiefly and successfully used for the purpose indicated by its name.
It was also for a time tried as an artillery carbine, but for this pur-
pose it proved unsuitable, in that it failed to stand the rough usage
and careless handling of field warfare.
The St. fctienne Semi-automatic Rifle (a French " semi-automatic
rifle, model 1918 ") is a gas-operated semi-automatic rifle which weighs
about n| Ib., is about 52 in. long, and has an ordinary rifle sight and
bayonet fitting (fij*.8). It takes the French Lebel 8-mm. cartridge.
The magazine which has a capacity of five cartridges is charged
through the bottom of the magazine housing (8), which is hinged.
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
281
When the bolt handle, which is attached to the bolt (9), is pulled
to the rear, the hammer (10) is forced to the rear against the action
of the hammer and sear spring (n) until the sear (12) is engaged in
the sear notch in the trigger (13). The rearward motion of the bolt
compresses the recoil spring (15) which, when the bolt handle is
released at the rear position goes forward and drives the next car-
tridge into the chamber, while the hammer is held in the rear position
by the sear and trigger ready for firing. The trigger is pulled and
released for each shot, but extraction and ejection of the fired car-
tridge case and the feeding of the new cartridge are automatic. When
the trigger is pulled, the sear is released and allows the hammer to
go forward and strike the firing pin which ignites the cartridge.
When the cartridge is ignited a portion of the powder gases pass
through the gas port (16) into the gas cylinder (17) which drives the
gas piston to the rear. The gas piston is linked with the bolt mechan-
ism through a slide which transmits the force of the gases to the bolt.
This serves to unlock the bolt and drive it to the rear to extract
and eject the empty case and to compress the action spring and cock
the hammer for the next shot. The bolt body is forced to the rear by
the slide which is attached to the gas piston, and also linked with
the bolt head (18) through rotating cams which rotate the bolt head
sufficiently to clear the bolt head locking lugs of the locking
recesses in the receiver.
AUTOMATIC RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
As has been stated in an earlier part of this article the devel-
opment of new tactical methods and conditions in the World
War soon produced a demand for a light machine-gun or auto-
matic rifle which could keep up with, and participate in, an
FIG. 9. Browning Automatic Rifle.
infantry attack at every stage of its progress. Various types
of weapons were adopted for this purpose and classified as
light machine-guns or automatic rifles. There is no distinct
separation of these types, the term " light machine-gun " being
usually applied to machine-guns weighing 20 to 30 Ib. fired
from a bipod and used for fairly sustained direct fire. Practically
all types are air-cooled by means of a heavy barrel with annular
rings or a radiator. The automatic rifle, while it is sometimes
supplied with a bipod, may be fired from the hip or shoulder and
The rifle is light and portable, weighing only 15^ Ib. and being
only an inch or two longer than the short military rifle. It can be
handled by one man as a shoulder rifle. As it is heavier than
the ordinary military rifle, the recoil is very slight, and a man
can fire the gun continuously without distress.
By means of a change lever, the action of the gun is made
either semi-automatic (the trigger being pulled for each shot),
or automatic (being continuous as long as the trigger is kept
pressed and cartridges are supplied).
As a semi-automatic rifle it is very effective. As the trigger
pull is as light as that of an ordinary military rifle, it is possible
with practice, to fire 100 shots a minute without unduly tiring
the finger. Used in this manner every shot can be well directed,
which makes the gun in some conditions as effective as the
heavy machine-gun, with a considerable saving in the amount
of ammunition expended.
The gun, firing automatically, has a rate of between 450 and
500 shots per minute. The speed can be regulated to a certain
extent by adjustment of the gas regulator. The weapon can
be used as freely when firing automatically as when firing single
shots, the firer lying down, standing, or advancing at will.
When a magazine has been emptied it can be dropped out
of the gun by pressing the magazine release in the trigger guard
and a full magazine quickly pushed into place with one hand, so
that very little time is lost in changing magazines. 2
The mechanism is very simple and also extremely durable.
Tests have been made where over 50,000 rounds have been fired
out of the same rifle without any of the parts showing distress.
The rifle is gas-operated. A portion of the powder gases, while
under pressure, are trapped near the muzzle of the gun and are caused
to act upon a gas piston. The pressure of the gases forces the piston
and slide to the rear against the action of the recoil spring, until
stopped by the buffer, when the recoil spring returns the mechanism
to its forward position.
The receiver (21) in which the barrel is firmly screwed con-
tains the principal mechanism of the gun. The bolt-supports (23),
upon which the bolt slides, are riveted in position. The bolt guide
(25) fits in a slot cut in the receiver wall and is held in position by the
bolt guide spring. The change lever stop (26) projects from a hole
in the receiver wall in the path of the change lever and must be
depressed before the change lever can be moved to the safe position.
The buffer tube (28) behind the receiver contains an arrangement of
friction cones, cups and springs. On the left-hand side of the receiver
is'capable of delivering limited sustained fire. Its weight varies
from 14 to 20 pounds. The German " 08/15 " and " 08/18 "
and the Bergmann, Lewis and Benet-Mercie are generally
spoken of as light machine-guns. The Browning, Chauchat,
light Hotchkiss and Madsen are examples of automatic rifles.
The Browning Automatic Rifle (figs. 9 and 10) is the standard
automatic rifle of the United States army. 1
1 Brought out in 1917, just after America entered the war, and
available in small numbers by Feb. 1918, it was not employed in
battle till Sept., Gen. Pershing having become so convinced of its
superiority over all other types in use that he preferred not to expose
it to capture and copying by the enemy till the American army had
been supplied with it on a large scale and had reaped the fruits of
its superiority in a great battle. In effect, none was used before
his offensive battles of Sept. but 4,608 were in action between that
date and the Armistice. (C. F. A.)
FIG. 10. Browning Automatic Rifle.
are grooves in which the operating handle (34) slides. The forward
end of the gas cylinder tube (36) is rigidly connected with the barrel.
The bolt (39) carries the extractor (40) which is held by the ex-
tractor spring (41). The firing pin (42) fits in the bolt, and has a
cam lug which engages with a corresponding cam surface on the bolt
lock (43). The downward motion of the bolt lock forces the firing
pin back and prevents it from touching the cap of the cartridge until
the arm is ready to fire. The bolt lock and link (44) are pivoted to
the rear end of the bolt. The link connects the bolt lock and the
slide (45), which moves horizontally in grooves in the receiver, the
gas piston (46) being permanently attached to it. The slide is slotted
to permit the magazine to pass through it, and has a notch on its
lower rear end to engage with the sear (47). The link pin (48) passes
through the link, hammer (49), and slide, pinning the three parts
2 Magazines holding 20 cartridges are the standard size ; they are
also made to hold 30 and 40 cartridges. They are themselves filled
by a device which presses in the cartridges, five at a time, from the
usual clips.
282
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
together in such a manner that the link may swing on the pin as a
pivot. The link pin also protrudes through a slot m the receiver to
engage the operating handle. The recoil spring (55) is encased in the
gas piston, its front end pushing forward on the piston while its rear
end rests against the head of the recoil spring guide.
The sear (47) is pivoted in the sear carrier (51) by the sear pin
which also holds the sear carrier to the trigger guard (52). The holes
through which the sear pin passes in the trigger guard are slotted,
allowing a slight horizontal movement of the sear carrier. When the
sear engages in the notch of the moving slide, the counter recoil
spring (53) acts as a buffer, allowing the sear carrier and sear to move
instead of suddenly stopping the movement of the slide.
The ejector (54) is a flat spring which yields slightly when struck
by the empty cartridge case so that the latter is gradually ejected.
Action _of 'the Mechanism, With the gjun in the ready-to-feed posi-
tion and the change lever set for semi-automatic fire the cycle of
operation when the trigger is pulled is as follows: The connector
which is pivoted in the trigger moves the sear (47) out of engagement
with the notch in the slide and is cammed forward allowing the sear
to spring into position to engage the slide on its return. The recoil
spring (55) which has been compressed during the recoil of the mech-
anism, drives the piston (46) and slide (45), carrying the bolt (39),
bolt lock (43), link (44) and hammer (49) forward. As they move
forward the lower edge of the bolt strikes the upper edge of the top
cartridge in the magazine and drives it forward into the chamber.
As the parts are nearing their forward position, the rear of the bolt
lock (43) which curves downward, comes in contact with the rounded
end of the bolt-supports (23) and the rear end of the bolt lock is
started moving upward. As the slide moves further forward, the top
end of the link, which is pivoted to the bolt lock, tends to move upwards
as the lower end is swung forward with the slide, and the link forces
the rear end of the bolt lock in front of the recoil shoulder in the
receiver, thus positively locking the breech, as shown in the illus-
tration. The motion of the bolt as the bolt lock swings upward, is
gradually stopped so that the bplt is not stopped suddenly, but very
gently as its forward horizontal motion is transformed into the ver-
tical motion of the rear of the bolt lock.
The hammer strikes the firing pin and the cartridge is ignited.
The forward shoulders of the slide then strike the heavy buttment of
the gas-cylinder tube, and the motion is arrested.
After the bullet passes the gas port in the barrel near its muzzle,
the expanding gases enter the gas cylinder and drive the piston and
slide rearward. The rear of the bolt lock is brought down away from
the recoil shoulder of the receiver, and is started back, gradually
starting the bolt rearward with it, but by the time the bolt starts to
move, the pressure of the gases has subsided, so that the empty car-
tridge is no longer expanded against the walls of the chamber, but
comes out freely. Extraction troubles are thus avoided. The bolt is
both stopped and started gradually and is not damaged with hammer-
like blows. The empty case is drawn from the chamber by the ex-
tractor until its under edge strikes the ejector, when it is ejected to
the right and forward ; this avoids interference with a man imme-
diately to the gunner's right.
The recoiling parts are arrested when the slide strikes the buffer,
and the sear once more engages in the sear notch, which holds the
slide and bolt mechanism to the rear with the breech open.
69
61
by an aluminum radiator with annular corrugations surrounding the
barrel. The backward and forward motion of the barrel causes air
to be driven into the holes in the radiator casing (cf. the Lewis gun,
fig. 14) which also assists in the cooling. The locking of the bolt
mechanism is positive and is done by two locking lugs on the bolt
head which are rotated into locking recesses of the breech casing.
Lugs are provided to guide the bolt head and bring it in contact with
the cam cuts in the bolt body. The cartridges are fed from a semi-
circular magazine holding 20 cartridges, when rim cartridges are used,
and from a straight magazine when rimless cartridges are used. A
regulator is provided, which adjusts the gun for safety, for auto-
matic fire, or for semi-automatic fire.
The action of the mechanism is divided into two phases: the
forward motion and the backward motion. The rifle is loaded by
pulling the operating handle to the rear until the mechanism is
arrested by the sear (57). A charged magazine is inserted into the
magazine opening in the gun, the magazine being held in place by the
magazine catch (58). When the trigger is pulled it causes the trigger
bar (59) to rotate the hand sear (60) against the under side of the
breech casing (61). This forces the sear lever (62) downward, de-
pressing the sear and releasing it from the notch of the feed piece.
The bolt head (63), bolt body (64), firing pin, and feed piece move
forward under the action of the mainspring, which is encased in the
spring tube. The feed piece strikes the upper part of the head of the
cartri Jge in the magazine and forces it forward out of the magazine.
At this time the cartridge (*uide (65) is being held up by the roller
working in the cartridge guide cam slot. The bullet is directed into
the chamber, the magazine spring forcing the rear end of the car-
tridge up into the path of the bolt head just as the cartridge is freed
from the lips of the magazine.
The cartridge guide cam causes the cartridge guide to drop, thus
letting the feed piece pass forward and release the barrel catch (66).
The bolt-head stop (67) keeps the bolt head and bolt body at their
extended positions so that the locking lugs in the bolt head are ver-
tical, thereby permitting their entrance into the locking recesses.
The bolt-head stop then comes out of the breech casing, the bolt
head is released and rotates so that the locking lugs engage in the
locking recesses in the breech casing to lock the mechanism. The bolt
body and firing pin continue to move forward, and the extractor
grips the rim of the cartridge as the bolt head turns. The firing pin
primes the cartridge just as the feed piece releases the barrel catch.
Backward motion : The recoil from the explosion combined with
the action of the gases on the barrel nut (68) carry the breech mech-
anism and casing in a locked position to the rear against the action of
the recoil spring (69) and mainspring. The breech casing and
barrel (70) being free to move, immediately start forward. The
breech mechanism is held back, due to the sear engaging in the sear
notch on the tail of the feed piece. As the barrel moves forward the
empty cartridge case is drawn from the chamber by the extractor.
As the barrel continues its forward motion the front end of the empty
case clears the opening in the breech housing and it is thrown out
through the ejection-opening by the pressure of the ejector upon its
base. If the regulator is set for single fire the hand sear is immediately
released by the trigger bar. This allows the sear to hold back the
breech mechanism until the trigger is again pulled. If the regulator
is set for automatic fire the hand sear is not released, but is held up
68
FIG. ii. Chauchat Machine-rifle.
Chauchat Machine-rifle. The Chauchat machine-rifle, model
of 1915 (fig. n^also known as Rifle C.S.R.G., was designed by a
commission presided over by Col. Chauchat. It weighs about
19 Ib. and is about 45 in. long. It takes the 8-mm. Lebel car-
tridge or, in the case of the guns taken over by the U.S. army, 1
the U.S. model of 1906 ammunition.
This rifle is recoil-operated ; the recoil being assisted by deflecting
part of the gases as they escape. The cooling of the barrel is assisted
1 As already mentioned, the Browning gun was reserved until a
large supply could be put into line at one time. Pending this, the
American forces in France were equipped with the Chauchat of which
some 34,000 were adapted to U.S. ammunition.
by the trigger mechanism. The rear cam surface on the bottom of
the breech casing strikes and depresses the hand sear just as the
barrel reaches its forward position. The hand sear forces the sear
lever down, which in turn depresses the sear, releasing it from the sear
notch of the feed piece. This allows the breech mechanism to go
forward and repeat the cycle.
This rifle is provided with a forward grip (71) for use in marching
fire. A bipod (72) is provided for prone or fixed position firing.
Hotchkiss Light Machine-Rifle (fig. 12) weighs 185 Ib., is air-
cooled and gas-operated, magazine-fed, and provided with a
bipod (73), a hand grip (74) and a shoulder stock. The general
mechanism is the same as in the Hotchkiss machine-gun. The
speed regulator and buffer mechanism is especially interesting.
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
283
The regulation of the speed of the gun is controlled by an escape-
ment mechanism, located in the tube (75), which arrests the
recoil mechanism and releases it after the catch has been set
free of escapement.
This weapon, like the German light machine-guns described
later, and unlike those hitherto dealt with, is derived directly
from the heavy machine-gun. It is the outcome, therefore, of
an effort to increase the mobility of the machine-gun rather than
an attempt to improve the fire power of the shoulder rifle. As
a true automatic rifle was available in the form of the Chauchat,
and as all facilities for the manufacture of typical machine-gun
elements were absorbed by the demand for heavy machine-guns,
this type was not manufactured on a service scale during the war.
It is however interesting as an instance of the machine-gun
approximating to the machine-rifle.
FIG. 12. Hotchkiss Machine-Rifle (French).
Madsen Machine-Rifle (fig. 13) is a recoil-operated, air-cooled
rifle weighing about 16 pounds. It may be fired either semi-
automatically or automatically. The rate of fire when used as
an automatic is about 500 shots per minute. The barrel is
about 23 in. long, somewhat larger in diameter than the barrel
of the ordinary shoulder rifle, and is provided with annular
rings and a perforated barrel casing to facilitate cooling. A
bipod and a rest attached to the butt steady the rifle when used
by a firer lying down. The cartridges are fed from a detachable
quadrant-shaped, 4o-round magazine projecting above the gun.
A detachable barrel is provided for the purpose of gaining a
more sustained fire, the system being to replace the barrel, when
it has been excessively heated, by another barrel, and continue
the fire while the first barrel is being cooled. It is claimed that
the barrel may be changed in from 12 to 20 seconds.
FIG. 13. Madsen Machine-Rifle (Russian).
The action of the mechanism is as follows :
When the gun is loaded, as shown in the figure, and the trigger
(76) is pulled, the hammer (77) under the force of the hammer
spring (78) strikes the link (79), which transmits the blow to the
firing pin and so to the cap. On firing, the barrel (80) and bolt
mechanism (81), locked as a unit, recoils, compressing the recoil
spring (82) until the link disconnects the bolt from the barrel lock
and allows the bolt to recoil sufficiently to cock the hammer, extract
and eject the fired cartridge case. The accelerator (83) assists in
driving the bolt to the rear as it engages on the accelerator lug
(84) during the recoil and transmits the momentum of the barrel and
mechanism to the bolt. The accelerator also drives the barrel home
during the forward stroke of the bolt.
A safety device (85) controls the trigger. A change lever (86)
enables the gun to be fired semi-automatically or automatically.
The Madsen light machine-rifle was designed some years before
the war, and for a time all Russian cavalry divisions had automatic
rifle sections armed with it. These were abolished before the out-
break of the World War and replaced by ordinary machine-gun sec-
tions as the lighter weapon was found to be too delicate for the field.
The Madsen was, however, again taken into use by the Russians dur-
ing the war, and under the name of the " Musket " it formed the
armament of the German " Musket battalions "which were created
in 1915. Some of these units with their guns were engaged in the
battle of the Somme 1916 but apparently the result, in the trying
conditions of the trench-warfare battle, was not very successful. 1
Tests have been made of the Madsen gun at different times in the
British and United States armies.
The Lewis Machine-Gun (fig. 14) is a magazine-fed, gas-
operated, and air-cooled machine-gun. The ground type, which
is used as a light machine-gun, weighs 265 lb., and is capable of
firing at the rate of about 600 shots per minute. The ammuni-
tion is fed from a drum-type magazine placed over the receiver,
and which holds 47 rounds for ground use, or 97 rounds for air-
craft use. It was invented by Col. I. N. Lewis of the U.S. army
shortly before the outbreak of the World War, and large numbers
were purchased by the British Government to supplement the
available Vickers (heavy) machine-guns. When the differentia-
tion of light and heavy types began, therefore, the British army
found itself already provided with a gun of what was judged to
be sufficient mobility, handiness and firepower, and the Lewis
gun became and remained the standard type of the light machine-
gun for the fighting unit of infantry. In the United States, on
the other hand, the military authorities determined to adopt the
still lighter Browning, and pending the supply of this, the
Chauchat as above mentioned. The Lewis gun, thus classed
among the heavy machine-guns, was, however, used in large
numbers for aircraft, and a few were employed for training pur-
poses as well, some 39,000 of U.S. rifle calibre being ordered and
produced. For aircraft, the gun was used by the French also,
while in 1918 the Germans, who had a high opinion of it, armed
some newly formed motor-cyclist units with captured weapons.
The principal feature is the cooling system, which consists of
an aluminum radiator having deep longitudinal fins surrounded
by a thin tubular casing which projects several inches beyond
the barrel and is reduced in diameter at the front end. These
parts with the barrel mouthpiece constitute the cooling system.
The mouthpiece deflects the powder gases against the interior
wall of the forward portion of the radiator casing in such a man-
ner as to draw a current of cool air through the open rear end of
the casing and along the thin fins from which it absorbs the heat.
The heat conductivity and low specific gravity of aluminum
combined with the construction described produce a light-weight
cooling mechanism^ The Lewis machine-gun is provided with a
bipod mount. The over-all length is approximately 51 inches.
The muzzle velocity and chamber pressure are approximately
the same with a given ammunition as that of the shoulder rifles
in which the ammunition is used.
Action: To operate the Lewis machine-gun, a loaded magazine
(10-11) is placed in position on top of the gun, and the charging han-
dle (8-4) is pulled to the rear until the sear nose (5-8) engages in the
sear notch in the rack (8-1 ). The gun is then ready to be fired. When
the trigger is pulled and held, the rack and piston (8-6) move forward
under the action of the mainspring (9-9), which in unwinding rotates
its gearwheel (9-7) and rack to carry the bolt (4-4) forward. As the
operating rod moves forward, the front top edge of the bolt strikes
the lower edge of the cartridge which is held in the magazine and
feed-way, and drives the cartridge forward into the chamber. The
locking lugs on the rear of the bolt move clear of the guide slots in the
receiver so that the bolt is free to rotate. The locking of the bolt is
then accomplished by the striker post coming in contact with the left
side of a cam slot in the bolt, which forces the bolt and its lugs to
turn one-eighth of a turn to the right. The extractor springs over
the rim of the cartridge case (or the cannelure if rimless) as the bolt
forces the cartridge in the chamber. The magazine is held by the
rebound pawl (6-8) during the forward move of the bolt and piston.
The feed operating arm (7-5) acted upon by the feed operating stud
(41) on the rear of the bolt, returns to its normal position during the
forward motion of the bolt ready to feed the next cartridge. When
the bolt has been completely locked, the striker is free to drive for-
ward and fire the cartridge. When the cartridge is fired the mech-
anism remains locked until immediately after the bullet has passed
the gas port in the barrel (31). Thereupon a portion of the powder
gases enters the gas regulator cup (38) and thence through a small
aperture 2 reaches the front of the piston (8-6). The force of the ex-
panding gases drives the piston to the rear and through the action of
the rack, rewinds the mainspring (99). During the backward
motion, the striker post, which is also carried on the rack, moves
1 In 1918 the Musketenbataillone were reformed as ordinary heavy
machine-gun units.
* The function of the gas regulator cup is to act as a well for any
solid matter carried in the gas and to prevent fouling of the gas
chamber. The size of the aperture can be adjusted as required.
284
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
about one inch to the rear in a straight s]ot in the bolt, which, there-
fore, it does not affect while the bullet is traversing the final space
between the gas port and the muzzle; but after the striker post has
passed through the straightway of the bolt, it comes in contact with
the right side in the cam slot in the bolt and unlocks the bolt and
drives it to the rear. In unlocking the bolt is rotated and the locking
lugs come into line with the guide slots in the receiver. Lastly the
extractor (4-3) withdraws the empty cartridge case which is thrown
out by the ejector (2-3), a flat lever pivoted in the centre and actuated
by the feed operating stud (4-1) striking its rear end. This stud,
6-6 Stop 6 Rebound Potr/Spr.
6 5 feed Cover
2-3 Qector
S-S EjeccorCot
7-5 Feed Operating Arm
heavy machine-gun (M.G. 08), which is of the Maxim type,
without any change in the essentials of the system (for which
see MACHINE-GUN, 17.237). A serviceable light machine-gun
was made in large quantities and with the least possible delay,
and the German authorities determined to lighten the existing
material, for which manufacturing facilities were already avail-
able, rather than embark on the experiments and tool and gauge
making that would have been necessary if a new type had been
BacMgM 6 ~ 2 * Cartndge Guide
rrel Mouthpiece
4 Radiator Casing
Showing Siphoninq action
of escaping gases
3-aa,s,ulati>,Cvt
3-S 001 Ktftilotor Xy
8-4 Charging Handlt
-1 Fetd Operating Stud
FlG. 14. Lewis Machine-Gun.
which is carried by the bolt, also acts on the underside of the feed
operating arm (75) and moves the arm to the left. By means of this
arm and the feed pawl (7-2) that it carries, a cartridge from the
magazine is brought under the cartridge guide (6-24) and into the
feeding position in the feed-way in the top of the receiver and is
partially turned so as to bring the next cartridge into position, being
held in its new position by the stop pawl (6-7), and by the rebound
pawl (6-8). The rearward motion of the mechanism is arrested
when the bolt comes against the butt tang of the stock, and the bolt,
rack, etc., then again move forward under the action of the main-
spring, and the cycle of operation is repeated for each shot until the
magazine is empty or the trigger is released. When the last cartridge
is fired from the magazine, the bolt goes forward and locks with no
cartridge in the barrel.
The magazine is a round corrugated pan about 8 in. in diameter
carrying 25 upright separator pins. This pan is mounted with an
aluminum centre having annular grooves with a spiral step connect-
ing each groove, into which the front end of the cartridge fits. The
cartridge, being held from rotating by the separator pins, is fed along
these grooves up the steps into the gun when the pan is revolved
around the magazine centre. The pan is loaded by means of a
special loading tool. The feeding of the cartridges being positive
instead of depending on springs or gravity, the gun can be used when
turned at any angle or upsidg down.
The Lewis machine-gun operates automatically, single shots being
fired by quickly releasing the trigger after each shot.
In aircraft the Lewis gun is used as a " flexible gun," i.e., a gun
mounted (usually in the observer's pit) so as to fire in any direction
in elevation or azimuth. The main differences between the ground
type and the aircraft type gun are that the latter has no radiator or
radiator casing, has a spade or stirrup-shaped hand-grip in lieu of the
shoulder stock, and uses a 97-round magazine. A more efficient type
of recoil check is also provided. This consists of a muzzle attachment
which is arranged to deflect the powder gases so that they pass out
practically at right angles to the axis of the bore. In this way a
pressure against the muzzle piece tends to counteract recoil.
No cooling device is provided with the aircraft gun, inasmuch as
the fire is in short bursts only and the speed of the aeroplane and the
temperature at high elevations provide ample cooling. The aircraft
gun fires at a rate of about 750 shots per minute, this higher speed
being gained by increasing the gas pressure acting on the piston and
the strength of the mainspring which returns the mechanism.
German Light Machine-Gnns 08/15 an d 08/18. The German
light machine-gun 08/15 is simply a modification of the standard
sought for. In consequence, the differences between the 08 and
the 08/15 are very few. The diameter and contents of the water-
jacket are considerably smaller in the light gun than in the 08.
Instead of the tripod or sleigh mount, there is a shoulder stock
and bipod, and a trigger release and handgrips replace the twin
handles and firing gear. Ammunition is belt-fed as in the heavy
gun, but the belt (100 rounds) is wound on a reel inside a drum
attached to the right of the gun. The weight of the gun with
water-jacket filled and bipod, is 40^ lb., or in action with drum
and filled belt 515. The Dreyse water-cooled light machine-gun
was also used. Its weight was slightly less than that of the 08/15.
Guns of this weight, however, though they might be sufficiently
mobile for trench warfare battles, were evidently too heavy for
the more open warfare of 1917 and especially 1018, and a new
and lighter model called the 08/18 was brought out. In this
instead of the water-jacket there is a barrel casing with numerous
holes to facilitate air circulation round the barrel. This abolition
of positive cooling by water reduced the possibility of sustained
fire almost to that of an automatic rifle, but independence of
water supply greatly reduced freedom of manoeuvre and the
actual reduction in the weight of the gun was considerable
(32 lb. as against 40^ in the 08/15).
This gun had been introduced only for cavalry and cyclists
when the Armistice was signed. Had the war continued, it
would no doubt have replaced the water-cooled weapons entirely.
The Bergmann Light Machine-Gun (fig. 15) in the German
army, variously called L.M.G. and L.M.G. 15 n A, is a recoil-
operated air-cooled, belt-fed machine-gun, weighing 30 lb. with
bipod mount and sling, and fires about 600 shots a minute.
A barrel casing (91) is provided which carries the barrel and also
serves as a housing in which the barrel recoils. The cooling of the
barrel is assisted by rings which are formed on the barrel to increase
the radiating surface. A handle (92) is provided to facilitate carrying
the weapon short distances. The belt is fed through the feed-box
opening (93) as in the Maxim and other heavy machine-guns.
The principal features of the Bergmann machine-gun are a small
cylindrical service-rifle type of bolt and extractor, which may be
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
285
operated by hand by means of a bolt handle (95) ; and an accelerator
which is in the form of a cam lever, which acts against the bolt and
barrel extension during the forward movement of the bolt, helping
to push the barrel extension and barrel forward as the bolt advances
under the action of the heavy recoil spring.
The gun is provided with a trigger and handgrip, a shoulder butt
and a bipod, which is attached to the trunnion (96).
The front sight (97) is very high, owing to the low position of the
barrel in the receiver and to the feed mechanism in cover. A tubular
sight with a hole about one-fourth of an inch in diameter is attached
by a bracket to the side of the gun for close-range shooting and for
tank work. It will be noted that several features of this gun were
adopted in the L.M.G. 08/18.
In the German army Bergmann guns formed the armament of
the so-called " Light Machine Gun Detachments," mounted units
created in 1916 for the Rumanian campaign. The use of this gun,
however, seems to have been discontinued towards the end of the
war, the weapons remaining serviceable being handed over to Turkey.
FIG. 15. Bergmann Light Machine-Gun.
Machine Carbine-Pistols. The idea of securing more accurate
shooting from a pistol by fitting it with a shoulder stock and
lengthening the barrel is an old one, and one well-known modern
example is the Mauser pistol (for description see 21.657-8).
But while in the pistol proper, from the nature of the arm and its
uses, all modern development has been in the direction of per-
fecting the semi-automatic action (see PISTOL), there arose in the
World War a need for some weapon lighter and handier than the
rifle yet capable of developing an intensely rapid fire at short
ranges. The outcome of this need was a class of firearm which
at present has few representatives and no recognized generic
title, but is very interesting. In the absence of an accepted
designation, these may be called machine carbine-pistols.
Onnir., \_*>frata
Barn! Caiing
\ Portion of II Bin Spring
FIG. 16. Bergmann Pistol-Gun.
In this field the precursors appear to have been the Italians.
The pistola miglialrice Fiat (Fiat mitrailleuse pistol) was largely
used by them as a substitute for the light machine-gun, no
doubt because extreme lightness both in the gun and its am-
munition was essential in an automatic arm for mountain warfare.
The " machine pistol " is fitted with a small shield which also
serves as a mounting, though the weapon can be used in the
hands, if necessary. It is double-barrelled, each barrel having
a separate box magazine of 25 rounds above the receiver. It is
gas-operated and air-cooled. The bolt and its dependent parts
are supported but not positively locked on firing. It weighs 14 Ib.
without shield, takes 9 mm. pistol ammunition, and is sighted
to 500 metres. An outstanding feature is the very high rate
of fire. Both magazines (50 rounds) are fired in two seconds, and
with highly trained loaders and a full supply of magazines it is
said that 1,000 rounds can be delivered in a minute. This ex-
treme rate, in spite of certain advantages, militates against
steadiness and accuracy, especially with so slight a mounting.
Nevertheless, according to the Germans the weapon proved
trustworthy and effective.
The Bergmann Pistol-Gun (fig. 16), on the other hand, was
intended not to replace the light machine-gun but to provide
artillerymen and machine-gunners with a handy personal weapon
capable of intense fire power in emergencies. It originated
in the pistol proper. The German service pistol 08 (Borchardt-
Luger) used by specialists, who were not armed with the rifle,
was fitted with a snail magazine (see PISTOL) allowing of 32 shots,
the wooden holster being attached to the handgrip as a shoulder
piece as in the Mauser pistol above alluded to, if accurate fire
was required. The success of this arrangement led to the intro-
duction of the Bergmann pistol-gun (officially, Machine-Pistol
18 1.), which in spite of its name is rather a carbine than a pistol,
as an infantry weapon pure and simple.
This arm shoots 9 mm. pistol ammunition at the rate-of about
540 shots per minute. The gun weighs 9 Ib. 6 oz. without the maga-
zine drum, which itself weighs I Ib. 8 oz. empty. It is recoil-operated
and air-cooled, and has an 8-in. barrel, protected by a casing per-
forated to allow circulation of air. The magazine (32 shots) is of the
snail type (see PISTOL). The breech mechanism is of the " blow-back "
class in which on firing the inertia of the bolt, the compressing of the
mainspring, and friction of the cartridge in the chamber momentarily
hold the action firm. The gun fires when the bolt reaches its forward
position as the striker projects through the face of the bolt, and is
cocked when the mainspring is compressed and the bolt drawn to the
rear. This has the advantage that the chamber is always left empty,
but the forward movement of the heavy bolt after pulling the trigger
is liable to disturb the aim. The gun is sighted to 200 metres only.
This gun was only brought into use just before the Armistice.
101 ... 103 99 100 102
FIG
FIG
18 I Thompson Sub-Machine-Gun.
The Thompson Sub-Machine-Gun (figs. 17 and 18) is an inter-
esting type of a very light portable automatic weapon which
shoots a -45-calibre pistol cartridge. The action is semi-auto-
matic or automatic at will. The rate of fire when used as an
automatic is 800 to 1,500 shots per minute. The weapon is about
23 in. in length, weighs 7-5 Ib., and uses a straight magazine
(fig. 18) holding 20 cartridges in staggered rows, or drum maga-
zines holding 50 or 100 cartridges (fig. 17).
The novel feature of this weapon is the angular wedge breech
closure which utilizes the force of adhesion developed by the heavy
breech pressure to lock the breech. The principle, developed by
Comm. Blish of the U.S. navy, has been briefly stated as follows:
" In any breech closure consisting of a breech plug in a suitable
housing and having two pressure-resisting surfaces, the forward
surface disposed normally to the axis of the bore, and the rear surface
inclined thereto and bearing upon a suitable surface of the housing,
the force of adhesion will under heavy pressure immovably fix the
breech block, but at a comparatively small pressure (whose value de-
pends upon the inclination of the two surfaces) the force of adhesion
ceases to act and the breech block is rendered free to move under the
influence of the forces then existing."
The principle permits the use of a very simple breech-locking
mechanism, the essential element being a bolt (98) having an angular
slot cut in the under side, into which the lock (99) is free to slide, and a
housing or receiver (loo) having a slot (101) into which a projecting
lug on the lock engages when the bolt is in its firing position. Under
high pressure the lock firmly adheres to the receiver shoulder and
286
RIGHI RISLEY
prevents the bolt from being blown to the rear. When the pressure
is reduced, the adhesion ceases, and the lock, actuated by the remain-
ing pressure, automatically slides upward and clear of its retaining
shoulder while the bolt moves rearward against the recoil spring
(102) and cocks the firing pin.
When the weapon is cocked the entire bolt group is held by the
sear (104) in a retracted position, as shown in fig. 17. On the trigger
being pulled the bolt, driven forward by the recoil spring, pushes a
cartridge into the chamber. During the forward motion of the bolt
the hammer (103) strikes a shoulder of the receiver and rotates on
the hammer pin, its top end strikes the firing pin and the cartridge is
fired. Firing is discontinued by releasing the trigger; the sear (104)
then engages the bolt in its retracted position, leaving the chamber
empty. By means of the disconnector (105) the weapon 'can be made
semi-automatic at will. When the magazine is emptied, the trip
(106) allows the sear to engage the bolt in a rear position ready to
feed and fire again when the trigger is pulled. Sights graduated to
600 yd. are provided.
The sub- machine-gun is intended as an auxiliary weapon for trench
use and for close fighting generally. It has been adopted also by the
police of several American cities for use as a riot weapon, both for
shot and ball cartridges. (H. O'L.)
RIGHI, AUGUSTO (1850-1920), Italian physicist, was born
at Bologna Aug. 27 1850. Details of his experimental work in
magnetism and the problems of electricity and light are given in
1 7-389, 391 and 346, 6.859, 9-206, 21.936. He was specially
noted for his discovery of the electrical conductivity of bismuth
and other metals, and for his pioneer work in wireless telegraphy.
G. Marconi was his pupil. He died at Bologna, June 8 1920.
RILEY, JAMES WHITCOMB (1853-1916), American poet
(see 23.343), died at Indianapolis, Ind., July 22 1916. In 1915,
by proclamation of the governor of Indiana, his birthday, Oct. 7,
was observed throughout the state, in honour of " Indiana's
most beloved citizen." In 1913 he issued in six volumes a
biographical edition of his works.
See Clara E. Laughlin, Reminiscences of J. W. Riley (1916).
RIO DE JANEIRO (see 23.353). According to the census of
1920, the pop. of the independent municipal commune, or
federal district, which contains the city and is detached from
the province of the same name, was 1,157,873 inhabitants.
As the census of 1906 showed 811,443 inhabitants, the pop. has
increased 43% in 14 years, an annual increment of 3-05 per cent.
In 1920 there were 1,265 factories, large and small, with 46,953
operatives, representing a capital of nearly 270,000,000 paper
milreis, and an annual production valued at about 500,000,000
milreis. In 1920 the number of buildings in the municipality was
about 113,000, as against 84,375 m 1906- The federal district
is governed by a prefect appointed by the president of the
republic, and elects three senators and ten deputies to the national
congress. The legislative power of the municipality is vested in
a council consisting of 24 inlendentes elected for three years.
The consolidated debt of the municipality in 1920 was com-
puted at 227,089,200 paper milreis, of which 129,225,450 milreis
was an external debt, and 97,863,750 milreis internal. The
revenue had grown from 29,070,883 paper milreis in 1910 to
51,182,357 paper milreis in 1919.
Education. Primary instruction is provided by the municipality,
which in 1920 maintained 320 day-schools and 68 night-schools,
with a matriculation of 74,111 pupils in the former and 8,662 in the
latter. There are in addition 236 elementary private schools, with
19,825 pupils; over 80 receive a subvention from the Government
on condition that they adopt the official curriculurrrand admit a cer-
tain number of children free. Secondary instruction is cared for
in public lycees and in many private establishments. There is no
university, but the capital possesses higher faculties of law, medicine
and engineering, besides schools providing instruction in pharmacy,
dentistry, commerce, music, dramatics and the fine arts. The na-
tional Government also maintains a naval academy, a military col-
lege and a preparatory school of tactics. The most important li-
braries are: the National library, the best appointed in S. America;
the Municipal ; the Gabinete Portuguez da Leitura ; that of the Lycfe
of Arts and Crafts; and the collections existing in the various minis-
tries and departments.
Streets and Buildings. During the decade 1910-20 the ambitious
programme of municipal improvements inaugurated in 1903 was in
large measure completed. The port works, including a sea-wall over
2 m. long, 8 ft. above mean high-tide, and lying almost entirely in
deep-water, enclosing a broad reach of reclaimed land between it
and the former shore-line, provide the city with the most modern
facilities for loading and unloading ships. The Avenida Rio Branco
(formerly Avenida Central), built through the heart of the city in
1904, is now one of the handsomest thoroughfares in the western
hemisphere. Over a mile long from N. to S., it is lined with fine
private and public buildings. The military, naval and jockey clubs
are situated there, and also the offices of some of the principal news-
papers, such as the Jornal do Comercio and O Paiz, besides many
fashionable shops, caf<Ss and business places. At the southern end
is a group of elegant State edifices, the Municipal theatre, the
Monroe palace, and the National library and Academy of Fine Arts.
It is adorned with three rows of trees, and with broad sidewalks
of white and black stone set to form figures in mosaic, as in Lisbon.
For this both material and workmen were imported from Portugal.
The Municipal theatre, designed in 1904, cost over 2,000,000, al-
though it seats but 1,700 people. The building which houses the
National library, opened in 1910 in commemoration of the centenary
of its founding (1808), is also a notable addition to the city. It is a
fireproof structure of granite, marble and steel, equipped with every
modern library appliance.
One of the important developments of Rio de Janeiro has been
in suburban road-building. As the hills come practically to the bay
and sea, construction is difficult, but great progress has been made
and a 4O-m. motor drive over perfect roads is now joining all the
famous beaches with Tijuca and the city. The magnificent bayside
drive, the Avenida Beira-Mar, with its double motor track and
intervening lawns and gardens, is particularly remarkable.
Sanitation. The city, formerly a hotbed of yellow fever and
smallpox, has become one of the healthiest tropical cities in the
world. The death-rate has fallen to about 20 per 1,000. This is the
result of a campaign of scrupulous cleanliness, rigid enforcement of
sanitary measures and scientific eradication of mosquitos and
other germ-bearing insects, inaugurated under the direction of the
celebrated Brazilian scientist, Dr. Oswaldo Cruz, in the first admin-
istration of President Rodrigues Alves (1903). In 1920 a law was
passed by Congress creating a national department of public health,
consisting of three divisions, one in charge of the federal capital.
(C. H. H.)
RIO DE ORO (see 23.357). The area of the Spanish Sahara
denned and extended by the Franco-Spanish Conventions of
1904 and 1912 is about 110,000 sq. miles. The frontiers have
not been delimited. The colony proper (area, about 65,500 sq.
m.) extends from lat. 2i2o' N. to 26 N. The 1904 Agreement
recognized a Spanish Protectorate over an area on the N. of
about 34,700 sq. m., extending to lat. 274o' N. and bounded E.
by the meridian 84o' W.; and the 1912 Agreement acknowledged
the sovereign rights of Spain over this region. Still farther N.
is an " occupied territory " of about 9,800 sq. m., extending to
Wad Draa (lat. 284s' N.), and forming an intermediate zone
between the Spanish possessions and Morocco.
The interior has been little explored. A central volcanic table-
land, the Tiris, about 1,000 ft. above sea-level, falls by terraces
broken by ravines to the coastal plain and to the Segiet el Hamra on
the north. To the S., the vast dunes of Azefal separate the Spanish
Sahara from Mauretania (see 17.908). Wad Shebika enters the sea
about 36 m. S.W. of Wad Draa and runs parallel to its lower course.
The only permanent water is in brackish wells which frequently
become choked. The only district likely to repay colonization ap-
pears to be the wide basin of the Segiet el Hamra and its tributaries,
whose flood-waters suffice to fertilize pasture and arable land or
date-groves, as at the oasis of Smara.
There are few main tracks and a network of smaller tracks, but
no roads and but few villages. Smara, 160 km. inland from C. Juby,
is the most important settlement and is the headquarters of the
notorious religious agitators Ma el 'Ainin and his son El Hiba. Vil
Cisneros, on the Dakhla peninsula, the residence of the governor
(deputy for the governor-general of the Canaries), has a garrison
and fish-curing industry; pop. (1918) 529 foreigners and 495 na-
tives, with an adjoining village of 800 negroid half-castes (Imragen).
The desert population, roughly estimated at 80,000, is nomadic,
fluctuating between French and Spanish territory, and is split up
into pro-French and pro-Spanish partisans. In 1912, there was a
general rising under LI Hiba. In 1916, a small Spanish expedition
occupied C. Juby, but the fishermen, of whom the chief are the
Aulad Delim Arabs and their allies the Regeibat (Arabized Berbers),
remained practically uncontrolled. Camels and ostriches are reared.
In 1916 the total value of imports by sea was 4,820; of exports
4,910, chiefly fish and fish products. The fishing industry would
be considerable if better methods were employed. There are open
roadsteads at El Msit, at the mouth of the Segiet el Hamra, and
Tarfaya, about iSokm. farther north. The climate is fairly equable
on the coast, but intense heat and drought prevail inland, with di-
urnal variations of temperature in the shade of as much as 74.
At Villa Cisneros the mean maximum summer temperature is 86
F., and the mean minimum winter 48 F. (E. G. S.)
RISLEY, SIR HERBERT HOPE (1851-1911), English anthro-
pologist, was born at Akeley, Bucks., Jan. 4 1851. Educated at
RITCHIE ROBERTSON
287
Winchester and New College, Oxford, he entered the Indian
civil service in 1873 and he had a distinguished career; but his
principal work was done in connexion with Indian ethnography,
the discussion of the caste system, etc., and he published under
Government auspices some important volumes of anthropometric
data. He had charge of the Indian census operations of 1901.
In 1910 he was appointed secretary of the judicial department
of the India Office. He was made K.C.I.E. in 1907, and he
died at Wimbledon Sept. 30 1911.
RITCHIE, ANNE ISABELLA, LADY (1837-1919), English
writer (see 26.716), eldest daughter of W. M. Thackeray, died
at Freshwater, I. of Wight, Feb. 26 1919. She is best remembered
perhaps as the author of Old Kensington (1873). Amongst her
other novels were The Story of Elizabeth (1863) and The Village .
on the Cliff (1865). She also published various volumes of
biographical essays (Madame de SgvignS, 1881, and A Book of
Sibyls, 1883, etc.), and contributed a most interesting series of
prefaces to the Library edition of her father's works, thus supply-
ing a substitute for the regular biography of him that he had
always deprecated. Her husband, SIR RICHMOND THACKERAY
RITCHIE (b. 1854), became permanent Under-Secretary of State
for India in 1910, and died Oct. 12 1912.
RIVIERE, BRITON (1840-1920), English painter (see 23.387),
died in London April 20 1920. His later works include "Aphro-
dite " (1902) and " Hark! Hark! the Lark " (1909), also a por-
trait of Lord Tennyson (1909). His eldest son, HUGH GOLD-
WIN (b. 1869), became a well-known painter; and the second son,
CLIVE (b. 1872), a prominent physician.
RIVINGTON, FRANCIS HANSARD (1834-1913), British pub-
lisher (see 23.387), died July 2 1913.
RIVOIRA, GIOVANNI TERESIO (1840-1919), Italian archae-
ologist, was born at La Manta di Saluzzo in Piedmont Sept. 22
1849. He came of an old Piedmontese family and on his mother's
side was descended from the Riccati (see 23.288), a family of
mathematicians and architects. He took his training as an archi-
tect and engineer at the university of Turin, entered Rome with
the Italian army in 1870 and thenceforth resided there, devoting
his life to travel and to the study of the architecture of the
later Roman Empire. In 1884 he married Edith E. Johnson of
Cheltenham. He published two monumental works, Le Origini
dell' Architettura Lombarda (1901-7, Eng. trans. 1910) and
Architettura Musulmana (1914, Eng. trans. 1919). At the time of
his death in Rome March 3 1919 he was engaged upon a third,
Architettura Romana, which was posthumously published in
Rome (1920) by his widow.
ROBERT-FLEURY, TONY (1837-1911), French painter (see
23.403), died in 1911.
ROBERTS, FREDERICK SLEIGH ROBERTS, EARL (1832-
1914), British field-marshal (see 23.403). Subsequently to 1905
Lord Roberts took an active and leading part, as head of the
National Service League, in the movement in favour of com-
pulsory military service for home defence. On the outbreak of
the World War he was a frequent and welcome visitor at the
War Office, and shortly after the arrival of the two Indian
divisions in France he crossed the Channel to visit them when
the weather was cold and inclement. He was attacked by
pneumonia while at the front, and he died at St. Omer on Nov.
14 1914, the title going by special remainder to his elder daughter,
Aileen Mary. He was buried in St. Paul's.
Lord Roberts was a tried and brilliant commander in the
field. His self-reliance and willingness to accept risks when
planning operations were demonstrated by the daring advance
to Kabul after the massacre of the Cavagnari Mission, and by
his swoop across the Orange Free State from the Modder to
Bloemfontein in Feb. 1900, abandoning his communications.
That instinctive grasp of a tactical situation which stamps the
great captain was displayed by him on many occasions, notably
when he attacked the Afghans on the Peiwar Kotal and at Kanda-
har, and on the occasion of his riding on to the field of Paarde-
berg. His attractive personality and his natural kindliness made
him a most popular chief, and, even if he hardly ranked as a
military administrator of the very foremost class, his steward-
ship in the high offices that he filled in India and at home was
advantageous to the army and to the State. An eminently
knightly figure, Lord Roberts was a fine horseman, a great gentle-
man, an ardent patriot and a devout Christian.
ROBERTS, GEORGE HENRY (1869- ), English Labour
politician, was born at Chedgrave, Norfolk, July 27 1869. His
parents removed to Norwich where he attended an elementary
school and evening classes. In 1883 he was apprenticed to the
trade of printer and compositor. At the expiration of appren-
ticeship he went to London and joined the London Society of
Compositors. After a year he returned to Norwich and identified
himself with the movement to organize local printers in a branch
of the Typographical Association, of which he became president
and ultimately secretary. He also became president of the
Norwich and District Trades and Labour Council. He was
elected to the Norwich School Board in 1899, being the first
candidate run by the local Labour party to win a seat on a public
body. In 1904 he was elected to the post of national organizer of
the Typographical Association and was chosen as its parliamen-
tary representative. He was returned as one of the members for
Norwich at the general election of 1906, and has held the seat
since. He was whip of the parliamentary Labour party for
about eight years and a member of the executive council of the
party. When the Labour party joined the Coalition movement
in 1915 he became a Lord Commissioner of the Treasury; he was
parliamentary secretary to the Board of Trade 1916-7; Minister
of Labour, 1917-8; Food Controller, Jan. 1919. He resigned from
the Government Feb. 1920.
ROBERTS, JOHN (1847-1919), English billiard-player, was
born at Ardwick, Manchester, Aug. 15 1847, the son of John
Roberts, also a great player of billiards. Details of the exploits
both of father and son are given in 3.937. John Roberts, jun.,
died at Worthing Dec. 23 1919.
ROBERTSON, SIR GEORGE SCOTT (1852-1916), British sol-
dier and administrator, was born in London Oct. 22 1852. He
was educated at Westminster hospital medical school, and in
1878 entered the Indian medical service. He served through the
Afghan War of 1879-80, and in 1888 was attached to the Indian
Foreign Office, being employed as agency surgeon in Gilgit, on
trie frontier of Kashmir. In 1890-1 he travelled in Kafiristan
(see 15.630). In 1893 he went as political agent to Chitral, and
in 1895 was besieged there by hostile tribesmen (see 6.252).
For his services he was created K. C.S.I., and appointed British
agent in Gilgit. He retired from the Indian service in 1899 and
returned to England. He unsuccessfully contested Stirlingshire
in the Liberal interest in 1900, but was elected for Central Brad-
ford in 1906. He died Jan. i 1916.
ROBERTSON, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT, BART. (1850- ),
British field-marshal, was born, of poor parentage, in Lines.
Sept. 14 1859. He enlisted as a private in the i6th Lancers in
1877 and served in the ranks of that regiment until 1888, when
he won a commission in the 3rd Dragoon Guards, then in India.
On joining he eagerly studied his profession in all its branches
and he was very successful in learning the native languages. He
was selected to be railway staff officer in the Miranzai and Black
Mountain operations of 1891, and in the following year he joined
the intelligence department at Simla ; while on its staff he carried
out a reconnaissance to the Pamirs, and in 1895 served with the
Chitral Relief Force, being wounded and receiving the D.S.O.
He passed through the Staff College in 1897-8 the first officer
risen from the ranks to do so and then, after a few months at
the War Office, went out to S. Africa on the intelligence staff; he
accompanied Lord Roberts on his advance from Cape Colony
into the Transvaal and was promoted brevet lieutenant-colonel
for his services. He spent the period from 1901 to 1907 at the
War Office, being promoted colonel in 1903, and he then went
to the staff at Aldershot, where he spent three years. In 1910
he was appointed commandant of the Staff College, was shortly
afterwards promoted major-general, and in 1913 became director
of military training at the War Office.
On mobilization of the army for the World War, Sir W. Robert-
son he had been given the K.C.V.O. in 1913 was nominated
288
ROBINS ROCKEFELLER
quartermaster-general of the Expeditionary Force; he filled that
appointment most successfully for five months and then, in Jan.
1915, he became chief of the general staff to Sir J. French. In
the autumn of that year he was promoted lieutenant-general
for distinguished service and in the following Dec. was brought
back to the War Office to take up the post of chief of the impe-
rial general staff. There he immediately introduced great im-
provements in the office organization, and during the first year
and a half of his holding the appointment he was successful in
keeping the general control of operations on sound lines. While
convinced that the western front represented the decisive
theatre of war, and fully aware how mischievous was disper-
sion of force in principle, he saw to it that, where circumstances
unfortunately rendered operations in distant regions unavoid-
able, the commanders on the spot were furnished with what was
deemed essential to achieve success with the result that the
position of affairs in Mesopotamia, on the Suez frontier and in
E. Africa was completely transformed within a very few months of
his taking up his task. His services were recognized by his being
promoted general in 1916 and by his being given the G.C.B. in
1917. He had, however, always experienced some trouble in
sufficiently impressing upon the Government that the war could
only be won in the west, and in the later months of 1917 he
found it more and more difficult, in view of the somewhat dis-
appointing results obtained by Allied offensives in France and
Flanders, to persuade the War Cabinet that diversion of fight-
ing resources to Alexandretta, or to Palestine, or to Macedonia,
or to the Austro-Italian frontier, endangered prospects of victory
at the decisive point and might lead to disaster near home. His
anxieties were increased by the manner in which the problem of
man-power was treated. He moreover foresaw that the plan
of having a supreme war council composed of military repre-
sentatives of the Allies, such as was introduced towards the end
of the year, was an unworkable one. Finally in Feb. 1918 he
resigned just one month before the success that attended the
great German offensive of March proved how correct had been
his appreciation of the situation. He was given charge of the
eastern command, and three months later he succeeded Lord
French as commander-in-chief in Great Britain. On the final
distribution of honours for the war he was rewarded with a
baronetcy and grant of 10,000, and he was nominated G.C.M.G.
From April 1919 to March 1920 he commanded the British
troops on the Rhine, and, after relinquishing that appoint-
ment on the force being reduced, he was promoted field-marshal.
See his autobiographical volume From Private to Field-marshal
(1921).
ROBINS, ELIZABETH (r86s~ ), Anglo-American novelist
and actress, was born at Louisville, Ky., Aug. 6 1865, and educated
at Zanesville, O. She had had her early training as an actress
in America with the Boston Museum stock company, and
afterwards with Edwin Booth. Coming to London she first
appeared in The Real Little Lord Fauntlcroy in 1889, and between
1890 and 1896 she played in most of Ibsen's plays, in which she
established her position on the stage. In 1902 she was Lucrezia
in Stephen PhUlips's Paolo and Francesca at the St. James's
theatre, London. Her first novels, George Mandeville's Husband
(1894), The New Moon (1895) and Below the Salt (1896), appeared
over the pseudonym of C. E. Raimond, but in 1898 the success
of The Open Question led to her publishing in her own name, her
reputation as a writer being maintained in The Magnetic North
(1904); A Dark Lantern (1905); Come and Find Me (1908);
Camilla (1918) and The Messenger (1920). She took an active
part in the agitation for woman suffrage. Her play Votes for
Women was acted at the Court theatre, London, in 1907.
ROBINSON, EDWIN ARLINGTON (1869- ), American
poet, was born at Head Tide, Me., Dec. 22 1869. From the
public schools of Gardiner, Me., he proceeded in 1891 to Har-
vard, but withdrew after two years to take a business position
in New York City. From 1905 to 1910 he was connected with
the N.Y. Customs House, and then returned to Gardiner to
devote his time to literature, and especially to poetry. He
became a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters.
His works include The Torrent and the Night After (1896); The
Children of the Night (1897); Captain Craig (1902); The Town
down the River (1910); Van Zorn (1914, a play); The Porcupine
(1915, a play); The Man against the Sky (1916); Merlin (1917);
Lancelot (1920); The Three Taverns (1920); Awn's Harvest
(1921); Collected Poems (1921).
ROBSON, WILLIAM SNOWDON ROBSON, BARON (1832-1918),
English lawyer and lord of appeal, was born at Newcastle-upon-
Tyne Sept. 101852. He was educated at Caius College, Cambridge,
where he took his degree in 1877. In 1880 he was called to the
bar and entered politics, sitting as Liberal member for Bow and
Bromley from 1885 to 1886, and for South Shields from 1895 to
1910. He earned a reputation as a distinguished and energetic
.advocate, and became a Q.C. in 1892. In 1905 he was knighted,
and became solicitor-general in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's
Government, being made Attorney-General in 1908. In 1910 he
was made a privy councillor, and became a lord of appeal and
life peer. He resigned his office in 1912, and died at Battle,
Sussex, Sept. n 1918.
ROBY, HENRY JOHN (1830-1915), English scholar (see
23.424), died at Grasmere Jan. 2 1915. He contributed a chapter
on Roman law to the second volume of the Cambridge Mediaeval
History in 1913.
ROCHEFORT, HENRI (1830-1913), French politician (see
23.426), died at Aix-les-Bains June 30 1913.
ROCKEFELLER, JOHN DAVISON (1839- ), American
capitalist (see 23.433), continued after 1910 to live a retired life,
and to give great sums for charitable and educational purposes.
In 1913 the Rockefeller Foundation was chartered under the
laws of the state of New York (Congress having refused to enact
the legislation necessary for a national charter) " to promote
the well-being of mankind throughout the world." To this, the
most extensive of his benefactions, Rockefeller had given in all
$180,000,000 by 1921. The income and $10,000,000 of the original
gifts were expended from time to time by its trustees. With
increasing definiteness the Rockefeller Foundation focussed its
efforts in the fields of medical education and public health.
After 1913 it supported by appropriations the International
Health Board, an independent organization engaged, in coop-
eration with governmental agencies, in demonstrations for the
control of hookworm disease in 14 southern states of the United
States and 22 foreign states or countries; of yellow fever in
five South and Central American countries and of malaria in
10 southern states of the United States. In addition, the
International Health Board, with funds provided by the Rocke-
feller Foundation, organized in 1917, partly as a war measure, the
Commission for Prevention of Tuberculosis in France; this
commission conducted in limited areas, as demonstrations, vigor-
ous campaigns of popular education in hygiene, and provided for
the training of French women as health visitors. By the end
of 1920 arrangements were under way for the continuation of
the work of the Commission by French authorities. In 1914 the
Rockefeller Foundation established the China Medical Board to
promote the development of scientific medicine and hygiene in
China through medical schools, hospitals, and training schools
for nurses. In 1919 the Peking Union Medical College, founded
by it, was opened together with pre-medical and nurse-training
schools. Gifts have been made also to other institutions in
China offering pre-medical courses, and to hospitals. In 1920
the Foundation established a Division of Medical Education,
through whose advice large pledges of money were made for the
development of medical centres in London, and in various cities
of Canada. As a part of its public health work, the Rockefeller
Foundation also made grants for the support of schools of
hygiene at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, and at the
university of Sao Paulo, Brazil. A special feature of the work was
provision for fellowships to persons from many different countries
engaged in study in medical education and public health. Dur-
ing the year 1920, 71 fellows from 13 countries (including the
United States) were supported. During the World War the
Foundation contributed to war work agencies; and before
crystallization of its general policy of limiting its work to
RODIN ROMER
289
medical education and public health, it made appropriations
to a number of objects in other fields.
To the General Education Board, the next largest of his
charities, Rockefeller had given up to Dec. 1920 over $115,-
000,000. By the close of the fiscal year 1920, this Board had
contributed more than $32,000,000 towards the endowments
of different colleges, excluding professional departments, the
general practice being to make gifts contingent upon the
raising of additional sums. Among medical schools which
received help were Washington University, $2,345,000; Johns
Hopkins, over $2,200,000; University of Chicago, $2,000,000
(joint fund with the Rockefeller Foundation, 1916); Vanderbilt,
$4,000,000 (1919); Rochester, $5,000,000 (1920); Yale Medical
School, $1,582,000; and the Meharry Medical College (for
negroes), Nashville, Tenn., $150,000 (1920). The Board's
facilities for aiding medical education were greatly increased in
1919 by a further gift from Rockefeller of $20,000,000, both
principal and interest to be expended in the United States
during the next 50 years. In 1919 it gave $500,000 towards the
endowment of the Graduate School of Education at Harvard,
opened the following year; and in 1920 appropriated $1,000,000
to the proposed building fund of Teachers' College, Columbia
University, the largest gift yet made to any institution for
training teachers. To the Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research, New York, Rockefeller gave in all upwards of
$25,000,000. In Nov. 1920 announcement was made that he had
given more than $63,000,000 to the Laura Spelman Rockefeller
Memorial, New York, largely for the continuing of charities in
which Mrs. Rockefeller, who died in 1915, had been interested.
By that time more than $8,000,000 had already been appropri-
ated, chiefly for the benefit of women and children.
It was estimated at the beginning of 1921 that the total
amount given by Mr. Rockefeller for philanthropic and chari-
table purposes exceeded $500,000,000. Nearly four-fifths of
this had gone to the four great charitable corporations which he
created: The Rockefeller Foundation, General Education Board,
The Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial and the Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research. Quite as significant as the magni-
tude of these gifts was the fact that they were free from all
restrictions, having been given for the general purposes of the
respective corporations, the trustees of which have power to
dispose of the principal as well as the income. As the corporate
purposes of these organizations are extremely broad, and the
gifts are free from restrictions, they will always be adaptable to the
changing needs of the future generations. While it was probably
true that Mr. Rockefeller was the richest man in the world, it
would appear, in view of the statements made by competent
authorities, that his wealth in 1921 was less than $500,000,000,
and that in making his gifts he had drawn very heavily upon
capital as well as income.
RODIN, FRANCOIS AUGUSTS (1840-1917), French sculptor
(see 23.447), presented in Nov. 1914 20 examples of his work in
bronze, including " L'Enfant prodigue," " La Muse," " France,"
" Cybele," " L'ange dechu," " Balzac," and a bust of Mr.
George Wyndham, to the Victoria and Albert museum, London,
as a token of his admiration for the deeds of the British army.
In 1916 Rodin presented all the works remaining in his pos-
session to France, and in 1917 a replica of " The Burghers of
Calais " was placed in the garden adjoining the House of Lords.
He died at Meudon, near Paris, Nov. 17 1917.
RODZIANKO, MICHAEL VASSILIEVICH (1859- ), Rus-
sian politician, was born in 1859 and belonged to a family of
great landowners. At the age of 19 he joined the Horse Guards,
but he soon resigned and retired to his large estates in the gov-
ernment of Novgorod. He took an active part in local life and
was also a member of the conferences of Zemstova and Towns.
In 1905 he was elected member of the First Duma and was re-
elected at all subsequent elections. .He joined the right wing of
the Octobrist (Moderate Liberal) party, and with the support of
the Conservatives was elected president of the Third Duma after
the resignation of A. Guchkov in March 1911. Later he was
reflected president of the Fourth Duma, and took an important
XXXII. IO
part in the struggle for constitutional changes in the Government
of Russia. He strongly opposed the reactionary policy of the
Imperial Government, and always defended the rights and privi-
leges of the Duma. By the force of events Rodzianko was placed
at the head of the national movement at the moment of the
revolution, and, as president of the Provisional Committee of
the State Duma, he sent a telegram to the Tsar pointing out the
necessity of his abdication. But he had no real influence on the
course of the revolution. He played for some time a purely
decorative role, receiving telegrams of congratulation and deliv-
ering speeches, but he soon disappeared from the stage. After
the Bolshevist revolution, he made his way to the south of
Russia, where he took part in different anti-Bolshevist organi-
zations and bodies. Later he emigrated to Germany.
ROGERS, BENJAMIN BICKLEY (1828-1919), English classical
scholar, was born at Shepton Montagu, Som., Dec. n 1828.
Educated at Wadham College, Oxford, he was elected a fellow
of the college in 1852 and was called to the bar in 1856. There
he was on the high road to success, when increasing deafness
obliged him to retire and devote himself exclusively to literature.
He translated all the plays of Aristophanes, reproducing the
Greek metres in the English version. He died at Twickenham
Sept. 22 1919.
ROGERS, JAMES GUINNESS (1822-1911), British Noncon-
formist divine, was born at Enniskillen, Ireland, Dec. 29 1822.
He was educated at Silcoates school, Wakefield, and Trinity
College, Dublin. From 1865 to 1900 he was a minister of the
Clapham Congregational church. He is best remembered for
his close association with Dr. Dail in the Liberal- Nonconformist
education and disestablishment campaigns of 1865-75, and for
his friendship with Mr. Gladstone and Lord Rosebery, who
consulted him as the foremost representative of Nonconformist
statesmanship. He died at Clapham Aug. 20 1911.
ROLLAND, ROMAIN (1866- ), French man of letters, was
born at Clamecy, Nievre, Jan. 29 1866. He was educated at
Clamecy, 'and later in Paris, where he had a distinguished
academic career. From 1889-91 he was a member of the French
School in Rome, in 1892 went with an archaeological expedition
to Italy, and in 1895 was appointed professor of the history of
art at the Ecole Normale Superieure, later occupying the same
position at the Sorbonne, where he introduced the study of the
history of music. He produced many critical and historical
works, among them Histoire de I'Opera en Europe miant Lulli
et Scarlatti (1895); Des Causes de la Decadence de la Peinture
italienne (1895); and Le Thidlre du Peuple (1903); besides
studies on Millet (1902); Beethoven (1903) and Michel-Ange
(1906). His most famous work, however, is the romance of
Jean Christophe, the biography of a German musician, one of the
most remarkable productions of the present day. The work is in
three series, Jean Christophe, Jean Christophe a Paris and La
Fin du Voyage. It appeared in 10 volumes, the first, L'Aube, in
1904, and the last, La Nouvelle Journee, in 1912. A series of
articles published by Remain Rolland in the Journal de Geneve
during Sept. and Oct. 1914 created an extremely bad impression
in France owing to the " defeatist " attitude of the author.
His later works include Au-dessus de la Melee, of which the ninth
edition appeared in 1915; Colas Brangnon, a novel (1918); Les
Precurseurs (1919) and Voyage musical aux pays du passe (1919).
See Jan Rpmein, Remain Rolland (1918); I. Debran, M. R.
Rolland, initiateur du defaitisme (1918); W. Kuechler, Romain
Rolland (1919).
ROMER, SIR ROBERT (1840-1918), English judge, was born
in London Dec. 23 1840. He was educated privately and at
Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he was senior wrangler and
Smith's prizeman in 1863. From 1865 to 1866 he was professor
of mathematics at Queen's College, Cork, but in 1867 was called
to the bar, becoming in 1881 a Q.C. and in 1884 a bencher of
Lincoln's Inn. In 1890 he was raised to the bench of the Chan-
cery division and knighted, and in 1899 became a lord justice of
appeal. He presided over one of the inquiries made after the
South African War, and was also a member of the royal commis-
sion on university education. He received the G.C.B. in 1901
290
RONALD ROOSEVELT
and retired in 1906. Romer, who married in 1864 the daughter of
Mark Lemon, editor of Punch, died at Bath March 19 1918.
RONALD, SIR LANDON (1873- ), English conductor and
musical composer, born in London June 7 1873, was educated
at St. Marylebone and All Souls grammar school, and the
high school at Margate. His first appearance as a musician was
in 1890, as solo pianist in the wordless musical play L' Enfant
Prodigue, and in 1891 he was engaged by Sir Augustus Harris as
conductor for a Covent Garden season. During the following
years his reputation as a conductor steadily increased, and in
1908-9 he had a successful European tour. In 1908 he became
conductor of the New Symphony Orchestra (now the Royal
Albert Hall Orchestra), and in 1910 was appointed principal
of the Guildhall school of music. His compositions include
various orchestral works, and a large number of songs, many of
which have attained wide popularity. He was knighted Jan.
i 1922.
ROOSEVELT, FRANKLIN DELANO (1882- ), American
politician, was born in Hyde Park, N.Y., Jan. 30 1882. He
was a distant cousin of Theodore Roosevelt. He was educated
at Groton, Harvard (A.B. 1904), and the Columbia Law School
(LL.B. 1907). He was admitted to the bar in 1907 and began
practice in New York City. He began his public career in 1910
when he was elected to the New York State Senate, being the first
Democrat in 28 years to represent his district. He was an anti-
Tammany man and was associated with the group that success-
fully opposed the Tammany candidate for the U.S. Senate in
the session of 1911-2. In 1912 he was reelected to the New
York State Senate. The same year he strongly supported
Woodrow Wilson for president and on the latter's election was
appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1913. He then re-
signed from the New York Senate. In 1915 he was a member of
the National Committee of the Panama-Pacific Exposition.
After America's entrance into the World War he went to Europe
in 1918 to attend conferences and to inspect the U.S. naval
forces, and early in 1919 was in charge of their demobilization.
He was a supporter of the League of Nations; he indorsed woman
suffrage and was a strong advocate of civil-service reform for
the post-office and consular appointments. At the Democratic
National Convention in 1920 he was unanimously nominated
for vice-president on the ticket with James M. Cox, but was
defeated in the ensuing election.
ROOSEVELT, THEODORE (1858-1919), twenty-sixth Presi-
dent of the United States (see 23.707), completed his second
term, March 4 1909, the most famous man in his country, with
a wealth of personal friends, and a reputation as a master of men.
Yet from the presidency, like most of his predecessors, he
stepped down into a retirement which seemed to forbid a re-
entry into public life or a recovery of the headship of his party.
In the 10 remaining years of his life he displayed the same
qualities of intense thought and action that had characterized
him before; within a year after his withdrawal he again became
a great force in American society and public life. A sense of
fair play to his successor, President Taft, for whose choice he
was indeed responsible, and that drawing-force of the unknown
to which his nature was susceptible, led him to make plans
for a hunting and exploring trip in Africa, some months before
the end of his presidential term. He was also influenced by
invitations to make addresses in England and France.
Accordingly he sailed from New York on March 23 1909
for Africa, where, in conjunction with his son Kermit and the
well-known hunter Selous, he travelled a long distance, shot
big game, and safely emerged at Khartum in March 1910. Here
he plunged at once into politics by addresses at Khartum and
Cairo, in which he stood for orderly and vigorous government
for Egypt. In both instances the addresses were requested and
approved by the local military authorities. From Egypt he
proceeded to Europe, and, apparently to his own surprise, found
himself an international celebrity. He was received in all the
courts of central Europe except the Vatican, where an official
interposed between him and the Pope by stipulating guarantees
of his conduct in Rome. He left a most interesting account of the
impressions made upon him by this journey, in a long and inti-
mate letter written at the time to the English historian Sir
George Trevelyan, and published in Bishop's Theodore Roose-
velt and His Time. It was in vain for him to claim that he was
only a " private citizen with no claim to precedence "; for
everywhere he was received with the honours ordinarily paid
only to sovereigns. He was warmly received in France where
he made a public address at the Sorbonne. In England his
Romanes lecture at Oxford, and particularly his Guildhall
speech on the management of a great empire, were noteworthy;
and he was designated by President Taft to represent the
United States at the State funeral of Edward VII. His most
striking experience was in Germany, where he was received with
cordiality by the Emperor, but, as he said afterwards, it was the
only country in Europe where he felt that " every man, woman
and child was my natural enemy that is, the enemy of my
country."
Returning to the United States, June 18 1910, Roosevelt
found that both his African and European experiences had been
followed closely by the American people. President Taft had
now had a year and a half of experience with the country, with
Congress, and with reforms and policies which Roosevelt had
initiated and expected would be carried out. There was a
rift in the Republican party. Some of Roosevelt's friends were
in opposition to the Taft administration. In the Ballinger
controversy over western public lands, Roosevelt sided against
the administration. A group of dissatisfied Republicans, the
" insurgents," had arisen in Congress, and prepared to dispute
the supremacy of the Conservatives in the party, on whom
Taft seemed to be relying. To Roosevelt's mind, the " moss-
backs " were in control; and a few hours after landing he agreed
to throw his personal influence on behalf of Governor Hughes of
New York, who was engaged in a struggle with the Repub-
lican Legislature over the direct primary. He made an address
at Ossawatomie, Kan., Aug. 31, in which he laid down a radical
programme of political and social reform to which he gave the
name of the " New Nationalism." Plainly he was dissatisfied
with Taft's administration. As early as Nov. 21 he discussed
with an intimate friend the possibility of his accepting the nomi-
nation in 1912, to succeed Taft in the presidency. Through
1911 this quarrel grew. Soon after returning, Roosevelt became
an editorial writer, bearing a free lance, in The Outlook, and alike
in his editorials and in public addresses he took the side of the
insurgent element. He regarded Taft as the representative of
" the interests." Early in 1912, a group of seven Republican
governors united in an appeal to Roosevelt to declare his willing-
ness to be nominated. On Feb. 12, Taft made a bitter speech,
in which, without mentioning Roosevelt, he spoke contemptu-
ously of the extremists. This seems to have been the incident
that decided Roosevelt's course; for on Feb. 26 he came out
openly as a candidate for the nomination by the party conven-
tion in June.
Meanwhile the usual campaign for the choice of delegates to
the Convention was going on, following the same lines as in 1908.
In the southern states, where the Republicans were hopelessly
in the minority, delegates were elected by the usual rump and
machine-led state conventions. Roosevelt's friends made a
campaign in the northern and western states, especially in those
which had provided for a choice of delegates through a popular
vote in party primaries. A majority of the Republican voters
in those states favoured Roosevelt. When the Republican
Convention met in Chicago, June 22, Taft was strong in the
delegations chosen by state and local conventions; and Roose-
velt in those representing a predominance of Republican voters.
The organization of the Convention, however, was in the hands
of the Taft men, because they had a large majority in the
National Committee. Out of the numerous contested seats,
only six were finally assigned by the Committee of Credentials to
the Roosevelt column. On a test vote for the choice of tempo-
rary chairman, the Taft men showed a narrow margin. The
turn of 15 votes which might have been secured had Roose-
velt come out a few weeks earlier would probably have brought
ROOSEVELT
291
on a "landslide" for him. A speech by Roosevelt a few weeks
earlier before the Ohio Constitutional Convention, advocating
the " Recall " of judicial decisions, also gave alarm to some men
who might otherwise have supported him. Once organized,
the Taft forces were able to carry through the report of the
Committee on Credentials, which assigned them a safe majority.
Roosevelt himself had come to Chicago a few days before the
Convention, and was the centre of the hardest battle of his life.
He rallied his supporters, and addressed an enormous pub-
lic meeting, ending his speech with " We stand at Armageddon,
and we battle for the Lord." Most of his followers stood by
him; but they could not break down the walls of precedent and
conservatism. The Roosevelt delegates, on their leader's re-
quest, remained in the Convention until the end, but refused
to vote on the nomination; and Taft was duly nominated for a
second term by the vote of about two-thirds of the Convention.
Roosevelt was a party man, who had stood by the party in
1884 when many of his friends bolted. His standpoint in 1912
was that he was trying to save the Republican party from a
ruinous yielding to the forces of organized wealth and reaction.
He was also a fighter, and felt himself deprived, by technicali-
ties and personal hatreds, of an honour which the majority of
his party was eager to bestow upon him. He unhesitatingly
decided to " bolt," and on the evening of the adjournment of
the Convention, at a meeting in Orchestra Hall, he advised the
formation of a Progressive party. A later Convention of the
Roosevelt men throughout the country, including a considera-
ble number of Democrats, nominated Roosevelt, with Gov.
Hiram W. Johnson of California for vice-president. Meanwhile
the Democrats had nominated Woodrow Wilson, governor of
New Jersey. The result was a three-cornered political contest, in
which it was clear at the beginning that Taft could not be elected,
but that Roosevelt probably could not win enough Demo-
cratic votes to prevent the choice of Wilson. Nevertheless,
Roosevelt fought vigorously through the campaign, violently
attacking Taft as a reactionary and tool of reactionaries. While
on a speaking tour at Milwaukee he was shot by a fanatic, but
was not seriously injured.
The result of the election was the choice of Wilson, who had
6, 000,000 popular votes and 435 electoral votes; Roosevelt, 4,000,-
ooo popular votes, and 88 electoral; Taft, 3,500,000 popular
votes, and 8 electoral. On this showing the Progressives had
more votes than their Republican adversaries, and therefore
hoped to compel a reconstruction of the party. Their Repub-
lican opponents, however, kept tight hold of the name, organi-
zation and prestige. They had deliberately accepted defeat in
advance in order to put Roosevelt out of the running.
This, the first serious defeat that Roosevelt had ever encoun-
tered, was to him a bitter humiliation. He felt that his public
career was ended. His first movement was characteristic. He
had cordial invitations to visit S. America and make addresses
in the principal cities. As in his experiences of 1910, this dove-
tailed in with a plan of exploration. Accordingly, early in 1913,
after visiting several S. American countries, including Brazil
and Argentina, he returned to Brazil, made his way overland,
and came down a river, whose uncharted course he followed
for 600 miles. The hardships were severe, and he received an
injury, serious for a time, and drew into his system the seeds
of tropical malaria. The Brazilian Government named the
stream Rio Teodoro.
On his return to the United States, out of office, a defeated
candidate, an insurgent, the personal enemy of the Republican
leaders, he seemed justified in his belief that his career was
over. But as usual his enemies played into his hands. An
obscure journalist ventured publicly to accuse him of drunken-
ness. In May 1913 he instituted a suit for defamation of charac-
ter, with the result that the defendant broke down and acknowl-
edged his error. A large section of the American people resented
the affront, and rejoiced in the vindication. During this period
Roosevelt was indefatigable as journalist and writer, first in
The Outlook, then in the Metropolitan magazine, and finally
through the columns of the Kansas City Star.
The outbreak of the World War gave him a new opportunity
for his pen and voice. His instinct was against Germany as an
oppressor of weak nations; but he stayed his desire for positive
action for a time, from the feeling that he ought not to embarrass
the President. It was at this time that a personal enemy gave
Roosevelt the opportunity of again showing his character to
his countrymen, through a publicity which both Roosevelt
and the public enjoyed. William Barnes, one of the acknowl-
edged leaders of the Republican party, brought a suit in April
1915 against Roosevelt because of an accusation of unfair and
corrupt politics as a " boss " which Roosevelt had made against
him. Roosevelt vigorously defended himself and won the suit.
For 10 days he was on the witness-stand, and his testimony,
which was spread broadcast throughout the land, revealed his
undiminished force and appealed to the popular imagination.
The sinking of the " Lusitania " by a German submarine in
May 1915 brought his bitterest denunciation, and from that
time he foresaw first the possibility and then the likelihood of
war between Germany and the United States. He made him-
self the leading spokesman for " preparedness," and presently
drew down the wrath of President Wilson's administration for
a speech at Plattsburg. From that time he did not spare sharp
criticisms of President Wilson's policy as showing unwillingness
to face the dangers of war. His utterances against Germany and
in favour of the Allies had great influence.
As the election of 1916 drew near, the remaining Progressives,
aided by some who had stayed in the Republican party, made
an effort to force the Republican Convention to nominate
Roosevelt. They called a Progressive Convention to meet at
Chicago at the same time as the Republican, hoping to make a
joint nomination with the Republicans. Roosevelt did his
best to secure the prize, but again the party leaders would have
none of him. Hughes was nominated, and this time Roosevelt
accepted the situation as a loyal member of the Republican
party, and supported the nominee.
As the World War went on, Roosevelt became the severest
critic of the administration and the strongest advocate of pre-
paredness. He formed a plan for raising a special division, in
which he hoped to have a command, and which he would offer
to the Government. Early in 1917, when the American breach
with Germany came, he offered the services of himself and his
sons, all four of whom subsequently enlisted. He requested that
he might have a personal command, which was denied by the
administration, although both Houses of Congress united in a
bill making his plan possible. During the year he made some
of the most notable addresses of his life, especially that be-
fore the "Order of Moose" Convention in Pittsburgh. By
this time the Republican politicians were looking forward to
the election of 1920 and began to group themselves about
Roosevelt. His most persistent enemies, even Wilh'am Barnes,
accepted his nomination as a foregone conclusion. The year
1918, however, was a sad one for Roosevelt. His son Quentin
was killed in the war. Ever since returning from Brazil, Roose-
velt's constitution had shown weakness. He was several times
in hospitals, and underwent a serious operation for abscess due
to infection received during his Brazilian explorations. The
hearing of his left ear was wholly destroyed. Still he continued
his writing and speaking, and his direct personal influence upon
his thousands of friends. Even in the first days of 1919, when
he suffered from renewed disease, he looked forward to public
service. On Jan. 6 1919 he died in his sleep.
A man who could do so much could not do everything per-
fectly, though few have ever done so many things so well. It
was more true of him than of most men that his defects were
inherent in his virtues. There were few half-tones in Roose-
velt's moral perceptions and fewer in his vocabulary; he saw
things as either black or white, and he forgot sometimes that
he had not previously seen them as he saw them at the moment.
He had enemies, and even former friends, who charged him
with breaking promises, betraying political associates and set-
ting his own wishes and interests above all others. The very
intensity of his convictions sometimes blinded him to the sincer-
292
ROOT
ity and even to the justice of other points of view. Nevertheless
this intensity, this moral fervour, gave his ideas a momentum
and a success which they could never have acquired had they
proceeded from a more judicial mind. He scorned " weasel
words," and on occasion he did not hesitate to describe his
enemies as thieves and liars. His remarkable energy reminded
observers of some great elemental force which, like any natural
phenomenon, is controlled by its own necessary laws. When
Lord Morley was leaving the United States in 1904 he was asked
by reporters what in America had impressed him most. " Two
things," he replied, " Theodore Roosevelt and Niagara Rapids."
His fearlessness was as conspicuous as his energy. With a
courage very rare in political life he attacked the iniquities
that had crept into the conduct of American business. He
asserted the importance of personal rights when these were
being openly denied in the name of property rights. He rallied
the patriotic elements of the country against the menace of a
private " money power " which not only had frequently dictated
the course of legislation but threatened to usurp the authority
of the Government itself. He felt strongly that any position
involving the exercise of power had its obligations as well as its
privileges, and this feeling lent force to his denunciation of
" predatory interests " and " malefactors of great wealth." On
the other hand he had little patience with demagogic attacks
on men or corporations merely because they were rich or success-
ful, as was shown in his famous utterance in which he compared
the authors of these journalistic attacks with the " muckrakers "
in Pilgrim's Progress. It was said of him satirically that he
had invented the Ten Commandments; but Roosevelt's earnest-
ness in behalf of old truths was of the essence of his service to
his countrymen, and more important at the juncture than the
discovery of new ones.
His great personal power was used in the furtherance of
honesty, fair dealing and patriotic service, when more than lip
service to these virtues was vitally needed. He threw all his
energy into the effort to bring about a reapplication of funda-
mental moral principles to American business and political life.
While he was unquestionably an astute politician, the secret of
his success lay in his imaginative understanding of the views
and feelings of his countrymen: his enthusiasm was contagious
because he vividly expressed what they already felt and believed
to be the truest American ideals. When he spoke for the " square
deal," the American people as a people always responded.
Born of a wealthy family, in an aristocratic society, enjoy-
ing all his days a literary and artistic atmosphere, he was still
a natural democrat. He had a personal interest in every man or
woman that he met, and a genuine affection literally for thou-
sands of individual persons. He was a scientific man whose
observations and deductions were valued by naturalists and in-
vestigators. He was a literary man, very widely read. He was
an intellectual man, interested from youth to age in literature and
philosophy. He was a politician without a rival in his time for
boldness, foresight, and an innate knowledge of what his fellow
countrymen were thinking about. He was a statesman of the
most brilliant ability, who after a crushing defeat returned to
power over the minds of the people and was on his way again
to the presidency of the United States. His bitterest politi-
cal enemies accepted his coming back to national leadership.
To few men in history has it been given to wield such far-
spreading and wholesome personal influence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Between 1909 and 1919 Roosevelt published
about 15 books, several of them consisting of articles and addresses.
The more important are African Game Trails (1910); Conservation
of Womankind and Children (1912) ; Theodore Roosevelt, an Autobiog-
raphy (1913, contains little beyond 1909) ; Life-Histories of African
Game Animals (2 vols. 1914); A Hunter- Naturalist in the Brazilian
Wilderness (1914); Through the Brazilian Wilderness (1914); A Book-
lover's Holiday in the Open (1916). His principal later books on
public affairs and on the World War are Realizable Ideals (1912) ;
America and the World War (1915 and 1919) ; Fear God and Take
Your Own Part (1916) ; National Strength and International Duty
(1917); The Great Adventure (1918). Numerous collections of ex-
tracts and speeches have been published, especially those of W. F.
Johnson (1909); L.F.Abbott (African and European, 1910); W.
Griffith (1919); J. B. Bishop, Letters to his Children (1919).
The most important biographies are those by J. B. Bishop (1920) ;
H. Hagedorn, Boy's Life of Theodore Roosevelt (1919) ; W. D. Lewis
(1919); W. R. Thayer (1919); Bradley Gilman (1921) and H. Hage-
dorn's Roosevelt in the Bad Lands (1921). A useful list of books by
and about Roosevelt is J. H. Wheelock's, Bibliography of Theodore
Roosevelt (1920). (A. B. H.)
ROOT, ELIHU (1845- ), American lawyer and political
leader (see 23.711), was elected president of the N.Y. State Bar
Association in 1910, and chairman of the board of trustees of
the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1913. He was chair-
man of the N.Y. State Republican Convention in 1912, 1913,
1914, 1916, and permanent chairman of the Republican National
Convention in 1912. In 1913 he favoured the repeal of the bill
exempting American shipping from Panama Canal tolls. He
also approved President Wilson's policy of non-interference in
Mexico. He assailed as class legislation the exemption of labour
unions and agricultural associations from the Sherman Anti-
Trust Act. On Dec. 10 1910 he was awarded the Nobel peace
prize because of his work in the pacification of the Philippines
and Cuba as well as his*part in the negotiations between the
United States and Japan. The same day he became a member of
the Court of Arbitration for settling the claims of British,
French and Spanish subjects in connexion with property seized
by the Portuguese Government when a republic had been pro-
claimed. In 1915 he opposed Secretary Bryan's treaty with
Colombia, disapproving any apology for incidents attending the
acquisition of the Canal Zone and regarding the proposed pay-
ment of $25,000,000 as too large. He attacked the Ship Pur-
chase bill, pointing out dangers of international difficulties in
case interned vessels were taken over. He also argued that for
the Government to acquire shipping would discourage private
enterprise and was socialistic in tendency. He was president
of the State Constitutional Convention in 1915 and worked for
many reforms, including the short ballot, means for remedying
the law's delays and the excessive cost of securing justice, and
the making of impeachments easier. When submitted to the
voters, however, the new constitution was defeated. He was
unanimously elected president of the American Bar Association
in 1915. The same year he retired from the U.S. Senate, hav-
ing refused to stand for a reelection.
He had long advocated preparedness on the part of the
United States and early in 1917 spoke in favour of war
against Germany. After the United States entered the
World War he urged full support of the President. In May 1917
he was appointed chairman of the special American mission
sent to Russia and was given the rank of ambassador. Arriving
at Petrograd in June he addressed the Russian Council of Minis-
ters and in Moscow spoke at a special session of the Duma and
at a meeting of the local Council of Workmen's and Soldiers'
Delegates. Later he visited General Brussilov at staff head-
quarters. On his return to America he was elected honorary
president of the National Security League, succeeding Joseph
H. Choate. On Sept. 25 1917 he presided at the meeting of the
National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage and de-
nounced suffrage agitation during the critical period of the war.
He had never supported the movement and in 1914 had been
blacklisted by the National American Suffrage Association.
He approved in general the Covenant of the League of Nations
but in 1919 suggested six amendments to protect American
interests, including reservations concerning the Monroe Doctrine
and immigration. He favoured separate consideration of the
Peace Treaty and the League. He was strongly opposed to the
Prohibition amendment to the Federal Constitution; was retained
as counsel by several brewing interests and in 1920 argued
before the U.S. Supreme Court against its constitutionality,
but unsuccessfully. In 1920 the President reappointed him
U.S. delegate to the Hague Tribunal and he went to Holland
to assist in organizing the Permanent Court. In July 1920
he spoke at the unveiling of St. Gaudens' statue of Lincoln in
London. In 1921 he was one of the four U.S. delegates at the
Washington Conference on the Limitation of Armament.
He was the author of several volumes of lectures and addresses,
including Experiments in Government and the Essentials of the Con-
ROSCOE ROSS, R. B.
293
stitution (1913, lectures delivered at Princeton); Addresses on
International Subjects (1916) ; Addresses on Government and Citizen-
ship (1916); The Military and Colonial Policy of the United States
(1916); Latin America and the United States (1917); Miscellaneous
Addresses (1917); North Atlantic Coast Fisheries at The Hague (1917)
and The United States and the War (1918).
ROSCOE, SIR HENRY ENFIELD (1833-1915), English chemist
(see 23.725), died at Leatherhead, Surrey, Dec. 18 1915.
ROSEBERY, ARCHIBALD PHILIP PRIMROSE, 5 TH EARL OF
(1847- ), British statesman (see 23.731), took an active part
in the constitutional crisis in 1910 and 1911. He treated the
Parliament bill as a revolutionary measure which in effect
constituted single-chamber Government, and did his utmost
to arouse the nation to a sense of its danger. But he disapproved
of the bill which Lord Lansdowne introduced in May 1911 for
the reconstitution of the House of Lords, holding that the
Opposition ought to have contented themselves with reaffirming
his own resolutions of the previous year. If the Parliament bill
became law, Lord Lansdowne's bill mattered little; who would
then be the acolytes and sycophants who would accept the de-
grading position of members of a second chamber? While, how-
ever, he bitterly condemned the conduct of ministers in going to
" a young and inexperienced King " for contingent guarantees,
he declined to follow the extreme course of rejecting the bill
recommended by the " Die-hards." He shrank from the scandal
of a great creation of peers. If the bill were allowed to pass, the
House would be left with some vitality; if the creation of peers
was forced, they would have none at all. He showed his own
estimate of the impotence of the House after the passage of the
bill by ceasing to attend its debates; and indeed he took no
further part in public life till the outbreak of war in 1914 fired
his patriotism. As lord-lieutenant of Midlothian and Linlith-
gowshire he promoted recruiting and other warlike activities in
his own country; and helped to hearten the nation and to avert
a premature peace by occasional speeches. His feeling was shown
by a preface which he wrote in Oct. 1914 for the first volume
of Col. John Buchan's History of the War. He spoke of " the
incalculable blessing which the damnable invasion of Belgium
has conferred incidentally upon ourselves. ... It has revealed
to the world the enthusiastic and weather-proof unity of the
Empire. . . . Blood shed in common is the cement of nations,
and we and our sons may look to see a beneficence of empire,
not such as the Prussians dreamed of, not a war-lordship over
other nations, not a nightmare of oppression, but a world-wide
British influence which shall be a guarantee of liberty and peace,
and which, hand-in-hand with our Allies in Europe and with
our kindred in the United States, should go far to make such
another war as this impossible."
The war cost Lord Rosebery his younger son, the Right Hon.
NEIL PRIMROSE (1882-1917), whose political advance had been
watched by his father with eager sympathy. He was under-
secretary for the Foreign Office in 1915, parliamentary secretary
for Munitions in 1916, and at the close of that year became
Coalition Liberal Whip under Mr. Lloyd George. But these
appointments were only held for short periods in the intervals
of fighting as a captain in the Buckinghamshire Hussars, and
he died of wounds received in action in Palestine in Nov. 1917.
He had married Lord Derby's daughter in 1915. Lord Rose-
bery had a further domestic sorrow in the dissolution, in 1919,
of the marriage (celebrated in 1909) of his elder son Lord Dalmeny
with Dorothy A. M. A. Grosvenor. Lord Rosebery was created
Earl of Midlothian in the peerage of the United Kingdom the
earldom of Rosebery being a Scottish earldom at the coronation
of King George in 1911, at which ceremony, as at the coronation
of King Edward, he was one of the lords who bore the canopy.
He became chancellor of Glasgow University in 1908 as he had
long been chancellor of London University; and was chosen
lord rector of St. Andrews University for the year of its quin-
centenary celebration in 1911.
ROSEGGER, PETER (1843-1918), Austrian poet and novelist
(see 23.734), died in 1918. (See AUSTRIAN EMPIRE: Literature.)
ROSENTHAL, TOBY EDWARD (1848-1917), American painter
(see 23.735), died in Berlin, Germany, Dec. 28 1917.
ROSENWALD, JULIUS (1862- ), American merchant and
philanthropist, was born at Springfield, 111., Aug. 12 1862, and
was educated in the public schools. From 1885 to 1906 he was
president of Rosenwald & Weil, clothing manufacturers, Chicago.
In 1895 he became vice-president and treasurer of the mail-
order house of Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, and in 1910
president. The gross sales of the company, which were $1,750,-
ooo in 1896, increased under his management to $258,000,000 in
1919. He served during the World War under appointment by
President Wilson as a member of the Advisory Commission of
the Council of National Defense. In 1918 he was sent on a
special mission of cheer by Secretary Baker, of the War Depart-
ment, to the American troops in France. In 1919-20 he served
in Washington as a member of the President's Industrial Confer-
ence. He devoted much time to work for philanthropic, educa-
tional and civic organizations. He gave $150,000 to Tuskegee
(Ala.) Normal and Industrial Institute; $250,000 for a build- ;
ing to house Jewish philanthropic organizations of Chicago;
and (with Mrs. Rosenwald) $750,000 for new buildings for the
university of Chicago. Of the latter sum $250,000 was used to
erect a building, Julius Rosenwald Hall, for the departments of
geology and geography, and $500,000 for buildings for the
medical department. He founded dental infirmaries in the
Chicago public schools. During the World War he gave large
sums to relief organizations, in 1917 alone $1,000,000 to aid
sufferers in eastern Europe. He contributed generously to, and
took a leading part in securing contributions for, the Hoover Chil-
dren's Relief Fund in 1920-1. Beginning in 1914, he stimulated
a programme for building rural schools for negroes in the south-
ern states by agreeing to contribute toward their cost and toward
the lengthening of the school terms, provided both the whites
and the negroes of the neighbourhood contributed also and that
public funds were appropriated. Up to 1920, 800 schools were
thus constructed at a total cost of $1,500,000, of which Mr.
Rosenwald gave $400,000. In 1920,, 500 additional buildings
were authorized for immediate construction at an approximate
cost of $2,000,000, of which Mr. Rosenwald agreed to pay
$500,000. At the close of 1920, 14 cities had Y.M.C.A. build-
ings for negroes, costing altogether $2,000,000, because of Mr.
Rosenwald's offer to contribute $25,000 to each city under cer-
tain conditions. His share in the cost was $350,000. He was
an official of several leading philanthropic, civic and educa-
tional organizations of Chicago, including the 'university of
Chicago; also of the Rockefeller Foundation, Tuskegee Normal
and Industrial Institute, the Baron de Hirsch Fund and the
American Jewish Committee, and was identified with many other
movements for public benefit throughout the country.
On Dec. 29 1921 it was announced that Mr. Rosenwald
had pledged about $20,000,000 to safeguard the interests of
Sears, Roebuck & Co. during the critical period of business re-
adjustment after the World War. He increased the company's
fluid assets by purchasing for $16,000,000 part of the real estate
owned by the company in Chicago, and gave the company from
his own holdings 50,000 shares of its common stock (par value
$100). In 1920 and 1921 the company had paid no dividends
on its common stock and it was apparent that its accounts at
the end of 1921 must show a deficit. But Mr. Rosenwald by
this action enabled the company to readjust its finances with-
out impairing its capital stock, and protected its stockholders,
many of them employees. It was recognized generally that he
established a precedent which raised the standards of business
when he thus faced heavy loss in order to protect those who had
bought shares because of their confidence in his leadership, and
also in order to foster the practice of employees' participative
investment.
ROSS, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM (1841-1914), Canadian poli-
tician (see 23.739), was knighted in 1910. He published,
amongst other works, The Life and Times of the Hon. Alex.
Mackenzie and Getting into Parliament and After. He died
March 8 1914.
ROSS, ROBERT BALDWIN (1869-1918), British art critic
and writer, was born at Tours May 25 1869, the son of the-
294
ROSS, SIR R. ROTHERMERE
Hon. John Ross, Q.C., attorney-general for Upper Canada, his
mother being a daughter of the Hon. Robert Baldwin, premier
of Upper Canada. He was educated privately, and later at
King's College, Cambridge. After leaving the university he
took to journalism. As a judge of pictures he was in very high
repute, and from 1912 to 1914 he acted as adviser to the Board
of Inland Revenue on picture valuations for estate duty. The
most noteworthy feature of many years of his life, however, was
his friendship with Oscar Wilde, whose literary executor he
ultimately became. He was responsible for the publication of
Wilde's De Profundis (1905), and subsequently for a complete
edition of Wilde's works. Not long before his death Ross received
from his admirers a presentation of plate, and also a sum of money
which, at his request, was applied to the foundation of a scholar-
ship at the Slade school of art. He died in London Oct. 5 1918.
ROSS, SIR RONALD (1857- ), British physician and
bacteriologist, was born at Almora, India, May 13 1857. He
studied medicine at St. Bartholomew's hospital, and in 1881
entered the Indian medical service. About 1893 he commenced a
series of special investigations on the subject of malaria, and by
1895 had arrived at his theory that the micro-organisms of this
disease are spread by mosquitos (see 17.463, 20.786). In 1899
he retired from the Indian medical service, and devoted himself
to research and teaching, joining the Liverpool school of tropical
medicine as lecturer, and subsequently becoming professor of
tropical medicine at Liverpool University. In 1913 he became
physician for tropical diseases to King's College, London.
During the World War Ross was appointed to the R.A.M.C.
and became War Office consultant in malaria. In 1902 he received
the Nobel prize for medicine, in 1911 a K.C.B., and in 1918 a
K.C.M.G. He has also been the recipient of honours from many
British and foreign universities. He published in 1910 The
Prevention of Malaria, and also produced Psychologies, a volume
of poems (1919), and a romance, The Revels of Or sera (1920).
ROSTAND, EDMOND (1869-1920), French dramatist (see
2 3-7S4). devoted himself during the World "War chiefly to the
writing of patriotic verse. Various comic versions of Cyrano
de Bergerac were performed by the soldiers at the front, one of
which, Cyrano de Bergerac aux Tranchtes (1916), was prefaced
by Rostand with some of his own verses. He died in Paris Dec.
2 1920. His two sons, Maurice and Jean, have produced va-
rious works, the former having published a volume of poems,
Le Page de la Vie and Le Cercueti de Cristal, and the latter an
important pamphlet on wealth.
ROSYTH (see 14.718). The development of the German navy
in the first years of the 2oth century rendered it necessary to
create a British naval base suitable for a fleet concentrated in
the North Sea, and in 1903 it was decided to establish a first-
class naval base at Rosyth on the Firth of Forth. Land was
acquired and works were planned, but the development of
possibilities of torpedo attack soon made it evident that the
outer anchorage, as originally designed, would be insecure, and
naval opinion became doubtful as to whether the base would be
adequate. The plans of construction were, therefore, modified
in ,1908, but, up to the outbreak of war, Rosyth was regarded
as the principal base and headquarters for the Grand Fleet,
though it was decided that initial stations must be estab-
lished at Cromarty (see CROMARTY) and Scapa Flow (see
SCAPA FLOW). When the war began, Admiral Jellicoe preferred
to establish his headquarters at Scapa Flow, but Rosyth was
used as a secondary base, particularly for the battle cruisers.
The Firth of Forth had been selected, before the war, as the eastern
terminus of a mid-Scotland canal which was to connect with the
existing canal and follow its line for part of the way, and then cross-
ing the low ground in the neighbourhood of Stirling, to enter Loch
Lomond, and ultimately to reach the sea by a short canal from Bal-
loch to a point near Dumbarton. The canal was projected not only
for commercial purposes but also to enable warships to pass safely
and rapidly from W. to E. and to make the great Clyde shipyards
easily accessible from the naval base at Rosyth, and thus to avoid
the necessity of constructing docks and repairing yards there. The
project was again under consideration during the war, but it was
obvious that it could not be accomplished in time, and Rosyth was
developed as a great dock-yard.
The original scheme included a high-level main basin covering
an area of 55 ac., with an entrance lock from the fairway, a dry or
graving dock 750 ft. long and no ft. wide, a submarine tidal basin,
the construction of an entrance channel, and the erection of work-
shops and offices, and work was begun in 1909. The whole site of the
works has been reclaimed from the sea, and a great sea-wall was
built to form the southern boundary of the docks, the number of
which was increased from one to three. Great progress had been
made by the outbreak of war, and it was anticipated that the works
would be completed by the summer of 1916. Operations were pushed
on vigorously during the war, and a special Act of Parliament was
passed in 1915 to facilitate the provision of dwelling-houses for
Admiralty employees. By the original Act for the construction of
the base, the whole area between the town of Dunfermline and
the jand purchased by the Government was brought within the
municipal area, which was thus extended from 2,016 to 7,730 acres.
The erection of houses has involved the construction of new roads,
and new water and sewerage schemes.
ROTHENSTEIN, WILLIAM (1872- ), English artist, was
born at Bradford, Yorks, Jan. 29 1872, and was educated at the
Bradford grammar school. In 1888 he entered the Slade school,
studying under Legros, and afterwards worked in Paris. In
1893 he began exhibiting at the New English Art Club. His
paintings include " The Browning Readers " (1900), " The
Doll's House" (1900), "Aliens at Prayer" (1904), "Jews
Mourning " (1905), " Carrying the Law " (1910), " Morning
at Benares " (1911), " Bourlon Church " (1919), and " The Last
Phase: on the Rhine " (1919). Among his portraits may be
mentioned those of Augustus John, Sir Francis Darwin (1905),
Mr. Charles Booth (1908), Prof. Alfred Marshall (1908), Mr.
Bernhard Berenson (1910), and Sir Rabindranath Tagore
(1912); besides a portrait of himself (1900), now in the Metro-
politan Museum, New York. His work is represented in many
galleries, including the Dublin Gallery of Modern Art, the
National Gallery, Melbourne, the National Portrait Gallery,
Edinburgh, and the galleries of Bradford, Manchester and
Johannesburg. He was in 1917 elected professor of civic art
at the university of Sheffield. His published works include
Oxford Characters (1896); English Portraits (1898); The French
Set, and Portraits of Verlaine (1898); Manchester Portraits
(1899); Liber Junior urn (1899); a Life of Goya (1900); Plea for a
Wider Use of Artists and Craftsmen (1918); Twenty-four Por-
traits (1920).
His brother, ALBERT DANIEL RUTHERSTON (b. 1881), who
took the name of Rutherston in place of that of Rothenstein in
1916, was born at Bradford Dec. 5 1881. He studied at the
Slade school in 1898, and after 1901 exhibited regularly at the
New English Art Club. He became well known as a theatrical
designer of great taste and originality, his work including de-
signs for The Winter's Tale (1912); G. B. Shaw's A ndrocles and
the Lion (1913) and Le Manage Ford (1913). He also illustrated
The Children's Blue Bird by Madame Maeterlinck (1913).
ROTHERMERE, HAROLD SIDNEY HARMSWORTH, IST VISCT.
(1868- ), British newspaper proprietor and financier, was
the second son of Alfred Harmsworth, and brother of Visct.
Northcliffe (see NORTHCLIFFE). He was bora April 26 1868
at Hampstead, London, was created a baronet in 1910, Baron
Rothermere in 1914, and Visct. Rothermere of Hemsted after
his services as Air Minister, in 1918. He married in 1893 Mary
Lilian, daughter of George Wade Share. At the age of 21 he
entered the publishing firm in which his brother Alfred (after-
wards Lord Northcliffe) was then the principal, soon after the
date when Answers was launched. He assisted in developing
the business on sound and economic lines, and for the next 20
years he was the close associate of his brother in all his great
undertakings and shared in his triumphs. His administrative
and financial skill admirably seconded Lord Northcliffe in work
ing out his original schemes. He took an important part in the
reorganization of the London Evening News, when his business
talent helped to make that once insolvent newspaper a large
profit-yielder. He was one of the three principals in the estab-
lishment of the Daily Mail (1896), for many years controlled
the finance of that newspaper, and was largely responsible for
developing its methods of distribution. He was equally active
at the Amalgamated Press, the gigantic periodical publishing
ROTHSCHILD ROUND
295
business which his brother had founded after the success of
Answers. He founded the Glasgow Daily Record, bought the
Leeds Mercury, and shared in the purchase of The Times (1908).
He became known also as a most generous benefactor of chari-
ties. By the gift of a large sum he enabled the Union Jack
Club to provide worthy accommodation for sailors and soldiers
in London; and he gave 10,000 to the Territorial Force County
of London Association. In 1910 he founded the King Edward
chair of English literature at Cambridge, and in the same year
he ceased his connexion with The Times, Daily Mail, and Eve-
ning News. In 1914 he acquired the Daily Mirror from Lord
Northcliffe, and this henceforth became his special organ. In
1915 he founded the Sunday Pictorial, the first fully illustrated
Sunday newspaper in London.
In the World War, Mr. Lloyd George, while Secretary for
War, appointed Lord Rothermere in 1916 Director-General of
the Royal Army Clothing Department. In the following year
he accepted the office of Air Minister, under Mr. Lloyd George
as Premier. He at once declared himself " whole-heartedly in
favour of reprisals," which were the best means of carrying the
war into Germany and protecting British towns against air
attacks. Suffering from precarious health and his bereavements
in the war, he resigned on April 25 1918, after he had carried
out the fusion of the Royal Naval Air Force and Royal Flying
Corps. " My second tragic loss in the war, ten weeks since,"
he wrote to the Prime Minister, " caused me great distress of
mind and body ... I was suffering from ill-health and insom-
nia." Immediately after the war he began a most energetic
campaign, against extravagance in national and local finance,
himself contributing numerous articles to his newspapers.
The tragic losses to which he referred were those of his two
sons, Capt. Harold Alfred Vyvyan St. George Harmsworth, M.C.
(b. Aug. 2 1894) and Lieut. Vere Sidney Tudor Harmsworth
(b. Sept. 25 1895), both of whom, after showing exceptional
promise in civil fields, served with extreme gallantry in battle
and fell in the national cause. Harold, in the Irish Guards, was
twice severely wounded in 1915, and was then given a staff
appointment in England. This he insisted on resigning and
returned to his battalion at the front. There in Bourlon Wood,
on Nov. 27 1917, he received mortal wounds of which he died on
Feb. 12 1918. In recording the grant of the M.C. for his con-
duct on that occasion the London Gazette stated: " He led his
company forward under heavy fire and himself put out of action
two enemy machine-guns. It was entirely due to his splendid
example that his company reached their objective." In his
memory Lord Rothermere founded and endowed the Harold
Vyvyan chair of American history at Oxford University in
June 1920. Vere, educated for the navy which he had to leave
owing to gun-deafness, joined the Royal Naval Division imme-
diately after the outbreak of war, took part in the expedition to
Antwerp, and, when his battalion was driven across the frontier
into Holland, made his escape from Dutch internment. He was
in the terrific fighting at Galh'poli and in the battle of the Somme,
having refused a staff appointment, like his brother, because
he was determined to share the fortunes of his men. Twice
wounded in the storming of Beaucourt on Nov. 13 1916, but
still advancing and setting an example which, as his commander
wrote, " thrilled with pride the men of his battalion," he was
struck a third time by a shell and killed. In memory of him
Lord Rothermere in 1919 established and endowed the chair of
naval history at Cambridge which bears his name.
Lord Rothermere's third and only surviving son, Esmond
Cecil (b. May 26 1898), who had served during the last part
of the war in the Royal Marine Artillery, was in 1919 elected
" anti-waste " M.P. for Thanet, and was then the youngest
member of the House of Commons and the fifth of his family in
Parliament. (H. W. W.)
ROTHSCHILD, NATHANIEL MAYER, IST BARON (1840-
JQiS), Jewish financier, was born in London Nov. 8 1840, the
son of Lionel Nathan de Rothschild, Austrian baron, head of
the English branch of the famous financial family (see 23.758).
He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1879
succeeded his father as Austrian baron. He sat in the House
of Commons from 1865 to 1885 when he was created a peer by
Mr. Gladstone, the first of his race and religion to be raised to
the House of Lords. He was well known as an agriculturist as
well as a financier, and he was renowned for his charities. He
died in London March 31 1915.
His brother, LEOPOLD DE ROTHSCHILD (1845-1917), who had
been throughout associated with him in the management of the
financial house, succeeded him as its head and also took over
most of his public offices, besides interesting himself especially in
the Jewish community and becoming president of the United
Synagogue. He was an art collector and owner of race-horses.
He died at Ascott, Leighton Buzzard, May 29 1917.
ROUND, JOHN HORACE (1854- ), English historian, only
son of John Round, lord of the manor of West Bergholt in Essex,
and through his mother grandson of Horace Smith, author of
Rejected Addresses, was born at Brighton on Feb. 22 1854. He
was educated privately, afterwards going to Balliol College,
Oxford, where he took a first-class in modern history. The
teaching of Dr. Stubbs, then Regius Professor of History, greatly
stimulated the young student, whose independent and critical
genius had already begun to revolt against the superficial
methods of historical study traditional in the English schools,
and after a few years he devoted himself to historical research.
His own aim as a historian, as stated by himself, was " to add to
or correct our knowledge of facts " (preface to Feudal England),
and from the first he insisted that students of mediaeval history
must go to the records in order to find evidence to supplement
and check the chroniclers on whom historians of the type of
Freeman had too exclusively relied. In 1883 he published in the
Antiquary a criticism of Brewer's introduction to the Book of
Howth (Rolls Series), in which he proved that the author was
" strangely at fault " in his views on its authorship, its origin
and its contents; and three years later, in his Early Life of Anne
Boleyn, he again pointed out errors " on the simplest matters of
fact " made by the same eminent scholar. In 1884-5 he pub-
lished in a magazine articles on " The Origins of the House of
Lords " (reprinted in Peerage and Pedigree, 1910), in which he
argued for " that feudal origin of the House which, in view of
the teaching of Freeman and Stubbs, it was, at that time,
heresy to assert." In 1888 appeared his edition of Ancient Char-
ters, Royal and Private, prior to 1200 (Pipe Roll Soc. vol. x.), in
the preface to which he pointed out their use for genealogy,
topography, legal and ecclesiastical antiquities, etc. In 1891
appeared his Introduction of Knight-service into England (pri-
vately printed, reprinted in Feudal England, 1895), in which he
proved the entirely Norman and feudal origin of this institution
(see the article by Round in the E.B. 15.867).
In 1892 he published in the Quarterly Review (vol. 175, No.
349) his famous attack on Freeman's historical method. He
accused him of working as a historian " not from manuscripts,
but from printed books," and pointed out " the danger to our
national school of history in the wide-spread and almost super-
stitious belief in his unimpeachable authority." This authority
he proceeded to assail, centring his attack on that " palisade " of
solid timber which, in his Norman Conquest, Freeman had
imaginatively built round the English host at " Senlac," and
proving that this palisade had as little existence as " Senlac "
itself (see E.B. 13.59 note). Round had begun openly to attack
Freeman as early as 1882, but the fact that the Quarterly article,
though written before Freeman's death, did not appear till after-
wards excited unjust comment, and blinded the dead historian's
friends to the convincing force of the criticism itself. The long
and bitter controversy that followed was summed up by Round
in " Mr. Freeman and the Battle of Hastings " in Feudal Eng-
land. In 1892 also appeared Geoffrey de Mandeville, a study of
the anarchy under Stephen, which established the author's repu-
tation as a constructive historian. In Feudal England, which
appeared in 1895, Round published in collected form some of the
results of his researches into the history of the nth and i2th
centuries, the first part of the book setting forth views as revolu-
tionary on the Domesday side and the whole system of land
296
ROUVIER ROVNO, BATTLE OF
assessment as on the actual introduction of the feudal system
into England. In 1899 was published his Calendar of Documents
preserved in France illustrative of the history of Great Britain and
Ireland, vol. i., pp. 918-1206, and also another collected series of
studies under the title of The Commune of London. In the follow-
ing year he published his Studies in Peerage and Family History,
and at the Congress of Archaeological Studies he read a paper
(subsequently published) on " the systematic study of our
English place-names," in which he again pointed out the impos-
sibility of accomplishing any scientific work in the department
of research until the place-names of England had been classified
and traced to their origins.
Round's vast and detailed knowledge of the periods which he
had made his own led to his opinion being sought by successive
law officers of the Crown charged with the conduct of peerage
cases brought before the House of Lords. His attention was
thus drawn to peerage law, and he soon discovered that there
" was room for its treatment on fresh and historical lines." In
1910 he published Peerage and Pedigree, containing studies on
peerage law and its problems, in which incidentally he attacked
" the muddle of the law," pointing out that the lawyer, whose
vision is bounded by his " books," is still in the Middle Ages,
while the historian is a man of science. Although the labour
involved in these peerage cases was immense, Round refused to
accept any remuneration; in 1912, however, his services were
publicly recognized by the creation in his favour of the new
office of Honorary Adviser to the Crown in Peerage Cases. His
passion for historic truth led him to wage ruthless war on the
" pedigree-mongers," whom he attacked with mordant wit (see,
e.g. in Peerage and Pedigree, "Some 'Saxon' Houses," "The
Great Carington Imposture "), and on those who were attempt-
ing to give a false value to the possession of coats-of-arms (ibid.
" Heraldry and the Gent "). Occasionally he extended the
range of his attacks, falling, for instance, upon those who, con-
sciously or unconsciously, falsified history in the interests of
particular political or religious opinions (e.g. " The Elizabethan
Religion, in correction of Mr. George Russell," Nineteenth
Century, vol. xli., p. 191).
History on a large scale Round never attempted. His books
are all collections of particular studies, and they represent but
a tithe of his published work. He edited, with prefaces, a whole
series of the Pipe Rolls; he was a frequent contributor to the
.English Historical Review; he helped to edit the Ancestor, for
which he also wrote; and innumerable papers by him are scat-
tered in various historical and archaeological journals and re-
views. In 1913 he had begun to prepare a catalogue of these
scattered works, but in 1921 this had not yet been published.
Round's historical method reaching conclusions by induction
from isolated facts whose connexion he had in turn to prove
prevented his becoming a popular writer; but his style is always
luminously clear, and the articles contributed by him to this
Encyclopaedia (DOMESDAY, KNIGHT SERVICE, BARON, BARONET,
EARL, BAYEUX TAPESTRY, SCUTAGE, the families of FITZGERALD
and NEVILLE, etc.) are excellent examples of his capacity for
concise statement. (W. A. P.)
ROUVIER, MAURICE (1842-1911), French statesman (see
23.781), died at Reuilly-sur-Seine June 7 1911.
ROVNO, BATTLE OF. The Rovno operations played an im-
portant part in the Russian campaign of 1915 on the eastern
front (see EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS).
In consideration of Austro-Hungarian troops having been
set free by the rally of Mackensen's group of armies in their
victorious march on Brest Litovsk, and of the connexion between
the Russian N.W. and S.W. fronts having been broken by the
withdrawal of the former N. of the Polyesie, the Austro-Hunga-
rian army Higher Command decided, on Aug. 27 1915, to take the
offensive with the army front which had been inactive on the
Zlota Lipa and the Bug. The objects in view were Rovno
(Rowne) and the liberation of the east portion of East Galicia.
The S. wing of the II. Army under Bohm-Ermolli, and the
N. wing of the Southern Army under Bothmer, made a successful
attempt to break through Shtcherbachev's XI. Army in the
battle at Gologory and on the Zlota Lipa. Bothmer's S. wing
and the N. wing of the VII. Army engaged Lechitski's IX. Army;
Puhallo advanced with the main body of the I. Army towards
the bent back N. wing of Brussilov's VIII. Army to throw it
back on Dubno; and Field-Marshal Roth-Limanowa pushed for-
ward on the Kovel (Kowel)-Luck road in order to capture from the
Russians the command of the northern flank. Puhallo's advance
decided Ivanov to break off the battles and -to withdraw Brus-
silov during the night, and Shtcherbachev and Lechitski's N.
wing on the 28th and 2gth to a position behind the Sierna, on
the watershed between the Bug and the Styr, on the Zloczow
heights and behind the Strypa. The S. wing and centre of the
Austro-Hungarian front followed immediately in pursuit, and
in consequence two battles developed, after the occupation of
the Russian position: one, on the 3oth on the Strypa, from whose
bridgeheads Shtcherbachev and Lechitski delivered mighty
blows against Bothmer's S. wing and Pflanzer-Baltin's N. wing;
the other, on the 2gth at Zlocz6w, where Bohm-Ermolli at-
tempted to break through.
Puhallo only arrived before Brussilov's front on the 29th and
had to put off attacking until the 3ist. Roth, having encoun-
tered opposition at Rozyszcze on the 29th, had advanced with
the main body across the Styr at Sokul, and that day began a
forced march towards Luck. The XXXIX. Corps, brought up
by train, flung itself upon him but was defeated on the 3oth.
Ivanov made Brussilov withdraw in the night behind the
Putilowka and go into position at Olyka, Mlynow, Kozin and
the source of the Ikwa. Luck was surrendered. Shtcherbachev
held the Zlocz6w heights until the morning of Sept. i, although
he was surrounded on the N. and his front was broken through
in places. He then retired to the position Radziwillow-Pod-
kamien-Zalozce.
Lechitski was still holding out on the ist, in spite of the fail-
ure of his counter-assaults, and Pflanzer-Baltin therefore deliv-
ered an assault with his group, established N. of the Dniester
close to the mouth of the Sereth. During the night the Russians
fell back on to the strongly fortified Sereth position, which was
provided with several bridgeheads.
Ivanov hoped that his N. wing, which had been bent back
a long way and was difficult to envelop owing to the adjacent
marsh area, and had, further, been reinforced by fortress artillery
from Rovno, would be able with the aid of flank attacks from
the region of dense forests and impassable swamps known as
Polyesie (" the Woods ") to hold out until the S. wing, opposed
by far weaker forces, should have lifted the whole front off its
hinges by a victorious assault.
The Austro-Hungarian army Higher Command arranged for
the N. wing, now divided into two armies under Archduke
Joseph Ferdinand, to deliver a decisive blow by means of assaults
on Rovno and Dubno; for Bohm-Ermolli to break through in
the centre of the Russian front; and for Bothmer and Pflanzer-
Baltin to contain the Russian forces by an attack on the Sereth
position. Lechitski wanted to employ the time until his N.
and Shtcherbachev's S. wing should be ready, by removing the
threat to his flank offered by Pflanzer-Baltin's troops, who had
advanced on both sides of the Lower Sereth. These battles on
the 4th and 5th, combined with a simultaneous attack on the
Bukovina, failed in their object.
While Bothmer was grouping his army for a break-through
S. of Tarnopol, and Pflanzer-Baltin's N. wing was waiting to
attack simultaneously with him on the 7th, the Russians, on
the afternoon of the 6th, opened the battle of the Sereth (the
battle of Tarnopol) with a great mass assault from the Trem-
bowla area. On the same day Bohm-Ermolli finished the battle
at Podkamien, begun on the 2nd, with a victory that resulted
in Shtcherbachev's N. wing retiring as far as Butyn on the Goryn,
while Brussilov's S. wing, abandoning Dubno, fell back behind
the Middle Ikwa.
Archduke Joseph Ferdinand's I. and IV. Armies, which had
come up in front of the Russian positions on the 2nd, defended
themselves against numerous counter-assaults, by which Brus-
silov was trying to prevent the diversion of troops to the N.
ROWELL ROYCE
297
wing. The pressure on the flank from Polyesie grew, and it
became imperative to bring up all cavalry divisions within reach.
These became entangled in difficult minor combats in the midst
of forest and marsh. On Sept. 8 Archduke Joseph Ferdinand
delivered at Cuman the blow which decided the battle of Olyka.
Brussilov escaped by retreating behind the Stubla.
These successes barred the advance of the Sereth front,
which by 7 P.M. had forced back Bothmer's and Pflanzer-
Baltin's inner wings as far as the Strypa. Bohm-Ermolli's S.
wing executed a relief attack E. of the Sereth towards Zbaraz.
Ivanov, in his anxiety for his N. wing, ordered the S. wing re-
serve to be diverted and sent to its relief. This wing was for the
moment endeavouring to cover the flanks of the attack-group
which had advanced a great distance, but could overpower
neither Bothmer's N. wing in the direction of Tarnopol nor the
troops in the foreground of the Zaleszczyki bridgehead. On the
roth the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand began the battle of the
Stubla, which he hoped to bring to a decision by sending the N.
wing to cross the Goryn below the mouth of the Stubla, and then
make an advance on Rovno simultaneously with that of Puhallo's
army coming from Dubno. By the I2th the road to the Goryn
had been made clear, one division brought across the river,
and the groups which threatened the N. wing driven back a
considerable distance.
The arrival of Russian reinforcements opposite to Bohm-
Ermolli's sparsely occupied front, as well as the arming for a
continuation of the Sereth front's advance, showed that Ivanov
was planning a great offensive on both sides of the Tarnopol-
Lemberg line. The Austro-Hungarian army Higher Command
stopped Puhallo's advance, drew back Bothmer's N. wing to
the level of the Strypa front and dispatched thither the VI.
Corps which had been intended for use against Serbia.
On the i3th the counter-offensive set in with the battle of
Krzemieniec-Gontowa, and won some initial successes. The N.
wing's attack was now also stopped. On the I4th the Russians
broke through the Strypa front and reached the W. bank. The
VI. Corp's attack, together with an advance by Bothmer's N.
wing and a group of Bohm-Ermolli's posted W. of the Sereth
on the N. flank, caused the Russians to retire again in the night
of the i6th-i7th to their Sereth position. During this time
Bohm-Ermolli had repulsed the assault, and used the reenforce-
ments sent by the Archduke for an attack. But a calamity had
overtaken the N. wing. Keeping the attention of the weakened
group of armies on the Stubla cleverly riveted, Brussilov with
the XXX. Corps on the i $th threw back the N. wing behind the
Putilowka and forced the Archduke, by continuous envelop-
ment, to retreat behind the Styr and the Ikwa on the evening of
the 1 7th. The bridgehead at Luck could not hold out, and on
the 23rd the Russians stood on the E. bank of the river. On the
same day Shtcherbachev and Brussilov's S. wing advanced to
the attack on the II. Army and Puhallo's I. Army, now under
command of Bohm-Ermolli, from the Upper Sereth to the mouth
of the Ikwa. This second battle of Krzemieniec ended on the
25th with the failure of the Russians. At the same time Brus-
silov received the news that German troops had taken part in
th; storming of the bridgshead at Kolki on the Styr. Recogniz-
ing the intentions of the allies, he at once ordered a retreat to
the Putilowka position, while concentrating a powerful group to
the N. of the Kormin brook to fall on the enemy's flank.
Linsingen, the new commander of the IV. Army and of the
troops in Polyesie, was in fact planning a blow on the Russian
flank and rear by way of Kolki-Sokul, using for this purpose the
German XXIV. Reserve Corps (brought up from the German
front through Polyesie after Gyllenschmidt's forced retreat
behind the Wiasiolucha and the Styr) and the Austro-Hunga-
rian XVII. Corps which was to have been sent igainst Serbia.
Gerok's group, the XXIV. Reserve and the XVII. Corps, had
now to do with nothing but rearguards, who by the 27th had
been overthrown. On the 28th, when Shtcherbachev at the
battle of Nowo Aleksiniec again attacked Bohm-Ermolli in
order to keep his forces engaged, the main body Of the N. wing
arrived at the Putilowka. Linsingen guessed Brussilov's scheme,
made Gerok wheel to the N.E., and intercepted the Russian
blow. The allies' decision to grant the much-exhausted troops
some rest in a permanent position brought the battle of the
Putilowka to an end on the evening of the 3oth.
The Russian command refused to be satisfied with this close
to a campaign which had not brought them much gratification.
On Oct. 3 Gyllenschmidt delivered a flank blow from Rafalowka,
W. of the Styr, but was driven completely back by the 6th. The
attack against Serbia was a spur to renewed exertions. On the
6th a fresh battle set in on the Putilowka, which on the 7th
spread over the whole front up to the Rumanian frontier, last-
ing until the loth until the i3th on the Strypa without a
change in the situation. On the i$th Ivanov once more deliv-
ered a blow on the N. flank in the bend of the Styr at Czartorysk,
which at first made great progress. But Linsingen's clever con-
centric placing of the hurriedly brought-up reinforcements drove
the Russians back with heavy fighting behind the Styr by Nov.
14. During the crisis Shtcherbachev had attacked the II. Army
in vain from Oct. 21 to 23 in the second battle of Nowo Alek-
siniec. More dangerous still were the Russian attempts to
break through on the Strypa from Oct. 30 to Nov. 8, which
culminated in the struggle for the village of Siemikowce. Finally
in the middle of Nov. a prolonged lull fell upon this theatre of
war. (M. H.)
ROWELL, NEWTON WESLEY (1867- ), Canadian politician,
was born Nov. i 1867 in Middlesex county, Ontario. He was
called to the bar in 1891, and became head of the law firm of
Rowell, Reid, Wood & Wright, Toronto; ultimately being made
bencher of the Law Society of Upper Canada in 191 1. He stood
unsuccessfully as a Liberal for the Dominion Parliament at the
general election of rpoo, but in 191 1 was elected to the Ontario
Legislative Assembly for N. Oxford. From 1911-7 he was leader
of the Liberal Opposition in the Ontario Legislature. On Oct.
1917 he entered the Federal Unionist Government as president
of the council and vice-chairman of the War Committee of the
Cabinet, and was elected to the Dominion House of Commons
for Durham county, Ontario, Dec. 1917. He was a member of
the Imperial War Cabinet and Imperial War Conference, 1918;
Canadian Government representative at the International
Labour Conference at Washington, 1919; and a Canadian dele-
gate to the first assembly of the League of Nations at Geneva,
1920. He resigned his seat in Parliament in May 1921.
ROWING: see SPORTS AND GAMES.
ROYCE, JOSIAH (1855-1916), American philosopher, was
born at Grass Valley, Cal., Nov. 20 1855. He graduated from
the university of California in 1875 and the following year went to
the newly established Johns Hopkins University, being one of the
extraordinary first group of fellows elected there. After reciv-
ing his Ph.D. in 1878 he was instructor in English literature and
logic for four years at the university of California. In 1881 he
prepared A Primer of Logical Analysis for students of English
composition. In 1882 he was called to Harvard where he taught
as instructor in philosophy, assistant professor (1885-92),
professor of the history of philosophy (1892-1914) and Alford
professor of religion, moral philosophy, and civil polity (after
1914). He was the leading American exponent of idealism
(see 14.284) and his works were distinguished for their literary
qualities. He was made a member of the National Institute of
Arts and Letters, and received hon. degrees from Harvard, Yale,
Johns Hopkins, Aberdeen, St. Andrews and Oxford. After the
outbreak of the World War he was a-staunch supporter of the
Allies, and on Jan. 30 1916, in a notable address delivered in
Tremont Temple, Boston, advocated a breach with Germany.
He died in Cambridge, Mass., Sept. 14 1916.
He was the author of The Religious Aspects of Philosophy (1885) ;
California (1886, in the American Commonwealth Series); The
Feud of Oakfield Creek (1887, a novel); The Spirit of Modern
Philosophy (1892); The Conception of God (1895); Studies of Good
and Evil (1898); The World and the Individual (2 vols., 1900-1,
Gifford Lectures at the university of Aberdeen) ; The Conception of.
Immortality (1900); Outlines of Psychology (1903); Herbert Spencer:
An Estimate and Review (1904); The Philosophy of Loyalty (1908);
Race Questions, Provincialism and Other American Problems (1908);
298
ROYDEN RUBBER
William James and Other Essays on the Philosophy of Life (1911);
Brass Lectures on the Sources of Religious Insight (1912) ; The Problem
of Christianity (2 vols., 1913, lectures before Manchester College,
Oxford); War and Insurance (1914); The Hope of the Great Commu-
nity (1916, war addresses) and the posthumously published Lectures
on Modern Idealism (1919).
ROYDEN, AGNES MAUDE (1876- ), English social worker
and preacher, was born at Mossley Hill, Liverpool, Nov. 23 1876,
the daughter of Sir Thomas Royden, ist Bart., of Frankby Hall,
Birkenhead. She was educated at Cheltenham Ladies' College
and Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, and afterwards for some years
did settlement work in Liverpool. She also lectured on English
literature for the university extension movement, and in 1909
was elected to the executive committee of the N.U.W.S.S.
From 1912 to 1914 she edited the Common Cause, the organ of
the union. Miss Royden became well known as a speaker on
social and religious subjects, and in 1917 became assistant
preacher at the City Temple, being thus the first woman to oc-
cupy this office.
RUBBER (we 23.795*). Since 1910 the rubber industry has
developed very largely and taken increased importance in the
commercial world. The word rubber is applied to three different
substances: (a) an elastic solid, the chief constituent of the
coagulated latex or milk of a great variety of trees, shrubs, vines
and plants, as Para rubber; (b) an elastic solid found in solution
in the tissues of a few shrubs and vines, as Guayule rubber;
(c) a chemical product from isoprene or homologous hydro-
carbons, as synthetic rubber. In all commercial rubber caout-
chouc exists in two forms, one fibrous or hard, the other viscous
and soft. In the best trades the fibrous form preponderates. The
soft form can be dissolved by benzol and many other substances
of that class; the fibrous form swells but does not dissolve.
Vulcanization (the chemical union of caoutchouc and sulphur)
hardens the viscous portion. As the result of this process the
rubber becomes less sensitive to heat and cold and to the effect
of acids and alkalies and becomes more durable. A small amount
of sulphur in rubber produces soft rubber. By using more
sulphur and greater heat a very hard black substance called
hard rubber is obtained. Moulding India rubber consists of
softening by heat the stiff rubber dough until it is plastic, pressing
it into a mould and vulcanizing it at a heat much less than
that required to melt it; not in melting, pouring and casting
according to popular misconception. Rubber once melted
remains a sticky, worthless semi-fluid.
Wild Rubber. At first there were but three types of rubber
to be found in the world's markets: India rubber, the product of
the Ficus elastica from Assam, Burma and Java; gum elastic,
the product of the Hevea brasiliensis from S. America, and
" virgin gum " from the Castilloa elastica of Central America. In
1921 all grades from whatever source were termed India rubber,
and there were some 200 sorts. They were divided generally as
follows: (i) S. American rubber, from the Hevea brasiliensis
and kindred species which comprised Para rubber in 3 general
grades and 20 sub-grades; Caera rubber (Manicoba) from the
Manihot glaziovii and kindred species, 6 grades; Mangabeira
from the Hancornia speciosa, 2 grades; and Caucho rubber from
the Castilloa ulei, 3 grades. (2) Central American rubber,
known as "centrals," the product of Castilloa elastica and kin-
dred species, some 25 grades; virgin rubber, the product of the
Sapium tolimense and kindred species, 3 grades; Guayule rubber,
from the Parthenium argentatum, 12 grades. (3) African rubber,
a lower grade of wild rubber, produced by a great variety of
vines of the Landolphia genus and to a degree from trees, as
the Ficus wgelii and the Funtumia elastica. The number of
grades was 120. (4) E. Indian rubber, the product chiefly of
the Ficus elastica from Rangoon, Penang and Java, 9 grades;
together with Borneo rubber from the Willoughbia firma, 3
grades; Pontianak (Jelutong), from the Dyer a coslulata, 4 grades.
(5) Plantation rubber. From 1860 attempts to cultivate rubber-
bearing trees and vines have been undertaken in various parts
of the tropical world. The most persistent and finally the most
successful were carried on in the British experiment stations and
Royal botanic gardens, especially in Ceylon and the Straits
Settlements. A measure of success was attained in cultivating
the Manihot glaziovii, the Castilloa elastica, the Ficus elastica and
the Funtumia elastica. All of them proved to be good rubber-
producers but could be tapped only at intervals of several months.
The product found ready sale, and considerable plantations of
Manihot in Ceylon, and Ficus and Castilloa in the Federated
Malay States were installed. American interests also planted
thousands of acres of Castilloa in Mexico, Nicaragua and Guate-
mala. Experiments with another tree, however, the Hevea
brasiliensis, developed the fact that through what was termed
" wound response " it could be tapped daily without injury. This
process in brief was the opening of the tapping cut by the
removal daily of a thin shaving of the bark. The amount from
each tapping was small, but the year's product far exceeded
that of the planted trees of any other sort. The result was that
most of the others were abandoned or destroyed and the
Hevea brasiliensis put in wherever it could possibly thrive.
Thus the Hevea plantation product, which in 1900 was
four tons, increased to 8,400 tons in 1910, and from then on
the increase was very large, as shown in the table below.
Herea Plantation Acreage and Production.
Plantation
Acreage
Plantation
Production (tons)
Total Wild Rubber
Production (tons)
Total World's
Production (tons)
1910
1,122,550
8,200
62,300
70,500
1911
1-505,350
H4I9
60,730
75.149
1912
1,817-350
28,518
70,410
98,928
1913
2,021,750
47,618
60,822
108,440
1914
2,181,050
71,000
49,000
120,380
1915
2.293.750
107,867
50,835
158,702
1916
2,458,950
152,650
48,948
201,598
1917
2,611,350
213,070
52,628
265,698
1918
2,759,950
255,950
40,629
296,579
1919
2,900,000
285,225
41,775
327,000
1920'
3,200,000
320,000
40,000
360,000
1 Estimated.
Distribution of the World's Rubber Production (Gross Tons).
Country
IQI2
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
. United States
Great Britain .....
France
Italy
45,928
14.500
IO.OOO
I.OOO
9 ooo
46,400
18,640
6,500
2,000
9 ooo
61,240
18,000
5,000
4,000
1 1 610
96,792
15,072
10,770
6,500
IO OOO
116,495
26,760
14,000
9,000
7 <\OO
177,088
25,983
17,000
9,000
7 ^OO
142,772
30,104
18,000
9,800
2 OOO
236,977
42,520
22,000
14,000
i 500
235,000
56.572
14,500
7,000
*oo
i 500
i 600
i 700
6 281
8 100
9 coo
1 1,000
Scandinavia
Japan and Australia ....
! Germany and Austria ....
Belgium
1,000
16,000
1,500
1,300
18,500
3,000
2,400
2,400
13,400
630
6,568
2,500
6,000
4,525
4,500
3,000
5,323
4,500
3,000
5,ooo
7,400
1,000
7,000
12,000
4,000
5,000
7,700
6,000
9,300
3,500
Total
98,928
108,440
120,380
158,702
189,780
255.675
224,376
354,497
350,872
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
RUBBER
299
Approximate World Consumption of Rubber, 1920.
United States ....
260,000 tons
50,000
20,000
10,000 '
8,000
16,000
Great Britain and Colonies ....
France
Italy
Japan. . . . . . .
Other Countries
Total
364,000 tons
Synthetic Rubber. From the time when India rubber began
to be important in the arts, its synthetic production was the
dream of the inventor. Analysis of rubber with a view to
ultimate synthesis was made between 1835 and 1840 by Dalton,
Liebig, Himly, A. Bouchardat and Gregory. A more systematic
attempt to isolate and examine the products in crude caout-
chouc distillate' was made in 1860 by Greville Williams, the
English chemist. He obtained isoprene,C 5 H 8 , a hemiterpene, a
fluid boiling at 37 C., and a hydrocarbon now known as dipen-
tine, boiling at 170 to 173 C., which he named "heveene." An
important step towards the production of artificial rubber was
that taken by Gustave Bouchardat of the Paris School of Phar-
macy in 1879, when, in studying the action of hydrochloric acid
on isoprene, he noted the formation of a substance having the
same percentage composition as isoprene, lacking chlorine,
possessing elasticity, insoluble in alcohol but soluble in ether
and carbon bisulphide like natural rubber, and yielding on dis-
tillation the same hydrocarbon as caoutchouc. Sir William
Tilden, the English chemist, in 1882 observed the polymeriza-
tion of isoprene and that it could be converted into true caout-
chouc with certain chemical reagents. In 1884 he obtained iso-
prene by passing the vapours of turpentine through a hot tube.
In 1887 Prof. Otto Wallach of the university of Gottingen noted
that isoprene undergoes polymerization on exposure to light
with the production of a rubber-like mass, and Tilden in 1892
showed that such material could be vulcanized with sulphur.
The synthesis of isoprene and, as a consequence, that of caout-
chouc, was accomplished] in 1897 by Prof. Euler-Chelpin of the
university of Stockholm. In 1909, due to the rapidly mounting
cost of natural rubber, greater efforts were made to produce
the artificial kind on a commercial scale, the problem being
attacked in England by W. H. Perkin, his assistant Weizmann,
and Francis Matthews; by August Fernbach in France; and
in Germany by the Bayer and Badische companies. In 1884
Tilden suggested that not only isoprene but its homologues
should be capable of similar polymerization. Now these bodies,
chief among them butadiene, form the basis of methods for
obtaining synthetic caoutchoucs. Dr. Fritz Hofmann and Dr.
Carl Coutelle, chemists in Germany, in 1909 devised a process
for making absolutely pure isoprene, converted it; into rubber
by heating it in a closed tube or in the presence of other sub-
stances, and sent the sample to Prof. C. D. Harries, of Kiel
University, who pronounced it true rubber. In 1910 Prof.
Harries showed that isoprene could be converted into rubber by
heating it in a closed tube with glacial acetic acid. He had in
1905 determined the chemical constitution of natural rubber.
The German scientists did not confine themselves to isoprene
but experimented successfully with the homologous hydrocar-
bons suggested by Tilden. Harries and the English investigators,
Matthews and E. Halford Strange, noted independently
that polymerization proceeds at great velocity in the pres-
ence of metallic sodium and the resulting rubber differs much
in its properties from that produced by mere heating. German
chemists observed different results when polymerization by
sodium was carried on in an atmosphere of carbonic acid. A
later process in Germany was based on the use of ozonizers on
sodium hydrogen peroxide as catalysers. Some of the synthetic
rubbers are soluble, elastic, and may be readily vulcanized;
others possess only some of these qualities. They are obtained
from butanes, dimethylbutanes, and from isoprene, and in each
of the three classes are to be found standard ozonide, carbonic
acid and sodium rubbers.
Despite this wide range of materials with their possible use in the
arts, the making of synthetic rubber is still a minor industry as com-
pared with the production of natural rubber and the manufacture
of goods therefrom. In the manufacture of the hydrocarbons of the
isoprene series for synthetic rubber there are such large quantities of
by-products that their removal or utilization presents a problem more
difficult than the production of the artificial rubber; hence competi-
tion with natural rubber is very unlikely. Synthetic rubbers lack
the durability of natural rubber, possibly because they lack the
resins, albumen, etc., which act as protective colloids to lessen the
vulnerability of the natural article. Then, too, for a wide range of
needs, synthetic rubbers cannot be substituted for natural rubber
because the latter product is a uniform vegetable substance, not a
mixture like the artificial product. While synthetic rubber must be
greeted as a chemical triumph, it is not an industrial success, and
must still be classed commercially with the more or less haphazard
production of alleged rubber substitutes prepared, often by honest
inventors and manufacturers, from oils, gums, cellulose, or in fact
anything that will produce a waterproof plastic.
Reclaimed Rubber. In few other industries is conservation
such an important factor as in rubber manufacture. Nearly
all kinds of worn-out vulcanized goods are collected and the
basic material recovered to be compounded, manufactured arid
vulcanized again into new articles that compare favourably
with those made from new gum. To so many uses is devulcan-
ized or reclaimed rubber now put, that its annual consumption
fully equals that of new crude gum. Experiments early demon-
strated the value of " reclaim," and while the more conserva-
tive long looked askance at the utilization of " refuse rubber;"
buyers of goods made wholly or in part from the regenerated
material found that for most purposes the goods were practi-
cally as serviceable as those made directly from fresh gum. The
element of cost, too, played an important part in popularizing
reclaimed rubber, as articles made of it could be produced and sold
for much less than those made with new gum only, and to a
considerable degree the price of the crude gum has been kept
from rising too high by the ample supply of the reclaimed.
As the advantages of reclaimed rubber became better appre-
ciated, and as through the activities of rubber chemists and
manufacturers the quality of the product was improved, it
became an important factor in the industry. To meet more
satisfactorily the fast-growing demand, large companies with
world- wide connexions and specialized equipment soon sup-
planted the small reclaimers. Such concerns employ not only
the most modern machinery but also maintain research and
analytic laboratories for control of the processes, for standard-
izing the products, and for the study of reclaiming and com-
pounding problems.
The first attempt to reclaim rubber commercially was that made
in the early 'fifties when Hiram L. Hall, the pioneer manufacturer
in Massachusetts, boiled powdered vulcanized rubber in water and
then sheeted it. Francis Baschnagel, an early American experi-
menter, next patented a method for devulcanizing rubber, finely
ground, by exposing it to live steam. An important later develop-
ment was the destruction of fibre in the ground material by means of
acids, chiefly sulphuric, for which processes over 50 patents were
granted, which incidentally became the subject of much litigation.
The acid process was of use chiefly in the reclaiming of worn-out
footwear or " dry heat " goods, but was not of great value in re-
covering other waste. The alkali process, patented by Arthur Hud-
son Marks, an American manufacturer, solved the latter problem. In
this, caustic soda was used to destroy the fabric and incidentally it
proved to be the most effective agent in desulphurizing the mass. The
entire removal of not only the free sulphur from vulcanized rubber
(which modern reclaiming accomplishes) but also of the sulphur
which during curing unites chemically with the crude rubber, is the
goal towards which experimenters were striving in 1921. Notable
progress in this direction had been made in England by Dr. David
Spence, who used an accelerator, aniline-potassium, but in solution
in excess of aniline. He claimed not only the dissolution of the waste
rubber but the liberation in soft rubber of from 78 % to 90 % of the
combined sulphur, and the changing of the latter into an insoluble
alkaline sulphide. In hard rubber 73 % of the combined sulphur was
said to be similarly reduced.
Vulcanization, or curing, is effected generally by either the
heat cure or the cold cure. In the first-named method either
steam or heated air is employed. A wide range of rubber goods,
either in moulds wrapped with strips of cloth, or imbedded in
pans of French talc to preserve their shape, is very efficiently
cured with live steam in various types of vulcanizers. For many
other needs the dry-heat cure, in which the goods are placed in a hot
compartment without either wrapping or mould protection^hajs
300
RUBBER
been found serviceable. Still another heat cure, now but little
used, is that of solarization, whereby the fabrics, coated with a
thin skin of rubber, are exposed to the sun's rays for vulcaniza-
tion. In very exacting work, such as the vulcanizing of hard-
rubber sheets, curing is effected by immersion of the material
in hot water. In the cold cure either the acid or the vapour
process is employed. In the former, goods are dipped in solu-
tion of chloride of sulphur dissolved in bisulphide of carbon,
after which they are given an alkali wash. For the vapour cure,
rubber goods are suspended in a heated compartment in which
the fumes of chloride of sulphur pass freely over the surfaces
to be vulcanized. Over-curing is checked by the admission of
ammonia fumes.
Since Charles Goodyear (see 12.240) in 1839 discovered, and in
1844 patented, his process for vulcanizing rubber with sulphur by
means of heat, numerous attempts have been made radically to im-
prove on his method and material ; but the bulk of the rubber goods
produced is still cured by the sulphur and heat method. In the long
train of experiments, many of which have led to important results,
the curing of rubber has been effected by the use of sulphates, sul-
phides, chlorides, nitrates, fluorides, bromides, iodidesand phosphorets
of nearly all the common earths and metals, as well as chlorine, sul-
phurous acid and various gases. The Russian chemist Ivan Ostro-
mislensky, in later experiments, succeeded in vulcanizing rubber
with trinitrobenzene and other nitro-compounds so as to impart
all the qualities given it by sulphur, effecting the curing more rapidly
than with sulphur, and with but one-twelfth of the material, while a
lower temperature was maintained during the cure. Victor Henry,
a French chemist, also reported in 1909-10 that he had effected the
vulcanization of thin layers of rubber solutions by means of the
ultra-violet rays, and others have made similar researches along
the same line that have much scientific if not practical interest. The
period of vulcanizing ranges from a few minutes to many hours, de-
pending on the degree of heat employed, the nature of the compound,
the thickness of the goods, etc. Factors which affect the rate of
cure, as shown in England by Dr. Philip Schidrowitz, are the amount
of protein or nitrogen in the crude gum, its stay in storage, its den-
sity, the amount of smoke, formalin or other preservatives used,
quantity of acid used in coagulating the latex, time in drying, age
of latex-yielding tree, etc. An important vulcanization development
is the chemical process of vulcanization described by S. J. Peachey,
the English chemist, in 1918, after an investigation of the behaviour
of rubber towards the various allotropic forms of sulphur. Unlike
the Parkes process, which yields an addition-product of both sulphur
and chlorine, this leads to the formation without the aid of heat of a
sulphur addition equal to that produced by the hot-curing process.
By it rubber, alone or compounded with fillers and pigments, is
exposed successively to the action of two gases, sulphur dioxide
and hydrogen sulphide. Diffusing through the rubber and interact-
ing, the gases produce an especially active form of sulphur capable
of combining with and vulcanizing the rubber at the ordinary tem-
perature, and more thoroughly than by either the hot process or the
sulphur-chloride cure. A density is acquired, it is said, unattainable
by the older methods. The dual gas treatment can be used either
for rubber in its original solid form or liquefied with a solvent. In
the latter case the gases effect a complete pectization of the solution,
forming a ielly which, on evaporating the solvent, is found to be fully
vulcanized rubber. One of the advantages claimed is that fabrics, as
well as organic fillers such as leather waste, sawdust, woodmeal,
etc., that would be more or less decomposed by the hot cure or the
sulphur-chloride cure, could be used with rubber for a wide variety
of new and useful purposes, as in the making of fine or heavy re-
formed leathers, linoleums, etc. It may also effect a considerable
improvement in the waterproofing of cloth. Rubber footwear, it is
said, may be produced by the new process without either the heat or
pressure hitherto deemed essential, and without special machines
for stitching and riveting, thus greatly cheapening the product. An
additional advantage pointed out is that this process makes it possible
to use both natural and coal-tar colouring-matter in rubber, so as to
obtain both deep shades and delicate tints impossible with the old
methods of vulcanizing.
Organic Accelerators in Vulcanization. The recent discover-
ies of Dr. Spence and others that certain organic substances,
termed accelerators or catalysers, mixed with rubber, notably
hastened the process of vulcanization, have caused a revolu-
tion in compounding and vulcanizing. Mineral or inorganic
catalysers, such as litharge and magnesia, had been in use since
the discovery of vulcanization. The organic type was, however,
unknown until in attempts to vulcanize synthetic rubber it was
found necessary to add organic accelerators to effect the union
of sulphur and the rubber-like substance. It was but a short
step to their use in connexion with natural rubber, and the re-
sults were surprising. In fact, the time required in vulcaniza-
tion was reduced by one-half, thus doubling the vulcanizing
output without extra heat or pressure. The theory of catalytic
action, according to M. Andre Dubosc, an eminent French
chemist, is explained as follows. He found that when a typical
organic accelerator derived from an amine, such as hexamethy-
lene tetramine, was mixed with sulphur, placed in a sealed
tube, and heated to i3S-i45 C., not only carbon sulphide or
hydrosulphuric acid but also sulphocyanic acid was evolved.
At the vulcanization temperature, sulphocyanic acid separated,
yielding hexavalent sulphur and cyanhydric acid. While the
same temperature was maintained, this acid combined in the
presence of ordinary divalent sulphur, producing unstable sul-
phocyanic acid which by dissociation again furnished hexavalent
sulphur. M. Dubosc holds that cyanhydric acid is the true
active agent in such catalysis, the practical effect of which is
the transformation of ordinary divalent sulphur into hexavalent
sulphur. Assuming that vulcanization is the saturation by
sulphur of a double bond in the rubber molecule, then by satur-
ation of two such bonds the speed of the reaction between
sulphur and rubber should be doubled, and by saturation of
three bonds the speed would be tripled. Saturation is accom-
plished with hexavalent sulphur generated during vulcaniza-
tion through catalysing action of cyanhydric acid, evidently
the true accelerator, and corresponding to Dr. Spence's " active
principle." While a single molecule of rubber reacting with
ordinary divalent sulphur will saturate only one double bond,
hexavalent sulphur in vulcanizing may saturate three double
bonds belonging to rubber with which it is in contact and during
its polymerization, which M. Dubosc explains thus: (i) In the
case of an aggregate of rubber molecules, the end molecules,
which have a double bond, will be broken and give a molecule
of rubber of which the four valences will be saturated. The
aggregate will have its polymerization increased by one mole-
cule and its resistance to break will be modified in a slight degree
only. (2) In the case of vulcanization with hexavalent sulphur,
saturation of the terminal free valences of three physical aggre-
gates of rubber will take place. Polymerization will therefore
be three times as great as that produced with ordinary vulcani-
zations, because it acts on three aggregates instead of one.
Resistance to break, dependent on polymerization, will there-
fore be much increased and its theoretical tripling has been
demonstrated experimentally. This theory would appear to
apply not only to the amino (NH 2 ) or imino (NH) groups, but
also to the nitroso compounds discovered by Peachey. Nitroso
bodies decompose during vulcanization and generate cyanic
acid. The latter, influenced by sulphur, yields sulphurous
anhydride and sulphocyanic acid. The acid dissociates and
leaves hexavalent sulphur, and the liberated cyanhydric acid
again functions as a catalyser.
The most important organic catalysers are: (i) Aniline, exten-
sively employed to quicken the combining of rubber and sulphur in
vulcanization, particularly in the manufacture of tires and tubes,
and obtained through a series of chemical transformations from
coal-tar. It is an oily liquid boiling at 184-8 C. Special precautions
are taken to carry off its noxious fumes and prevent contact of the
oil with the skin of the workers. (2) Carbon bisulphide with aniline,
diphenylthiourea or thiocarbanilide, melting at 154 C., used for
quick-curing stocks. (3) Carbon bisulphide with dimethylamine;
effects vulcanization within 15 minutes at 135 C. (4) Carbon bisul-
phide with either dimethylamline, tetrahydropyrrole or dimethyl X
methyl trimethylene amme. (5) Ammonium borate; effective but
not practicable. (6) Aldehyde ammonia ; melts between 70 and 80"
C. ; a very useful catalyser. (7) Quarternary ammonium bases;
patented, rapid accelerators with aldehyde ammonia, para-phenyl-
ene-diamine, sodium amide, bencylamine and naphthylenediamine.
(8) Accelerene; widely used and powerful English catalyser. Used
in one-third to one-half of i% reduces vulcanizing period to one-
third of normal, and with quick repair compounds to one-eighth. It
owes its activity to the presence of the nitroso group and adds
notably to tensile strength of goods. (9) Para-phenylene-diamine;
a very poisonous catalyser melting at 140 C., and subliming at
267 C., used with synthetic rubber. (10) Tetramethylenediamine;
a substance formed from decomposing animal matter such as fish;
called also putrescin. (u) Hexamethylene-tetramine ; known also
as hexamethylenemine and formin; an accelerator "largely used;
caution is required in its use as it is not only very soluble in water but
vaporizes freely, irritating the exposed skin of the workmen. (12)
Piperidine or aminopentane ; a liquid easily miscible in water, boiling
RUCKER RUFFEY
at 105-7 C. a "d smelling like pepper and ammonia. A prototype
of the more recently discovered organic catalysers, it was brought
out in 1912 for use in making synthetic rubber, but was soon found
to be of remarkable value for vulcanizing hard and soft natural
rubber, cutting down the curing time three-fourths. (13) Methyl
piperidine; an active catalyser boiling at 107 C. (14) Quinoline;
a good accelerator, boiling at 240 C. and with a strong, disagreeable
odour; little used. (15) Quinoline sulphate; a catalyser yielding
good-looking, well-vulcanized rubber. (16) Hydroxy-quinoline; re-
garded as a valuable accelerator. It melts at 76 C., boils at 266-6
C., and is soluble in alcohol and volatile with steam. (17) Quinosol;
a catalyser of special value to users of litharge, such as rubber-foot-
wear manufacturers. It cuts the vulcanizing period one-half. (18)
Oxiquinoline and oxiquinoline sulphonic acid; the latter gives good
acceleration but porous rubber. (19) Oxiquinoline sulphide; a
catalyser that can be used in practically every kind of vulcanizing;
regarded by some as too rapid. (20) Anthraquinone; a catalyser
used in batches containing rubber substitutes and cutting curing-
time three-fourths. (21) Antipyrine and (22) naphthylamine; act
like anthraquinpne. (23) Urea formanilide, (24) thioformanilide
and (25) guanidine are useful catalysers.
The Manufacture of Rubber Goods. The manufacture of
rubber goods begins with the tearing of the rubber into shreds,
passing it between corrugated rolls and washing out the impur-
ities. A stream of water flowing over the rolls carries off a large
part of the dirt, while the rolls flatten the rubber into a thin sheet.
The sheets require drying, after which they are ready for mixing
with sulphur and other substances into what are called com-
pounds. Compounding is done either on a machine called a
masticator or in a mixing mill which kneads the mass until it is
homogeneous. The rubber is next run into sheets, cut into vari-
ous shapes, built up over forms and lastly baked or vulcanized.
Hard rubber is handled in much the same manner except that
after vulcanization it may be turned, shaped, buffed and polished.
A list of the uses to which rubber is put would, if complete
to-day, be only partial to-morrow. The main lines of its use
may be briefly indicated as follows: mechanical rubber goods;
pneumatic and solid tires (see TIRES); moulded work; drug-
gists' and stationers' sundries; dental and stamp rubbers; sur-
face clothing; carriage cloth; mackintoshes and proofing; boots
and shoes; insulated wire; hard rubber; cements; notions; plas-
ters. Such a list, not of articles manufactured but of special
lines, some of which include hundreds and even thousands of
different articles, is sufficient to indicate the great variety of
uses to which rubber is put.
In the period 1910-20 not only was progress shown in such chem-
ical discoveries as catalysers but the mechanics of rubber manu-
facture was revolutionized. For example, for many years rubber,
after being cleaned by washing, was dried in airy jofts, often hanging
for a year to " age." With the growth of the business came hot dry-
ers, bringing the drying-period down to weeks and sometimes days.
Eventually the vacuum dryer came into use and a few hours sufficed
to extract the moisture. More than 250 fillers and compounding
materials are used in rubber manufacture. Their purpose is chiefly
to enhance or supplement certain qualities in which rubber may be
lacking. For example, powdered asbestos in quantity makes a
compound that is heat-resisting, as in packings and brake linings.
Most of the above materials have been known for years. The
successful use of organic plastics such as glue is of recent accomplish-
ment, as is the preparation of elaterite in plastic form, known as
mineral rubber and largely used.
The Pressure Cure. From the time of Goodyear, rubber
footwear was vulcanized by the dry heat cure, that is, in closed
rooms filled with hot air. This was very slow, entailing some
seven hours of heating. Furthermore, only rubber containing
a considerable amount of litharge could be used for this type
of cure. The colour was always black, and variety in compound-
ing and stocks was impossible. The discovery of the pressure
cure by Augustus O. Bourn, of Providence, R.I., in 1901,
however, practically revolutionized the business. In this proc-
ess the goods were confined in large boiler-shaped shells. These
were filled with hot air under pressure and the air from the inner
surfaces removed by a vacuum process, the result being that
vulcanization was hastened and a great variety of tough com-
pounds, as for example those used in tire treads, were at once
available. Rubber and fibre soles are coming in again, with a
far better product. This is a compound of rubber and finely
shredded cotton fibre. It is superior to leather in waterproof
qualities and in wear. It finds a large market in medium-grade
footwear but has not been accepted by makers of the best
grades of leather shoes. To a large degree the rubber heel has
also displaced leather in medium-grade footwear.
Balloon Compounds. With the interest in pilot and dirigible
balloons stimulated by the World War, came marked progress
in rubber compounds used in their manufacture. Of these the
most notable were cements of vastly increased tenacity; ingre-
dients and surface coatings that remained unaffected by the sun's
rays, and compounds practically impermeable to gases and infla-
tion. As a successful application of the last-named may be cited
the gas-proof masks evolved by rubber chemists, that effectually
protect the wearer from poison gas and have a wide field of use
in many of the perilous industries of peace. Bathing suits and
bathing caps of rubber, beautiful in texture, colours and orna-
mentation, are recent accomplishments. This is due to the
production by chemists of colours unaffected by heat and
sulphur. Rubber fills a large place in sports, but most of the
goods supplied have been familiar for decades. An exceptional
and novel use is rubber thread in golf-ball manufacture. The
standard ball was for years made of solid gutta. In 1898 Coburn
Haskell of Cleveland, O., invented a golf ball .with a small ball
of rubber as a core around which was wound rubber thread
under tension. Outside of this was moulded a thin cover of gutta
percha. The ball because of its long flight soon took the place
of the " gutty " and helped enormously to popularize golf.
Hard Rubber. Electric batteries employed in motor cars for
lighting and starting and for a host of commercial uses resulted
in a great demand for hard-rubber battery jars. Formerly made
by a slow hand process, the invention of building and moulding
machines greatly added to the quality of the product and the
ability to meet the trade demands. The production of hard-
rubber bowling balls, better than the lignum vitae, and of aero-
plane propellers, better than laminated wood, points the way to.
the use of hard-rubber lumber, as nearly all the fine hardwoods
are successfully imitated.
AUTHORITIES. T. Seeligman, G. Lamy Torrillipn and H. Fal-
connet, India Rubber and Gutta Percha (1910); Philip Schidrowitz,
Rubber (1911); A. Dubosc and A. Luttringer, Rubber, its Chemistry
(1918); Henry C. Pearson, Crude Rubber (1918). (H. C. P.)
RtlCKER, SIR ARTHUR (1848-1915), English physicist, was
born at Clapham Oct. 23 1848. Educated at Clapham grammar
school and Brasenose College, Oxford, he became professor of
mathematics and physics at the Yorkshire College, Leeds, in.
1874 and professor of physics at the Royal College of Science in
1886. This post he held until 1901, when he became principal
of the university of London. He received the Royal medal of
the Royal Society in 1891, was one of its secretaries from 1896 to
1901, and was knighted in 1902. He died at Newbury, Berks,
Nov. i 1915.
RUFFEY, PIERRE XAVIER EMMANUEL (1851- ), French
general, was born at Dijon (Cote d'Or) on March 19 1851. He
entered the Ecole Polytechnique in 1871 and two years later
was appointed sous-lieutenant in the artillery. He became a
lieutenant in 1875 and a captain in 1878. In 1879 he went
through the staff course at the Ecole de Guerre, to which he
later returned as professor of artillery. He was promoted major
in 1891, lieutenant-colonel in 1897 and colonel in 1901. He
served with the expedition to Madagascar, and in 1905 was
made a general of brigade. In 1910 he was promoted general of
division and in 1913 he was made a commander in the Legion of
Honour. On the outbreak of war in Aug. 1914 he commanded
the III. Army, but a month later, after the Longwy battles, he
was removed from the command of his army, being succeeded
by Sarrail. Thereafter he was not employed in an active com-
mand at the front, and in Jan. 1917, having already attained the
age of retirement, he ceased to hold any appointment. General
Ruffey, during the last years before the World War, had per-
sistently advocated the increased employment of heavy artillery
with the field army, and it was perhaps due to him more than to
any other leading personality that the French Army was able
to adapt itself so readily to the use of the new arm.
302
RUMANIA
RUMANIA (see 23.825). Before 1913 Rumania had an area
of about 50,702 sq. m.; and by the treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 7
1913) it received from Bulgaria an addition of 2,969 sq. m. in the
Dobrudja, which formed the departments of Durostor and Calia-
cra. By the treaties following the World War, this area was more
than doubled, the additions consisting of the Banat (11,009
sq. m.), Bessarabia (17,146 sq. m.), Bukovina (4,030 sq. m.),
Crisana (8,038 sq. m.), Maramuresh (6,258 sq. m.) and Transyl-
vania (22,312 sq. m.), making the total area of the kingdom
122,282 sq. miles. Thus during the period 1910-21 Rumania,
from being slightly smaller than England, became somewhat
larger than the whole British Isles. In shape Rumania is nearly
circular, with a perimeter of about 1,850 miles. The Carpathi-
ans and Transylvanian Alps, which formerly separated Rumania
from Austria-Hungary, run in a sickle-shaped curve from
near Mt.- Pietros to the Iron Gates, and almost down the centre
of the country, which takes in the Transylvanian plateau and
extends westwards into the Hungarian plain. Bessarabia forms
a continuation of the plain of old Rumania. The territory cor-
responds roughly to the ancient Dacia, and the new Rumania
constitutes a satisfactory ethnological unit, while its physical
boundaries are, except in some parts, more denned by natural
features than would appear from small-scale maps.
Population. The Rumanian people form the great majority
of the population, which was estimated in 1920 at 175 millions,
males being about 100,000 in excess. Apart from the alien
elements of mediaeval or earlier origin many foreign stocks are
represented in the territories which form new Rumania, and
throughout the igth century Jews driven from Poland pene-
trated far Into the country, particularly into Moldavian towns.
But no one of these heterogeneous elements numbers one-tenth
of the population, and the very high rate of natural increase
among the Rumanians, the common use of the Rumanian lan-
guage and the wide toleration which prevails in matters of
religion, all tend to unification.
The National Orthodox Church had in 1918 a membership of
over 9i millions, and the Greek Catholic, Roman Catholic and
Protestant churches each nearly i^ million. Jews numbered
about 830,000, Mahommedans 44,000 and Armenians 17,000.
The chief towns are Bucharest, the capital (estimated pop. in
1919 400,000) j Jassy (80,000), Galatz (60,000), Braila (60,000),
Kolqzsvar (60,000) , Ploesci ( 50,000) , Craiova (46 ,000) . Kishinev,
the capital of Bessarabia, has a pop. estimated at 125,000.
. Government and Administration. The Senate consisted in
1920 of r t7Q members, of whom 82 represented the old kingdom,
45 Transylvania, 24 Bessarabia and 19 Bukovina. The Chamber
of Deputies had 347 members; old kingdom 168, Transylvania
112, Bessarabia 51 and Bukovina 16. The Constituent As-
sembly elected in May 1920 was charged with the adjustment
of the constitutions of the old kingdom, Transylvania, Bessarabia
and Bukovina. In the elections of June 1920 the returns of
parties were: People's party 215, Federal Democrats 34,
Bessarabian Peasants 25, Transylvanian Nationalists 21, Social-
ists 19, Independent Democrats 6, others 12.
For administrative purposes Rumania is divided into 735 dis-
tricts and 129 urban and 5,735 rural communes.
Education. Education continued to make progress although a
large proportion of the population was still illiterate and compulsory
school attendance was difficult to enforce. There were in 1920
19,374 schools with 1,612,763 pupils. Universities were founded at
Cluj (Kolozsvar) in 1919 and at Cernauti (Czernowitz) in 1920.
Finance. The national debt of Rumania at the outbreak of the
World War amounted to 2,086,008,329 lei. This increased during the
war by 2,910,012,500 lei and subsequent increases brought the total
to 11,148,408,330 lei as on April I 1920, of which 3,986,008,330 was
fundfetf and 7,162,400,000 lei unfunded debt. To this was to be
added about 10,000 million lei as Rumania's share in the national
debts of the states added to her territory by the various treaties of
peace, and at least 5,000 million lei required for the withdrawal of
Austrian kronen and Russian rubles. The deficits of the war years
were largelvtcovered by a " National " loan (1916), a " Unirea "
loan (igigXand Banque Nationale loans, and a loan against Treasury
Bonds. The- revenue and expenditure for the financial year 1919-20
were respectively 1,140 million lei and 4,127 million lei. About one-
third of thfe revenue is obtained from indirect taxes and one-third
from State monopolies and public services.
There were in 1919 notes of the National Bank of Rumania
amounting to about 4,431 million lei, notes of the General Bank of
Rumania (issued by the Germans) 2,172 million lei, more than 8,000
million Austrian kronen and about 1,000 million Russian rubles.
When the krone and ruble are replaced by Rumanian notes the
equivalent paper circulation may be taken at 11,500 million lei.
The National Bank had in gold 315 million lei in Moscow, 80 million
in Berlin and 98 million in the Bank of England: adding to this drafts
and other interest-bearing resources abroad, the guarantee of the
notes was nearly 34 %, a high percentage compared with the notes of
most banks of issue in other countries.
Agriculture. Four-fifths of the population of Rumania are en-
gaged in agriculture. About 40 % of the land under cultivation con-
sists of holdings under 25 ac. and 50 % of farms of 250 ac. or more.
Far-reaching measures of agrarian reform were begun in 1917, and
large areas had in 1921 been expropriated and transferred to the
peasants. Of the 34 million acres which made up Rumania after
the Peace of Bucharest in 1913 (2 millions of which consisted of
rivers or lakes) about 12 J million acres were under cereals; 500,000
under pulse, vegetables and various industrial plants; 400,000 were
vineyards and orchards; pastures covered nearly 3 million acres and
nearly I J million acres were meadowland. Wheat and maize are the
principal crops, the former being produced chiefly for export and the
latter for home consumption. Maize is the characteristic crop of the
small holder in the hill regions, while most of the wheat is produced
in the larger farms in the plains. The methods of agriculture are in
many parts still very backward; by the development of irrigation
in the plains and the abandonment of the fallow system, production
could be largely increased. Table I shows the area under cultivation
and the production (in tons) of the principal crops in the years
1914, 1915, 1919 and 1920.
TABLE i.
Area and Production of the Principal Crops.
1914
1915
1919
1920
o
01 C
<U rt
b 1
<J
Tons
(thousand).
o
SB
._ <5
b i
<
jq
Tons
(thousand).
5
a> e
v a
b 1
<
J3
*j
Tons
(thousand).
^a
M e
u ^
<J
Tons
[thousand).
Wheat
Maize
Oats
Barley
Rye
5,216
5,092
1,056
1,404
208
1,248
2,701
367
644
49
4,703
5,205
1,064
I.37I
188
2,408
2,743
373
758
75
2,949
4-838
594
584
218
1,320
2,597
207
257
8 7
2,096
4.051
971
1,054
184
630
1,773
425
460
52
The cultivation of industrial plants is little developed. The vine-
yards produce in good years as much as 66 million gallons of wine.
Plum trees take the place of the fig tree in Mediterranean countries.
The tobacco and beetroot produced barely suffice for local needs.
The number of domestic animals was greatly reduced during the
war: in 1920 it was estimated that in the new Rumania there were
less than 5 million cattle and II million sheep. The breeding of
horses was again becoming important, particularly in the Banat and
the Nistru (Dniester) valley.
Forests. Rumania has nearly 19 million acres of forest, of which
6J millions are in old Rumania, 5^ millions in Transylvania, l|
millions in Maramuresh and 1 1 millions in the Banat. A great deal
of timber is required locally for building and there is a considerable
export from Piatra and Galatz, but the development of the immense
timber reserves had only made a beginning before the war.
Minerals. The useful minerals occur chiefly in the hill districts;
petroleum is by far the most important. The production of petro-
leum amounted in 1914 to over if million tons, placing Rumania
fourth in the list of the world's oil-fields. Oil has been chiefly obtained
in the region between the lalomitza and the Bistritza, the main wells
being in the districts of Prahova, Dambovitsa, Buzeu and Bacau and
especially in Prahova; but there are strong indications that the
fields are much more extensive. A line of three pipes from the oil-
fields to Constantza, carried over the Danube by the Cernavoda
bridge, was completed shortly before the war. The wells and oil
refineries were wrecked by a British mission in Oct. and Nov. 1916 to
prevent their falling into enemy hands, but during the occupation
they were largely restored and a new pipe-line was laid through
Bucharest to Giurgevo on the Danube. The production was 517,500
tons in 1917, 1,214,000 tons in 1918, and 920,000 tons in 1919.
Considerable importance is attached to discoveries of natural gas, of
which it was estimated in 1920 that the annual available supply is
2,500 million cubic feet.
Salt, which is a Government monopoly, is mined at Targu Ocna,
Ocnele Mari and Slanic.
About 4 million tons of lignite are produced annually, chiefly in the
region between the Danbovitsa and the lalomitsa. Small quantities
of coal (less than 400,000 tons in all annually) are mined near Oravitza
in the Banat. The exploitation of iron (400,000 tons annually),
copper, lead and manganese has been begun. The gold mines in the
Aranyos valley are the most productive in Europe.
Manufactures. The development of manufactures in Rumania
scarcely began before the 2oth century. The chief industries are
RUMANIA
303
petroleum refining, sugar manufacture, flour milling and saw milling.
Bucharest, Braila and Galatz are the most important centres. In
1915 there were 1,149 industrial establishments employing 58,871
workmen and having invested capital of 805,472,618 lei. It has
been estimated that water-power amounting to 150,000 H.P. is avail-
able, but in 1912 less than 9,000 H.P. had been brought into use.
Imports and Exports. The total imports and exports for the years
1911-5 and 1919 are given in Table 2.
TABLE 2.
Imports .
Exports .
Imports and Exports (ooo's omitted).
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1919
22,790
27,669
25^684
23,601
26,828
19,970
17,897
13,186
22,581
Before the war exports were chiefly to Belgium and Holland, and
cereals formed the most important articles. In 1919 more than half
the value of exports was made up by petroleum. Of imports in 1911
29 % in quantity and 15 % in value came from the United Kingdom,
25% and 24% respectively from Austria and 19% and 32% from
Germany. The chief imports in 1919 were cereals and cereal by-
products (220,149 tons; value 362 million lei) and manufactured
articles. Exports to the United Kingdom were valued at 2,742,000
in 1919 and 3,227,000 in 1920, imports from the United King-
dom 5,585,085 in 1919 and 7,121,555 in 1920.
Communications. Rumania had in 1913 2,586 m. of national
roads, 3,066 m. of departmental roads, 22,000 m. of communal and
village roads and about 7,000 m. of unmetalled tracks. The main
roads are well constructed and maintained, but the communal and
village roads are not well adapted for traffic and are often impassable
at certain seasons.
By the Treaty of Versailles the Commission of the Danube is
composed of representatives of France, Great Britain, Italy and
Rumania alone. The Pruth, the only important waterway in Ruma-
nia besides the Danube, is navigable for ships of about 600 tons as far
as Jassy. In 1919 Rumania had 158 merchant vessels aggregating
71,158 tons, including 17 steamers of 29,441 tons. The number of
vessels entered at Rumanian ports in 1919 was 10,546, total tonnage
2,991,095 tons.
The railway system is inadequate. Four main lines of standard
gauge radiate from Bucharest and a number of transverse lines cross
the plains. The Carpathians are crossed at three points. There were
2,200 m. of line open in 1914 and 7,240 m. in 1920. The gauge of the
Bessarabian railways differs from the others. Many new lines
were in course of construction or were projected in 1921.
HISTORY, 1910-21
The Balkan War. The war which broke out in the Balkan
peninsula in 1911 as a consequence of the Italo-Turkish conflict
and the Albanian risings demanded the anxious attention of the
Rumanian government, now headed by J. Bratianu in place of
Sturdza, whom ill-health had compelled to withdraw finally from
political life. Rumania's official attitude towards the conflict
of 1911 was strictly neutral, public sympathy being manifestly
on the side of attacked Turkey. Towards the end of the year
the Liberal ministry was obliged to resign. Rather surrepti-
tious methods had been employed to pass a measure providing
the church with a new constitution, which established a Supreme
Consistory of the Protestant type, representatives of the priest-
hood sitting side by side with the bishops this being the result
of recent episcopal scandals of a private nature. The new con-
vention with Austria-Hungary had sacrificed the vital interests
of the Rumanian herdsmen of Transylvania, accustomed to
feed their flocks and herds on the Rumanian slopes of the Car-
pathians and on the Wallachian plain. An endeavour had been
made to regulate the internal distribution of petrol; and at the
last moment the Minister of Finance, Costinescu, introduced a
scheme for a progressive income tax, which was not adopted by
the succeeding Liberal administration.
There were two candidates for the succession: on the one hand
M. Take Jonescu, who, having left the Conservative party in
consequence of a long-standing feud with the leader of its younger
members, the rich landowner Nicolas Filipescu, had then formed
a Conservative-Democratic party, which the longing of all
classes for a new era had rendered remarkably successful at by-
elections; on the other P. P. Carp, whom the death of G. Canta-
cuzene had placed at the head of the Conservative party. Prom-
ising a long programme of reforms, including an administrative
transformation (the districts to be merged in " regions " of
greater size administered by captains), it was the latter who
obtained the King's call to office. Among his colleagues were
T. Maiorescu, N. Filipescu, and one of the country's foremost
writers and orators, the lawyer B. St. Delavorancea.
The new Government far from satisfied the hopes of the pub-
lic. The Minister of the Interior, Alexander Marghiloman, long
regarded by Carp as his future successor, was chiefly preoccu-
pied with assuring his party, despite its unpopularity, of a major-
ity at the polls. To this end no pains were spared. Directly
Parliament met, a virulent campaign was opened against the
Liberals, beginning with an attack on their new economic policy
(inspired chiefly by Vintila Bratianu, brother of the leader of the
party), which aimed at combining the interests of private cap-
ital with those of communal and state capital in such great
transport concerns as the electric tramways of Bucharest. The
Liberal opposition, numerically small, left the Chamber, and
combined with Take Jonescu in a furious campaign for the over-
throw of the Government. At the same time J. J. Bratianu,
influenced by the Socialists, and by a Bessarabian " Poporanist "
(peasant party) who had gained a high position in the party,
raised the long-abandoned question of universal suffrage, and
definitely pledged himself to the considerably milder policy of a
single electoral college, with, moreover, only literate electors
the intention seeming rather to be that of weakening the spirit
of independence of the first and second electoral colleges, whose
sympathies were tending towards new formations like the Na-
tional Democrats. Efforts were made at the same time to
retain the votes of the rural school-teachers.
The Carp Government did something to ameliorate conditions
of life for the peasantry; and N. Filipescu strove to improve the
army, which had received scant attention of late years. In the
matter of the Rumanian ecclesiastical schism a quarrel between
the Bishop of Roman and the Metropolitan Primate Athanasius
both protagonists were persuaded to resign and quit the field.
It was at this moment that the Balkan Confederation went
to war with Turkey, whose European possessions they intended
to share among themselves. Not only had no support been
sought from Rumania, but certain clauses provided for the event
of war with both that country and Austria-Hungary. At the
outset, in Nov. the Rumanian Government professed complete
unconcern with what was happening beyond the Danube. The
rapid successes of the allies, however, and above all the Bulga-
rian victories of Kirk Kilisse and Lule Burgas, opened the eyes
of neutral spectators to the danger of a new imperialism in the
Balkans: From Austria-Hungary came formal proposals of
military collaboration, in order to prevent the victors from
realizing the expected profits of their astounding success, and
General Conrad von Hoetzendorff arrived at Bucharest, charged
with this express mission.
But already the minds of a new generation, educated in the
consciousness of a Rumanian moral unity which should necessa-
rily produce practical results at the first great European upheaval,
were totally opposed to the continuance of the policy inaugurated
in 1884. After a visit from Francis Joseph himself to Bucharest
in 1909, the Crown Prince Francis Ferdinand made his appear-
ance at Sinaia, hoping to strengthen ties that were daily grow-
ing looser. The Hungarian Government, of which the Crown
Prince pretended to disapprove, none the less pursued its dena-
tionalizing policy, imposing, with the full rigour of the Apponyi
law, which monopolized nearly the whole of primary education
with the study of Magyar, an examination in that official state
language even on pupils belonging to Oriental religions or to the
Greek church. The Emperor-King rejected the representations
of the church of Sibiu on this subject. Political prosecutions,
even of women, roused public feeling among the Rumanians of
Transylvania. Efforts were made, under cover of seemingly
democratic intentions, to turn against the Rumanians a project
of Hungarian electoral reform then in preparation; and the
electoral contests of June 1910 were of unusual brutality (cf.
the present writer's pamphlets: Les Hongrois et la nationality
roumaine en 1909 and Les demises elections en Hongrie et
les Roumains, Valenii-de-Munte, 1909-10). The idea of Ru-
manians marching shoulder to shoulder with the soldiers of
304
RUMANIA
Hungary was received with almost general indignation (cf. the
writer's pamphlet: Les Roumains et le nouiiel itat de chases en
Orient, Valenii-de-Munte, 1912). The necessity for a policy
based on the existence of 13 million Rumanians, even though
they inhabited three different countries, impressed public opin-
ion more and more; and whatever may have been the Govern-
ment's first intention, it began to realize its difficulties.
In the autumn the Bulgarian minister Danev, all-powerful
at that moment, visited Rumania and offered to procure Bulga-
rian renunciation for ever of all claims to the Dobrudja where,
indeed, Bulgarians formed but a minority of the population
and also the modification of the frontier by flattening salient
angles to the advantage of Rumania. His proposals were not
accepted. " Compensation " was demanded for the huge terri-
torial gains realized by the neighbouring state; and a formidable
agitation for this broke out all over the country. M. Take
Jonescu, with whom after the Court of Cassation's verdict in fav-
our of the Tramway Co. an alliance had been made in a new min-
isterial grouping, with Maiorescu as president of Council, went
to London to promote an arrangement, but was unsuccessful.
The case was submitted to the Conference of St. Petersburg,
which assigned Silistra to Rumania (April).
The mere delimitation of this territory raised many difficul-
ties; and soon after the discussions between the Bulgarians and
their allies, the question presented itself anew in different con-
ditions. At that moment Carp, supported by Filipescu, was
conducting a violent campaign against the Government, which
had " lowered the dignity of Rumania," of which Silistra would
even be " the tomb." The Government was called upon either
to resign or to declare war on Bulgaria. Maiorescu obtained a
parliamentary victory in the debate on the convention of St.
Petersburg. But when the Serbians were treacherously at-
tacked by the Bulgarians, and Bulgarian schemes for a Balkan
hegemony became obvious, the idea of military intervention
beyond the Danube had to be accepted. Russia, whose repre-
sentative at Bucharest, Chehekov, manifested Rumanian sym-
pathies, advised in that sense, Serbia just then enjoying the
support of the Russian Cabinet. In June the Rumanian army.
500,000 strong, crossed the frontier, occupying on one side the
Southern Dobrudja as far as Kavarna; and on the other side
advancing in an irresistible rush upon Sofia by Vrasta and
Orhanie. The exhausted Bulgarian soldiers deserted en masse.
and the Rumanians sent them back to their homes.
As the Rumanian troops, commanded by the Crown Prince,
drew near the Bulgarian capital, the Tsar Ferdinand despatched
a telegram to King Charles asking for peace. Negotiations were
Immediately begun at Bucharest between Rumanians, Serbians,
Greeks and Bulgarians. Peace was concluded in August: as
regards Rumania, she obtained the territory which she had
already occupied in the Dqbrudja; and, furthermore, her rights
of protection over the Rumanians in Macedonia were recognized.
Question of Rumanians in Macedonia. In that region, isolated
from the national soil, all through the Middle Ages sturdy local
Rumanian communities had persisted, with forms of autonomy
respected by the Turkish Government. Besides the shepherds,
whose flocks covered the plateaux of the Pindus (see Wace and
Thomson, The Nomads of the Balkans, London, 1913), there
was an industrious urban population of arti 'ans and traders,
who spread, moreover, into towns in other parts of the Balkan
peninsula. Later the activity of these " Koutzovlaks " turned
towards Austria, and their colonies advanced from Budapest,
Vienna, and Trieste to London and even to Philadelphia.
Meeting with the Rumanian intellectuals of Hungary they initi-
ated a new national programme, and in 1830 revived the ancient
relations with Bucharest. The Rumania of Charles I. not only
welcomed them as brothers, but created, chiefly through the
wise agency of their leader, the Apostal Margarit, a complete
system of Rumanian education in Macedonia, including a lycee,
at Monastir, and a commercial school at Salonika. The Porte
was persuaded to differentiate the Rumanian communities of
that region from the Greeks of the patriarchal organization, and
from the Bulgarians of the Exarchy residing at Constantinople.
There lacked but one element, absolutely essential (granted the
local conditions), namely the national bishop. He had been
promised to the Rumanian faithful by the Treaty of Bucharest;
but the clause had never been applied, as much through the
Rumanian Government's own negligence as through the ill-will
of the new Serbian and Greek masters of the situation.
Germany hailed Rumania's success as a means of retrieving
through her ally that influence which the defeat of her proteges
the Turks had caused her to lose in the East. As to Austria-
Hungary, the imperial and royal minister at Bucharest, Prince
Fiirstenberg, presented a note from Count Berchtold in which
the recently concluded treaty was referred to as a simple " pre-
liminary arrangement." This conception was energetically
rejected, and the scheme for a European congress to arrange
Oriental affairs " definitely " was wrecked. But it did not
prevent the Tsar Ferdinand from issuing to his army an order
of the day in which, speaking of " spoliation," he indicated
" better days of glory " as yet to come.
Rumania during the World War. The World War was now
brewing. In the month of June 1914, under the form of a pil-
grimage to universities, Turkish intellectuals came to Rumania
to make soundings with a view to reconcilation with Bulgaria.
One month later Austria-Hungary declared war with Serbia, on
th; pretext of avenging the murder of the Crown Prince and
his wife at Serajevo by a Serbian. The treaty with the Triple
Alliance had only just been confirmed by the minister
Maiorescu. His successor, the head of the Liberal party,
who had come to power with a long programme of reforms
foremost among them an agrarian law based on the expro-
priation of the large landowners, and an electoral law estab-
lishing universal suffrage with the exclusion of illiterates had
never shown any intention of abandoning the foreign policy
identified with King Charles' views and sympathies. Vienna
felt assured that the Rumanian army, long prepared to that end,
would march at her orders. The King's interview with the
Tsar of Russia at Constantza. though it had caused a profound
sensation in the country, raising hopes of a change of orientation,
had produced no diplomatic results.
Public opinion was violently hostile to the Austrian adventure.
During the Bulgarian campaign the soldiers had clamoured to
be led to Transylvania; the King himself had witnessed their
manifestations. In face of Italy's disclaimer of her obligations
under the treaty, and England's declaration of war against the
Central Powers, Charles I. and his advisers were forced to adopt
the compromise of an armed neutrality, which the king hoped
to break on the first opportunity.
When the German march on Paris failed, Rumanian politi-
cians had to reconsider their position. M. Take Jonescu passed
from the first idea of " loyal neutrality " to that of intervention
on the side of the Allies, and in this he was supported especially
by the combative energy of Filipescu. The latter did not
shrink from dividing his own party, opposing Marghiloman,
whose traditional Junimism favoured the Central Powers; and
joining hands with his former rival, he effected a fusion with
Take Jonescu. Meanwhile, popular demonstrations continued
against Austria-Hungary and Germany, who by means of con-
ventions were exploiting Rumania to feed the population of the
German Empire, and whose subventioned Rumanian press was
generally despised, despite the assistance given it by Carp and
a few of his personal friends. At the " Lemberg moment "
(the invasion of Galicia by the Russians), Filipescu had vehe-
mently demanded rupture with Austria-Hungary.
In Sept. J. J. Bratianu succeeded in obtaining a declaration
from the Allies (including the much-feared Russia) that in
exchange for a benevolent neutrality Rumania should have the
right to occupy those Austro-Hungarian territories which be-
longed to her by virtue of nationality. The sudden death on
Oct. 10 of King Charles, to the last irreconcilable to a change of
policy, facilitated the task of those who desired it. The suffer-
ings of the Rumanians of Transylvania, induced to serve in the
army of the Emperor-King by the lie that Rumania herself had
embraced the same cause, and that her soldiers were fighting in
RUMANIA
305
Galicia, together with the humiliations imposed on their reli-
gious and political leaders, increased the indignation provoked
from the first by the conduct of the Germans in Belgium and
invaded France. Soon after the Russian retreat from the Buko-
vina, moreover, rumours began to spread about the man-hunts
organized by Austrian gendarmes against Rumanian " traitors."
The head of the Government, knowing the inadequacy of the
military preparation and the difficulty of completing it, thought
best to delay yet longer. Meanwhile Count Czernin, Austro-
Hungarian representative at Bucharest, spoke to the Crown
Prince Ferdinand (married to Princess Marie of Edinburgh,
whose sympathies were well known, and whose political attitude
and charitable activities were equally admirable) about the
" miserable treachery " of Rumania if she abandoned her allies
(Diplomatische Aktenslilcke betreffend die Beziehungen Oester-
reich-U ngarns zu Rumdnien in der Zeit von 22 Juli 1914. bis 27
August 1916, Vienna, 1916). The irresistible trend of public
opinion was pointed out to him in reply. In Parliament dis-
cussion was forbidden on the burning question of relations with
the belligerent powers. Troops concentrated in view of possible
events were now partially demobilized. And on the side of
Austria all that was done was to offer the Rumanians of Transyl-
vania, through the Orthodox Archbishop, " a certain consider-
ation for the wishes of our non-Magyar fellow-citizens relative
to the church-schools," and " the admission of the maternal
language in direct communication with the authorities," and
" modifications of certain dispositions of the electoral law."
As Rumania refused to allow the passage of munitions for
Turkey, whose capital was now menaced by the attack in the
Bosporus, war on Serbia began anew in 1915- The Bratianu
Government, which continued negotiations about the frontiers
of the Bukovina, claiming to receive back the province precisely
as Austria had taken it in 1775, and also about the frontiers of
the Banat, where owing to Serbian colonization in the western'
districts there was no decisive preponderance of Germans and
Rumanians, once more managed to hold public impatience in
check. Henceforward, all the Central Powers could exact from
RuTiania was the passing of measures necessary for provision-
ing their populations. Italy's declaration of war in May 1915
served to raise still higher the popular excitement, which was
now clamouring for a prompt decision in the only possible sense.
But when the offensive of General Brussilov once more reached
Galicia and the Bukovina, further delay was impossible, espe-
cially as now, in the month of July, the treaty assuring Rumania
of the desired territorial limits had just been signed. Russia
became urgent: the Rumanian Cabinet was warned that delay
would cause the cancelling of the territorial engagements.
Certain illusions had been cherished with regard to Bulgaria,
whose Prime Minister Radoslavov had formerly declared in Nov.
1834. that his country was " ready to give all the guarantees
which should eventually be desired that she would not attack
Rumania if the latter should take part in the general war."
Now, however, Russia, who undertook to unite with the Ruma-
nian forces when they entered Transylvania, and to march in con-
cert upon Buiaoest, was asked to send into the Dobrudja troops
sufficient to supervise the somewhat mistrusted neighbour who
hid participated with such zest in the annihilation of Serbia.
Without having ever made one serious proposal, the German
and Austrian ministers prepared to depart the moment Ru-
mania's declaration of war arrived at Vienna (Aug. 28 1916).
As regards the internal political situation, the Liberal Govern-
ment, which had achieved the entry into war unassociated with
any of the opposition parties (for Maiorescu, summoned to the
palace on the eve of the declaration, had fancied he was going to
be called to power in order to prevent the rupture) , did not even
call the Chambers together to obtain their approval of the step.
The armies were swiftly crossing the mountains by all the passes,
to unite and form one single front upon a diagonal line in the
middle of Transylvania. The enemy's feeble forces were every-
where retreating; but Germany had soon moved in her ally's
interests, and had declared war. Bulgarians armed and led by
German officers now surprised at Turtucaia a badly organized
Rumanian army, forced it to capitulate, and advanced through
unresisting Silistra into the Dobrudja, which despite General
Averescu's sturdy defensive was soon the prey of Marshal
Mackensen; while in Transylvania itself General Falkenhayn
was striking a decisive blow near Sibiu-Hermannstadt.
For the Rumanians nothing was left but the tragic duty of
defending, with utterly inadequate technical preparation, their
Carpathian frontier. This defensive they succeeded in pro-
longing until the end of Nov., when, served by the spies of the
Austro-Hungarian companies for the exploitation of the forests,
and favoured by exceptionally mild weather, they penetrated
the valley of the Jiu, and occupying Craiova proceeded towards
Bucharest, whose fortifications, constructed against the Russians
in 1880 by the Belgian General Brialmont, had no longer ar.y mili-
tary value. After brilliant initial succ:ss a stand was made on
the Argesh by advice of the French General Berthclot, but ended
in defeat. The army retreated in disorder towards Moldavia to
reorganize there, sheltered behind Russian troops who had at
last arrived on this new theatre of war; king, ministers, and par-
liament were already in the ancient Moldavian capital of Jassy,
where they had to remain until the end of 1918.
A counter-offensive, carefully prepared during 1917, had
already begun, and in July had opened the path through
Wallachia, when the Russian defection in Galicia and the sub-
sequent push by Mackensen, who threw all the forces at his
disposal upon the Sereth for an advance upon Odessa, brought
upon the new Rumanian army the great disaster of Marasesti
a battle lasting ten days and ending in complete inability for
further resistance. As the disintegration of the Russian army
proceeded, yesterday's allies turning into pillaging bands dan-
gerous to the whole life of the country, hostilities were perforce
suspended; and eventually it became necessary to submit to the
armistice imposed by the Germans on General Shtcherbachev,
who had assumed the chief command on the Rumanian front,
passing over King Ferdinand's right to the supreme command.
Rumania, nevertheless, parleyed yet another two months before
entering into negotiations that could only mean the abandon-
ment of her rights, .the diminution of her pre-war territorial pos-
sessions, and the loss of her economic independence.
Agrarian and Electoral Reforms. Ever since in Dec. 1916
the Parliament had met at Jassy and enthusiastically approved
the prosecution of the war to a finish, Bratianu had shared the
burden of power with Take Jonescu and his section of the Con-
servative party. (Filipcscu had died at Bucharest before the
debacle.) The activities of the Coalition Ministry had naturally
been limited to ordinary current affairs. But in April the agra-
rian question once more became urgent, owing in part to the
reactions on the public mind of the triumph of the social revolu-
tion in Russia. (The chief of the Rumanian socialists, a Bul-
garian named Rakovski, after having been kept for some time
under arrest at Jassy, had managed to escape, and was now
agitating with his followers against the king and the bourgeoisie.')
Influenced by ths Crown, the Conservatives at last accepted the
radical policy of expropriation, to be applied to an area fixed at-
2,000,000 hectares.
Parliament debated the project for two months, the result
being a law promulgated in July 1917, which left the original
proprietors 500 hectares at most for each separate estate (ab-
sentees being completely expropriated), and assigned them a
compensation in State bonds, the amount not to exceed twenty
times the annual value of the property. A scheme for the com-
munal holding by village associations of the land thus obtained
was rejected in favour of the traditional individual tenure.
Details of the distribution were to be fixed by law; but now, under
the menace of a German occupatibn even in Moldavia, members
of parliament were dispersing. When the triumph of the Central
Powers seemed certain, and the armistice foreshadowed an
early peace, the leaders of the war-party were practically forced
to flee the country. A number of them took refuge in Paris,
where they formed a national Committee of Claims.
Reunion of Bessarabia; Peace of Bucharest; Expulsion of
Occupying Forces. Already, however, the depredation of the
306
RUMANIA
Russian Bolskeviks had obliged the Rumanians of Bessarabia
to form a Moldavian Republic; the ancient Rumanian spirit
had quickly awakened, thanks in part to a group of young
writers who had never ceased to cultivate spiritual relations
with free Rumania. An attempt to form a local army having
failed, appeal Was made to the Rumanian troops, who had more-
over an interest in defending the stores of food in Bessarabia.
The union of the Principalities was celebrated in Feb. 1919 at
Chishinau, capital of the province, as well as at Jassy; and on
April 9 the Sfatul Taril (Council of the country), formed on the
model of all the other revolutionary assemblies of the former
empire of the Tsars, was to proclaim the union of Bessarabia
with the kingdom of Rumania. J. J. Bratianu had already
resigned (Jan. 1918) in face of the equal impossibility of either
organizing resistance or signing a treaty of abdication. General
Averescu, charged with the negotiations because of his military
prestige, went for this purpose to Buftea near Bucharest, and
found in the capital a party of violent opponents of the war led
by the Germanophils Carp and Stere. Count Czernin, irrecon-
cilable in his attitude towards the Rumanians, rejected Ger-
many's advice, brought him by von Kuhlmann, to concentrate
solely on placing Rumania in a state of economic servitude, and
proceeded to carve up in fantastic fashion the mountainous
frontier of the kingdom; cutting off, moreover, the Dobrudja,
whose future was to be settled between the Germans and the
Bulgarians, Rumania being only left access to the sea under
terms to be subsequently fixed. The Danube would become an
artery for Austrian and German commerce, Vienna taking foot-
hold at Severin, and Berlin at Giurgevo by means of " purchases "
of wharves and sites on long leases. The entire export of the
chief products of the country was assured to the Central Powers.
Their army of occupation would have to remain for years to
enforce the fulfillment of provisions, unexampled in severity,
imposed on the country as expiation for its " crime."
This treaty was signed by the new Marghiloman Ministry,
installed in office just after the arrival of a secret mission from
the Emperor Charles acquiescing in the maintenance of the
Rumanian dynasty. The king had been subjected to the ex-
treme humiliation of having to go to a Moldavian railway
station to meet Count Czernin, who had come there expressly
to afford himself the satisfaction of that revenge.
The Marghiloman Ministry, whose chief certainly possessed
statesmanlike qualities, struggled against insurmountable diffi-
culties through months of unexampled suffering for the exploited
and humiliated country. In the occupied territory everyone
was snatching greedily at the remnants of national prosperity
now in process of dispersal; the unlimited issue of paper money
imposed on the country by the Austro-Germans through the
Banque Generate presaged financial ruin; while economic ruin
was ensured by the exportation of sheep and cattle, by the cut-
ting down of forests, and by the dismantling of factories. The
population, meanwhile, was starving, reduced to famine rations,
and the morals of its working-class were being perverted by
revolutionary propaganda. A Parliament elected under the
pressure of enemy armies a Parliament, moreover, composed
of the worst elements of political life often succeeded in dis-
gusting even those who had desired to have it.
This state of things lasted until the battle-front of the Central
Powers had been penetrated both on the Rhine and in the Bal-
kans. The king then called to power General Coanda, an old
soldier who had already had experience in diplomacy, together
with General Grigorescu, to whom was due the chief credit for
the victory of Marashti, as Minister of War. This Cabinet,
without reference to Parliament, decreed a law for the expro-
priation of landowners, in accord with liberal ideas, and on the
basis of the new constitutional text (the acts had been passed by
the dissolved Marghiloman Parliament, the decisions of which
had been declared null and void). But no sooner had the French
troops commanded by General Berthelot arrived on the Danube,
than the head of the Liberal party claimed, as initiator of a
war due chiefly to pressure of public opinion, a change of Gov-
ernment in his favour. In a few days he entered Bucharest at
the side of the king, to inaugurate an administration which
only lasted one year.
Reunion of the Bukovina and of Transylvania. The new Lib-
eral Government had the extraordinarily difficult task of re-
uniting, in one political whole, provinces which had been under
the domination of different alien states. Bessarabia was al-
ready incorporated in the ancient kingdom, having completely
abandoned the idea of autonomy, which had at first been sup-
ported by her leaders, Inculetz, Pelivan, and Halipa. Before
the King's departure from Jassy he had received a deputation
which came to offer him the Bukovina with the delimitation of
1775. Menaced by a Bolshevist agitation begun at Czernowitz
by demobilized soldiers, this province had in Nov. proclaimed
its reunion with the mother-country, under the inspiration of the
historian, Prof. Jean Nistor, and of Jean Flandon, formerly
head of the National party and of the Rumanian Political
Union (his rival, Aurele, chief of the Democrats, had compro-
mised himself by projects for a great Austria, to include Rumania) .
The German immigrants, the few Poles, and the Jews had given
their assent; only the Ruthenians held aloof, planted out as they
had been by Austria and sedulously represented by statistical
artifices as being the principal nationality in the Bukovina.
In Transylvania during the war the Magyar administration
had spared no pains to reduce the number and importance of
the Rumanians, over 3,000,000 in numbers, and predominant
especially in the rural districts. The prisons were filled with
suspects; judicial murders were the order of the day; a measure
was framed to expropriate in favour of alien immigrants the
widows and children of soldiers killed in action. At Bucharest
the Bessarabian C. Stere performed the deplorable r61e of editing
a journal which advocated the candidature of the new Emperor-
King Charles to the throne of Rumania (Prince Joachim of
Prussia had also been suggested) . Directly Vienna and Budapest
repudiated the Habsburgs and their followers, as being re-
sponsible for the defeat, a great Rumanian assembly at Alba lulia
declared (Dec. 1918) that Transylvania henceforth formed part
of the kingdom of the united Rumanians, but that they promised
absolute national liberty to their Saxon and Magyar fellow-
citizens. The Saxons gave their adhesion immediately; but the
Magyar bishops, Catholic, Calvinist, and Unitarian, did not
take the oath of allegiance to King Ferdinand till 1921. A
Council of Direction, presided over by Jules Maniu, took the
reins, established order, and gave new national forms to Transyl-
vanian life. The greater number of non-Rumanian officials
were retained; communes kept their accustomed privileges;
Magyar and Saxon schools worked unmolested side by side with
Rumanian institutions both old and new.
Latest Events: The Agrarian Question. During the few months
of Liberal Government the reunited country awaited in vain
its definitive constitution. The reconstruction of the devastated
districts had to be attended to, and difficult diplomatic nego-
tiations had to be conducted that should result in the recogni-
tion by the Allies of the new frontiers. Those fixed by the
treaty of 1916 were drawn back in places to give the Hungarians
a part of the hinterland of Oradea-Mare (Nagy-Varad, Gross-
Wardein), and the Serbians a good half of the Banat they
had pressed to be given also the town of Temesvar (Temisoara).
After the end of 1918 a Bolshevist Government had been in
power at Budapest, Count Karolyi having resigned rather than
acquiesce in the military convention which deprived Hungary of
the provinces which she had conquered and held since the Middle
Ages. This Government showed from the first its intention of
serving the party of revenge, and of trying to restore the mediae-
val kingdom. An armed attack on Rumanian territory by the
greater part of the Red army led, in Aug. 1919, to a Rumanian
counter-offensive, which despite the interdiction of the Allies
arrived at Budapest in a few days; and there the Rumanians
remained until the appointment of Admiral Horthy as regent.
This was expected to promote the same policy of revenge by
preparing the return of Charles of Habsburg.
The treaties of Versailles and of St. Germain recognized as
Rumanian the territories which had belonged to the Dual Mon-
RUNCIMAN RUPPRECHT
307
archy. Austria quickly signed what regarded her; but Hungary
resisted till 1921, and then expressed her ratification in terms
which left no doubt as to the sentiments animating a large part
of the nation. Nevertheless, Rumania now considered it right
and safe to demobilize (April 1921).
The Bratianu Government had resigned in order to avoid
signing a treaty which imposed on the kingdom a system of
minority rights that they would have preferred to establish
by their own legislation. As a matter of fact, by two successive
measures full political rights had already been granted to the
Jewish population, without distinction between old inhabitants
and recent immigrants; so that this " question " had finally
ceased to exist.
For the first time the elections were free, under supervision of
the " Ministry of Generals " presided over by Arthur Vaitoianu.
They resulted in a large .majority for the Peasant party (whose
chief was the rural school-teacher Jean Mihalachi) and the
National Democrats; the Liberals now formed but a fifth part
of the total number of deputies; the National party of Transyl-
vania, the Peasant party of Bessarabia, and the National party
of the Union of Bukovinians were united in their representation;
a certain number of Socialists made their appearance in this
first Parliament of united Rumania. The majority parties coa-
lesced as a " bloc parlementaire," and in Nov. 1919 formed a demo-
cratic Government of advanced tendencies under presidency of
the Transylvanian Alexander Vaida Voevod, who at once visited
Paris and London and obtained the formal recognition of a
Rumanian Bessarabia (this was confirmed by his successor at
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Take Jonescu). Measures
were elaborated for a definitive solution of the agrarian question
(the Mihalachi scheme, leaving landowners only 100 hectares
for each estate, but granting concessions to those who had
farms and agricultural installations); for the reorganization of
education and administration; and for remedying the short-
age of housing accommodation (scheme of Dr. Lupu, Min-
ister of the Interior). General Averescu, who in April 1917
had founded a " League of the People," demanding penalties
against the abuses of the Liberals during the war, and who had
developed this organization which contained many Conserv-
atives and some " new men " into a party under his leadership,
now came into power, thanks to the alarm aroused at Court
and in society by the Bolshevist agitations. The Socialists had
promised their support to the man of the moment; and soon
after his advent to power (March 1920) General Averescu con-
cluded a pact with Take Jonescu, though without admitting
that statesman's " Democratic " party (entirely Conservative
but for Marghiloman's " Progressists ") to a share in the admin-
istration of the country.
There ensued a regime of relentless repression. The threat of
a general strike provided an opportunity to try and to condemn
by court-martial the leaders of the Communists, from whom the
Social-Democrats had detached themselves under the leader-
ship of the Bukovinian Grigorovici. During the elections oppo-
nents were roughly treated. Few attempts were made to check
the growing corruption of the towns. Important projects of law
were hung up: that concerning the distribution of land was
modified until it resembled the Mihalachi scheme in regard to
the quota to be expropriated (and for the remainder, simple
decrees at once put in force had, as in other cases, anticipated
parliamentary decision). In March 1921 the Finance Minister,
Nicolas Titulescu, having reduced to order the chaos of the
Treasury Bonds, introduced a bill heavily taxing new fortunes
and capital in general, while relieving the peasants and the
small urban proprietors. It was hoped by this means to stabi-
lize the national finances, and to restore the Rumanian exchange,
which had fallen as low as 18 centimes in Paris. (N. J.)
LITERATURE. The revival of Rumanian literature dates back
to about the middle of the igth century, when, owing chiefly to
the awakened interest in Percy's Reliques, the poet Alexandri
published his collection of Folk Poems. This, together with the
Old Chronicles, edited by Kogalniceanu, constituted a living
monument of the vernacular. Their importance as an inspir-
ing and stimulating power to the new writers was fully appre-
ciated by Titu Maiorescu, who became the leading critical spirit
in Rumanian letters. Under Maiorescu's influence a group of
national writers gathered round the newly founded periodical
Convorbiri Literare. Among them were J. Creanga, who in the
Recollections of Childhood and other tales embodied the spirit of
the Moldavian peasantry; Caragiale, who, besides a realistic
drama and two volumes of short stories and sketches of unsur-
passed craftsmanship, showed in his comedies The Lost Letter
and Stormy Night the grotesque effect resulting from a hasty
introduction of Western manners into a society still stamped
with an Oriental character; and above all the poet Eminescu.
The last-named, who has been compared with Leopardi, was
dominated by a note of profound, penetrating, overwhelming
sadness, which affected all his successors, not excepting Al.
Vlahutza, a poet with a strong individuality of his own. But
there is another side to Eminescu, his broad conception of the
Rumanian race. It was this that impressed writers of the later
generation such as Prof. Jorga, who, in his History of Rumanian
Literature, arrived at a clearer understanding of what a national
literature may be. In his own weekly, Samanatorul, as well as
in such other periodicals as Convorbiri Literare under the editor-
ship of Prof. Mehedintzi, Luceafarul and Viata Romaneasca,
was first published almost all the modern writing which reflects
artistically the deeper characteristics of the Rumanian people.
A corner of the humble life of Banat is described in Popovici-
Banatzeanu's short story, Out in the World; the romantic Vlach
population scattered throughout the mountainous parts of Mace-
donia, Epirus and Thessaly is represented in Marcu Beza's vol-
ume of short stories On the Roads and his novel A Life; Transyl-
vania has produced the poets G. Cosbuc, Octavian Goga, and
Stephen Josif. To the last-named, a Transylvanian of Vlach
paternity, are due the best renderings into Rumanian of Shake-
speare's Midsummer Night's Dream and Shelley's To a Skylark.
Barbu Delavrancea has given to the theatre an historical trilogy.
Victor Eftimiu's poetic excursion into fairyland, String ye pearls I
is founded on a popular Rumanian folk tale. And among story-
writers must be mentioned Bratescu-Voineshti, Duiliu Zam-
firescu, and Michael Sadoveanu. A great loss to Rumanian
literature was the untimely death of the poet Cerna, who in
profundity ranked next to Eminescu. (M. B.*)
RUNCIMAN, WALTER (1870- ), British politician, was
born at South Shields Nov. 19 1870, the son of Sir Walter
Runciman, ist Bart., a Newcastle ship-owner. He was edu-
cated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and afterwards joined his
father in his shipping business, being from 1896 to 1905 man-
aging director of the Moor line of cargo steamers. In 1898 he
unsuccessfully contested Gravesend in the Liberal interest, but
was elected for Oldham in 1899, although he only held the seat
for a year. In 1902 he stood successfully for Dewsbury, and
retained this seat until 1916. In 1905 he entered Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman's Government as parliamentary secre-
tary to the Local Government Board. He became financial
secretary to the Treasury in 1907, president of the Board of
Education in 1908, and was president of the Board of Agricul-
ture from 1911 to 1914. From 1912 to 1914 he was also Com-
missioner of Woods and Forests, and from 1914 to 1916 presi-
dent of the Board of Trade. On the formation of Mr. Lloyd
George's Ministry in 1916 he retired from the Government.
RUPPRECHT, Crown Prince of Bavaria (1860- ), eldest
son of King Louis III., was born May 18 1869 at Munich. In
1899 he visited India and in 1902-3 undertook a journey round
the world, of which he gave some account in his Reiseerinner-
ungen aus Ostasien (1905). In 1906 he was appointed to the
command of the I. Bavarian Army Corps. At the outbreak of
the World War he was commander of the Bavarian troops (the
VI. German Army) and led them to victory in the great battles
fought in Lorraine (Aug. 20-22 1914). In the following Oct.
he was placed in command on the German front in Artois and
southern Flanders, and, after having been 'advanced to the
rank of field-marshal, was entrusted in the spring of 1917 with
the chief command of the Northern Group of Armies on the
3 o8
RUSSELL, B. A. W. RUSSELL, SIR T.W.
western front. Prince Rupprecht's first wife, a daughter of
Duke Karl Theodor of Bavaria and sister of the Queen of the
Belgians, died in 1912. In 1918 he was betrothed to Princess
Charlotte, afterwards Grand Duchess of Luxemburg, but at the
end of the war the betrothal was annulled. Prince Rupprecht
renounced his claims to the Bavarian throne at the time of his
father's abdication (Nov. 1918), and in 1919 he offered to stand
his trial before a Court of Justice for State Affairs, if such a
court, as had been contemplated, were instituted. In a letter
written in 1917, but published only in 1921 in the press, Prince
Rupprecht declared his disapproval of the foreign and military
policy of Germany during the World War, and expressed the
well-founded opinion that it was doubtful whether the Hohen-
zollern dynasty would survive the war.
It may be noted that through his mother, the Archduchess
Maria-Therese of Austria-Este, Prince Rupprecht is the descend-
ant of the Stuarts and might, therefore, pose as the "legiti-
mist" claimant of the British Throne.
RUSSELL, BERTRAND ARTHUR WILLIAM (1872- ),
English mathematician and philosopher, second son of Vis-
count Amberley and grandson of the ist Earl Russell, was
born at Chepstow May 18 1872. Educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he took a first-class both in the mathemati-
cal tripos and in the 2nd part of the moral sciences tripos, he
remained at Cambridge as a lecturer, and became well known
as a student of mathematical philosophy and a leading expo-
nent of the views of the newer school of Realists. In June 1916,
Mr. Russell, who had taken a strong line against the Govern-
ment, and was a " conscientious objector," throughout the
World War, was fined 100 and 10 costs for making state-
ments calculated to prejudice recruiting, and, in consequence,
Trinity College, Cambridge, deprived him of his lectureship.
His chief published works, on which his philosophical repu-
tation was based up to the outbreak of the World War, were
German Social Democracy (1896); Essay on the Foundations of
Geometry (1897); Principles of Mathematics (1903); Principia
Mathematics (with A. N. Whitehead, 1910) and Our Knowl-
edge of the External World (1914). Later he published Princi-
ples of Social Reconstruction (1917); Mysticism and Logic (1918);
The Analysis of Mind (1920) and (after a visit to Russia) The
Theory and Practice of Bolshevism (1920).
RUSSELL, GEORGE WILLIAM (1867- ), Irish writer and
painter (best known under his sobriquet of "&"), was born
in Lurgan, co. Armagh, Ireland, April 10 1867, the second son
of Thomas Elias Russell. He went to Dublin with his parents
in 1874, and was educated at Rathmines school. After some years
spent in an accountant's office in Dublin he joined the Irish
Agricultural Organization Society in 1897 and became an organ-
izer of agricultural societies. In 1904 he became editor of the
Irish Homestead, the organ of the agricultural cooperative
movement in Ireland, a position he still held in 1921. He
published his first book of verse, Homeward: Songs by the Way,
in 1894. His second, The Earth Breath, was published in 1897.
Literary Ideals in Ireland, some essays in collaboration with
W. B. Yeats, W. Larminie and John Eglinton, appeared in 1899;
and Ideals in Ireland, essays in collaboration with W. B. Yeats,
Douglas Hyde, Standish O'Grady, D. P. Moran and Lady
Gregory, appeared in 1901. The Nuts of Knowledge, a book
of selections of his lyrics, was hand-printed in 1903. The Divine
Vision, his third book of verse, appeared in 1904; The Mask of
Apollo, a book of mystical tales, appeared in the same year;
New Poems (edited, 1904); a hand-printed selection of his verse
By Still Waters (1906); some Irish Essays (1906). Deirdre, a
play in three acts, was published in 1907. The Hero in Man, an
imaginative musing on the character of the soul, appeared in
1909; The Renewal of Youth, a similar meditation, in 1911.
Cooperation and Nationality and The Rural Community, two
pamphlets embodying cooperative ideals, were published re-
spectively in 1912 and 1913. Collected Poems appeared in 1913,
and Gods of War and other poems, privately printed, in 1915.
Imaginations and Revc/ies, a book of prose essays, was published
in 1915; The National Being: Some Thoughts on an Irish Polity
in 1917; The Candle of Vision, prose, in 1919. He was a member
of the Irish Convention called in 1917, and his Thoughts for a
Convention, now embodied in the 1921 edition of Imaginations
and Reveries, appeared that year. As well as those mentioned,
he published from time to time pamphlets on various social and
political subjects.
As a poet he ranks among the mystics, in the sense that his
verse is dominated by a spiritual conception of the universe.
Of the two great poets brought to light by the Irish literary
revival, W. B. Yeats and "&," it might be said of Yeats that
he coined for the world the treasure recovered by the renewed
access to Gaelic sources into what was virtually a new language
in poetry, and of "L " that he brought into Irish literature
the ancient spiritual thought of the world. His gifts as a poet
are reinforced by the vision of an artist, and though in verse
he attained his highest expression, his paintings convey a vision
of nature as intimate and delicate as in his verse.
He embodied his ideals for the cooperative movement and
his thoughts for an Irish polity in The National Being. In this
book cooperative ideals are used, in a fashion entirely novel, for
the creation of a society which would be easily malleable to
human impulse and yet stable. The foundations of his state do
not begin in a legislature but in the parishes of the country, the
social order taking precedence of the political order. He exhib-
its a general dread of the highly organized state, a dread which
may be to some extent an Irish characteristic, and would make
the pillars of his nation innumerable cooperative societies, each
with the largest freedom for economic and social development,
but federated together for enterprises which are too extensive
for operation by a small community alone. He would like
these communities to do many things which in other countries
State departments are asked by socialists to undertake. His
ideas on these matters had considerable effect upon the younger
generation of Irishmen as well as upon the cooperative agri-
cultural movement in Ireland, founded by Sir Horace Plunkett,
and in which "JE " had worked so many years. His Candle of
Vision is a record of a personal psychological experience ex-
pressed in a luminous and distinguished prose. His economic
writings in The Irish Homestead and elsewhere, his imaginative
prose writings, his verse and his painting, exhibit a unity and har-
mony rare in one whose modes of expression are so diverse. This
probably arises because all are inspired by a conception of God
and man and Nature as one single yet multitudinous being, and
out of this philosophical root comes the harmony of character
maintained throughout in work in such varied spheres as paint-
ing, poetry, psychology, economics and politics. (S. L. M.)
RUSSELL, ISRAEL COOK (1852-1906), American geologist
(see 23.862), died at Ann Arbor, Mich., May i 1906.
RUSSELL, SIR THOMAS WALLACE, IST BART. (1841-1920),
Irish politician, was born at Cupar, Fife, Feb. 28 1841. At the
age of eighteen he went to Ireland and settled at Donaghmore,
co. Tyrone, working as an assistant in a drapery shop. In 1864 he
became secretary and parliamentary agent of the Irish temper-
ance movement, and became well known as a speaker for that
cause; it was largely due to his energy that the Irish Sunday
Closing Act was passed in 1878. In 1885 he unsuccessfully con-
tested Preston as a Liberal, but in the following year was elected
to Parliament for S. Tyrone. The Home Rule controversy was
then at its height, and Russell was one of the most determined
opponents of Gladstone's measure. His valuable work for the
Unionist cause led in 1895 to his appointment as parliamentary
secretary to the Local Government Board, a post he held until the
general election of 1900. About 1899, however, Russell's views
underwent a change, and from this time he not only gave up
his advocacy of the Unionist policy in Ireland, but became its
unceasing and rather bitter critic. His book Ireland and the
Empire (1901) was largely an attack on the Irish agrarian sys-
tem, and he also expressed in it his distaste for the Ulster
point of view in no measured terms. He became in 1902-3
a member of the Dublin Land Conference, presided over by
Lord Dunraven, which ultimately led to the passing of
Mr. George Wyndham's Land Purchase Act (1903). In 1907
RUSSELL, W.C. RUSSIA
309
Russell succeeded Sir Horace Plunkett as vice-president of the
Irish Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. In
1910 he withdrew from the representation of S. Tyrone, but in
the following year was elected for N. Tyrone as a Liberal and
Home Ruler. He received a baronetcy in 1917 and retired
from public life in 1918. He died at Terenure, co. Dublin,
May 3 1920.
RUSSELL, WILLIAM CLARK (1844-1911), English author
(see 23.865), died at Bath Nov. 8 1911.
RUSSIA (see 23.869). The history of Russia in the years
1910-21 was dominated by the revolution. The connexion
between the World War of 1914-8 and that crisis is evident, but
even the years preceding the outbreak of the war, both at home
and abroad, must be considered chiefly as leading up to the
catastrophe. The decay of the bureaucratic system of govern-
ment, the entanglements of the foreign policy of the empire, the
spread of extreme theories among the educated classes, the
misery and discontent of the common people, were manifested by
striking symptoms both on great occasions and in everyday life.
The Last Years of Tsardom. The transition from an auto-
cratic to a constitutional regime is a difficult problem to solve
under any circumstances, and it was rendered especially difficult
in Russia by the lack of political education among the people, the
doctrinaire fanaticism of the intellectual leaders and the short-
sighted egotism of the Government. Instead of realizing the
necessity of working together and supporting one another in
order to avoid a revolutionary catastrophe, the traditional
rulers and the reformers were intent on destroying each other.
The First Duma had ended its days in a vain attempt to appeal
to the country against the Imperial Government. In the face of
terroristic attacks bureaucratic circles invited the support of
enlightened public opinion, but they did it in a characteristic
fashion. General Trepov conducted negotiations with a view to
forming a Cadet Ministry, but competent observers were con-
vinced that his ultimate object in applying to the advanced
doctrinaires was to effect an unworkable coalition which would
have to be given up after a short interval in favour of a military
dictatorship (Isvolsky, Memoirs, 2oiF).
The Stolypin Ministry, which was actually formed in 1906,
started also with a programme of cooperation between the Gov-
ernment and " leaders of public opinion," and it sought an agree-
ment with the more moderate sections of Liberals, especially with
the Octobrists, the supporters of a policy aiming at putting into
practice the Manifesto of Oct. 30. The failure of this attempt is
a fact of historical importance in so far as it showed conclusively
how irreconcilable the tendencies of the Imperial bureaucracy
were with the programme of Moderate Liberalism. Our survey
of the period must start with a brief account of Stolypin's
policy, as its failure led directly to the events of the revolution
which put an end to the monarchy of the Romanovs.
Stolypin's Policy. The protagonist of the drama in 1906-10,
P. A. Stolypin, was as fine a representative of Old Russia as the
governing class of the time could muster not a great statesman
nor an original thinker, but a high-minded, patriotic country
gentleman endowed with the traditional courage of his class,
with practical experience in Zemstvo work and provincial ad-
ministration, accessible to ideas of reform, but constitutionally
adverse to radical theories. When Minister of the Interior in
Goremykin's Ministry he had taken part in negotiations with
the " leaders of public opinion," even with Cadets like Murom-
tsev and Milyukov; on assuming the premiership he tried to
introduce into his Cabinet Liberals like Count Heyden, A. Guch-
kov, N. Lvov, but he did not insist on this combination and
eventually formed his Ministry on bureaucratic lines, while
relying on the support of the Moderates in the Duma.
The sanguinary repression of revolutionary attempts and of
agrarian revolts was taken in hand with ruthless energy, and it
succeeded in driving discontent underground and in reestab-
lishing external order, but it cast its shadow on the constructive
work of Stolypin's statesmanship. After the clash with the
intractable Second Duma the electoral system was altered by
the Manifesto of June 3 1907.
This coup d'etat secured to the Government a numerical
majority in the Third and in the Fourth Dumas, while at the same
time it weakened the moral authority of these Assemblies and
made the Moderates more susceptible to the appeals of the Lefts.
Some of the points of the complicated electoral system introduced
by the Manifesto of June 3 1907 may be mentioned. The deputies
were chosen by provincial electoral colleges, only the principal
landowners and capitalists had the right to vote personally in these
colleges, while other citizens had to exercise their right through
representatives chosen at preliminary meetings. The direct fran-
chise was conceded to persons holding land in varying quantities in
the different provinces, roughly from 150 dessiatines (about 400 ac.)
to 600 dess. (about 1,600 ac.), or town property of the value of
15,000 rubles (about 1,500). The preliminary assemblies were
constituted separately for smaller landowners, smaller householders
in the towns, the clergy, factory and workshop workmen and
peasants. Electors belonging to different nationalities could be
divided into separate electoral groups by ministerial decree. The
elections in Petrograd, Moscow, Kiev and Odessa were to be carried
out by direct suffrage.
Stolypin's counter-offensive against the revolutionary move-
ment could not be restricted to measures of police and emergency
legislation: it made itself felt in the intellectual domain.
In spite of the outward pacification of the country there was
no real settlement, and the flames of political passion burst out
occasionally with ominous violence. The close of 1910 was
marked by an increased agitation among the students the
most sensitive and audacious element of Russian society. Har-
rowing tales of flogging and tortures practised on political con-
victs in the prisons of the North and of Siberia had reached the
educational centres, and a series of strikes and indignation
meetings began in all the various high schools of the empire.
The professors and academic authorities did all they could to
put an end to these disturbances and to ensure the continuation
of teaching, and the majority of the undergraduates supported
them in this respect. The reactionary bureaucrats, however,
with M. Kasso, the Minister of Public Instruction, at their head,
decided to use these sad occurrences in order to overthrow the
self-government of the universities, conceded to these institu-
tions by the Imperial ukaz of Aug. 27 1905, and to curb
the rebellious spirit of the students by stern centralization.
Towards the end of the Christmas vacation M. Kasso and the
Council of Ministers issued decrees ordering the establishment
of a strict regime of official inspection, the closing of students'
unions and societies with the exception of the scientific ones,
and, eventually, the direct interference of the police for the
maintenance of order within the universities and high schools.
As a protest against these measures, strikes and obstructions
broke out again in all the establishments for higher education;
lectures had to be delivered in the presence of police officers,
armed constables occupied the halls and corridors of academic
buildings, and wholesale arrests and deportations of under-
graduates took place. In Moscow the Rector (Prof. Maniulov)
and his assistants declared that they could not assume responsi-
bility for the carrying into effect of the ministerial measures,
and resigned their offices, when thereupon they were deprived
of their chairs; 63 professors and lecturers tendered their resig-
nations as a mark of sympathy with their dismissed comrades.
This did not disturb the minister in the least, and he promptly
accepted most of the resignations, although this involved the
intellectual ruin of the oldest and most famous university of Rus-
sia. The " Pride's Purge " in Moscow was followed by a number
of dismissals in other educational establishments ; it was obvious
that some of these repressive measures had been prompted by
feelings of jealousy and revenge on the part of the minister.
The unsparing scourging of the academic corporations pro-
duced the desired effect of outward submission, but it brought
the feelings of hatred and humiliation among the intellectuals
to the highest pitch, and the outcasts and convicts of the univer-
sity " Stories " afterwards formed the principal contingent among
the embittered intellectual leaders of the revolution.
Another sign of the times may be discerned in Stolypin's
legislation in respect of the Zemstvos of the western provinces
(Kiev, Volhynia, Podolia, Mogilev, Minsk and Vitebsk). The
introduction of a measure of local self-government would have
3io
RUSSIA
been in itself a boon to the population of these provinces, but
Stolypin made it an occasion for a renewed humiliation of the
non-Russian nationalities, strongly represented in these dis-
tricts. The project of the Government disfranchised the numer-
ous Jewish population, and drove the Poles into a position of
inferiority by dividing the electorate according to national col-
leges and establishing beforehand the preponderance of the Rus-
sian colleges by means of an artificial scheme of repartition. The
unfairness and political short-sightedness of these restrictions
provoked a strong opposition even in the docile Third Duma.
In the Council of the Empire a coalition between the Rights
and the Lefts led to the rejection of the bill. Stolypin did not
submit in the face of such an assertion of independence. He
prorogued the Duma for three days (May 14-17), and in the
interval obtained an Imperial decree promulgating the law as an
emergency measure on the strength of Art. 87 of the Organic
Laws. In consequence of this snub administered to the Legisla-
tive Assemblies, the Octobrist Centre could no longer support
the Government ; the leader of the Octobrists, A. Guchkov, re-
signed the presidentship of the Duma, and votes of censure on
the Government were passed in both Houses on the resumption
of their sittings. Stolypin's position was made untenable by
these events. His victories meant in truth the breakdown of his
programme. The Premier had again to rely exclusively on the
goodwill of the autocratic Tsar as against independent public
opinion, and he had to strive for that goodwill in the enervating
and treacherous surroundings of Court intrigue, in which obse-
quious chamberlains were more expert than himself. The con-
sciousness of failure was clearly expressed in Stolypin's behaviour
after the smashing of the universities and the snubbing of the
Legislative Assemblies. He looked worn in July 1911, and
alluded repeatedly to his approaching resignation (Prof. Pares,
in the Russian Review, 1912).
The coup de grdce came from the midst of the secret police,
that had become the mainstay of the Imperial system in its
struggle against rebellion. One of the agents of this organization,
Bogrov, inflicted a mortal wound on Stolypin at a gala perform-
ance in the Kiev Opera House on Sept. 14 1911. The hatred of
oppressed nationalities and of the humiliated intellectual class
had armed the hand of the assassin, a well-educated Jew.
One part of Stolypin's activity calls for special examination,
his land reform, which may be considered as the immediate
introduction to the social revolution of 1917.
Defects of the Emancipation. The agrarian revolts of 1905
attracted the attention of the Government and of society to the
deplorable condition of the most numerous and important social
class, the peasantry. The causes of the growing impoverishment
of the peasantry are to be sought primarily in the manner in
which the emancipation of 1861 had been carried out. The
Emancipation Act of Feb. 19 1861, liberating the peasants from
personal serfdom and giving them part of the land on certain
conditions, was meant at the same time to achieve two other
purposes: it tried to secure the necessary number of workmen
for the landowners, who had lost the gratuitous labour of their
serfs, and to ensure the collection of taxes and redemption pay-
ments. Each peasant received at the emancipation a certain
quantity of land from the landowner; he had to pay for it a re-
demption price, the amount of which was fixed by the Govern-
ment: the payments had to be completed in 45 years. The plot
of land which the peasants got as their share on the transaction
was called the holding (nadel) : its size varied greatly in different
provinces. " Large " holdings ranged between 2\ (about 8 ac.)
and 12 dess. (33 ac.), while minimum holdings corresponded to
one-half of the maximum ones. The landowner's share com-
prised, besides his domain land, from one-third to one-half of the
land formerly occupied by the peasants, on the condition that
the latter should receive no less than the minimum holding.
Besides these two principal types of holdings the Emancipation
Act of 1861 established also the " beggarly " or " gratuitous "
holding, which was to be no less than one-quarter of the maxi-
mum one. The gratuitous holding was established by free
agreement between the peasants and the landowner; in this
case the peasants had to pay no redemption, while the land-
owner kept all the rest of his land. On the whole the quantity
of land held by the peasants had been much reduced.
The following figures for the province of Saratoff may serve as an
illustration :
Peasants
who held
before
1861
after the
emancipation
More than the '
From } to I of
Less than f of "
' large "
holding .
48-1
35-8
16-1
5-8 per cent
4-8 '
52-2 '
In 1861 688,826 peasants received beggarly holdings; they held
502,383 dessiatines. In 35 provinces 921,826 souls' were assigned
one-half of the large holding each and held 1,530,000, or less than
2 dessiatines per soul.
The peasants' landholdings, which were already whittled
down at the time of the Emancipation, were further reduced after
it by the increase of the population. A Commission for the
investigation of the conditions and needs of the peasantry
described the diminution of the peasants' holdings in the following
manner: in 1860, 4-8% decrease on the average; in 1880, 3-5
decrease and in 1900 2-6 decrease. Besides a portion of the
arable land, the peasant lost at the Emancipation the right of
using the landowner's pasturage, of cutting wood in his forest,
and some other subsidiary rights important in peasant farming.
The redemption payments were a heavy charge on the
peasant's budget. The Agricultural Commission of 1872 found
that squires had to spend on taxes less than 14-5 kopeks per dess.,
while the peasants paid more than 95-5 k. per dess. In addition
the peasants had to pay the poll-tax, the amount of which was
about 4r. 4sk. per soul. The same Commission states that in 37
provinces the taxes and redemption payments of the former
state and appanage peasants comprised 92-75% of their net
income from land, the payments of former unfree peasants
198-25 percent. Professor Yanson calculated that in the province
of Novgorod the taxation of peasants who got small holdings
was, in relation to the net income of their land, 275 % in the case
of the peasants who owned their land, and 565 % in the case of
those who had to pay the land redemption. This means that the
peasants had to find other sources of revenue in order to satisfy
the collectors of the land tax. The Government made some
attempts to relieve the peasants' tax load. The salt tax was
abolished in 1880, the poll-tax in 1882. But these measures
could certainly not solve the financial difficulties of the peasantry.
Arrears grew rapidly to enormous proportions.
The following figures show the growth of arrears from redemption
payments in the province of Tambov :
1871-5 3%
1876-80 5%
1881- 5 16%
1886-90 35%
1891- 5 124%
1896 151%
1897 205%
1898 244%
Driven by land hunger, the peasants farmed on lease a large
part of the State's appanages and of squires' land, but this
expedient cannot be considered as an effective help in the solu-
tion of the land problem. The rent paid by the peasants to the
landowners was usually very high. It is important to notice that
certain plots of land, the use and possession of which was an
essential necessity for the whole community, for example strips
bordering on watercourses, remained usually after the Emanci-
pation in the hand of the landowner. This gave him the power to
require exorbitant rent for such land and keep the peasants in
permanent fear of losing these grounds, without which village life
was practically impossible. This led to continual collisions.
Under such conditions the backward and extensive methods of
peasant cultivation proved very difficult to reform.
One of the most important defects of the peasant's landhold-
ing before the land settlement of Stolypin was the intermixture
of strips in the open fields. The land of a community lay only
seldom in a compact block. It was usually divided into a number
1 Persons doing the normal work of a villager.
RUSSIA
of smaller " shots " sometimes mixed up with lands of other
villages and landowners. The blocks of land belonging to the
same community were again subdivided into strips, which were
sometimes 2 to 3 yd. broad and some hundred yards long.
Each household held a certain number of strips 20-30-50, some-
times even 100-1 50. The strips were scattered at a great distance
from the farmyard, and the driving to them entailed a consider-
able waste of time and work: this hampered greatly the farming
arrangements of the villagers. A peasant of the province of
Novgorod calculated that he and his horse had to make about
1,548 versts (a verst is about mile) every summer merely to go
to and from his field situated at a distance of 3 versts from his
farmyard. But some strips lay at a distance of 15-20 v. and
even more. The intermixture of strips separated from each other
only by narrow balks obliged the whole community to follow the
same system of cultivation, which was usually the three-fields
one. The very large extent of fallow land, the poor manure pro-
duced by weak, badly fed cattle, the carelessness of the holders
who were not sure of keeping their land permanently all this
had the most ruinous effect on the peasants' farming. Under
such conditions, hampering individual energy and initiative, the
production on the peasants' holdings was very low indeed. The
average value of the gross produce in 27 provinces 1 of one
dessiatine of peasants' land was 8r. 99k., while the average cost
of production per dess. was sr. 22k.; so that the net produce
per dess. amounted only to 3r. 77k. The productiveness of the
squires' estate was 12-18% higher than that of the peasants, but
if we take into consideration that a large area of landowners'
land was taken on lease by the peasants, the difference in the
results of cultivation would be much greater. Mr. Yermolov
puts it at about 50%.
Decay of the Peasantry. The growing impoverishment of the
peasantry during the whole period which followed the Emanci-
pation of 1 86 1 is reflected in the following description of peas-
ants' life under normal conditions, taken from a memoir of the
Zemstvo of Tula:
The peasant's life is hard and unsightly even in periods of com-
parative welfare. Generally he lives in a cottage of 89 yd. width
and no more than 3 yd. in height. Cottages without chimneys are
still very common, the smoke being let out through a hole in the
roof. The roof is almost always thatched. In many provinces the
walls are covered with dung for the sake of warmth. A peasant's
family, sometimes a numerous one, is huddled together in a space of
20-30 sq. yards. The floor of the cottage is almost always bare soil,
because lambs, calves, pigs and even cows are put in during the cold
weather. Skin diseases are very common among the population.
Meat, bacon, oil, butter appear on the peasant's table only on ex-
ceptional occasions, perhaps two or three times a year; his usual fare
is composed of bread, porridge, kvass, cabbage and onions.
A very characteristic sympton of the decay of the peasants'
farming is the reduction of the number of horses and the increase
in the numbers of horseless households. A comparison of the
figures of the horse statistics in 1888 and 1893-4 proves that in
31 provinces the number of horses had fallen by 10-88 per cent.
The number of horseless households had increased during the
same period in 23 provinces of central Russia from 21-56% to
26-85 P er cent - More than 25% of the households have no
horses at all; another 25% have only one horse each.
Let us now examine a peasant's normal budget as it is pre-
sented in the remarkable work of Mr. F. A. Shcherbina (edited
by Prof. A. J. Chuprov). A medium budget of a peasant was
balanced at 54r. 92k. The budget of a medium peasant house-
holder consisted of the following items:
Income from :
Canada
United Stat(
Hungary
Argentine
Germany
France
Rumania
Russia
:s
Pro- Con-
duction sumption
1,696 1,326
1,151 1,108
651 552
1,322 509
417 497
421 480
875 420
445 tfl
Corn on his land
Corn on household land .
Straw and hay .
Gardening ....
Cattle-breeding .
Trade or craft .
Sundries ....
Total
16 r. 20 k.
i r. 92 k.
8 r. 16 k.
2 i. 63 k.
9 r. 99 k.
8 r. 47 k.
7 r. 26 k.
55 r- 63 k.
1 Statistics of the Taxation Department 1903.
Expenses :
Corn ....
Food for cattle .
Vegetables and fruit .
Meat ....
Rent ....
Taxes ....
Sundries
18 r. 10 k.
8 r. 45 k.
I r. 30 k.
3 r- 9 k-
1 r. 2k.
2 r. 65 k.
20 r. 10 k.
Total . . . . . . . . . . 55 r- 54 k.
Assuming that 19 puds of corn per head are the minimum
necessary during one year and that 7-5 puds are sufficient for
fodder, Mr. Maress calculated that 70-7% of the peasant popu-
lation had less than 19 puds per head, 20-4% had between 19
and 26-5 puds per head, and only 8-9% had more than 26-5 puds
per head. This means that 70-7% of the farming population
could not live on the income from their land and would be
reduced to semi-starvation if they could not find any supplemen-
tary means of existence. No wonder the standard of living of
the great mass of the people stood exceedingly low. The follow-
ing figures 2 enable us to form a judgment as to the comparative
consumption of corn in various countries; in studying them one
must remember that corn was the staple food in Russia and that
meat played a negligible part in the bill of fare of the people.
Average Corn Consumption and Production, per head
(in kilograms) : 1909-14.
The state of mind produced by this situation among the
peasantry may be gathered from the opinions expressed by
peasant deputies in the Second Duma in the course of the debates
on agrarian reform. One of the members of the Right, Prince
Sviatopolk Mirski, had said that the ignorant and inexperienced
mass of the Russian people had to be guided by the landlords as a
flock is guided by shepherds. Kisselev, a peasant belonging to
the group of toil, replied:
" I should like the whole of peasant Russia, the whole of the
Russian land, to remember well these words of the noble descendant
of Rurik. . . . We have had enough of that kind of thing! What we
want are not shepherds, but leaders, and we know how to find them
without your help. With them we shall find our way to light, to
truth, to the promised land! "
Afanassiev, a non-party deputy, an ex-soldier, said, among
other things:
" In the Japanese war I led a number of mobilized soldiers
through estates (of the squires). It took us forty-eight hours to
reach the meeting place. The soldiers asked me: ' Where do you
lead us? ' ' To Japan.' ' What for? ' ' To defend our country.'
They replied : ' What is that country? We have been through the
estates of the Lissetskys, the Besulovs, the Padkopailovs. . . .
Where is our land? Nothing here belongs to us." "
The same deputy said on another occasion :
" Work, sweat and use the land ! But if you do not wish to live
on the land, to till it, to work on it, you have no right to own it! "
The great majority distrusted projects of expropriation based
on the idea of compensating the former landowners, as likely to
lead to unfair adjudications to the advantage of the squires.
Some of the leaders were calculating how much should be taken
outright, without any compensation ; a few demanded the whole.
Pianych, a socialist, exclaimed: " Throw them all off!"
Government Policy. In order to meet this disastrous situation
the Government made attempts in three directions the increase
of the size of peasants' holdings, emigration and the improvement
of agricultural methods. It would be erroneous to think that the
deficiency in land could be entirely removed by new distributions
from the estates of the squires and the domains of the Crown.
In 1906 the distribution of land among different classes of land-
1 Nordman, Peace Problems: Russian Economics, p. 36.
312
RUSSIA
owners was as follows (La Reforme agraire en Russie, Ministere
de 1'agriculture, 1912):
Crown land 133,038,883 dess.
Peasants holdings . 119,067,754 dess.
Land bought by communities and associations
of peasants
Land bought by individual peasants .
Land of the gentry
Land owned by other classes
Land owned by various institutions
1 1, 142,560 dess.
12,944,154 dess.
49,287,886 dess.
22,664,493 dess.
6,985,893 dess.
The enormous area of the Crown lands was mainly covered by
forests or situated in the northern and eastern provinces, so that
it could not be used for agricultural purposes; the surface of con-
venient land in the hands of the Crown was only about 3,700,000
dess. The arable land owned by the Church and different eccle-
siastical institutions amounted to 1,672,000 dess. (Statistics of
the Holy Synod, 1890); the appanages comprised arable land
of 2,000,000 dess. If we take into consideration that a large part
of the landowners' land was covered also by forests, we come to
estimate the surface of the arable land owned by squires at about
35,000,000 dess. (Yermolov). The sum total that could be dis-
posed of would thus amount to 45,000,000 dess., or about 30% of
the area of the peasants' holdings; divided among the villagers
it would make less than one additional dessiatine per soul. The
insufficiency of the land reserve becomes even more evident if
we keep in mind that about 85% of the Crown's arable land,
00% of the appanage arable land, and a considerable part of
the squires' land were already leased by the peasantry. Of the
7,449,228 dess. which were sold by a newly instituted Peasant
Bank to the peasants from 1882 to Jan. i 1006, village commu-
nities acquired 25-6%; peasants' associations 72%; individual
householders only 2-4 per cent.
The peasants' revolt of 1005 and the new schemes of Stolypin
gave an entirely new direction to the agrarian policy of the
State. The Manifesto of Nov. 3 1905 suspended all redeeming
payments after Jan. i 1006. Of the surface of 2,846,620 dess.,
which the bank sold directly from Jan. i 1906 to June i 1913
peasants' communities got 5-5%, peasants' associations 14-8%'
individual owners 79-7 per cent. The peasants also acquired
from the landowners, with some assistance of the bank, 4,375,163
dess. It is estimated by Oganovsky that the result of the bank
activity until July i 1910 was the creation of 45 to 50 thousand
separate farms and of 130-140 thousand small compact plots
the owners of which live in hamlets.
Let us turn now to the policy of the Government concerning
emigration. The law of 1889 had subjected emigration to official
supervision. Those were allowed to emigrate who were able to
pay the expenses of the journey and of the installation of a new
household, provided their departure did not harm the remaining
members of the community. No Government assistance was
given to the emigrants. Permission to emigrate was refused if
the local authorities considered that the emigrants could find
work in the old district. Those who emigrated without an official
permission had to be sent back. These regulations resulted in a
great reduction of the emigration movement, which was practi-
cally closed to the poorest peasants.
The events of 1905 and the new orientation of the Government
brought a great change in the emigration policy. Greater facili-
ties were granted, and Government assistance was promised by
the Provisional Rules of June 6 1906. But the growth of emi-
gration which followed the new regulations was obstructed by a
complete lack of organization. The following figures give us
some insight into the working of the new laws:
Emigrants
to Asia
(in thousands)
Emigrants
returning from
Asia (in
thousands)
1906
'907
'39' *
13-7
1908
4 2 7 3
f.f,.
27-2
1909
45-1
1910
6'93
82-3
1911 ....
I66--5
114-9
84-4
These figures prove that the emigration policy of the Govern-
ment was far from successful.
We have now to consider the third branch of the Government
activity, directed towards the solution of the agrarian question.
The scheme for improving agricultural methods was based on a
reform of the distribution of the land. In 1861 a legal confirma-
tion of the peasants' customary commune was considered the
best means to secure the return of the money advanced by the
State for redemption. The statistics of landownership in 1905
showed that 23-2% of the households and 17% of the land
owned by the peasants were held by private tenure; 76-8% of
the farms and 82-7% of the peasants' land were in communal
tenure. The right of property was attributed not to separate
householders but to the whole village community, as a juridical
person. In the case of communal land tenure only the farmyard
belonged to households in permanent tenure; other land belonged
to the whole community, and was subject to occasional redivi-
sions. Unfree domestic servants were assigned to peasants'
communities, but did not obtain holdings: they formed in this
way a village proletariat.
In the reign of the Emperor Alexander III. the communal
tenure, which was regulated by the Liberation Act of 1861, came
to be regarded as a political safeguard, and its decay was con-
sidered to be a national danger. The law of Dec. 14 1893 made
practically impossible the transition from communal to house-
hold tenure. But the growing impoverishment of the peasantry
gave evidence that the existing land system ceased to be benefi-
cial. The special conference established by an Imperial Order on
Jan. 22 1902 recognized for the first time the necessity of a funda-
mental change in the existing land settlement of the peasants.
The majority of the Conference were of the opinion that the
communal tenure and the intermixture of strips were the chief
causes of the alarming condition of the' peasantry.
Stolypin's Land Settlement. The agrarian disorders of 1906
gave increased importance to the problem, and proved that the
settlement of it could not be postponed any longer. In the years
1906-7 the problem of land reform excited the strongest interest
in governmental circles, and played a most prominent part in
the programmes of different parties and in the debates of the
First and the Second Dumas. Stolypin took the initiative on the
part of the Government and eventually obtained the support of
the Third Duma. His scheme was directed towards a political
purpose, the creation of a conservative class of small peasant
owners who could be counted upon to defend the existing
regime. This class had to be strong and progressive from the
economic point of view, as it was clear that the improvement of
the peasants' condition could be attained only by more intensive
farming. As was said above, some measures had been taken to
enlarge the area of the peasants' holdings without violating the
interests of the squires. But the greatest part of the Govern-
ment activity was directed to a complete reconstruction of rela-
tions inside the village, to the creation of separate farms and to
the spread of individual ownership. The Imperial ukaz of Nov.
9 1906, the Land law of June 14 1910, and the Agricultural law
of May 29 1911 were enacted for this purpose. The leading
features of Stolypin's scheme were as follow. Each householder
possessed of land in a village community can demand that his
land shall be constituted a plot in individual property. A simple
majority of the village assembly may convert the holdings into
the land owned privately. The land has to be assigned to the
claimant, if possible, in a single block. The conversion of the
land of the entire community can be decreed by a resolution of
the village meeting passed by a simple majority of the members.
All the communities where there had not been any redivision of
land since 1861 were declared to have passed from communal
tenure to individual or household ownership. The formation of
compact plots could not be refused if it was asked for by not less
than one-fifth of the householders. The Land Commissions
created by the ukaz of March 4 1006 were entrusted with the
redistribution of land under the new land settlement.'
In the Duma the Right clung to the opinion which had been
predominant in the time of Alexander III.; the Left entertained
RUSSIA
the hope that the communal land tenure was to form the cradle
of future collectivism. The Cadets mostly agreed with the
principles of the Government scheme, but they objected to the
coercive character of its methods. The majority of the House
supported the Government and carried its bill through the Duma.
The motives that influenced the deputies of the Duma were well
expressed by the chairman of the Land Committee, S. Shidlov-
sky, in his speech on Oct. 23 1908:
" Our attitude as regards the decree of Nov. 9 is in substance a
favourable one, because this decree aims at the development of
individual land tenure and individual land tenure is certainly the
necessary condition of improved cultivation, and the latter means the
solution of the agrarian problem .... The foundation of a State
ruled by law consists in a free, independent and energetic personality.
Such a personality cannot exist unless you allow the common right
of ownership, and no one who wishes the State to be ruled by law
should oppose the spread of private property in land. Land is,
after all, only a basis for the application of labour and capital, and
labour is most productive when the labourer is placed in favourable
conditions. In the forefront in this respect we have to place an open
door for personal enterprise, free play for creative energy, security
against outside interference, personal interest. . . . The avenue
towards a permanent improvement in the existence of our peasants
is to be found in an immediate increase of production and income
from land, and this cannot be achieved without the help of outside
capital. ... A law which opens the way to personal property en-
ables the agricultural worker to display his creative force."
It seemed as if the reform had achieved an immediate and
striking success. Before Jan. i 1913 the Commission had ar-
ranged farms on an area of 7,413,064 dess., held by 738,980
households; strips had been concentrated into blocks on an
area of 4,359.537 dess., held by 585,571 households.
The following figures illustrate the first part of the Commission's
work from 1907 to 1911.
Up to April I 1911 the number of peasants who wanted to leave
the commune amounted to 2,1 16,600, or 23 % of the whole number
(9-2 millions). The movement towards enclosures was not equally
popular in all the parts of the Empire. To make the process clearer
we may divide the country into 5 areas: (i) South-East, (2) Ag-
ricultural Centre, (3) two Industrial Centres, round Petrograd and
round Moscow, (4) South-West and West, (5) North and North-
East (Oganoysky).
The following figures show the proportions of demand for compact
plots in each of these provinces in proportion to 1,000 households:
S.E.
Agr.
Cent.
Ind.
Cent.
S.W
andW.
N. and
N.E.
The
whole
country
Till Nov. 1907
2-8
0-9
o-5
5-2
0-4
1-4
Nov. 1907 .
Nov. 1919 .
7-9
7-2
3'7
14-6
2-7
6-7
Nov. 1908 .
May 1909
15-8
9-1
6-6
15-6
i-7
8-9
May 1909 .
Jan. 1910
6-1
5-o
4-8
7-3
2-1
4.9
Jan. 1910
July 1910 .
5-2
4-6
4-8
8-6
1-4
4-7
Aug. 1910 .
April 1911
2-5
3-1
1-8
6-1
I-O
2-8
The number of demands for separate farms before April 1911
for each 1,000 households who held their land in communal tenure
were: S.E. 320-6; Agr. Cent. 236-9; Ind. Cent. 172-5; S.W. 427-3;
N. and N.E. 77-9; whole country 234-9.
These figures show that the greatest number of demands for
separate farms were made in the South and South-East provinces,
where the most extensive agricultural methods prevailed. It ap-
pears also that after May 1909 the number of householders applying
for farms diminished in a marked proportion. The area of the com-
pact plots was generally very small: and the percentage of poor
peasants who asked for enclosure was growing. Their intention in
getting rid of communal ties was to sell their land.
To judge by these data, the Government scheme of creating
a class of small independent farmers was not in a fair way to
success. As was shown above, most of those who asked for
separation held only a small plot, and belonged to the poorer
peasantry. Even with Government assistance they were unable
to start separate farms, as this undertaking involves in the
beginning a considerable outlay of capital. Besides, the natural
conditions in some parts of Russia were not favourable to
separate farms or homesteads. One of the chief difficulties was
the lack of water, which cannot be found at all, except in con-
nexion with considerable rivers, in very large tracts of the " black
soil " area. This fact, together with the traditional leaning of
the peasantry to village life, obliged the Land Commission to
keep up on many occasions the village system even after the
concentration of the fields.
A memoir drawn up by the conference of Old Ritualists held
at Moscow on Feb. 22-25 1906 discloses the view taken by the
peasantry on the question of communal land tenure. The oppo-
nents of the commune suggested that it made impossible any
improvements in agricultural methods and diminished the pro-
ductive power of the soil; its supporters stated that communal
tenure was the only system based on justice; this consideration is
characteristic of the traditional feeling among the Russian people.
The Government scheme sacrificed justice for the sake of
expected increased production. Stolypin himself described the
new land settlement as " a stake on the strong."
The small area of the holdings of the new farmers and their
economic helplessness had, however, a very unfavourable influ-
ence on the expected increase of production. A farmer who held
only 8-10 dess. of land could not introduce any extensive
improvements in his household in the absence of cheap credit.
Stolypin recognized that " primitive methods were used by the
peasantry as before." On the other hand, the rapid growth of
emigration was one of the results of the new settlement.
The land settlement of 1906-10 was carried out with uncom-
mon energy, but the social needs of the population were not
satisfied. The Government was accused of having destroyed
by a stroke of the pen an institution formed by centuries. The
sudden change affected not only the economic conditions of the
peasants' life, but the juridical relations between the members
of the family were also shaken. Before the new settlement the
life of the peasants was based on the participation in the com-
mon holding of all the members of the household. The new law
substituted for this family tenure the individual ownership of
the chief householder. All the other members of the family
suddenly lost their rights in the land.
Other important inconveniences were also pointed out: the
compulsory introduction of the reform, the danger of the
increased competition, the buying up of the peasants' land for
speculative purposes, the increased difficulties of existence in the
case of the small households. The great end of the settlement
the creation of a strong, wealthy and conservative class of
small landowners, was not attained. The necessity of extensive
Government assistance and credit for the improvement of agri-
culture was felt more and more, but the financial estimates under
this heading for 1911 amounted only to 4,000,000 rubles.
Altogether it may be said that Stolypin's agrarian measures
could take effect only if they were accompanied by a steady
policy making for agricultural education and backed by extensive
credit. Even in such a case a long time would have been neces-
sary to enable them to strike root. Their immediate consequence
was rather to increase the fermentation in the villages and to
excite and embitter the feelings of the villagers, who were losing
faith in the village community without acquiring any other
standard of economic organization. Thus the legislation of 1006-
1 1 helped the agrarian upheaval instead of preventing it.
The Third and Fourth Dumas. The death of Stolypin left
a wide gap in the ranks of the Government, and the appoint-
ment of M. Kokovtsov, the Minister of Finance, to the premier-
ship did not result in a rejuvenation of the bureaucratic system.
The new Premier was in favour of continuity in policy; this
meant that he would keep on the lines traced by Stolypin's
initiative and avoid new departures as far as possible. He was a
trained administrator, placed by chance at the head of the
country in a time when caution and routine were certainly
insufficient to meet the requirements of a critical situation. The
principal achievement of the three years of Kokovtsov's rule was
apparent success in the management of financial operations. The
budget grew every year and reached in 1914 the enormous sum of
3 milliard rubles, and yet not only was a deficit avoided, but
some 1,500 millions in gold were accumulated as a reserve fund
to sustain the currency and meet possible emergency calls.
RUSSIA
The instability of the vast structure buttressed on the chronic
alcoholism of the people was duly perceived by public opinion,
and a campaign was started in the. Duma to put an end to this
shameful and perilous situation. One of the Duma members,
Chelyshiv, was the soul of this active agitation in the Legislative
Assemblies and in Government circles. He succeeded in obtain-
ing the formation of a commission to examine and report on the
subject, but his abolitionist plans were obstructed by the oppo-
sition of the Finance Ministry, which did not see its way to
balance the budget without the resources supplied by the monop-
oly of the sale of spirits.
Yet signs were not wanting that the welfare of the country was
seriously threatened, in spite of the deceptive appearances of an
enormous and duly balanced budget. The harvest of 191 1 was so
poor that in 1912 Russia was visited by a severe famine. Yet
the Government refused to let voluntary organizations assist
in fighting the disaster; only associations affiliated to the Red
Cross or to the Zemstvos were allowed to send agents into the
provinces, to collect and to distribute funds. The public works
organized by bureaucratic boards were conducted in a very
unsatisfactory manner: the peasants got hardly any help from
them, as support was systematically directed to assist household-
ers who owned horses and were altogether better off. Public
opinion was incensed but powerless. As regards workmen in
factories and workshops some progress was made in connexion
with insurance against ill-health, but in other respects the em-
ployers were left very much to their own way, with the result
that strikes, which had decreased considerably in number and
intensity after the collapse of the revolutionary movement in
1907, began to multiply again. In 1912 2,032 cases of strikes
were registered, in 1913 4,098. On many occasions the unrest
was quelled by the intervention of Cossacks and soldiers. The
most terrible case of the kind occurred in the gold-fields of a
company largely supported by British and other foreign capital
the Lena Company: a dispute as to wages and maintenance was
terminated by a fusillade in which 162 workmen were killed.
It is difficult to estimate the exact effect of this kind of adminis-
tration on the peasants and workmen subjected to it, although
there can be no doubt that bitter resentment was increased by
the fact that it was driven underground. But indirectly the
disappointment and disaffection of society left its mark in the
growth of political opposition in spite of all the efforts of the
Government to suppress it and to obtain outward compliance
by means of artificial restrictions of the franchise and downright
pressure on the electors.
The dissolution of the Third Duma on the completion of its
period of five years presented an opportunity for an attempt of
this kind on a large scale. The Third Duma had been led by the
Octobrist party in conjunction with the moderate Right. This
policy had suffered shipwreck through the absolutist bent of
Stolypin's administration and the colourless leadership of Ko-
kovtsov. In the last sessions before its dissolution the Duma
assumed a frankly hostile attitude towards the Ministry and
the leader of the Octobrists, A. Guchkov, pronounced thunder-
ing indictments against the " irresponsible influences " which
shaped the course of politics from behind the scenes: the egre-
gious mismanagement of the Artillery Department, presided
over by the Grand Duke Serge Mikhailovich, and the scandalous
influence of the Empress's protege Rasputin, gave good grounds
for these attacks. The decree of June 3 1907, which had intro-
duced an intricate and restricted franchise, provided convenient
handles for the gerrymandering of elections, and Kokovtsov's
Government made full use of them in order to secure a Govern-
ment majority in the Fourth Duma. Especially conspicuous
was the mobilization of the parish priests by command of the
Procurator of the Holy Synod, Sabler: the clergy were enjoined
to exert all their influence on the peasants in order to ensure the
election of deputies of the Right. The bureaucracy was so far
successful in this campaign that, thanks to its pressure and to the
evident breakdown of the plan of a coalition with the Govern-
ment, the Octobrists were defeated in a number of districts and
their leader, Guchkov, succumbed at the polls.
The party grouping may be tabulated as follows: (i) The Right,
67; (2) Moderate Right, 38; (3) Nationalists, 55; (4) Centre (Kru-
pensky's group), 28; (5) Octobrists, 87; (6) Progressists, 37; (7)
Constitutional Democrats, 60; (8) Social Democrats, 14; (9) Polish
circle, 13; (10) Mahommedans, 6; (n) No party,2o; (12) Group of
Toil, 7; (13) Of unknown party allegiance, 17.
The new Duma was thus apparently more reactionary than
the one which had preceded it. But public discontent and the
inability of the Government to frame any effective policy of
reform produced the unexpected result that a combination was
brought about between the groups of the Left, the Octobrists,
and even, in some cases, the Right Centre. In a general way the
Duma assumed an attitude of opposition as regards the Govern-
ment and the reactionary Council of the Empire. This line of
policy was especially conspicuous in a long series of interpella-
tions and resolutions of want of confidence carried against arbi-
trary acts of the authorities. The following interpellations may
be mentioned among many: on the illegal acts of the police dur-
ing a search in the house of the deputy Petrovsky; on the acqui-
sition of the Kiev- Voronezh railway line by the State; on naphtha
trusts; on the secret dealings of the Government with Baron
Giinsburg, the principal director of the Lena gold-field; on an
illegal ordinance of the Petrograd prefect concerning the suppres-
sion of hooliganism; on a reform of the Medico-Surgical Academy
of Petrograd by an illegal order of its principal; on the spending
of money without warrant from the Legislature and failures in
carrying out the conditions as to grants and credits, etc. And
yet when a bill was passed by the Duma to establish rules as to
the responsibility of civil servants, the Council of the Empire
refused to sanction the most modest requirements in this respect,
although even the Minister of Justice had expressed his agree-
ment. On the other hand, the Government did not scruple to
prosecute a deputy (Kusnetsov) for a speech he had made in the
Duma, and the administrative department of the Council of the
Empire laid down the principle that members of the Legislature
were liable to prosecution in such cases.
All measures of home policy, even the most urgent ones, were
regarded from the point of view of political strife. The Education
Committee of the Duma, in conjunction with the Zemstvos, had
worked out a plan for the provision and equipment of a sufficient
number of elementary schools in order to secure universal
instruction throughout the country. It was calculated that
some ten million children had to be accommodated in the schools,
in addition to about five million who were already enrolled for a
course of three years in the schools of the towns and the Zemst-
vos (provinces). In order to achieve the result by 1924, the
Duma proposed to develop gradually a network of schools by
means of appropriations successively increased by 10,000,000
rubles a year in the course of 10 to 12 years. This scheme
could not be carried out in its entirety and in a systematic form
on account of obstruction from the Board of Education and from
the Council of the Empire. Besides the distrust of these reaction-
ary bodies as regards all kinds of enlightenment, they were
opposed to any policy which gave precedence to secular schools
over Church schools, although it could not be contested that the
former were much more advanced and perfect in teaching and
organization. The comprehensive law of consolidation which
would have ensured a steady progress towards systematic
instruction in the country was wrecked by the Council of the
Empire: the " enlightened bureaucrat " Count Witte did not
scruple to oppose the bill in alliance with the stalwarts of reac-
tion, because, as he expressed it himself, it was an attempt to
obtain paradise by means of child-murder, the murdered child
being the Clerical school organization. Thwarted in its compre-
hensive policy, the Duma nevertheless proceeded on its course
by occasional increase of credits for elementary education.
These constant conflicts produced a perceptible sliding towards
the Left in the ranks of the Duma legislators. One of the symp-
toms of this process consisted in the disruption of the Octobrist
party. It broke up into three small groups the Left, hardly
distinguishable from the Cadets; the Centre, which professed to
devote its activity mainly to the strengthening of the Zemstvos;
and the Right, which still clung to the idea of a possible alliance
RUSSIA
with a reformed Government. The dismemberment of the Duma
into a number of small party groups gave additional influence to
the Cadet nucleus, which, though it counted few members in the
Duma, acted under strong discipline and had a powerful press.
In one direction only the majority of the Duma was fairly in
agreement with the Government, namely as regards foreign
affairs and in questions concerning the interests of the dominant
nationality of the Empire. In spite of certain minor disagree-
ments between the parties of the Left and the Centre and Right,
the Duma as a whole was decidedly Nationalistic. The Third
Duma had bequeathed to the Fourth a definite line of policy
concerning the Finland conflict: the Legislature backed the
Government in its endeavours to subordinate the autonomy of
the Finnish State to the superior claims of the Empire. The
view that the union between the Grand Duchy and Russia was a
real and not a personal one led to the assertion of the supreme
jurisdiction of the Imperial Senate and of the St. Petersburg
Court of Appeal over Finnish tribunals; to the passing of laws
commuting the obligation of personal military service for money
payments; and to the recognition of Russians dwelling in Finland
as citizens of the Grand Duchy on equal terms with native Finns.
Even the Cadets did not contest the general principle from
which such demands were derived, although they disapproved of
the raising of issues which embittered the intercourse between
nationalities and led to unpleasant consequences in the shape of
passive resistance and the incarceration of Finnish officials who
refused to recognize the legality of the interference of Russian
institutions in Finnish affairs, apart from the traditional channel
of the governor-general and Senate as representing the authority
of the Grand Duke.
The creation of the new province of Chelm (Kholm), separated
from the provinces of Lublin and Sedlitz, envenomed another
national conflict of long standing that between Russians and
Poles. The new Government was formed out of districts in
which the dominant ethnographic element of the population was
Little Russian and not Polish, although this population had been
included for centuries within the boundaries of the Polish State
and had been recognized as part of Congress Poland annexed to
Russia by the Treaty of Vienna (1815). The Duma passed the
law of separation without taking heed of the violent protests of
Polish public opinion.
The Conflict with the Central Empires. The Nationalistic
orientation of the Third and Fourth Dumas was put to the test
by the growing entanglements of foreign policy in the course of
the years 1911-4. Russia had definitely joined the combination
of Western Powers against the predominance of Germany, and
opinion in the country fully supported this momentous change
of front. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria
under the protection of Germany " in shining armour " was
strongly resented, not only by Stolypin and Isvolsky as the
official exponents of Imperial policy, but by the nation at large,
the more bitterly as it was felt that Russia was not in a position
to give free vent to her dissatisfaction. No wonder that in 1911,
during the Agadir affair, Russia was found on the side of Kaiser
William's opponents. But matters became especially serious
when the Macedonian hostilities, which had been smouldering
for decades, burst out into flames in 1912. The coalition between
Bulgarians, Serbians and Greeks against Turkey had been ren-
dered possible and effective by the support on which they
reckoned from Russia; and 0. Hartwig, the Minister Resident
at Belgrade, was one of the principal agents in bringing it about.
M. Sazonov, the successor of M. Isvolsky at the Foreign Office,
cautious, but devoted to the great tradition of Russia's protec-
torate over the Balkan Christians, was intent on using to the full
the favourable situation created by the union between the three
Balkan States, the sympathy of Western Liberals and the tem-
porary indecision of the Central Powers. In this he was sup-
ported by the Tsar Nicholas, who, however, made it clear to his
agents that Russia would not risk an actual war.
The crushing defeat inflicted on the Turks by the Balkan
allies seemed to justify completely the combination engineered
by Hartwig. But the harvesting of the fruits of victory proved
a more difficult task than the actual fighting. The Central
Powers had realized the menace of a permanent Balkan League
to their ascendancy in the Near East. Austria vetoed any exten-
sion of Serbia towards the Adriatic. With the support of Ger-
many she succeeded in depriving the Serbs and Montenegrins of
the position they had won in Albania. Russia did not dare to
back the latter's claims to the finish at the London Conference,
and the Western Powers were disinclined to proceed without
Russia. The eviction of the Serbs from the west proved fatal to
the peace of Europe. They tried to recoup themselves in the
east by demanding districts of western Macedonia which had
been previously conceded to the Bulgarians. M. Sazonov tried
to stop the growing animosity between the Balkan allies by offer-
ing the mediation of Russia, and Nicholas II. attempted rather
late in the day to exert his personal influence on the wily Ferdi-
nand of Bulgaria as well as on the Serbians. These attempts at
conciliation proved unavailing: the Bulgarians broke away first,
but were soon checkmated by a coalition between Serbia, Greece
and Rumania. The Peace of Bucharest, which gave the Do-
brudja to Rumania, western Macedonia to Serbia and important
districts of Thrace and Macedonia to Greece, shattered all
hopes of an effective Balkan League, and laid Bulgaria open to
the insidious intrigues of Austria and Germany. M. Sazonov
manifested clearly the ill-humour of Russia; but this powerless
discontent made her diplomatic defeat still more humiliating.
All these events were watched by Russian public opinion with
keen interest and warm sympathy for the cause of the Slavs. It
was realized more and more clearly that the struggle did not con-
cern merely the small States of the Balkans, but also their big
neighbours; in the Duma and in the press the attitude of the
Government was applauded or criticized from the point of view
of national self-consciousness and imperialistic aspirations. M.
Sazonov found unexpected support from M. Milyukov, the
leader of the Cadets. B. Maklakov and V. Bobrinsky came for-
ward as the spokesmen of Slavonic solidarity. No one knew ex-
actly how much was involved in the risk of a breach with Ger-
many, but the public at large sought a kind of compensation for
the disappointments of home politics in a bold attitude in foreign
affairs. In this way, when the climax in the antagonism between
Austria and Serbia was reached in the assassination of the Arch-
duke Franz Ferdinand, the Russian public was prepared to back
the Government against any hostile acts of the Central Powers.
The outrageous treatment of Serbia by Austria-Hungary was
rightly interpreted as a provocation to the Entente, and especially
to Russia. It is well known that everything was done to preserve
peace, short of surrendering Serbia to an Austrian inquisition
and waiting patiently till Germany should complete the mobili-
zation which was proceeding under the guise of " precautionary
measures." The only person of any weight who advised submis-
sion at any price was Count Witte. Everybody else, from the
Emperor to the most humble citizen, understood that no choice
was left but to fight for existence. The dynasty was granted a
unique opportunity to retrieve its misdeeds and blunders by
placing itself wholeheartedly at the head of a great popular
movement. The Duma, usually so critical, expressed by the
voice of its various leaders the unanimous resolve of the nation
to withstand the common enemy with patriotic unanimity.
Russia in the World War. In the light of subsequent events
the declarations made on the outbreak of the World War assume
a particular significance. The representatives of alien nationali-
ties expressed emphatically their resolve to stand by Russia in
the struggle. Goldman, a Lett, said: " Neither our nationality
nor our speech nor our creed prevent the Letts and the Estho-
nians from harbouring warm patriotic feelings towards Russia and
from standing shoulder to shoulder with the great Russian people
for the defence of the fatherland." Friedman, a Jew, spoke in
the same strain: " We have lived and we live in particularly
oppressive conditions. Nevertheless, we have always felt our-
selves citizens of Russia and faithful sons of the fatherland. No
power will ever be able to tear us from our mother-country Rus-
sia, from a land to which we have been tied for centuries. We
come forward to the defence of this country not only to perform
316
RUSSIA
a duty, but because we are attached to it." Even the Poles
chimed in. laronsky pointed on their behalf to the tragic
situation of Poland:
" The Polish nation torn into three parts sees its sons in mutually
hostile camps. In spite of that our feelings of sympathy for the Slavs
weld us into one whole. This is suggested to us not only by the
justice of the cause taken up by Russia, but also by political re-
flection. God help the Slavs led by Russia to repulse the Teutons
in the same way as they were repulsed five hundred years ago by
Poland and Lithuania in the battle of Griinwald. Let us hope that
the blood shed by us and the terrors of a fratricidal war may lead
to the reunion of the three fragments of the Polish people."
If the alien nationalities spoke in this way no wonder the
Russian groups expressed their resolve to spare no effort in the
struggle, and to support the Government to the utmost in the
task of defending the country. Even the Group of Toil declared
by Kerensky's voice that they were persuaded of the righteous-
ness of Russia's cause and ready to sacrifice everything for the
country's defence. Only from the little group of Social Demo-
crats came threatening notes. Their spokesman dwelt on the
solidarity of the proletariat all the world round, on the common
guilt of all the Governments in provoking the war, on the resolve
of the proletariat to bring about a speedy peace, on the hope that
the present terrible catastrophe would result in the abolition of
all wars. These discordant notes were lost, however, in the
general display of enthusiasm.
The Tsar's Government was on the crest of a mighty popu-
lar wave; it might have steered a course towards victory and na-
tional regeneration if it had possessed the moral strength to rise
to the occasion, to throw away the tawdry equipment of despot-
ism and to concentrate the forces of the people for the momentous
struggle. Events soon proved that it was not only incapable of
such an effort, but that its leadership was in itself a hindrance to
success at home and in the war.
At the start, however, two steps in the right direction were
taken by the Government: the abrogation of the State monopoly
of the sale of spirits, and the promise of autonomy to the Poles.
The Gordian knot of the temperance problem was cut by Impe-
rial decree in spite of the difficulties raised by finance experts.
The beneficial influence of the measure on the morals and
health of the people and of the army cannot be doubted.
The results for the Imperial Treasury were not so appalling as
was predicted by timorous specialists. They can be gathered from a
comparison between the budgets of two consecutive years 1914
and 1915.
1915
Estimates
1914
Estimates and
Assignments
Increase
or Decrease
Ordinary
revenue
Ordinary
expenditure
Surplus of ordinary
revenue
Extraordinary
revenue
Extraordinary
expenditure
From free balance
of Treasury
Deficit to be met by
loan
Rubles
3,080,108,314
3,078,814,461
Rubles
3.572,169,473
3,309,523,517
Rubles
-492,061,159
-230,709,056
1,293,853
9,500,000
155-493-953
262,645,956
13,400,000
304,045,881
27,099,925
-261,352,103
3,900,000
-148,551,928
-27-999,925
144,700,000
144,700,000
The proposed budget for 1915 included 502,642,000 rubles of
ordinary revenue from new taxes and increases of existing taxation.
The necessity for this increase of taxation arose from the reduction
in the Government spirit monopoly operations and the influence of
war upon revenue. In the 1914 budget the revenue from the spirit
monopoly totalled 936,217,500 r. or 26-2% of the total ordinary
revenue. For 1915 the estimated revenue from this source was only
144,360,000 r. or 4-7% of the total ordinary revenue, a decrease
equal to 22-1 % of the ordinary revenue of 1914. On the other hand
account must be taken of the saving that would be effected in ex-
penditure on the spirit monopoly. This expenditure totalled 246,-
787,567 r. in the 1914 estimates, but was reduced by 140,374,401 r.
in the 1915 estimates. So the expected decrease in the net revenue
from the spirit monopoly was about 651,000,000 rubles.
The appeal to the Poles was made in a proclamation of the
commander-in-chief , Grand Duke Nicholas. The grant of auton-
omy was held out as a reward of cooperation against the com-
mon enemy, the Germans. It would have been better if the
promise had come directly from the Tsar, and if instead of vague
words something tangible had been conceded at once. As a
matter of fact the high bureaucracy began at once to put ob-
stacles in the way of any reform, and the matter never reached a
further stage than that of discussions in a Government com-
mittee. The damage done by these vacillations was incalculable.
Instead of enlisting the wholehearted support of Polish patriots
Imperial bureaucracy drove them into a position of distrust and
hostility, which became especially keen in view of the tactless
and offensive behaviour of Russian authorities in Galicia, and
could not be placated by occasional concession in details. This
episode may serve as an example of the stupid policy followed
by the Government in regard to all minor nationalities of the
Empire: their enthusiastic rally was discouraged in every way,
and old enmities were revived and increased at the most critical
time. The case of the Jews was especially flagrant: numbers of
them continued to perform their military duties faithfully and
zealously, but many others took advantage of opportunities to
spy and to betray their persecutors, and the round of executions
and pogroms set in again with increasing force.
The E/ects of Mis government. In the field the old cancers of
corruption and favouritism were again producing disappoint-
ment and disaster. The army did not lack excellent leaders
the chief-of-staff of the Southern command, Alexeiev, the
corps commanders Ruzsky, Brusilov, Radko Dmitriev, were
generals of the first rank. The officers and the common soldiers
fought with the traditional tenacity and valour; no sacrifices
were spared and brilliant victories were won. And yet on deci-
sive occasions incredible things had happened. Samsonov's army
was destroyed, thanks to a slackness in cooperation on the side
of Samsonov's colleague, Rennenkampf, who was believed to
play for his own hand. The suspicion was confirmed by a similar
lapse on the part of the same commander later on at the battle of
Lodz, when he failed to close the noose in which two corps of
Mackensen's army had been caught. In Jan. 1915 an intelli-
gence officer, Miassoyedov, actually sold the plans of the north-
ern concentration to the Germans, and brought about a crushing
defeat of Sivers' army. Worst of all it became clear towards the
spring of 1915 that the army was insufficiently provided with
munitions, aircraft, artillery and other appliances of war. The
onslaught of Mackensen's and Hindenburg's Germans had to be
met by soldiers many of whom had to man the trenches with
sticks, in expectation that the death of comrades might give the
chance of picking up rifles; batteries were forbidden to fire more
than a couple of times an hour; the armies were surrounded by
multitudes of " Kids " marauders and deserters. Even in these
terrible circumstances the Russians fought stubbornly, retreated
step by step, and eventually, with the help of Alexeiev's strategy,
succeeded in arresting the stream of the invasion on the lines of
the Dvina and the Dniester. But the psychological effect of this
desperate campaign was a lasting one. The common men had
learned that their blood was shed without stint by a Govern-
ment which had been criminally careless and inefficient. The
way was opened to the insidious propaganda of revolutionary
defeatists and traitors. The revolution of 1917 was prepared
on the battlefields of Gorlice and Krasnostav.
The progressive elements of Russian society attempted to save
the situation by a great effort. The Zemstvo and Town Unions,
which had been doing wonders in hospital work and equipment,
offered their services for the preparation of munitions:
Towards the end of May 1915, at a congress of representatives of
trade and industry, the discussion of technical questions was in-
terrupted by an impassioned speech delivered by one of the leading
Moscow millionaires, V. Riabushinsky, just back from the front and
full of the impressions of the life and death struggle against ^the
invaders. " The whole of Russia forms the rear of the army," he
said. " We cannot busy ourselves with our everyday affairs at the
present moment: every workshop, every factory must be used to
break the enemy's force." It was not a question of forming this or
that committee, but of sinking all differences and appealing to the
RUSSIA
assistance of every able man, without distinction of parties, as people
had done in the West in France and in England. Prince Lvov spoke
in the same strain on June 5 at a meeting of delegates of the
Zemstvo Union. " At this great historical juncture," he said,
" what is needed is not criticism, but energetic work. We do not
want to produce irritation, but a bold spirit and combined efforts.
We must strive to concentrate all the forces of the land and to in-
spire Government and society with mutual confidence." (Vinogra-
doff, Self-Government in Russia, 116, 117).
Technical committees were created with the participation of
leaders of industry, Zemstvo workers, representatives of the
working class: they displayed fervid energy and achieved good
results. But the main condition demanded by Riabushinsky
and Lvov mutual confidence between the people and the
Government was conspicuously absent. Subordinate officials
joined in the efforts of the unions, but the central Government
continued to flounder in the morass of Court intrigues and
supine reaction. The worthless Minister of War, Sukhomlinov,
was indeed dismissed and put on his trial; the ancient bureaucrat
Goremykin had to resign the premiership; but the appointment
of his successor, Sturmer, provoked a general outburst of indig-
nation. He was known for his reactionary opinions, and had
shown his mettle in helping to coerce the progressive Zemstvo of
Tver. His great merit was his subserviency and affected devotion
to the Imperial family, especially to the Empress Alexandra
Feodorovna. This obstinate and hysterical lady meddled more
and more with affairs of State, particularly after the assumption
of the supreme command by the Emperor. And behind her
stood various favourites, chief among whom was the astute
peasant Gregory Rasputin, whose exploits had made the Petro-
grad Court a place of scandal for the whole world. No wonder
that the opening of the Duma in Feb. 1916 gave rise to
manifestations very different from those which had occurred in
that assembly in July 1914. The ally of Stolypin, Shidlovsky,
speaking on behalf of the bloc of progressive parties, said: " The
general longing of the entire country towards a situation in
which the country could entertain confidence in its Government,
and feel in union with it, has been traduced as an incitement
to seize power. . . . The forces of the nation, bereft of unity,
aim and guidance, have been spent in vain, and the great
national effort has weakened under the dissolving influence of
discontent and indifference." The leader of the Progressives,
Efremov, addressed the ministers in the following words: " You
must understand that your duty as patriots is to go, and to
clear the place for a national Ministry."
The discord between the Government and the Duma found
expression on many occasions in connexion with important ques-
tions of internal policy. The Duma rejected a bill as to the
organization of cooperative societies because it placed them at
the mercy of the administration. A strike at the Putilov works,
suppressed by military force, gave rise to a heated discussion in
which the Duma, while condemning the strike as " a stab in the
back," expressed the desire that the legal activity of trade
unions should be given free scope and that chambers of arbitra-
tion should be founded for the settlement of trade disputes.
Perhaps the most significant pronouncement was made in the
course of the debates on the budget of the Holy Synod. The
Duma voted a resolution to the effect that it considered neces-
sary a reform of the Church administration on the principle of
the supremacy of Councils and of a wide application of local
self-government. For this purpose a national Council should be
convoked without delay. The reform should extend to central
and to local administration, to ecclesiastical courts, especially
in the matter of divorce procedure, and to the ecclesiastical
schools; the parish should be developed as much as possible;
bishops should not be transferred from one See to another,
more particularly if the consent of the Church had not been
obtained. The State should cease to look upon the clergy as a
political instrument, and all circulars and orders in this sense
should be revoked.
The Government seemed to take delight in ignoring and
thwarting all these resolutions. Sturmer was called to one minis-
terial post after the other. In Feb. he was appointed Home
Secretary in succession to N. Khvostov, in July Foreign Secre-
tary in succession to S. Sazonov, who was dismissed because he
had urged the necessity of settling the Polish question in the
sense of definite and real autonomy. Altogether ministerial
portfolios were shuffled like cards at the bidding of the Empress.
According to the winged word of Eugene Trubetskoy, ministers
were following each other like " fleeting shadows." It may be
sufficient to notice the advent of M. Protopopov, a convert from
the ranks of the Liberal bloc to the Ministry of the Interior
(Sept. 16). The dismay and indignation of the country found
expression in a series of resolutions demanding the appointment
of a Cabinet supported by the confidence of the people. Even
conservative institutions like the Council of the Empire and
the Association of the United Gentry joined in the chorus.
The Popular Leaders. Before proceeding with the narrative
of events which led up to the actual revolution, let us consider
the various currents of thought and party organization of the
intellectuals who were preparing for the coming conflict.
It is not necessary to dwell at any length on the Octobrists
and the Cadets. The former drew their main strength from the
provincial gentry and the Zemstvo institutions, the latter from
the urban middle class and the liberal professions. The Octo-
brists pleaded for gradual development from local self-govern^
ment, while the Cadets placed their hopes on the introduction of .
a constitutional democracy in which actual leadership would fall
to the representatives of Western culture. The importance of
far-reaching social and economic reforms was fully realized by
the Cadets, and they were prepared to place them in the fore-
front of their political activity, but in spite of a recognition of the
" four-tails " formula (i.e. universal, equal, direct and secret
suffrage), the Cadets had no hold on the mass of the people, and
relied on the selection of the educated by the uneducated.
Socially and psychologically, the leading groups of the years
of upheaval were bound to come from the midst of the extreme
revolutionary intellectuals, and it is to them that we have to
turn our attention. Three leading currents may be distinguished
in the history of revolutionary thought in Russia: militant ideal-
ism born of bitter resentment at the backward state of Russia in
comparison with the West; the tendency to seek regeneration in
a closer contact with the folklore of the common people; the
economic materialism proclaimed by Marx and transplanted by
various Russian thinkers. In theory, the views of the first group
were most vividly expressed by writers like P. Lavrov and N.
Mikhaiilovsky. The stress was laid by them on the propaganda
of progressive ideas of European civilization among the intel-
lectuals, especially among the youth, in order to form the minds
of irreconcilable fighters for emancipation in all fields of human
activity. Lavrov had initiated a philosophical theory (anthro-
pologism) somewhat akin to the humanism of the modern prag-
matic school; Mikhaiilovsky had preached " subjective " ideals
with great effect as a journalist and literary critic. His violent
radicalism was directed not only against the " powers that be,"
but also against agitation among the masses without correspond-
ing enlightenment. He repudiated " class struggle " as a " school
of bestiality," from which men issued as " live corpses with faces
distorted by rage." In contrast to these " Westerners " appeared
a group of writers who clung to the conception of a special apti-
tude of the Russian people for social brotherhood and communal
economics (Zlatovratsky, Korolenko, Oganovsky, Kacharovsky):
their antecedents must be sought in the romantic teaching of the
Slavophils as well as in emotional motives in sympathy with the
toil and struggle of the peasantry.
In the case of active revolutionaries like Chernov, the radical-
ism of the Westerners was allied with the romanticism of the
Populists, and in various combinations both tendencies helped
to shape the views and the policy of the Social Revolutionary
party. In the beginning of the 2oth century one could distin-
guish some five groups representative of this party. The struggle
with the Government in the first revolution (1905-6) welded
these sets into a more compact body, the principal organ of
which (the Messenger of Revolutionary Russia) proclaimed the
necessity of a close alliance between revolutionary intellectuals,
RUSSIA
conspiring proletarians and the struggling peasantry. As the
programme of the Social Revolutionaries aimed at union between
the classes in common opposition to the Government, it laid
chief stress on political rights, democratic organization and the
raising of the status and consciousness of the individual. Their
methods of terrorism and insurrection were themselves the out-
come of the heightened sense of personality and of the impor-
tance attached to energetic action and self-sacrifice.
The ways of the Social Democrats were different; they adopted
Marx's teaching as a gospel and tried to develop and to apply
it in every direction. Their chief exponent was for a time G.
Plekhanov, a philosopher and economist who had taken up his
residence abroad, in Switzerland and in Italy. He held strictly
to the evolutionary construction laid down by Marx, according
to which Capitalism appears as a necessary stage in the develop-
ment of production and gives way to Collectivism only when the
majority of the workers have been turned into wage-earning
proletarians. Marx's principal disciple, Engels, had added that
it would be the greatest misfortune for the working-class if it
seized power before it had fully reached the stage of complete
consciousness and Western organization. As a consequence of
this, Plekhanov and his followers did not consider the Russian
people ready for class war against the bourgeoisie, and insisted,
on the contrary, on combined action with the social groups
possessed of better education and greater political experience.
Some Marxians went even further in the direction of compromise
with the middle class and with the Government. For a time
an " economic " orientation was very much the fashion; it dis-
carded political action as untimely and hopeless, and insisted
on " business " efforts for the improvement of the standard of
living, increase in wages, industrial organization, better pro-
tection for the working-class, etc. The " Revisionist " move-
ment, initiated in Germany by Brentano and Bernstein, found a
wide field for application (Struve, Bulgakov, Prokopovich).
Struve declared the formula of a class war to be a " myth,"
although he conceded it a certain value inasmuch as it helped
to rouse the self-consciousness of the proletarians. Bulgakov
analyzed the situation in regard to the distribution and culti-
vation of land, and came to the conclusion that the process of
economic evolution consisted substantially in the gradual dis-
appearance of brutal exploitation of human beings by fellow
men; in industry this was effected by the concentration of pro-
duction and increasing control, in agriculture by the breaking
up of large estates and the strengthening of a class of prosperous
husbandmen. Both movements converge in swelling the current
of rising democracy.
The realities of Russian life did not prove favourable to a
growth of these tendencies towards social peace. The burden
of increasing taxation, the disastrous conduct of the Japanese
war, the reactionary stupidity of the Government, all contrib-
uted to revive the revolutionary spirit in the ranks of the Social
Democratic party. The history of this revival may be traced
from the appearance in Dec. 1900 of the Iskra (The Spark),
a newspaper conducted by Lenin and Martov, supplemented
by a monthly review Zaria (The Dawn) for more detailed
exposition and argument. Lenin's pamphlets, What is to be
done? (1902) and Letter to a Comrade (1903), express one
of the leading ideas of his later activity. He pleads in them
for centralized direction and decentralized responsibility, that
is, for an oligarchy of leaders and strict discipline as re-
gards the execution of their decisions by subordinate units.
Democratic watchwords are set aside and efficiency of
organization is demanded at all costs. This led to the dis-
ruption of the party. At the London Congress of 1903 the
fateful division between " Bolsheviks " and " Mensheviks "
was inaugurated, as a consequence of disagreement concerning
the problem of leadership and discipline. The Bolshevik (mean-
ing " Majority ") group carried its proposals by a very narrow
majority, and captured the Central Council of the party, from
which they excluded entirely their opponents. The latter, who
had a majority on the staff of the Iskra, proclaimed a boycott
against Lenin and his adherents. The insignificance of the
immediate cause of the split was only apparent: in truth the
division arose from fundamental opposition between the dem-
ocratic orientation of Plekhanov and the oligarchical spirit
represented by Lenin. The struggle was not suggested by a
deep cleavage of principle among the rank and file of the party,
but by disputes among its intellectual leaders.
Questions of principle arose, however, in the course of the
Japanese war and the first revolution. While Plekhanov and
the Mensheviks were for cooperation with the Liberals in the
fight for political freedom and for a gradual introduction of
social reforms, Lenin set his hopes on the hatred of the peasantry
for the landlords, and preached a ruthless Jacquerie. In his
pamphlet, The Agrarian Programmes of Social Democracy,
he contended that orthodox Marxians had failed to grasp the
peculiarities of the Russian situation inasmuch as they were
still talking about a coalition of the bourgeoisie of the towns,
while in Russia the moving power was to be sought in the rising
of the peasant bourgeoisie against the squires. He contrasted
the abstract views of the town proletariat with the intense
revolutionary temper of the peasants who were " ready to fly
at the throat of the landlords and to strangle them." In his
view the proletariat had to supply leaders and instructors when
the revolution had been set going, but he looked to the exasper-
ated peasantry for bringing down the existing order.
It is hardly needful to point out the close connection between
these literary disputes and the Zimmerwald agitation 1 of 1915-16,
as well as with the eventual overthrow of the old regime in 1917.
Let us note that the Congress of the Social Democratic party
in 1917 sided definitely with Lenin and the Bolsheviks.
The Revolution. The situation in the beginning of 1917 was
extremely tense and abnormal. The Emperor had left the
capital and taken up his residence at the army headquarters in
order to see as little as possible of the ministries, the Duma, or
the Court, and to lead a " simple life " among the selected
retainers of the Stavka; the Empress continued to look for
hypnotizing inspiration to monks and priests and interfered
constantly in affairs of State in favour of reaction. Even the
staunchest conservatives, like Trepov, found it impossible to re-
main in office under such conditions, and the field was left clear
for half-insane subjects like Protopopov and bigoted courtiers
like Prince N. Galitsin. The army at the front held on sullenly to
its positions, but was war-weary and distrustful of its leaders;
1 The Zimmerwald Manifesto of 1915 is full of momentous declara-
tions. The following are some of them :
" The war that has produced this chaos is the outcome of Im-
perialism, of the endeavours of capitalist classes of every nation to
satisfy their greed for profit by the exploitation of human labour and
the treasures of Nature. . . .
" To raise welfare to a high level was the aim announced at
the beginning of the war: misery and privation, unemployment and
death, underfeeding and disease are the real outcome. For decades
and decades to come the cost of the war will devour the strength of
the peoples, imperil the achievements of social reform, and hamper
every step on the path of progress. Intellectual and moral desola-
tion, economic disaster, political reaction such are the blessings of
this horrible struggle of nations. . . .
" In this intolerable situation we have met together, we representa-
tives of Socialist parties, of trade unions, or of minorities of them, we
Germans, French, Italians, Russians, Poles, Letts, Rumanians,
Bulgarians, Swedes, Norwegians, Dutch and Swiss, we who are
standing on the ground, not of national solidarity, with the exploiting
class, but of the international solidarity of the workers and the class
struggle. . . .
" The struggle is also the struggle for liberty, for brotherhood of
nations, for Socialism. The task is to take up this fight for peace-^-
for peace without annexations or war indemnities. Such peace is
only possible when every thought of violating the rights and liberties
of the nations is condemned. There must be no violent incorporation,
either of wholly or partly occupied countries. No annexations, either
open or masked, likewise no forced economic union, that is made still
more intolerable by the suppression of political rights. The right of
nations to dispose of themselves must be the immovable fundamental
principle of international relations.
" Since the outbreak of the war you have put your energies, your
courage, your steadfastness at the service of the ruling classes. Now,
the task is to enter the lists for your own cause, for the sacred aims
of Socialism, for the salvation of the oppressed nations and _ the en-
slaved classes, by means of the irreconcilable class struggle."
RUSSIA
the enormous levies in the rear provided crowds of conscripts,
who resented the separation from their households and their
land, chafed under the drudgery of stupefying training and
swallowed eagerly the germs of insidious propaganda. The
factory workmen in the towns were deeply affected by inter-
nationalistic and socialistic ideas, while the peasants were
groaning under the heavy toll of conscription and the economic
demands arising from a war which they had ceased to under-
stand. Among the intellectuals there was a widespread feeling
of uneasiness as regards the coming catastrophe: some were
afraid of " cutting off the branch on which they were sitting,"
and many realized the madness of plunging into revolution in
the midst of a war for existence. But the prevailing sentiment
was despair as to any improvement under the reactionary
Government. Even in Court circles the notion of a revolutionary
movement was spreading rapidly, although, of course, officers
of the Guards did not look further than to the elimination of
Nicholas II. and of his spouse by a conspiracy similar to those
which had put an end to the vagaries of Peter III. and of Paul.
Such facts as Milyukov's scathing denunciation of the Empress
Alexandra's protege Sturmer (Nov. 1-14 1916), and the assassi-
nation of Rasputin by some aristocrats among whom there was a
Grand Duke, Dmitri Pavlovich, showed that the indignation of
upper circles of society had reached a revolutionary pitch. The
Allied mission, in which Lord Milner represented Great Britain,
left Petrograd just in time not to witness the explosion which
everybody was expecting. But the decision came from below,
and not from the stormy currents on the surface.
The principal centres of political agitation were the factories
of Petrograd and the queues of householders and servants lined up
for hours in sleet and snow at the doors of the bakers. It seems
almost ludicrous now to consider the quest of food as one of the
principal causes of unrest, but people did not realize then what
might result in this respect from a disruption of orderly inter-
course, and ascribed the scarcity of bread and the high prices
to the inefficiency of the hated Government. Already in Nov.
1916 there had been talk in Petrograd, of the imminence of a
general protest strike. On March 8 1917, bread riots actually
broke out, and on the next day (Friday) the streets were full of a
surging mob which protested against everything. On the Sat-
urday the police fired on the mob, and on Sunday troops used
their weapons. Already on that day it was clear that part of the
garrison could not be depended on. The Pavlovsky regiment
of Grenadier Guards, after an encounter with rioters, in which
it fired on the crowd, came back to barracks in a very ugly
mood; the men declared to their officers that they would not
help to murder their brothers in the streets. On Monday
(March 12) the military revolt broke loose. The Volhynsky
and Litovsky Guards marched against the Arsenal in the Lit-
eynaya. They were opposed by some other troops, but before
long one regiment after the other joined in the revolt, and by
March 14 the principal positions in the town had been occupied
by the rebels. The premier regiment of the army, the Preobra-
zhensky Guards, marched to the Taurida Palace where the Duma
was sitting and placed itself at the disposition of its president,
M. Rodzianko. An Executive Committee of the Duma was
formed and subsequently a Provisional Government of members
of all parties except the extreme Right (Prince Lvov, Milyukov,
Guchkov, Shingarev, Tereshtchenko, Nekrasov, Godnev, V.
Lvov, Manuilov, and Kerensky). At the same time another
centre of authority was set up at the Smolry Institute, where a
Council of Workmen's delegates appeared. It represented the
factory workmen, artisans and various nondescript elements
which had taken part in the Revolution and claimed a share in
the reorganization of the country, and it was joined by repre-
sentatives of the soldiers.
On March 15 Nicholas II. abdicated in favour of his brother
Michael, who, however, declined to ascend the throne unless
invited to do so by the will of the nation. In less than a week
the mighty Imperial power of the Romanovs had been over-
thrown almost without bloodshed. All the commanders of the
armies in the field and the governors of provinces, including the
Grand Duke Nicholas, Viceroy of the Caucasus, hastened to
promise loyal support to the new Government.
Discordant Tendencies. People were elated in those days.
Even statesmen and historians were carried away by the general
rejoicings over the newly acquired freedom of Russia. Nothing
seemed impossible to the great nation which had come to its
own after centuries of bondage. And yet it was evident that
a task of superhuman magnitude had to be faced. The story
of the " Zauberlehrling " was repeating itself: the pupil of the
magician had succeeded in calling up the waters of the deep,
but did not possess the word capable of arresting them, and
they rose and flooded the place, and drowned the unfortunate
amateur in witchcraft. The party leaders thought that the
Revolution could be directed by programmes and compromises.
In reality the Revolution meant the overthrow of all accepted
creeds, morals and habits of the people, a confusion of their
entire nature in which, for a time, nothing could be relied upon
neither duty, nor humanity, nor affection. A people renowned
for its Christian spirit and stubborn patience gave vent to
outbursts of bestial lust and cruelty, to hysterical moods of
bh'nd selfishness. Even those of the leaders, who had appre-
hensions as to the effect, consoled themselves by comparisons
with the French Revolution, as if the French Revolution had
to deal with cultural problems of such complexity as the Russian
one, or had challenged the existence of the educated class.
The history of the Russian Revolution starts with the gradual
dissolution of all fundamental institutions and notions. The
first to go was the army, as it was the most tangible and irksome
form of State organization. The first act of the Soviet of Work-
men was to issue an order to all army units enjoining the forma-
tion of Soldiers' Committees to watch over the behaviour of
officers, to take over arms, etc. It is to be imagined what effect
this order exercised on the discipline of the army. The pa-
triotic Minister of War in the Provisional Government, A.
Guchkov, strove might and main to stop the disintegration of
discipline, the fraternization with the enemy, and the cowardly
desertions. He called up a legendary hero of the war, Kornilov,
and placed him at the head of the Petrograd garrison. But all
these efforts were of no avail in the face of the disorganization
of the soldiery; the adulation of the demagogues, the propaganda
of German and native Defeatists, and the regime of Soldiers'
Committees was substituted for hierarchical command. In
April Kornilov left for the front in disgust, and in May Guchkov
resigned in despair.
Next came the turn of foreign policy. The mob, led by the
Council of Workmen and Soldiers, was repeating the magic
formula of " peace without annexation and indemnities." How
could fidelity to the Alliance concluded in the fateful months of
August 1914, how could the aspirations towards a command of
the Straits or any other aims of Russian national policy be
made to square with this abstract, colourless formula, devised
at Zimmerwald by the enemies of European civilization?
The extremists in Russia took a perverse delight in ignoring
completely the menace of German domination, and dreamed,
or pretended to dream, of a rising of the German Socialists that
would substitute class war for the struggle of empires. The
Minister of Foreign Affairs, Milyukov, was not willing to dis-
sociate himself from the Allies and to disregard the German
danger, nor was he prepared to tear up as a scrap of paper the
agreement concluded with much difficulty by Sazonov, in which
the Western Powers had acknowledged the justice of Russia's
claim to Constantinople and the Straits. He had to retire,
because the mob did not want to go on with the war and cared
nothing about the Allies or about Imperial interests of Russia,
while those who pulled the strings behind the scenes kept in
touch with the Germans and were bent on the destruction of
historical empires in accordance with Zimmerwald policy. After
stormy demonstrations Milyukov resigned.
Even worse than these ministerial changes was the displace-
ment of the centre of gravity in the political world. The Duma
was set aside by the appointment of the Provisional Govern-
ment. As the Duma had been elected on a narrow and artificial
320
RUSSIA
franchise, it carried no weight with the people. Its Executive
Council could not find its right place by the side of the Provi-
sional Government, and looked helplessly on the latter's efforts
to assume authority. An attempt was made to summon the
members of all the four Dumas to a kind of political conference,
but this only led to a good many speeches without any practical
results. The four Dumas in conjunction looked even more like
ghosts than the fourth one by itself. This meant that a number of
influential public men Rodzianko, Shidlovsky, Shulgin, Makla-
kov, N. Lvov, Karaulov vanished into oblivion, some for ever,
others at the most critical moments of the incipient Revolution.
The Provisional Government was left in isolation in the face of
a seething mass of half-educated people, who had lost all sense
of duty and all respect for authority. This would have been
bad enough in itself, but the Provisional Government had to
reckon not only with these heaving throngs but with a rival and
energetic organization the Soviet Workmen and Soldiers.
The resignations of Guchkov and Milyukov rendered neces-
sary a reconstruction of the Provisional Government, and it
was effected in the direction of the Left. The outstanding facts
in this reconstruction were the appointments of Kerensky as
Minister of War and Marine, the Social Revolutionary Chernov
as Minister of Agriculture, the Social Revolutionary Skobelev
as Minister of Labour. Prince Lvov was kept president of the
Council, but he was not much more than a figure-head: the
principal personage in the new combination was A. F. Kerensky,
while the appearance of Chernov and Skobelev as members of
the Government showed that the country was to be subjected to
socialistic experiments of the most extreme kind. The dykes
had burst and torrents of disorderly agitation were let loose on
the land. The composition of the new Ministry was intended to
bring some harmony in the action of the two rival centres, the
Ministry and the Council of Workmen and Soldiers, to which
a third element, delegated from the peasants, had been added.
In practice the Government was made amenable to the direct
influence of the council, whose aggressive Socialism was not
tempered by any sense of responsibility. At its head stood a
characteristic figure Cheidze, a Georgian Social Democrat, who
hated everything that savoured of Russian national tradition.
He had nothing to recommend him as a political leader except
his stubborn opposition under the old regime. His election to
be chairman of the Soviet, showed that the men, who were ready
to discard all bonds of national honour and self-preservation
for the sake of peace at any price, had the masses behind them.
The most terrible symptoms of the advancing disease was the
arrival from abroad of Bolshevik leaders Lenin coming through
Germany, under the benevolent protection of the Kaiser, and
Trotsky arriving from America. These men were resolved
to preach the doctrine of Zimmerwald and Kienthal. Their
zeal did not cool down in Russian surroundings. Riazanov
demanded that deserters should be free from punishment
for the sake of individual freedom. Steklov incited soldiers and
citizens to kill generals suspected of counter-revolutionary
designs without further inquiry. The weak spot in the armour
of Russia had been discovered. A hysterical stampede began
which spread rapidly from the rear to the front, and it is not a
paradox to say that the Government was powerless against
this organized disorganization: the Soldiers' Committees at the
front acted systematically against the officers, fraternization
with the enemy was encouraged by many of them, and when it
came to a fight, they debated for hours whether they should
obey orders or leave the line. In case of serious onslaughts on
the part of the Germans and the Austrians, whole regiments
gave way. The state of the army was depicted in the most
mournful colours by no less a man than that great citizen-soldier
of Russia General Alexeiev:
" Let us be frank; the fighting spirit of the Russian army is ex-
hausted. But yesterday stern and powerful, it now faces the enemy
in a trance of fatal inaction. A longing for peace and quiet has re-
placed the old traditional loyalty to the country. Base instincts of
self-preservation are reawakened. Where is the powerful authority
at home for which the whole State is yearning? We are told it will
come soon. But we do not see it yet. What has become of our love
for the Mother country? Where is our patriotism? The sublime
word of brotherhood is inscribed upon our banners, but it is not
written in our hearts. Class antagonism is raging in our midst;
whole classes who had honourably fulfilled their duty to their
country are placed under suspicion. As a result a deep abyss has
yawned between soldiers and officers."
In front of this disruption of moral ties the reproaches and
warnings of progressive leaders who had not lost the sense of
their allegiance to the Motherland did not avail, and yet among
these patriots there were many who had passed their h'ves in
prison and exile for the sake of their opinions Plekhanov,
Krapotkine, Breshkovskaya, Herman Lopotin.
Kerensky's Rule. The most conspicuous, although by far
not the most worthy representative of the " Defencists," was
the favourite of the Revolution, the new Minister of War and
Marine, A. F. Kerensky. None had thundered with more effect
against the oppressive measures of the old regime, none could
speak with such enthusiasm, of freedom, the sanctity of revolu-
tion, popular inspiration, the right of the masses, and the dawn
of a new era. Unfortunately, impassioned feelings and eloquent
words do not serve as substitutes for statesmanlike foresight,
clearness of purpose, and strength of will. After attaining to a
unique position at the head of revolutionary Russia Kerensky
entangled himself in a net of contradictory measures, of ill-
judged assertions of authority, and of weak-minded compromises
and renunciations. With incredible levity and conceit he as-
sumed that he could, by his personal magnetism, repair the
harm which was being done to the army by the propaganda of
Defeatists. He rushed from corps to corps, harangued soldiers'
meetings, revelled in their applause, and believed that he had
achieved wonders by his appearance at the front. Witnesses
of these meetings did not fail to notice that the soldiers, after
listening with some interest to the new kind of theatrical per-
formances, did not conceal their incredulity as to results. These
results were disclosed in a manner which did not admit of any
doubts when the time came for testing the effects of this orator-
ical campaign in a struggle with the enemy.
Towards the beginning of July 1917 a general offensive move-
ment was attempted, in the hope that the gallantry of specially
formed shock battalions would kindle the fighting spirit of
other troops, and that the whole line would advance and break
at least the thoroughly shaken Austrian army. The first
onslaught in the south-west was successful; Kornilov's shock
troops pushed as far as Stanislau (Stanislawow) in Galicia. But
it was the last flickering flame in the case of an army disinte-
grated by defeatist propaganda. In the north the ordinary
troops refused to support their comrades and looked on with
irony at their desperate efforts against heavy odds. In the
midst of the fighting a general dibdcle began: the Russian regi-
ments rolled back in disorderly retreat, and the only fact which
prevented an immediate collapse was the extreme weakness of
the enemy on the Austrian front.
The Russian nation, as represented by its army, had definitely
succumbed in the great struggle. Even more terrible perhaps
than the defeats at the front was the corresponding chaos in the
country. A Separatist disaffection in the Ukraine seized the
opportunity presented by the great catastrophe to assert claims
as to an independent Government, based on the fact that the
provinces on both shores of the Dnieper had for some centuries
formed part of a Cossack republic and of the Polish-Lithuanian
State. The fundamental unity of the Russian people, as well as
the immense benefits brought by the reunion in the i7th century
and the common progress in the i8th and igth centuries, were
set at nought by these people. The bulk of the Ukrainian pop-
ulation would not have followed them, in spite of many griev-
ances against Petrograd rule, if it had not been for the hysterical
stampede of the Revolution. As it was, people dreamt of a new
heaven and a new earth in Kiev and in Poltava, as well as in
Petrograd and in Moscow, only with the difference that their
visions were reminiscences of Cossack prowess and licence. The
representatives of the Provisional Government the romantic
socialist Tseretelli, the wealthy amateur Tereshtchenko, the
shifty intriguer Nekrasov were not able to make any stand
RUSSIA
321
against such treasonable pretensions, and conceded an auton-
omy bordering on complete separation. Some of the Cadet
members of the Provisional Government Prince Lvov, and
Shingarev protested and resigned, but their withdrawal was
hardly noticed. Kerensky was placed definitely at the head of
the Government and continued his campaign of eloquent appeals.
In the general confusion the group of relentless realists, the
Bolsheviks thought the moment opportune to show their
hand. On July 14 a military revolt broke out in Petrograd:
regiments converted by the extremists the first machine-gun
regiment at their head seized strategic points in the capital;
cruisers and destroyers flying the black and red flag of terror-
istic Revolution came into the Neva from Kronstadt. For
three days it seemed doubtful whether the Provisional Govern-
ment would be able to hold its own. The attempt was, however,
somewhat premature. Part of the Petrograd garrison remained
passive, and this made it possible for some loyal troops to sup-
press the rebellion. The Government was afraid, however, to
strike hard: Trotsky, Lunacharsky and Kamenev were let out
after a brief arrest; Lenin had disappeared as soon as it became
evident that the outbreak had miscarried. Apart from the usual
irresolution of ministers who had not learnt to govern during
their long apprenticeship in the ranks of a critical Opposition,
the hands of the Executive power were tied by the pressure
from the Soviet of Workmen, Peasants and Soldiers. The
Social Revolutionaries and Social Democrats, although dis-
agreeing with the Bolsheviks and afraid of them, worshipped
the word " Revolution," and were loth to adopt coercive meas-
ures against their comrades of the extreme Left. Stern meas-
ures against the extremists might have seemed a return to the
oppression of the Tsarist regime, and the Socialists preferred
risking their own safety to the danger of being accused of the
crime of " lese-Revolulion."
So the see-saw of contradictory decrees and measures con-
tinued for some time. While the military chiefs addressed
passionate appeals to the Government for a restoration of dis-
cipline, for stern punishment of deserters, for abolition of the
political authority of the Army Committee, Socialists, even
moderate ones, defended the " new discipline " of the noble
revolutionary army, minimized its defeats and demoralization,
and consoled themselves with the prospect of a rebirth of the
nation under the mighty influence of the revolutionary spirit.
In the meantime, the peasants were grabbing the estates and the
live stock of the squires, burning houses, and killing some of
the unpopular owners. The Minister of Agriculture, Chernov,
looked upon this lawlessness of self-help as a perfectly natural
outbreak of the policy of expropriation. The factory workers and
workshop artisans in the towns were not less insistent in the
assertion of their rights; wages went up by leaps and bounds,
while the work done became more and more careless and casual.
Owners and engineers were sometimes thrown out of their
establishments, seized by the proletarians. It happened,
indeed, that after trying their hand at management for some
time the workmen requested or compelled their former employ-
ers to return as managers, but such isolated cases did not counter-
balance the general effect of disorder and slackness. The decay
of Russian industries was proceeding fast. The efforts of mili-
tary chiefs and responsible leaders to arrest the spread of treason,
disorganization, and demoralization were denounced by the
Socialists of the Soviet and their representatives in the Pro-
visional Government as counter-revolutionary attempts.
The Second Revolution. Prince Lvov recognized that it was
no longer possible for Liberals to work with Chernov and his
companions. He resigned from the premiership, and the Cadets
in the Ministry followed him. Kerensky became prime minister.
Although he retained the portfolio of War and Marine, he set
himself the task of constructing a " strong revolutionary "
Government. In order to find a basis for a national coalition
he called a conference in Moscow, in which all classes, groups
and principal institutions of the Russian State were to be repre-
ented. The Bolsheviks refused to take part and ridiculed the
ea of a congregation of that kind. On Aug. 26 about 2,000
XXXII. 1 1
delegates met in the Grand Theatre, representatives of the
various parties, of Zemstvos and municipalities, of universi-
ties, of army, of factory workmen, of peasant communities, etc.
The meeting might have been a first step towards the regenera-
tion of Russia, if the leaders had clearly realized that the danger
did not lie in counter-revolution but in disorganization. But
Kerensky opened the discussion by a speech in which warnings
as to the danger to the country were intermixed with the usual
revolutionary catchwords, and no lead was given in the direction
of any practical reform. Kornilov, as commander-in-chief,
delegates of the officers, and many of the former political leaders,
spoke strongly of the necessity of reestablishing discipline, of a
strong executive, of national work to be carried on by all parties
and classes. But the delegates of the Left, who were in the
majority, not only turned a deaf ear to all such exhortations, but
manifested openly their contempt and dislike for the old ideals
of patriotism. Among the worst were the soldiers delegated by
various army committees. The whole attempt was a failure;
instead of bracing up the political consciousness of the nation
it revealed a state of complete paralysis on the part of the so-
called rulers of the country.
At the beginning of September Riga fell, after a half-hearted
and disconnected defence by the XI. Army. In the Soviet,
Tseretelli tried to bring through the reintroduction of capital
punishment for treason and desertion, and although he suc-
ceeded in collecting a narrow majority, this measure, insisted upon
by the officers, was nullified by motions in the opposite direction
for example, by a demand that the arrested Bolsheviks should
be liberated. It was evident that no serious effort to arrest
anarchistic effervescence could be expected either from the Pro-
visional Government or from the Soviet: they felt spellbound
as soon as the sacred word " Revolution " was pronounced by
the enemies of the State. The commander-in-chief, Kornilov,
was not the man to submit meekly and without a" struggle to
the fatal policy of drift. He threw his authority into the scales
against social disorder, and tried to force the Provisional Govern-
ment to side with him. With this object in view he ordered
some cavalry divisions on which he could rely to march toward
Petrograd. He began negotiations with Kerensky through the
medium of Boris Savinkov, a Social Revolutionary and active
terrorist, who was acting as Assistant Minister of War at the
time. This is how Savinkov related the main occurrences of
this momentous crisis:
" When, on the 5th-6th of September, at Headquarters I again
told him that in the near future the Provisional Government would
examine the bill which was being prepared by the order of the
Prime Minister, for the measures to be taken at the base, he believed
that the Government was no longer hesitating, and when bidding
me farewell on the 6th of September at Headquarters he declared
that he would give full support to the Prime Minister, for the good
of the country. On my return to Petrograd I reported my con-
versations with General Kornilov to the Prime Minister, and on
the evening of the 8th of Sept. the bill for legalizing measures at the
base (i.e. severe penalties for breaches of discipline) was to have been
examined by the Provisional Government. But on the 8th of Sept.
I was summoned to the Winter Palace, and the Prime Minister told
me something that was a complete surprise to me. He told me that
V. N. Lvov had come to him with an ultimatum from Gen. Kornilov,
who demanded that the supreme authority should be given over to
the Commander-in-Chief, with all military and civil power over the
country, and that he, the Commander-in-Chief, was to form a
Cabinet in which I was to be Minister of War and the Prime Minister
was to be Minister of Justice. The ultimatum was in writing, but
was signed, not by Gen. Kornilov, but by V. N. Lvov himself. Then
the Premier called Kornilov up on the Hughes apparatus, and asked
him without reading out to him the text of the declaration signed
by V. N. Lvov whether he was ready to sign the ultimatum pre-
sented by V. N. Lvov. Gen. Kornilov replied, ' Yes, 1 am ready to
sign.' On the same day (8th of Sept.), the Prime Minister sent a
telegram to Gen. Kornilov at Headquarters, demanding that
Kornilov should immediately give up his post and leave the army."
(Tyzkova- Williams, 214, 215.)
Komilov's attempt to assume power was obviously conducted
in a very clumsy manner: he was not a statesman, but a soldier,
and the people around him were in no way able to make up for
his deficiencies in political training. It is almost inconceivable
how he could have chosen as his messenger the half-witted
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RUSSIA
V. Lvov. But, apart from that blunder, the chief advisers of
Kornilov, were Zavoiko, a minor bureaucrat of the old regime,
crafty and plausible, but devoid of insight and authority, and
Aladine, a noisy half-educated demagogue, a member of the
First Duma, who had turned Nationalist and had nothing to
recommend him but his posing as the mouthpiece of the secret
diplomacy of the Entente. However this may be, the intended
coup d'etat miscarried completely and made the situation only
worse. Kerensky assumed the part of a heroic defender of the
Revolution against a military conspiracy, all the various Social-
istic groups joined him in the outcry against the would-be
dictator, the army did not rise to support the general, who wanted
to reestablish discipline and unity of command, the leader of
the cavalry corps, which had advanced to the outskirts of Pet-
rograd, shot himself, and Kornilov and his principal supporters
Danikine and Lukomsky were arrested and charged with
treason. The outcome of the whole affair was a recrudescence
of revolutionary zeal, and a violent rush to the Left. In the
country the panic produced by Kornilov's attempt expressed
itself in wholesale massacres.
The victorious Kerensky did not realize that he had thrown
away the last chance of salvation from the rising tide of anarchy
and terrorism. He appointed himself commander-in-chief and
imagined that he was strong enough to defeat the onslaught
from the Left as well as from the Right. Yet he received warn-
ing after warning of the crumbling away of political organiza-
tion. The central executive of the Soviet had been effected by
the landslide towards the Left. They called a Democratic
Conference in Petrograd from which all bourgeois elements
were excluded: the membership was restricted to delegations
from Soviets, trade unions, cooperative societies and peasants'
communes. This Assembly, in which the various Socialist
groups had entirely their own way, could not even agree on a
resolution calling for a Coalition Government capable of defend-
ing Russia in the hour of supreme danger. A motion in the
sense was first passed and then rejected in consequence of the
reluctance to admit Cadets and adherents of Kornilov to any
share in the Government.
In contrast with this confusion of ideas and lack of resolution
the extremists were quite clear in their minds, and the snake
of Bolshevism was lifting its head again. Trotsky, who had been
let out of prison, was more popular than ever, when he dis-
coursed on the necessity of forming a Government of the Soviets
and appealing for peace to the proletarian masses of the world.
At the new elections to the Executive of the Soviets of Workmen,
Peasants and Soldiers, he was elected President against Cheidze.
This meant that the dualistic system was recognized to be obso-
lete, and the Provisional Government with Kerensky at its
head was to be discarded in favour of a concentration of power
in the hands of the Extremists. A motion condemning Kerensky
and his Government was passed by the Soviet Executive.
Kerensky tried to parry the blows by supplementing a totter-
ing Coalition Ministry with a Council of the Republic composed
of representatives of all the political parties, principal associa-
tions and institutions. This body met at Petrograd on Oct. 20.
Jt gave a measure of its capacity for political action by starting
a long discussion on the question of the active or passive defence
of Russia against the ever-increasing German menace. Although
the Bolsheviks ostentatiously left the Council as a protest
against the presence of " bourgeois " elements and the " counter-
revolutionary " policy of the Council, the remaining parties
were unable to agree on any definite and patriotic motion. The
Internationalist delusions of many Socialists were strong enough
to prevent any firm declaration directed against the Germans.
Five motions were made, and all five were rejected one after the
other. Defencists like Plekhanov were powerless against the
Internationalists led by Martov.
The Bolshevist Usurpation. The time of the Bolshevists had
come. In the first days of Nov. 1917 the Soviet under Trot-
sky's leadership formed a military Revolutionary Committee,
and on the 3rd, the authority of that Committee was recog-
nized by the Petrograd garrison. Then steps were openly taken
to form an armed force dependent on the Soviet and independ-
ent of the Provisional Government. By the side of this force,
which was considered not to be entirely trustworthy, the sailors
of the Baltic fleet could be counted upon implicity: they had
long ago thrown in their lot with the advocates of civil war and
terrorism. Kerensky assured his ministers, and proclaimed
loudly to the population that he had taken the necessary meas-
ures to suppress any attempt at a revolt. In reality he had no
troops at his disposal except a couple of battalions of military
cadets and one company of women. The commander-in-chief
of the Russian army relied on speeches against machine-guns,
as the Chinese generals of 1860 had relied on painted dragons
against the rifles of the English and French expeditionary force.
The result was a similar one. On Nov. 7, Bolshevik sailors
surrounded the Winter Palace, and after a brief scrap with the
women arrested the ministers, the premier and commander-in-
chief having disappeared in good time. A lieutenant with some
soldiers drove out the Council of the Republic. The Cadet
battalions were overpowered, and their remnants massacred by
the soldiery and the mob. A small force of Cossacks under
Gen. Krasnov skirmished for a few days against the sailors
and armed workmen on the outskirts of Petrograd, but even-
tually concluded an armistice and withdrew. In Moscow the
struggle was fierce, and Cadets held out for some time in the
Kremlin together with a few loyal battalions. But there, too,
defenders of the Government submitted to superior gun-power,
lack of supplies and the discouraging influence of discussions
and treachery. All along the front the demoralized soldiery
rose against their officers and massacred them in the name of the
Revolution. The commander-in-chief at headquarters, Duk-
honin, was dragged out by a mob of soldiers and murdered.
The first act of the Bolshevik dictators was to satisfy the
craving of the masses corrupted by them: private property was
abolished, with the reservation that the land of the peasants
and Cossacks was not to be confiscated. At the same time the
new Soviet Government addressed to all the belligerent States
the proposal to conclude peace. The Entente Powers were
invited to join in direct negotiations with the Central Empires;
failing this, Soviet Russia would conclude a separate peace.
The advanced Socialists had no scruples as to the " letting
down " of Allies who had been struggling for three years
against the German Junkers: what they were chiefly afraid of
was an Allied victory.
The same contempt for truth, duty and justice, was displayed
in the domain of home politics. The coup d'etat had left one
institution still standing the Constituent Assembly in process
of formation. The Bolsheviks had clamoured for its immediate
convocation, and accused all the parties with the criminal
design of delaying or preventing its meeting. They were now
at the head and could not forthwith stop the elections. These
had been prepared laboriously by idealistic doctrinaires by
staunch believers in universal, equal, direct, and secret suffrage.
All citizens of both sexes who had attained the age of 20 were to
take part in it. To make the arrangements absolutely perfect,
the principle of proportionate representation had also been
introduced in a somewhat peculiar form. The various parties
were to present lists containing as many names as there were
seats allotted to the electoral district. The attribution of these
seats to the parties was to be made in proportion to the number
of votes cast in support of each list, the candidates taking
places in the order of their seniority in the parties nomination.
The absurdity of these mechanical devices had been already
demonstrated by the municipal and rural elections, but the
defects of the latter were greatly intensified in the case of the
Constituent Assembly. Ignorant peasants were led off to
record their votes for long lists of men whom they did not know
and in support of platforms they did not understand. The
extreme parties did not shrink from any kind of violence and
fraud to bring in their nominees. Nevertheless, some sort of
elections were actually held, right in the midst of revolutionary
chaos, in the months of Nov. and Dec. The result was that the
Social Revolutionaries got a large majority, thanks to the votes
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323
of the peasantry, while next came the Bolsheviks, who drew their
chief support from the workmen in the towns and from the
soldiers. The Mensheviks and the Cadets came in with negli-
gible numbers, the latter with 15 out of a total of 600.
The Bolsheviks were not satisfied with such results. As soon
as it became clear that they had not won in the gamble for votes,
they began to revile the " parliamentarism " of the Constituent
Assembly and of all national organizations as opposed to class
groups. When the members of the Constituent Assembly
came to Petrograd, and tried to get into the Taurida Palace,
they were met by armed guards and ejected from the building.
Leading members of the Cadet party, Countess S. Panina,
Shingarev and Kokostsev, were arrested as " enemies of the
people " and thrown into the dungeons of the Fortress of St.
Peter and St. Paul. Anorderforthe arrest of Chernov and Avk-
sentiev was also issued, but they could not be found. At last, on
Jan. 1 8 1918 the opening sitting of the Constituent Assembly
was held. Trusty heroes from the Kronstadt fleet, with loaded
rifles, surrounded the deputies from all sides; the galleries were
packed with a howling mob. In spite of this, the election of the
President resulted in a defeat for the Bolsheviks and the Social
Revolutionaries of the Left allied with them. Their candidate,
Marie Spiridonova, received 158 votes against V. Chernov,
who got 244. Nor did the Assembly consent to register all the
decrees handed in by the Bolsheviks and to abdicate its legisla-
tive power in favour of the Soviets. The armed rulers were not
disposed to bow before the recalcitrant Assembly. After sitting
one day, it was dissolved and ejected from the Taurida Palace.
By way of justification for this act of treacherous violence,
it was maintained that the Constituent Assembly did not reflect
the " will of the Revolution," that the " masses " had moved
away from the standpoints represented by the party lists, and
that, altogether, " formal democracy " has no right to decide
in times of Revolution: the leadership ought to belong to the
advanced organizations conscious of their aim and intent on
achieving it. It was not difficult even for " nebulous " Social
Revolutionaries of the Centre and Right to refute these sophisms.
They urged with perfect truth that the will of the Revolution
in this case meant simply the arbitrary sway of a gang of reckless
adventurers, that the Assembly, in spite of all its defects, was
the one authorized institution entitled to speak for Russia, an
institution which had been recognized and made use of by the
Bolsheviks as long as it suited the purposes of their propaganda.
But what force had arguments in the face of rifles? The soldiers
had run away from the front in order to rob and kill in the name
of the Revolution: no one was ready to satisfy and to glorify
them to the same extent as the Bolsheviks. Hence there was
ample "pragmatic" justification for the Bolsheviks' coup d'etat.
Naturally the first acts of the new era were decrees of the
Executive Council proclaiming the abolition of private prop-
erty and the resolve to conclude a democratic peace.
Peace of Brest Litovsk. Two parties were necessary in order
to conclude that honourable peace " without annexations and
indemnities " which the Bolsheviks announced before having
informed themselves of the views of the other party as to the
conditions of such a peace. Lenin, Trotsky, Zinoviev and their
colleagues had, however, made up their minds about certain
points, so that the ordinary negotiations were for them only a
formal act, attractive in so far as they enabled their sans culotte
delegation to exchange salutations and to sit at the same table
with the diplomatists and soldiers of powerful empires. The
Bolsheviks had long ago made their choice between the belliger-
ents; they expected and preferred the victory of the Germans,
who had served them and provided them with funds in the hour
of need. Hypocritical invitations to the Allies to follow in their
wake at Brest Litovsk could deceive no one as to their choice.
And as they had done more than anyone to corrupt and disband
the Russian army, they knew perfectly well that they had noth-
ing to oppose General Hoffmann, when the latter chose to
" bang his boot on the table " (Trotsky). Some show was made
in their newspapers of strikes in Austria and in Berlin, but it
was clearly a case of discussing terms with an opponent who
had disarmed you and may dispatch you at his pleasure. No
wonder that Baron Kiihlmann, after accepting the formula of an
honourable peace " without indemnities and annexations " on
the basis of the self-determination of peoples, required the rep-
resentatives of the Soviet Republic to cede Poland and Courland
to the Central Empires, to recognize Finland, Esthonia and
Latvia as independent States, to give up the Ukraine on both
shores of the Dnieper, and to pay a contribution of 300 million
rubles. Trotsky tried to get away with a theatrical gesture;
he and his colleagues declared that they could not sign such a
humiliating peace, and they departed in noble style. Even this
little pretence was not vouchsafed to them. General Hoffmann
ordered some German divisions to advance, and the revolution-
ary army was at once on the run. The delegation of Soviets had to
come back crestfallen and to sign a second more dishonourable
edition of the Treaty of Brest Litovsk. Lenin was in no way
disturbed: he explained to the Third Congress of the Soviets
that the Germans had their knees on Russia's chest and that it
was no use struggling. Breathing space must be had at any
price, in the hope of a further fulfilment of Zimmerwald predic-
tions. The Congress ratified the Brest Litovsk document by a
large majority, and a German envoy, Count Mirbach, was sent
to Moscow to watch over the exact fulfilment of conditions by
the vanquished. Trotsky, who is particularly fond of repeating,
at every turn of his account of these affairs, such phrases as
" we know " or " we expected," may well claim that this degra-
dation had been foreseen and to a great extent brought about by
his party. But the breathing space required by Lenin was
provided, not by the Brest Litovsk peace, which was the opening
move for the complete enslavement of Russia by the Germans,
but by the unexpected fact that the Allies did not succumb, in
spite of the treacherous conduct of the Bolsheviks. The Marx-
ist prognostics of the victory of Germany as the nation best
organized in a technical and economic sense was shown to be
fallacious. The staying power of the Austrian, Bulgarian and
German armies proved to be less than that of the soldiers of
France, Great Britain and the United States. The victory of
the Allies saved Russia from the consequences of Brest Litovsk.
The Rule of the Communists. In spite of the fact that the
elections to the Constituent Assembly had resulted in an over-
whelming majority for the Social Revolutionists, the drastic
way in which Lenin and his companions had satisfied the popular
demands for peace at any price, for land and for proletarian
privileges, ensured to them the more or less fervid support of the
masses. The lower classes enjoyed the defeat and humiliations
of their betters even apart from direct advantages and even at
the cost of some discomfort for themselves. The pent-up resent-
ment and envy of generations found vent in acts of brutal violence
and disorder. It was pleasant to see maids of honour sweeping
the streets, and generals insulted and sometimes murdered by
their soldiers. We are told of cases when the descendants of
serfs dug out the skeletons of their former squires from their
graves and threw them into sewers. It was an act of frenzy on
the part of revolted slaves when the commander-in-chief,
Dukhonin, was torn to pieces at his headquarters and Ensign
Krylenko installed in his place, or when, later, the heroes of the
great war Ruzsky and Radko Dmitriev were massacred in
Piatigorsk because they did not truckle under the threats of the
disbanded soldiery. The officers slaughtered in Helsingfors, in
Kronstadt, in Kiev, in Sevastopol, paid with their blood for the
disaster of Tsushima, the Sukhomlinov misrule, the cruel dis-
cipline of the Old Army. As a result, Bolshevik domination
spread over the land like a forest fire, and all attempts at resist-
ance proved unavailing against its elemental progress. The
cadets of the military schools of Moscow held the Kremlin for
a few days with great gallantry, but they were betrayed by Ihe
head of the Moscow garrison; he surrendered them to the Com-
munists " for the sake of peace." Occasional resistance in other
towns was put down with even greater ease. The personnel of
many administrative institutions went on strike, and attempted
to stalemate the usurpers by refusing to serve under them: the
strikers were reduced to obedience after a couple of months by
324
RUSSIA
the necessity of earning their bread somehow. Countess Panina,
one of the most enlightened and public-spirited Russian women,
had acted as Assistant Minister in Kerensky's last Ministry:
she was thrown into prison for having supported this strike
movement, which the Bolsheviks treated as a " sabotage " of
Government services. She was eventually released, but two
among the most idealistic, most self-sacrificing of the Liberals
who had taken part in the Provisional Government, Shingarev
and Kokoshkin, fell victims to a dastardly gang of murderers
in a hospital where they had been lodged on account of illness.
The only serious attempt to oppose armed resistance to the
bandits was offered by Gen. Alexeiev and the indefatigable
Kornilov. They collected a few thousands of devoted men,
most of them officers, formed them into improvised units, and
took the field against the Bolsheviks in a far-off corner of the
empire in Northern Caucasus. Kornilov fell in the unequal
struggle, but his comrades succeeded in building up gradually a
' Volunteer Army " which held its own in the Kuban territory.
It was too weak to advance because the Cossacks, instead of
joining it with all their forces, wavered and negotiated. Hetman
Kaledin, a brilliant general who had won conspicuous distinction
in Brusilov's campaign of 1916, was so grievously affected by
this lack of patriotism that he committed suicide; and his suc-
cessor, Krasnov, preferred to enter into an agreement with the
Germans, who were spreading their tentacles from the Ukraine
to the Donets and to the Volga.
The rise of the revolutionary tide was, however, not a con- 1
slant and unbroken process. The shattered forces of the past j
did not give way without repeated attempts to reassert their
vitality. The Orthodox Church that had grown up with the
Russian people in its hard struggle for existence could not be
reconciled with the rule of aggressive materialists. Everywhere
the clergy exerted its influence publicly and secretly against the
anti-Christian rulers. Tikhon, the newly appointed Patriarch
of Moscow, whose chair had been set up again by a national
Council of the Orthodox Church after an interval of 200 years
of Babylonian bondage to lay bureaucracy, denounced and
anathematized the Communists. Everywhere processions and
ceremonies recalled to the popular mind the ancient traditions
of creed and ritual, and even the most hardened among the
rioters and deserters responded at times to these emotional
appeals. The Bolsheviks turned sanctuaries into public halls,
desecrated revered shrines, tortured priests and shot bishops,
but these persecutions strengthened the moral hold of the
Church on the flock, purified the sunken priesthood by a new
baptism of blood. Among the Intellectuals themselves, religion
regained many adherents, and men like Eugene Trubetskoy or
Bulgakov, who had stood up for Christian ideals in the days
when it was considered ridiculous for an educated man to do so,
found themselves at the head of a powerful movement.
The Liberals also did not give up the struggle. A number of
more or less secret associations sprang up. The Press was being
gradually gagged by the Bolsheviks, but these associations
continued their underground existence in spite of the espionage
and arrests. The most influential were the Radical League of
Reconstruction (Soyuz Vozrojdenia) led by Avksentiev and
Argunov, the " Centre," composed of Cadets and Left Octo-
brists with N. Astrov and N. Shtchpkin at their head, and a un-
ion of the Rights whose principal leaders were Krivoshein and
Gourko. The question of yielding to the Germans and crushing
the Communists with their help was eagerly discussed in con-
nexion with the plan of a monarchical restoration. The idea
found favour among the Rights and was supported among the
Cadets by P. Milyukov, who had fled to Kiev, and considered
that the game was definitely lost by the western Allies and that
it was wiser to accept defeat from the Germans than from the
Bolsheviks. This view was, however, decisively rejected by the
Liberals and the Radicals, who remained staunch in their
allegiance to the Entente and could not bear to think of German
domination. The chastisement for this independence of mind
followed closely upon the offence: the Cadets had held a confer-
ence in Moscow on the political situation on May 13, 14 and 15,
and had endorsed the policy of their leaders to remain faithful
to the Entente: on May 17 their various centres were raided
and many representatives arrested. Others fled south and
east, but Moscow was still the nucleus of a " National Centre."
Policy of the Allies. How did the Entente Powers react
against the disruption of their alliance with Russia? Their
ambassadors, having watched with anxiety the decay of the
monarchy, offered ineffectual advice, and informed their Govern-
ments of the precariousness of the situation without being able
to suggest any effective course of policy. When the blow fell,
the Entente Powers accepted the verdict of the Revolution as a
necessary consequence of Tsarist misrule, and the President of
the United States actually felt more free to join the western
coalition, since the danger of a victorious advance of Tsarism
had been removed. The device of a double diplomacy was
adopted: while Sir George Buchanan and M. Noulens continued
officially to represent Great Britain and France, special envoys
were dispatched to Petrograd as emissaries of various groups of
Socialists faithful to national traditions. Arthur Henderson for
Great Britain and M. Albert Thomas for France were even
entrusted with official missions. The main object was to steer
the Russian Revolution into a warlike course, to keep up the
eastern front, and to provoke a resumption of the Russian offen-
sive. The results of this unusual diplomacy were very hetero-
geneous. While Albert Thomas eagerly supported Kerensky in
his patriotic appeals to the army, as well as in his attempts to
arrange a coalition with the Soviets, Arthur Henderson became
convinced of the urgent need of peace and favoured a meeting
of Labour delegates in Stockholm.
The evolution of Russia was not much affected by these con-
tradictory views of the Entente emissaries. The offensive was
tried with disastrous results. The Russian army dissolved under
the influence of the " peace at any price " movement. Disap-
pointment with the conduct of revolutionary Russia was reflected
in the sympathy on the part of certain circles in England for
Kornilov's attempt, a sympathy which did not help but rather
hampered him. The advent of the Bolsheviks drove the western
Powers into an attitude of absolute helplessness. They could
do nothing to counteract the Brest Litovsk negotiations, and,
at the same time, they were not in a position to break off all
relations with the Communist Government for fear of its taking
sides with the Germans. Even the shooting of the British naval
attache by Bolsheviks did not rouse them from their torpor.
The Brest Litovsk peace, the occupation of southern Russia
by German troops, the intervention of the Germans in Finland,
obliged them, however, to adopt a decision. The embassies
were gradually withdrawn, the semi-commercial and semi-dip-
lomatic mission of Mr. Lockhart did not lead to any favourable
results, and in the summer of 1918 all official relations with the
Government of the Soviets were broken off. A state of more or
less active hostility set in when the anti-Bolshevik troops were
being reorganized on an extensive scale in various parts of
Russia. The White forces received support from the Allies
in the shape of military supph'es, occasional expeditions, and a
blockade of the ports controlled by the Soviets. Concurrently
with this intermittent support of Russian national armies, the
Allies encouraged and protected all the nationalities of the
Empire which were striving for a separation from Russia:
Poland and Rumania came to be looked upon by the French as
the bulwarks of Western civilization against Russian barbarism
and German militarism. The Baltic States (Latvia, Esthonia,
Lithuania) and the Caucasian formations (Georgia, Armenia,
Azerbaijan) were backed in their separatist aspirations by
Great Britain. This tendency to dismemberment of the Russian
Empire could not be harmonized with the ideals and efforts of
Russian patriots, but the Entente Powers did not pause to
reflect on the inadvisability of destroying with one hand what
they were helping to build up with the other. Psychologically,
their centrifugal policy was connected with old antagonism to
the Russian Empire, with dreams of national self-determination,
restricted somehow by the vital interests of the " Big Four,"
and after the victory over the Central Powers with the
RUSSIA
325
Versailles delusions of overwhelming power over the world.
The incoherence and vacillations of Entente policy might not
have been so pernicious if Russian patriots had been able to
muster an overwhelming array of anti-Bolshevik forces in Russia
itself. Unfortunately this was not the case.
Anti-Bolshevik Governments. During the first months of the
Soviet regime, while the power of the proletarian dictators was
still shaky and unorganized, several concentrations opposing
them were formed in the East. First, Colonel Semenov, a
leader of Transbaikalian Cossacks, had started a guerrilla war-
fare on the borders of Mongolia and Manchuria, advancing in
the direction of Chita when luck favoured him and retreating
across the Chinese frontier when he met superior forces of the
Bolsheviks, together with the Magyar, Austrian and German
prisoners of war mobilized by the latter. In May 1918, he
succeeded in forming a provisional government in Chita. Soon
afterwards, Admiral Kolchak, a brilliant naval officer, who had
distinguished himself in the Japanese War, organized another
Provisional Government in Novo Nikolayevsk at the junction
of the Siberian railway with the Maritime province line. The
Japanese, who had landed a detachment in Vladivostok, sup-
ported him in a general way.
About the same time, in the spring and early summer of 1918,
there occurred another startling event. Czech detachments
which had been formed to fight for Russia from among prisoners
of war, and who had fought gallantly against the Central Coali-
tion in the last campaign, demanded to withdraw after the
debdde of the Russian army and the advent of the Bolsheviks.
They were allowed to do so by the Soviet authorities, but they
were to be disarmed, and in the course of their movement east
towards Vladivostok they were subjected to offensive and
treacherous treatment. Some of them refused to give up their
arms; others, after having been disarmed, broke away, recovered
arms and munitions, and turned on the undisciplined rabble of
the Rd troops. As a result of encounters of this kind, the
Czechs, and some Slovak detachments which had joined them,
seized great tracts of the Siberian railway line near the Volga,
near Irkutsk, and by Vladivostok. Eventually, after many
vicissitudes, these corps made their junction along the whole
line. The total number of troops who effected this coup de
thedlre averaged some 80,000 men. It would be useless to
follow in detail the swaying fortunes of these detachments.
Their daring exploits would hardly have achieved success if a
considerable portion of the population of eastern Russia had
not sympathized with them. As it happened, these disciplined
troops succeeded in creating the backbone of resistance against
the Moscow dictators: in Siberia, Provisional Governments
were formed in Vladivostok, in Harbin (General Horvath),
and in Tomsk, besides the centres of military administration
started by Col. Semenov and Admiral Kolchak.
Unfortunately the various governments comprised different
and mutually hostile groups, which could not be prevailed upon
to act loyally together. The Vladivostok concentration reflected
the Socialist ferment in the country, and worked for an inde-
pendent Siberia. The Government formed in Tomsk was an
Executive of a Siberian Duma, composed of delegates from
various organizations zemstvos, municipalities, political parties,
social groups (workmen, students, cooperative associations).
The majority of these constituencies followed a socialistic
orientation, but their Executive adopted a more conservative
policy and admitted several Cadets into its ranks. From
Samara came yet another political tendency: some thirty fugi-
tive members of the Constituent Assembly, dismissed by the
Bolsheviks, had assembled there, and their political creed was
expressed in the demand for a restoration of that Assembly,
which they considered as the only body constitutionally entitled
to wield power in Russia. Their aim was to reconstitute an
All-Russian State, which would include Siberia as an autono-
mous part of its organization. On the other hand the adminis-
trations of General Horvath and Admiral Kolchak, while
reserving the ultimate decision as to the system of Government
to a new Constituent Assembly, discarded the authority of the
one elected in December 1917 as not representative of Russian
opinion. These administrations favoured the propertied classes
and built up their personnel from the remnants of the military
and civil bureaucracy of the monarchical period. Even in the
face of the enemy all these groups found the greatest difficulty
in establishing cooperation. The Vladivostok Government sub-
mitted to the authority of the West Siberian one, but the nego-
tiations with Horvath were protracted and fruitless. A coup
d'etat on a small scale was attempted in Vladivostok by Hor-
vath's lieutenant, Gen. Pleshkov, but the Allies intervened to
reestablish the Socialist administration because it was approved
of by the Vladivostok zemstvo.
In the west a conference held in Ufa laid down the founda-
tions of an All-Russian scheme in connexion with the Constit-
uent Assembly of 1917, and succeeded in persuading the
Siberian Government in Omsk to recognize its authority. The
moving element in this case came from the Moderate Sociah'sts,
chiefly Social Revolutionaries, but Social Democrats of the
Plekhanov persuasion and some Cadets were in agreement with
them. A directorate of five consisting of Avksentiev, Zenzinov,
Vologodsky, V. Vinogradov and Gen. Boldyrov was established.
Admiral Kolchak accepted the portfolio of War in the Ministry
which was to conduct the actual administration. This amalga-
mation of Governments was arranged in the beginning of Oct.,
and a mobilization of certain classes of the Siberian population
which had been started somewhat earlier was carried out on a
more extensive scale: it yielded some 150,000 men, whose mili-
tary instruction had to be taken in hand under very difficult
conditions. Many delays and mistakes occurred, and the differ-
ent sets of people who had been brought together with such
difficulty quarrelled over the task, suspected and accused one
another. The officers who had served under the old regime
were displeased with the policy of the Directors, whom they
accused of indecision and vain talk; the Socialists chafed at the
high-handed way in which they were treated by the military
chiefs and the employees of the Ministries. In the night of
November 18 these dissensions came to a head. A party of
soldiers led by officers of the Omsk garrison arrested the Social-
ist members of the Directorate, Avksentiev and Zenzinov, and
two of their assistants, while a third Director, Vologodsky,
joined a meeting of Ministers which elected Admiral Kolchak
as Supreme Ruler. In the communique issued on the occasion
by the newly constituted Government, it was explained that
" wide social circles had been discontented with the wavering
behaviour of the Provisional All-Russian Government in re-
gard to certain tendencies of the Left leading to the renewal
of a destructive policy. While condemning the coup d'ttat as
an illegal act the new Government endorsed it by taking advan-
tage of the accomplished fact: Avksentiev and Zenzinov were
allowed to escape and the two remaining Directors, Boldyrov
and Vinogradov, retired.
Such a start did not augur well for the future of the reconstruc-
tion movement: it showed that the enemies of the Bolsheviks
were still irreconcilably divided by the old feud between Con-
servative Nationalists and Socialistic idealists. These conflicts
helped to keep alive in the mass of the people a spirit of lawless-
ness and distrust. And yet nothing was more needed in those
days than steadiness and forbearance as regards details; those
who had assumed the task of restoring order were least able
to lay claim to efficient administration the lack of experience
and even honesty was felt everywhere. The mobilization, for
example, was carried out in the most haphazard fashion, crowds
of conscripts being left even without accommodation.
The fact that the Bolsheviks in Siberia were drawing largely
for support on the Austrian, Magyar, and German prisoners, of
whom about half a million were dispersed in various localities
of the wide country, and the difficult situation of the Czechs
astride the Siberian railway, had provoked an intervention of
the Allies. Japanese, American, British and French detach-
ments were landed in Vladivostok with instructions of varying
intensity: all the intervening Powers gave assurances of their
disinterestedness, of their friendship for the Russian people, of
326
RUSSIA
their resolve to leave it entirely free to decide as to its destiny;
but while the Japanese were committed by their past and their
future to safeguard and promote their own interests, the Ameri-
cans were enjoined to restrict themselves to guarding railway
communications and stores, and the French colonial troops
held aloof. The British followed a middle course in the sense
that part of their contingent, Col. J. Ward's Hampshire Regi-
ment, was pushed forward right through Siberia, but there was
no clear military aim in that operation and steps were retraced
when the real difficulties set in. Material support was given
by the British more than by anybody else, but these measures
were in the nature of a risky speculation dependent on the
trend of home politics and on the ability of the " White
Guards " to win the game.
A somewhat different situation arose in the north of Russia,
where the rule of the Soviet Commissars was overthrown both
in Archangel and in the Murman, and a patriotic Government
was set up under the leadership of N. Tchaikovsky, a " Popular
Socialist," who had lived in England for many years as an exile.
The opposition between progressive and conservative circles,
and the difficulty of conducting business with the available
demoralized elements, were also felt there, but Great Britain's
stake in the game was much more conspicuous, and the British
detachments under Generals Maynard and Ironside formed a
very important part of the forces operating against the Bolshe-
viks. There was, however, no real cohesion between the Russians
and their British allies, although cases of acute hostility were
exceptional. Apart from such dissensions the ground was felt
to be shaky on account of the war-weariness and the fickle
temper of the common people. The massacre of the British
officers by the men of Dyer's battalion showed that Bolshevik
propaganda and Bolshevik habits were by no means a thing of
the past.
The southern front, organized by General Denikin after
Alexeiev's death, was suffering from similar weakness. The
Voluntary Army constituting its backbone had become an
efficient and powerful instrument of war; the officers' division,
which had formed its bulk in the beginning, had expanded grad-
ually into several corps by drawing into its ranks veteran soldiers
who had learnt their trade in the terrible battles against Germans
and Austrians. But the trusty regiments named after Kornilov,
Alexeiev, Markov and Drozdovsky, had to act together with the
levies of the Don and the Kuban Cossacks, who, though unrivalled
as irregular horsemen, had their own axe to grind in the conflict.
The Don province had been subjected to repeated attacks and
devastation, and many of the Cossacks were anxious to keep
to their frontiers and to manage their own affairs. As for the
Kuban people, they were divided among two sets: the men of the
" line " in the north were patriotic enough and fought brilliantly,
but the Black Sea Cossacks, mostly descendants of the Zaporog
Cossacks transferred to the Kuban from the Dnieper by Cather-
ine II., were animated by a spirit of separatism and ready to
follow leaders who worked for a Cossack Republic. A great
deal depended on the skill and the political insight of Denikin's
administration, and in this respect, as on the eastern front,
grievous blunders and abuses occurred. The main direction was
necessarily in the hands of military commanders inclined to
insist above all on discipline, and contemptuous as to political
theories and subtle distinctions. Denikin himself, though per-
fectly honest and straightforward, held systematically aloof
from constitutional disputes, and declared his task to be pri-
marily one of liberation and restoration. His principal assist-
ants, Generals Dragomirov and Lukomsky, had even less taste
for political " metaphysics," and one of the civil advisers, Prof.
K. Sokolov, openly expressed the view that the only regime
suited to the circumstances of the time was a " democratic dic-
tatorship " satisfying the needs of the common people. Although
nothing was prejudged as to the ultimate form of Government,
the organization of the southern territories occupied by Denikin
was cast in the mould of the supreme authority of the command-
er-in-chief. By his side stood a Special Council composed of the
heads of departments and of a few representatives of public
opinion. All the members some twenty were nominated by
the commander-in-chief. The elements of military and civil
bureaucracy were decidedly predominant, and the " Left " was
confined to three Cadets, all moderate Liberals. The Socialist
parties were excluded from the Government and kept under
strict supervision as regards their Press. One of their influential
leaders, Schreider, was deported by order of the Government;
many others left of their own accord for the Crimea. The
greatest difficulty was experienced in holding the balance between
the aims of the Volunteer Army engaged in the reestablishment
of a National State and the aspirations of the Cossack communi-
ties tending towards federalism. The problem of reconciling
these contradictory tendencies was a most difficult one. The
Kuban Rada (Assembly) manifested openly separatist leanings:
its leaders, Bytch and Makarenko, were dissatisfied with a dual-
istic arrangement contrived after many efforts between the
Higher Command and the Rada. They wanted the political
independence of the Kuban to be recognized, and sought an
alliance with other Cossack territories in order to strengthen
their demands. This political strife reacted in a most unfa-
vourable manner on the conduct of operations in the field.
Reds v. Whiles. Disgust with the hypocritical tyranny of the
Bolsheviks and the humiliation of Russia found a vent in con-
spiracies and risings among the intellectuals. The German as-
cendency was challenged by the murder of the ambassador,
Count Mirbach, in July 1918. Almost simultaneously the
commissar in charge of the police in Petrograd, Uritsky, was
killed, and Lenin himself dangerously wounded by a Socialist.
The Social Revolutionaries made an attempt to overthrow the
Bolsheviks in Moscow, but were suppressed with great slaughter.
Later on, the most experienced of Terrorists, Boris Savinkov,
engineered a rising in Yarosla.vl and neighbouring districts; it
was quelled after bitter fighting. These. isolated attempts in
the heart of Russia were not so dangerous as the simultaneous
advance from the east and the south. Kolchak's armies reached
at one time Kazan and Simbirsk, Denikin pushed as far as
Orel, and in the north there was some hope that Gen. Iron-
side's British column might have joined hands with Kolchak's
force near Kotlas. The Communists made desperate efforts to
meet the onslaught. The Red hosts were reorganized by former
officers of the Imperial army, with Polivanov, Theremissov,
Klembovsky, Parsky, Dalmetov at their head. Even Brussilov
lent the prestige of his name to the cause of the Moscow Soviet.
These men were inspired not only by the pressure of want and
despair, but in many cases by a fatalistic belief that they were
serving the interests of Russia under the Red flag as against
reactionaries and foreigners. An iron discipline was reintro-
duced, disobedience, treachery and cowardice were promptly
punished with death, desertion was repressed as far as possible,
there was no more indulgence for committee discussions or for
the " self-determination " of military units which had wrought
havoc in the last stage of the war against the Central Empires.
In every battalion, squadron and battery nuclei of devoted
Communists were inserted in order to watch and to lead the
apathetic rank and file. Altogether the proletarian dictators
reverted without any scruple or confusion to the practices they
had fiercely denounced in the time of defeatist propaganda.
The cadres of the army were gradually filled by wholesale
mobilizations, and although crowds of conscripts were swept
away by desertion, there remained enough in the ranks to out-
number the White forces: the fact that the Bolsheviks had got
hold of the solid centre of Great Russia against the weaker out-
lying portions of the Empire was bound to assert its overwhelm-
ing influence in the end. Of course, if there had been an ele-
mental popular rising against the proletarian leaders, they
could not have withstood the attack. But the Great Russian
peasantry, although by no means sympathetic to Communist
doctrines and hostile to many of the commissars, were yet under
the spell of the opinion that they were defending their newly
conquered land against the squires who wanted to get it back.
While this broad basis of popular support remained unshaken
the dictators could exert their cruelty and lusts with impunity.
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327
Terror against the bourgeoisie had been proclaimed by them
from the very beginning: it formed one of the main planks of
their platform. It was expanded into a system of wholesale
slaughter and ruthless inquisitorial measures as a means of
self-defence. The Extraordinary Commission (the famous
Tchresvichayka) thrust the Tsar's Okhrana into the shade;
as a matter of fact, it was served to a large extent by hangmen,
torture-masters and spies borrowed from the Tsarist police,
but acting with much greater independence and thoroughness.
By the side of this cold-blooded and systematic machinery for
crushing human beings acted innumerable gangs of ruffians
and criminals, who robbed and killed in the sacred name of the
Red Revolution with complete impunity and with the approval
of the ruling powers. It is quite impossible to estimate the
number of victims who fell a prey to this campaign of hatred.
Here is an extract from Bolshevik sources which may illus-
trate this butchery, although it does not in any way give an
idea of its real dimensions:
" In 1918 the persons arrested on the charges of counter-revolu-
tion, crime in office, speculation, use of forged and other people's
documents, etc., numbered 47,348. In 1919 the activities of the
Tchresvichayka developed, and the number of persons arrested
reached 80,662. Out of the total number of persons arrested in 1919,
21,032 were classed as counter-revolutionaries, while 19,673 were
arrested for crimes of office. Out of the 128,010 arrested in 1918-9
54,250, or 42 \/ , were liberated without subsequent consequences.
Eight per cent of the total number of persons consisted of hostages.
Nearly 1 1 % were sentenced to compulsory labour, 29 % retained in
prison, and nearly 8 % sent into concentration camps. In 1918 6,185
persons were executed and 3,456 in 1919, the total number during
the two years being 9,641." (Lazies, The Fight on the Home Front.)
In such cases it is not only the number of victims that counts,
but also their quality: as in the times of Ivan the Terrible, only
" God knows the names of the murdered," but let us notice by
way of example that some of the most respected among Mos-
cow's citizens, whose whole lives had been devoted to the service
of the people the Astrovs, the Alferovs, N. Shtechepkin
were shot as " spies " in the summer of 1919.
What did the Whites oppose to the Red fury? In fighting
prowess the Whites were more than a match for the Reds, espe-
cially on the southern front: the exploits of Wrangel's Caucasian
corps in the attack and defence of Tsaritsin, the advance of the
Volunteer army's infantry against heavy odds on Kharkov and
Kursk, the rally at Rostov in the last months of 1920, are proofs
of the excellent quality of Denikin's troops. Kolchak's Siberians
were not seasoned to the same extent, but they were good mate-
rial and improved rapidly, and the Orenburg and Ural Cossacks
operating between the two groups did everything humanly pos-
sible to oppose the Reds. But neither the eastern nor the south-
ern armies were supported by a tolerably organized rear. Kolchak
and Denikin moved rapidly forward in the hope of cutting off
the economically important district of the Ural, the Donets, the
corn-growing provinces along the Volga and in the Ukraine,
but their rapid advance involved a hasty and superficial occu-
pation of wide tracts. They flooded their regiments with unwill-
ing conscripts and had to rely for supplies on requisitions: the
corn and the horses of the peasants were seized without any
regard for the needs of the farmers, while the raids of Cossack
cavalry into regions held by the Reds resulted in indiscriminate
looting of friend and foe. What constantly happened in such
circumstances was that the advancing Whites were received
with " bread and salt " and attacked in the rear when they
had been in the country for some time.
If the White leaders had succeeded in persuading the people
that their aim was genuinely patriotic and that private interests
had to be sacrificed for the sake of the great cause, all the miser-
ies of civil war might have been endured, if not willingly, at
least with resignation. But neither on the eastern nor on the
southern front did the Whites establish confidence, that condi-
tion precedent of success. There cannot be the slightest doubt
that not only Denikin and Kolchak, but also their principal
followers were fighting for the ideal of a reunited and free Russia,
but there was too much of the hated past intermixed with their
efforts; corrupt officials, greedy squires had flocked to the White
banners and were clamouring and pressing for revenge and com-
pensation. The frequent cases of lynching of commissars and
Communists were an inevitable consequence of the civil war
and of the hatred inspired by the wreckers of Russia: it was
impossible to draw the line between justified retribution and
wanton cruelty in many of these explosions of wrath. Sometimes,
as in the case of Jewish pogroms in the Ukraine, subordinate
officers acted against the direct orders of the High Command.
But there were other signs of the time in the policy of the White
leaders which created the suspicion that they were out for a
counter-revolution, for the reestablishment of the old monarchy
and the old gentry. The Socialists, who formed a great part
of the 'intellectual class as far as the latter still existed, were
driven back without any regard for the fact that they were
natural allies in the struggle against Communism. One of the
leading members of the Constituent Assembly was shot by
Kolchak's Government in Ekaterinburg. The same fate befell
leaders of the Kuban separatists in Ekaterinodar. The Liberal
members of the Denikin " Special Council," like N. Astrov,
protested in vain against a policy directed against all Socialists
indiscriminately. If Denikin had not personally prevented
further persecutions and open reaction, the dictatorial schemes of
the generals would have been embodied in some drastic Act
of the State for which Prof. K. Sokolov would have supplied a
juridical formula. As it was, for the mass of the people the
repeated protestations of acceptance of the social results of the
Revolution seemed belied by the way in which agrarian reform 1
was to be regulated. The subtle distinctions concerning com-
pensation and redemption tax reminded the peasants forcibly
of the procedure followed by the Emancipation Act of 1861,
and the Reds were not slow to take advantage of this unfortunate
association of ideas. The Whites started also a propaganda
office (Osvag), but although some 200 million rubles are said
to have been spent on it, its activity was subjected to bitter
criticism by various groups in the camp of the Whites. The
state of affairs brought about two fatal results confusion in the
rear of the White armies, and discord between the patriotic
forces in Russia and the Allies.
The conditions in the rear of Denikin's army were described
by Soviet propagandists with ironical satisfaction. There can
be no doubt that the activity of " green " bands of marauders,
and the rise of such potentates as Makhno, a brigand whose
followers are said to have mustered at times some thirty thou-
sand, made orderly life in the rear impossible and drew off con-
siderable forces at the most critical moments for the maintenance
of some sort of communications. What proved even worse was
the defection of dissatisfied Cossacks. When the Volunteer
army was straining its forces to hold the line against the
Reds north of Rostov, Kuban troops left their positions and
went home, leaving Denikin's right flank unprotected.
A similar state of affairs prevailed on the eastern front: the
population in the rear, excited by Communist propaganda and
fraternizing with the lawless elements so numerous in Siberia
convicts and prisoners of war conducted a constant guerrilla
warfare against the Russian and foreign troops protecting the
Trans-Siberian railway line. Kolchak tried to counteract this
shocking demoralization by reorganizing his government under
1 The following were the conditions of land reform proclaimed by
Denikin on July 19 1919:
(1) Safeguarding of the interests of the toiling population;
(2) The creation and the placing on a sound basis of small and
medium homesteads out of the land belonging to the State and
private owners ;
(3) The preservation of the right of the landowners to their land,
coupled, however, with the apportionment in each district of the
amount of land that is to be retained by the former owner and the
order of the transfer of the remainder into the ownership of those
who are land-poor ;
(4) These transfers may be achieved by voluntary agreement, or by
obligatory alienation for compensation. The new owners are to ac-
quire inalienable rights to their allotments.
(5) Intensive aid to be given to tillers of the soil, through technical
improvement of the lands, expert agricultural assistance, the supply
of implements, seeds, dead and live inventory, etc.
328
RUSSIA
the leadership of an energetic and enlightened man, Pepelayev.
It was too late and the administrative personnel too insufficient
to avert the catastrophe. The eastern front gave way even
before the southern one. Thousands of soldiers and refugees
perished in the retreat through the icefields of Siberia in the
winter of 1919-20; Kolchak and Pepelayev, who had sought the
protection of the Czechoslovaks, were handed over to the
Bolsheviks in pursuit with the consent of Gen. Janin, the com-
mander of the Allied contingents, and shot; while the Czechs
succeeded in extricating themselves and carrying off part of the
gold reserve seized during the occupation of Kazan.
Allied Intervention. The action of the Allies in these deplor-
able times was contradictory and ineffective. Large quantities
of munitions and supplies were furnished to the patriotic armies;
sometimes the consignments arrived late or were in damaged
condition, while a good deal of pilfering and embezzling occurred,
but, on the whole, it is certain that the White armies could not
have held the field for a month without this material assistance.
Huge sums of money were provided to help the Russian com-
manders to tide over their financial difficulties, and it is esti-
mated that the British spent about 100,000,000 in these trans-
actions. But while so much was done in this direction, the
diplomatic and strategic steps taken by the Allies were not only
inadequate, but often mischievous. The policy of support for
the patriotic movement in Russia lived, as it were, under a
cloud: it was disturbed and hampered right through by the
opposition of strong currents of opinion in western Europe and
in the United States. There was, to begin with, the fear of
infection of Allied troops by Bolshevik propaganda a fear
justified to some extent by such facts as the conduct of French
sailors and soldiers in Sevastopol and in Odessa, where the red
flag was actually hoisted by French men-of-war, and certain
battalions of the army of occupation showed a marked disin-
clination to fight the Reds. This fear that war-weary soldiers of
the Entente might not be proof against Communist propaganda
led to the undignified scampering out of the Crimea and from the
south-west. Even more important was the sympathy shown to
the cause of the Bolsheviks by Socialists in France and the
Labour party in England, a sympathy in which they were
supported by influential organs of the Radical press. This feel-
ing manifested itself in a variety of shapes and degrees: some
regarded the violence and destruction of the Communist up-
heaval as the beginning of a new era in social history character-
ized by the overthrow of capitalism; others condoned terror-
istic methods as a necessary means of revolutionary action;
others again were prepared to admit that these methods were
justified by the misrule of the Tsars that had provoked the
vengeance of the people; all were inclined to balance the mis-
deeds of the Reds by the excesses of the Whites and all objected
to intervention in favour of the latter. The reorganization of
Russia on Imperial lines was distasteful to many English Con-
servatives who were still under the influence of the ideals of
Disraeli. Last, but not least, there was a growing number of
" realists " who contended that the Bolsheviks had proved their
right to rule because they had defeated their opponents in the
field and that in these circumstances it would be best to recog-
nize facts and to draw from them such advantages as could
accrue to business men from the needs of a great country.
The weaknesses and failings of the White organizations in
Russia presented most convenient materials for the action of all
these elements opposed to Allied intervention. The result was
a series of inconsistent steps which contributed to the decline of
the cause of reconstruction. In Jan. 1919 came the proposal of
the " Big Four " that the belligerents of the civil war should meet
in Prinkipo and discuss conditions of pacification a proposal
that reflected in a striking manner the peculiar combination of
unpractical idealism, superficial knowledge and the yielding to
" happy thoughts," which formed one of the characteristics of
the Versailles Conference. As the Arcadian perspectives of
Prinkipo did not meet with the expected response on the part
of the belligerents, schemes acknowledging the standing of the
proletarian dictators began to crop up, in connexion with fa-
vourable reports by enterprising American journalists (Mr.
Bullitt's mission). At the same time the British War Office
countenanced the plan of a raid on Petrograd to be carried out
by the victor of Sarikamish, Gen. Yudenich. This enterprise
was attempted with insufficient forces (some 15,000 men); it
was in the nature of a gamble, but even gamblers do not usually
put stakes on opposite sides. In this case, however, the Allied
High Commissioner, Gen. Sir Hubert Gough, paid more atten-
tion to the aspirations of Esthonians, who were anything but
keen to promote Yudenich's success, than to the requirements
of the Russians. The climax of that form of intervention was
reached when Gen. Cough's chief-of-Staff, Col. Marsh, gave
the Russians three-quarters of an hour to form a North-Western
Government and to recognize the independence of Esthonia.
No wonder the expedition did not prosper.
By Nov. 1919 Mr. Lloyd George had come to the conclusion
that it was advisable to renounce intervention and to leave
Russia to her fate. Though doing lip service to the unforget-
table services of Russia in the war, he submitted that it was not
in the interest of Great Britain to assist in strengthening that
country. This point of view prevailed definitely in 1920. When
Denikin was forced to abandon the North Caucasian territory,
British policy steered towards a liquidation of the Russian
imbroglio. Wrangel made a last and gallant stand in the Crimea,
but he was recognized and supported by the French only, while
Great Britain took up an attitude of neutrality favourable to
the Moscow dictators.
In the war which Poland waged rather imprudently when the
danger of restoration of Imperial Russia had vanished, Great
Britain was prepared to surrender Poland to Bolshevik hegemony,
and when the tables were turned before Warsaw, thanks to the
assistance of the French, British diplomacy employed itself in
arranging an armistice between Poles and Bolsheviks which
enabled the latter to concentrate their forces against Wrangel
and to crush him. This cleared the way to a " complete con-
trol " of Russia by the Communists, and enabled the British
Premier to give effect to the plans of a resumption of commercial
relations with " Sovdepia." There were, indeed, two aspects of
Bolshevik policy to be considered the alluring prospect of
exploitation of latent and immense natural sources offered by
Mr. Krassin, and the uncompromising attitude of the Third
International, founded in Moscow for the express purpose of
revolutionizing the world by fair means or foul. While France
and the United States refused to have anything to do with a
" Government of assassins," realistic considerations prevailed
with Great Britain and Italy. Communist propaganda was
treated as a bogey, and disarmed by certain stipulations as
regards India and by vague promises of a general nature. On
the other hand the door was open to trade, not indeed on account
of " bulging corn bins " in Russia (as Mr. Lloyd George had
once suggested), but on account of her need of everything in the
way of raw materials and manufactures. The dictatorship of
the proletariat was recognized as the de facto Government of
Russia, and its leaders encouraged to adopt a policy of renun-
ciation of their doctrines in return for retention of power.
THE SOVIET CONSTITUTION
It remains for us to consider the internal evolution of this
newly recognized member of European society, and the results
achieved by its rule.
Apart from general declarations of principles, the construc-
tive policy of the Communists may be said to have been initiated
at the fifth Congress of Soviets which met at Moscow in July
1918. It consisted originally of 1,132 members with power to
vote, of whom 745 were Bolsheviks, 352 belonged to the Social
Revolutionary Left, 14 were Maximalists, 4 Anarchists, 4 Social
Democrats of the Internationalist group, 10 were outside any
party, 3 belonged to " miscellaneous groups." At a later stage
the Social Revolutionaries disappeared in consequence of dis-
agreement and risings, and the Congress was supposed to com-
prise about 1,000 members. From a formal point of view the
most important business transacted by this Congress was the
RUSSIA
3 2 9
acceptance of the Constitution, but this was carried in a hurried
manner at the close of the session and without any debates to
speak of, when the opposition had been ejected from the As-
sembly. Nevertheless it is advisable to begin with a summary of its
most important provisions. It proclaims itself to be the Consti-
tution of the Federal Socialistic Republic of Soviets. As a mat-
ter of fact there was no federalism about it, as no means had been
provided for any genuine expression of the will of the component
parts. The Ukraine, for instance, was never allowed any self-
determination, but was simply conquered by the Bolshevik
armies and subjected to the rule of Moscow authorities, although
the pretence of separate existence and organization was kept up.
The social basis of the republic was formed by the workmen and
the peasants, while all those who used the labour of others for
their benefit were disfranchised. 1 One of the fundamental
assumptions of the system was that the normal kind of work
that counts is manual work and all forms of activity which do
not take the shape of manual work have, as it were, to justify
their existence in relation to manual work. At best a rough
equation was established between various forms of employment,
at the worst people who could not claim the designation of work-
men were declared to be bourgeois under suspicion. In principle
no distinction was made between various kinds of performance
in point of quality, and in introducing the project of the Con-
stitution the reporter, Stekloff, appealed in as many words to
the famous maxim of Fourier: " To everyone according to his
needs." It may be noticed, however, that the other side of the
saying " From everyone according to his faculties " was also
acknowledged in a somewhat peculiar form (by Trotsky) :
those who refuse to work need not eat. The threat was directed
primarily against the civil servants who had thrown up their
office work, but the principle admitted of wider application
and came to be applied to workmen in general.
There was no attempt at democratic equality, in any sense.
As regards electoral representation, for instance, an industrial
worker was treated right through as worth five peasants: 25,000
of the former were reckoned for each delegate of a Soviet Con-
gress and 125,000 of the latter; the same ratio obtained in local
and provincial organization. 2 Instead of the direct elections on
which so much insistence was laid in the democratic stages of
the revolutionary movement, all elections were managed on the
principle of an ascending scale from lower to higher units. The
result was that undesirable elements were weeded out in the
process by means of wire-pulling or by downright violence. The
clubs of Communists in the various local centres acted as com-
mittees of supervision, and terrorized the country so effectually
that the Communist party, which on its own showing did not
number more than 600,000 members, invariably captured three-
fourths or more of the seats in the Assemblies.
The masses of the peasantry, to whom reference was so often
made in the speeches of official Bolshevik orators, had much
less chance of being heard than in the gerrymandered Dumas
of the Tsarist regime: the so-called delegates of workmen,
soldiers and peasants were generally intellectuals with a more
or less incomplete educational record, but expert in journalistic
propaganda and free from all received notions as to morality,
humanity or justice. The Congress of Soviets should have met
at least once in six months; but this rule fell into abeyance, and
the years 1919 and 1920 saw only two congresses (the seventh
and the eighth). The intermediate institution of the Central
Executive Committee of 200 (later 300) had to act as a kind
of Parliament in the absence of the Congress, and was entrusted
with supreme authority all the while; but the Board of Commis-
sars of the People, corresponding to a Council of Ministers
'Chap. IV., 7. The Fifth All-Russia Congress of Soviets of
Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Delegates considers that now, at
the decisive moment in the struggle between the workers and their
exploiters, there can be no place for the latter on any governing body.
Chap. XIII., 65. The following persons have neither the right to
vote nor to be elected :
(a) Those who employ others for the sake of profit.
(6) Those who live on income not arising from their own work.
' Chap. X., 53.
under the Parliamentary regime, wielded the real authority. It
took its lead again from its presidium, on which the Govern-
ment of Russia entirely depended. In this way the appearance
of democracy was reconciled with the reality of a very narrow
oligarchy, according to the pattern worked out by the French
Jacobins in the days of the Committee of Public Safety. A
curious device of the sophistical combination consisted in making
members of the Central Executive Council at the same time
supervisors and subordinates of the commissars, as if genuine
control could be expected from persons employed in working
the machinery under control.
Local units were subjected to similar limitations: the bour-
geois of all descriptions were condemned in every respect to
the position of outcasts. Elections were to be conducted under
constant pressure from the Communist clubs, and inconvenient
persons were to be removed from participation in local as well
as central government. A characteristic application of this all-
pervading suppression of the bourgeois is the handing over of all
technical means of publicity, in other words of the Press, to the
workmen and peasants. This meant that there is no possibility
for expressing any opinions except those approved by the
Bolshevik clubs. The Press was not gagged it ceased to exist
as a free agent. It became a means of reproducing in thousands
of copies the standard views decreed by the Bolsheviks. The
Tsarist regime never aspired to this complete suppression of
public opinion. The right of assembly was vindicated in the
same way in the Constitution. The preamble of it started
with a sounding declaration of freedom; but it was sufficient for
commissars to declare a meeting to be counter-revolutionary
in order to be entitled to put an end to it by force.
The Bolshevik legislators prided themselves on having got
rid of the division of the functions of legislation and adminis-
tration, and treating both as alternative manifestations of the
will of the living communities of workmen and peasants. One
of the effects of this unification of power in the collective unit
was the right to recall representatives which belongs to the
rural communities, the trade unions and the military units. In
actual practice the recall was used to allow free play to the Com-
munist wire-pullers, who were careful to watch over the ortho-
doxy of the various Soviets. The alternation of functions opened
the door to log-rolling and capricious changes of policy. Per-
haps the most striking expression of the inanity of these consti-
tutional functions was to be found in the position of the delegates
of the Red army, who had to represent simultaneously control-
ling power in the Executive Council and the " iron discipline "
of the Bolshevik regime in the ranks.
Altogether the " Constitution " of the Federal Republic of
Soviets was clearly intended to be an instrument for the oppres-
sion of the formerly privileged classes and a means of propaganda
for the edification of people who want to believe in the benefits
of Communist rule. When reproached with the duplicity and
the contradictions of this paper arrangement the Bolshevist
answers: all derogations from principle are justified by the
necessity to fight the counter-revolutionaries and to destroy
the bourgeoisie. Pure Communism can be introduced only
when the people have been ground into uniform pulp: then Law
and the State will disappear of themselves. As long as there
is any opposition anywhere dictatorship of the proletariat has
to be kept up, and as the mass of the people is not permeated
with Communist consciousness the dictatorship can only be
constituted by the enlightened minority. Hence the necessity
of the rule of the few for the sake of the proletariat. It is inter-
esting to read the justification of the Soviet system on the
ground that it makes popular government a reality while parlia-
mentary institutions provide mere fictions:
" In democracies the only way in which a workman or a peasant
participates in government is that he puts a voting paper once in
four years in a ballot box. The Soviets are direct organizations of
the masses; they are not impermeable, there is the right of recall. . .
And this is not only the case with the Soviets which form, as it
were, the top of power . . . the organization does not only belong
to workmen, it is indeed a working one. In democratic common-
wealths the supreme power belongs to parliaments, that is, to talking-
330
RUSSIA
shops. Power is divided into a legislative and an executive one.
The sending of deputies from the workmen to parliament once in
four years gives rise to the fiction that workmen share in political
work. In truth even the deputies do not share in it, because they
talk. The real rulers are the members of a caste, of a social bu-
reaucracy." 1
One might think that the rule of Soviets was free from all
fictions and substitution of power.
Organization of Supplies and of the Army. The greater part
of the meetings of the Fifth Congress was taken up by the dis-
cussion of two topics of primary practical importance the
organization of supplies and the organization of the army. The
first of these questions gave rise to a violent conflict between
the Bolsheviks and the Social Revolutionaries of the Left. For
the latter the socialization of the land was a measure of para-
mount importance for the future of Russia, and they wanted it
carried out with corresponding regularity and deliberation, in
conformity with the wishes and the interests of the peasant
class as a whole. Spiridonova, the leader of this faction in the
Congress, objected strongly to the anarchistic way in which
land was grabbed by the peasants, and reproached Lenin with
his cynical declaration that as the peasants had seized the land
they might divide it as best they could. As a result of this cyn-
ical indifference the country-side had been a cockpit in which
villagers and householders were arming and fighting for the pos-
session of coveted plots. These rural feuds were not distasteful
to the Bolsheviks, who were intent on crushing all well-to-do and
thrifty elements of the population as representing the hated
bourgeoisie. In practice they wanted corn supplies, knew that
some were in the hands of the wealthier peasants and did not
find any other means of getting at them but the raising of the
poor peasants against the richer ones. The result was the
creation of " Committees of the Indigent," whose special pur-
pose was to ascertain who had put by any supplies and to
expropriate these " tight-fists." Part of the loot would go to
replenish the bins of the Red Government. This was called the
" Dictatorship of the Indigent," and Lenin boasted that the
Bolsheviks had succeeded in driving a wedge into the compact
mass of the peasantry.
The Social Revolutionaries opposed the Bolsheviks in terror-
ist measures as well as in the case of supplies. In the interval
between the Fourth and the Fifth Congresses the Central
Executive Committee had founded and organized the " Supreme
Revolutionary Tribunal " from its own ranks. The Social Revo-
lutionaries had consented in the beginning to take part in the
constitution of this Tribunal, but they seceded from it in con-
nexion with the first trial, when Adml. Shtchaskny had been
condemned to death. They protested altogether against the
reintroduction of capital punishment, although they did not
scruple to participate in bloody repressions of risings and conspir-
acies. The same difference of opinion reappeared in connexion
with the reorganization of the army. Trotsky came to the
Congress with a complete programme for the reconstruction of
the Red army which amounted to a return to the iron discipline
of the ancient regime with a change of provost marshals. " Ote-
toi de Id,, queje m'y metis " was the approved maxim of the time,
and, after having preached and agitated for years against the
death penalty and other cruel punishments inflicted " by order
of the Tsar," Trotsky found it simple and convenient to adopt
all these Draconian measures and to employ former officers of
the Old Army to enforce them as long as there was not a sufficient
number of Red commanders and officers to provide the necessary
personnel. The Social Revolutionaries were again true to
.theory, and denounced this change of front with bitter indigna-
tion. Their opponents retorted that it was absurd to reject
the death penalty when inflicted by the courts while practising
terrorism and shooting people at sight. The Bolsheviks wanted
a disciplined army, and were not disposed to be fettered by
sentimental considerations or the reproach of inconsistency.
These conflicts coincided with the assassination of Count Mir-
bach and the suppression of a Social Revolutionary rising on Mos-
1 Bukharin, " The Theory of Proletarian Dictatorship," The October
Upheaval and Proletarian Dictatorship, pp. 19, 20.
cow: they ended in a disastrous way for the Social Revolution-
aries, whose leaders were either shot or imprisoned.
In the interval between the Fifth and the Sixth Congresses
the Central Executive Committee had to settle the foundations
of two most important sides of social life the organization of
justice and the establishment of school education. Of course
legislation in these respects was by no means restricted to the
action of the Central Executive Committee in 1918: measures
were taken both before and after, but our account must for the
sake of convenience be concentrated around the laws and
decrees of that year.
Administration of Justice. Taking first the province of justice,
we may notice to begin with the main principle of the Judicature:
it is the substitution for the various courts of professional jus-
tice of popular courts consisting of three judges a chairman and
two assessors. The first of these was supposed to have some
knowledge of legal subjects, though he need not be a trained
lawyer; the assessors represent the lay community, and the
framers of the new rules give emphatic expression to the wish
that the common sense and the practical spirit of the lay mem-
bers should prevail over technical considerations and a super-
stitious regard for laws enacted by overthrown governments.
They refer with disapprobation to the bad influence of former
lawyers who had found their way into the new courts and com-
plicate their decisions by a casuistic treatment of the subject
in the old style. The publications of the Narkomjust (People's
Commissariat of Justice) gave unstinted praise to decisions
free from the trammels of juridical dialectic and book-learning.
The hope is expressed that the popular courts will open up new
avenues of legal thought by the motives and arguments of their
decisions and thus create a new and beneficial source of law.
One of the leading representatives of Soviet jurisprudence,
Hochberg, compares the position of public and private law in
the new system, and comes to the conclusion that the latter is
the creation of the bourgeois social order, as it supposes an
abstention of judicial authority from interference with the
contents of claims and assumes an appearance of impartial
indifference. This reminds one of the attitude of Pilate washing
his hands, as regards the truth or justice of the verdict. Civil
law is decentralizing, anarchistic, derived from a fiction of free-
dom, while public law aims at concentration and cooperation,
and that is the law suitable to a socialistic commonwealth.
Another article on Soviet jurisprudence dwells on the total
transformation of criminal law, and the author is not less nihil-
istic in his appreciation of this branch of legal organization
than his colleague Hochberg was as regards private law; indeed,
one branch is not more necessary than the other:
" There can be no idea of retribution, because the modern scientific
view does not recognize any free or responsible will. Detcrminists
cannot build their law on the idea of punishment. It is certain that
crime is the product of social conditions, and therefore cannot be
imputed to any single individual. This l>eing so, there is no reason
to despair of the disappearance of crime and of the coercive law
directed against it. Menger halted half way: he thought that in-
fringements of rights are to some extent the result of human na-
ture, of inherent self-will. But serious infringements of rights pro-
ceed from class distinctions and class antagonisms. There will be
no burglary or theft when there is no private property protected by
law: all serious motives for homicide and other crimes of violence
will disappear when men are all comrades and there is no wealth or
privilege to excite hatred. Whatever occasions there may remain
for inordinate self-will will be rare anomalies and can be treated as
negligible quantities."
In spite of all these enchanting perspectives it is recognized
that the stage of a lawless Elysium has not yet been reached,
and in concession to human frailty certain prohibitions and
rules have to be maintained in the epoch of transition. This
epoch may last for a long time, because the new order can be
secured only by psychological transformation, and psychological
processes take many years to mature.
Meanwhile speculators, traders, hooligans and counter-
revolutionary agitators have to be coerced, and this is the chief
business of popular courts, reinforced in dangerous cases by the
ruthless action of the Extraordinary Commission. Trade was
made a punishable offence and threatened with most severe
RUSSIA
penalties. According to Clause I of the decree on speculation,
" a person guilty of selling, storing or keeping with a view to sell,
articles of food monopolized by the Commonwealth, if he is doing
this as a trade, will be punished by imprisonment for a term not
less than ten years with the hardest forced labour, and by con-
fiscation of all his goods." Clause 2 says: "A person guilty of
selling, storing or keeping with a view to sell, articles of food at
prices higher than the established ones, if he does this as a trade,
will be punished by imprisonment for a term of not less than five
years, and by the confiscation of all or part of his goods."
Clause 3 says: "A person guilty of selling, storing or keeping with
a view to sell, other'articles the price of which has been fixed and
is subject to control, if he does it as a trade, will be punished by
imprisonment for a term of not less than three years, etc."
Clause 4 says: " If he does not drive a trade (but does so occasion-
ally), he will be punished by imprisonment for a term of not less
than six months." Similar penalties are imposed on those who
collect provision cards with a view to trade with them.
These Draconian measures were mitigated in practice by the
necessity of having recourse to lawyers, who had received their
education under the old regime. The majority of the personnel of
the higher courts had to be drawn from that class, and did
what they could to soften the asperities of Soviet legislation.
In the same way Soviet legislators had to steer a middle
course as regards private law; in 1918 law as to marriage, family
relations and succession was cast in a new shape. As regards
marriage the chief change was the abolition of the contrast
between legitimate and illegitimate unions. The only difference
was one of registration: some people might think it worth while
to register their convention as to sexual relations, others did not
attach importance to such routine ; the consequences as to family
status were about the same. Consorts kept their separate goods
and had equally the right of protection and duty of maintenance
as to the children. In case of disagreement in the conduct of
their children's affairs, they have to apply to the local court.
The latter may deprive either of them of the right of supervision
in case of misuse. The wife, or woman living as such, may
claim maintenance from the man with whom she has been living,
if she is unable to maintain herself. As to the bringing up of
children, she is allowed to claim assistance from the putative
father, and if she has had such relations with several men so
that fatherhood is uncertain, she enjoys the additional advantage
of being able to claim contributions from each one of them.
Succession is abolished. No one can dispose of his fortune by
will, nor do the children inherit to the exclusion of other relations;
after the death of a person his or her fortune is distributed among
relations within certain degrees according to the measure of
their needs. Their claims are preferred to the claims of the
creditors of the deceased.
It is needless to add that Soviet legislation uprooted the rules
as to contract of service. All forms of service are considered as
forms of servility, as varieties of exploitation. Everyone must
depend on the work of his hands and combination is entirely a
matter of public law. It appears in the shape of professional
unions industrial and rural alike, or in the shape of Soviet rule
substituted for the old conception of the State. Members of the
Soviet Republic are comrades in work, though not in service, and
it is for the Soviet Commonwealth to assign them their shares in
work and produce.
Here are some characteristic passages from an article in the
official organ of the Commissariat of Justice ' :
" The project of the Provisional Government accepted as a basis
of the legal order of industrial undertakings the fiction of a free
bilateral contract." Under the rule of the Soviets " the industrial
undertaking ceases to be governed by formal conventions or con-
tracts and by one-sided declarations of the will of employers. The
collective contract . . . loses the character of a bilateral convention
and becomes an objective rule of conduct." This principle was first
proclaimed as an exception in the case of the establishment of a
tariff of remuneration in the metal workers' trade. It was sub-
sequently recognized to be the normal arrangement of the status of
'A. Yablonsky, The Labour Constitution in the "Proletarian "
Revolution and Law, 5-6 issue, Oct. 15 1918.
workmen. There can be no more talk of " hire " and " service ";
the conception of " cooperation " taking their place. " The sense
of duty and of responsibility arising from it has dictated the following
clauses to the Petrograd metal workers, when they constituted their
tariff without the employers. Clause 16: ' When the working man
receives a definite guarantee as to his earnings, he is bound to
guarantee a corresponding amount of work in the shape of a definite
form of production. Clause 23: In case of evident loafing or of
premeditated slowness the workman is to be moved into a lower
class and can even be dismissed.' ' The juridical life of the working
men is being unified by movements in two directions towards
combining local undertakings into one common State economy and
by uniting the interests of separate professional groups on the lines
of a common class consciousness.' "
Education and Religion. Another subject of primary impor-
tance considered by the Central Executive Committee in its fifth
session in conjunction with trade unions was that of the proletar-
ian school system. There was no discussion, and the conclusions
of a committee for which Comrade M. Pokrovsky acted as reporter
were approved en bloc. The report laid stress on the necessity of
getting rid of all varieties in the curriculum of schools, produced
by the sinister interests of the dominant class of the old regime.
The old schools had been diversified not only by horizontal par-
titions as lower-middle and high-schools, but also by vertical
sub-divisions as special types of humanistic, modern side (cf.
Realschule), technical, ecclesiastical schools. This tendency
towards specialization served the purpose of splitting up the
compact and powerful mass of working men into a number of
groups on which the dominant class could practice the divide
et impera principle. The true educational ideal was to train all
the youth of the country on the same lines, leading them through
the various forms and stages of application of human energy
to productive work. A course of nine years, beginning at the age
of eight, would be necessary to achieve this object. Of course the
old methods by which " gentlefolks' " children were taught to
scrawl on paper would have to be discarded. The orientation of
the school should be directed towards preparing for a life in which
manual work was honoured and not despised. The aim should be
to educate men able on leaving school to take up intelligently and
successfully any kind of task. The curriculum would be a repro-
duction on a small scale of the cultural history of mankind.
Astronomy would be shown to have guided the men of old in their
observations of the seasons on which agriculture depends ; zoology
would be taught in connexion with the tending 'of domestic
animals, botany on the live specimens of plants. The manage-
ment of the school should be an introduction to civil life, the
principle of collective labour permeating all details, methods of
old-fashioned subjection and discipline being entirely discarded,
and the school should be constituted as a " commune " and the
senior pupils should take part in its administration together
with the teachers and the representatives of the working popula-
tion of the district. Punishments would not be necessary in
these educational communes; order would be kept up by the
sense of responsibility on the part of the pupils.
A quantity of literature was produced in Soviet Russia to
spread the notions of the Proletcult (proletarian culture). In
order to give an idea of this stuff, one or two extracts may be
given from a paper by Comrade Bobrinsky 2 :
" We have to proceed towards freedom through the iron yoke of
proletarian dictatorship, towards equality through rationing ac-
cording to class, towards fraternity through civil war. Proletarian
science becomes in practice a weapon in the struggle for power
and economic existence. Science becomes politics. The bourgeois
contrast between knowledge and politics, between science and ac-
tion, gives way a synthesis for the first time : science is turned into
the political force of the proletariat, and proletarian politics is turned
into science. . . . Natural science is combined into a unity with
social science. . . . The old disputes about humanistic (classical)
and realistic education, the old criticism directed against the
estrangement from life, against the academic character of education
find a simple and radical solution in the school of labour. . . . Tech-
nology has acquired a place of equality with other sciences and it
serves as a transition from natural science to sociology. . . . Tech-
nology becomes the principal science in the system of historical
materialism. According to historical materialism all changes in
2 " The October Upheaval and the Dictatorship of the Pro-
letariat," pp. 163 ff.
332
RUSSIA
social life are derived from the relations of Society to production.
Everyone knows that, but it is not sufficiently recognized that
thfdelef Man V he eV ' Ut f i0n I his - tor y is en ' irelv dependent on
the development of means of production and that changes in the
latter are conditioned by changes in technique."
It is appropriate to mention here the policy of the Soviets as
regards religion, and, more especially, as regards the Orthodox
Church, as its foundations are to be found in a profound con-
trast of cultural conceptions. The matter is well illustrated in a
paper contributed to The Octobrist Upheaval by Comrade N.
Lukin (Antonov). He begins by ridiculing the notion that the
separation of the Church from the State meant emancipation for
the Church from secular control coupled with the right to accumu-
late property and to influence public opinion on similar lines to
those which obtain in Belgium. The revolution put religious
associations on the same level as other common law associations,
but deprived them of the right of holding property and of
other privileges of juridical persons. As a natural consequence
the Orthodox Church became one of the main instruments of
counter-revolutionary agitation. The Council called together in
Moscow did not attract any considerable attention on the part
of workmen and peasants, but it was crowded with representa-
tives of the old aristocracy, bureaucracy and counter-revolu-
tionary " intelligentsia." The newly elected Patriarch Tikhon
excommunicated the authors of the decree of disestablishment
and the Council denounced it as an attack on the national faith
and the religious institutions of Russia, not omitting to mention
that the clergy was being deprived of the means of subsistence.
In view of such an irreconcilable attitude the Soviet power is
bound to wage a ruthless war against the Orthodox Church. It
is armed against it by Clause 5 of the decree of Separation for-
bidding all ecclesiastical ceremonies and acts directed against the
Commonwealth. But it must not be forgotten that even apart
from the conspiracies and direct risings, religion in general is an-
tagonistic to the social conceptions of the new order. Even in
its present state the Church is able to support ignorance among
the mass of the people and to divert the proletariat from the
struggle for an " earthly paradise " by making them dream
about a " paradise in heaven." The example of France and of
America shows that the clergy is preaching war against social
democracy with no less fervour because it is deprived of those
powerful means of influencing men's brains which are at its dis-
posal in countries still maintaining State religions. In creating
a new world the proletariat stands in need of a complete and
harmonious scientific outlook.
Foreign and Home Policy. The Sixth Congress of Soviets met
on Nov. 6 I9 i8. Nineteen hundred and fourteen delegates assem-
bled m Moscow, of whom 829 were Communists; 71 had been
registered as sympathizing with Communism, and 2 as Revolu-
tionary Communists, while 6 were declared to belong to the
Social Revolutionary party, i to the Maximalists, 3 to no party.
The president Sverdlov expressed his firm conviction that distri-
bution of seats corresponded fully and correctly to the interests
wide masses of the working population of Russia." The
debates were overshadowed by two main facts by the victory
of the Western Allies and by the appalling food crisis.
Lenin, while admitting that the situation was extremely
dangerous, because Communist Russia had to reckon henceforth
not with two belligerents engaged in a struggle for existence but
with the united front of the victorious Entente, thought it augured
well for the progress of the world revolution:
'i i?w pl - ete victorv of a Socialist revolution," he said, " is
unthinkable in any one country. It requires at least the cooperation
U 3?k adva "? ed ^"ntries, and Russia is not one of then? This"
s why the question as to the expansion of the revolution into other
of th'/n^ f ur S Kf CeSS '," r=P ulsin g imperialism becomes one
of the principal problems of the Revolution. . . We must raise
the proletariat of all countries."
He dwelt on the benefits conferred by the Brest Litovsk peace
which gave Russia breathing-space and the possibility of recon-
structing her army. Now the aim was to carry the contagion of
the revolution into Central and Western Europe:
." We can see already how the fire has broken out in most coun-
tries m America, in Germany, in England. ... The peace which
the rapacious imperialists of England and France are going to in-
met on conquered Europe will be a more humiliating and crushing
one than the treaty of Brest Litovsk, but this very peace will b!
heir undoing because it will rouse the revolutionary feelings of
the world proletariat. We are not living in Central Africa but
in civilized countries in the twentieth century. They are raising
a Chinese wall against Bolshevism, but Bolshevism will pass
countries " SpTKld its infection among the working men of all
In unison with Lenin, the president, Sverdlov, declared that
before six months had passed they would see Soviet rule tri-
umphant not only in Hungary, in Germany, in Austria, but in
France and Great Britain.
The problem of supplies was to be solved by expropriation in
the villages. Zinoviev explained that the plan of raising the
poor peasants against the well-to-do ones was being carried out
ith energy and success. A Congress of the " poor folk " in
Petrograd had been attended by 16,000 delegates; they had
resolved to organize a special " poor folk " army consisting of
two men from each village. In the Novgorod Government alone
2,000 poor folk " committees had been formed:
I,,- V he . ir Chi f f *T ' S to . dnve a ^dge into village life . . to
kindle class struggle, to kindle the sacred hatred of the poor folk
against the ncfi We say ... the 'tight-fists' must be
strangled as we said before: strangle the bourgeois in the towns. .
We know perfectly well that we cannot carry out a proletarian
revolutmn unless we crush the tight-fists ' in the villages^crush
them in the economic and, if necessary, in the physical sense."
The Congress adopted a resolution in conformity with Zino-
viev's proposal, the gist of which was that in order to get rid of
strife and confusion produced by dualism in the villages it was
necessary to assign to the " poor folk committees " instituted by
the decree of July 1 1 1918, the superior authority and to carry out
a reorganization of rural Soviets on the pattern of town Soviets
turning them into true organs of Soviet power.
The seventh Congress met on Dec. 5 1919. Of the 1,109 dele-
gates with power to vote, 890 were registered as Communists and
34 as belonging to no party. In the course of the Congress some
representatives of the Social Revolutionaries and Mensheviks
,Dan, Martov and others) took part in the debates, declaring
their adherence to the cause of the Socialist Republic under
Soviet rule, but criticizing certain methods of Soviet administra-
tion. The atmosphere of the Congress was dominated by the
elated feelings produced by the victories over Kolchak and
Demkin. They were extolled as triumphs over the Entente.
Lenin admitted in his speech that the progress of the World
Revolution had been slower and more complicated than had
been expected, but he maintained that on the whole the previ-
sions of the Bolsheviks had been justified by the course of events
The miracle of the victory of helpless and backward Russia over
the all-powerful Entente was traced by him to the instinctive
sympathy of the working-classes of Great Britain, France and
Italy towards their brothers in Russia. As a result of this feeling
it was impossible for the Allies to expose their troops to a deci-
sive conflict with the Red army; symptoms of fraternization had
begun to appear in the ranks of the western soldiers and the
Entente was obliged to withdraw them. The hope to combine the
minor border states against Red Russia had also miscarried, and
disillusionment had been brought by the collapse of the White
Guards equipped by the " imperialistic wild beasts " of England
whose greed and craving for world supremacy was worse than
that of the Germans. Resolutions of the Soviet greeted the toil-
ing masses in all countries, invited them to struggle against
bourgeois Imperialism and declared the Peace of Versailles a
shameless attempt to establish the domination of the Allies,
to divide the world into conquerors and conquered, into great
and small powers, without taking heed of self-determination.
Trotsky gave a glowing account of the victorious Red army.
He described it as an exact reflection of the Soviet Republic. It
was built up on the principle of class domination, the ruling class
being that of town workmen:
" They form about 15-18 % of the army, but they lead it on ac-
count ot their greater consciousness, their stronger solidarity the
higher quality of their revolutionary mettle. The responsible posts
>1 commissars are occupied almost exclusively by workers of the
RUSSIA
333
Communist party. In every regiment, every battalion, every com-
pany is to be found a communistic cell. In this way a new communistic
order of ' Samurai ' has been formed. And the army is not merely
a fighting organization, it is a political school the like of which has
not been known to the world."
Trotsky prided himself particularly on the incessant political
propaganda. "In the beginning we had not a single elementary
school in the army now we have 3,800; before the 1st of Jan. we
had 32 clubs: now we have 1,315. Before the 1st of Jan. we had
not a single mobile library: now we have 3,392."
As regards officers and other specialists drafted into the Red
army from the cadres of the old Tsarist army, Trotsky main-
tained that thousands of them had reconciled themselves with
their new position and were faithfully serving the new order. He
was contemplating the institution of one man's rule instead of the
system of commanders watched over by two commissars.
Economic Problems. The most serious discussions took place
in connexion with the problems of food and fuel-supplies. Tsuru-
pa, the People's Commissar at the head of the Narkhoskom (the
Commissariat of People's economics) gave an account of the
working of bread monopoly. All corn supplies had been national-
ized and the system was enforced by charging each province with
a fixed contribution which was subsequently distributed among
the districts of each province, while the districts assessed the
villages with quotas according to estimation. The whole assess-
ment of the country was reckoned at 324 million poods of corn of
every kind: of the 30% which were charged to the first quarter
some 60 millions were expected to come in by Dec. i. This did
not quite correspond to the demand, but as some provinces were
not under the control of the Soviet power, the assessment might
be said to have been carried out satisfactorily in the greater part
of the country as regards corn. This did not mean, however,
that the supply of corn was secured for those who needed it.
Many thousands of poods lay stored and rotting at the stations,
because there was no transport to convey them to their places of
destination. As regards meat the situation was much worse.
Only 600,000 poods were available instead of the five million de-
livered in 1918; the cause was the great falling off of the numbers
of cattle held by the peasants. Butter and fats were also at a dis-
count: the commissariat could not dispose of more than 300,000
poods for the whole of Russia, and that meant famine in respect
of fats. Of fish roughly 75% of the normal supply had been
caught but the transport conditions were badly hampering its
distribution. The proposal of the Commissariat was to extend
the State monopoly and the coercive assessment to all food prod-
ucts and it was adopted by the Congress.
As far as fuel was concerned, the situation had grown to be
catastrophic. The loss of Baku and of the Donets coal-mines
had largely reduced the quantity available. Instead of 500,-
000,000 poods of naphtha, e.g. Soviet Russia disposed of 80
million. It continued to exist only because all private stores and
supplies had been confiscated. Things got better when the roads
to the Donets and to Ural were cleared, but the disorganization
of the transport told heavily on the distribution of fuel. As a
matter of necessity Russia had to fall back once more on wood
fuel, although the adaptation to a new system of heating involved
immense losses. The first requirement was to provide material
for the railways and that was being gradually achieved by means
of labour conscription. As for domestic heating, its needs were so
great that the only way of solving the problem was to cut down
timber in the neighbourhood of cities, and Moscow, for example,
was being served by means of the clearing of timber in an area of
18-30 square versts. The Commissariat was obliged to engage
the services of private contractors and agents in order to get the
required supplies. When, in discussion, fanatical Communists
reproached Commissar Rykov with this deviation from the
recognized principles of communism, he answered that there was
no other way of collecting the timber and that, after all, the
Extraordinary Commission was able to proceed against specula-
tors and profiteers. In other words, the Soviet administrators
might enable men to enrich themselves by private enterprise
and then prosecute them on account of their gains.
Comrade Sofronov reported on the constructive work of the
Soviet; this work had proceeded from the top to the bottom and
the administration of the country had assumed the shape of
parallel columns subordinated to " heads " and " centres," each
managing its own concerns, but with little connexion between
them and often with opposed views on kindred subjects. The
Narkomjus (People's Commissariat of Justice), for example, was
not in agreement with the arbitrary terrorism of the Extraordi-
nary Commission, but was powerless to influence or to restrict
it, because it was acting within the column of the Home Commis-
sariat, and no solution could be found for the difference between
judicial and administrative tribunals.
The discussion gave rise to attacks on the bureaucratic cen-
tralization and the suppression of freedom by the communistic
dictatorship. The reporter Sofronov admitted that there was a
tendency towards one man's rule in all branches of the organiza-
tion, but such a tendency, explicable in the course of civil war,
could not be conceded as a principle. It did not check the com-
plete anarchy of economic and legal relations produced by the
lack of harmony in administration. It ought to be corrected by a
reform of elections, which would regenerate the local Soviets and
thus create a basis for political reorganization at the top. An
essential condition for such a reform was the removal of counter-
revolutionary elements. Therefore the electoral law ought to be
supplemented by stringent enactments not only disfranchising
the " tight-fists," but making it a punishable offence for them to
take part in any electoral or other meeting in the village.
Lenin came forward to defend the policy of Soviet rule against
the reproach of anti -democratic tendency:
" We do not promise," he said, " that our constitution guarantees
freedom and equality in general. Freedom but it must be pointed
out for what class and for what ends. Equality but who shall
be equal and with whom? for those who work and who have been
exploited in the course of centuries by the bourgeoisie, who are
fighting the bourgeoisie even now. This has been stated in the con-
stitution: the dictatorship of the workmen and of the poorest
peasants in order to suppress the bourgeoisie."
These ideas were more fully developed in Lenin's speech to the
Congress of School Extension workers (May 6 1919):
" It cannot be gainsaid that freedom is a powerful catchword
for any revolution, democratic or socialistic. But our programme
declares: freedom, if it obstructs the emancipation of labour from
the oppression of capital, is a fraud. Any one of you who has read
Marx, or even popular accounts of Marx, knows that he devoted
the greater part of his life to ridiculing freedom and equality, the
will of the majority and all the Benthams who commented on these
things in glowing terms. He proved that at the back of all these
phrases lay the interests of free trade, the freedom of free capital,
which are used to oppress the workers. . . . We maintain that to
grant freedom of meetings to the. capitalists would be the greatest
crime it means freedom of meetings for counter-revolutionaries.
We say to the bourgeois intellectuals, to the adherents of democ-
racy : ' You lie when you reproach us with the infringement of
freedom. When your great bourgeois revolutionists of 1649 in
England and of 1792-3 in France carried through their revolutions
they did not concede to the monarchists the freedom of meetings.
The French Revolution was called the Great one because it was not
like the weakly phrase-making revolution of 1848: after over-
throwing the monarchists it crushed them out of existence. . . .
The peasant is a hybrid being : half a workman and half a speculator.
This is a fact from which you cannot escape, unless you destroy
money, destroy exchange. And to do that you want long years of
firm domination of the proletariat, because it is only the proletariat
that can conquer the bourgeoisie.' When we are_ told you have
broken equality not only as against exploiters (a social revolutionary
or a Menshevik might admit that), but you have broken equality as
between workmen and peasants, you have broken the equality of
toiling democracy, you are criminals,' we answer: 'Yes, we have
broken the equality between workmen and peasants and we main-
tain that you, who defend this equality, are followers of Kolchak.'
. . . We ask you : ' the ruined workmen of a ruined country, in
which factories are at a standstill, would they be right to submit to a
majority of peasants, who do not yield to them the surplus of their
corn? Have they the right to take this surplus by violence if it_is
impossible to do so in any other way? ' The peasants are a special
class : as toilers they are the enemies of capital, but at the same time
they are proprietors. The peasant has been taught during centuries
to consider the corn as his own, and that he is free to sell it. It is
my right, thinks the peasant, because it is my labour, my sweat and
my blood. It is not easy to change his psychology: it will take a
difficult and long process to do so. He who imagines that the transi-
tion to socialism will be effected by one man convincing another,
and this other a third, etc., is at best a child, or a political hypocrite.
You can, if you have luck, smash an institution at one blow : it is
334
RUSSIA
impossible to smash a habit, whatever your luck. We have given the
land to the peasant, freed him from the squire, thrown off all his
fetters, and yet he goes on thinking that liberty is free trade in corn,
and serfdom the duty to surrender the surplus at a fixed price."
The Eighth Congress of the Soviets. The Eighth Congress of
Ail-Russian Soviets was convened at Moscow on Dec. 23 1920.
Approximately 80% of the delegates were members of the Com-
munist party, the remaining 20% were not affiliated to any party.
It was known that with reference to certain questions of policy
there was an important divergence of views among leading Com-
munists. These differences of opinion were especially marked in
connexion with (i) economic reconstruction, including the ques-
tion of concessions to foreigners, and (2) the demobilization of
the army. Lenin was at the head of the so-called Right Wing,
while the Left was under the leadership of Bukharin. The dis-
illusionment of many Communists concerning Soviet administra-
tion was expressed in strong terms at the Congress. These crit-
icisms were summarized and by one of the leaders, Ossinsky, in
an article which contains the following passage:
" For three years, the Soviet Government has seriously turned
aside from the principles of proletarian democracy, and from the
spirit of the Soviet Constitution. On the one hand, there have been
created two legislative bodies, not provided by our constitution
the Council of Defence and the Military Revolutionary Council;
on the other all constitutional organs (legislative as well as execu-
tive) have virtually disappeared. The eclipse of the Central Execu-
tive Committee is generally known. But even the Council of People's
Commissars and the Council of Defence, which have ostensibly re-
placed the Central Executive Committee, have been, in their turn,
eclipsed by still another body. In reality, the centre of political
leadership has been shifted to the Central Committee of the Com-
munist party, and even here to a smaller body, the ' Political
Bureau ' of this committee. Legislative measures, diplomatic acts,
and military plans decided by this ' Politik-Bureau are formally
sanctioned and issued in the name either of the People's Commissars
or the Council of Defence." (The New Statesman, 1921, p. 635.)
The Congress decided to establish Provincial Economic Con-
ferences which should be charged with the unification of all pure-
ly local economic institutions. Meetings were to be held no less
than twice a month, and the persons who were to participate in
the proposed Conferences were to be designated by the Supreme
Economic Council, the Commissariats of Supplies, Labour,
Finance, etc. All local branches or institutions of the Supreme
Economic Council in the various provinces were to be subordi-
nated to these Provincial Councils, with the exception of so-called
" principal " industries, such as important metal factories,
mines, etc., which still remained directly subordinate to the
Supreme Economic Council.
The number of members of the Central Executive Committee
was increased to 300 and sessions were to be held at least twice a
month. The managing board of the Central Executive Council
was given power to cancel any decisions of the Soviet of People's
Commissars. All conflicts or disagreements between the Peo-
ple's Commissars and Central Institutions on one side, and the
local Executive Committees on the other, were to be referred to
and decided by the managing board of the Central Executive
Committee. All decrees and regulations of general importance,
including laws, military decisions and questions of foreign policy,
were to be examined by and were subject to confirmation by the
Soviet of People's Commissars. The Congress considered that
the Soviet of Labour and Defence which had been created at the
height of struggle between the republic and an Imperialistic
world (Nov. 30 1918), should be reformed so as to form a com-
mittee of the Soviet of People's Commissars. An appeal was
addressed to the peasants asking them to support the republic
by contributing all their surplus agricultural produce to assist
the Commonwealth. Trotsky favoured a partial demobilization
of the regular army and the organization of a militia.
These were the principal decisions of the Congress. The gen-
eral attitude of the Communist party was best expressed in
speeches delivered by Lenin and by Zinoviev. Lenin welcomed
the establishment of Soviet Republics in Bukhara, Azerbaijan
and Armenia, as showing that the Soviet system was acceptable,
not only in industrial countries, but also in agricultural lands. It
was hoped that a treaty would shortly be signed with Persia.
Relations were being cemented between the Soviet Government
and Afghanistan and Turkey. Lenin defended the policy of
granting concessions to foreign capitalists. It would be ridicu-
lous to talk of Russia's economic independence while the Soviet
Republic remained a backward country. Guarantees would be
demanded from those who received concessions and it was essen-
tial that everything should be done to promote trade relations
without delay. He reminded his audience that a long series of
wars had hitherto decided the fate of the revolution. They must
prepare for the next chapter in this history:
Without economic restoration they would be unable to hold their
own. To achieve this economic aim it would be necessary to unite
compulsion with moral suasion as successfully as they had been
united in the Red army. Russia was a State of small farmers and the
transition to communism was hampered by difficulties greater than
those which would have arisen in other conditions. For the attain-
ment of their economic objects the assistance of the peasants was
ten times more necessary than it had been during the war. The
peasants were not Socialists. The Communist workers " must tell
the peasants that it was impossible to continue freezing and dying
of starvation indefinitely." If such conditions continued they would
be defeated in the next chapter of the war. There must be a larger
area of land under cultivation next spring, and there was no hope
of salvation unless this economic victory was obtained. They
recognized their obligation to the peasants. They had taken their
bread in exchange for paper-money. They would compensate them
as soon as industry was restored. The menace of Russia to the
capitalist world could not be maintained without an improvement of
economic life. As long as she remained a small farmers' country
capitalism would find more favourable acceptance than Com-
munism. The foundation ami basis of their home enemy (capitalism)
has not been removed. Electrification would help them to remove it.
Zinoviev admitted that the Soviet regime was degenerating
through the influence of an immense and inefficient bureaucracy.
He laid the blame on the traditions of the old administration:
The utilization of bourgeois specialists in the work of economic
and administrative reconstruction was absolutely essential and in-
evitable. The worst feature of this recourse to specialists was that
they exhibit a red-tape attitude towards their work, not entering
into the spirit of it : they have brought the worst habits of Govern-
ment lethargy and bourgeois bureaucracy into our administrative
organs. Those workers and peasants, whom the Soviet Government
drew into direct participation in the Government, although they
saw the weak side of these specialists, were themscjves powerless to
raise affairs to a higher level. Thus a wrong attitude was taken
up toward those who worked by brain and not by hand. Workers
who stand at the lathe are regarded as useful members of society,
but what about the man who counts the lathes, who works out plans
of production, who carries out essential statistical work ? Such men
are sometimes contemptuously described as bureaucrats. . . .
The workers' and peasants' control must be transformed from an
organ of supervision over the activity of Government institutions
into an organization for attracting broad masses of the workers and
the peasants to administrative tasks, for inculcating the methods
of administration in accordance with the decree of the All-Russian
Executive Committee dated Feb. 7 1920.
RUSSIA IN 1920-1
Soviet Russia had shrunk considerably by 1921 in compari-
son with the former Russian Empire. Instead of a population of
some 180 millions it comprised in 1921 about 130 millions, of
whom 10 millions were peasants and the rest were divided among
the townsfolk and the nomadic and hunting tribes of the eastern
steppes and of Siberia. It is estimated that the country lost
1,700,000 killed in the course of the World War, but it is impos-
sible to form even an approximate conception of the number of
those who perished from the indirect effects, of the war through
wounds, ill-health and privations, and of those who were de-
stroyed by the massacres of the civil war, the misery of retreats
and migrations, the epidemics of typhus, cholera, diphtheria
which claimed a heavy toll in the unsanitary cond'tions of life.
It would hardly be an exaggeration to put the number of victims
of these disorders at some 10 millions. The abnormal increase of
the death-rate has been definitely registered in certain cases,
and there is good reason to suppose that in all centres where
people congregated for political or economic reasons exceptional
mortality prevailed and the health of the population was
enfeebled through starvation and sickness. Petrograd, with
2,250,000 inhabitants in 1914, had been reduced to some 700,-
ooo, and Moscow to 1,000,000 instead of 1,800,000.
RUSSIA
335
But, undoubtedly, the greatest inroads had been made by the
separation of large territories that had acquired political inde-
pendence. Finland accounts for a diminution of 3,000,000;
Poland for 11,000,000; Esthonia and Latvia for 3,000,000;
Lithuania for 5,000,000; Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan for
8,000,000; Bessarabia for 3,000,000, the districts of White Russia
and Volhynia, ceded to Poland, for 3,000,000.
Economic Disruption. The great combination for economic
intercourse guaranteed by the empire had been broken up to the
detriment of most of its component parts. Of course, from the
point of view of national separatism, the political independence
of Esthonia or Latvia was a great conquest, a glorious assertion
of self-determination, and a source of profit in the helpless condi-
tion of Russia. These Baltic States serve as a kind of neutral
fringe in which Bolsheviks can be met in safety by representa-
tives of western Powers and western commerce. Gold from the
Russian State reserves was being stored there, Reval and Riga
serving as outlets for whatever trade was conducted with the
west by the bankrupt Government of Moscow. Undoubtedly
such a position, recognized by Europe and at the same time high-
ly useful to the Soviet, might be a lucrative one. But these new-
born States hardly realized sufficiently that sooner or later an
account would have to be rendered to a Russia restored to its
national traditions and strength. Such a historical Russia would
hardly consent to leave the gates of the Baltic in the hands of
alien Governments, who had done their level best to thwart its
efforts at restoration in 1919, who manifested on every occasion
their hostility to the Russian people and were in more dangerous
proximity to Petrograd than Ireland was to London. The Bol-
sheviks had no objection to using Lettish mercenaries for repress-
ing popular risings in Russia, and Lettish stockbrokers for com-
mercial dealings with the west, but the Russian Government
could not be expected to remain anti-national for ever. In the
case of Poland the necessities of the industrial situation are quite
as obvious as those of the commercial one. Polish industry
thrived on the economic connexion with Russia. Without the
Russian market Poland is economically a lifeless strip of terri-
tory: Germany does not want Polish manufactures; the only
commodity it did want from Poland was cheap labour, but recent
occurrences in Silesia and elsewhere show to what an extent na-
tional animosities have obstructed intercourse, even in this re-
spect. It will be a long time before Poland will be able to use
the outlet to the sea for the purpose of considerable trade and it
is not likely to become ever a sea-power of some standing. In
the meantime Poland in 1921 was practically bankrupt, with its
currency enormously depreciated. It would certainly not seek
reunion with Russia, but it might regret the opportunity it had
in 1919 for helping in the restoration of a national government in
Russia. Lithuania, with its unhappy situation in the intersection
of the lines of action of three powerful neighbours Germany,
Poland and Russia had to keep up a front primarily against the
Poles as its most dangerous neighbours. As German protection
was excluded by the policy of the Entente and especially of
France, it seemed certain that the Lithuanians would sooner or
later have to lean on Russia. But it would have to be a Russia
with a civilized Government and a solid national basis. As for
Rumania, the seizure of Bessarabia, though confirmed by decree
of the Entente Powers, and the wholesale dispossession of Rus-
sian landowners, had not pacified the province, of which half the
population belonged to the Russian stock and in which even
many Moldavians were reputed Russophiles. The alliance be-
tween Rumania and Poland, concluded in the spring of 1921,
might serve the purpose against a possible Bolshevist offensive,
but would hardly help against a reconstituted National State. In
the Caucasus again, the various alien nationalities are so inter-
mixed and so hostile to each other that it was impossible to ex-
pect the rise of any local federation or even of durable peace: the
Armenians, the Georgians, the Caucasian Tartars, as soon as
they were free of their movements, were inclined to jump at each
other's throats, and the necessity of a strong empire holding
their appetites for self-determination in check was recognized
even in 1921: it formed the background of the Soviet Govern-
ments artificially created in Azerbaijan, in Georgia and in Ar-
menia. The factor of economic interdependence was also clearly
to the fore: Georgians normally hate Armenians, though the rural
population of Georgian stock wants the cooperation of the Ar-
menians in the towns. The Tartars would fain swoop down on
the people in the plains, and have repeatedly tried to do so, but
after a time the necessity of drawing supplies from peaceful
agriculturists and traders asserts itself among them. The oil
treasures of Baku are of paramount importance to any Russian
State and on the other hand these oil wells cannot be exploited
without drawing supplies from a " Hinterland " furnishing food
and manufactured articles. Above all, these regions can reckon
on peaceful development only if there is a strong police force to
keep the heterogeneous elements in order. Such a force could
only be provided under existing conditions by Russia. Even the
Bolsheviks had found access to this disturbed region as negotia-
tors and pacifiers although their methods of pacification were of a
peculiar kind mainly the extermination or driving out of ele-
ments opposed to the Soviets.
On the whole there could be no doubt in 1921 that anti-Rus-
sian tendencies and political arrangements found their chief
support in the absurdity of Bolshevik rule as well as from a
recollection of the oppressive policy of the Tsarist period. A
change for the better in the direction of freedom and democracy
in Russia would render it possible to restore to some degree the
economic and political ties which rendered fruitful the coopera-
tion between these interdependent elements. As things stood,
Soviet Russia was in 1921 deprived of important commercial
outlets and industrial auxiliaries, and had to pay a proportionate
price for such help as she could get from them.
Commercial Intercourse. The curtailment of these resources
was, however, of small importance when compared with the mis-
rule of the Communist authorities in Russia proper. As a result
of the civil war, of the proscription of trade, of the destruction
of the middle classes, of the ruin of currency and credit, the pro-
cesses of circulation had been impeded and blocked to such an ex-
tent that one had to look back to the Mongol invasions in order
to find anything similar in magnitude to the misery of the situa-
tion up to the middle of 1921. The struggles in the Ukraine, with
the repeated changes of rulers (democratic Ukrainians, the Ger-
man protectorate, Petlura's bands, Bolsheviks, Denikin's White
Guards, the Bolsheviks again, a Polish invasion, the Bolsheviks
again), and the accompanying sequence of risings and punitive
expeditions had made the south-western granary of the black
soil almost unavailable for years to come. In the same way the
Donets basin, the Cossack territories, the Volga provinces had
been the scene of bitter conflicts and disturbances which had
affected their productivity in a most unfavourable way. 1
In 1921 one could hardly talk of a Russian railway system. It
was already worn out to a great extent by the war and rendered
useless for the bulk of the population by the strain put on it by
military exigencies. The Soviet administration had been trying
hard to effect the most urgent repairs as to rails, engines and
trucks, and had utilized a considerable part of the gold reserve
to buy locomotives and rolling-stock abroad. But the needs
were so great and the engineering resources of Russia had fallen
so low, that there was no marked improvement in this respect.
The restrictions as to trade had been relaxed lately, by the
decrees of March 29 and May 17 1921, and a lame attempt had
been made to revive trade, but all these concessions were too
much in contradiction with other standing features of Communist
policy to produce an extensive change in the situation. The fact
1 Production of coal in the Donets basin for the first four months
of 1913, 1919 and 1920 (in thousands of poods).
Months
1913
1919
1920
January
February ....
March
April
Total .
143,000
117,000
156,000
84,000
36,600
34,800
33,300
12,500
14,000
19,300
24,300
13,800
500.000
117,200
71,400
(Report of Lord Emmott's Committee.)
336
RUSSIA
remained that the dictatorship of the Soviets had employed
itself systematically on cutting the connecting nerves of the
economic organism and had thereby produced a state of paraly-
sis which it was out of question to heal by a few decrees.
One of the hateful consequences of this self-inflicted disorder
was the severance between town and country. The rise and the
growth of towns depend directly on ways of communication
and the circulation of men and goods. They are primarily cen-
tres of distribution and exchange, and if the roads to them are
obstructed they are unable to perform their economic functions
of distribution and exchange. There was, of course, a secondary
cause to their decay in " Sovdepia," namely the fact that they
were centres of industry and affected by the ruin. But their de-
cay as centres of commerce was bound in itself to produce a back
flow of the population towards the villages. Such a back flow
was especially indicated in Russia, where the distinction be-
tween rural and urban life was never a very marked one, and
where large numbers of the inhabitants, such as cabmen, carriers,
porters, small tradesmen, were recruited from the villages for a
time and accustomed to return to their rural homes at certain
periods of the year. In " Sovdepia " this mixed population tried
to escape from the deadening grip of the Bolsheviks in the towns
to the rural districts. It could live a freer life there, and, besides,
it was nearer to the direct source of food-stuffs the tilled soil.
In this way the economic evolution of " Sovdepia " might be
described as a regress from commercial to natural husbandry.
Another side of this process of " naturalization " was con-
nected with the disappearance of the mainspring of flourishing
commerce credit. The causes of this phenomenon are partly of
an economic and partly of a political nature. As the whole system
of Communism is based on war against capital, no accumulation
of wealth or resources should be allowed in private hands. This
being so, no transactions can be carried out in the strength of
confidence in a person's ability to meet engagements in thefuture.
Cash payments and (in view of the worthless currency) barter
are the only legitimate forms of exchange. To this must be added
the effect produced by arbitrary expropriations by the renuncia-
tion of State liabilities, at home and abroad, by the absence of
any legal security against dispossession. In such conditions
there can be no talk of prosperous economic intercourse. Not
the market but the barrack is the social center.
The will of a people to live cannot be entirely extinguished
even by a Communist regime. Practice reacts by all conceivable
means against the theory. Clandestine trade had been going on
in Russia all through the years 1918-21. The Sukharevka mar-
ket in Moscow teemed with people bidding all kinds of goods for
sale. Those who succeeded in getting a passage by rail or by
river-craft carried little stores of merchandise in sacks, ostensibly
for their own use, in reality for trade purposes. What prices such
contraband goods fetched was another matter: people had to pay
fantastic sums for the risks incurred by the traders, besides mak-
ing up for the depreciation of the currency. Anyhow the flow of
speculation had never ceased in spite of all the decrees of the
Soviet, and the rulers had recently made up their mind to recog-
nize the existence and to admit in half-hearted way the legality
of local trade (March 1921). This was proclaimed in the west as
a great victory of common sense over extremist doctrine : it was
in truth an inevitable admission which did not do away with
the main causes of the disorder insecurity, disruption of com-
munications, distrust, corrupt and arbitrary interference by the
commissars. As long as these causes continued to operate, the
economic life of Russia would be suffering from their cumulative
effects, and the social intercourse of the country was bound to be
disturbed by the fever of fraudulent and rapacious profiteering in
an atmosphere of misery and disease.
Agriculture. State of Peasantry. One of the first decrees of
the Bolshevjks proclaimed the abolition of private property and
the nationalization of the land. In practice this decree sanctioned
the disorderly grabbing of estates by the adjoining peasantry,
and the new rulers connived at this form of appropriation for
the sake of its psychological effect as a revolutionary act. This
meant that they renounced " nationalization " at the same time
as they professed to carry it out, and although they tried to save
their face by distinguishing between the ownership attributed to
the republic and the possession of land snatched by the peasants,
the fact remained that the October Revolution as translated into
agrarian terms meant the passage of some 50 million dessiatins
(135 million ac.) from former landowners into the hands of
" petty bourgeois " of the peasant class. The fact that some of
the new proprietors held in village groups while others held in
individual homesteads did not alter the fundamental opposition
between the two social conceptions. The history of the years of
Soviet domination up to July 1921 showed that the Communists
did not realize at once the consequences of the agrarian revolu-
tion registered by their decree. They strove to carry out their
programme of nationalization in two directions: they kept in the
hands of the Commonwealth a considerable number of estates
which had belonged to the State, the Imperial family and certain
private landowners they based their policy of food supply on
the principle that the peasants were tenants at will of the repub-
lic liable to unlimited exactions for the benefit of the whole.
Under the first head a series of measures were adopted for the
exploitation of estates on communistic principles. In the pecu-
liar terminology of the Soviet a number of " Sovkhoses " and
" Kolkhoses " were carved out of the land fund and put under
the economic control of the administration. The " Sovkhoses "
were economic organizations carried on under the immediate direc-
tion of the Government while the " Kolkhoses " were communes
and associations of peasants enjoying economic support from the
Government. Sovkhoses either carried on agriculture in general
or cultivated special kinds of technical plants such as beetroot or
tobacco. In the first case the Sovkhoses were mainly organized
as colonies of industrial workers fitted out with agricultural
implements of all kinds, cattle, seeds, etc. The object was to
make town workers more independent of the " yoke " of the
villages by giving them the opportunity of growing their own
corn and vegetables, managing their own dairy farms, etc. These
annexes of the factories, designed to rear privileged proletarians
in a healthy atmosphere of occasional rural occupation and to
provide the surrounding villages with examples of model farming,
proved a dismal failure. According to a report presented to a
congress of agricultural workers in July 1920 the delays and red
tape of administrative patronage rendered the condition of the
proletarian husbandmen exceedingly precarious. 1 And as for the
workers it could not be expected that they would be able to give
satisfaction in their amphibious pursuits. The progress of the
Kolkhoses was not more successful. Some were started as actual
" communes " with individual cooperation and individual " prof-
its," and those were doomed to be a failure; other Kolkhoses
merely drew assistance from the Government, and had to en-
counter the hostility of neighbouring, less-privileged villages.
The negative results of this experiment may be gauged from the
fact that the number of Kolkhoses in action decreased in one
year from 1,900 to 1,500.
The immense area covered by peasant tenures on the old lines
was little affected <ci its constitution by the Bolshevik usurpation.
The attempt of the Soviet to bait the well-to-do peasants by the
needy folk proved that the Communist intellectuals did not know
the material with which they had to deal. There was no " village
proletariat " to speak of, which could serve as a basis for the in-
tended subversion of social relations in the villages; and such
tramps and drunkards as the Bolsheviks were able to bring to-
gether in their crusade against welfare and order did not succeed
in effecting much more than occasional disturbances, which ended
mostly in the suppression of the " needy folk " by the peasantry.
'According to the decree of June 8 1919, the control of the
Sovkhoses farms was given to the Glavsemkhose (the Central
Board of Agriculture), which (l) united all agricultural farms or-
ganized by the industrial proletariat ; and (2) united all the central
boards controlling those branches of industry which were in need
of agricultural plants for their production, such as " Glavsakhar,"
" Glavtabak," " Glavkrachmal," " Centrochai," and " Pharma-
centre" (Economic Life Oct. 2 1919). The original area allotted to
different industrial boards amounted to 200,000 dess. (540,000 ac.),
but the area actually distributed amongst them was much smaller,
amounting only to 80,000 dess. (Russian Economist, Jan. 1921).
RUSSIA
337
Much more irksome were the requisitions and expropriations
exercised in virtue of the eminent ownership of the Common-
wealth. The Soviet was constrained to fall back on this means of
extracting some supplies for feeding the army and the towns, but
the decrees enjoining the confiscation of the entire produce with
the exception of the quantity necessary for the subsistence of the
husbandmen, could not fail to provoke a stubborn resistance.
The answer of the peasantry was that the farmers restricted the
area under seed to the extent necessary to feed them and their
families. Why should they toil to increase cultivation if the
fruits of their labour were to be taken from them? According to a
Soviet authority (Larin) the quantity used for cultivation had
shrunk from 5 milliard poods in 1917 to 23 milliard poods in 1920.
The Soviet Government brought all the weight of its terroristic
coercion to bear against this passive resistance. It sent punitive
expeditions, it encouraged its privileged proletarians to raid the
countryside for supplies, it issued a decree ordering the maximum
of available soil to be taken over in cultivation and threatening
recalcitrant farmers with confiscation and imprisonment: all in
vain as far as the general results were concerned. The hardships
and disorder were increased hundredfold, but it proved impossi-
ble to drive a mass of 100,000,000 peasants by the whip to per-
form work which was distasteful to them.
The Soviet dictators had to acknowledge their defeat, and in
the spring of 1921 (on March 23), in view of a threatening famine,
a decree was issued by the Executive Council of the Soviet
recognizing and guaranteeing the private tenure of householders
who would conform to the payment of a tax in kind. Instead of
charging the provinces with certain lump sums to be partitioned
among the uyezds (districts) and, lower down among the volosts,
and to be collected from the harvest according to the require-
ments of the Government, a land tax was imposed which had to
be assessed according to the outfit and means of each separate
household. It was calculated that this substitution of a land tax
for the system of repartition amounted to the reduction from
470,000,000 poods of corn to 240,000,000. It remained to be seen
whether the business of assessing and collecting the tax could be
carried out with sufficient skill and fairness. The one positive
asset of the revolutionary period from the point of view of the
peasants consisted in the passage of land from the squires to the
tillers, and this was certainly a conquest which the villagers
were not going to give up. All attempts at political reconstruc-
tion would have to reckon with this basic fact.
Industry. The history of industrial economy presents the same
features, and describes the same curve, from partial disorgani-
zation through blockade and war to general ruin in consequence
of absurd Utopianism, and, ultimately, to desperate attempts
to reconstitute production by reverting to methods condemned
and destroyed by the Communists. There is, however, a notable
difference: while the enormous block of the rural population
was able to oppose unconquerable passive resistance to the dicta-
tors in spite of terrorism and heavy losses, the scanty stratum of
the industrial workers was almost worn out in the struggle.
We have again to start in our survey in the case from the
years immediately preceding the Revolution. Bolshevik experi-
ments were the culminating phase of a process of destruction
which had started long before the Oct. 1917 upheaval: the guilt
of the Communists consisted in the fact that instead of fighting
the evil, they did everything in their power to aggravate it. The
initial stage of industrial decay dates from the time when Russia
was isolated from western resources by the Central Powers in
alliance with Turkey and Bulgaria. The country had to attempt
the impossible task of providing by its own primitive resources
for the tremendous technical requirements of the war. The
criminal levity of Tsarist administration under men like Sukhom-
linov had left it with exhausted equipment and munitions by the
end of some nine months of military operations, and an unsoluble
problem was set to its patriotic leaders in 1915; they had to make
up the deficiencies and to prepare further efforts. This meant
technically that all the coal and all the railway machinery had to
be diverted for the use of the army while the economic needs of
the population were entirely disregarded. As a result, though,
with the help of Zemstvo and Municipal Committees acting for
purposes of national defence, the fabrication of shells and ma-
chine-guns was to some extent reestablished and maintained,
the economic work in the rear necessary for production and re-
pairs was rapidly deteriorating. Train service, for example, was
officially suspended for weeks between Petrograd and Moscow
in order to make room for military transport and the most urgent
needs of food supply. Repairs of locomotives had to be carried
out in a more and more imperfect and insufficient manner, and
the statistics as to the state of rolling-stock presented drastic
symptoms of a lamentable deterioration. The March 1917
Revolution accentuated all these evils because another cause of
decay came to the fore with ever-increasing force : the discontent
and the demoralization of the workers broke out like a stream of
all-consuming lava. The responsibility for the sufferings of the
time was laid entirely at the door of greedy capitalists, and the
workers were convinced that they were justified in demanding
increased wages and decreased labour. A Minister of Labour
of the Provisional Government, Skobelev, upheld emphatically
their contention.
The following tables give illustrations of the change in the
condition of the rolling stock:
Engines.
Number of
Length of
Number of
Per cent, of
sound Loco-
Year
the Lines,
sound Loco-
Locomotives
motives per
in Versts
motives
out of order
100 Versts
of Line
o/
/o
1914
64,000
17,000
15-16
27-28
1916 .
65,000
16,000-16,800
16-17
26-27
1917, Jan.
64-526
17,012
16-5
26
June
62,952
15,930
24-2
25
Dec.
50.131
15,810
29-4
32
1918, June
25-422
5,676
39-5
22
Dec.
23,665
4,679
47-8
21
1919, June
24,688
4,739
49-o
19
Dec.
36,551
4,i4i
55-4
II
1920, Jan.
48,410
3,969
58-1
8
June
59,196
6,254
58-9
10-5
Repair of Engines.
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
Jan. Feb.
Number of Engines
repaired
797
1,177
640
405
25 21
Construction of New Engines.
Year
Number of new Engines
constructed in Russia
1914
1915
1916
; : ;
816
903
599
^Q6
1918
1919
191
85
In the cotton industry of the Moscow district the earnings of
skilled and unskilled workmen per day was as follows:
Unskilled workers
Carpenters of the
first category
Date
In kopeks
Per cent.
1919 = 100
In kopeks
Per cent.
1919 = 100
Easter 1914
46
2
155
3-9
Easter 1915
57
2-5
1 60
4-0
Dec. 1915
59
2-6
175
4-4
Easter 1916
68
3-o
200
5-o
Jan. 1917
68
3-0
250
6-2
Aug. 1917
145
6-3
575
14-4
Dec. 1917
800
34-8
1,950
48-7
June 1918
1,000
43-5
2,050
51-2
Sept. 1918
1,000
65-2
2,650
66-2
Feb. 1919
2,300
IOO
4,000
IOO
All partial attempts to put a stop to constant rioting, absentee-
ism, and slackness availed nothing against the general intoxication
of the " glorious revolutionary days.'
338
RUSSIA
Working Year of the Industrial Workmen in Days.
Pre-revo-
lutionary
Post-revo-
lutionary
I ncrease
since the
Revolution
Per cent
of
Increase
Stoppages .
Sickness
Absence for other
causes
Total of days absent
Days of rest
Days of work .
Total
7-4
16-6
53
19
52
53
u-6
35-4
157
214
24
124
IOO
416
93
248
55
1 80
38
41
365
365
The table shows that, notwithstanding the large decrease in the
number of holidays after the Revolution, the working year of the
workman, owing to the increase of sickness, absence from work and
stoppages, has decreased by 68 days, or 25%; and if, further, the
length of the working day be taken in account, in 1916, including
overtime 10-1 hours, and at the beginning of 1920, 8-6 hours, then
the decrease of the working year amounts to 900 hours or 30 per cent.
The Bolshevik victory in Oct. 1917 added yet another ingredi-
ent to the industrial ferment. The Marxist dictators, the indus-
trial workers, were the chosen class, the leaders of the proletariat,
and entitled therefore to carve out benefits and indulgences for
themselves according to their own notions of right and expedi-
ency. More especially they were keen to ransom the employers'
class, not only by appropriating the lion's share in actual profits
but by exacting compensation for advantages which had accrued
to employers in the past, as well as vengeance for ill-treatment of
the workers in the course of centuries. The inference from this
conception of economic relations between working men and their
former employers was the system of workers' control l which the
Soviets started in their industrial policy. It meant that each
factory and workshop had to be conducted in the future under
the supervision and according to the dkections of a board of
workmen, while the employers were degraded to the position of
technical experts and banking managers.
The object of the peculiar combination between Capitalism
and Socialism designated as " workers' control " was avowedly
to enable the workmen to draw on the resources of the capitalist
to the last drop, and in this complete success was achieved
thanks to the servitude imposed on the " employer " who could
neither withdraw nor oppose any decree of the workman's board.
But the system had yet another effect, namely a complete indus-
trial anarchy and consequent ruin.
The next stage was reached when the Soviets attempted to
put an end to this anarchy by a regime of nationalization. 2
'The Workers' Control was established by the decree of Nov. 14
1917. It directed the production, sale and storage of products and
of raw materials and the administration of the financial side of the
business. It belonged to all workers by the intermediary of their
elected institutions with the participation of representatives of the
employees and of the technical staff.
The situation in the factories became chaotic, and the disorganiza-
tion of the undertakings assumed the most extraordinary dimensions.
The interference of the Workers' Committees made it quite im-
possible to realize any scheme planned in advance. All programmes
of economical policy were annulled by the " judgment " of the
Workers' Committees.
1 In the course of a report delivered to the Moscow Congress by
the Supreme Council of People's Economy in Jan. 1920, A. I.
Rykov, the president of the Council, made the following statement :
" The nationalization of industry has been carried out pretty
fully. In 1918, 1,125 factories and works were nationalized, and by
the end of 1919 the number was about 4,000. This means that nearly
all industry has passed into the hands of the state (Soviet) organs,
while private industry has been destroyed, as former statistics
show that there were up to 10.000 industrial undertakings, including
cottage industries. These latter are not subject to nationalization,
and the 4,000 nationalized factories and works include not only the
larger concerns, but likewise the bulk of the average industrial
concerns of Soviet Russia. Of these 4,000 undertakings about 2,000
are working at present. All the rest have been closed. The number of
operatives is estimated approximately at 1,000,000, which is between
one-third and one-fifth of the numbers of the proletariat in 1914.
Both as regards the number of hands and the number of undertak-
ings in operation the Russian manufacturing industry is likewise
undergoing a crisis."
Nationalization could be introduced into practice only by
deriving economic direction and control, not from the accidental
and separate groups of workmen in factories and workshops, but
from the national centre. This centre was embodied in the
Economic Council of the people, supported locally by subordi-
nate councils in the provinces and districts, and relying for the
execution of its decrees on a vast bureaucracy of head offices
(Glaski) and " centres."
It is difficult to form an adequate opinion as to the ramifications
and numbers of this all-embracing bureaucracy. We have the
evidence of its own members as to the actual working of the sys-
tem. In theory it had to organize the repartition of raw materials,
to assign means and draw supplies and to collect products in
accordance with requirements. In reality the Soviet bureaucrats
struggled with each other, stifled local opinion and individual
enterprise, and had generally to record lamentable discrepancies
between plans and achievements. 3
Bureaucratic nationalization proved as ineffectual as workmen's
control in solving the problems of increased production and or-
ganization of labour. Theoretically, the workmen in the na-
tionalized industries had to be considered not as privileged
beneficiaries but as disciplined citizens serving the Common-
wealth. Attempts to translate this view into practice were made.
Workmen were mobilized for industrial purposes, sent to the
Ural or to the Donets fronts, subjected to military control and
martial law, armies that had been fighting the Poles or Denikin
were switched off to execute economic tasks. Trotsky developed
the idea of the militarization of industry as the only means
of saving the country from collapse. But the results were not
encouraging. Workmen deserted from the towns and hid in the
villages, while those unfortunates who were unable to leave
Petrograd, or other industrial towns, went on strike, made
demonstrations and riots in the face of ruthless repressions; even
when they performed their hard labour, it proved miserably
inadequate for lack of physical health and moral energy.
Altogether, industrial nationalization proved as much of a
failure as agricultural nationalization. And so the Soviets had
to retreat, here as there, to a position characterized by the aban-
donment of all their economic doctrines and previsions. In 1921
Comrade Krassin was recommending in the West a programme
that Lenin had announced to the loth Congress of Communists
and to the Central Executive Council: capital and competent
leadership were acknowledged as necessary forces in the process
of industrial production: the national capitalists had been robbed
and driven from Russia; therefore foreign capitalists had to be
called in to take their place. They were promised guarantees
against arbitrary expropriation " d la Russe " and they might
think that they were less liable to succumb to it because they
were not " comrades " but citizens of civilized states, and might
count on the strong arm of their Governments. But the great
inducement consisted obviously in the prospect of rapid prof-
iteering on a scale commensurate with the risk incurred by those
who ventured into the wolves' den.
In comparison with these gigantic schemes of exploitation
other retrograde measures were rrodest and mild. Small capital-
ists, even when Russians, were allowed to start shops, and indi-
vidual enterprise was to be encouraged somehow, although Com-
munism was not renounced as an ideal, and big undertakings
were to be kept in the hands of the State. The introduction of
' From Jan. to June 1918, the Soviet regime at the Putiloff factory
gave the following results:
Delivered Prevision
Engines, new 2 4
Engines, new type I 3
Engines, important repairs 2 10
Engines, medial repairs o 12
Carriages, 3rd class, new 2 4
Carriages, 4th class, new 3 13
Carriages, for goods, new 169 309
Tramways 3 9
The real productivity of the factory is from 3 to 10 times inferior
to those of the scheme of production established by the superior
Council of National Economy. (Report of Mr. Molitof to the. Petro-
grad Soviet, Aug. 15 1918, Labry, 187.)
RUSSIA
339
specialists was recommended as a necessary measure. Under the
regime of the workmen's control, technical experts were treated
as second-rate persons to be ordered about by the ignorant
" demos " of proletarian boards, but experts were now invited to
proceed to Sovdepia in order to help to restart productive indus-
trial activity. In the factories piece-work was given a prominent
place as against the " ca'canny " devices of time work, although
previously workmen used to protest most violently against this
form of remuneration. Altogether payment by results was being
more and more recognized as an antidote against slovenly labour.
As for working hours no account was taken of the 8-hour day, and
forced labour was exacted for 10 or 12 hours when deemed neces-
sary by the commissars.
Standard of Living. Thus the Soviet dictators were trying in
1921 to back out of the impasse into which they had run the in-
dustry of the country. There was among the working class one
group which had profited by the Oct. revolution it was the
communistic nucleus used by the Soviet administration to spy on
their comrades and to coerce them. They enjoyed all the priv-
ileges of an official class and could afford not only necessaries of
life but such luxuries as were to be had in the market. Apart
from these privileged Communists the working class was reduced
to a condition of utter destitution. Even judging by the standard
of the prices fixed from time to time by the ruling powers they
could not make the two ends meet, because the prices had risen
during Soviet domination from 16 to 25 times. In 1921 bread
cost 19 times as much as in the second quarter of 1917, manufac-
tured goods 22 times as much, footwear and soap 25 times.
Wages indeed had increased also, but their nominal increase did
not keep up with the cost of living. About the middle of 1918 an
enquete had been made in Moscow as to the budgets of 2,173
workmen, and it resulted from it that on the average a bachelor
working-man's wages did not exceed 462 rubles per month,
though by occasional extra work they might be brought up to
624. The head of a family earned on the average 703 rubles,
and might increase his earning by supplementary labour to 1,077
rubles per month. The ordinary budget was made up in the
case of a bachelor by 22-2 rubles for lodging, 46-9 for food, 47-7
for clothing, i-i for house implements, 19-6 for health (baths,
drugs, etc.), 13-4 cultural expenses (newspapers, books, etc.), 13
(parcels sent to village home), 32 miscellaneous expenses; in all,
including other items, being 609 r. For heads of families the
average monthly expenses rose to 952-7, of which 672-8 r. fell on
food (Zagorsky, La Republique des Soviets, 214, 215). These
figures show a considerable deficit in normal and well-regulated
households: any disturbance in personal conduct, conditions of
labour or health, was bound to result in downright starvation
and ruin. Let us also notice that distress was much more marked
in 1920 and 1921 than in 1918.
The only consolation for workmen was derived from the fact
that the hated bourgeois were subjected to even greater hardships.
In the early stages of Bolshevik domination this kind of consola-
tion was a potent one: the feeling of triumph of the lower class
over its former superiors made up for many privations, but in
course of time the bourgeois were trodden down to that extent
that there was not much satisfaction to be obtained from kicking
them, while new contrasts arose between the mode of life of half-
starved workers and of the Soviet bureaucrats shepherding them.
The food situation became catastrophic in 1921. As a result of
the restriction of cultivation, transport difficulties and civil dis-
order, a great part of the country was visited by downright
famine, with terrible prospects ahead.
Credit and Finance. In such conditions nothing could be
expected but growing decay in public credit and finance. The
Soviet Government had been living on the reserves accumulated
under monarchical rule. The gold fund of the Imperial Treasury
had been its chief asset in conducting political and commercial
negotiations. Its remnant represented something like 50,000,-
ooo in the first quarter of 1921. The needs of the home circula-
tion were satisfied by constant emissions of paper notes. There
was no system and no limit in this process of inflation. Paper
notes had even come to be measured by weight instead of being
reckoned at their indicated value. The Chief of the Soviet
State often spoke with contempt of money currency as a worth-
less product of capitalistic exploitation. But the Communist
Commonwealth had not yet discovered the means of replacing
this system by a more adequate instrument of exchange. Figures
in rubles were still being handled as if they represented realities.
The only hope left for the Bolsheviks was that when they had
spent the reserves captured from the Imperial Government and
from the defeated armies, the national capital represented by the
natural wealth of Russia in forests, minerals, fisheries, etc., should
be put into the market. The handing over of this wealth to
foreigners would mean, of course, economic subjection, a state
similar to that of Asiatic and African dependencies of western
Powers. But the Bolsheviks were not deterred by a prospect of
that kind, provided it enabled them to continue in power. They
mapped out a programme of concessions on the widest scale.
The Council of the Commissars of the people laid down a set of
rules as to concessions, and the Councils of Economy and of
Agriculture outlined a vast scheme of natural resources which
should be offered to foreigners for exploitation. The rules were
as follows:
(1) Concessions should be granted by agreement on the principle
of a division of profits.
(2) In case of the introduction of special machinery and appliances
the concessionnaires would be granted privileges, e.g. large orders.
(3) The concessionnaires would be allowed to remain in possession
for long periods in order that they should draw sufficient benefits
from their concessions.
(4) The Government of the Soviets guaranteed immunity to the
concessionnaires from nationalization, confiscation and requisitions.
(5) The concessionnaires would have the right to hire labourers on
conditions specified in the Laws of the Commonwealth or on special
conditions safeguarding the life and the health of the workmen.
(6) The Government pledged itself not to make any change in the
conditions of the agreement by a one-sided exercise of its authority.
It would be impossible to enumerate all the resources of the
country offered to enterprising capitalists for exploitation. Two
or three examples must suffice to give an idea of the booty offered
to foreign capitalists by Russian Communists. In Western
Siberia, along the rivers Ob, Irtysh and Taz, an area of 70 mil-
lion dess. (about 180 million ac.) was reserved for them. It is
covered by immense forests of pines, firs, cedars and larches. If
it were found necessary at the start to restrict exploitation to a
strip along the rivers some 15 versts wide along each bank, there
would still be available for immediate and easy use some 16 mil-
lion dess. (about 42 million acres). The timber should be sawed
and worked into pulp and cellulose in mills to be erected by the
estuary of the Ob. Such mills ought to make up a settlement of
the size of another Archangel. The natural route westwards lies
down the Ob and by the Kara sea: it had already been utilized to
some extent and its future importance could not be exaggerated.
The whole region should be opened up by a number of railway
lines. Mineral wealth of various kinds platinum, coal, lead is
to be found in these districts. One of the most stupendous
advertisements as to mineral wealth concerned the Kuzsnetsk
coal mines along the Tom river. They were estimated to contain
about 250 million tons of excellent coal. In European Russia 14
uyezds (districts) were advertised for agricultural exploitation
and the construction of ways of communications of all kinds.
All these districts are situated in the black soil region of south-
eastern Russia. The application of powerful traction engines
and steam ploughs would soon convert them into one of the prin-
cipal granaries of Europe.
Such were the prospects held out in 1921 to enterprising
capitalists. Not a word was wasted on the social and legal condi-
tions of the human material connected with these tracts. It
remained for the concessionnaires to fashion it with the assistance
of the enlightened commissars: it was evident that the 5th clause
of the Soviet rules ought not to be applied in such a way as to
hamper the great process of economic restoration. The principal
object was to get capitalists to speculate on the material basis
described with such graphic details.
It remained to be seen how they would organize and keep in
order the labouring population required for the carrying out of
34
RUSSKY
the concessions whether the foreign capitalists would obtain
feudal franchises with police powers of their own, or the Soviet
power would keep watch on their behalf and use coercive meas-
ures to keep the Russian workmen up to the mark.
Another side of the repressive policy of the Soviets in the
stress of dire need was presented by the appeal to the help of
cooperatives. These organizations had gone through a chequered
existence under the rule of the Soviets. In the early days of 1917
and 1918, the proletarian dictators used them as convenient tools
at home and abroad in order to counteract the impression that
Russia was ruled by an uncompromising despotism. The leaders
of the cooperatives were encouraged to preach a non-party
attitude, and to concentrate their efforts on purely economic work
without any admixture of political opposition. In the campaign
for the reopening of trade with Soviet Russia it was usual to
assert that such trade would be carried on exclusively with
cooperators and not with the ill-famed Moscow Government.
In 1919, however, a sharp turn was given to the wheel, and the
cooperatives were " nationalized " declared to be subordinate
committees of the Central Economic Council. In Sovdepia this
measure was explained not only as a consequence of the general
policy of Communism, but also as a necessary precaution against
Social revolutionaries and Mensheviks, accused of having barri-
caded themselves within the cooperatives for purposes of politi-
cal agitation.
In the beginning of the year 1921 a new current set in:
cooperatives were to some extent reestablished as autonomous
organizations. The object was to revive them as agents of repar-
tition. The Soviet decree of April 7 1921 was drawn up, however,
in such a narrow and ambiguous form, that the institution re-
mained doomed to mechanical subjection. The Act concerned
primarily cooperatives of consumers. It allows combinations for
protection and traffic only in an exceptional case and in obscure
terms. As far as allowed, cooperatives are included in adminis-
trative units of state origin and local delimitation. All freedom
of action is curtailed and subjected to strict supervision. Lastly,
the members are not voluntary associates intending to help each
other according to free agreement, but people brought together
by the fact of dwelling in the same locality or belonging to the
same professional group.
All this shows to what extent the principle of autonomous
association was felt to be antagonistic to Soviet despotism. It
might be assumed that the cooperatives would either remain in-
active and fictitious, or else that they would contrive to escape
the jealous supervision and the step-motherly pressure exercised
by the " Glavki " and " centres."
The hard facts of economic decay admitted of no controversy
and could be illustrated by tabulated results. It was still im-
possible in 1921 to apply the same tests to the moral aspect of
the condition of Russia, although there could be no doubt that
the deterioration of national life in this respect was more harmful
than economic decay. The aggressive tone of Communist propa-
ganda could not deceive any one who considered the efforts of the
" Proletcult " with common sense. It was not the number of
schools that mattered, but their efficiency and educational
influence. The prophecy of Dostoievsky in The Possessed had
come true: the Bolsheviks had not only squandered the reserves
accumulated by orderly government, and scattered some 2,000,-
ooo of the best educated Russians across the world they had
poisoned the mainsprings of national morals for generations
to come. One or two of the conclusions of Lord Emmott's
Committee may be appropriately cited in this connexion; their
studied moderation makes them particularly effective:
" Child education in Soviet Russia is based upon an attempt to
dissolve the ties hitherto existing between parent and child, and
children are removed from the care of their parents soon after birth
we have received no information on the moral and physical effects
of this policy. Education, both child and adult, is not merely
secular, but directly anti-religious in bias."
As a specimen of the educational practice of Soviet Russia we
will quote from the experience of a leading professor of the medi-
cal faculty of the university of Moscow, published under the
pseudonym of " Donskry " in the Archives of the Russian Revolu-
tion, I (Berlin, 1921) :
" By order of the commissars 5,000 applicants had been admitted
as freshmen in the medical faculty, although the lecture-rooms were
constructed for 250. Representations had been made that it was
impossible to admit persons who had received no appropriate in-
struction, but they were disregarded. The only thing required was
that applicants should have attained the age of 16 years the rules
as to admission did not mention even the necessity of knowing how
to read and write. The crowd of students dwindled to small num-
bers very soon, however, on account of the absence of heating during
the winter and of the almost insuperable difficulty in getting materials
for experimental teaching."
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. Claude Anet, Through the Russian Rev-
olution (1917); Lujo Brentano, Russland der kranke Mann (1918);
E. J. Dillon, The Eclipse of Russia (1919) ; A. Iswolsky, The Memoirs
of Alexander Iswolsky (edited and translated by C. L. Seeger, 1920) ;
Carl Kautsky, The Dictatorship of the Proletariat (1920); A. Keren-
sky, The Prelude to Bolshevism the Kornilov Rebellion (1919);
Raoul Labry, L'Industrie Russe et la Revolution (1919), Une Le-
gislation communiste (1920); M. A. Landau-Aldanoff, Lenine (1919);
V. Lenin, " Left Wing " Communism, an Infantile Disorder (1920),
Land Revolution in Russia (1919), The Great Initiative (1920);
Roger L6vy, Trotsky (1920); Francis MacCullagh, A Prisoner
of the Reds (1921); P. N. Milinkov, History of the Second Rus-
sian Revolution ( 1920) ; Bolshevism an International Danger (1920) ;
K. Nabokov, Ordeal of a Diplomat (1921); A. Nekludoff, Diplomatic
Reminiscences before and during the World War, 1911-1917 (1920);
New Russia (weekly publication, 1920); Boris Nold6, Le Regne de
Lenin (1920) ; R. W. Postgate, The Bolshevik Theory (1920) ; Maurice
Palfologue, " La Russie des Tsars pendant la grande Guerre,"
La Revue des Deux Mondes (Jan.-May 1921); M. A. Ransome, Six
Weeks in Russia (1919), The Crisis in Russia (1921) ; Report (Political
and Economic) of the Committee to Collect Information on Russia
(1921); C. E. Russell, Unchained Russia (1918), The Russian
Economist (N I, 2 and 3 periodical 1920-1), The Russian Common-
wealth; Alexander Schreiber, L' Organisation judicaire de la Russie
des Soviets (1918) ; Ethel Snowden, Through Bolsltevik Russia (1920),
Soviet Russia (weekly publication, vols. I. and II. 1919-20); John
Spargo, The Psychology of Bolshevism (1919), The Greatest Failure in
all History (1920), Bolshevism, the Enemy of Political and Industrial
Democracy (1919), Struggling Russia (weekly magazine, in progress
1919); Leon Trotsky, The Bolsheviki and World Peace (1918),
Our Revolution (1918), War or Revolution (1918), A Paradise in this
World (1920) ; The History of the Russian Revolution to Brest-Litovsk
(1919) ; Emile Vandervelde, Three Aspects of the Russian Revolution
(1918); Maurice Verstraete, Mes Cahiers Russes (1920); V. Victoroff-
Toporoff, La premiere Annee de la Revolution Russe (1919); Sir
Paul Vinogradoff, Self-Government in Russia (1915), The Recon-
struction of Russia (1919) ; H. G. Wells, Russia in the Shadows (1920) ;
Ariadna Tyrkova Williams, From Liberty to Brest-Litovsk (1919);
Robert Wilton, Russia's Agony (1918), The Last Days of the Romanovs
(1920); S. Zagorsky, La Republique des Soviets, Bilan economique
(1921). (P.Vl.)
RUSSKY, NIKOLAI (1854-1918), Russian general, was born
in 1854. On leaving the infantry military school in St. Petersburg
in 1874 he was given a commission in the Guard. Graduating
from the Academy of the General Staff in 1881, he served as an
officer of the general staff in the Kiev military district, and by
1896, after commanding an infantry regiment, had reached
general's rank. During the war with Japan in 1904-5 he was
the head of the staff of the II. Army, and planned the offensive
carried out by Gen. Grippenberg which led to the prematurely
abandoned offensive of Sandepu. In 1909 he was assistant com-
mander of the Kiev military district. He enjoyed the special
friendship of the War Minister, Sukhomlinov. At the beginning
of the campaign of 1914 he commanded the III. Army, which
attacked in Galicia, and after the vicissitudes of the bloody
heavy battles about Krasnik and Rava Ruska advanced to
Lvov (Lemberg), through which it passed in the further advance
to the San-Dniester line. The dramatic entry of the III. Army
into Lvov created for Gen. Russky a popularity and prestige
out of proportion to the real importance of his success. In Oct.
1914 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the north-western
and afterwards of the northern "front" (i.e. group of armies),
but, suffering from very bad health, he had on more than one
occasion to leave the front for a time. He continued, however,
to hold the command, and it was at his headquarters that the
final scenes of Nicholas II. 's reign and his abdication took place
in March 1917. Soon after the Revolution Russky retired and
in 1918 he was reported killed by the Bolsheviks.
RUTHERFORD RYDER
341
RUTHERFORD, SIR ERNEST (1871- ), British physicist,
was born at Nelson, New Zealand, on Aug. 30 1871. He was
educated at Nelson College and Canterbury College, Christ-
church. After graduating at the New Zealand University (M.A.
1893 and B.Sc. 1894), he proceeded with an 1851 science exhibi-
tion to Cambridge, where he entered Trinity College and prose-
cuted researches in the Cavendish laboratory, Sir J. J. Thomson
being then the Cavendish professor. He published numerous
researches upon the conduction of electricity through gases,
for which he obtained the B.A. Research degree and the Coutts-
Trotter studentship in 1897. In the following year he was
appointed Macdonald professor of physics in McGill University,
Montreal. There he carried out a series of brilliant investigations,
in conjunction with Soddy, which established upon a firm
basis the existence and nature of radioactive transformations.
In 1903 he was elected F.R.S. In 1907 he succeeded Sir Arthur
Schuster as Langworthy professor of physics in the university of
Manchester, and he attracted there a large school of radioactive
research workers. In collaboration with several of these the
science of radioactivity was rapidly developed: among other
work the production of helium as a product of disintegration of
radium was shown spectroscopically, the spectrum of the emana-
tion measured, the number of a particles (charged helium atoms)
during a disintegration process counted, the properties of numer-
ous radioactive products and the radiations accompanying their
formation examined. Among the most important of the re-
searches emanating from his laboratory was that of the experi-
mental demonstration of the nuclear nature of the atom. It
was also in his laboratory that Moseley determined the X-ray
spectra of a number of elements. Rutherford was knighted in
1914 and in 1919 succeeded Sir J. J. Thomson as Cavendish pro-
fessor of experimental physics in the university of Cambridge.
Many British and foreign honours and degrees were bestowed
upon him: the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society (1905), the
Barnard Medal (1910), Bressa Prize (1908), and Nobel Prize
for chemistry (1908). In 1920 he was appointed professor -of
physics at the Royal Institution, London. His works include
Radioactivity (1904), Radioactive Transformations (1906), Radio-
active Substances and their Radiations (1912).
RUTHERFORD, MARK [WILLIAM HALE WHITE] (c. 1830-
1913), English author (see 23.940), died at Groombridge March
14 1913. His eldest son, SIR WILLIAM HALE WHITE (b. 1857),
who was created K.B.E. in 1919, became a well-known physician,
and during the World War was a colonel in the R.A.M.C.
RYAN, JOHN DENIS (1864- ), American capitalist, was
born at Hancock, Mich., Oct. 10 1864. He was educated in the
public schools, for eight years was clerk in an uncle's store, and
at the age of 25 went to Denver, where he was employed as a
salesman of lubricating oils. In 1901 he secured an interest in
a bank at Butte. In 1904 he was made manager of the Amalga-
mated Copper Co. in Montana, and after the death of Henry H.
Rogers, in 1908, he succeeded him as president. He had been
elected president of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. in 1905,
and after the merging of the Amalgamated interests in the
Anaconda in 1910 he continued as president of the latter until
1918. He developed large water powers in Montana, and in 1913
electrified the railway between Butte and Anaconda (too m.),
the success of which led to a wide introduction of electrification.
By 1920 hydroelectric power from the Montana Power Co.
organized by Ryan was used in most of the mines of Montana
and for lighting in all parts of the state. During 1917-8 Ryan was
a member of the war council of the American Red Cross and after
1918 of its central committee. After the failure of America's air-
craft programme had led to a reorganization, he was appointed in
April 1918 head of the Aircraft Board of the Committee of
National Defence, and in Aug. was appointed second assistant-
secretary of war and director of air service of the U.S. army.
After the signing of the Armistice in Nov. he resigned. Official
investigation was made later, and Ryan was both attacked and
defended. It was generally felt that the newly organized board
fell heir to popular criticism of past failures for which it was not
responsible, and the short time before the Armistice scarcely
afforded opportunity to develop efficient production. In 1919
Ryan was elected chairman of the board of directors of the
Anaconda Copper Mining Company, and he took a prominent
part in connexion with other commercial and financial concerns.
RYDER. ALBERT PINKHAM (1847-1917), American painter
(see 23.949), died at Elmhurst, Long Island, March 28 1917.
342
SAAR VALLEY
SAAR VALLEY. The Armistice of Nov. 1918, in restoring
Alsace-Lorraine to France, again brought the French
frontier close to Saarbruck and the Valley of the Saar.
This region, thanks to its large coal output, had ever
since 1871 been in close relations with the coal-mines of Metz
and Thionville. The big metallurgical establishments of Lor-
raine were largely dependent upon coal from the Valley of the
Saar, from which the new French frontier would have cut them
off, to the detriment of the economic development of both coun-
tries. On the other hand, France had been deprived of a large
portion of her output by the destruction of her northern coal-
fields, a situation which had as far as possible to be remedied
by Germany. The geographical situation of the coal-mines in
the neighbourhood of Saarbruck clearly pointed to their utiliz-
ation for this purpose. Nevertheless, and although Saarbruck
had belonged to France from 179410 1815, the French annexation
of this country was difficult without running a risk of violating
the inhabitants' right of self-determination. These were the
elements of the problem which the authors of the Treaty of
Versailles had to consider.
Treaty Stipulations. Section IV. of Part III. of the Treaty
deals with the Saar Valley. Articles 45 to 50 lay down the fron-
tiers of the Saar territory, and state the general principles adopted.
The regime agreed upon is laid out in an annexe which follows
Article 50. It is clear from the text that the authors of the
Treaty intended to cede to France complete ownership of all coal
deposits in the valley. This could not have been effected had the
district remained under the authority of the German Govern-
ment. Disturbances were to be feared between the French
State, sole proprietor of the mines, and the German Government,
which would have remained the only public authority. In order
to get over this difficulty, and to ensure to France the free dis-
posal of Saar coal, the territory of the Saar was completely de-
tached from the German State, both from a political as well as
from an administrative point of view.
Frontiers. The territory (see EUROPE, inset on map) as
created by the Treaty stretches W., N. and E. of the town of
Saarbruck (60 km. E.N.E. of Metz, and 90 km. N.W. of Strass-
burg). On the S. and the W. there is the French frontier, from
Hornbach, S. of Deuxponts, to Ritzing, W. of Merzich (Merzig).
Leaving Ritzing, the frontier includes Mettlach and its suburbs,
passes near Neuenkirchen, and, going E. reaches the southern
frontier of the Birkenfeld district, which it follows. From Nam-
born the line goes S.E., taking in Homburg, and, after bending
so as to exclude Deuxponts, rejoins the French frontier near
Hornbach. The territory thus formed is considerably larger than
the district where coal-mines are actually being worked. The
peace negotiators intended, in fact, to include in it the whole coal
deposit, and net only the fields being exploited. France has
become sole owner of all the fields and of all mining concessions.
Indemnification of the former owners was made the concern of
Germany. Transfer to France of the mines being worked was
made comparatively easy by the fact that nearly all the conces-
sions belonged to the State of Prussia or to Bavaria. The
rights of France in the district were still further guaranteed by
the inclusion of the district in the French Customs system. This
provision had extremely important economic and political effects.
However, in order to avoid a brutal cessation of the close economic
relations which existed between the Saar and the rest of Germany,
trade with Germany was to remain free of any Customs dues un-
til Jan. 10 1925. France was empowered to build any railways or
canals which she might deem necessary in order to link up the
fields with France. All the rights and duties of the former pro-
prietors towards their employees and workmen were assumed by
France, who was also free to use French currency in all its trans-
actions within the zone. The value of the mines thus ceded was
to be credited to Germany in the Reparations Accounts.
Political Rtgime. Steps had to be taken to provide the dis-
trict with administration and government, France, apart from
the mines,- being concerned only with Customs. The Peace
Treaty entrusted the League of Nations with this task, as from
Jan. 10 1920. The country is governed by a commission of five,
which sits at Saarbruck, and consists of one French member, one
member chosen among the local population, and three who may
be neither French nor German. This commission is appointed
yearly by 'the League of Nations, which may renew expiring
mandates. It is presided over by one of its number, appointed by
the League of Nations. This president acts as executive agent.
All powers previously enjoyed by the German Empire, Prussia
and Bavaria have been transferred to the commission. The
commission maintains in force the laws and regulations passed
previous to the Armistice, with the exception of special war
measures. It has the power to modify them if necessary; collects
taxes; administers justice; directs the administration of the coun-
try, and can create new administrative organs. It is responsible
for public order; the safety of the inhabitants of the district, and
their representation abroad; it manages the railways and looks
after all public property. These powers, for the use of which the
commission is responsible to the League of Nations, are subject
to several restrictions. First of all, they cannot affect the rights
of the French State in its capacity as owner of the mines, and no
restriction can be placed upon the circulation of French money.
On the other hand, the country maintains its local assemblies, its
religious freedom and its tongue. No fresh taxation (Customs
excepted) can be levied without consultation with elected repre-
sentatives of the inhabitants. Men and women over 20 years of
age have the right to vote for the local assemblies.
The Treaty in no way affects the existing nationality of the
inhabitants. It stipulates that the governing commission shall
be the last judge of any dispute arising from the interpretation of
the Treaty itself. The regime thus formed does not establish a
state of the Saar, similar to that of Luxemburg, since no new
nationality is formed, and since the League of Nations is only
acting as trustee. It is none the less true that the Saar territory
constitutes a political and economic entity entirely independent
and entirely separated from Germany and France. The Peace
Treaty did not intend to prolong this state of affairs indefinitely
without giving the inhabitants of the Saar an opportunity of ex-
pressing and obtaining the fulfilment of their wishes in the matter.
Therefore, 15 years after the coming into force of the Treaty,
that is to say, in the course of the year 1935, the future regime of
the Saar was to be settled by a plebiscite.
The Plebiscite. The details of this plebiscite were to be settled
by the League of Nations. All persons over 20 years of age who
were resident in the territory on June 28 1919 were to have the
right to vote. Three alternatives were to be submitted to the
population. First, the permanent maintenance of the system of
government provided for in the Treaty that is to say, autono-
mous government under the asgis of the League of Nations;
second, reunion with France; third, reunion with Germany.
Voting was to be taken by commune or by district, and it would
therefore be possible to take into account the various votes of
different portions of the territory. The League of Nations was to
fix the new frontiers, if any, in accordance with the results of the
plebiscite. The fate of the mines ceded to France would be decided
by the plebiscite also. If the Peace Treaty regime were con-
tinued, or if the voting went for reunion with France, there would
be no further difficulty; but if all or part of the coal-fields returned
to Germany, Germany would have to buy out the interests of the
French State in the fields which Germany would then reoccupy.
The price was to be fixed by experts and to be payable in gold.
Physical Features. The river Saar comes into contact with the
territory at Sarrequemines, and forms the French frontier to a point
just above Saarbruck. It then flows through the territory to a point
just downstream from Mettlach. The valley, which, between Saar-
bruck and Merzich, is fairly wide, runs through picturesque hills
covered for the larger part with forests, the working of which is a
SABINE ST. JOHN
343
valuable industry- Agriculture plays but a very secondary part,
and it is upon industry that the population is mainly dependent.
The pop. amounts to 703,000, which, on an area of 1,900 sq. km.,
shows a density of 370 persons per sq. km. The population is very
unevenly distributed. It is very dense in the industrial regions, in
the valley around mineheads, and wherever factories have been
built. It is sparse in the farm and forest lands. The chief towns
are Saarbruck (110,000), Voeltlingen (19,000), Sarrelouis (16,000),
Dillingen (8,000), Merzich (9,000), which are all in the valley itself.
Then there are the mining towns elsewhere: Dudweiler (21,000),
Sulzbach (23,000), Friedrichsthal (14,000), and the industrial town
of Neuenkirchen (35,000). The chief towns in the Bavarian por-
tion of the territory are St. Ingbert (19,000), Homburg and Blies-
kastel. The chief industry, and the only one mentioned in the
Peace Treaty, is the extraction of coal. The mines being worked in
1921 are situated in a district bounded on the one side by the Saar
Valley from Burbach to Fraulautern, and by two lines drawn from
Waldmohr (N.E. of Neuenkirchen) to Burbach and Fraulautern.
Mines are most closely clustered in the little valleys between Saar-
bruck and Neuenkirchen, and before the war all of them, with the
exception of those at Hostenbach and Frankenholz, belonged to
Prussia or Bavaria. The total production of the basin averaged
12,000,000 tons a year. It exceeded 13,000,000 tons in 1913, and,
in the opinion of experts, a very considerable increase in output
ought to be obtained without much difficulty. All the mines are
worked for France, with the exception of that of Frankenholz, which
was left in the hands of the company which previously owned it.
Output fell off during the war, as the result of fewer working hours
and less productive labour. In 1920 about 9,500,000 tons were pro-
duced, and in 1921 the output would have been bigger had it not
been for the general economic crisis. The mines employ over 70,000
persons, and, taking into account their dependents, it may be safely
said that about a third of the total population of the country relies
upon the mines for its living. The output is consumed, to the
extent of about 50%, locally. The rest is exported to Alsace-
Lorraine, France and Southern Germany. The export market
varies in accordance with the general economic situation. The coal
is not very satisfactory for the purposes of steel manufacture, and
has to be mixed with coal from the Ruhr before it produces good
coke. On the other hand, it is very suitable for heating and the
manufacture of lighting gas, and therefore finds a ready sale to
railways and municipal authorities. Metallurgical industry is
highly developed, and there are no less than 31 blast-furnaces and
many steel plants. The factories, which are run by powerful com-
panies, are situated at Burbach, Brebach, Voeltlingen, Dillingen,
Neuenkirchen and St. Ingbert. The steel output in 1912 was over
2,000,000 tons. Since the Armistice French capital has been largely
invested in the metal industries of the Saar and metal workers and
miners receive their wages in francs. There are a number of works
producing machines and machine tools, so that after coal the iron
and steel trades rank as second in importance. Glass and ceramic
industries, the former at Sulzbach and St. Ingbert, and the latter at
Mettlach and Merzich, are the next important employers of labour.
There are over 120,000 persons, counting 70,000 miners, industrially
employed. The majority of the workmen are natives of the country,
and labour therefore has a stability not often to be found.
Communications. A good system of communications provides an
outlet for these industrial products. Saarbruck is at the junction of
the Metz-Mayence and Strassburg Treves-Cologne line, and is also
on a direct line towards Ludwigshafen and the Rhine, as well as in
connexion with a number of minor or local railways. There is also
a canal through the Saar, which has been canalized upstream from
Sarrelouis in order to meet the mine canal and the Marne-Rhine
canal in Lorraine. There is no waterway towards the Moselle.
General Considerations. It will be seen that the population is
almost entirely industrial. In the towns there are wholesale and
retail dealers, and the works and factories are owned by big limited
companies. There is therefore but a small middle class and a back-
ward intellectual and artistic development. From a religious point
of view Catholics are in a considerable majority, although there is a
fairly strong group of Protestants at Saarbruck. Since the German
revolution the Socialists and Catholic Centre have been practically
numerically equal; and trades unions are either Christian or Red.
It is economic questions, output and wages which chiefly concern
people. In 1921 there were a number of problems to which no definite
sol Jtion had been found. There were the change of the Customs front-
ier, the coexistence in the Saar of. the French franc (with its higher
and more stable rate of exchange) and the German mark, and the
natural increase of economic relations with France. The great
resources of the country, however, enabled one to hope that the
Saar would be able to adapt itself to these new conditions. The
stipulations of the Treaty of Peace, in placing the territory under
the authority of a government independent both of France and of
Germany, were peculiarly calculated to assist the economic develop-
ment of the region. They gave to the Saar the means of protecting
its own interests, and at the same time spared it the burdens and
worries which are the common fate of all great states. (P. DE T.)
SABINE, WALLACE CLEMENT WARE (1868-1919), American
educator, was born at Richwood, O., Jyne 13 1868. He graduated
from Ohio State University in 1886 at the age of 18 and after two
years' further study at Harvard received the degree of A.M. In
1889 he was made assistant in physics at Harvard and the follow-
ing year instructor. After passing through the usual stages of pro-
motion he was appointed professor of mathematics and natural
philosophy in 1905 and the following year assumed the deanship
of the newly organized Graduate School of Applied Science. He
was an inspiring teacher but his publications were confined to
papers contributed to scientific journals. In 1916 he went to
France as exchange professor at the Sorbonne but devoted most of
his time to removing French tuberculous patients to Switzerland
under the auspices of the Rockefeller Foundation. In 1917, how-
ever, he lectured on architectural acoustics, a subject of which
he had made a special study. He himself fell a victim to tubercu-
losis and died in Cambridge, Mass., Jan. 10 1919.
SAGE, MRS. RUSSELL [MARGARET OLIVIA SLOCUM] (1828-
1918), American philanthropist, was born at Syracuse, N.Y.,
Sept. 8 1828, being descended on her father's side from Capt.
Miles Standish. After graduating in 1847 from the Troy (N.Y.)
Female Seminary, afterwards known as the Emma Willard School,
she taught, first in Philadelphia, and later in Syracuse and Troy
until 1869 when she became the second wife of Russell Sage (see
23.1002). She proved herself a shrewd business woman and for
several years before his death had full control of his affairs. She
had long been interested in charities, and in estimating the serv-
ices of Sage himself it should be remembered that he left to her
without restriction his entire fortune, over $64,000,000, doubtless
foreseeing its probable final distribution to charity. In 1907 the
Russell Sage Foundation was incorporated under the laws of the
state of New York, for the "improvement of social and living
conditions of the United States of America," and to it she gave
$10,000,000. The Foundation made many surveys of social and
educational conditions in various states and issued many publica-
tions dealing especially with housing improvement and reform.
In 1912 Mrs. Sage bought Marsh I., off the Louisiana coast, con-
taining about 79,000 ac., later turned over to the state as a perma-
nent refuge for birds. She died in New York City Nov. 4 1918.
Her will provided that after enumerated bequests to relatives
and friends amounting to about $12,000,000, the residue, some
$36,000,000, should be divided into 52 parts and variously distrib-
uted to many colleges, museums, hospitals, charitable institu-
tions, Bible societies and missions. To most of these she had made
gifts during her lifetime. The largest portion, seven parts, was
left to the Russell Sage Foundation. It was estimated that during
her life she had made public gifts of some $40,002,000.
SAID, HALIM, PRINCE (1859-1921), Turkish statesman, was
born at Cairo in 1859, a nephew of the Khedive Ismail. He was
a keen politician, and became the official head of the Young Turk
party, which carried out the revolution of 1908. He was called
upon by Sultan Mahommed V. to form a Cabinet in 1911, and
remained at the head of affairs until July 1912. After the murder
of Shefket Pasha in June 1913 he became grand vizier and Minis-
ter for Foreign Affairs, and during his tenure of power was a
strong supporter of German influence in Turkey. He resigned
in Feb. 1917. He was murdered in Rome Dec. 6 1921.
SAID PASHA (.1830-1914), Turkish statesman (see 23.1008*),
again became chief minister in the autumn-of 1911, and in Dec.
proposed to restore to the Sultan the power of dissolving the
Chamber without the assent of the Senate. This proceeding
gave rise to many storms, and Said Pasha reconstructed his
Cabinet Jan. 22 1912. On Jan. 21 he published in the London
Daily Telegraph the proposed reform programme of his Ministry.
He was forced to tesign July 17 1912 owing to the strength of
ths revolutionary movement in the army. He died in 1914.
ST. ALDWYN, MICHAEL EDWARD HICKS BEACH, IST EARL
(1837-1916), English statesman (see 23.1013), was created an earl
in 1915- He died in London April 30 1916.
ST. JOHN, FLORENCE (1854-1912), English actress, whose
maiden name was Greig, was born at Tavistock, Devon, March 8
1854. She was three times married, first to Mr. St. John, R.N.,
secondly to Lithgow James, and lastly to C. D. Marius, both on
the stage. Her first appearance was in 1868, and she subsequently
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
344
ST. LOUIS SAIONJI
played in a very large number of light operas, winning special
success as Germaine in Les Cloches de Cornemlle and in Madame
Favart. In 1902 she abandoned opera for drama, playing Nell
Gwynne in English Nell and other comedy parts. She retired in
1910 and died in London Jan. 30 1912.
ST. LOUIS (see 24.24). The pop. of St. Louis in 1920 was
772,897, an increase of 85,868 since 1910, or 12-5%. In the pre-
ceding decade the increase was 111,791 or 19-4%. The area
remained as fixed in 1876, but the increasing pop. and industries
have spread beyond these limits. The city, the counties of St.
Louis and St. Charles in Missouri and the counties of St. Clair
and Madison in Illinois are grouped as the St. Louis district and
treated as a whole in the U.S. industrial census. In 1920 the
district contained 1,145,443 inhabitants.
Municipal Government and Activities. A new charter adopted in
1914 reduced the elective officers to mayor, comptroller, president
and board of aldermen, collector, treasurer, recorder of deeds, sheriff
and coroner, with terms of four years. The legislative branch is uni-
cameral. Each of the 28 wards has a resident alderman elected by
the entire city vote, one-half of the board retiring biennially. Mayor,
comptroller and president of the board of aldermen form a board of
estimate and apportionment. An appointive board of public service
consists of a president and four directors of divisions, public welfare,
public safety, public utilities, and streets and sewers. Municipal
departments and bureaus are grouped in the four divisions. The
president of the board has charge of public work and improvements.
In 1919 the city's outstanding bonds amounted to $19,884,000, to
which in 1920 was added $5,500,000 for removal of railway grade
crossings, for a municipal farm to afford better treatment of the
tubercular and insane, for new engine houses and reconstruction of
streets and for municipal lighting equipment. The tax 'rate for
1920-1 was $2.55 per $100 assessed valuation, divided as follows:
state purposes, $0.18; public schools, $0.78; municipal government,
$1.51; public library, $0.04; art museum, $0.02; zoological park,
$0.02. The assessed valuation of realty and personalty for 1920-1
was $777,500,000. City planning was undertaken in 1912 with a
commission of nine citizens and five ex-ojjlcio members. The work
done includes a concrete dock, mechanically equipped to convey
freight between river and railways. A zoning law determines defi-
nitely the residential, industrial ard commercial districts; 29 street
widenings, openings and cut-offs were under construction in 1921.
Neighbourhood parks, playgrounds and squares were increased to
80, embracing 2,908 acres. A pageant and masque given by 2,ooo
participants before audiences of 100,000 led to the construction in
1917 of a municipal theatre in Forest Park, with accommodation for
9,270. At a cost of $7,200,000, the city completed in 1917 a munici-
pal bridge of massive steel construction, double track and double
deck, across the Mississippi. About five years earlier the McKinley
bridge was erected by the Iljinois Traction Co., primarily to admit
interurban electric trains. Kingshighway viaduct, 855 ft. long, com-
pleted in 1912 at a cost of $500,000, crosses the railway tracks and
unites western sections of the city. A municipal court building, a
city jail and a children's detention house, all of stone, were erected,
the first in 1912, the others in succeeding years, at a cost of $1,855,000.
Charities and Education. At a cost of $5,000,000 a new medical
school, hospital and children's hospital, occupying several city
blocks fronting on Forest Park, have been completed since 1911.
The hospital, opened in 1914, represents an investment of $2,000,000,
the sum left 50 years ago by Robert A. Barnes, a banker whose
name the institution bears. The medical school, a department of
Washington University, includes laboratory, anatomical, clinical
and other buildings. In 1914 James Campbell left an estate, valued
at $10,000,000, in trust to St. Louis University (subject to the life
income of certain surviving relatives) for the erection and support
of a hospital and for the advancement of medicine and surgery.
From the surplus of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition was con-
structed in 1914 the Jefferson Memorial costing $485,000 and
devoted to the collections of the Missouri Historical Society. On
new public school buildings, and expansions of old, St. Louis ex-
pended during 1910-20, $3,177,000.
Finance. In 1920 the assets of the banks and trust companies of
St. Louis were $637,615,811.45, and bank clearings were $8,294,-
O2 7.I35; in 1910 the latter were $3,727,949,379. The First National
Bank, with total resources of $155,953,137, was formed in 1919 by a
consolidation of three existing banks.
Commerce and Industry. According to the records of the Mer-
chants' Exchange and the Chamber of Commerce, 35 lines of industry
in the St. Louis district did a business in 1920 of $1,582,957,145.
Some of the largest items of wholesale trade in 1920 were dry goods,
$240,000,000; carpets, rugs and linoleums, also $240,000,000;
boots and shoes, $175,000,000; groceries, $175,000,000; railway sup-
plies, $210,000,000; hardware, $115,000,000; foundry products,
$125,000,000. St. Louis receives 70,000 H.P. by a no,ooo-volt
transmission line from the Keokuk dam in the Mississippi at Keo-
kuk, la. Motor licenses issued in 1914-5 numbered 9,867, and 45,949
in 1919-20. The position of St. Louis as the largest horse and mule
market in the world was maintained, the volume of business in 1919
being 850,000,000. The city continued to be the largest primary fur
market of the world, with sales of $27,200,000 in 1920. Sales of
meat products in 1919 were $128,000,000; hog receipts, 3,650,534;
head cattle receipts, 1,500,000. The foreign trade of St. Louis was
$100,000,000 in 1920, an increase of 825,000,000 over 1919. The
total tonnage shipped out of St. Louis in 1920, domestic and export,
was 29,036,405 (by rail) and 166,140 (by water); tonnage received
in the same year was 43,104,519 (by rail) and 177,925 (by water).
The more important new buildings of the period 1910-20 with
the amounts they cost were: the Statler hotel, $3,000,000; the War-
wick hotel, 8400,000; the cathedral of St. Louis, $2,000,000; the
Missouri athletic club, $500,000; the Railway Exchange, $3,000,000,
18 storeys, covering an entire city block; the University club, $600,-
ooo; the Young Women's Christian Association, $500,000; the
Boatmen's bank, $750,000; the Arcade, $1,250,000; the Post-Des-
patch building, $500,000; the Bevo Manufacturing Company,
$1,000,000. The cost of new buildings in 1919 was $20,538,450.
The St. Louis Republic, a morning newspaper founded in 1808,
was purchased in 1919 by the St. Louis Globe-Democrat (a Republi-
can paper), and discontinued. This left two morning newspapers,
the Globe-Democrat, and the Westliche Post (German). There was a
marked increase in the circulation of the evening papers.
When the Armistice was signed Nov. n 1918 one in 13 of the
city's pop. 56,944 was in the army, navy or marine corps.
The total casualties were 2,511, of which 1,384 were killed in
battle. Of the three Liberty Loans, St. Louis took the equivalent
of 25% of the assessed value of the city's realty and personalty.
On the third, fourth and fifth calls for loans the St. Louis Federal
Reserve district was the first to subscribe its quota. On the
third loan the city subscribed $65 for every man, woman and
child, nearly three times the quota. (W. B. ST.)
ST. MIHIEL, BATTLE OF: see WOEVRE, BATTLES IN THE,
section 2.
ST. PIERRE and MIQUELON (see 24.41). During the early
years of the decade 1910-20 this little French colony suffered se-
verely as a result of unprofitable fisheries, and large nun.bers of
its people emigrated to Nova Scotia and Quebec. After the World
War began in 1914 the French draft law called all the malt inhabi-
tants of conscript age to France where they took part in various
services. As their withdrawal crippled the fisheries, which could
not be prosecuted by the older people and the women and children,
the survivors were returned as speedily as possible and ordinary
operations were resumed. But during the decade, also, the use of
the steam trawlers in the fisheries was on the increase, displacing
the wooden sailing vessels previously employed, and this also les-
sened the number of those finding steady employment. However,
during the later years of the war, with fish increasing in value, the
colony became very prosperous, and after the Armistice the French
Government decided to build a large refrigerating plant, costing
about 1,000,000 at St. Pierre for the treatment of cod and other
fishes. The financial success of this project was doubted by many,
but this deep-sea fishery was being supported by France as a
training school of men for its navy, and for the same reason
generous bounties are given on all the fish caught. The pop. was
in 1920 about 4,500, but the prosperity of the little community
was impaired by the difficulties of exchange.
SAINT-SAfiNS, CHARLES CAMILLE (1835-1921), French
musical composer (see 24.44), died at Algiers Dec. 16 1921.
SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN (1845- ),
English man of letters (see 24.45), published subsequently to 1910
a History of English Prose Rhythm (1912); The English Novel
(1913) ; A First Book oj English Literature (1914) ; The Peace of the
Augustans (1916); A History of the French Novel (2 vols., 1917-9)
and Notes on a Cellarbook (1920).
SAIONJI, KIMMOCHI, PRINCE (1839- ), Japanese states-
man, was born in Kyoto, in 1839. When less than 20 years of age,
he took part in the councils which led to the Restoration and at
19 was commander-in-chief of an imperial army. He studied in
France from 1869 to 1880, and returned home imbued with dem-
ocratic ideas. In 1881 he commenced his official career and in
the following year accompanied Mr. (afterwards Prince) Ito to
Europe and the United States to investigate the parliamentary
system. In 1885 he was appointed minister to Austria; in 1888
he occupied a similar post in Berlin and in 1891 was appointed
president of the Board of Decoration. In 1893, he became vice-
SAKHALIN SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS
345
president of the House of Peers and was raised to the Privy Coun-
cil in 1894. In the same year he received the portfolio of educa-
tion in the second Ito Cabinet, temporarily acting as Minister of
Foreign Affairs during the illness of the late Count Mutsu. He
was again Minister for Education in the third Ito Cabinet from
Jan. to June 1898, and was nominated president of the Privy
Council on the death of Count Kuroda, three times acting as
prime minister during the interval between the resignation of one
Cabinet and the formation of the succeeding one. In July 1903,
he became the leader of the Seiyu-Kai and in 1905 formed his
first Cabinet as prime minister; he was again premier in 1911 to
1012. In 1919 he represented Japan as chief envoy at the Peace
Conference and was invested with the Grand Order of Merit. He
was made a prince in 1920 in recognition of his services in connex-
ion with the World War and the Peace Conference.
SAKHALIN (see 24.54). The Japanese portion of the island
of Sakhalin, to the S. of the parallel of 50 N. lat., known
officially as Karafuto, was ceded to Japan under the treaty of
peace with Russia in Oct. 1905. The area is about 13,148 sq. m.
and the pop. in 1920 was 105,765. The taxes and other sources
of revenue from the island, with the addition of a grant of about
700,000 yen from the national treasury, are sufficient to cover the
administration, the budget balancing at about 10,000,000 yen.
The chief industry of the island, and one of the oldest, is that of
the fisheries, and these are being successfully developed. The most
important is the herring fishery, followed by trout and salmon,
these all being relegated to specially controlled areas; cod and
crab are also plentiful, the latter being canned and exported chiefly
to America.
About 17,000 ac. of land were under cultivation in 1918, the chief
crops raised being oats, barley, potatoes, peas and buckwheat.
More than 900,000 ac., suitable for cultivation and pasturage, are
still available and many settlers are engaged in agriculture, the cli-
mate and soil rendering this a profitable undertaking. There are
over 8,000,000 ac. of practically untouched forest, chiefly conifer,
on the island, providing in the future an almost inexhaustible sup-
ply for the manufacture of pulp for paper-making. In consequence,
five pulp manufactories have already been established, each pro-
ducing over 10,000 tons per annum, and five more are projected.
There are three important coal-fields in the island, producing
about 136,000 tons annually. Alluvial gold is found in the river
beds, iron pyrites exist in large quantities in the Notoro peninsula,
and in 1907 and 1913 oil-bearing strata were discovered on the W.
coast in large areas at Anshi and Notasamu. (H. SA.)
SALANDRA, ANTONIO (1853- ), Italian statesman, was
born at Troia in 1853. He first entered parliament as member
for Lucera and from the beginning of his political career he sym-
pathized with the views of Baron Sonnino. When the latter be-
came Treasury Minister in the Crispi Cabinet of 1893, Salandra
was chosen under-secretary in that department. He was Minister
of Finance in the first Sonnino Cabinet of 1906 and Treasury
Minister in the second (1909-10). When in March 1914 Sig.
Giolitti resigned, Sig. Salandra was called upon to form the new
Cabinet, and he was Premier when the World War broke out in
Aug. following. On the death of the Marquis di San Giuliano in
Oct. he offered the Foreign Office to his former chief, Baron Son-
nino, who accepted it. It was the Salandra Cabinet which took
the momentous decision of bringing Italy into the World War on
the side of the Allies, and it conducted the Government of the
country during the first months of the campaign more success-
fully than any of the succeeding war Cabinets. On resigning
office in June 1916, he continued to support both the Boselli and
the Orlando Cabinets. As professor of Constitutional Law in the
university of Naples he published several important works on
legal subjects, and translated Spencer's Principles of Sociology.
SALISBURY, JAMES EDWARD HUBERT GASCOYNE-CECIL,
4TH MARQUESS OF (1861- ), English politician, eldest son of
the 3rd marquess (see 24.76), was educated at Eton and University
College, Oxford, where he took a second-class in History in 1884.
The next year he entered Parliament as member for Darwen. He
was defeated in 1892, but he returned as member for Rochester in
1893 and remained in the House of Commons till he succeeded his
father in 1903. He fought in the S. African War with the 4th
battalion of the Bedfordshire regiment, and was mentioned in
despatches. On his return in 1900 he became Under-Secretary
for Foreign Affairs, a post which on succeeding to the peerage he
quitted for that of Privy Seal in the Cabinet of his cousin, Mr.
Arthur Balfour; and he held, for some months in 1905, the office
of President of the Board of Trade. Lord Salisbury never loomed
large in the House of Commons, though he was for some years
chairman of the Church Parliamentary Committee, and dis-
charged competently his duties as Foreign Under-Secretary. But
he gradually came to occupy a position of increased authority in
the Upper House. He threw in his lot in 1911 with the "Die-
hards," and spoke in favour of defeating the Parliament bill and
daring the Government to create sufficient peers to carry it. Dur-
ing the early years of the war he was energetic in the discharge of
his military duties as lieutenant-colonel of his yeomanry regiment.
He did not join either Coalition Government, but was critical of
both, taking an independent line. As the war drew to a dose he
gradually came to assume the informal leadership of a Conserva-
tive and Unionist Opposition in his House, showing himself par-
ticularly sensitive to departures from the old poh'cy of his party
on Irish and ecclesiastical questions. He married in 1887 Lady
Cicely Alice Gore, daughter of the 5th Earl of Arran, and had
two sons and two daughters. He was created K.G. in 1917.
SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS, 1915-1918. Under the heading of
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS the conquest of Serbia in 1915 by Austro-
Hungarian forces is narrated. The idea of reinforcing the
Serbian front with Allied forces had been contemplated both in
England and in France some time before it was carried out.
British and French guns, in charge of naval missions, had taken
some part in the campaign of 1914, and stores had been sent up
from Salonika at intervals. In the winter of 1914-5 Lord
Kitchener several times considered the advisability of sending
a number of the British Army Divisions into Serbia via Salonika.
On the part of the French, M. Briand, it is said, proposed later
in 1914 to make a serious military effort in the Balkans. But
the Dardanelles campaign diverted attention from this project,
and it was not till in August 1915, when the failure of the Dar-
danelles offensive was evident, that the creation of an Anglo-
French army on the Balkan front was seriously undertaken.
General Sarrail, whose military reputation stood very high in
France, had been suddenly deprived of his command of the III.
Army by Joffre, ostensibly owing to an unsuccessful combat
at Boureuilles in Argonne, but really as the result of long-con-
tinued friction between the two. Sarrail, however, stood in
close relations with the political leaders of the Left, and the
autocratic methods of Joffre's G.Q.G. had already raised con-
siderable opposition in the Government and the Chamber;
it suited the Government, therefore, to satisfy the Left, to snub
the G.Q.G., and to remove to a distance a forceful and ambitious
personality, by sending Sarrail to the Mediterranean as com-
mander of an army yet to be created.
Appointed on Aug. 5, Sarrail was ordered to study the military
situation and submit proposals. In his written projects he came
to the conclusion that it was impossible to abandon ground in
the Gallipoli peninsula, and had asked for both his own and the
British contingents to be made up entirely from forces in France
or in England. An inter-Allied conference, held at Calais early
in September, had agreed to this, but with the reservation that
no forces were to go till after the forthcoming Champagne and
Artois offensives had taken place. But the news of the Bul-
garian mobilization drove home at last the urgency of the crisis.
Orders went to the Dardanelles on Sept. 26 for two British
Divisions in the sequel one to go thence to Salonika; the
French " Expeditionary Corps " was likewise to send a Division,
and the Greek authorities had agreed to permit the landing.
Sarrail himself was to bring a mixed brigade from France, as
an earnest of the forces promised later.
On Oct. 3 advanced parties of the French landed at Salonika
without difficulty, only a formal protest being made by the
authorities on the spot. Next day M. Venizelos in a speech
at Athens declared that Greece would come to the aid of her
ally Serbia against any attack by Bulgaria, and at once a crisis
arose at Athens. On the sth King Constantine informed
Venizelos that the policy indicated had not his support, and the
Government fell, to give place to the neutralist Zaimis cabinet.
346
SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS
During the first few days instructions from Paris to Bailloud
(commanding on the spot pending Sarrail's arrival) varied
several times, apparently in accordance with political nuances.
At first (Oct. 3) the word was to concentrate at Nish, in the
heart of Serbia; next, the Greek frontier was not to be crossed
(Oct. 10); and then again (Oct. 12) authority was given to take
over protection of the railway between Demir Kapu defile and
the Greek frontier against possible attack from Strumitsa in
Bulgaria, thereby releasing a small Serbian force to rejoin its
own army. Meantime the Serbians demanded more direct
assistance, but Sarrail (who arrived on the I2th), taking into
account the size of his force only 1 5 divisions plus the British
roth Div. which was not under his orders and the fact that it
could only disembark and push on by driblets, determined to
limit his advance to the near side of Demir Kapu. On Oct. 14
the leading French troops arrived at Strumitsa station (in Serbia)
in time to aid the Serbian railway guards in repelling an inroad
from Strumitsa.
In Sarrail's opinion the only service he could render was to
concentrate on the routes to Strumitsa, and, by an offensive into
Bulgarian territory, to draw off as many Bulgarian forces as
possible from the main attack further north. General Mahon,
commanding the British loth Div., took the same view, 1 and
formed a mixed force which began to move up to Doiran, on the
right rear of the French group in the Rabrovo region. On the
1 7th, however, in answer to a request from the Serbian com-
mander at Uskub, Sarrail began to push a brigade beyond the
Demir Kapu defile to Krivolak, but he refused to advance it to
Veles, though again pressed to do so by the Serbs, and in fact
a sharp attack developed from Strumitsa on Rabrovo on the
zist and 22nd, which, till it was repulsed, threatened to isolate
all French detachments N. of Strumitsa station. Meanwhile,
Paris sent further instructions to the effect that all possible
help should be afforded to the Serbs, subject to the limitation
that the French communications with Salonika were in no case
to be compromised. In reality, the French and British Govern-
ments were very uneasy about the attitude of the Greek Army,
a considerable force of which lay in the region N.E. of Salonika.
The fall of Venizelos had put an end to the prospect of Greek
cooperation, and under the new regime the local military and
civil authorities began to oppose every move of the Allies,
which was not entirely covered by Serbia's treaty rights, to the
use of Salonika and the railway. Thus, when Mahon's force
moved forward the use of the Salonika- Kilkish (Kukush)-Doir-
an line was refused, and it had to use the main line, detrain
in the midst of the French, and work thence outwards towards
its post at Doiran.
On Nov. i the i22nd French Div. began to arrive from France,
and Sarrail had already prepared to attack from Rabrovo
towards Strumitsa with Bailloud's is6th Div., with Mahon in
echelon behind his right, while his forces about Krivolak and
Kavadar (sist Div.) made ready to attack in flank any Bul-
garian force which should advance up the Cerna (Tserna) in
pursuit of the Serbians. On Nov. 3 an attack was accordingly
delivered northward from a front E. of Rabrovo; weather and
the difficulty of the country brought it, however, to a standstill
on the 6th, though local advances were made later. At this
moment (Nov. 4) GaUieni, having become War Minister in the
new French cabinet, telegraphed orders for the French Army
to operate towards Veles, adding that four more British divisions
were to be sent, which on arrival would take over the front
leftwards from Doiran. The British 22nd Div. was in fact
already close to Salonika, with another under orders to follow.
But Sarrail judged that it was impossible to wait for these rein-
forcements. Todorov's Bulgarian Army had already thrust
itself between the Serbian Main Army and Krivolak, and the
1 According to Sarrail, the British Government instructed Mahon
that his troops were to remain at Salonika, and it was on his own
initiative that the British general formed a mobile force. Further
instructions authorized Mahon to move forward but forbade him
to cross the Greek frontier, until on Oct. 27 a final telegram removed
this restriction.
urgent thing was to relieve pressure on that part of the Serbian
forces which was retiring by the Babuna pass on Prilep, while
reserving the possibility of action towards Veles if the Serbian
Main Army should after ah 1 seek to break through towards its
Allies. Orders were therefore given to the Krivolak-Kavadar
force (57th Div. to be reinforced by the i22nd Div.) to take the
offensive westward over the Cerna, so.as to strike the pursuers in
flank or rear. On the 6th~9th accordingly the 57th Div. crossed
the Cerna and pushed an advance into the mountains towards
the Babuna, still held by the Serbs. But the Bulgarians were
in force, and the French retired to their Cerna bridgeheads,
which the Bulgarians attacked without success on the I2th,
i3th, i4th and i5th.
During these and the following days instructions came re-
peatedly from Paris to modify the French commander's views
and dispositions, now laying emphasis upon cooperation with the
Serbs, now upon dangers from the Greek Army in rear. Finally
on Nov. 21 Sarrail was given a free hand to decide what aid he
could give to the Serbians and at what moment he should
retire on Salonika. He adopted at first a middle course. He
wished neither to attack at the risk of involving two-thirds of
his forces in the Serbian dtbdcle (the Babuna had been turned
by the N. on Nov. 14), nor to fall back to Salonika, where
prestige counted for so much, but to hold on in the entrenched
camp of Kavadar in the hope of " something turning up."
On the 2ist-22nd, however, the retirement of the i22nd Div.
over the Cerna under some pressure, together with the general
military situation and a definitive refusal of reinforcements from
France, 2 decided him in favour of falling back to Salonika, a
decision approved by Gallieni. Four days later Sarrail was
officially informed that the Serbians were retreating in the Adri-
atic direction. The preparations for the Vardar retirement had
already begun on the 24th with the seizure of a position on the
E. bank, to prevent interference with the retreat of the Krivolak-
Kavadar force on Demir Kapu. On Dec. i only rear-guards
remained at Krivolak. By the night of the 3rd-4th all troops
were inside Demir Kapu, and on the 6th this position also was
given up. On the 8th the Bulgarians, who had from time to
time attacked the rear-guards on the Vardar and the positions
near Kosturino on the Strumitsa route, delivered a more con-
certed attack on the front Ormanli (now held by the British)-
Kosturino-Gradets on the E. and Mirovcha Petrovo on the W.
of the Vardar. Their evident intention was envelopment, and
on the pth, judging the centre of his line to be too pronounced
a salient, Sarrail took up a position along the Petrovska stream,
W. of the Vardar and the heights of Dedeli E. of it, the village
of Dedeli being held by Mahon's forces, which from that point
were echeloned back to Lake Doiran. From this position also
the Allies retired under threat of envelopment during the night
11-12, after holding their ground against attacks on the nth.
Lastly, the French i22nd and 57th Divs., at Gyevgyeli (Gevgeli)
and near Doiran, covered the evacuation of part of Mahon's force
on to the Salonika railway and the reconstitution of the is6th
French Div., which had been considerably split up.
Thus the drive into Serbia came to an end, with little material
loss, but a sad diminution of prestige, and the forces fell back
to the following positions about Salonika: advanced guards of
I2oth French Div. Karasuli with a detachment at Gumenye, and
of 57th French Div. with cavalry, Kilkish, with a detachment
at Kilindir; main body (i 22nd, is6th, 57th) in position on the line
Doganyi-Daudli. British loth and 22nd Divs. Salonika, with
other British forces arriving. Important points on the railway
had been destroyed during the retreat. Meanwhile, on Dec. 4,
1 At that moment, according to Falkenhayn, the combatant
strength of the Allies in France was to that of the Germans in the
ratio of rather more than 3 to 2. Sarrail says that in his interview
with Lord Kitchener on Nov. 17, the latter informed him that
Joffre had declared that he would not give him (Sarrail) another
man, and that the British would furnish five divisions instead. In
accordance with this promise, besides the loth and 22nd Divs., the
27th and 28th Divs. from France landed at Salonika in the last days
of Nov. and first days of Dec., and the 26th Div. also from France,
early in Jan. 1916.
SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS
347
the Serbs had evacuated Monastir in their now frankly' west-
ward retirement.
The reassembly- of the Allied Salonika forces around their
port of origin naturally raised the question were they to
remain there? Their locus standi had been the fact that they
were Allies of Serbia using a line of communications to which
Serbia was by treaty entitled. This part of the case no longer
existed, Serbia being wholly in the hands of the enemy, and
could only be revived if and when the Serbian Army were trans-
ferred from the Adriatic ports on which it had retreated to
Salonika. Another part of the justification for the Allies'
presence was the admitted fact that they had come at the re-
quest of Venizelos, and for the purposes of common action with
the Greeks, but since Venizelos's fall even the Zaimis cabinet,
representing " benevolent " neutrality, had given way to a
cabinet representing at least strict neutrality, 1 which gave the
Germanophil element at Salonika all the official justification
it needed to pursue the policy of obstruction that it had already
initiated in the Zaimis period. On the other hand the factor of
prestige was one of great weight, especially in view of the pend-
ing abandonment of the Dardanelles compaign, and although
Sarrail suggested that evacuation followed by a dramatic
offensive at some other point would more than restore the
lost prestige, it was decided that Salonika should be held.
Beyond that decision, however, no clear military or political
intention was at that time formed. The policies of the British,
French and Russian Governments were in unison as to the
problem of Greece, and it seems to have been thought that,
by remaining, the Salonika force would confront the enemy
with as difficult a diplomatic problem as its own. This was,
indeed, the case. The policy to be followed by the Central
Powers, both towards Greece and in occupied Serbia and Albania,
was wholly unsettled. " While the troops of the two Imperial
Armies were hastening from victory to victory," says General
von Cramon, the German military commissioner at Austrian
headquarters, " behind the scenes, at the two general head-
quarters, the clouds were gathering of that conflict which in
the end brought about the reverses of 1916." Although on Nov.
6 it had been agreed that operations were to be pushed with all
energy towards Salonika, Falkenhayn almost immediately began
to check the further south-westward advance of German troops,
and though Conrad succeeded in bringing the German command
to renewed cooperation, this was obviously to be limited to a
minimum, both on account of supply difficulties in the Balkans
and of the pressing requirements of the two main theatres
in particular those of the forthcoming attack on Verdun, of
which only a few men in the German headquarters and none
in the Austrian had the secret. Falkenhayn's view was that
the Bulgarians alone should undertake the campaign in southern
Serbia. But, whatever the attitude of Greece towards Germany,
it was so hostile towards Bulgaria that to cross the frontier in
pursuit of Sarrail without a large proportion of German troops
being included in the advance was politically impossible. Aus-
tria herself was absorbed in Montenegrin-Albanian enterprises,
and could give no direct assistance in the advance to Salonika
that her general staff advocated. Moreover, Conrad had his
secret as well as Falkenhayn he was planning to carry out his
offensive of Asiago, with or without the aid of Germany.
At the end of 1915 therefore, though the Central Powers
had succeeded in their purpose Serbia being conquered and
the railway to Constantinople reopened whereas the Entente
had failed, the outlook was no clearer for the former than for
the latter. The pursuit was accordingly suspended at the
frontier, partly perhaps in the hope that the Entente would
itself take the initiative in closing down the operations. If
they did not do so Falkenhayn was determined that eventually
1 The first act of the Skoulpudis ministry had been to announce
that any of the Allied forces in Serbia which retreated into Greece
would be disarmed and interned. A prompt note from the British
and French Governments closed this incident, but the indication
of policy was unmistakable. About the same time Skouloudis noti-
fied the Bulgarian Government that it would not permit the latter's
troops to cross the frontier.
the Bulgarians alone should remain on this front. They were,
by the terms of the military agreement, unavailable for any other,
and if they succeeded in containing even a smaller force of
Entente troops that was not so limited, something was gained for
nothing. On the other hand this idea implied a defensive position
short of the Greek frontier, as a purely Bulgarian advance into
Greece was impossible. Thus, at the beginning of 1915, the
opposing forces stood roughly 20 m. apart, each limited against
its own will to a strict defensive by political conditions and each
regarded by its own superior authorities as a " commitment."
At the end of the year two incidents occurred to illustrate
the complexities of the Salonika front. On Dec. 30, though
Bulgarian and German forces were forbidden to cross the
frontier, German aircraft, by order, bombed the city of Salonika
itself, where nine out of ten of their possible victims were neutrals
and the tenth an agent of their own side. Sarrail promptly
retaliated by arresting the German, Austrian and Bulgarian
consuls, hitherto left unmolested. Another air raid took place
on Feb. i 1916, to which the Allies replied by bombing the
village of Petrich, just within the Bulgarian frontier, but as the
village contained Greek and Serbian as well as Bulgarian in-
habitants, a complaint was made, and Sarrail received orders
not to repeat such raids. A few days before this another in-
cident showed that the personal estrangements of Joffre and
Sarrail were still operative. The army of the Orient had been
brought under Joffre's command 2 early in December, and Joffre
had taken the opportunity to send out Castelnau to report on
Sarrail's management of the situation. Castelnau, however,
pronounced himself satisfied with what he saw, and only issued
a few instructions as to details. Nevertheless, in various ways
the friends and the enemies of Sarrail alike busied themselves
with accusations and counter-accusations, out of which a regular
affaire was growing up to complicate an already confused situa-
tion. Relations between Sarrail and Mahon on the other hand
were excellent, and although each was independent of the other,
and the British general was himself under the command of
General Sir C. Monro, commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean,
no important divergencies of policy developed during the phase
of passive .defence in the precincts of Salonika.
With the Greeks, naturally, all possible causes of friction
existed. Army commanders operating under war conditions
are not prone to sacrifice realities to appearances, and what
seemed to them plain military common sense was, from the point
of view of the Greeks, high-handed conduct to be resisted by
all safe means of obstruction. Amongst the major questions
at issue were the disarmament of the coast defences of Salonika,
the use of the Salonika-Doiran railway for the British con-
tingent, the feeding of the Greek forces E. of Salonika who were
dependent for supply upon railways seized by the Allies, and the
continuance or non-continuance of the Greek garrison in Salonika
city. Minor questions of an administrative character were
naturally innumerable. Most of the energy of the staffs in
Salonika and the legations at Athens was devoted to finding
solutions for conflicts which the equivocal position of the Allies
made inevitable. 3 During these conflicts the Salonika lines,
' Joffre was Commandant en Chef of the " North-Eastern group of
Armies," no other formations having been contemplated before the
war. On being sent to the E. Sarrail was appointed Commandant
en Chef also. But, in Dec., Briand placed Sarrail's forces under
Joffre's supreme command
8 On Jan. 12 1916 the bridge of Demir Hissar on the Struma was
blown up by a special force sent out by Sarrail in the presence of the
Greek forces stationed there a high-handed act which could only
be excused or justified by the necessity of preventing the Bulgarians
and Germans from deploying heavy artillery against the N.E. part
of Salonika in case of siege. On Jan. 28 1916 another problem re-
ceived an enforced solution, after negotiations had failed to find an
" elegant " one. Anglo-French forces by a coup de main occupied the
Greek coast-defence batteries on the Gulf of Salonika. These inci-
dents naturally intensified the hostility of the Greek officers and
officials to the Allied occupation, or at least gave them tangible
grievances. In particular, the feeding of the Greek forces isolated
by the cutting of the Struma railways caused difficulties, and from
it, in part at any rate, arose the critical question of demobilizing the
Greek Army in the Spring of 1916.
348
SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS
with the aid of civil labour, were made defensible by the first
weeks of the new year. The line selected ran from the Vardar
mouth, round by Doganzi and Daudli to the neighbourhood of
Langaza, whence it passed along the barrier of lakes to the
head of the gulf of Orfano 80 m. of frontage for a force of nine
divisions. 1 Of this frontage, however, nearly 45 m. was guarded
by lake and swamp; and, taking into account the presence of
large bodies of Greek troops in the Seres-Rupel region to the
right front and in the Vodena-Florina region to the left front,
Sarrail considered that danger was practically confined to the
central sector between Lake Langaza and the Vardar, in the
event the position was ever attacked.
During this period (Jan.-Feb. 1916), the Bulgarians were
reinforced by the German XI. Army (von Gallwitz) consisting
or the IV. Res. Corps (loist and icyrd Divs.) and the Alpine
Corps, and by their own ist Army, all these forces aligning
themselves along the Greek border from Lake Ohrida to the
point at which the Struma enters Bulgarian territory. The
ist Bulgarian Army, with flank guards at Dibra and Elbasan in
Albania, had two divisions 2 on the front S. of Monastir-
Duditsa; the XI. German Army, with ij Bulgarian Divisions
attached, held the Vardar valley between Duditsa and the
Belashitsa Planina, and Todorov's II. Bulgarian Army of three
divisions that ranged from Strumitsa to Petrich, with detach-
ments further E. at Nevrekop (Mesta valley). But in March
Falkenhayn began to withdraw all the German formations
save the loist Div., which continued in the Balkans and was
gradually reduced to a cadre. On his side Sarrail made some
slight demonstrations towards Doiran and towards Vodena, but
otherwise no move occurred. Early in March 1916, however,
in the crisis produced by the attack on Verdun, Joffre telegraphed
orders to Sarrail to advance in order to fix the enemy's forces
on his front. On the other hand General Mahon, on asking
for instructions, was forbidden to move until authorized by the
British Government. 3 The relief offensive, therefore, was limited
to a skirmishing advance by the French, which began on March
13, and gradually brought the French 5ist Div. to the N. of
Kilkish, and the 12 2nd to the N. of Lake Amatovo, the is6th
between them (March 31).
During April 1916, while French cavalry moved out W. of
the Vardar towards Vodena and the 17th Colonial Div. came
up behind the centre, the British in their turn began to move
up to Kilkish, authority to participate " in an operation of a
demonstrative character " having been given by the War Office
about April 10 (Joffre to Sarrail, April 20). Lastly, the Ser-
bian Army, reconstituted and partially reequipped at Corfu,
was beginning to land at Salonika, and by June i 118,000
combatants and non-combatants were present, completing
their equipment and organization in the Chalcidic peninsula.
These methodical proceedings, however, did not satisfy Joffre,
whose instructions to Sarrail from March onwards were to
prepare for an offensive in earnest. To Sarrail's demand
for reinforcements for such an offensive, the French commander-
in-chief replied that the French Army of the E. must prepare
to attack at the moment fixed by himself, even without the
British. In explanation, he hinted that when that moment
came, not only would British objections be removed, and all
five British divisions be equipped for mountain warfare (making
Sarrail's total force, with the Serbians, 300,000 strong to the
enemy's 260,000), but Rumania and Greece would be in the
field as his Allies. Thus for the first time since the Serbian
retreat the Salonika force was assigned to a positive purpose.
It will appear in the sequel how much of reality and how much
of illusion was contained in the scheme, which, in sum, was to
attack at a date chosen in relation to other theatres and especially
Rumania, with Sofia as the objective.
1 The withdrawal from Helles freed further French troops, from
whom a serviceable brigade was made up and combined with a
brigade from France to form the 1 7th Colonial Division.
2 The Bulgarian division had twice the infantry strength of a
French or German division.
' Sarrail's orders were issued by G.Q.G. without consultation with
the British government or Lord Kitchener. (Sarrail, p. 83.)
Meantime, an important incident had taken place on the
Struma frontier. In accordance with their declared policy of
standing aside and leaving a " lists " for the combatants, the
Greeks had disarmed and evacuated their fort of Dova Tepe,
situated on the watershed between the Vardar and Struma
basins and commanding a knot of communications. In the
course of his gradual advance to the frontier, Sarrail put a
detachment into this fort on May 10. But further to the right,
outside his reach, lay a still more important fort, that of Rupel
defile. This fort was not merely disarmed but actually handed
over to the Bulgarians by the local Greek general, with or without
authority from Athens (May 26).
Events had moved. Though the German forces (except the
cadre of the loist Div.) had by this time been withdrawn from
the Balkan front, the Greeks had apparently overcome their
repugnance to a purely Bulgarian inroad, to the extent of
actually facilitating it. The Allies' right was, potentially,
turned, and if the occurrence were any indication of proba-
bilities of the future, their rear also was endangered. Action
was taken promptly by Sarrail. A mobile group of all arms was
moved into the Struma region, and with the agreement of
Gen. Milne (who in May succeeded Mahon in command of
the British) and of the Entente Governments, the Greek authori-
ties at Salonika were deprived of power by the proclamation
of a state of siege (June 3). A day or two later London and
Paris also acted. An economic blockade of the Greek coast
was declared, and on the i8th Sarrail was ordered to send a
brigade by sea to Athens. King Constantine accepted the ulti-
matum of the Allies (June 21), and Zaimis returned to power
on the basis of friendly neutrality. A little later the Rupel
incident had its last and most important sequel in the Venezelist
coup d'ilat of Aug. 30.
Militarily the seizure of Rupel, carried out at the suggestion
of Falkenhayn, seems to have had no truly offensive intention.
The Central Powers had abandoned the idea of invading Greece
once for all about the end of March, and the Bulgarians acted
with the idea of guarding their left, and securing connexion with
any Turkish forces which might be sent to their aid by the
Constantinople-Seres railway, though in view of the situation
in Armenia such a reinforcement was unlikely. As for Sarrail,
so also for his opponents, the Balkan front was already involved
in a larger game.
As has been noted above, the idea of an Allied offensive from
Salonika in cooperation with a Rumanian intervention came under
discussion as early as mid- April; at that time Joffre seems to
have thought that this intervention might come in a few weeks,
for he overruled Sarrail's objections to commencing operations
in the hot weather, and fixed the month of June for the begin-
ning of the offensive. Under these instructions Sarrail formed
his first plan (May 2) which was, in brief, to employ the Serbs
on the left wing for the attack of Monastir (frontally and by
envelopment), and for pressure on the Cerna bend and the
passes further E. towards the Vardar; to place a French division
on the Vardar and the railway; to have three British divisions,
with a fourth on their right rear, so placed as to execute a
demonstrative attack on the strongest part of the enemy's
front, viz. Vardar- Doiran; and to attack with three French
divisions from Popovo Surlovo-Dova Tepe and Poroy north-
wards through the Belashitsa Planina, while the French Struma
mobile group demonstrated towards the Demir Hisar angle of
the Struma, and the fifth British division with cavalry watched
the lower Struma front. In case the semi-offensive, semi-de-
monstrative, operations should develop into a real advance, the
Serbs were to take Veles and Shtip, the British Radovishta-
Strumitsa, and the French Jumaya as their objectives. The
armies would thus condense their front as they advanced, the
route Monastir-Veles marking the extreme left of the Serbian
movement, and that of the upper Struma, famous in the war of
1913, taking the French into positions on the Bulgarian line of
retreat. But the negotiations of the Allies with Rumania, and
their internal discussions relative to their Salonika operations and
their policy in Greece, dragged on. On June 6 Gen. Milne was
SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS
349
informed by the British Government that he was not to engage
in offensive operations, and was only to consider himself under
Sarrail's orders in respect of the defence of the entrenched
camp. He informed Sarrail accordingly, and suggested that
the British should take over the Struma front, to which Sarrail
agreed. The Serbs were now preparing to take up the front
from Vodena to Lyumnitsa, with their centre of gravity on
the right, the French held from Lyumnitsa to the Poroy road,
and the British to the right of that road from Loznitsa to Orlyak.
On the 1 2th Sarrail was ordered not to take any action that
would involve the British in operations unconcerned with the
defence of Salonika itself, and to limit himself to threatening
the Bulgarians by a deployment close up to the frontier; and
on the I4th he was notified that the French Government had
agreed to the British proposal to postpone the offensive.
A few days later, on the 25th, he was informed that though
the instructions of the i4th held good in general, events might
rapidly make it necessary for him to attack, though with a
limited objective, and using the French and the Serbians only;
and on July 15 he was told that the British Government had
agreed that if Rumania intervened all British troops equipped
for mountain warfare should participate in Sarrail's offensive,
and instructed to prepare to " pin the Bulgarians on the Greek
frontier and put them out of action so far as serious operations
against Rumania were concerned." Three days later, on July
17, G.Q.G. informed the French commander that the Entente-
Rumanian military convention would probably be signed on the
basis of (a) an offensive from Salonika on Aug. i, to cover the
final preparations of the Rumanians and their initial operations
against Transylvania; (b) a Russo-Rumanian offensive begin-
ning on Aug. 8, and directed against Bulgaria; and finally (c)
a combined advance of the Russo-Rumanian Army and the
Salonika forces with a view to uniting and crushing the Bul-
garian Army in the field. A few days later a formula agreed
upon between the various Allies constituted Sarrail commander-
in-chief of the French, British, and Serbian Armies, as also of
the Italian and Russian contingents, 1 Gen. Cordonnier being
appointed to command the Armee franqaise d' Orient as a con-
stituent part of the Allied Army.
Sarrail's new plan was to dispose Milne's available forces
on the front Dova Tepe (exclusive)-Lake Ardzan (exclusive)
or to the Vardar if possible, to reduce Cordonnier's troops E.
of Dova Tepe and Milne's on the Struma front 2 to a minimum,
and with Cordonnier's Army to attack on the front Vardar-
Doiran, while the Serbs from above Vodena made their main
attack on Huma and subsidiary advances towards the Cerna
bend and possibly Monastir. This plan was approved by Joffre,
who added that the British Army would receive instructions
from the War Office not to limit itself to defensive or demon-
strative action. But these instructions, from Gen. Robertson
to Gen. Milne, introduced an important limitation in their
general approval. Milne was " not to try to take the enemy's
positions until an adequate equipment of heavy artillery and
other conditions gave a reasonable expectation of success,"
and the offensive was " not to be taken till Rumania definitely
came into the field," an event of which Sir W. Robertson, like
Sarrail, had his doubts. Presently came the first hitch in the
military convention negotiations. Rumania was not to move
till Aug. 14, and Sarrail was to act ten days before that date.
But on Aug. 3, the eve of the offensive, the convention was still
unsigned, Rumania having expressed the intention of not declar-
ing war on Bulgaria unless large Russian forces were added
to her Danube Army; in these circumstances Sarrail's mission
1 In the case of the Italian Division the powers of the commander-
in-chief were specially limited. The Russians were, however, unre-
servedly at the disposal of the French. In general the formula from
which Sarrail derived his authority was somewhat similar to that
which was agreed upon later in the case of Nivelle. It was far from
being a real international command such as that of Foch in 1918.
2 The prevalence in that region of malaria, discovered by expe-
rience, had caused Sarrail to abandon the earlier project of deliver-
ing a principal attack with three French Divisions on the Belashitsa
front in the summer months.
was reduced to " harassing " the Bulgarian Armies on his front,
without ulterior purpose, from a date to be determined later
(telegrams from Joffre to Sarrail Aug. 3 and 6). Finally, the
convention was signed on Aug. 17, without any engagements
on Rumania's part to declare war on Bulgaria. On that very
day the Bulgarians began to push forward. Proposals for
shortening and improving their line by pushing it forward on
the one hand from the Monastir frontier towards Ostrovo, and
on the other from Rupel to the angle of the Struma, had, in the
spring, been put before Falkenhayn by Mackensen (who still
commanded, under somewhat indeterminate conditions, the
forces of the Central Powers in Bulgaria and Macedonia).
Falkenhayn had declined at the time owing to the risk of bring-
ing Greece into the ranks of the enemy. Now, however, it
seemed safe to ignore this danger, and desirable to forestall the
relief offensive that would doubtless accompany Rumania's
intervention, 3 and on Aug. 17 a series of encounter-combats
began between Sarrail's various groups, advancing for their
deployment on the frontier, and the wing elements of the
enemy. In the centre, the i7th Colonial Division, the British
assisting to some extent, 4 took, lost and retook Dodzelli (Aug.
17-8). But on the left the French cavalry group, already
mentioned, which was operating E. of the Struma bend, was
driven in by a serious Bulgarian movement from Rupel and
through the mountains from the Nevrekop region, and, had it
not been that the Bulgarians used part of their forces in taking
possession of the coveted coastal strip of Kavalla, the Struma
line itself might have been forced. As it was both the French
cavalry group and the British force further down the river were
able to establish a sufficiently strong defence of the river. On
the other flank the Bulgarian attack encountered the Serbians
in the process of concentrating forward.
The new Serbian Army, commanded by the Prince Regent
Alexander, with Boyovich as his assistant, was organized in
three weak " Armies," the I. Army under Mishich, the II.
under Stepanovich, and the III. under Yurichich-Sturm, who
was shortly afterwards succeeded by Col. Vasich; of these the
I. was in touch with the left of the French i22nd Div. about
Lyumnitsa, the II: on .its left, and the III. formed the left wing,
advancing methodically and by short stages towards Banitsa.
On the 1 7th advanced elements of the Danube Div. (III. Army)
were driven out of Fiorina, and on the i8th a hasty counter-
attack on that point failed. The Bulgarian Army developed
considerable strength (6th and 8th Divs. I. Army) and on the
igth, the Danube Div., attacking again, was flung back a con-
siderable distance to beyond Banitsa. Meantime the II. Army,
working up in the Moglena district, repulsed such attacks as
were made on it, and continued its deployment in front of the
Moglena mountains, the left directed on Kaimakchalan, and
the I. Army, between the II. and the French left at Lyumnitsa,
remained undisturbed.
8 A new military convention between the four Central Powers
had provided that, in case Rumania declared war on Austria, Bul-
garia and Turkey would do so against her.
4 On the 1 8th the French divisional commander asked for British
aid to secure his flanks and enable him to hold what he had won.
But, Rumania having refused to declare war against Bulgaria, Milne,
having regard to War Office reservations, declined and appealed to
Sarrail to refrain from putting him, as a soldier, in the impossible
position of being an inactive witness of enterprises that had no chance
of success without his assistance. Sarrail, however, says that Milne
had promised, before the movement on Doiran began on Aug. 10,
that although he was not authorized to take the offensive, he would
not leave the French with their flanks in the air. Taking these two
pieces of evidence together, the only conclusion possible is that the
formula defining Sarrail's authority as commander-in-chief was too
limited to be of much practical value in ensuring military unity,
yet too extended if the Governments desired to preserve their
control of policy. Too much was left to interpretation, and the
commander-in-chief was obviously exposed to the temptation of
planning his operations so as to create the case for the promised
assistance. Indeed Joffre's directions of July 15 contained a per-
sonal instruction to Sarrail in this sense (see Sarrail, p. 361, telegram
4977/M., 4979/M, and especially 4g8o/M pour le General seal).
The story of the Salonika campaign can only be understood by bear-
ing in mind the political and personal undercurrents affecting it.
350
SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS
Impressed by the attacks on his flanks and in particular that
on his left, and limited by the outcome of the Rumanian negotia-
tions to fighting without ulterior purpose instructed, further,
by Joffre (apparently on the i6th) to attack three days after the
signature of the Rumanian convention, viz. on the zoth Sarrail
changed his plan. Everything E. of the Vardar was to be
defensive, everything W. of it offensive. On the extreme left
irregular bands (which Sarrail had formed or subsidized) were
to cut communications between Fiorina and the S., and to work
their way into southern Albania, where cooperation had been
promised by the Italian troops at Valona. An improvised
French brigade was to move over to support the left of the
Serbians by an attack round the S. and W. sides of Lake Ostrovo.
The Serbian left was to hold up the Bulgarian advance, and the
four remaining divisions to attack Kaimakchalan and the
range to the E. of that point, supported by part of the French
1 2 2nd Div. in front of Lyumnitsa. East of the river, the re-
mainder of the 1 2 2nd Div. was to stand fast, the zyth Colonial
to attack W. of Lake Doiran and the 57th to demonstrate E. of
it, all available British artillery participating in the effort of the
I7th Colonial. The British divisions in this region (22nd and
z6th) were to follow, and the Italian Div. of Gen. Pettiti, in
process of disembarkation, was to relieve the 57th French Div.,
which was then to be transferred to the left wing. East of
Dova Tepe the defensive front was to be under the command of
Gen. Briggs and held by the British 28th Div., the French
cavalry group (which was to explore on the further bank as
before) and part of the British 27th Div., the remainder of
Milne's Army being in reserve.
At this date, according to a French parliamentary paper,
Sarrail's total force, combatant and non-combatant, inclusive
of all details, had a ration strength of about 350,000 (four
French, five British, six Serbian, and one Italian division, and
a Russian brigade), and a combatant strength of 145,000 rifles,
3,000 sabres, 1,300 machine-guns and 1,032 guns, of which,
however, 36,000 British infantry were not available for general
service, and the 11,000 Italians only began to disembark in the
last days of August.
During the regrouping process the Serbian left was driven
back slowly, but in order, and on the 23rd the Vardar and the
Danube divisions were about the N.W. corner of Lake Ostrovo
with part of Timok, and the French Provisional divisions and
the French 12 2nd Div. were engaged in various partial combats
on the line Kaimakchalan-Lyumnitsa. On the Doiran and
Struma fronts small engagements were frequent, and the French
cavalry group, which again attempted to operate E. of the
Struma, was driven in by superior forces with somewhat heavy
losses. The Bulgarian attacks, however, as has been said before,
had no more serious purpose than shortening the line and
sketching out a sort of preventive attack, and they died down
about Sept. i, at which date the position of the Serbian left
was practically the same as it had been on the 23rd, while the
Struma front was unmolested.
Meanwhile the Rumanians had come into the field, and
Bulgaria had declared war upon them. In a directive of the
24th, therefore, Joffre ordered Sarrail to continue to check the
Bulgarian advance, thereby fulfilling his mission of protecting
the Rumanian deployment, and to prepare for a counter-
offensive, the date and objective of which was practically left
to Sarrail's discretion. For this offensive Sarrail relieved the
57th Div. from the Dova Tepe front and the 12 2nd from the
Vardar valley front, the Italians replacing the 57th, and the
British divisions already on the spot taking over the whole
front from Doiran to the Vardar. This enabled a group to be
formed under Cordonnier consisting of the French 5 7th and
i56th Divs. and provisional brigade, the Serbian Morava
Div. 1 (released from the Lyumnitsa region by the I22nd), the
Russians, and the various irregular bands above mentioned. As
soon as this group should be ready the offensive was to be
launched against the right flank of the enemy's new line. This
1 In the sequel this division was taken to support the Gornichevo
attack, and did not join Cordonnier.
was carried out on the whole front on Sept. 10. On the Struma
front (Briggs) six British detachments, and another French
cavalry group also, were sent over the river at different points
to engage and hold the enemy in that quarter. No permanent
foothold was gained or sought, and the troops were withdrawn
on the nth. On the Doiran- Vardar front, after heavy bombard-
ments on the nth, i2th and i3th, a salient in the position of the
German loist Div. was stormed on the night of the 13-14, but
given up under counter-attacks on the following day. The
French I7th Colonial Div. and the Italians made similar local
attacks, and from time to time other coups de main took place
as well as patrol activity and aerial bombing, with the object of
detaining as many troops of the German XI. and Bulgarian II.
Armies as possible, while the main attack was being developed
W. of the Vardar. This began on the nth, both for the Serbians
and for the Cordonnier group. The former pushed up towards
Kaimakchalan and Vetrenik mountains with three divisions
(aided by the French i22nd Div. which carried Mayadag) and
grouped the Vardar, Danube and Morava divisions for the
attack of the mountain pass of Gornichevo W. of Lake Ostrovo.
The Cordonnier group, much hampered in its concentration by
road difficulties, and by the piecemeal arrival of the formations
composing it, advanced to Rakita and Hill 633 on the Kayalar-
Banitsa road on the nth, with the Russians, as flank guard at
the mountain pass of Vlachoklisura. On the izth Cordonnier's
main body reached Rudnik, the Russians the mountains 1414 and
1348 N. of Vlachoklisura, and a Serbian liaison group occupied
Sotir. On the i3th there was fighting along the whole front from
Kaimakchalan to the Russian positions, Cordonnier gaining a
line at the foot of the Malareka ridge, and on the i4th the Serbs
broke through the hostile line at Gornichevo, capturing 32 guns.
Unhappily, in these operations an acute difference arose
between Cordonnier and Sarrail. The former, the man on the
spot, conducting his offensive on the methodical lines of the
battles of France, from which he had recently come and in
which he had played a brilliant role, moved too slowly to sat-
isfy Sarrail, who, released at last from all restrictions of higher
policy, was determined to signalize his name and silence his
opponents with a first-class victory. As to which was in the
right it will be for history to say; probably it will be found that
this is no more than one of the incidents between a higher com-
mand in a central command post and a subordinate command in
the field that are so common and indeed inevitable in moments
of crisis. But the peculiar factors of this case, personal and
international, gave the incident a lasting importance. In the
event, the Bulgarians, broken by the Serbians at Gornichevo,
were able to retreat across the front of Cordonnier's force and
reestablish themselves on the line of the Brod, blowing up in
their retreat the important viaduct of Ekshisu.
The battle now entered upon a second phase, which lasted
from Sept. 15 to Oct. 30. In this period small actions on the
Struma and Doiran front were continued; thus the British sent
several detachments over the Struma on the isth and 23rd, and
a more serious move was made on the 3oth, when Gen. Briggs
initiated a methodical advance which brought him by Oct. 8 to
the line Agomali-Elishan-Ormanli with advanced elements along
the Belika stream facing Seres. On the Doiran front several
local enterprises were carried out by the British and Italians.
Meantime, on the Adriatic coast, the Italians were moving
onwards from Valona along the Voyusa valley, Premeti being
occupied on Oct. 9.
The practical effect of these holding attacks and demon-
strative moves on the main battle-front between Vardar and
Brod seems, however, to have been much smaller than it had
been in the first stage. According to Sarrail twenty Bulgarian
battalions were shifted over from the British front to that of the
French and Serbians in the last days of September. This was
only to be expected. When the real front of battle became
definite, merely potential battles ceased to possess effective
binding power. But the Struma front, though militarily eccentric,
had possibilities in the political sense; an advance on that side
threatened the Bulgarian occupation of the Kavalla region
SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS
35i
almost before it was established for the Greek garrisons were
still in being. General Milne therefore chose this front on which
to exercise such holding action as was possible in the conditions.
On the main battle-front Cordonnier's advance on the left
of the new Bulgarian position continued on the i5th and i6th,
the Russians in the mountains, combined with a newly con-
stituted French force 1 working round, and the main body
moving directly on Fiorina and the line of the Brod. On the
17th Fiorina was taken by parts of the 57th and is6th Divs.;
on the iSth Sarrail intervened again to press the advance
towards the rear of the Bulgarians opposing the Serbians on
the Brod and Kaimakchalan front. But, probably from supply
difficulties due to the blowing up of the railway viaducts, but
also because Cordonnier thought it necessary to clear the
mountains on his left before swinging in, the advance came to a
standstill again on the igth. On the 2oth the Serbians made an
important advance in the region of Kaimakchalan, and held
their gains against counter-attack. The Franco-Russian Div.
on the extreme left also maintained its positions, and on the
23rd Cordonnier was ready to attack in concert with the Serbians
along and W. of the Brod line. 2 But, meantime, reinforcements
were arriving on the Brod from the British front, where the
policy of demonstrations had at last been detected by the enemy.
On the 24th and following days, while the artillery of Cordon-
nier's force was being got into position for the attack of the
Brod line, and the mountain country W. of Fiorina was being
cleared, the Bulgarians made fierce counter-attacks on the
Serbian positions about Kaimakchalan. That point itself had
been stormed by the Serbians on the 2oth, and their hold was
not shaken, but it was the 2gth before the whole area was in
their possession. On Oct. 3 a concerted attack of Cordonnier
and the Serbs was delivered on the whole front from Kaimak-
chalan westward, while the British on the Struma front developed
the holding-offensive already mentioned. This general attack
was initiated by a vigorous Serbian push in the mountains W.
of Kaimakchalan, and, finding their line turned on its left, .the
Bulgarians fell back, with only rear-guard resistance, to a position
defined by four geographical points: German on Lake Prespa,
point 1906 in the Baba ranges, Kenali in the plain, the ex-
tremity of the Cerna bend and the ridge N. of Kaimakchalan.
This closed the second phase of the battle. The Bulgarians
were being effectively held, at the least. As a relief offensive,
coincident in date with a new Russian offensive on Brussilov's
front, with the seventh Isonzo battle on the Italian, with renewed
efforts on the Somme front, and with the battles of Hermannstadt
and Dobrich on the two Rumanian fronts, the Balkan battle
in its first two phases accomplished all that could be expected
of it. But from the point of view of the Salonika forces it
was disappointing, especially to the ardent Serbians who at
Kaimakchalan had reentered their own country.
The next phase was the general advance against the Kenali-
Cerna bend line. It occupied the period Oct. 4-19, and was
marked by even more internal friction than the previous phase.
The operations themselves consisted in artillery bombardments
and local attacks, in which the Serbs advanced to the Cerna
bend (7-8 Oct.) and over the river and on to the plateau N. of
Velyeselo (Oct 18-19). Otherwise no important progress was
made, and, indeed, a set-back occurred on the 6th, when a
French and Russian attack W. of Kenali failed with somewhat
heavy loss. General Cordonnier thereupon reverted to the idea
of a wider turning movement, but Sarrail, who believed, from the
reports of his agents and from incidents on the Serbian front,
that the whole Bulgarian Army was ripe for a moral collapse,
insisted vehemently on direct action. The frontal attack was
carried out on the i4th, for the first time with the aid of gas
shell, but it failed, with heavy losses to the French and particu-
larly to the Russian contingent. A violent interview on the
battlefield between Sarrail and Cordonnier, in the presence of
many Allied officers, completed the disorganization of the
1 Henceforward called the Franco-Russian Division.
* There was some overlapping of the Serbians and French about
Boresnitsa, due to a Bulgarian counter-attack on the igth.
command. Cordonnier, who was suffering from almost mortal
disease, was sent home a few days later, being replaced for the
time being by Gen. Leblois, but for some days the Serbian attack
on the Cerna bend went on unsupported, until Sarrail took the
step of placing the available French forces under the superior
command of the Serbian Gen. Mishich with the idea of restoring
moral as well as tactical unity to his dislocated offensive. The
necessity of continuing it, and the chances of a striking success
if it were persevered in, were equally evident. The Bulgarian
moral had suffered from stagnation and from the rude shock of
meeting an enemy risen from the grave. The German elements
of the XI. Army had mostly been withdrawn, 3 its commander
von Winckler (who succeeded Gallwitz in July) was in early
October no longer under Mackensen's orders but under those of
the Bulgarian higher command; and Gen. Otto von Billow, sum-
moned with the staff of the VIII. Army from Lithuania to take
general charge of operations in Macedonia, only arrived in the
middle of the battle. No higher purpose than gaining time and
avoiding defeat was or could be contemplated on the part of
the Germans and Bulgarians, and self-sacrifice in such a r61e
requires either the constant moral of a professional army,
such as that of the old regular divisions of Milne's command, or
the crisis-moral of the citizen soldier. In these conditions,
although th lateness of the season and the sharp enemy offensive
in the Dobruja made a junction with the Rumanians impossible,
Sarrail had reason to hope for an important victory. In any
event, the turn of events in Rumania (Hermannstadt, Fogaras,
Kronstadt), and on the Italian front (eighth and ninth Isonzo
battles), dictated a continued offensive towards Monastir.
For some days after the Serbian success at Velyeselo weather
and counter-attack prevented their further progress, and this
time was utilized by Sarrail in strengthening them with French
troops drawn both from the Vardar (where the British took over
their line), from the western mountains (where the Italians 4
relieved them), and from the centre about Kenali, where the
weather flooded the country. At the same time the artillery was
established in position, the maintenance service organized to
supply the battle,, and touch gained on the extreme left with
the Italian force advancing in Albania, 5 while Milne's Struma
troops made a strong diversion by attacking and carrying
Barakli Dzuma (Juma) on Oct. 31. Finally, on Nov. 10, the
Serbians with French support opened a new strong attack in the
Cerna bend. Between the loth and the i3th Polog, the ridge
to the E., and Iven were taken, while the artillery on the Kenali
front kept up interdiction fire to prevent enemy reinforcements
from crossing the Cerna; and on the i4th a general attack
brought the Serbians to the ridge on which Jaratok Monastery
stood, with lesser advances to right and left. The Kenali lines
being now completely turned, the enemy on the night of 14-15
fell back, covered by rain and snow, to a position but little in
front of the line Peristeri-Monastir-height 1378-Grunishta. But
this time the advance did not halt. On the ijth, in terrible
weather, the French left pushed forward to the Viro brook;
in the mountains, though mud was absent, rain and snow were
still more violent, but the Serbians continued to progress.
On the 1 7th Mishich's troops, with the French aiding and
conforming on their left, captured height 1212, and the i8th
they stormed 1378, pursuing to Makovo in the night following,
while the French centre and left forded the Viro, the Russians
S. of Monastir took Kanina, Zabiani and Holeven, and the
Italians, French and Russians in the western mountains devel-
oped an outflanking movement right and left of Lake Prespa.
On the morning of the igth the town of Monastir was found
evacuated, and the third phase of the Allied offensive, definitely
3 Apart from staffs, there only remained 17^ battalions and cor-
responding artillery and army troops.
* A newly-disembarked Italian force relieved these in their posi-
tion in the Dova Tepe region.
6 Apart from the movement of the Valona force up the Voyusa,
a fresh Italian contingent had landed at Santi Quaranta and ad-
vanced by the Turkish military road to Koritsa, and thence to the
region of Okhrida and Prespa Lakes. This line became a regular line
of communication.
352
SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS
victorious, closed with the occupation of a line from Krani on
Lake Prespa '-Saddle 2227-Orizar N. of Monastir-Makovo-
heights S. of Staravina-N. slopes of Kaimakchalan.
In view of the weather victory had come in the nick of time.
The force of the attack rapidly died out, even the Serbian
Army with its positive and eager moral being too weary, and all
formations being too far ahead of their administrative services 2
to be able to push on. Fighting went on in the Cerna bend till
Dec. 12; the French operating in this quarter captured Dobromir
on the 2ist and height 1050 on Nov. 27, and the Serbs Stara-
vina on Dec. 4; but the troublesome height 1248, overlooking
Monastir and the plain, remained in the hands of the Bulgarians,
and the town was under shellfire throughout the winter.
By this time the evident defeat of the Rumanians and the
consequences of the Venizelist coup d'ttat at Salonika called for
a reconsideration of policy. The offensive, considered as a re-
lief offensive on Rumania's behalf, had completed its usefulness,
and on Dec. n, Sarrail was instructed to establish his forces on
a defensive line, holding as much of the regained territory as
possible and keeping in mind the resumption of the offensive
at a date that was to be fixed according to the general plan of
campaign for 1917, and particularly according to the date at
which the Rumanian Army, reorganized by Gen. Berthclot,
should be ready for the field. Meantime, the contingency of
rapid action against Greece was to be provided for.
Henceforward, for some months, it is this last element in the
problem which governs the action or inaction of the Salonika
Armies. In answer to the Venizelist coup of Aug. 30, King
Constantine began a threatening concentration of troops in
Thessaly, on Sarrail's left rear. To this the Venizelist forces,
hardly yet in being, were no counterpoise, and Venizelos's
policy, which was also that of Sarrail, and as a rule that of the
British and French Governments, was to prevent contact
between the two Greek parties. 3 Sarrail therefore drew a neutral
zone of some kilometres width from the Koritsa basin to the
sea. Nevertheless, throughout the period of his offensive,
anxieties for the flank and rear limited the play of such reserves
as the Allied commander-in-chief possessed. On Dec. i the
attempt to enforce the delivery of certain war material to the
Entente representatives at Athens produced an tmeute, in
which the Allied landing parties suffered severe losses and the
Legations were for a time practically besieged. This affair
brought the confusion of the Greek problem to a climax. Though
on Dec. 2 Sarrail's demand for authority to advance into
Thessaly was refused, and some disjointed efforts at naval and
military action led to nothing, sufficient unity of policy was
achieved to enable the Allies to deliver an ultimatum on Dec. 14,
demanding withdrawal of the Greek forces in Thessaly. 4
The policy of the Salonika forces for 1917 was fixed at the
Inter-Allied conference held in Rome in Jan., to which Sarrail
was summoned. The first conclusion was that Greece was not
to be attacked, both for other reasons and especially owing to
the effect that any high-handed action would have on American
sentiment, which was at that moment in the crisis of deciding
1 The French on the W. side of Lake Prespa occupied Liskovats, a
village on the same latitude as Krani, and then Horesovo.
The viaduct at Ekshisu was not repaired till Nov. 27.
1 The first battalions organized by the Venizelists were sent to
the British front on the Struma. At one time the idea seems to have
been entertained of reconquering Eastern Macedonia (Drama-
Kavalla region) by means of an advance of these troops, presumably
in concert with a British expedition. Nothing, however, was done
in this direction. The regular Greek forces on this side, cut off by
the Bulgarian invasion, had accepted an offer of internment as
" guests of the German Government " (Sept. 14) and been trans-
ported to Germany, except a small force which from Seres had
made its way to join the Allies.
4 In the midst of these events came mutterings of trouble in the
Serbian Army. Little is known as to the details, but as early as the
beginning of Jan. 1917 a division commander and several brigade
commanders and senior staff officers were deprived of their posts;
by mid-March over twenty such officers were in prison at Bizerta
charged with plotting against the Prince Regent. Finally, a number
of these were brought to trial, some being condemned to death
and (July 29) shot, others sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment.
for peace or war. The second was that operations on the front
should be governed by a waiting policy a compromise between
Sarrail's demand for forces sufficient for a grand offensive, and
Robertson's and Cadorna's demand for a withdrawal 6 and
that the divisions sent or to be sent to Salonika should be liable
to recall, in the event either of a crisis on the Italian front, or
of one in Palestine. On the other hand the full subordination of
the British contingent to the Allied commander-in-chief was
agreed to, 6 and (according to M. Mermeix) Sarrail's personality
made so favourable an impression on Mr. Lloyd George that
the agitation for his recall came to an end for the time being.
In the first weeks after the end of the battle and these decisions,
the Salonika front was for the first time formed as a regular
and continuous system. On the right, as far as the Vardar,
were the British under Milne, consisting now of the loth, 22nd,
26th, 28th, 2gth, and 6oth Divs. (the last newly arrived) with
some organized units of the Venizelist forces in support. On
the left of the Vardar the national contingents were more
intermingled, the Lyumnitsa region being held by the French,
the Kaimakchalan-Vetrenik-Duditsa front by the Serbs (6
Divisions), 7 the Cerna bend by the Italians (13 Divisions),
and the remainder of the front by the French main body, to the
command of which Gen. Grossetti was shortly appointed in
succession to Cordonnier. The French Army were now being
reinforced, and included besides the old 57th, lyth Colonial,
I22nd and is6th, the i6th Colonial (arrived early Dec.), 76th
(arrived end Dec.), 3oth (arrived Jan.) and nth Colonial (newly
formed from odd units on the spot). In all, therefore, there
were no less than 215 Divisions in this theatre at the outset
of the 1917 campaign, besides two Russian brigades, and the
Greek National Defence Army in embryo. The Italians in
Albania are not counted, as they were not under Sarrail's
command, and operated entirely as a separate force in their own
theatre, interesting the Salonika force only in so far that their
positions protected the opening up of the line of communication
Santi Quaranta-Koritsa-Lake Prespa. This force was strong
enough to hold all its line and yet to have larger reserves than in
1916, for either an offensive northward or a march into Thessaly.
The Bulgarians on their side established themselves solidly
on the final battle line of 1916, and improved it on Feb. 15 1917
by the recapture of height 1050 in the Cerna bend from the
Italians, who had only shortly before taken up this sector. An
attempt to retake it failed on the 28th. The end of active
operations against Rumania about the middle of Jan. released
additional Bulgarians for the Salonika front. As a beginning
Sarrail sent his newly arrived 76th Div. inland to Koritsa 8 just
in time to prevent the seizure of that point by an Austrian
force coming down from Pogradets (early Feb. 1917); the
division then moved on to clear the Santi Quaranta road the
new alternative line of communications of bands and make the
junction with the Italians in Albania, which at present only
existed by wireless and aeroplane. This mission was completed
by the meeting of the French and Italian troops at Ersek, Feb.
17, after which the limit between Sarrail's International Army
and the purely Italian force of Gen. Ferrero in Albania was
fixed at a little N. of that point. The ?6th Div. was then
8 The idea of a Salonika front had never had any real support in
the British War Office, and the Italian point of view seems to have
been that the abolition of an Inter-Allied force in the Balkans would
give Italy greater freedom of action in Albania.
Sarrail had already been released from control of the French
G.Q.G. when Joffre left it and was replaced by Nivelle (Dec. 1916).
7 Owing to losses the Serbian Divisions were now reduced from
the old high establishment and were equivalent in rifle strength to
French Divisions, viz. 9 three-company battalions.
8 Here, in the previous summer and autumn, French cavalry had
operated to disperse irregular bands that were practically bandits,
and to intercept communications between Athens and the enemy.
For a time Venizelist sympathizers reigned at Koritsa, and the idea
of annexing the district to Greece was not far in the background;
but in the face of protests from Italy and from Essad's Albanian
party at Salonika, Sarrail replaced them by an autonomous gov-
ernment of inhabitants under French protection, a course which he
considered would commit nobody and yet give no excuse for the
formation of Royalist bands.
SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS
353
reassembled N. of Koritsa, in readiness to participate in the
general offensive when this should be ordered.
Meantime the British advance beyond the Struma, originally
developed out of the demonstrations made during the first
stages of the Monastir offensive, had been consolidated on the
line Jenimah-Osman Kamila-Hrostian Kamila-Nevolyen-Kuku-
luk-Elishan-Barakli Dzuma-Alipsa (All Pasha). This position
formed a useful bridgehead in case Sarrail should be able to
resume the old scheme of an offensive by way of Demir Hisar
and Rupel against the Bulgarian communications, and meantime
it immobilized a Bulgarian force of approximately equal strength.
But the supply of the lines beyond the Struma was difficult and
laborious during the winter months, and it was to be expected
that the valley would be a hotbed of disease in the summer.
On the Doiran front several small local attacks were made on
the enemy's positions on and about Dub mountain the Achi
Baba or Hermada of this front.
The scheme which Sarrail intended to carry out was the old
scheme of a principal blow from the mountain front in the
direction of Demir Kapu, cutting off the defenders of the
Doiran and Lyumnitsa fronts. Combined with this, local and
subsidiary advances were to be made on the Cerna bend and
Monastir fronts, with, to the left of all, an enveloping movement
by the 76th Div. from Koritsa by Resna upon the rear of the
Bulgarians N. of Monastir. Meanwhile, the British, after
exercising a holding action which was to increase in intensity
from left to right and culminate in a real attack on Seres, would
quickly shift their centre of gravity to Demir Hisar, and thence,
by Rupel and the Struma, force their way to a position on the
rear of the Bulgarian line of retreat. If, as in 1915, Sofia was to
be the ultimate objective if, in short, the campaign was
intended to be a decisive one the sweep of the extreme left
would pass through Uskub and Kumanovo, that of the left
centre through Veles and Shtip, while the Italians bore down on
Demir Kapu and the British marched on Simitli a romantically
complete success. In many ways, indeed, the scheme is identical
with that eventually carried out by Franchet d'Esperey in
Sept. 1918. But in both cases there were four postulates:
(a) Greece friendly or under entire control; (6) synchronization
of the offensive with those in the main theatres, so that the
enemy could not transfer German reinforcements in time to the
Balkans; (c) enough men; and (d) enough material. Of these
postulates Franchet d'Esperey was in the sequel to possess all
four. Sarrail, on the other hand, though (b), the most important
strategically, was within his power, had little real security as
to (a) and a definite lack of means in respect of (d), and this
last ranked as one of the most important factors for the tactical
break-through on which all the rest depended. Several of these
requisites being absent, Sarrail was under no illusions as to the
chances of pushing success to the gates of Sofia. But he consid-
ered that there was a possibility, becoming a probability if he
were given more heavy guns, of forcing the offensive of his left
centre in the mountains so far north-eastward as to compel the
evacuation of the Lyumnitsa-Doiran-Belashitsa front. In the
absence of these additional heavy guns, however, the tactical
break-through in the Moglena-Cerna region would be a matter
of great difficulty, and Sarrail accepted a proposal of Milne that
the British holding attack should be delivered on the Doiran
front where its effect on Sarrail's battle would be immediate
and tactical instead of towards Seres. This change of plan,
made between Feb. 9 and 19 was due in the first instance to the
difficulties of movement in the Struma valley, where exceptionally
bad weather had made motor transport almost impossible. But
the decision was one of grave importance since the height of
Dub, now chosen for the British attack, was one of the strongest
points on the whole front, and it was an attack, and not a
demonstration, that was intended.
In this form the scheme was accepted by the Inter-Allied
conference that met at Calais on Feb. 27 in circumstances of
great tension and Sarrail was ordered to hold the enemy
to his ground, and authorized to seize any opportunity which
offered itself to inflict real damage. So far this represented
xxxn. 12
merely the waiting policy of the Rome conference. But an
important modification of that policy was implied in the actual
instructions to Sarrail, for not only was he told that the v plan of
operations had been agreed to by the British War Council, but
he was instructed to be ready to launch his offensive about
April 15 a few days after the date selected for Nivelle's battle
on the Aisne in spite of the fact that no Russo-Rumanian
offensive could be expected so soon. That authority should be
given for an attack of any kind in the conditions of the time
was of doubtful wisdom. But that the conference sanctioned
an attack on the strongest parts of the enemy front in order to
obtain the very limited results at which it aimed is a fact that
is more than difficult to explain. The strategic results that would
or might accrue from a break-through in the Moglena region
were indeed so great (as 1918 showed) that special tactical risks
might fairly be taken to achieve this break-through. But the
conference of Calais not only had no great strategic results in
mind, but had expressly agreed that the circumstances of the
time excluded them. And when, in addition, we find that
Sarrail was, at one and the same time, told that the decisive
defeat of the Bulgarians was excluded, and instructed to
" take " according to the Calais proces-verbal or " seek
out " according to the French Ministry of War telegram
" every favourable opportunity for inflicting a serious check,"
we can only conclude that the Calais conference was so preoc-
cupied with troubles nearer home that it could think of nothing
better, as regards Salonika, than to shift the responsibility and
trust to luck.
But before the offensive period arrived events had already
blurred the scheme. The British were to attack the Dub, and
demonstrate at other points; the French, Russians and Italians
in and W. of the Cerna bend were then to move, and lastly
the Serbians were to deliver the principal blow between the
Cerna and the Duditsa mountain, E. of which were the French
1 2 2nd Div. and part of the Greek "Archipelago" Div. (the
first of the Venizelist National Defence formations), ready to
drive forward on the Huma-Vardar front so soon as the flank
attack had begun to make itself felt. But the Serbians, still
angered by the breakdown of joint action in the Monastir
battle, and also seriously affected by their internal troubles,
refused to move till after the Allied general offensive had opened
in France. The Russians were deeply shaken by the revolution
in their own country. Weather conditions were terrible, and the
zero day of battle was several times postponed, both owing to
these conditions and to the slowness with which the preliminary
offensives at and W. of Monastir were developing.
As early as March 12 the French 76th Div. had begun its
advance from Koritsa on Resna. But owing to snow and to the
harrying tactics of enemy irregulars who were supported by
small Austrian forces from Pogradets it made but little prog-
ress, and on March 19 Sarrail suspended the movement.
Meanwhile, on the i8th, Grossetti, after several days of local
attacks, delivered a larger attack on the front N. of Monastir,
which by the 27th had advanced the line in this sector to height
1248, Snegovo and Rastani, with corresponding gains to the
left on the spur of Peristeri called Crvena Stena, and to the
right about Dobromir and height 1050. Over 2,000 prisoners
were taken, and these gains eased the uncomfortable position of
Monastir, but they were not pressed, as Sarrail not only held
his reserves for the April offensive but sought to disengage part
of the troops engaged at Monastir for the same purpose.
On the Doiran front the British attacks began about the middle
of March with enterprises intended to secure advantageous
positions for the general engagement. On April 22, after several
postponements, the artillery preparation began, in terrible
weather, and on the evening of the 24th the infantry assault
was delivered on a two-division front against Dub and its
under-features. The positions of the defence were strong in
themselves and strongly entrenched, and, as in the trench-
warfare battles of the French front in 1916-17, the attack
preparations and especially the prolonged bombardment had
given full warning. Along the whole front the infantry reached
354
SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS
the hostile front trenches, but only on the left were they able to
maintain the ground won, and nowhere was progress made
beyond the first enemy system. Heavy fighting, which only
died down on the 28th, was necessary to consolidate the new
line, and meanwhile for "climatic and other reasons" to use
the words of Milne's despatch the rest of the front remained
inactive. It was only on May 5 that the other secondary elements
of the battle (W. of the Cerna, Cerna bend, Lyumnitsa-
Mayadag front) began their artillery preparations. At last, on
the pth in the case of the British the evening of the 8th the
infantry went forward on all fronts. The British, attacking
between the Petit Couronne and Lake Doiran, were repulsed,
but they made good an advance further W., where 500 yards in
depth were gained over a frontage of two miles; these gains
were held and consolidated. On the Lyumnitsa front the
French izand Div., aided for the first time by Greek forces,
carried out methodical advances by fractions at a time, and even
for a moment held the Srka di Legen. Elsewhere all holding
attacks were repulsed after the usual momentary successes.
But the serious feature of the situation was the fact that the
Serbians, who were to have been the shock element of the
attack and to have begun their advance on the pth, like the
rest, came to a standstill on the nth after engaging only one
of the three divisions between Kaimakchalan and the Cerna.
More, they asked to be taken out of the line, and with this the
offensive scheme practically collapsed. Sarrail did, indeed,
induce them to engage again with two divisions, and on the isth
attacks in aid were delivered or threatened at other points. 1
This time, after some loss, they demanded that the offensive
should be abandoned altogether. Already Sarrail had received
authority from Paris to suspend operations and establish his
defensive line (May 15), and on the 23rd, after the second
Serbian disappointment, he issued orders accordingly. It could
be claimed, with justice, that these operations had pinned the
Bulgarian Armies to their ground, and indeed only one Bulgarian
division remained in the Danube theatre, all the rest having
been drawn into the Balkans by the developing threat of the
offensive. But Sarrail had hoped for much more. His object
had been Veles and Dcmir Kapu at the least, instead of which
only slight advances on the Struma, Doiran, Lyumnitsa and
Monastir fronts without exception secondary elements in his
scheme had resulted. The offensive was, in short, a failure,
and one, moreover, in which it was palpable that disunity had
played the major part.
The reasons are to be sought partly in the Serbian breakdown
and partly in the general war situation. Allusion has already
been made to the fact that the Serbian Army had for some time
been passing through an internal crisis, and to the demands made
by the Serbian Government and higher command for tangible
evidence that all the Allies would frankly engage their forces
in the battle. The engagement of the French and Greeks on the
Lyumnitsa front, and above all that of the British on the
Doiran front, where attacks were made in earnest, local gains
secured, and heavy losses incurred 2 in aid of the projected
main attack, might have been supposed to be an effective answer
to this last demand, even though the Italians and French in
the Cerna bend showed no great vigour. 3 But in fact it is
premature to enquire how far a sense of having been left in the
lurch in the autumn battle and how far internal troubles
respectively contributed to the Serbian refusal. In any case a
strong motive at the back of all others was that expressed in
the phrase, " What is the use of delivering Serbia if no Serbs
are left to inhabit it? " But there were other elements of
discouragement. Exalted hopes of a great general advance to
victory on all fronts had been dashed to the ground by the
Aisne battle and its tragic consequences, and they were followed
by a revulsion in which the war-weariness, soldiers' grievances,
1 The British on the Struma took Kupri and Ernekeui on this day.
1 According to Sarrail the British losses in the two offensives
were 8,000.
* The Russian brigade in the Cerna bend on the contrary s'est
fort bien conduit, according to Sarrail (p. 257).
and the tremors of revolution produced alarming mutinies.
The Russian contingent was affected not only by the revolu-
tion, 4 but by rumours of what had happened to their comrades in
France, and they in turn affected the Serbs. When, on the main
front and in the presence of the main enemy, the moral of a
homogeneous army was shaken to its foundations, it was not
to be expected that on this secondary front a patchwork of
contingents, every one of which was exiled from its homeland,
would fare any better.
In the midst of these conditions of exasperation the Greek
question at last came to a head. M. Jonnart was sent out as
Allied High Commissioner, and Sarrail was authorized to invade
Thessaly (June 10). He had already begun to prepare a force
for this purpose immediately the offensive was abandoned, and,
to make certain, other troops went to Athens, to Corinth, and
to Itea in the Gulf of Amphissa, whence a line of supply for
the Thessaly force was opened via Bralo. Except for a skirmish
at Larisa on June 12 no fighting took place. The dethronement
of Constantine and the succession of King Alexander, with
Venizelos as his first Minister, were successfully accomplished
and most of the troops withdrawn again during July.
But the settlement of the Greek problem came too late to
have any influence on operating against Bulgaria. The events
of the Spring had affected governmental policies as well as
common men's passions. Thus, the British War Office began
to withdraw troops for the forthcoming Syrian campaign; the
Italian Government began similarly to press for the withdrawal
of their 35th Div. for operations in Albania; and the French
Government, reconstituted after the Aisne crisis, had made it
a definite policy to economize the reduced man-power of France
by avoiding battle. Meantime, the Italian advance into Epirus,
made concurrently with the French operation in Thessaly,
antagonized Greek opinion, the relations of Greeks and Serbians
were little better, and those of the French and Italians at the
margin of the respective spheres of occupation in Albania none
too good. The personalities of the Venizelist, and those of the
regular Greek Armies, now to be amalgamated, were inevitably
opposed. Finally, Essad Pasha reappeared, with a national
Albanian policy and the nucleus of an Albanian contingent.
Sarrail, nevertheless, attempted to maintain a certain mili-
tary activity; in particular, an enterprise on the extreme left
was carried out by a French force under Gen. Jacquemot, 6
which captured Pogradets (Sept. n) and thence advanced N.
almost to Lin. In Oct. a further advance was made into the
upper Skumbi valley, but this was suspended, owing to represen-
tations by the Italian Government, and the French then with-
drew to Pogradets, leaving Essad's bands to operate in the
Skumbi region independently. Finally, the whole front relapsed
into practical stagnation.
On Dec. 10 Sarrail was relieved of his command by the new
Clemenceau ministry on the renewed demand of the British
and Italian Governments, and of General Foch in his capacity
as chief of the staff of the French Army. This put an end to a
situation which had become impossible. The proximate cause
of his dismissal, so far as the French Government was concerned,
had nothing to do with Salonika, but was Sarrail's relation to
. the p'arties of the Lef t, who, in the troubled summer of 1917, had
become pacifist in character, and were suspected, rightly or
wrongly, of dealings with similar elements on the enemy's
side. 6 So far as the Allies were concerned, it was due partly to
the personality of Sarrail, and partly to the insistent and thrust-
ing policy of France in dealing with Greece. In effect, the over-
4 It is only just to record, however, that to the end of the year
they continued to take their share in duties in the line. The evidence
of Sarrail, especially p. 289, is emphatic as to this.
' The superintendence of this operation was the last service of
Gen. Grossetti, who left Salonika on Sept. 24 suffering from poison-
ing, like his predecessor Cordonnier. He died a few months later.
M. Clemenceau in his explanation before the army commission
late in Dec. 1917 seems to have laid stress principally on the fact
that unless satisfaction was given to the Allies in respect of their
complaints against Sarrail, they would not accept a French Com-
mander-in-Chief on the western front. (Mermeix.)
SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS
355
throw of the Constantine regime was the only logical outcome
of maintaining a Salonika front at all. But between that
logical extreme and the other logical extreme of evacuation,
which was always the desire of the British War Office, diplomacy
built up a series of compromises which satisfied nobody. It
was to the indefinite and equivocal position created by these
compromises, even more than to any military factors or personal
disagreements, that the positive ineffectiveness of the Macedonian
forces was due. It remains to the credit of Sarrail that he was
sanguine in the most confused and difficult conditions and resolute
in carrying the occupation to a common-sense issue. In spite
of proposals to retreat again into the entrenched camp, he
maintained the army on the front from which, nine months
later, it was to deliver the great offensive blow for which he
had always hoped. On the other hand he left the Allied Army
in a state of badly shaken moral. The consciousness of inef-
fectiveness, the blight of malaria, the infrequency of leave,
the sense of being a forgotten " side-show," the international
causes of friction all these factors told on the moral of the
Salonika forces at the most critical period of war-psychology. 1
A period of remise en main was necessary before the troops could
be employed either in this theatre or in another, and Sarrail
had taken the line of defending his army against all criticism,
fair or unfair. It was essential, therefore, if the army was to be
pulled together, that new men should be put in power.
General Guillaumat, the new commander-in-chief, set himself
to this task under favourable conditions. No important military
operations were in prospect. The Greek danger had been
liquidated. The atmosphere of exasperation was largely dis-
persed by his appointment alone. With Russia and Rumania in
collapse, and the final military trial of strength obviously
imminent in one or both the western theatres, not one of the
three great Powers concerned was inclined to press its Balkan
interests very closely. His military position, too, soon came
to be much stronger than that of his predecessor. Although
the British had withdrawn two of their six divisions (the 6oth in
June and the loth in Sept. 1917, both proceeding to Syria),
and one battalion per brigade in the four remaining (spring
1918), the French and Italian contingents remained practically
unaltered (save for the withdrawal of the Russians), while the
Serbians acquired a whole new division created from Yugoslav
prisoners of war, and the Greeks were taking their place as a
regular Allied contingent, the " national defence " divisions at
Salonika (Archipelago, Crete, Seres) being augmented by those
of the regular army, reorganized by a French military mission.
The question of the use of these forces had been put on one
side by the central councils of the Entente. German pressure
on the Western Front, beginning with March 21 and culminating
on July 15, threw all other questions into the background, and
when the tide began to recede it proved as difficult as ever to
convince the directors of the War that good could come from a
Salonika offensive, while, at the same time, it was impossible
to offer the Central Powers the opportunity of repeating at
Greece's expense their customary autumn triumph. No de-
cision imposed itself and none was taken. The only event of
the early summer was a brilliant coup de main with limited
objective, which on May 30 carried the Srka di Legen on the
left of the Vardar. In July Guillaumat, after practically complet-
ing the work of reorganization, was recalled to Paris, where an
energetic governor was needed in case of a German break-
through. He was succeeded by Gen. Franchet d'Esperey. At
Paris he continued to act as advocate of, and so to speak agent
for, the principles of a Salonika offensive. After much persuading
he obtained for his successor authority to prepare one, but au-
thority to begin was not given till a few days before the battle.
Meantime, operations in Albania, which for two years had
been in the nature of post and police warfare, rose for a moment
in the summer of 1918 to the level of major operations.
In the winter of 1917-18 the posts of the Italian XVI. Corps
(Gen. Ferrero) in Albania ran along the Voyusa from the sea
1 Nevertheless it is clear that the phase of the mutinies passed
off more easily than the corresponding phase in France.
to Memaliadz, where it turned abruptly N. and then N.E.,
facing Glava and Cafa Glava, Parasboar, Barguzyasi, and
Cerevoda. Here it joined the French posts, which ran in a N.
to S. line along the mountains to Golik in the Skumbi valley and
thence nearly E. to Point 1704 S. of Lin on the shore of Lake
Okhrida. Early in July 1918 a frontal advance of Ferrero's
Italians from the Voyusa and combined by flank pressure by
the French syth Div. in the mountains of the Devoli regions,
forced the two Austrian Divs. (47th and 8ist) of Gen. Konnen-
Hozak's XIX. Corps to evacuate the whole Berst region in
haste, with a loss of nearly 3,000 prisoners. By July 20 the
Italians lay along the Semeni and the lower Devoli from the
coast to Petrohaudi (with a bridgehead in front of Fieri), and
thence in an E. to W. line to the foot of the Mali Siloves range
which was held by the French. The positions of the latter
formed a marked salient, the apex of which lay at the confluence
of the Holts and Devoli rivers, and the right flank of which
passed by Kumichan to Golik on the old front. The importance
of this salient lay in the fact that it kept the right wing of the
general line echeloned well forward, threatening the rear of the
enemy's lines near Berat and ultimately the connexion between
Elbasan and Lake Okhrida.
In August the Austrians, now commanded by Generaloberst
von Pflanzer-Baltin and reinforced by the 45th Div., as well
as by the fresh i2th Bulgarian Div. in the Okhrida-Skumbi
sector, began a counter-offensive all along the line. Between
August 20 and 24 they recaptured the line of the Semeni and
the Devoli and drove back the Italians to positions only slightly
in front of Fieri and Berat. On August 24 those towns fell
again into their hands, and the Italians then withdrew to a line
from just S. of Fieri, along the Janitsa, S. of Berst, and along
the Osum to Mt. Tomor. Meantime, the French, the left rear
of their Devoli salient being thus threatened, had had to fall
back in the Devoli and Tomorica valleys to regain touch with
the Italians at Mt. Tomor, while still holding on to their posts
between the Devoli and the Skumbi. These operations are of
interest as being the last military success won by forces of the
Central Powers in the War. Three weeks after their conclusion
the Bulgarian front was in ruins.
At the close of these operations and the eve of the final act
on the Salonika front, the numbers and positions of the forces
of the Central Powers were approximately as follows: In
Albania, XIX. Austro-Hungarian Corps (45th, 47th, 8ist
Divs.) under Generaloberst von Pflanzer-Baltin; between
Skumbi Valley and Lake Okhrida the I2th Bulgarian Div.;
from Lake Okhrida (exclusive) to Koziak Mountain (inclusive),
the XI. German Army (Gen. von Steuben), consisting of,
from right to left, the LXII. German Corps staff, with under it
the Bulgarian ist, 6th and Composite Divs., and some few
German and Austrian units, the LXI. German Corps staff, with
the* 302nd German Div. (staff German, troops Bulgarian),
the 4th Bulgarian and the 2nd Bulgarian Div., and the 3rd
Bulgarian Div.; from E. of Koziak to Lake Doiran (inclusive)
astride the Vardar, the I. Bulgarian Army (Gen. Nerezov),
three Bulgarian Divs.; from Lake Doiran (exclusive) to Lake
Tahinos (inclusive), the II. Bulgarian Army (Gen. Lukov),
three Bulgarian Divs.; from Lake Tahinos to the mouth of
the Struma, thence eastward in coast defence positions, the IV.
Bulgarian Army (Gen. Petrov), two Bulgarian divisions. The
whole of these forces were under the control of the German
headquarters, which had formerly been Mackensen's and Billow's
but was now the Armeegruppe Scholtz; Gen. Scholtz was, however,
for certain purposes under the control of the Bulgarian higher
command, at Sofia, over which Todorov presided. An exact
account of the forces of Bulgaria at the crisis can hardly be
given, 2 but, save for one division in Rumania and some coast
2 Some of the newer divisions had an irregular constitution whereas
the older ones still retained the six-regiment organization of 1915,
and some of these even the old four-battalion regiments. Moreover,
at that moment movements were in progress for replacing 15 Ger-
man battalions by 45 Bulgarians; the Germans had departed, all
but three battalions, but few of the Bulgarians arrived in the XI.
Army in time.
356
SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS
defence units in Thrace and E. Macedonia, the whole of Bulgaria's
mobilizable force was present between the Devoli in Albania
and the mouth of the Struma. In the depots were practically
only the 1919 class recruits, just called up; 55,600 men had
fallen in battle since 1915, some thousands were prisoners, many
thousands had died or been invalided. Thus the ration strength
of the Bulgarian Armies on the Macedonian front can hardly
have exceeded 420,000, with some 8,000 Germans (principally
Jager battalions, heavy artillery and mountain machine-gun
detachments). The combatant strength may be taken roughly
as 310,000 Germans and Bulgarians. The Italians of Ferrero
and the Austrians of Pflanzer-Baltin, whose operations in
Albania were entirely unconnected with the battle on the main
front, are ignored in this calculation.
On taking up their battle grouping the larger formations of
the Entente Armies were arranged thus: Devoli valley to
Staravina (E. of the Cerna bend), the French Army of the
East, in seven French, Italian and Greek Divs.; Staravina to
Nonte (exclusive), the Serbian I. and II. Armies under Boyovich
(3 Divs.) and Stepanovich (5 Divs.) respectively, the latter
consisting of the Strumaja, Timok, and Yugoslav Divs., and
the French izznd and iyth Colonial Divs.; Nonte to Lyumnitsa,
Gen. Anselme's group, Greek and French Divs.; Lyumnitsa to
Dub (exclusive), astride Vardar, 26th and 27th British Divs.;
Dub to Dova Tepe, 22nd and 28th British and two Greek
Divs.; Dova Tepe to mouth of Struma, 3 Greek Divs.; Salonika,
i Greek Div. ; in all, 28 divisions. In addition there were a small
Serbian cavalry Div., a French cavalry brigade, and other
lesser formations and details. The ration strength of these
forces, after making allowances for men invalided during the
hot months, was about 550,000, and the combatant strength
perhaps 350,000.
In sum, then, there was no great numerical disparity between
the opposed forces. The equipment of the Entente Army in
heavy artillery was, however, considerable. Sarrail's repeated
requests for an adequate equipment in this respect had been in
the end met, just before his recall. As to the number of heavy
batteries on the other side accounts differ, but in any case the
regrouping of guns to meet an attack, in the movement condi-
tions of Macedonia, would be difficult if not impossible for the
defence, and the mere possession of a reserve of such artillery
was, in the conditions, a big element in favour of an attack,
provided the duration of the artillery phase of it was reduced
to a minimum. On the other hand, to oppose to the powerful
material of attack, the Bulgarians had all the advantages of
natural and artificial strength of position. But the success or
failure of an offensive would turn more on moral than on material
factors. Presuming that the tactical break-through was pos-
sible, would the Bulgarians knit up again on a new line further
back? Or would it be found that the third winter had completed
the war-weariness on which Sarrail had twice vainly counted,
so that one heavy blow would finish the matter? In the light
of events the answer is easy. The new government in Bulgaria
was pacifist in character. Ludendorff regarded a breakdown as
almost certain and detailed several divisions from the eastern
front early in Sept. to proceed to Bulgaria and Serbia, the
nearest indeed being ordered to Sofia to keep order. On the
front itself, according to German accounts, conditions were
" indescribably pitiful," and for food the greater part of the
troops were dependent on ox-transport from a base 60 m.
distant, and upon what they had themselves grown behind the
lines, this last fact indeed making it almost impossible to induce
a unit to quit its sector for a concentration. But 1917 had for
the Entente been a tragedy of disappointments founded on
optimistic estimates of the enemy's broken moral and vanished
man-power, and in 1918 a not unhealthy scepticism prevailed
in their intelligence staffs, although it was agreed that Bulgarian
moral was low. Then, too, there was the question of Serbian
moral. Since the deadlock of May 1917 the Serbians had
consistently followed the principle that it was useless to rescue
Serbia if no Serbs were left to inhabit it, yet they alone possessed
the fire and passion which would convert tactical victory into
strategic triumph, who would disregard food and rest sufficiently
to exploit success by leaps and bounds, who would not stop
short of the Danube. And nothing less than victory without
remainder would be of any value to the Entente.
When the plans were under consideration this latter question
was unexpectedly answered by the Serbs themselves. They
proposed an offensive with limited objective in the Moglena
sector, i.e. that lying between Kaimakchalan and the Srka di
Legen. At once the situation was cleared up. If they were
ready to carry out an attack on the mountain front for no more
than a limited objective, it was unlikely that an offensive from
that group with the objective of Belgrade would not fall to
pieces as in 1917. On June 29 the plan was definitely fixed,
and about July 7 the Serbian headquarters (now directed by
Mishich) agreed to engage all its forces in the operation. The
date of the offensive (which needed a good deal of material
preparation as the Moglena sector had never been equipped
for battle) was fixed for Sept. 15, though, owing to objections
and preoccupations in Paris, the higher command did not give
leave to carry it out till little more than a week before that
date (Sept. 4).
On Sept. 14 a bombardment opened which, less overpowering
than those of the western front, was far heavier than anything
previously witnessed in the Balkans. Next day the original
date the offensive was launched. From the Lechnitsa river
to the Sokol mountain the I. Serbian Army (Boyovich), consisting
of the Danube, Drina and Morava Divs., had a frontage of
5 kilometres per division. From Sokol to the Suchitsa brook
the II. Serbian Army (Stepanovich) formed the break-through
force. In front of the Dobropolye were the two French assault
Divs. with the Shumaja Div. on their right, and the Exploitation
Divs., Timok and Yugoslav behind them. The I. Army and the
Exploitation Divs. were not to move till the French had carried
Sokol, Kravitsa and Vetrenik heights. Then, passing through,
the Yugoslav Divs. were to master the Koziak, and the II.
Army front was to advance at the utmost speed on Gradsko,
flankguarded by the I. Army on the left and the Timok Div. on
the right.
The attack succeeded according to programme. It continues
to be a matter of controversy whether the Bulgarians offered
an earnest and fierce resistance. The impression left on the
Allied infantry was that they did so; the Germans in their
midst assert the contrary. In any case, it is probable that the
backbone of resistance was the German mountain machine-
gun detachments which were dispersed in the battle zone. Be
this as it may, the French Assault Divs. carried their objectives
by the evening of the isth, the Yugoslav Div. passed through
them in the night of the 15-16, carried Koziak on the i6th,
and on the I7th drove a deep wedge, of which the point was
armed midway between Gradsko and Demir Kapu, and the
lengthening left flank along the Cerna was taken up by the
I. Army. On the other side there was little or no tactical handling
in the ensemble. Machine-gun groups and specially resolute
parties of riflemen in broken ground constituted the whole
resistance. This, indeed, was the Jypical form of defence in all
theatres of war by 1918, but here it lacked the essential element
of organized counter-attack. Here and there a unit turned upon
its pursuers, but in the main the rear of the enemy's position
was void of reserves, although it is said that only 12,000
Bulgarian and German infantry were in line on the front attacked.
Later, .all attempts at reinforcement always failed, as the troops
concerned had to traverse instead of following the valleys and
ridge-systems. In sum, by the igth, the wedge had developed
two horns, of which one, following the Cerna, was at the
outskirts of Kavadar, and the other was engaged in rolling up
the front opposed to Anselme's group.
Meanwhile, on the i8th, the British and Greeks of the Doiran
front, under orders from Gen. Franchet d'Esperey, assaulted
the whole enemy line from the Vardar to beyond Lake Dcriran,
with the general idea of cutting the communications between
the Bulgarians opposed to Anselme, and the apex of their own
country at Strumnitsa. Here, at any rate, the Bulgarians
SALTING SALVADOR
357
fought vigorously. Their positions were as strong by art as
the Moglena positions were by nature, or stronger, and the
attack lacked depth owing to the detachment of a division to
work with Anselme's force, and to the low effective strength
of units. 1 Thus it met with the same fate as those of 1917 small
gains of ground consolidated and held after far larger gains had
been for a moment achieved. A second attack next day was no
more successful. But for these critical days a large force of the
enemy had been completely held.
On the 2oth and 2ist the exploitation of the break-through
was completed. The Serbian I. Army, no longer simply guarding
the flank of the II., crossed the Cerna and began a drive along
the mountains of the Cerna bend to which the Italians and
the French of the " A.F.O." conformed little by little. The
Serbian II. Army reached the Vardar between Krivolak and
Demir Kapu, and its right horn continued to push due eastward
along the mountain positions in front of Anselme's force, which
progressively came into action from left to right. By the
afternoon of the 2ist the Doiran-Vardar front was in collapse,
and the British aeroplanes were bombing the intermingled troops
and transport of the enemy which was seeking to make their
way through Kosturino to Lyumnitsa.
From that day, though progress was sometimes slow, some-
times fast, the Allied offensive became a strategic pursuit in
the full sense of the word, marked by a consistent policy of
outflanking, as rapidly as possible, any solid line of resistance
which the enemy managed to create. Thus, on the 24th, the
resolute front offered by a hastily assembled German force
on the line of the Vardar near Gradsko (the administrative
centre and organized base of the enemy's centre) was turned
on the N. by the steady advance of the Serbian I. Army on
Veles (24th-25th), and once released thereby the Serbian II.
Army marched at high speed on Shtip (25th), Nochaua (26th),
and Tsarevo Selo (27th), behind the rear of the forces that
were giving ground before the British, who in turn worked
down the Strumnitsa basin and (in concert with the Greeks
further to the right) ascended the upper Struma region, with
their aeroplanes sent ahead to bomb the Kresna defile.
Thus, too, when infantry fighting threatened to become stable
between Veles and Shtip, the French cavalry brigade under
Gen. Jouinot-Gambetta, instead of becoming involved in the
Veles fighting, made an independent dash upon Uskub, and to
the astonishment of both sides seized that vital centre on the
morning of the 29th. This event, which secured the com-
munication between the (so-called) XI. Army and the remainder
of the Bulgarians, forced the latter into the region of Egri
Palanka, and the former into that of Kosovo. Thenceforward
the I. Serbian Army, with the upper Morava as the axis of
movement, moved steadily northwards with its right on the
Bulgarian border, and its left following approximately the line
Gilau-Kinshumlia-Kralyevo, reached Racha-Krushevats-Pirot
on Oct. 15, Kralyevo-Parachin-Zayechar on Oct. 23, Pozhare-
vats-Arangyelovats-Uzhitseon Oct. 28, Belgrade-Lyuboviya
on Nov. i, and the old barriers of the Drina, Sava, and Danube
on Nov. 4. Meantime, the II. Army had reconquered Kosovo
and the Sanjak of Novipazar, reaching Priboy and Plevlye on
Nov. i. By that time the strategic pursuit further E. had be-
come a series of movements authorized by the terms of an
armistice, and to the W. Pflanzer-Baltin was evacuating in turn
Albania and Montenegro, with, as his only purpose, the main-
tenance of his divisions as formed military units. The Balkan
Campaigns were at an end.
For the Salonika campaigns 1915-17, the principal authority is
Sarrail's Man Commandement en Orient, which is profusely docu-
mented; with this should be taken Gen. Milne's despatches. The
German part in the Cerna bend battles of 1916 is described in
K. Lubmann's monograph Herbstschlacht in Mazedonien, written
from official archives. The crowning offensive of 1918 is dealt with
fairly fully in C. Photiades La Victoire des Allies en Orient. (X.)
SALTING, GEORGE (1835-1909), British art collector, was
born at Sydney, N.S.W., Aug. 15 1835. His father, a Dane, had
1 At that time influenza was raging in the British force.
made a large fortune by sheep-farming and sugar-growing, and on
inheriting this Salting devoted himself to collecting, with great
taste and discrimination, Chinese porcelain and English and
French furniture and pictures. He led a very simple life and was
of retiring and somewhat eccentric habits. On his death, which
took place in London Dec. 12 1909, it was found that his price-
less treasures had been left to the nation. They are now housed in
the Victoria and Albert Museum, the British Museum and the
National Gallery.
SALVADOR (see 24.96). The estimated pop. in 1912 was
1,161,425; in 1917 1,700,000, indicating a pop. denser than that
of any American republic except Haiti. In 1918 births numbered
49*783, deaths 33,884 and marriages 3,653. Of the births 21,528
were legitimate and 28,255 illegitimate. Most of the upper class
are of European descent and reflect European influences; the
lower class has a higher standard of living than has that of
Nicaragua or Guatemala. The agriculturists are prosperous
and alert; few of them are foreigners. Coffee is the principal
crop; some 70,000,000 Ib. a year are normally exported to the
United States, France, Germany, etc. It constitutes 80% of
the total exportation. In 1916 there were 153,517 ac. under
cultivation, containing 95,000,000 coffee-trees. The 1917 crop
was damaged by the great earthquake of June 7, which partly
destroyed five towns. Other products are cacao, tobacco, rub-
ber and sugar. Cultivation of cotton and wheat is being encour-
aged. Corn is extensively raised, because of the domestic demand.
Live stock was estimated in 1919 at 284,013 head of cattle,
74,336 horses, 21,457 sheep, and 422,980 hogs. Mine products
include gold, silver, iron, copper and mercury. There are native
mining companies as well as English and American. The gold
output runs about $1,500,000 per annum.
Foreign trade is in the hands of English, Dutch and German export-
ers and wholesalers. Its annual value 1912-8 was:
Imports
Exports
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
86,744,859
6,173,545
4,958,624
4,022,167
5,668,000
2,719,095
5,979,000
$ 9,942,184
9,938,724
10,796,495
10,563,871
9,970,000
10,588,900
12,069,000
In 1919 the exports to the United States were $4,146,113, the
imports from the United States $5,821,920. National revenues and
expenditures, in pounds sterling, were reported as follows:
1915-6
1916-7
1917-8
1918-9
1919-20
Revenues
Exp'd't's
850,114
1,058,219
908,325
916,704
1,998,810
1,013,842
1,382,644
1,874,079
1,670,056
1,692,692
The estimated revenue for 1920-1 was stated at 14,726,170 colones,
and expenditures 16,227,580 colones, leaving a deficit of 1,501,410
colones. The colon was fixed at $0.50 by law of Sept. 1 1 1919. Prior
to that time it was normally worth $0.3978, but in 1917 it was worth
$0.60 and by Dec. 31 1918 $0.72. The national debt at the end of
1918 was $11,098,000.
Education has long been nominally free and compulsory, but until
recently received little attention from the Government. In 1911
there were 173,495 children of school age and only 21,569 in primary
schools, which numbered 486; in 1916 only about one-fourth of the
245,251 children of school age were in the 989 primary schools. In
the principal towns the schools have done excellent work, though
with poor accommodation. In rural districts there were in 1916
only three grades, with a fourth year of industrial instruction added.
The lower classes were thus purposely left without educational facili-
ties in order to exclude them from the professions. The secondary
schools, of which there are 27, lacked trained teachers and funds,
as did the National University. In the latter, graduates of the
secondary schools are offered courses in jurisprudence, medicine,
pharmacy, dentistry, and engineering. In 1919 a law for eradicating
illiteracy was enacted, and a campaign begun to reduce the pro-
portion, then 70%, ignorant of the alphabet. The budget estimate
for 1920-1 contained an appropriation of 1,831,374 colones for edu-
cation. Other social measures were a campaign against alcoholism
inaugurated by the Superior Council of Health, and the inception
of a federation of working-men's societies.
History. After 1909 Salvador remained substantially at
peace within her borders and with her neighbours. President
Fernando Figueroa was succeeded by Manuel Enrique Araujo
358
SALVINI SAN FRANCISCO
in 1911, but the latter was murdered in 1913 and succeeded by
the vice-president, Carlos Melendez. He resigned in Aug. 1914.
Alfonso Quinonez Molina temporarily held the presidential
power and when Carlos Melendez was elected president in 1913,
Molina became vice-president. On March i 1919 Jorge Melendez
was inaugurated for the term ending 1923. The tranquil con-
dition of Salvador was due to the decrease of hostility between
Conservatives and Liberals, and to the frequent insistence by
the United States upon the preservation of peace.
During the World War Salvador was the only one of the five
isthmian republics which did not declare war against Germany,
although, by note of Aug. 24 1917, she permitted U.S. vessels,
regardless of armaments, to use her ports. When the Monroe
Doctrine was adopted without definition in the Covenant of the
League of Nations, she interrogated the U.S. Government as to
the interpretation of the doctrine; later, in 1920, a movement
was made to initiate an international bureau or court excluding
the United States from membership, but this movement gave
way to another looking toward Central American union, which
Salvador had long advocated.
On June 24 1920 the Salvador Department of Foreign Relations
sent a circular telegram to the other four isthmian republics
inviting their participation in an isthmian congress to review,
and, if needful, change the Washington Conventions of 1907,
which were intended to safeguard the interests of all Central
American countries and to promote the settlement of difficulties
through arbitration. The congress was also to plan for unifica-
tion of the national constitutions and law codes, provision for
uniform secondary and professional education, equalization of
customs duties with free trade in Central American products,
adoption of uniform extradition laws, moneys, weights and
measures, and a single coat of arms and flag. From such unifica-
tion political consolidation was expected to ensue. Conferences
began Sept. 15 1920. Nicaragua seemed for a time to prevent
complete accord, but a preliminary agreement as to union was
reported as having been effected Jan. 21 1921. To this pact of
union Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala became signatories;
Nicaragua and Costa Rica rejected its terms, which became
effective Feb. 10 1922. Salvador has an arbitration treaty with
the United States, ratified in 1913, and a treaty encouraging
commercial relations, ratified in 1919. (H. I. P.)
SALVINI, TOMMASO (1829-1915), Italian actor (see 24.103),
died at Florence Dec. 31 1915.
SALZBURG (see 24.104), a Territory of Austria, borders for a
considerable distance on the Italian Tirol. In 1910 it had 214,737
inhabitants; in 1920 only 213,877 (77 to the sq. mile). In 1900
16-0% of the soil was unproductive. The productive areas in-
cluded 39-2% forest; 39-8% grazing lands, mostly high-lying;
9-8 % meadow; 0-3 % gardens; and only 10-8 % arable. The most
important towns are Salzburg (pop. in 1920, 36,450); Hallein
(pop. 6,746); St. Johann, in Pongau (pop. 1,709). The opening
of the Tauernbahn has greatly increased the importance of Bad
Gastein and Hof Gastein, and the latter has developed into a mod-
ern health resort. The Gastein springs are rich in radium.
SAMSONOV, ALEXANDER (1850-1914), Russian general,
was born in 1859. After being at the Cavalry school in St.
Petersburg he served in the war with Turkey in 1877-8. On
passing out of the Academy of the General Staff in 1884 he was
appointed on the general staff. From 1896 to 1904 he was
commandant of the Cavalry school at Elisavetgrad, and in 1902
he was promoted to the rank of general. In the war with
Japan in 1904-5 he commanded the Ussuri mounted brigade
and the Siberian Cossack division. He distinguished himself
greatly as a leader of cavalry, and was awarded the St. George
Cross of the fourth class. In 1909 he was made Ataman of the
Don Cossacks, and in the same year he became governor-general
and commander of troops in Turkestan. In Aug. 1914 he was
appointed commander of the II. Army, which was concentrated
on the Narev. Sentiments of loyalty to an ally and the desire
to take pressure off France at the earliest possible moment
led the Russian supreme command to give a premature order
for an advance into eastern Prussia. Notwithstanding his
report that his army was not ready for an advance the order
was repeated, and as a result of the absence of support from
Rennenkampf's I. Army Samsonov's army was destroyed in
the battle of Tannenberg on Aug. 26-^9. Convinced that the
battle was hopelessly lost, he gave orders to his staff to extricate
themselves from the German ring, while he went into a wood
and shot himself. He was buried, with other Russian soldiers,
not far from Villenberg. His wife, coming later to Germany
with the Red Cross, recognized his body by a medal that he wore.
SAMUEL, SIR HERBERT LOUIS (1870- ), British politi-
cian, was born at Liverpool Nov. 6 1870, the son of the banker
Edwin Louis Samuel. He was educated at University College
school and Balliol College, Oxford, where he took his degree in
1893. In 1895 and 1900 he unsuccessfully contested South Ox-
fordshire as a Liberal, but in 1902 was elected for the Cleveland
division of Yorks. He entered Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's
Government in 1905 as Parliamentary Under-Secretary to the
Home Office. From 1909 to 1910 he was Chancellor of the Duchy
of Lancaster, with a seat in the Cabinet, and in 1910 became
postmaster-general. He held this office until 1914, and then be-
came for a year president of the Local Government Board. From
1915 to 1916 he was again postmaster-general and Chancellor of
the Duchy of Lancaster, and in 1916 became Home Secretary.
He acted as chairman of the select committee on national expen-
diture (1917-8), and in 1919 was a British special commissioner
to Belgium. In 1920 he was appointed high commissioner to
Palestine and was created G.B.E.
SANDAY, WILLIAM (1843-1920), English theological scholar,
was born at Holme Pierrepont, Notts., Aug. i 1843, the son of
William Sanday, a well-known breeder of sheep and cattle. He
was educated at Repton and Balliol College, Oxford, afterwards
becoming a scholar of Corpus Christi. He took a first-class in
classical moderations in 1863, a first in the final classical schools
in 1865, and was ordained in 1867. He became a fellow and lec-
turer at Trinity in 1869, and in 1876 was chosen principal of Hat-
field Hall, Durham. In 1883 he was appointed Ireland professor
of Exegesis at Oxford, and in 1891 Lady Margaret professor of
Divinity, a post which he held till 1919. He died at Oxford
Sept. 16 1920.
As a theological and biblical critic of the apologetic school Sanday
took a very high place. His chief works are The Authorship and
Historical Character of the Fourth Gospel (1872); The Gospels in the
Second Century (1876) ; The Oracles of God (1891) ; The Early His-
tory and Origin of the Doctrine of Biblical Inspiration (1893) ; Com-
mentary on the Epistle to the Romans (with Dr. Headlam, 1895);
Outlines of the Life of Christ (1905 ; a republication of an article in
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible) ; Christologies, Ancient and Modern
(1910) and Personality in Christ and in Ourselves (191 1).
SAN FRANCISCO (see 24.144) increased in pop. during 1910-20
from 416,912 to 506,676 or 21-05%, making it the eleventh city
in the United States. The metropolitan district, as designated
by the U.S. Census Bureau in 1920, included all the communities
in the extensive area surrounding San Francisco bay. This area
had in 1910 a pop. of 750,000 and in 1920 1,121,631, being the
fifth population centre of the United States.
Transportation and Commerce. The railway service of San Fran-
cisco was greatly improved in the decade 1910-20. In 191? * ne
Southern Pacific spent approximately $1,500,000 on yards and car-
shops in the city. The other railways correspondingly improved
their terminal yards on the bay. Steamer service grew remarkably,
in part because of the opening of the Panama Canal. In 1911 the
ship tonnage of the port was 5,519,556 entered and 5,545,530 cleared.
In 1919 4,617 vessels entered the port and 4,696 cleared, carrying a
gross tonnage of 12,261,669. In 1920 the 48 steamship lines oper-
ating out of the port had over 250 steamers; 29 lines were in foreign
and 19 in coastwise trade. The U.S. Shipping Board in allotting
ships gave the port 250,000 tons, including seven ships of 21,000
tons each. The urban railway mileage increased from 289-6 m. of
single track in 1910 to 352-88 m. in 1920. The opening of a munici-
pal line in Dec. 1912 caused the retention of a five-cent fare. The
number of passengers carried during the fiscal year 1919 was 307,000,-
ooo as against 157,722,720 in 1911. The south-western quarter of
the city was brought within 25 minutes of the business district by
building a tunnel under Twin Peaks (1917). In 1921 the port of
San Francisco had 41 modern piers with a total area of 4,500,000
sq. ft., providing for more than 1,200,000 tons of cargo per month,
an increase of 100 % over the accommodation available in 1910.
The Belt railway, which serves all but three of the piers, had in
SAN GIULIANO, A. P.-C.
1920 54 m. of track. A tunnel under Fort Mason, connecting the
Government docks and the Presidio with the Belt line, was com-
pleted in 1914. The harbour was self-supporting, paying all mainte-
nance, interest and redemption of bonds. In 1911 the people of the
state voted $9,000,000 and in 1914 $10,000,000 in bonds for port
development. In 1920 the harbour board approved plans for an
extensive combination dock and warehouse, accessible by ship and
rail. The freight discharged and landed over the wharves of the port
of San Francisco, exclusive of federal and private wharves, increased
from 6,866,148 tons in the year 1910-1 to 10,257,612 tons in 1918-9.
The foreign trade of the port in the period 1909-19 increased 274%;
while the increase for the United States during the same period was
107 %. The value of the foreign trade for 1920 was: exports $220,-
257,77'. imports $212,021,768, a total of $432,279,539. The tonnage
movement for the same period was: outgoing 7,033,480, incoming
7,183,042, total 14,216,522.
Industries and Finance. Since 1916 shipbuilding has been the
most important industry of San Francisco. In the three-year period
1916-9 there were constructed in the metropolitan district 97 cargo
ships of a total of 945,783 tons and 1 10 naval craft, including three
super-dreadnoughts. In 1920 there were completed 68 cargo ships
of 607,650 deadweight tons.
In Jan. 1921 the estimated number of factories in the city was
2,500, employing more than 55,000 wage-earners. The principal
industries, with the estimated value of their product in 1920, were
printing and bookbinding, $20,000,000; fruit and vegetable canning,
$15,000,000; slaughtering and meat-packing, $20,000,000; foundry
and machine-shop products, $17,500,000; lumber and timber
products, $7,500,000.
Bank clearings increased from $2,427,075,543 in 1911 to $8,122,-
064,916 in 1920, placing San Francisco eighth in the United States
in bank clearings. The assessed valuation of property in 1920 on
approximately a 50% basis was $819,820,078.
Public Works. The plans of the city in 1910 to own its own water
supply culminated in the Hetch-Hetchy water and power project.
The city owns a watershed of 420,000 ac. in the Sierras on the head-
waters of the Tuolumne river, 160 m. distant, from which 400,000,000
gal. of water can be secured daily and 250,000 H.P. produced. The
work of development was well under way in Jan. 1921. A railway
68 m. long to Hetch-Hetchy valley and the Lake Eleanor dam were
already built, over 18 m. of tunnel were under construction and a
hydro-electric plant of 4,000 H.P. was in operation. The contract
for the Hetch-Hetchy dam was let for $5,400,000. Bonds for $45,-
000,000 were issued and $8,000,000 spent by March 192 1.
Buildings and Parks. The value of private building operations
was $22,873,942 for 1910, $18,626,199 fr 1915, $18,644,343 for
1919, and $32,869,009 for 1920. Among the notable public buildings
are those of the Civic Center, located in the heart of the city and
surrounded by a plaza. They consist of three main buildings: the
city hall, costing $4,000,000; the auditorium, with a seating capa-
city of 12,000, given by the Panama-Pacific International Exposi-
tion and costing $1,275,000; and the public library, costing $ 1,000,-
ooo. A state building costing $1,000,000 was in Jan. 1921 in process
of construction near the Civic Center. Among recent buildings were
the First National Bank, American National Bank, Robert Dollar
building, Balfour building, Bank of Italy and the Southern Pacific
building. The Exchange building, the building of the California
Title Insurance Co., the Crocker building and the Furniture Ex-
change building were under construction in March 1921. In Jan.
1921 there were 34 parks in San Francisco with an area of approxi-
mately 2,500 acres. The Golden Gate Park Memorial Museum had
been completed. Nine playgrounds were in use and several more
under construction. The public library, as part of the Civic Center,
was in 1921 housed in a magnificent building; there were also nine
branches and 13 deposit stations with a total of 240,000 volumes,
with a home circulation of 1,368,685. The Palace of Fine Arts of
the Panama-Pacific International Exposition was given after the
fair to the San Francisco Art Association; many of the art treasures
shown in 1915 remained there. In Feb. 1921 ground was broken in
Lincoln Park for a California Palace of the Legion of Honor as a
memorial to the Californians who gave their lives in the World War
and as a museum of art.
Education. In 1920 there were 107 public schools, including high
schools, with 1,928 teachers and an enrolment of approximately
80,000 pupils. The university of California, at Berkeley, and the
Leland Stanford Jr. University, at Palo Alto, each had important
teaching departments in San Francisco.
History. The opening of the Panama Canal was celebrated,
Feb.-Dec. 1915, by the Panama-Pacific International Exposition
at San Francisco, representing an investment of $50,000,000.
The exhibits, numbering about 80,000, were valued at $300,-
000,000. Thirty-nine foreign nations and 37 states and three
territories of the United States were represented at the exposi-
tion. The attendance began with 245,000 on opening day, Feb.
6, rose as high as 348,500 on Nov. 2, San Francisco Day, and
reached a total of 18,500,000. The architecture was of a highly
varied and monumental character. One of the artistic merits of
359
the exposition was its effective colour scheme, while the night
illumination was extremely ingenious and impressive. In spite
of the World War the foreign exhibits were remarkably com-
plete. Financially as well as artistically the exposition was a
success. After presenting to the city of San Francisco the
auditorium already noted, the exposition authorities had on
hand a final net profit of a little more than $1,000,000. The
whole enterprise had been undertaken without Government
subsidy; the city and state, however, appropriated $5,000,000,
while private contributors added $7,500,000 more. Receipts
from concessions were $7,809,565 and from admission fees
$4,715,523. The beginning of a new era in world trade, which
the exposition celebrated in connection with the opening of the
Panama Canal, was delayed by the World War, but with the
resumption of normal conditions trade increased. Following
the prosecutions begun in 1907, corruption in the city govern-
ment was largely eliminated, but it reappeared, though on a
smaller scale, after 1909. The election under a new primary
system in 1911 of a mayor and city government opposed to
" graft " brought in an era of reform. In Dec. 1911, by an exten-
sion of the city charter, members of the police and fire depart-
ments were placed under civil service. A number of other char-
ter amendments were made during the decade 1910-20, but
there was no material enlargement in the power of the city.
(R. A. V.)
SAN GIULIANO, ANTONINO PATERNO-CASTELLI, MARQUIS DI
(1852-1914), Italian statesman, was born at Catania in 1852, a
member of a very ancient and noble Sicilian family. After grad-
uating in law at the university of Catania, he began his public
career in the field of local politics and in 1879 was chosen mayor
of his native city. In 1882 he was elected to parliament and
proved an active worker on committees, speaking frequently and
well on foreign and colonial affairs, railway, agricultural, social and
fiscal problems. In 1891, as member of the committee of inquiry
on Eritrea, he opposed the African policy of both the Crispi and
the Rudini Cabinets. When in the following year Sig. Giolitti be-
came premier, the Marquis di San Giuliano was selected as under-
secretary for agriculture, while in the Pelloux ministry (1899-
1900) he held the portfolio of posts and telegraphs. During the
next few years he devoted himself to travel in the near East and
in North Africa and to the study of the problems concerning those
regions. Having been defeated at the elections of 1904, he was
nominated senator; in parliament he had long been a staunch
follower of Sig. Sonnino; but when, in Dec. 1905, Sig. Fortis be-
came prime minister, he accepted the post of minister for for-
eign affairs, and on the fall of the Cabinet early in 1906 he was
appointed ambassador in London, where he remained until 1910,
gaining much popularity and contributing to render Anglo-Italian
relations ever more cordial. He enjoyed the special regard of the
late King Edward VII., who afterwards visited him at Catania.
From London he was transferred to Paris; but he soon returned to
the Consulta as member of the Luzzatti Cabinet (1910-11), and
continued at the same post in Sig. Giolitti's administration. In
the autumn of 1911 the crisis with Turkey broke out, and it is
believed that it was he who convinced the premier of the national
necessity for the Italian occupation of Libya. During the whole
tenure of office the Marquis di San Giuliano was an ardent be-
liever in the Triple Alliance, on which he thought that Italy's
foreign policy should be based, and attached the greatest impor-
tance to a good understanding with Austria, an attitude not cal-
culated to win him popularity in many circles; under his guidance
consequently Italy opposed Serbia's desire for a port on the Adri-
atic and Greece's aspirations in Epirus, and supported the policy
of creating an independent Albanian State. On Giolitti's resig-
nation in March 1914, San Giuliano retained office under Sig.
Salandra, at the latter's urgent request, and was soon faced by
the responsibilities arising out of the outbreak of the World War.
Public opinion was inclined to attribute the declaration of Italian
neutrality to the premier rather than to the minister for foreign
affairs. But it is certain that, once the decision had been taken,
the Marquis di San Giuliano carried out the policy it involved
with the most complete loyalty.
360
SAN MARINO SANTO DOMINGO
The strain and overwork, however, of the three years of office
together with grief at the death of his only son in 191 2, had told on
his constitution; and after an acute attack of gout, he died in har-
ness at the Consulta on Oct. 16 1914. He was a man of wide
literary, historical and artistic culture, a Dante student, and the
author of several books and articles on social questions, the condi-
tions of Sicily, foreign affairs, etc.; his Lettere doll' Albania are
deservedly appreciated, and his geographical studies led to his
being elected president of the Italian geographical society.
SAN MARINO (see 24.153), area 38 sq.m., had in 1920 a pop. of
12,069. The estimated revenue for the year ending March 31 1921
amounted to 34 million lire, derived mainly from customs ; tobacco,
matches and salt monopolies; and taxes on patrimonial estates
and on urban and rural lands and buildings. There is no public
debt. The regents (Capilani Reggenti) exercise executive power
through four principal committees nominated from the supreme
"Council of Twelve," viz.: a Congresso Economico di Stato, dei
Legali, degli Studi and Militare. A " treaty of good relations and
friendship " with the kingdom of Italy, concluded in 1897, was re-
vised and renewed in 1908, 1914 and 1920. The republic has ex-
tradition treaties with England, Holland, Belgium and the United
States and is represented by Consuls-General at Rome, London
and Barcelona and by a charge d'affaires at Paris. England also
has an accredited representative resident in Florence. During the
World War, though nominally neutral, the republic took a share
in providing hospital equipment for the Italian front and put no
obstacle in the way of her nationals volunteering for service in the
Italian army. San Marino was represented on the International
Radio-telegraphic Congress of Basle (1913) and had a wireless
station (receiving only) on Monte Titano but, on the entry of
Italy into the war, complications arising with Germany, it was
dismantled and in 1920 had not been reinstalled.
SANTAYANA, GEORGE (1863- ), American philosopher
and writer, was born in Madrid, Spain, Dec. 16 1863. At the
age of nine he came to America and was educated at Harvard
(A.B. 1886; Ph.D. 1889), where he taught from 1889 to 1912
as instructor, assistant professor, and, after 1907, as professor
of philosophy. He then retired to devote his time to literary
work. In 1905 he was Hyde Lecturer at the Sorbonne. He was
a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. His
chief work is The Life of Reason: or the Phases of Human Prog-
ress (1905-6), 5 vols., entitled respectively Reason in Common
Sense; Reason in Society; Reason in Religion; Reason in Art and
Reason in Science. His other writings include: Sonnets and Other
Verses (1894); Lucifer, a Theological Tragedy (1899); Three
Philosophical Poets (1910); Winds of Doctrine; Studies in Con-
temporary Opinion (1913); Egotism in German Philosophy (1916)
and Character and Opinion in the United States; with Reminis-
cences of William James and Josiah Royce, and Academic Life in
America (1920).
SANTO DOMINGO (see 24.194). The decade 1910-20 witnessed
a succession of abrupt changes in the political status of Santo Do-
mingo, accompanied by corresponding economic and social devel-
opments. The civil security and material well-being ushered in by
the Dominican- American Convention of 1907 came to an end
with the assassination of President Ramon Caceres on Nov. 19
1911. Gen. Alfredo M. Victoria, the dominant military figure,
secured the selection of his uncle Eladio Victoria as president.
Revolutionary outbreaks of the traditional type followed, culmi-
nating in the appointment of a special commission by the Presi-
dent of the United States, to aid in the reestablishment of peace
and order. Conferences resulted in the resignation of Victoria and
the election of Archbishop Adolfo A. Nouel as provisional Presi-
dent. Friction developed, and on March 31 1913, Monsignor
Nouel resigned and embarked for Europe. The Dominican Con-
gress selected as provisional successor, Gen. Jose Bordas Baldez.
Revolutionary disturbances again broke out and the United States
once more lent its good offices by sending a commission, with
whose advisory aid Dr. Ramon Baez was selected as provisional
president Aug. 27 1914. Some months later Juan Isidro Jimenez
was chosen as constitutional president. A brief period of peace and
progress ensued, terminated in April 1916 by an outbreak led by
Gen. Desiderio Arias (a chronic revolutionist from Monte Christi),
which President Jimenez, aged and infirm, failed to check. Arias
seized the military control of the capital, practically deposed Ji-
menez and assumed the executive power. With another civil war
thus imminent, with its patience strained by the events of the pre-
ceding years, and with the international situation developed by
the World War threatening foreign intervention, the United States
now took definite action. Naval forces were landed. President
Jimenez resigned the presidency and retired to Porto Rico, and in
May-June 1916 the pacification of the country was effected with
nothing more serious than minor encounters with revolutionary
forces. On July 25 1916, the Dominican Congress selected Dr.
Francisco Henriquez Carvajal as temporary president. The
United States, refusing recognition until assured of the non-recur-
rence of civil disorder, proposed a new treaty based upon the con-
vention just adopted between the United States and Haiti (see
HAITI), which should repair the shortcomings of the 190? conven-
tion in providing for the collection of customs under American aus-
pices, the appointment of an American financial adviser and the
establishment of a constabulary force officered by Americans.
President Henriquez refused to enter into this arrangement, with
a resultant deadlock intensified by the withholding by the Ameri-
can authorities of the revenues collected by its officers. Matters
came to a head with Henriquez's intention not to retire from the
presidency upon the expiration of his provisional term but to pre-
sent himself as a probable successful candidate for popular elec-
tion. OnNov. 29 1916 by proclamation of the American command-
er of the forces of occupation, Santo Domingo was placed under
the military administration of the United States. Executive
departments were taken over by American naval officers, ex-presi-
dent Henriquez left the country, order was quickly established,
and Santo Domingo entered upon four years of civil quiet and
economic improvement. The termination of this status was fore-
shadowed Dec. 24 1920 by a proclamation of the military govern-
ment that "the time has arrived when it may, with a due sense
of its responsibility to the people of the Dominican Republic,
inaugurate the simple processes of its rapid withdrawal from the
responsibilities assumed in connexion with Dominican affairs."
Announcement was made that a commission of representative
Dominicans with a technical adviser was to be appointed, en-
trusted with the formulation of constitutional amendments and
the revision of the laws of the republic, such proposals upon
approval of the military governor to be submitted to a consti-
tutional convention and to the national congress.
The economic experience of the country in the decade reflected
closely the successive political changes outlined above. Agricul-
ture continued the mainstay of the country's life; and cacao, sugar
and tobacco leaf remained its staple crops. Increased production in
the years following the convention of 1907 showed arrest in 1912-4
changing to abrupt increase in 1915. With the war-induced rise in
prices and the conditions born of military occupation, the upward
movement in export values continued through 1920, assuming sensa-
tional proportions in the last-named year. The combined volume
of imports and exports was less in 1914 than in 1911 ; but the increase
in 1915 over 1914 was greater than the total exports in 1905, and the
increase in 1916 over 1915 was almost as much as the combined ex-
ports and imports of 1905. The combined value of imports and exports
was $105,257,117 in 1920, as compared with $61,621,019 in 1919 and
$17,945,208, in 191 1. An increasing proportion of this trade has been
with the United States, 77-17 % of imports and 87-03 % of exports in
1919, as compared with 59-29 and 52-31 % respectively, in 1911. In
the first half of the decade political disturbances delayed the course
of financial extrication ensured by the convention of 1907; but after
1916 rapid progress was made. On Dec. 31 1920, the sinking fund
established for the $20,000,000 U.S. customs administration loan
amounted to $11,457,373, ensuring amortization long before ma-
turity. A loan of $1,500,000 authorized by the United States to
discharge internal debts contracted in 1911-2 was finally liquidated
in 1917. A further issue of $4,000,000 authorized in 1918 to liquidate
and fund all outstanding internal indebtedness, as adjusted by a
claims commission appointed by the military government, will be
paid off by Dec. 31 1922. Economic and social conditions, although
suffering from the political agitation prior to 1916, remained through-
out far above the preconvention state. Since the military adminis-
tration progress was notable. Roads and bridges were built, schools
established, public sanitation extended, steps taken to clear up the
complicated land title situation, internal taxation made effective
and competence and regularity introduced in administrative service.
Whether this was achieved at the expense of weakened capacity for
SARGENT SASKATCHEWAN
self-government may be doubted. The policy of the United States
was to make evident to the best elements in Santo Domingo what
honesty and efficiency in administration could accomplish, as well
as the futility and cost of "government by revolution."
The military government of Santo Domingo completed in 1921
the first census ever taken of the republic, and reported the num-
ber of inhabitants as 897,405. The population is scattered chiefly
in a fringe along the shore and in the Cibao Valley especially in the
region thereof known as the Royal Plain. In the mountainous inte-
riors are vast uninhabited stretches and valleys which have not
been visited since the days of the Conquest.
See Otto Schoenrich, Santo Domingo: A Country with a Future
(1918) ; Report of Military Governor on Conditions in Santo Domin-
go, in Annual Report of Secretary of the Navy (1920). (J. H. Ho.)
SARGENT, JOHN SINGER (1856- ), Anglo-American art-
ist (see 24.219), exhibited in 1910 the open-air paintings "Alba-
nian Olive Gatherers," " Glacier Streams," " A Garden at Corfu "
and " Vespers." In 1911 appeared " A Waterfall " and " The Log-
gia." His portrait of Henry James was exhibited in 1914, and was
one of the pictures damaged in that year by suffragette attacks.
He contributed in 1915 a blank canvas to a Red Cross sale at
Christie's, which was secured by Sir Hugh Lane just before his
death for 10,000. In Dec. 1916 the third series of his mural
decorations in the Boston Public Library was unveiled. This
concluding series is entitled "The Theme of the Madonna."
The first series (1895) depicts "The Judaic Development"; the
second (1903), "The Dogma of the Redemption." The theme
of the whole is "Judaism and Christianity." In 1917 he was
elected a trustee of the Tate Gallery. During the World War
he made a number of paintings of scenes on the western front ;
and his large picture "Gassed" in the Royal Academy in 1919
attracted great attention. In Nov. 1921 his decorations in the
rotunda of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts were unveiled.
SARRAIL, MAURICE PAUL EMMANUEL (1856- ), French
General, was born at Carcassonne (Aude) April 6 1856. He
qualified for both St. Cyr, and the Ecole Polytechnique but
chose to enter the former. He passed out Oct..i 1877 with the
distinction of third place and was posted as a sub-lieutenant
to the infantry. His regimental service and promotion followed
the normal course; he became lieutenant Oct. 1882, captain in
1887, and chef-de-bataillon in 1897. In 1901 he was appointed
Commandant of the Ecole Militaire d'Infanterie (St. Maixent),
and the following year was promoted lieutenant-colonel. From
1904 to 1906 he held the appointment of Military Commandant
of the Palais Bourbon, being made colonel in 1905. In 1907
he became Director of Infantry at the War Office an appoint-
ment which he held 4 years. He was made general-of-brigade
in 1908. Three years later he was promoted general-of-division
and on Nov. i 1913 was given command of the VIII. Army
Corps, being later (April 24 1914) transferred to the VI. Corps,
which he commanded on the outbreak of the World War. But
though General Sarrail's military capacity was recognized prior
to 1914 it was principally by his semi-political activities that he
was best known; and as a member of General Andre's military
cabinet he played a conspicuous part during a very troubled
period of French army history. On Sept. 2 1914, after command-
ing the VI. Corps with credit in the Battle of the Frontiers, he was
appointed to succeed Ruffey as commander of the III. Army.
This army formed the pivot of the wheel-back of the Allied
forces during the retreat to the Marne, and Sarrail maintained
it as such on the N.W. front of Verdun, although authorized
and indeed ordered to fall back. This left him in an exposed
position, but one in which the swinging-in enemy himself might
present a flank to Sarrail's attack. His part in bringing about
the situation which enabled Joffre to counter-attack was thus
as important and as brilliant as Gallieni's on the. other flank.
During the trench-warfare operations of 1914-15, however, he
was less successful, as he was essentially a leader of temperament,
and growing friction with Joffre led to his dismissal from this com-
mand after the action of Bourdeilles. Almost immediately there-
after, under circumstances described in the article SALONIKA
CAMPAIGNS, Sarrail was appointed Commander of the French
Army of the East, and at a later date he became commander-
in-chief of the Allied forces on that front. The troubled history
of this command, which lasted till his recall in Dec. 1917, is
told in the article referred to. After his return to France he
saw no further active service. In April 1918 he was placed on
the reserve on reaching the age limit. He became a Grand
Officer of the Legion of Honour in Nov. 1914 and was awarded
a Grand Cross of the same Order in Jan. 1916. He was given
the Medaille Militaire in Sept. 1917. Soon after the end of the
war he published his account of the Salonika operations under
the title M on Commandement en Orient.
SASKATCHEWAN (see 24.225). This Canadian province in-
cludes 243,382 sq.m. of land area and 8,318 sq. m. of water;
251,700 sq. m. in all. Its southern boundary is the 49th parallel
and its northern the 6oth: it is 390 m. from E. to W. and 760 m.
from N. to S. The province comprises portions of the old districts
of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan and Athabasca, which formed part
of the old North-West Territories, with the town of Regina as
the capital and the residence of the lieutenant-governor.
The province may be divided into four more or less well-defined
zones, (i) The prairie zone forms the most southerly portion, extend-
ing from the U.S. boundary as far N. as the town of Saskatoon, and
marked by open rolling prairie country of the richest possible
agricultural character. (2) The prairie and woodland zone extends
from Saskatoon to the southern edge of the great northern forest,
consisting of mixed prairie country and woodland adapted for farm-
ing and stock-raising. (3) A dense forest zone is bounded on the S.
by a line passing from the Swan river in a N.W. direction near the
town of Prince Albert, and on the N. by a line drawn from the north-
ern part of Reindeer lake to the southern part of Lake Athabasca.
This zone is well watered and well timbered, being covered with a
forest growth of spruce, tamarack, jack pine, poplar and birch.
(4) The sparsely wooded forest zone includes the remainder of the
country northward.
The geology of Saskatchewan is simple. Formations of very
ancient, highly crystalline, contorted and foliated or schistose rocks,
together with metamorphic rocks and eruptives, form a floor or
basement complex referable to the Laurentian and Huronian sys-
tems, and upon this floor of primitive rocks there rests unconform-
ably an uninterrupted succession of evenly bedded and for the most
part stratified sedimentary formations ranging from the Keweenawan
of supposed Cambrian age, through the palaeozoic and mesozoic,
to the Tertiary and Quaternary ages inclusive.
The province has an elevation of from 1,500 to 3,000 ft. above sea-
level, which accounts for the dryness and clearness of the atmos-
phere. As in southern Alberta, portions of the country need irriga-
tion, and the requirements of water and the sources of supply are
problems being dealt with by the several governments interested.
The following table shows the growth of pop. since 1901 :
Male
Female
Total
1901
1906
1911
1916
49,431
152,791
291,730
363,787
41,848
104,972
202,702
284,048
91,279
257,763
494,432
647,835
In 1916 the urban and rural pops, were 176,297 and 471,538
respectively. The census showed 150,292 families with an aver-
age of 4-31 persons per family housed in 140,359 dwellings. The
origins were: Canadian-born 352,920; English 90,435; Irish
62,551; Scotch 64,735; Welsh 1,451; French 24,011; German
34,091; Austro-Hungarian 24,195; Scandinavian 13,064; Dutch
5,448; Indian 10,736; Polish 2,559; Russian 11,623; Ukrainian
2,175; others 8,806. The U.S. immigrants of various national-
ities born in the United States were 87,907; of these 46% were
British descendants. There is a largish community of Russian
Doukhobors. The Indians of Saskatchewan are chiefly plain or
wood Crees, with a mixture among them of Saulteaux. Towards
the S. small bands of Assiniboines are found, and here and there
small companies of refugee Sioux from the United States. They
number 10,736 and are all on Government reserves. Steady
progress had been made in enabling the Indians to become self-
supporting, and to live in comfortable houses, growing crops of
grain, making hay and possessing herds of cattle. At the various
industrial schools young Indians, both male and female, receive a
practical education.
Regina, on the main line of the C.'P.R., is the capital, and had in
1920 a pop. estimated at 27,000. It was formerly the headquarters
of the Royal Northwest Mounted Police. It contains the provincial
legislature buildings, one of the provincial normal schools and the
Regina College.
362
SAVAGE SAVINGS MOVEMENT
Moose Jaw (estimated pop. in 1920, 17,000) is situated on the main
line of the C.P.R. It has extensive stock-yards and flour-mills, also
a storage elevator with a capacity of about 3,500,000 bushels.
Prince Albert, on the banks of the North Saskatchewan (pop. in
1920 about 7,000), bids fair to become a manufacturing centre. It
contains large sawmills and flour-mills, and is the centre for the fur-
trading industry.
Saskatoon (pop. 1920, 22,000) has been one of the rapid urban
growths of the Middle West. It is an important railway and dis-
tributing centre, through which the C.P.R. and two Canadian
National railways pass. Tributary to the town is a large area of
arable and prairie land.
North Battleford, Swift Current, Weyburn, Battleford, Maple
Creek, Melville, Estevan, Yorkton, Humboldt, Indian Head,
Moosomin, Qu'Appelle, Kamsack, Rosthern and Wolseley are local
centres, deriving their importance chiefly from their situation in the
midst of rich agricultural districts.
The executive Council of Saskatchewan consists of 7 members
and the Legislative Assembly of 62 members. The province is
represented in the Federal Parliament by 16 members of the
House of Commons and 6 senators.
Education, both primary and secondary, receives earnest atten-
tion from the Government. The schools are free and supported
by the Government and local taxation. Collegiate institutes and
high schools are found in every important centre. Normal schools
for the training of teachers are maintained at Regina and Saska-
toon. The university of Saskatchewan at Saskatoon is supported
and controlled by the province. In connexion with it is the agri-
cultural college, which is well equipped for its special purpose
and conducts very practical work among the farmers of the
province. Saskatchewan schools in 1918 numbered 3,941 and
maintained 6,062 teachers. The total enrolment in that year
was 147,232, and the entire cost of administration $9,110,925
(in 1906 it was $1,465,361).
The province is essentially agricultural. The soil, made up of the
detritus or debris of a great variety of rock materials and rich in
natural phosphates, is characterized by its ability to produce a high
average yield of wheat, oats, barley and potatoes for many years
in succession without the application of artificial fertilizers. From
experiments carried on at Indian Head the headquarters of the
experimental farm subsidized by the Dominion Government it has
been ascertained that the high average yields of wheat, oats, barley
and potatoes on that farm are not only maintained from year to
year, but are actually larger than at any of the other Dominion
experimental farms scattered throughout Canada.
Saskatchewan has probably the greatest possibilities of production
of all the provinces in the Dominion. Of the land area of 243,382
sq. m. a little over 25,000 were under crop in 1918, and it is estimated
that, apart from forest land requiring clearing, 112,000 sq. m. are
suitable for agriculture. I nits southern parts the returns equal those
of Manitoba, which have been regarded as exceptional. On the
average of 1915-7 the yield was 163,264,100 bus. of wheat at a total
value of $207,590,833. The limited area under cultivation yields a
grain crop exceeding 350,000,000 bus. in a single year. The following
are yields and values for the year 1920: wheat 113,387,300 bus.,
value $175,700,000; oats 141,590,000 bus., value $58,035,000; barley
10,501,000 bus., value $6,931,000; rye 2,535,000 bus., value $3,194,-
ooo; mixed grains 615,000 bus., value $769,000; flax-seed 5,705,000
bus., value $10,383,000; potatoes 6,861,000 bus., value $8,576,000;
turnips, etc., 3,145.000 bus., value $2,956,000; hay and clover
328,300 tons, value $3,283,000.
With the exception of wheat and oats, the field crops are mainly
grown for home consumption in stock-raising. The erection of silos
in connexion with well-appointed farm buildings indicates the im-
provement of methods and the growing prosperity of farmers. The
cattle industry of Saskatchewan has reached a very important place.
There are many large herds scattered throughout the province,
subsisting for a large portion of the year on native grasses and for
the remainder of the year the winter months on outdoor feeding.
So rapidly has the cattle industry advanced in the past few years that
it has been found necessary to establish large stock-yards at Prince
Albert_ and Moose Jaw. Dairying, naturally associated with the
cattle industry, is making rapid progress, and at important points in
the province are established up-to-date creameries. The output
of dairy and creamery butter for one year amounted to 19,368,668
Ibs., valued at $6,192,213, to which is to be added milk and cream to
the value of $7,450,000, or a total of $13,642,213. In 1007 there were
only four creameries in operation with 213 patrons, and in 1920 there
were 20 creameries with 7,500 patrons and in addition four cold-
storage plants. The raising of sheep has become general throughout
the province, particularly in the northern part, where the conditions
are most favourable.
The lumbering district of Saskatchewan lies N. of Prince Albert.
Trees consist mainly of spruce, larch, jack pine, white and black
poplar and white birch. Much of the timber is used for railway ties,
and the recent annual cut amounted in value to about $2,000,000
a year. In the northern section of the province the Dominion
Government set aside a number of large areas as forest reserves.
The forests of the north still abound in fur-bearing animals, the
principal being bear, otter, beaver, marten, wolf and mink. Prince
Albert and Battleford are local centres of the fur trade, the annual
value of which is about $1,450,000.
Manufacturing industries are not yet important in Saskatchewan.
There are a number of flour-mills throughout the province, and the
making of cement and bricks is coming more and more into prom-
inence. Coal-mining, however, promises to be the principal in-
dustry of the province. Mining has been carried on for several
years in the vicinity of Estevan. The lignite deposits of Saskatche-
wan, which underlie an area of 7,500 sq. m. and are estimated to
contain 200,000,000 tons of lignite coal, were in 1920 being experi-
mented with by processes of carbonization and briquetting. Gold,
silver, copper, cobalt, iron, mica, peat, pigments, ochres and natural
gas are among the mineral resources of the province. The value of
minerals raised in 1919 was $1,118,055. The fisheries of Saskatche-
wan are still in their infancy. The lakes and rivers of northern and
central Saskatchewan abound in fish sufficient to supply millions of
people. The value of the fisheries in 1919 was $475,797.
For more than 30 years up to 1921 the main line of the C.P.R.
had crossed the province of Saskatchewan from E. to W., about 100
m. N. of the border of the United States. One of its most important
branches is the " Soo " line from Moose Jaw to St. Paul, Minn.
Its lines to Edmonton and Lacombe, Alberta, have daily increasing
traffic and passenger service. The main lines of the Canadian
National railways also cross the province, with many branches tap-
ping its rich agricultural districts. Saskatchewan has now over 6,000
m. of railway. The province is so well served by the C.P.R. and the
Canadian National railways, with their numerous branches, that
few of the established settlements are more than 10 to 20 m. from a
means of transport. The Hudson Bay railway when completed will
afford a short haul to ocean shipping from the Saskatchewan grain-
fields. The building of roads and bridges within the province has
been taken up energetically by the Government, and large sums have
been expended. (W. L. G.*)
SAVAGE, MIKOT JUDSON (1841-1918), American divine and
author (see 24.239), died in Boston, Mass., May 22 1918.
SAVINGS MOVEMENT. The origin and development of what
became known in England as the " War Savings Movement "
provides the subject-matter of one of the most interesting chap-
ters in the economic history of the World War. In the United
States, to which reference is made in a subsequent section, the
Savings and Economy movement was no less remarkable.
UNITED KINGDOM
Institutions for the normal encouragement of thrift on the
part of the people of the United Kingdom were making steady
progress up to the date of the outbreak of the war in 1914.
From that date onwards the pace of their advance was mate-
rially accelerated. The amount due to depositors in the Post
Office Savings Bank increased 28% in the decade 1903-13, while
during the five years 1913-8 they increased by 42%. The
amount due to depositors in the Trustee Savings Banks increased
3-2% in the decade 1903-13, while during the years 1913-20
it increased by 12-5%. These figures give a general indication
of the growth of the savings of the people during the war period,
but they do not tell the whole story. In the atmosphere created
by the War Savings movement, and in the circumstances which
for a time materially improved the financial position of the wage-
earning classes, not only did existing savings institutions develop
rapidly, but a new national thrift machinery was brought into
being and its operations met with remarkable success.
Cost of the World War. Within six months of the outbreak of
hostilities in Aug. 1914, it became evident to those who were
more closely in touch with realities that the World War would
be a prolonged struggle, in which it would be necessary for the
combatant nations to marshal their entire resources of pro-
duction. Modern warfare was seen to demand not only that
there should be a high percentage of the population in the
fighting forces, but also large numbers of civilians producing
on a huge scale military equipment of the most varied character.
The enormous volume of goods and services which had to be
requisitioned is best expressed in terms of the national expendi-
ture. The largest amount spent by Great Britain in war in a
single year before 1914 was 71,000,000. The Revolutionary
and Napoleonic wars cost in the aggregate 831,000,000 spread
SAVINGS MOVEMENT
363
over 20 years, an average annual expenditure of 42,000,000;
the Crimean War cost 675,000,000 in three financial years, or
an average annual expenditure of 225,000,000; while the S.
African War of 1899-1902 cost 211,000,000 spread over four
years. In the face of the expenditure during the World War of
1914-9, these figures are insignificant. The money spent by the
Government of Great Britain during the five financial years
cannot be placed at less than from 8,000,000,000 to 9,000,-
000,000. At one period the average daily expenditure rose to
the enormous figure of nearly 7,000,000 sterling.
It was not, however, till the year 1915 was well advanced that
the full meaning of the cost of the World War in terms of goods
and services began to be appreciated, even by those in high
places. During the first few months of the war the inevitable
dislocation of industry caused by the calling-up of men of
military age and the interference with tlje normal markets led
to a considerable amount of unemployment, and steps were
taken by the Government and by the public for the relief of
distress. This period of unemployment lasted but a short time
and far less distress was caused than had been anticipated.
The increased demand for men for the fighting forces and the
rapid organization of special war work in many directions
quickly absorbed the unemployed. Women were drafted into
industry in ever-increasing numbers. In the meantime, the
normal production of goods was reduced and stocks diminished.
Prices rose rapidly owing to the excess of demand over supply
and wages were raised sympathetically. Gradually alarge amount
of overtime became general, and, in many instances, owing to
several members of the same family being in receipt of good
wages and on account of overtime, the incomes of working-class
families reached very substantial figures. By the summer of
1915 the purchasing power of the people of the country had been
very considerably increased.
With the increased demand for goods which followed this rise
of the purchasing power of the masses, prices mounted still
higher; and with the growth of credit, which was required to
cover the increased payments of wages, a dangerous situation
was created. By the middle of 1915 it was obvious that it was
of paramount importance that the personal expenditure of the
people of the country should be checked, and that, in fact, the
stopping of individual expenditure was quite as important as
the raising of money for the war. It was seen that while from
the financial point of view it was desirable that the expenditure
on the war should be covered as far as possible by monies raised
by taxation, and next by loans from money saved by the people
of the country, it was equally important that the mass of the
people should reduce their personal expenditure in order to
release the resources of the country in capital and labour for the
production of the essentials of war. The military advisers of the
nation were calling for still larger numbers of men for the fight-
ing forces. Recruiting became more and more urgent. The war
factories were crying out for tens of thousands of hands for the
production of the vast stores needed on all the fighting fronts.
At the same time, the demand of the people through their daily
expenditure, stimulated by high wages and big incomes, was
automatically retaining labour in the production of things which
were not only not necessary for their subsistence, but were often
mere luxuries. Again, the expenditure of individuals tended to
increase the purchase of imported goods, necessitating either
increased exports demanding labour for their production, or
adversely affecting the Exchanges and necessitating the export
of gold or the sale of foreign securities. The real difficulty of the
situation was seen to be the scarcity of human labour to produce
the necessaries of war rather than the finding of money to pay
for them. Thus the exigencies of the recruiting agencies and
national factories led directly to the " goods and services "
point of view and to an imperative demand for personal saving.
The dangers of the situation were emphasized by Mr. Lloyd
George in May 1915, and it soon became evident that drastic
steps would have to be taken to enforce economy throughout
all ranks of the community and particularly among the wage-
earners, whose aggregate purchasing power had reached dimen-
sions which made their personal expenditure the largest factor
in the situation.
Early Efforts for Saving. During the autumn of 1915, a
vigorous mission was undertaken by a voluntary body known
as the United Workers, who by the holding of lectures and
meetings throughout the country did much to explain the facts
to the people and prepared the ground for more concentrated
effort later. About the same date a Parliamentary War Savings
Committee was established, and through its efforts local war
thrift committees were set up in a number of the larger towns
of the country. All these efforts were, however, to a large extent
ineffective, owing to the absence of any form of investment
security specially adapted for persons of small means. The
machinery of the Post Office Savings Bank and the Trustee
Savings Banks, allowing for deposits at low interest, was inade-
quate to cope with the situation.
The history of the Post Office Savings Bank during the first
year of the war fairly accurately indicates the trend of events.
The outbreak of the war saw a sharp run on the Post Office
Savings Bank deposits, a run accentuated by the actual shortage
of coinage which persisted even up to the end of August. The
net withdrawals from the Post Office Savings Bank Department
from the declaration of war to the end of Aug. were 2,500,000
in excess of deposits. After Aug. 1914 confidence was quickly
restored and deposits began to come in freely. Before the end
of Sept. they had exceeded the withdrawals, and so completely
did the tide turn that the deposits for the three months ended
April 30 1915 exceeded the withdrawals by 4,400,000, or were
3,000,000 in excess of deposits in the corresponding quarter of
1914. For the five months from Jan. i 1915 to May 31 1915,
the balance due to depositors increased by over 6,500,000 as
compared with an increase of 1,700,000 during the correspond'
ing period of 1914.
Good as these results were in themselves, it became, however,
increasingly clear that the Post Office Savings Bank alone, with
the rate of interest on deposits at 2^%, was not sufficient to
stimulate saving in the country to the extent that was necessary.
Several times pressure was brought to bear on the Government
with a view to getting the interest on the savings bank deposits
increased, but this pressure was resisted. Other small attempts
were made to attract saving. During the issue of the 4^ % War
Loan in June 1915, scrip vouchers of 53. and IDS. and scrip cer-
tificates of i and 5 were issued by the Post Office. The scrip
vouchers, when they amounted to 5 or a multiple of 5, and the
scrip certificates could be exchanged at any money order post-
office during the first fortnight of Dec. 1915, the owner being
duly registered as a holder of a corresponding amount of War
Loan and being given a stock certificate. Interest was allowed
on the scrip vouchers according to the month of purchase
and provision was made for repurchase by the Post Office at
face value of any vouchers in excess of the 5 multiple. The
aggregate result was that, between Nov. 1915 and Dec. 1920,
scrip certificates amounting to 3,967,965 and scrip vouchers
amounting to 1,049,838 were exchanged for 4^% or 5% War
Loan or Exchequer bonds. The 5 scrip certificates were only
exchangeable for 45 % War Loan, but the scrip vouchers could
be held for subsequent loans. These were the chief official steps
taken to facilitate saving by the people up to the end of 1915.
In Nov. of that year the Government was pressed to increase
the maximum sum which depositors might pay into the Post
Office Savings Bank in any one year, but it was pointed out that
this would require fresh legislation, the existing limits having
been fixed by the Savings Bank Acts of 1891 and 1893.
Expression had been given to the need for action in a letter to
The Times in the summer of 1915 from "A Banker." 1 The
force of his contentions was widely recognized, and this letter
may be regarded as the germ from which the War Savings
movement was started. This was followed by an important
manifesto signed by some of the foremost men in the world of
business published in The Times in November. It was a straight-
1 The author was Mr. R. H. Brand, a partner in the London firm
of Lazards, and a well-known writer on finance. (H. CH.)
SAVINGS MOVEMENT
forward statement calling the nation to thrift and urging con-
centration on the production of essentials only, eschewing non-
essentials by universal personal economy.
Montagu Report. Finally, in Dec. 1915, the Chancellor of the
Exchequer (Mr. R. M'Kenna) set up a Committee under the
chairmanship of the financial secretary to the Treasury (Mr.
E. S. Montagu) to consider the question of getting contributions
to War Loans from the working-classes. The final report of this
Committee (Cd. 8179), dated Jan. 26 1916, marked the birth of
the War Savings movement as a national organization.
An interim report had been issued on Dec. 28 1915, recom-
mending the removal for the period of the war and six months
after of the restrictions which limited the amount deposited by
any one depositor in the Post Office and Trustee Savings Banks
to 50 in any one year and 200 in all. The Committee also
recommended that Exchequer bonds of the denominations of
5, 20 and 50 should be placed on sale at all post-offices, pro-
vision being made for the deposit of the bonds at the post-office
and the issue of books in which the deposit of the bonds would
be recorded. The Chancellor of the Exchequer recommended
the adoption of these proposals and they were concurred in by
a Treasury minute of the same date. Two series of bonds, with
interest at the rate of 5% per annum and 6% per annum respec-
tively, were on sale in 1916 and brought into the Exchequer
nearly 44,000,000.
1 The final report of the Committee pointed out that there were
two separate objects to be attained by the successful solution
of the problem of the small investor: (a) the reduction of gen-
eral consumption, which would tend to check the rise in prices;
and (b) the raising of a certain amount of money for the prose-
cution of the war. The needs of the small investor were described
as being: (a) a simple method of investing savings; (b) a guar-
antee that the capital value of the investment will not depre-
ciate; (c) the ability to withdraw savings at short notice; and
(d) the knowledge that as high a rate of interest is paid on the
money of the small investor as on that of the large. It was
further pointed out that both propaganda and organization
were essential to success in making any appeal for savings.
The report recommended the appointment of two committees
one to carry on propaganda and to establish on a large scale
voluntary War Savings associations for cooperative saving, and
the second to devise and approve various schemes of saving and
to safeguard their financial soundness. In order to meet the
needs of the small investor the Committee recommended the
issue of a new form of Government security in the shape of
" War Savings Deposits " of 155. 6d. each, each deposit entitling
the subscriber to receive i on the fifth anniversary of the date
of the deposit.
National War Savings Committees. The Chancellor of the
Exchequer adopted the recommendations, and on Feb. 8 1916
the two committees were appointed. (These two committees
were amalgamated in the following April under the title of the
" National War Savings Committee," separate committees
being established for Scotland and Ireland.)
War Savings Certificates. On Feb. 19 1916, the projected
savings deposits were issued under the revised title of " War
Savings Certificates." The War Savings certificate must rank
as one of the most ingenious and successful financial instruments
ever conceived. For the first time in history a security was
offered to the people which by its nature tended to concentrate
the mind on the growth of capital value through the accumula-
tion of interest, rather than on the annual return in the form of
dividends. This feature of the " small investor's Treasury bill,"
as it has been called, has had, undoubtedly, a far-reaching
psychological effect. It may be said to have projected the mind
of the investor towards an ultimate personal use of the accumu-
lated proceeds of his investment after a considerable term of
years, and to have reduced the motive of investment merely as
a means of providing an annual sum to be spent on its arrival.
To the intrinsic merits of the certificate the success of the War
Savings movement is, to a great extent, attributable. The cer-
tificates were purchasable for 153. 6d. and could be cashed at
any time. At the end of 12 months a certificate could be cashed
for 155. 9d. After this period its cash value increased by a penny
a month, and at the end of five years it could be cashed for i;
that is to say, an additional 3d. was added to the value at the
end of the fifth year beyond the increase of a penny a month.
Subsequently, by Section 4 of the War Loans Act, 1919, the life of
the certificates issued, or to be issued, was automatically increased
to ten years, the value of the certificates rising after the end of
the fifth year by a penny a month until the end of the tenth year,
when a further is. would be added, making the final encashment
value 265. By the Finance Act, 1918, Section 41, and the Wa'r
Loans Act, 1919, Section 4, it was provided that the encashment
of certificates held by any individual owner could be postponed
beyond the period of maturity until the maturity of the last-
dated certificate in his possession, such certificates held over
increasing in value at a flat rate of a penny a month. Section 42
of the Finance Act, 1916, provided that the accumulated interest
payable in respect to any War Savings certificate issued by the
Treasury through the Post Office, under which the purchaser
by virtue of an immediate payment of 155. 6d. became entitled
after five years to receive the sum of i, should not be liable to
income tax so long as the amount of the certificates held by the
purchaser did not exceed the amount for the time being author-
ized to be held under regulations made by the Treasury. To
avoid the serious consequences which would result to the revenue
if income taxpayers generally were to use this form of investment,
it was originally arranged to confine the issue of War Savings
certificates to persons whose total income from all sources did
not exceed 300 a year. Experience, however, showed this limi-
tation to be undesirable. The necessity for a declaration as to
income at the time of the purchase of the certificates caused
administrative difficulties, and by reason of the income limit
many wage-earners who were temporarily drawing large wages
were unable to buy certificates. In view of these facts, the
Committee recommended the Treasury to abolish the income
limit, and the restriction was removed on June 10 1916. All
formalities in regard to deduction and recovery, proof of exemp-
tion or title to abatement from income tax were dispensed with,
and a limit of 500 certificates was put on the number allowed
to be held by any one person.
By the Finance Act of 1918, it was provided that if a person's
holding was brought by inheritance above 500 i certificates or
their equivalent, the excess might be held without liability to
any penalty or to income tax, so long as the person did not pur-
chase for his own benefit, or have purchased for him, any fur-
ther certificates while holding more than 500 certificates in all.
The War Savings certificate was ingenious not only from the
financial standpoint, but also in its form. The certificates were
issued in books, upon the cover of which the name of the holder and
his address had to be inscribed. The book was of no value except to
the person whose name was written upon it. The certificate con-
tained a small panel on its right-hand side, to which the receipt for
the purchase price had to be affixed, and the certificate was not
valia until this had been done. The receipt was printed on green
paper, and each receipt had a number which became the official
number of the certificate. The certificate was registered at the
money order department of the Post Office as belonging to the par-
ticular individual in whose name it was issued. It was necessary to
have the signature of the owner to prevent the certificate being
cashed by any unauthorized person. In order to provide for this,
the receipt which was affixed to the certificate was only the left-
hand portion of an original form of receipt, while the right-hand
portion, having upon it the corresponding number, had to be filled
in by the applicant and handed back to the postmaster. This por-
tion contained the full name and address and signature of the pur-
chaser and formed the basis of the registration system. When the
certificate was cashed at a later date, the number on the certificate
and the signature of the applicant on the request for repayment
could be compared with that portion of the receipt which had been
filed. Certificates might be bought by one person on behalf, and in
the name of, another person, the signature of the beneficial owner
being, if possible, supplied. A cut-out signature from a letter or
other document was accepted, but if a signature was not available,
it was obtained later by the Post Office. In the case of children under
seven years of age the signature was not required. After the receipt
had been stuck in the certificate book and a certificate had thus
been completed, it could only be transferred to another person in
exceptional circumstances and by permission of the Postmaster-
SAVINGS MOVEMENT
365
General. A fee of is. was charged in respect to each transferee.
Certificates were not negotiable, and their value would not be paid
to anyone but the holder whose signature was registered by the
Post Office. Holders over 16 years of age could make nominations
of their holdings in case of death. Every nomination had to be on a
proper form, which could be obtained from the Controller of the
money order department, and required to be received by the Con-
troller during the lifetime of the holder. In addition to the receipts
for the payment for single certificates costing 153. 6d., each of
which was stuck into a certificate book, single documents repre-
senting 12 or 25 certificates could be obtained from any money
order post-office and most banks. These consisted of two parts
divided by a perforation, the left-hand portion for registration, and
the right-hand portion to be retained by the purchaser. Books
were not supplied for these certificates. Documents were also
issued for any number of certificates from 26 to 500, both inclusive.
These were not kept at local post-offices, but were issued by the
Controller and Accountant General of the Post Office, to whom
application with remittance was made direct or through a bank.
They were applied for on a special form and issued a day or two
after receipt of the application. If a certificate, Or book of certifi-
cates, were lost, a new certificate, or book of certificates, would
be issued at a charge of is., provided the serial numbers could be
furnished to the Controller of the money order department.
On Dec. 4 1920, the old print of War Savings certificates was
withdrawn from sale at post-offices and banks, and on Dec. 6 " Na-
tional Savings " certificates were substituted. The change was
legalized by the Savings Bank Act of 1920, and was one of title only.
The conditions attaching to the old certificates still applied.
The savings certificate formed the basis of the operations of
the War Savings associations, which were established under the
auspices of local War Savings committees and affiliated to the
National War Savings Committee.
War Savings Associations. Not less important than the War
Savings certificate was the system of association, or club, pro-
posed by the Montagu Committee. In their final report the Com-
mittee pointed out that the would-be investor should not, if it
could be avoided, be left to himself to seek for an investment.
Facilities for investment should be provided by agencies in close
touch with him; and these agencies, having succeeded in inducing
him to save, should endeavour by careful propaganda and by
thorough organization to persuade him to make the continuance
of saving a matter of habit. The Committee emphasized the
advantages of placing an agency between the small investor
and the State which could collect and manage the savings of the
small investor. It was pointed out that the Government could
enter into no contractual relationship with the individual
investor, unless it assumed complete control over the schemes
adopted and also supervised in detail the actual administration
of the societies themselves. They added that the organization
of such control and supervision would require the creation of a
new Government department, which, apart from the question
of the expense involved, it would have been impossible to staff
during the war. Also, the rigidity of procedure which a State
system would inevitably involve would be fatal to the free local
initiative on which the success of such a scheme would depend.
At the same time, if societies, many of which have at their com-
mand no expert financial knowledge, were left free to develop
schemes without supervision *>r control, some of them would not
unlikely become insolvent. The problem was to obtain the best
safeguards which could be secured for the financial soundness
and efficient administration of the different schemes, while leav-
ing the responsibility for both administration and results with
the societies themselves, and they recommended that the com-
mittee which should be appointed by the Government, and
to which the various investment societies might be affiliated,
should be regarded, not as representing the Government, but as
an independent body of experts acting on behalf of the societies
themselves. Its duties would be primarily of an advisory char-
acter, but it could properly refuse to recognize any society the
constitution and rules of which it did not approve and withdraw
recognition from any society which might fail to satisfy the
committee that it was being properly administered. The com-
mittee could, if it saw fit, organize a system of inspection and
audit of the operations and accounts of the affiliated societies
and by these means secure a very substantial measure of control
over their operations.
Local War Savings Committees. In accordance with these
views, the War Savings Committee embarked upon a widespread
scheme for the promotion of savings associations, delegating the
propagandist work in a large measure to local committees which
were set up throughout the country. Before the war was over
there were in existence in England and Wales 60 county com-
mittees and 1,840 local war savings committees acting as propa-
gandist agencies under the general control of the central body,
while the War Savings associations set up under their auspices
numbered over 40,000 with a membership of approximately
4,000,000 people. (At the end of 1920 there were still 1,701 local
committees and over 28,000 associations.) A savings associa-
tion could be formed by any number of people who were willing
to work together to secure the attainment of its objects. In
practice it was found that an association could readily be formed
by those who were already corporate in some way ; for example,
by those who were members of a trade union, a friendly society
or a cooperative society, by fellow workers in a shop or factory,
or by the members of a church, chapel or social club. Each asso-
ciation had its governing committee, secretary and treasurer.
Scotland and Ireland, with their separate organizations, devel-
oped the movement on similar lines. The total number of vol-
untary workers in the movement was estimated to be between
200,000 and 250,000.
Official Agents. By the end of 1917, when nearly 30,000 War
Savings associations had been affiliated, there had been estab-
lished on an average one association for every 1,200 inhabitants
in England and Wales. Most of the social and industrial groups
were covered, but it was realized that a large section of the wage-
earning population and, possibly, the most highly paid, did not
readily join War Savings associations. Many employees objected
to joining associations to whose books their employers might
have access. They were of opinion that knowledge of the fact
that they were saving money might tend to diminish the force
of any claim they might make for enhanced wages on account
of the increased cost of living. With a view to reaching the pro-
spective small investors of this class, it was decided to add to the
number of places where War Savings certificates and National
War Bonds could be bought. Certificates were on sale at all
money order offices and at most banks, but the majority of the
class of persons under consideration had no banking account
and had no reason to enter a bank. The Post Office staff was
obviously unable to make any special effort to push the sale of
Government securities, having regard to the heavy mortgage
on their time caused by the manifold additional duties which
the exigencies of the war period cast upon them. It was there-
fore arranged to license certain tradesmen and firms as official
agents for the sale of certificates and bonds. These agents pur-
chased the securities outright with their own funds and received
the certificates and bonds dated, but unregistered. They then
resold the certificates and bonds to their customers and others.
By the end of the war, these securities were on sale at more than
14,000 shops and other establishments throughout the country.
Very large numbers of certificates in the aggregate were sold in
this way. The success of the system is noteworthy in that it
involved the sacrifice by the official agents of the interest upon
the capital used for the purchase of stocks of certificates between
the dates of purchase and sale.
Savings Schemes. The National Committee, following the
guidance of the Montagu Committee, had also set itself the
task of preparing various model schemes of cooperative saving
to meet the requirements of the people. The following schemes
were evolved at various times:
Scheme I. Money subscribed through a savings association was
invested in Post Office Exchequer bonds. For each 5 Exchequer
Bond a subscriber paid 2s. a week for 50 weeks, or los. a month for
10 months. All sums subscribed were remitted to the Treasury
each week, the Treasury paying interest on the amounts received
at the rate of 5 % per annum. The bonds and cash payments due
to members were distributed half-yearly, e.g. in the case of sub-
| scriptions beginning May 1916 bonds and cash were distributed
June I 1917, weekly subscribers receiving a cash payment of 2s.,
and monthly subscribers is. gd. The cash distributed was free of
income tax, but had to be included in the income-tax return of mem-
3 66
SAVINGS MOVEMENT
bers. It could be paid at the Post Office or could be credited to an
account in a savings bank. This scheme was not adopted on a wide
scale and was abandoned at a later date. Schemes involving sub-
scriptions for certificates were found in practice to be more popular
and more easily worked.
Scheme zA. Monies subscribed through an association are
invested in War Savings certificates. Subscriptions of 6d. or any
number of sixpences are accepted. War Savings certificates are
purchased from the Post Office with the cash received by the secre-
tary from the members, and they are dated at the time of purchase,
but they are not registered. Each member when he pays his first
subscription is given a book. His subscriptions are entered in the
book as and when they are paid. When the subscription of any
member amounts to 155. 6d., he is given a certificate and the regis-
tration portion of the certificate is then filled in and lodged at the
Post Office. The method of distributing certificates of different
dates and consequently of different encashment values is settled
by the committee of each association. Members can withdraw
before reaching the full 153. 6d. and the amount deposited is repaid,
but without interest. The advantage of the scheme lies in this, that
if 31 people individually save 6d. a week for 31 weeks, they will
each have a certificate at the end of 31 weeks, but if they join an
association to which they pay 6d. a week, the association is able to
buy one certificate each week, and at the end of 31 weeks it will
have 31 certificates. The first of these certificates is dated 30 weeks
earlier than a certificate bought by any member acting alone. On
the average, they will be dated 15 weeks earlier and consequently
will mature 15 weeks earlier. The books are provided free of cost
by the National Committee. The book-keeping is necessarily some-
what detailed, but it is essential for the protection of members.
This scheme was probably the most widely adopted.
Scheme zB is similar to Scheme 2A, but the certificates are
not distributed until one year after the subscriptions of any mem-
ber amount to 153. 6d. The scheme was not widely adopted, people
preferring to get their certificates immediately they had made up
their 153. 6d.
Scheme j is in essence a savings bank all the money received
being invested in War Savings certificates. The minimum sub-
scription is one penny. Any number of pennies are accepted. Sub-
scriptions are withdrawable at 14 days' notice, or without notice in
urgent cases. Each member has a book in which subscriptions are
entered. On the completion of the payment of 153. 6d. the member
is registered as being entitled to the payment of l at the end of
five years. The certificates are not distributed but are held by the
association until they mature. A few associations in schools adopted
this scheme, but after a time the majority ended by distributing the
certificates to their members and adopting Scheme 2A.
Scheme 4 was a scheme for investment by instalments in Ex-
chequer bonds and War Savings certificates, the Treasury pay-
ing interest on the amounts received at 5% per annum. During
the war no part of the amounts paid into the Treasury, were with-
drawable in cash. When an Exchequer bond or certificate was
fully paid for the Treasury issued the security to the association for
delivery to the member entitled to it, the cost of the securities
being charged to the amount standing to the credit of the assocja-
tjon with the Treasury. Cash was to be returned to the associa-
tion three months after the end of the war. This scheme was not
found satisfactory and was little adopted.
Scheme 5 is a scheme similar in principle to Scheme aA, but sub-
scriptions are paid by buying from the association sixpenny coupons.
The coupons are of a special " Swastika " design and can only be
used for subscribing to associations by whom they are issued. The
association is supplied on credit with coupons issued by the Cen-
tral Committee and these have to be accounted for. The associa-
tion overprints its coupons with its own serial number. Members
get a coupon for_each 6d. and place the coupon on a card. When
the card is full it is exchanged for one of the certificates already pur-
chased by the combined subscriptions of the members. As full
cards of coupons come in they are sent to the Central Office in
reduction of the association's liability for those supplied on credit.
(At a later date the coupons were issued to the associations in the
standing imprest system.) This scheme involved little or no ordi-
nary book-keeping. A register of the issue of certificates was kept.
The only clerical work involved of necessity was the keeping of a
careful stock of the coupons. The scheme was adopted on a large
scale and by some of the largest associations. As a general rule,
local committees handled the distribution of the coupons in their
districts. This threw a heavy burden on the local secretaries. Con-
siderable difficulty was experienced in many instances in clearing
coupon stock accounts, and the distribution of coupons on an enor-
mous scale threw a large amount of work on the head office. The
scheme is gradually being replaced by a more simple system of
cards and sayings stamps procurable from any post-office.
Scheme 6 is a. special scheme under which employers purchase
certificates in advance for employees with their own funds. The
certificates are purchased in blank, that is to say, unregistered, and
sold to" the employees by any form of instalment system pre-
ferred. The employer in effect makes a free grant to his employees
of the interest accruing on the money between the date of purchase
and the date of sale.
Scheme 7 is a development of an earlier system under which the
Post Office issued cards upon which 31 ordinary sixpenny postage
stamps could be affixed by anyone. A card when filled with stamps
was exchangeable at any money order office for a War Savings
certificate. There was no advantage from cooperation. It was
merely a simple device to enable people to save the money for a
certificate by instalments of 6d. each.
When the Armistice was signed the National Committee gave
careful consideration to devise some alternative scheme to avoid
the heavy clerical labour entailed in the working of Schemes 2A,
28, 3 and 5. This labour had been obtainable during the war on a
voluntary basis and it is possible that the very labour itself indirectly
assisted the movement in its early days in that it gave the officials
of associations the knowledge that they were doing something
definite for the benefit of the country in wartime. In 1918, the Post
Office agreed to the issue of a distinctive adhesive war savings stamp
with the Britannia head design. This stamp was placed on sale at
all post-offices. Special savings cards containing 31 spaces were
issued to savings associations. Treasurers and secretaries of asso-
ciations provided themselves with stocks of the stamps, which they
were authorized to procure as credit stocks, and they issued these to
their members for cash. With the cash they purchased more stamps.
The cards when filled were exchangeable for certificates at any money
order office, and savings stamps purchased at any post-office or
through any agency could be used. The scheme possessed consider-
able elasticity, as it enabled members of one association on trans-
ferring their residence to join another association and complete
their subscriptions, or they could fill their cards with stamps pur-
chased anywhere and exchange them for certificates anywhere.
The disadvantage lay in the absence of the benefit of the early dating
of certificates which was given by the other schemes an advantage
which, it was found in practice, was so generally appreciated that the
new scheme, in spite of the saving of labour to the officials of asso-
ciations, was not widely adopted. After considerable thought the
scheme was revised and early in 1921 a system was introduced
which, while maintaining the simplicity of Scheme 7, also gave the
benefit of the early dating of certificates. The predating of certifi-
cates is secured by the use of date labels. The date labels (printed
in pairs) are supplied by the National Savings Committee to the
association officials. Whenever the official purchases Britannia
head savings stamps, he can present at the post-office one pair of
these date labels for every 31 sixpenny stamps purchased. The
post-office official stamps the labels with a date stamp of that day.
When a member of the association presents a card filled up with
savings stamps all of which have been purchased from the associa-
tion, the secretary affixes to the certificate which is issued in exchange
for the card one of the officially dated date labels one date label is
affixed to the signature portion of the certificate and its fellow or
counterpart is fixed on the counterpart of the certificate in the cer-
tificate book. This scheme therefore preserves the full benefit of
early dating due to cooperative purchase and yet reduces the clerical
work of the association official to the smallest compass. The only
book which it is thought advisable for the official to keep is a con-
trol receipt book for acknowledging receipt of members' completed
cards given in exchange for certificates, this serving also as a register
of certificates, in case the member loses his certificate book.
The value of savings stamps sold to Nov. 30 1920 was 1,739,000,
of which approximately 1,464,000 had been exchanged for savings
certificates.
Municipal Savings Banks. The Municipal Savings Bank
(War Loan Investment) Act, 1916, authorized the establishment,
subject to certain restrictions, of municipal savings banks in
municipal boroughs with populations exceeding 250,000. The
only municipality to adopt this Act was Birmingham, where a
bank was started at the end of Sept. 1916. The " Birmingham
Corporation Act, 1919 " extended the powers of the Corporation
and authorized it to establish a savings and housing bank.
Navy, Army and Air Services. Although military savings
banks and facilities for saving in the army had existed since 1859,
with the recruiting of large numbers of civilians for the new
armies it was found that the normal methods of saving were
insufficient to attract very large sums of money.
On the issue of the 4^% War Loan in June 1915 it was felt
right that due facilities should be afforded the men in the army
for making their investments through the Post Office issue of
the Loan. Arrangements were accordingly made for any soldier
whose pay account was sufficiently in credit to invest by instal-
ments of 55., ios., i or 5, the amount being debited to his
account and transferred to the Post Office through the regi-
mental paymaster. Similar arrangements were made for the
navy and the scheme was found to work so smoothly that it
was eventually extended to Exchequer bonds and War Savings
certificates as they became available, and ultimately for deposits
SAVINGS MOVEMENT
367
in the Post Office Savings Bank. The Post Office undertook the
safe custody of the War Savings certificates and bonds for the
investors. Later in 1916, by arrangement with the War Office,
a special officer was entrusted with the work of establishing war
savings associations in the army, with very satisfactory results.
In 1917, 186,682 was saved through the army associations; in
1918, 3,162,975; in 1919, 1,804,380; and in 1920, over i, ooo,-
ooo, making a grand total of 6,000,000. In June 1920 the
Army Council, finding the savings associations had such a
beneficial effect, made an order that all units both at home and
abroad should form savings associations, and arrangements were
made for command paymasters stationed abroad to hold stocks
of certificates. The Air Ministry at the same time issued an
order on similar lines. The War Savings movement was also
carried into the navy and merchant service, suitable arrange-
ments being made for remittance of monies through the pay-
masters and pay offices.
Schools. It would be impossible to give even the briefest
summary of the War Savings movement without reference to
the work done by the savings associations in the schools of the
country. Thanks to the influence of the Board of Education,
and, particularly, to the efforts of a number of inspectors of the
Board who were lent for service with the National Committee
and who acted as the secretaries of the county committees and
as local representatives of the Committee in the provinces, but,
above all, thanks to the whole-hearted efforts of thousands of
schoolmasters and mistresses throughout the country, there was
scarcely an elementary school in the United Kingdom without
an efficient and vigorous association. Before the war a very large
number of schools had their penny banks. No attempt was
made to supplant these. With the cooperation of the savings
banks in connexion with which these penny banks were operated,
arrangements were made to continue the penny bank system
with the savings association methods, and often the two systems
were carried on in the same school side by side. The old penny
bank system as a " short term " saving machinery had a value
which it would have been undesirable to destroy, while it
naturally led by stages to the " long term " saving by means
of the certificate. Most of the schools continued their banks
and associations after the Armistice, and in no section of the
community is the movement more alive and progressive to-day.
It is impossible to say what proportion of the savings of the
country stand in the names of the children, but it must amount
to many millions sterling and this alone must have an incalcu-
lable effect on the future.
Propaganda. The human machine created by the National
Savings Committee was stimulated, from time to time, by every
kind of publicity method. Thousands of public meetings were
held and lectures given; educational pamphlets and leaflets
dealing with the elements of economics were distributed; special
campaigns with such stimulating machinery as " tank banks "
were inaugurated; a system of commissioners and organizers
in touch with headquarters kept closely in touch with the local
committees; special organizations dealt with the army and the
navy, munition works and other factories. The local authorities
rendered invaluable assistance to the local committees by the
loan of staff, the provision of office accommodation and in many
other ways. The London and provincial press were consistently
sympathetic to the movement and gave freely of their space to
record its activities and assist its campaigns. During the war
the organization was, from time to time, utilized by the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer to assist in the public issues of War
Bonds and War Loans. During these periods invaluable help
was given by leading press experts, who, in cooperation with the
National War Savings Committee, undertook the control of
special publicity campaigns (see WAR LOAN PUBLICITY CAM-
PAIGNS). These campaigns for the special issues greatly stim-
ulated the small investor. On each occasion of the issue of a
great public loan numbers of new associations came into being
and the weekly purchases of certificates were very much increased.
One of the most significant results of the adoption of these
methods of publicity and propaganda was the great extension
of the numbers of individual citizens holding Government secu-
rities. Whereas before the war it was estimated that there were
some 345,000 holders of Government securities, it is calculated
that no less than 1 7 million people have to-day a holding in some
form of State loan; while the aggregate amount subscribed
by small investors through the Post Office for War Loans and
other Government securities, including savings certificates,
was nearly 500,000,000 at the end of 1920.
Withdrawals. The Montagu Committee laid emphasis on the
fact that the small investor wishes to be able to withdraw his
savings at short notice without loss of capital. " The financial
emergencies of life come upon the working man with startling
suddenness. He may be thrown out of employment, or an illness
or death in the family may result in an immediate call. He has
not the facilities for credit which the wealthy or even the middle
classes enjoy and money only obtainable at six or twelve months'
notice is of little use to him." There is no doubt that the losses
sustained by the working-classes from their investments through
the Post Office in Consols and other similar long-dated securities
through the automatic fall in capital value due to the rise in the
general rate of interest has had in the past an adverse influence
on thrift. Hence the arrangements that War Savings certificates
should be repayable at a definite value which is never less than
the amount invested, and within two or three days of demand,
that is to say, allowing time for identification of the registered
holder to avoid payment to a wrongful possessor.
An analysis of the withdrawals of savings certificates is inter-
esting. The total number of certificates sold in the United King-
dom from Feb. 16 1916 to the end of Dec. 1920, was 440,076,000 in
i units, of a total value at 153. 6d. each of 343,259,000. The total
repayments due to withdrawals, including interest, amounted to
61,404,089, of which 3,521,948 8s. yd. represented interest. The
percentage of the value of certificates repaid (excluding interest)
to total value of certificates issued was 18-01 per cent. This per-
centage may be considered satisfactory when one considers the calls
upon the small investor and the fact that the current rate of inter-
est on the shares of well-established commercial and industrial
concerns since the Armistice has been very attractive. Much money
has been withdrawn for housing, as is evidenced by the case of
Higham Ferrers in Northants, a town of 2,500 people, where no less
than 50 men have bought their houses through investments in
savings certificates;
Post- Armistice Period. In 1917 a committee was appointed
by the National Committee to consider what facilities for saving
should be provided for the small investor after the war. The
committee in their report stated that the habit of saving had,
as a result of the War Savings movement, been formed by many
people of all classes who had not previously acquired it, and that
this habit ought not to be allowed to lapse and that the State
should continue to encourage saving after the war by continuing
to offer special facilities to the small investor. They saw no
reason to suppose that the State would at any time be unable to
use profitably the money of the small investor. They pointed
out that the ordinary borrowing capacity of the State would be
severely taxed by the necessity for renewing and, when possible,
consolidating the floating debt, and they considered it worthy
of serious consideration whether a plan might not be adopted
for applying the proceeds of post-war borrowing from the small
investor in order to secure funds for public utility services, such
as the housing of the working-classes and other projects of
social urgency, the funds for which it might be difficult, if not
impossible, to raise otherwise for a considerable period. The
committee strongly advised the preservation of the savings
machinery established during the war and recommended the
permanent continuance, subject to modifications, of the War
Savings certificate. The continuance of the savings organiza-
tion was also recommended by the " Committee on Financial
Facilities " appointed in 1917. In their report, dated Nov. 21
1918, they said:
" We are impressed by the enormous potential increase In the
number of the small investors. The continuance on the part of the
people of this country of the habit of investing their savings consti-
tutes a most important factor in the provision of the capital Acces-
sary for the rapid reconversion of trade and industry. It is impos-
sible to over-estimate the value of the work done by the war savings
associations throughout the country, in encouraging habits of thrift
368
SAVINGS MOVEMENT
BRITISH SAVINGS ASSOCIATIONS AFFILIATED AT DEC. 31 1919
County
Population
Business
Firms
Churches
Schools
Friendly
Societies
Clubs and
Institutes
Miscel-
laneous
Totals
England:
Beds .
194,588
73
27
92
3
6
59
260
Berks .
271,009
76
21
116
4
130
347
Bucks.
2i9,55i
50
16
68
2
124
260
Cambs
198,074
22
21
97
i
2
91
234
Ches. .
954,779
248
82
364
8
38
179
919
Corn. .
328,098
31
16
243
3
10
in
414
Cumb.
265,746
33
27
194
7
23
91
375
Derby.
683,423
182
37
345
6
23
106
699
Devon
699,703 ,
127
26
250
8
40
253
704
Dorset
223,266 '
21
23
85
14
109
252
Dur. .
1,369,860
324
74
236
2
75
174
885
Ess.
1,350,881
I 7 8
52
265
37
255
787
Glos. .
736,097
243
70
126
6
26
219
690
Hants.
950,579
274
72
404
19
52
225
1,046
Hereford .
114,269
3
n
89
5
7
57
172
Herts. . .
311,284
56
22
52
3
21
116
270
Hunts.
55-577
12
15
37
6
46
116
Kent .
1,045,591
223
77
293
ii
57
303
964
Lanes.
4,767,832
1,147
330
1,167
30
176
343
3,193
Leics. .
476,553
335
29
218
i
17
100
700
Lines. .
563,960
152
37
250
9
36
217
701
Lond. .
4,521,685
1,607
163
254
79
85
526
2,714
Middlesex .
1,126,465
190
60
240
9
40
IOO
639
Norf. .
499,116
58
18
79
3
8
225
39'
Northants .
348,515
166
18
163
10
18
106
481
Northumb.
696,893
198
41
IOI
15
36
164
555
Notts .
604,098
184
3
334
3
28
108
687
Oxon .
199,269
24
15
39
i
7
103
189
Rutl. .
20,346
16
2
23
41
Salop .
246,307
46
20
116
5
7
122
316
Som. .
458,025
109
39
168
2
H
260
592
Staffs .
1.348,259
508
63
478
9
27
154
1,239
Suff. .
394,060
85
18
209
3
19
236
570
Sur. .
845,578
156
55
233
n
47
2OO
702
Sus.
663,378
68
63
134
18
34
226
543
Warwick .
1,040,409
3ii
55
264
8
40
166
844
Westm.
63,575
12
8
43
3
5
58
129
Wilts .
286,822
82
19
64
13
153
S3 2
Worcs.
526,087
138
23
265
5
19
97
547
Yorks, E. R. .
432,759
112
3
85
10
22
87
346
Yorks, N. R. .
419,546
42
13
103
7
130
295
Yorks, W. R. .
3-045-377
I,l6o
294
1-235
52
166
313
3,220
Wales:
Anglesey
50,928
6
10
22
4
19
61
Brecknock .
59,287
4
ii
32
ii
58
Cardigan .
59,879
3
H
IOI
i
17
136
Carmarthen
160,406
21
28
158
2
2
24
235
Carnarvon.
125,043
12
7
19
7
45
90
Denbigh
144,783
14
35
55
I
2
53
160
Flint .
92,705
4
9
18
2
2
16
51
Glamorgan
1,120,910
285
146
386
7
42
IOI
967
Merioneth .
45,565
I
34
i
19
55
Monmouth
395,719
III
41
261
3
4
58
478
Montgomery
53,H6
9
3
37
i
i
23
74
Pembroke .
89,960
4
10
99
2
H
129
Radnor
22,590
4
30
I
I
21
57
Overseas
. .
. .
. ,
. .
. .
20
20
Army A ssocia-
tions
936
936
Totals .
9,540
2,452
10,866
392
1,379
8,242
32,967
In addition the undermentioned Savings Associations were affiliated under special schemes:
Employers 1,721
School Post Office 587
Government Offices . . 121
SALES AND REPAYMENTS OF NATIONAL WAR SAVINGS CERTIFICATES (Feb. iQi6-Dec. 1020)
Period
Certificates
l units
Purchase Price
Repayments includ-
ing exchange for
War Loan, etc.
Interest paid
1916 Feb.-Dec.
1917 6 months ended June
Dec
1918 June
Dec
54,430,604
56,381,849
30,083,722
74,210,407
6^ ^Qd. d.72
42,183,718
43.695,933
23,314,884
57,513,066
en 8l5 7l6
287,448
1,294,750
1,840,983
2,372,099
492
10,972
36,524
85 216
e-3 171 87A
272 760
" Dec.
1920 June
Dec
32,741,850
25,045,649
25,374,933
19,410,378
17,096,541
14.733.338
1,202,495
I,3l6,38l
Totals Feb. igi6-Dec. 1920 ...
440,441,390
341,342,077
61,404.660
3,522,817
SAVINGS MOVEMENT
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE BRITISH SMALL INVESTOR, 1914-9
(Decreases are printed in italics)
369
Date
Post Office
and Trustee
Savings
Bank Depos-
its (Net
Receipts)
Post Office Issues
War
Savings
Certificates
Purchase
Price
Certificate
Repayments
including
Exchanges
for War
Loans, etc.
Net
Cash
Total
4l*and 5 %t
War Loans
5 and 6 %
Exchequer
Bonds
5 % National
War Bonds
4 % Victory
Bonds J
4 % Funding
Loan **
Total for five months 1914
1,152,000
L
1,152,000
Total for year 1915 .
6,4^6,000
39,961,000*
33,505,ooo
Total for year 1916 .
11,938,000
138,000
43,900,000
42,371,000
200,000
97,781,000
Total for year 1917 .
5,683,000
36,6o6,ooof
4,092,000
to,856,ooo
66,824,000
3,133,000
120,928,000
Total for year 1918 .
38.813,000
38,70o,ooo
108,349,000
6,28^,000
179,575,000
Total for year 1919 .
43,541,00011
13,700,0005
9,900,000!
7,400,000**
79,013,000
19,864,000
133,690,000
. Aug. 1914 to Dec. 1919 .
94,671,000
76,429,000
47,992,000
80,556,000
296,557,000
20,574,000
566,631,000
1[ The deposits included 55,109,506 on account of war gratuities to soldiers and sailors.
N.B. During the year ending Dec. 31 1920, 57, 787,499 certificates of a cash value of 44,785,311 were sold, and repayments,
including exchange for War Loans, etc. (excluding interest), amounted to 31,829,879.
and economy. Government securities furnish by far the best and
safest medium for the investment of small sums of money, and we
are glad to notice that steps are to be taken, by means of savings
associations, to continue the policy which had proved so successful
during the war."
Immediately after the Armistice steps were taken to con-
solidate the position of the organization and to render perma-
nent the machinery which had been set up during the previous
three years. The county committees were disbanded, their work
having been delegated to local committees which they had
formed in practically every local area in the country. Steps
were taken to devise a complete representative system through-
out the organization. Adopting the association, or savings club,
as the fundamental unit of the movement, steps were taken to
ensure representation of the associations on the local committees.
The local committees in their turn elected representatives on a
new body called " The National Savings Assembly," which was
to meet twice a year to discuss questions relative to the move-
ment and at one of these meetings to elect representatives on
the National Savings Committee, which, by the authority of the
Government, dropped the word " war " out of its title. At the
same time the personnel of the National Committee was con-
siderably strengthened. In 1921 it formed a powerful body
composed of representatives of Government departments and
corporations and interests connected with thrift, together with
representatives of the savings organizations in London and the
provinces elected ort a wide franchise, so that its continued
influence could not fail to be beneficial to the community.
Savings and Local Government Finance. In the summer of
1920 a step was taken which might well have far-reaching effects
on the relations between local and Imperial finance.
The Finance Act 1920, Section 59, provided that 50% of the
proceeds of the sales of savings certificates could be invested
through the National Debt commissioners in local loans stock
or bonds on the security of the local loans fund. Half the pro-
ceeds of the gross sales after Oct. i 1920, in the area of each local
authority, would be available, if required, for loans to meet
authorized expenditure in connexion with the assisted housing
scheme of that authority. These loans were to be made, irre-
spective of the ratable value of the local authority, by the
Public Works Loan commissioners, on the terms in force for
the time being for ordinary loans to local authorities from the
local loans fund for subsidized housing schemes. In the first
instance, such loans would be restricted to housing purposes,
but it was hoped that, when the existing difficulties with regard
to housing finance had been overcome, the scheme would be
given a more general application and that the system would
become a permanent feature of local finance, bringing to the aid
of local authorities a new source of capital which many of them
had long been seeking. The authorities derive the greater part of
the benefit under the scheme, since, although they receive only
half the proceeds of the .certificates sold, they are not responsible
for finding any of the money required to meet withdrawals.
A critic of the ordinary savings bank in the last century said:
" The savings bank is after all only a slot in the wall, with a
sure grasp, but no tongue to advise it. Having no fructifying
use for the money that comes to it from productive employment
it closes over it like a grave and effectually sterilizes it"; and
Sir E. Brabrook, Chief Registrar of Friendly Societies in 1897,
said he " could look upon ordinary savings banks merely as
infantile efforts in thrift." He regarded " a person who deposited
his money in a savings bank so that it should be kept safe for
him by someone else as very much less worthy of encouragement
than a person who used his savings in some way in cooperation
with other people for his own benefit or the benefit of others."
He " did not look upon the progress of the savings bank with
unalloyed satisfaction, but only as one step to self-help."
The system of linking up National Savings certificates with
local finance becomes, in effect, a national credit bank spread
over the whole country. The credits of the small investor, even
the half-pennies and pennies saved by the school-children, are
rendered, through the machinery of the savings certificates, the
Post Office, the National Debt commissioners, the Treasury,
the local loans fund and the local authorities, available for
investment in social and beneficial enterprise for the good of the
people themselves. Owing to the widespread area from which
the money is raised, short-term borrowing can be used for long-
term loans with the minimum of risk, while saving is stimulated
amongst the very class to whom in the past it has been most
difficult to teach economy and saving. The linking-up of
" saving " with the definite use of the money saved continues
effectually the teaching of the war and inculcates the lessons of
economy, and goes far to meet Sir E. Brabrook's criticism of the
savings bank. The system is certain to stimulate the interest
of the small investors in local finance generally. Not only will
this be a source of financial strength to the local authorities,
but educationally it will be a great advantage, and the active
cooperation of the local authorities and the savings committee
should do much to stimulate habits of thrift and saving.
OTHER COUNTRIES
The American savings movement is dealt with later. As regards
other countries in the war it may be noted that the British National
Committee had its organization in the East for the sale of War
Savings certificates, the China and Japan War Savings Association
having nine centres in China and three in Japan. The Japanese
Government itself during the war sent its representatives to inquire
into the methods of the National Savings Committee, and estab-
lished its own system of National Savings certificates with terms of
three, five and ten years.
In Canada, war savings and thrift stamps were issued by the
Canadian Government.
370
SAVINGS MOVEMENT
The Government of S. Africa after the Armistice placed " Union
Loan Certificates " on sale at every post-office where savings bank
or money order business is transacted. The S. African scheme closely
resembled the British savings scheme. Cards were issued with
spaces for 15 one-shilling stamps. The cards were issued at an initial
price of sixpence. When the card was completed, it could be ex-
changed for a 153. 6d. certificate which is worth l in five years.
The maximum purchasing limit is 387. los. od. for 500 certificates.
The S. African Government also adopted the scheme of associa-
tions in savings clubs on the British model.
STATISTICS. In the preceding tables statistics are given of the
results of the work done under the National Savings Committee.
(T. G. CH.)
UNITED STATES
Upon the declaration of war by the United States in April 1917
it became evident that the nation must practise strict economy
if the huge war-time expenditures were to be successfully
financed and material aid given to the Allies. Not merely in
money, but in consumption (which means money), the resulting
movement for economy among the American people was vigor-
ously taken up. As a first step toward conservation, President
Wilson on May 19 1917 outlined a food control programme and
appointed Herbert Hoover Food Administrator, and Congress
passed the law commonly known as the Lever Act, effective
Aug. 10 1917 " an Act to provide further for the national
security and defence, by encouraging the production and con-
servation of supply and controlling the distribution of food prod-
ucts and fuel." The administration of the Act was under the
direction of a U.S. Food Administrator and a U.S. Fuel Admin-
istrator. The Food Administration summed up its purpose in
the motto: " Food will win the war." The following specific
ends were sought: (i) to save food and eliminate waste; (2) to
distribute food equitably and cheaply; (3) to stimulate pro-
duction; (4) to prevent hoarding; (5) to save transportation;
(6) to provide for the needs of the U.S. army and navy; (7) to
secure the largest possible amount of food for the Allies.
The most vital early need both for America and for the Allies
was the conservation of sugar and wheat. The shipping shortage
was so acute that it was impossible to procure the large surplus of
raw sugar in Java, amounting to nearly 1,000,000 tons. Exports of
sugar from the United States for the year 1917 were more than 17
times the average for the three years preceding the war. In Aug.
1917 the cost of spot sugar reached $9.15 per cwt. seaboard basis,
and the demand was still unfilled. During this month an Interna-
tional Sugar Committee was appointed. Under the operation of
this committee the price of Cuban raw sugar declined to $6.90
by Sept. 14, which was the fixed maximum for the season's crop.
The prices to the consumer were maintained at from 8$ cents to 10
cents per lb., varying with the location. As the difference of one
cent per lb. added to the price of sugar meant an added burden on
American homes of $72,000,000, the importance of the sugar regula-
tions is evident. As the needs of the United States and of the Allies
became more acute, the Licence System governing dealers in food
supplies was put into effect and various regulations adopted which
governed the producer and consumer alike. In order to control the
sugar situation it was announced on May 2 1918 that on and after
May 15 sugar should not be sold for manufacturing purposes either
by refiners, wholesalers or retailers, except upon the presentation
and cancellation of certificates issued by a State Federal Food
Administrator, showing the quantity of sugar sold. Retailers were
restricted from selling sugar to consumers in quantities greater than
2 lb. for city residents and 5 lb. for those residing in the country,
except for home canning, in which cases the dealer was required to
secure certificates for the amount sold. By the operation of this
system and the voluntary restriction of household consumption, a
saving of between 400,000 and 600,000 tons was effected in 1918.
The most serious crisis faced by the Food Administration during
its operations was the wheat shortage of the season 1917-8. In the
United States the crop, following the exceedingly short harvest of
the previous year, was only sufficient to meet normal demands for
home consumption. France and England, which together normally
produce about one-half the wheat they consume, both suffered very
great crop losses, and their total production was considerably less
than one-third their normal consumption. In Jan. 1918 an official
communication was received from Great Britain stating that, unless
America could send the Allies at least 75,000,000 bus. of wheat over
and above what they had exported up to Jan. I, there was grave
fear that the war would be lost because of the lack of food. The
United States Food Administration replied to this advice: " We
will export every grain that the American people save from their
normal consumption. We believe pur people will not fail to meet the
emergency." All manufacturers in the united States using wheat
flour in the production of various foods were placed under licence,
and either strictly limited in their use of wheat to a definite percent-
age of their normal requirements or were denied the use of wheat
entirely. Wheatless days and other measures for wheat conserva-
tion were established. Mills were permitted to grind only a certain
percentage of the amount of wheat milled during a corresponding
period the previous year. Wholesale dealers were prohibited from
purchasing wheat flour in excess of 70% of the amount they had
purchased during a corresponding period of the previous year. In
sales to consumers the retailers were required to sell an equal quan-
tity of substitutes to the purchaser at the time wheat flour was sold.
The pledge-card campaign was started in Oct. 1917, and between
13,000,000 and 14,000,000 women registered in support of food con-
servation by substitution. Between Oct. I 1917 and Aug. I 1918
hotels, restaurants, dining cars and clubs of the country effected a
saving of more than 50,000,000 lb. of flour and wheat products.
Flour-mills were required to raise their percentage of extraction to
74% and to eliminate altogether the sale of patent flours. This re-
sulted in a saving of 13,504,300 bus. of wheat. Bakers were required
to use a certain percentage of substitute flour in all breads, and this
resulted in the saving of 16,830,000 bus. of wheat. These various
measures made it possible for the United States to send abroad
in 1918 approximately 140,000,000 bus. of wheat.
The importance of fats and oils in the diet of a people caused the
Food Administration to lay stress on the conservation of meat
products. Export of fats to neutrals was greatly restricted and the
amount of fats used in bakery products limited. In 1918 1,125,397
short tons of hog products were exported as against 839,000 in the
fiscal year ending June 30 1899, the largest in any previous year. In
March 1918 exports averaged 10,000,000 lb. a day. Normally
the United States exports yearly a little over 10% of its total pork
production. In 1918, under the pressure of war needs, nearly 20%
of a much larger production was exported. In 1918 773,000,000
lb. of beef were exported, or over three and a half times the exports
on the average of the three war years. These supplies were made
available by the conservation of meats formerly wasted, by volun-
teer rationing and by the adoption in many localities of meatless
days and meatless meals.
As the demand on transportation facilities became increasingly
heavy, it was vital to keep the routes by which food passed from the
producer to the consumer as active as possible. The tremendous
increase in the exportation of food and munitions, coupled with the
shortage of ocean tonnage, congested eastern terminals. To remedy
this condition, a regulation was promulgated providing an average
increase in the minimum car-loads of about 50% over those of the
published tariffs of the carriers. Thus the number of cars required
for the distribution of the commodities on the list of non-perishable
groceries was reduced fully 25%. Much material formerly wasted
was salvaged by the Waste Reclamation Service, organized originally
under the War Industries Board and later transferred to the De-
partment of Commerce. One million five hundred thousand tons of
book and writing material were made in 1918 from old paper. The
total value of allwaste material reclaimed during 1918 was approx-
imately $1,500,000,000. In monthly reports as to garbage utiliza-
tion during 1918 it was shown that the redemption plants reclaimed
more than 50,000,000 lb. of garbage grease and 160,000 tons of
fertilizer tankage from garbage.
Several conservation projects were developed in conjunction with
food conservation. The National Emergency Food Garden Corpora-
tion put 1 ,500,000 ac. of city and town land under cultivation in 3,000,-
ooo gardens, resulting in an increase of the food supply to the value
of over $350,000,000 in one year. The School Garden Army,
6,000,000 strong, raised and preserved fruits and vegetables and
also aided in the utilization of wasteproducts. Community canning
kitchens were widely conducted. The Women's Land Army had
during the summer of 1918 units in 20 different states, showing an
enrolment of 10,000 in camps and 5,000 in emergency units. They
were engaged in fruit packing, dairy work, truck gardening and gen-
eral farming. Cash-and-carry plans were encouraged and the limita-
tion of deliveries to one a day to any family or on any one route
was recommended.
The U.S. Fuel Administration began its work in Aug. 1917, with
Dr. Harry A. Garfield as director. The Administration set out to
accomplish: (i) increased production; (2) better distribution;
(3) fair sale prices; (4) the elimination of waste. Small production
was largely due to strikes. The Fuel Administration succeeded in
getting employers and employees into agreement and eliminated
much of this difficulty. In April 1918 a nation-wide plan designed
to insure equitable distribution of coal was put into effect. An
essential feature was the zoning system, by which more than 5,000,-
ooo tons formerly shipped from eastern mines to western territory
adjacent to western mines was saved for the eastern states where the
demand of war industries was greatest. All the price-fixing was done
by territory. Inspectors visited each one of the 250,000 industrial
plants in the United States using large amounts of coal and worked
out with the management systems of conservation. In one week
50,000 tons of coal were thus saved in Pittsburgh alone. Rationing
was put into effect, the supply of coal to non-essential industries
being greatly reduced. It was estimated that this saved over 1,000,-
ooo tons. All industries were held to their minimum needs. Stores
and office buildings were encouraged to take their electric current
SAVINGS MOVEMENT
from central plants. The " skip-stop " system on electric street
railways by which no stops were made at unimportant crossings
resulted in a great saving. Economy was also effected by lightless
nights, which affected window lighting, electric display and street
[llumination. Home instruction was given in the operation of heat-
ing systems and in the use of electricity. For several weeks heatless
Mondays were observed in stores, office buildings and places of
amusement. A saving of 12,700,000 tons of coal for the first half
of the coal year was thus effected.
On March 19 1918 the President approved the legislation entitled
" An Act to save daylight, and to provide standard time for the
United States." The purpose of this legislation was to conserve day-
light and the Act is commonly known as the " Daylight-Saving
Law." It provided for setting the clocks of the nation ahead one
hour at two o'clock on the morning of the last Sunday in March of
each year and for retarding them by one hour at the same time on the
last Sunday in Oct. of each year. By the same piece of legislation the
United States was divided into five standard zones. After the repeal
of this Act in Aug. 1919, several of the states enacted daylight-
saving laws. The operation of the daylight-saving plan caused the
saving in seven months of approximately 1,250,000 tons of coal.
Gasoline-less Sundays were inaugurated in Aug. 1918. A cessation
of Sunday motoring from 75 % to 99 % was effected. This resulted
in an estimated saving of 1,000,000 bar. of gasoline, from which it is
known that 500,000, or 10 shiploads, were sent overseas. The order
governing the use of gasoline was withdrawn on Oct. 20 1918.
Under the provisions of " An Act to authorize the President to
increase the military establishment of the United States," approved
May 18 1917, and later amended, the'President was authorized to
raise and maintain military forces by selective draft " under such
regulations as the President may prescribe not inconsistent with the
terms of this Act." Under this law certain exemptions were made
removing the liability to military service from those whose industrial
occupations were deemed essential to the proper prosecution of the
war. Along similar lines several of the states passed like enactments,
commonly termed " Work or Fight laws," by which those who had
been exempted from military service were forced to accept employ-
ment in essential industries or else join the military or naval service
and thus conserve the man-power of the nation. Non-essential
occupations were listed and because of the simultaneous enactment of
a drastic law against loafing in the state of New York the New York
City Federal Employment Service was overrun with applications.
Over 6,000 were registered July I, and the next day after the order
had been given publicity one bureau registered over 10,000. The
majority were from the non-essential occupations, together with a
small percentage of the idle or vagrant classes.
The Conservation Division of the War Industries Board was
established May 9 1918. Its purpose was to eliminate wasteful or
unessential uses of labour, material, equipment and capital. Its
specific aim was: (i) to secure the maximum reduction in the num-
ber of styles, varieties, sizes, colours or finish of products of the
various industries; (2) to eliminate accessories which used material
for adornment or convenience, but which were not essential; (3)
to substitute materials which were plentiful for those which were
scarce; (4) standardization; (5) reduction of waste; (6) economy in
samples; (7) economy in containers and packing. The length and
swing of men's sack coats and overcoats and the width of facing
were limited, the size of samples reduced and each manufacturer
restricted to not more than 10 models of sack suits for the season.
This resulted in a saving of from 12 to 15% of material. A saving
of 33 % of wool used in the knitting of sweaters was effected by the
reduction in styles and colours. For example, only one shade of
green was used where formerly there were many. Manufacturers of
shoes were restricted to white, black and tan; wasteful features
were eliminated and height limited. As a result one tanner reduced
his line from 8 1 colours and shades to 3, and manufacturers in general
reduced their line by about two-thirds. A schedule issued Sept. 13
1918 to manufacturers of rubber footwear provided for the elimina-
tion of 5,500 styles, with an estimated annual saving of 29,012,600
cartons, 5,245,300 sq. ft. of shipping and storage space, 2,250,272
Ib. of material to be dyed, 74,750 Ib. of starch, 30,380 gal. of varnish,
125,300 Ib. of tissue paper and 49,617 days of labour.
In addition to the efforts of the War Industries Board there were
numerous appeals by Government officials and patriotic organiza-
tions to conserve clothing and shoes. As a result a very great propor-
tion of the people wore garments which in normal times would have
been discarded. Patching and remaking of clothing became popular
practices. Although it is impossible to estimate the saving effected,
it is undoubtedly true that many millions of dollars, which would
ordinarily have gone for the purchase of wearing apparel, were used
to purchase Liberty Bonds and to aid various war philanthropies.
The Pulp and Paper Section of the War Industries Board was
organized June 6 1918 to restrict the use of paper and its products
and thus to save fuel, transportation and labour. On July 5 1918
the following preliminary economies were requested of all newspapers
publishing daily and weekly editions: that they (i) discontinue
acceptance of the return of unsold copies; (2) discontinue the use
of all samples and complimentary copies; (3) discontinue giving
copies to anybody except for office working copies or where required
by statute law in the case of office advertising ; (4) discontinue giving
free copies to advertisers except not more than one copy each for
checking purposes; (5) discontinue arbitrary forcing of copies on
news-dealers; (6) discontinue the buying back of papers at either
wholesale or retail ; (7) discontinue payment of salaries or commis-
sions to agents, dealers or newsboys for the purpose of securing
equivalent of return privileges; (8) discontinue all free exchanges.
On Sept. 20 the following additional regulations went out : no pub-
lisher shall sell his paper at retail less than his published prices; no
publisher shall use premium contests or similar means to stimulate
his circulation ; no publisher shall issue holiday, industrial or Sunday
special numbers. These regulations brought about a saving in paper
during Sept. of 10-4% of the average monthly tonnage during the
six months preceding and in Oct. of 5 %. There was produced in
Sept. 1918 104,209 tons and in Oct. 110,498 tons. All regulations
relative to paper were withdrawn on Dec. 15 1918.
The universal response by the people of the United States to
the request that they lend money to the Government to provide
necessary funds for the prosecution of the war was one of the
most significant things of the war period. Millions of people
purchased Liberty Bonds and Victory Notes in various denomi-
nations from $50 to $10,000 (see LIBERTY LOAN PUBLICITY CAM-
PAIGNS), and other millions invested in the smaller War Savings
securities. Early in the war President Wilson made the state-
ment: " I doubt that many good by-products can come out of
a war, but if our people learn from this war to save, then the war
is worth all it has cost us in money and material." This state-
ment, together with the desirability of having the entire nation
participate in financing the war, suggested the underlying pur-
pose behind the war savings movement, which was put into
operation in Dec. 1917. Section 6 of the Second Liberty Bond
Act, approved Sept. 24 1917, authorized the Secretary of the
Treasury " to borrow from time to time on the credit of the
United States for the purpose of this Act and to meet public
expenditures authorized by law, such sums as in his judgment
may be necessary and to issue therefor at such price or prices
and upon such terms and conditions as he may determine War
Savings Certificates of the United States on which interest to
maturity may be discounted in advance at such rate or rates
and computed in such manner as he may prescribe." The Act
further provided that " each War Savings Certificate so issued
shall be payable at such time, not exceeding five years from the
date of its issue, and may be redeemable before maturity, upon
such terms and conditions as the Secretary of the Treasury may
prescribe." A limitation of $2,000,000,000 was placed by the
Act upon the amount of War Savings Certificates which might
be outstanding at any one time; it also provided that no person
should be sold at any one time certificates amounting to more
than $100, and it also placed a $1,000 limitation upon the
amount of certificates which might be held by any one person.
The original Act was amended by the Act approved Sept. 24
1918, which increased the amount of certificates which might
be issued from $2,000,000,000 to $4,000,000,000, removed the
$100 limitation on the amount of certificates which might be
sold to any one person at any one time, and also altered the
previous Act by allowing persons to hold an amount not to
exceed $1,000 worth of any series of certificates.
Pursuant to the authorization contained in the original Act,
the Secretary of the Treasury appointed a committee of five,
with Frank A. Vanderlip as chairman, to confer with him as to
the form of security and the terms on which it should be issued.
Following the recommendation of this committee, the Secretary
of the Treasury offered for sale on Dec. 3 1917 an issue of War
Savings Certificate Stamps, Series of 1918. Each certificate
stamp when affixed to a War Savings Certificate (a folder with
spaces for 20 stamps) would have a fixed maturity value of $5,
with the date of maturity not to exceed five years, the purchase
price to vary one cent each month throughout the year of issue,
beginning in Jan. at $4.12, increasing to $4.23 in December.
The stamps might be redeemed before maturity, their redemp-
tion value increasing one cent each month. There were also pro-
vided 25-cent Thrift Stamps, bearing no interest and not
redeemable for cash, but to be accumulated on a Thrift Card
until there were 16, when they could be exchanged for a War
Savings Certificate Stamp by paying the additional odd cents
necessary to cover the current price of the War Savings Cer-
372
SAXONY
tificate Stamp. Succeeding issues of War Savings Certificate
Stamps were on Jan. i 1919, Jan. i 1920 and Jan. i 1921.
In addition to the original securities there were offered in
July 1919 Treasury Savings Certificates, one of $100 and the
other $1,000 maturity value. Treasury Savings Certificates
were registered at the Treasury Department at the time of pur-
chase and increased in redemption value monthly on the same
interest basis as War Savings Certificate Stamps. In Jan. 1921
there were offered for sale $i non-interest-bearing Treasury
Sayings Stamps and $25 Treasury Savings Certificates, in addi-
tion to the other Treasury Savings Securities.
Following the working out of the types of securities in 1917,
an organization for their sale was effected. In addition to the-
National War Savings Committee, consisting of the chairman
and four members, the Secretary of the Treasury appointed six
Federal directors, each having general supervision over approx-
imately two Federal Reserve Districts; and 52 state directors,
each of whom had complete charge of War Savings activities in
his state or part thereof. The National War Savings Committee
and the six Federal directors functioned at the National War
Savings Committee headquarters in Washington. It was the
duty of this sales organization to obtain cooperation from the
heads of all enterprises operating nationally and then to decen-
tralize the work through the Federal directors to the respective
state directors coming under their jurisdiction, the ultimate
goal being to offer every man, woman and child in the United
States the privilege of aiding the Government by investing in
Government securities, and at the same time to develop habits
of thrift. The War Savings securities were put on sale at every
post-office, at banks and in thousands of voluntary agencies.
House-to-house canvass for their sale was made by postmen,
boy scouts, representatives of insurance companies and mem-
bers of women's organizations. In the autumn of 1918 the
Treasury Department created a Savings Division of the War
Loan Organization, which took over the work previously carried
on by the National War Savings Committee, so that the
people of the country might be taught for their peace-time value
the lessons of thrift and saving learned during the war. The
specific ends sought were: (i) to develop and protect all war
issues of Government securities; (2) to sell Treasury Savings
securities; (3) to make permanent the habits of regular saving
and investment in U.S. Government securities. The Savings
Division was placed in charge of a Director of Savings, with an
organization in Washington, and one in each of the 12 Federal
Reserve Districts.
School Government Savings systems were established. In-
struction in thrift, saving and the principles of sound finance
was introduced in schools throughout the nation. At the annual
convention of the National Education Association in July 1920
a committee of state superintendents was appointed to work out
with the Savings Division the best plans for placing the savings
movement permanently in the American school system. The
American Federation of Labor and various labour bodies
passed resolutions commending the work of the Savings Division
and calling on the Government to make permanent the policy
of issuing small securities. Many local labour organizations
invested their reserve funds in Government securities. In indus-
trial plants throughout the country Government Savings Asso-
ciations were established and the employees put aside small
amounts regularly each week in Government Savings securities.
Women's organizations of the country during the years 1919
and 1920 created the office of thrift chairman in their boards of
officials. They took up the study of finance at club meetings,
promoted the use of the household budget and with the savings
thus effected purchased Government securities.
The total sale of War Savings securities from Dec. 3 1917 to
Jan. i 1921 amounted in round figures to $1,176,111,000. The
total redemption of War Savings securities for the same period
amounted to $41 5,174,000. (W. M. LE.)
SAXONY (see 24.265). The pop. of the Territory and Free
State of Saxony, according to the census of 1919, was 4,663,298;
in 1910 it was 4,806,661.
During the last few years before the World War political life in
the German kingdom of Saxony was dominated by a conflict about
the constitution. The parties of the Left had for years demanded a
reform of the First Chamber, the Upper House, by which the pre-
dominance of the Agrarians in that House should be broken, and
commerce, industry, and handicrafts should obtain greater influence.
In Jan. 1910 the National Liberals, the Liberals (Freisinnige) and
the Social Democrats once more introduced resolutions with this
object in the Second Chamber, the Lower House, but these proposals
met with the keenest opposition from Government, which shared the
opinions of the Right. Notwithstanding the majority in the Lower
House for the Reform, it was defeated by the refusal of the Upper
House to accept it. It was only in Dec. 1917, that the Government
introduced a bill for the reform of the Upper House, which again led
to fierce conflicts between the Right and Left parties in Parliament,
but the advent of the Revolution put an end to these conflicts.
Simultaneously controversy concerning a new Electoral Law for
the Lower House had constantly been going on since 1910. In
Nov. 1911 a Social Democrat was for the first time elected Vice-
President of the Diet. With the outbreak of war these questions fell
into the background. In the educational sphere the reform of
the National Schools System, which was especially advocated by
the teaching profession in Saxony, aroused sharp conflicts of opinion
among almost all classes of the people. The teachers were fighting
for a development of the school system on lines of greater liberty
and particularly desired that religious instruction should be regarded
in a more liberal light. In 1912 the Government introduced a bill,
which did not fully meet the wishes of the school teachers. After
some elaborate debates in the Lower House, which produced great
excitement throughout Saxony, the bill was rejected in Dec. 1912.
On Nov. 30 1910, Dr. von Riiger, who had been Minister of
Finance for many years and at the same time had presided over the
Ministry, retired, his successor as Finance Minister being von Sey-
dewitz, while the minister of Justice, von Otto, took over the presi-
dency of the Ministry and was in turn succeeded by the Minister of
War, Freiherr von Hausen, in Sept. 1912, who on May 21 1914 gave
place to von Carlowitz. The latter resigned his office to Lt.-Gen.
von Wilsdorf on Oct. 27 1915 on taking a command in the field.
The year 1913 saw the opening in June of an airship base at
Leipzig, the largest in Germany at that date.
On Oct. 18 1913 the unveiling of the monument commemorating
the Volkerschlacht (the great victory of the continental Allies over
Napoleon Oct. 16-18 1813) took place in Leipzig, a celebration at
which the Emperor William II. and all the German sovereigns were
present. After the ceremony the foundation stone of the German
Library was laid, an institution which has since been completed
and put in working order. All German publishers have undertaken
to place a free copy of every work published by them at the disposal
of this library, so that it already possesses more than a hundred
thousand volumes. On July 29 1916 the Technical School of Mining
at Freiberg, the oldest institution of its kind in Germany, celebrated
the hundred and fiftieth anniversary of its foundation.
Saxony, which is chiefly an industrial country and cannot
boast of much agriculture, suffered more under war conditions
than most other German states. As a country which had been
hitherto provisioned from outside, it found the problem of sup-
plying food to its population extremely difficult. There was in
many places a real dearth in the most important foodstuffs,
such as corn and potatoes, so that the population was frequently
obliged to have recourse to substitutes (Ersatzmittel).
Shortly before the outbreak of war, during the week July 17-
24 1914, King Friedrich August of Saxony was on a visit to the
Russian court at Petrograd; then on Aug. 2 the King's warlike
appeal to the civilian and military population was published.
At the beginning of the war the Saxon troops suffered heavy
losses during their advance into the north of France. Already
in 1917 the extreme Left in the Saxon Diet had begun an agita-
tion, which never abated, for the early conclusion of peace;
this demand led to violent debates between the Left and the
Government, the latter being supported by the parties of the
Right. On Oct. 26 1918 the Cabinet was forced to resign and to
give place to a new Government of a more Liberal colour under
Dr. Heinze. On Nov. 91918 the revolution broke out, and King
Friedrich August abdicated on Nov. 13. A Cabinet of Com-
missaries of the People ( Volksbeauftragte) was formed and was
entirely composed of members of the extremist section of the
Social Democrats, the Independent Socialists. The revolutionary
conflicts of Jan. 1919, which entailed sanguinary street fighting
in Leipzig, Dresden and other Saxon cities, led to the resigna-
tion of the Cabinet, which was succeeded by a Government of
the right wing of the Social Democratic party. The extreme
Left instituted demonstrations against this Government through-
SAZONOV, S. D.
373
out the country, and there were serious excesses, especially in
Plauen and Leipzig. In April 1919 a Councils (Soviet) Republic
was proclaimed at Leipzig. It was only on May 12 that the,
Reichswehr (the regular army of the Reich) under Gen. Maerker
entered the city and put an end to the Soviet Republic. Serious
disturbances followed in the Vogtland and in Chemnitz in June
and August. On Oct. 2 1919 the (non-Socialist) Democratic
party joined the Ministry, which was now composed of Social
Democrats and Democrats. The Ministry kept in power till
April 25 1920. It was replaced by a Coalition of Social Demo-
crats and Independent Socialists; which, when the Diet reas-
sembled, received a vote of confidence. This Cabinet was
vigorously combated by the non-Socialist parties, all of which
voted against the salaries of ministers in April 1921.
The insurrectionary movement of the spring of 1920 had been
very formidable, especially in W. Saxony. In Leipzig sanguinary
fighting continued for several days, and there were heavy cas-
ualties. In the Vogtland the Communist Holz formed a band
of several hundred men, with which he conducted a reign of
terror in the towns and villages. The Government long hesi-
tated to take action against him; finally, however, Holz's force
was surrounded and dispersed by Reichswehr troops. Holz him-
self fled across the frontier into Czechoslovakia, where he
remained until the Communist rising of March 1921 in central
Germany, when he returned and took command of the insur-
gents. After the collapse of the insurrection he was for a time in
hiding in Berlin, where he was ultimately arrested, and after a
trial which lasted a fortnight was condemned to penal servitude
for life with the loss of civil rights (June 1921).
In July and Aug. 1920 there were widespread food riots in
Saxony, but they did not assume the dimensions of the fighting
in Leipzig and in the Vogtland. In the first half of 1921 there
had been no further disturbances. (C. K.*)
SAZONOV, SERGIUS DMITRIEVICH (1866- ), Russian
statesman, came of a family of great Russian landowners. He
was educated at the Alexandrovsky Lycee. In politics he was
connected with a group which formed the Right Centre in the
Council of the Empire and supported the general policy of Stoly-
pin. Enlightened and convinced of the necessity of reforms, he
remained, however, a staunch supporter of the monarchical and
orthodox tradition of Imperial Russia. He entered the diplo-
matic service, and his first important post was that of Councillor
of Embassy in London, where he assisted Count Benckendorff in
the task of improving the relations between Great Britain and
Russia. He subsequently acquitted himself successfully as Rus-
sian Minister at the Vatican. He was appointed Minister of
Foreign Affairs in St. Petersburg at a critical juncture when Is-
volsky left that office for the Paris Embassy. Russian policy had
just disengaged itself from the coils of the traditional friendship
with Germany, and the Kaiser, though still corresponding with
" Dear Nicky " and keeping a personal representative in attend-
ance on the Tsar, had given up the scheme of cementing an
alliance with Russia against England and forcing France into the
combination. Germany was demonstrating " in shining armour "
by the side of Austria-Hungary, and was drawing Turkey away
from her former protectors, the Western Powers. The idea of the
penetration of the Near East was developing the more effectually
as the scheme of directing Russia towards the Far East had
proved unsuccessful. The backing of Austria and Turkey by
Germany meant necessarily the crushing of the Slavonic Balkan
States and a conflict with Russia. Sazonov was the most
appropriate person to oppose this aggressive tendency with
firmness and dexterity, but without chauvinism. He managed
to strengthen the ties of mutual confidence between Russia and
Great Britain by avoiding all kind of provocation in Central
Asia or in Persia; as to France, the solidity of the alliance was
beyond question. The treatment of the Balkan nationalities was
a much more complicated problem. And when, after the dis-
astrous squabble between the Balkan allies in 1913, the peace
of Bucharest left Bulgaria bleeding, humiliated and weakened,
the result was not only the destruction of the Balkan League,
but a lasting alienation of Bulgaria from Russia and from the
Western Entente. Russian diplomacy did not shine in those
days: ineffectual attempts at arbitration between Serbia and
Bulgaria, ineffectual discontent with the progress of the nego-
tiations at Bucharest, and eventual recognition of defeat in the
end, did not enhance the prestige of Russian foreign policy.
When the great crisis broke out in 1914, after the assassination
of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Tsar and Sazonov found
themselves heavily handicapped by events. Both had tried to
avoid the outbreak of war: but it was impossible for Russia to
look on while Serbia was being delivered to the tender mercies of
an Austrian inquisition, or to allow Germany to mobilize under
the protection of specious formulas without herself taking any
steps as regards the slow mobilization of the Russian army.
Sazonov saw clearly that war had been decided upon in Berlin,
and he helped to make it clear to the Tsar that the German talk
about the ancient tie between the two Empires and the services
rendered to Russia during the Japanese war was mere manoeu-
vring for position. The precise sequence of events is narrated
elsewhere. Suffice it to say that the early course of the war
itself showed how the Balkan situation had been irremediably
jeopardized by preceding diplomatic mistakes and mishaps.
Turkey, Bulgaria and Greece fell away one after the other. Pos-
sibly none of these events could have been averted, but it is
sufficiently clear that neither the Entente Powers nor Russia in
particular were prepared for them, and that they did not take in
time measures which would have made them less injurious: the
Straits could have been forced when the " Goeben " and " Bres-
lau " passed them; Bulgaria might possibly have been won over
by concessions, or attacked with advantage before she was ready
to strike. In any case the actual results were disastrous; they
determined the isolation of Russia at a time when she stood great-
ly in need of technical help from her allies. As an indirect con-
sequence of the Balkan events there was a gradual change in the
Russian demands as regard Constantinople. It is interesting to
compare the reports of two conversations between the Tsar and
the French Ambassador, M. Paleologue. In Nov. 1914, Nicholas
II. restricted his claims to the opening and neutralization of the
Straits, the expulsion of the Turks from Europe and interna-
tional administration for Constantinople. In March 1915 he
declared that the Russian people were more and more intent on
the annexation of Constantinople as the ancient site of orthodox
Christianity. Sazonov succeeded in getting from the Western
Powers a promise to grant these demands in the hour of victory.
It is superfluous to say that Sazonov was staunch in his fidel-
ity to the Entente and in his opposition to the projects for a sep-
arate peace or armistice, which at times cropped up in court circles;
he had however, like all other moderate Liberals, the greatest
difficulty in resisting the discreditable influences which swayed
the Government in its reactionary policy. He opposed as far as
he could the assumption of the Army command by the Tsar, as
this measure could not effect any improvement in military mat-
ters, weakened the home Government and made it more acces-
sible to intrigues. He strongly urged the necessity of winning
over the Poles by a real measure of Home Rule, and he seemed
to have convinced the Tsar of the necessity of such a measure,
but this apparent success was really the occasion of his fall. The
Empress Alexandra brought pressure on the Tsar; the measure
was countermanded, and Sazonov was dismissed.
He was preparing to start for London as ambassador to suc-
ceed Count Benckendorff, when the revolution of March 1917
broke out. He deplored its advent, which brought an end to
Russia's participation in the war and plunged the country into
an abyss of uncertainty and misfortune. He consented, however,
to proceed to London as an envoy of the Provisional Govern-
ment when the fall of Milyukov and the subsequent degradation of
the Government made it necessary for him to step aside. He was
again put in charge of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs by Adml.
Kolchak, and proceeded to London and Paris in the hope of con-
tributing by his personal authority to win a recognition of the
claims of historical Russia from her former allies. Such hopes
proved to be in vain. The Peace Treaty of Versailles made only
general allusions to the possibility of her reappearance in the
374
SCAPA FLOW SCHEIDEMANN
future. Nor was Sazonov the man to curry favour with Esthonia,
Latvia and Georgia, in order to obtain help, at the cost of a renun-
ciation of the imperial interests of his country. (P. Vi.)
SCAPA FLOW, an expanse of sea, in the S. of the Orkneys,
bounded by Pomona on the N., Burray and South Ronaldshay
on the E. and S.E., and Hoy on the W. and S.W. The area
contains seven small islands and is about 15 m. in extreme
length (N. to S.), and about 8 m. in mean breadth. There are
two chief exits one, 7 m. in length and 2 m. in mean breadth,
into the Atlantic Ocean by Hoy Sound, and the other, 3$ m. in
length by 2 m. in mean breadth, into the North Sea by Holm
Sound. Scapa Flow contains several good anchorages, the best
being Longhope in the island of Hoy. When the danger of a war
with Germany came first to be apprehended, it was proposed to
establish the chief British naval base, in the event of war, at
Rosyth in the Firth of Forth, but it was afterwards decided that
a larger base in a natural harbour farther N. would be required,
and in 1912 it was proposed to construct defences both at Cro-
marty and at Scapa Flow. Permanent defences at Scapa were,
however, abandoned in 1913, owing to the developments of sub-
marine warfare, which rendered it very costly to protect the
various entrances. Immediately on the outbreak of war, bat-
teries were erected at Scapa and the Territorial Garrison Artil-
lery of the Orkneys were mobilized to man them. Scapa Flow
was preferred to the Cromarty Firth as his chief naval base by
Admiral Jellicoe, but no preparations had been made and every-
thing had to be improvised, guns being landed from the ships to
strengthen the defences. The absence of preparations came to be
felt more strongly with the rapid growth of the submarine men-
ace, for the depth and number of the entrances made it a seri-
ous problem to establish adequate defences. By the middle of
Oct. 1914, " U" boats were active in the neighbourhood of Scapa
Flow, and on Oct. 16, an enemy submarine was reported to be
in the Flow. The few capital ships which happened to be there
put to sea, and it was recognized that the base would be unsafe
until anti-submarine defences were installed. While the neces-
sary operations were in progress, the fleet occupied temporary
bases in Skye and Mull and in the defended harbour of Lough
Swilly in Ireland, and the absence of the fleet was successfully
concealed. By the end of 1914, the entrances of Scapa Flow had
been adequately protected, facilities for carrying out all but the
most serious repairs were installed, and Scapa Flow gradually
assumed the aspect of a great naval station, which it retained to
the end of the war. As a precaution against espionage, navi-
gation in the adjacent waters was very severely regulated, and
an ever-widening region of the mainland (ultimately extending
as far S. as the Caledonian Canal) was proclaimed as a prohibited
area. The German ships which were surrendered in Nov. 1918
were interned in Scapa Flow, where on June 21 1919, all the
battleships and battle cruisers, with the exception of the battle-
ship " Baden" and five light cruisers, were scuttled. Three light
cruisers and some smaller vessels were beached.
SCARBOROUGH, England (see 24.301). The pop. decreased
from 38,161 in 1901 to 37,224 in 1911. In 1913 the municipal
area was increased from 2,562 to 2,902 acres. The town was
bombarded by a squadron of German cruisers on Dec. 16 1914;
18 persons were killed, 84 injured, and damage done to 231
buildings. On April 27 1917, it was ineffectually shelled by sub-
marines, but in a second attack, on Sept. 4 of the same year, 3
persons were killed. The repair of the castle walls and keep,
considerably damaged in the bombardment of Dec. 1914, was
in progress in 1921.
Excavations of archaeological interest were carried out on the
foundations of the old Northstead Manor House at Peasholme, and
the remains of the Roman camp on Castle Hill have been bared and
opened up. To the amenities of Scarborough were added during
19 1 1-2 1 : a bathing pool measuring 350 by 190 ft. at the foot of the
cliff in South Cliff Gardens; a new Floral Hall of Glass in Alexandra
Gardens, with accommodation for 1,500 people; Peasholme Park as
a public garden, with a boating lake; and the Spa Promenade was
extended and a bandstand and large cafd added. A town-planning
scheme was prepared in 1921. Some industrial works were estab-
lished during the decade, including a piano factory at the Mere,
clothing factories, a motor-body works and a colour-printing works.
SCARFOGLIO, EDOAROO (1860-1917), Italian journalist, was
born at Paganico (Aguila) in 1860, and died at Naples Oct. 6 1917.
He was one of the most vigorous and ablest journalists of his time
and an excellent newspaper manager as well as editor. He founded
the Corriere di Roma, the Corriere di Napoli, the Ora of Palermo
and the Maltino of Naples. It is with the latter paper, which he
owned and edited for many years, that his name is chiefly associ-
ated. He was the husband of the novelist Matilde Serao (see 24.
661), from whom, however, he had been separated formany years.
SCHARLIEB, MARY DACOMB (1845- ), British surgeon,
was born in London June 18 1845, the daughter of William Cand-
ler Bird. She was educated privately, and married a barrister
who was then practising in India. She wished to study medicine,
at that time an extremely difficult profession for a woman to adopt,
and entered the medical college at Madras, receiving its diploma
in 1878. She afterwards went to England and studied at the
London School of Medicine for Women, taking her degree as
Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery in 1882 with very high honours.
In 1883 she returned to India, and became lecturer in midwifery
and gynaecology at the Madras Medical College and examiner
in the same subjects to the university of Madras. In 1888 she
took her London degree of M.D., and from 1887 to 1902 was sur-
geon at the New Hospital for Women, being senior surgeon from
1889. In 1887 she was appointed lecturer on forensic medicine to
the Royal Free Hospital, in 1889 lecturer on midwifery, and in
1902 chief gynaecologist. She retired from these posts in 1909.
In 1917 Mrs. Scharlieb was made C.B.E. She was a member of
the royal commission on Venereal Diseases (1913-16), and pub-
lished A Woman's Words to Women (1905); The Mother's Guide
(1905); The Seven Ages of Woman (1915); The Hope of the Future
(1916); The Welfare of the Expectant Mother (1919).
SCHEER, REINHOLD (1863- ), German admiral and
ultimately commander-in-chief of the German battle fleet in
the World War, was born Sept. 30 1863 at Obernkirchen in Hesse-
Nassau. He served in the German colonial wars in Cameroon
and E. Africa and was appointed in 1903 to the command of
the ist Torpedo Division. Subsequently he was for a time at
the head of the Central Section in the Imperial Navy Office. In
1913 he was promoted to the rank of vice-admiral and was made
commander of the 2nd squadron. In 1916 he was appointed
to the command of the German battle fleet (Hochseeflotte).
He was in command of the Fleet at the battle of Jutland, and
in his book Deulschland's Hochseeflotte im Weltkrieg claimed
to have won a victory there. In July 1918 he was made chief
of the Admiralty staff and again in Aug. of the same year chief
in command of the Fleet. In Dec. 1918 he was retired.
SCHEIDEMANN, PHILIPP (1865- ), German Social-Demo-
cratic leader, was born July 26 1865 at Kassel. He was by
trade a printer, but in 1895 took to editing Socialist newspapers,
first at Giessen and afterwards successively at Niirnberg,
Offenbach and Kassel. In 1903 he was elected member of the
Reichstag for the great industrial constituency of Solingen, and
in the course of the World War he became the leader of the
Social-Democratic party. In his reminiscences of the war
period, which he published in 1920 under the title of Der Zusam-
menbruch (The Collapse), he gives an account of the attitude of
the Socialist party as a whole at the beginning of the war, and
of the change of policy which, to the disappointment of inter-
national socialism in other countries, led the German Socialists
to give an all but unanimous vote in the Reichstag for the first
war credits. He refers to the hurried visit of his Socialist col-
league Hermann Muller to Paris on Aug. i 1914 to discuss the
situation with the French Socialists, and the effect of Miiller's
report, when with great difficulty he had managed to make his
way back to Berlin. Scheidemann represented the attitude
of the great majority of the Socialists in the Reichstag, if not
in the country, by persistently supporting the Government in
the main lines of its war policy, up to the months immediately
before the so-called " Peace Resolution " of July 19 1917 at
any rate. In conjunction with Erzberger he was one of the
leading authors of this Resolution, which demanded " peace
without annexation or indemnities." Before this date the
SCHIFF SCHLESWIG
375
improvement in the position of the Socialist party in Ger-
man political life had been shown by the way in which its
leaders, particularly Scheidemann, were frequently called into
conference with the imperial chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg.
Scheidemann, in his book, gives a vivid account of some of these
conferences, and also of the celebrated interviews which the
leaders of parties in turn had with Hindenburg and Ludendorff
in Berlin when the army authorities endeavoured to obtain
the modification of the so-called " Peace Resolution " before it
was produced in public. It was largely owing to the firm atti-
tude taken up by Scheidemann and the Majority Socialists
that the chancellorship of the incompetent Michaelis (July to
Oct. 1917) was brought to a close. In June 1918 Scheidemann
was elected vice-president of the Reichstag, and on Oct. 3, on
the formation of the last imperial Ministry by Prince Max of
Baden, he received a secretaryship of State without portfolio.
The part which he and his associates in the leadership of the
Governmental or Majority Socialists played on the eve and on
the outbreak of the Revolution was somewhat ambiguous.
There is said to be evidence that, while insisting upon the ab-
dication of William II. and the renunciation of the Crown
Prince's rights of succession they were prepared to tolerate the
continuance of the monarchical form of government in the shape
of a regency, with, perhaps, the Crown Prince's eldest son, a
young boy, as the prospective monarch. If this be so their
plans were speedily brought to naught by the greater vigour of
the Minority or Independent Socialists, led by Haase. The
Independents had been active in sowing the seeds of revolution
among the troops at the front, the sailors at Kiel and Wilhelms-
hafen, and the workmen in the munitions and other great
factories. It was the Independents who forced the hand of
Scheidemann and his associates by the arrangements which
they had made in Berlin in the first week of Nov. 1918 for a
general strike, a demonstration of the masses, and an appeal to
the soldiers of the garrison to follow the example which had just
been set in Kiel and other northern towns. And it was for this
reason that the leaders of the Minority Socialists had to be
admitted on equal terms and in equal numbers into the Pro-
visional Government of the " Commissioners of the People,"
formed on Nov. 10 by Ebert, Scheidemann, Haase and three
others. How little Scheidemann's party had been prepared for
the course events took was shown by the fact that a proclama-
tion appeared in the Socialist Vorwiirls on Nov. 10, announcing
that Prince Max of Baden in resigning the chancellorship had
handed over the conduct of affairs to Ebert, who accordingly
signed this proclamation as " Imperial Chancellor " (Reichs-
kanzler). On Nov. 9, when the revolution in Berlin was slowly
and, at first, peacefully spreading throughout the city, it was
only after the announcement of the Kaiser's abdication had
been published by Prince Max of Baden on his own initiative,
at noon, and after the troops which were in occupation of the
Reichstag building had thrown their rifles into the Spree and
gone home, that Scheidemann appeared in front of that building
at two o'clock and dramatically proclaimed the republic.
Scheidemann was closely associated with the policy, alleged
to have been inevitable, which led the provisional and, after-
wards, the first properly constituted repubh'can Government to
retain the services of reactionary officers and troops for the
suppression of communist disorders. He was, therefore, together
with Ebert and Noske made the subject of violent denunciations,
not only by the Communists but also by the Minority Socialists
after they had seceded from the Provisional Government at the
beginning of Jan. 1919. When the National Constituent As-
sembly met at Weimar on Feb. 6 1919 Scheidemann was se-
lected as president of the first regularly constituted republican
Ministry of the Reich. He guided the affairs of Germany through
the stormy period of the first half of 1919, when it repeatedly
looked as if the communist insurrections, which broke out in
various parts of the country, might result in the overthrow of
the democratic republic and in an experiment in some kind of
Bolshevism. On July 20 1919, being unable to agree to the
signature of the Treaty of Versailles, he resigned with the rest
of his Ministry. He then resumed the leadership of the Major-
ity Socialists in the National Assembly and subsequently in the
first republican Reichstag. In Jan. 1920 he was elected chief
burgomaster of his native town, Kassel.
SCHIFF, JACOB HENRY (1847-1920), American banker and
philanthropist, was born at Frankfort-on-Main, Germany, Jan.
10 1847. He was educated in the schools of Frankfort and for a
time worked in a banking house. In 1865 he went to New York
City and two years later organized there the brokerage firm of
Budge, Schiff & Co., which was dissolved in 1873. In 1875 he
married a daughter of Solomon Loeb, head of the banking firm
of Kuhn, Loeb & Co., was taken into the firm and, on Loeb's re-
tirement in 1885, succeeded to the leadership. Meanwhile,
largely due to Schiff's energy, the firm had greatly expanded its
business and had become known throughout the financial world.
In 1897 his house took an active part in reorganizing the Union
Pacific railway, which later secured control of the Southern
Pacific, assisting E. H. Harriman in these transactions. In 1901
a struggle took place between Schiff and the Harriman interests
on the one side and James J. Hill and J. P. Morgan on the other
for possession of the Northern Pacific railway. The resulting
compromise was the formation of the Northern Securities Co.
as a holding company for their joint interests (see 27.733).
After the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904 Schiff in-
troduced Japanese war loans in America and subsequently was
decorated by the Mikado. In his later years he gave much per-
sonal attention to charities, especially for the Jewish people, and
on his seventieth birthday distributed $700,000 among various
charitable organizations and public institutions. He was a
founder and president of the Montefiore Home for Chronic
Invalids, New York City, and vice-president and trustee of the
Baron de Hirsch Fund. In 1903 he presented a Semitic Museum
to Harvard. He was vice-president of the N.Y. Chamber of
Commerce and a director in many large corporations. He died
in New York City Sept. 25 1920. His estate was estimated at
about $50,000,000. He bequeathed $1,350,000 to various in-
stitutions, most of which had received benefactions during his
life. The largest bequests were $500,000 to the Federation for
the support of Jewish Philanthropic Societies of New York City
and $300,000 to the Montefiore Home.
SCHIMMEL, HENDRIK JAN (1825-1906), Dutch poet and
novelist (see 24.326), spent his last years in work on spirit-
ualistic research. He died at Bussum in 1906.
SCHLESWIG. The older " Schleswig-Holstein Question " (see
24.33 5) had an important sequel as the result of the World War,
in the severing from Germany of part of Northern Schleswig.
The Peace of Vienna of 1864 had set up a joint administration
of Schleswig-Holstein by Austria and Prussia. In the Peace
of Prague (1866) Austria surrendered to Prussia her claims to
both duchies. As regards the administration of Northern Schles-
wig (Nord Schleswig), an eventual cession to Denmark was
reserved if the population should decide in this sense by a free
vote. In 1878, however, Austria gave up this reservation, and
Denmark in the Treaty of 1907 with Germany recognized that
by the agreement between Austria and Prussia the frontier
between Prussia and Denmark had finally been determined.
The Danish population of Northern Schleswig had, it is true,
never acquiesced in this settlement. Propaganda for union
with Denmark never ceased, although it had greatly diminished
in the years which preceded the World War. At the first elections
for the Reichstag the Danes of Northern Schleswig won two seats,
but after about 20 years they retained only one of them.
During the World War the movement in Northern Schleswig
for separation from Prussia seemed to be in abeyance. It
was only the Armistice of 1918, which gave prominence to certain
points in President Wilson's programme, that once more inspired
among the Danish population a vigorous demand for a plebiscite
to decide the nationality of the North-Schleswigers. The
Danish Government had at first adopted an attitude of reserve.
But from the spring of 1919 onwards a propaganda was con-
ducted in Copenhagen for " South Jutland," the chief leader
in the movement being Hansen-Norremolle, who till then had
376
SCHLICH SCHREINER, O.
been the representative of the Danish population in the German
Reichstag. The German Government declared its readiness
to apply President Wilson's programme for the " self-deter-
mination " of nationalities to the Danish portions of Northern
Schleswig. The Treaty of Versailles provided for a plebiscite
in that region. The original intention was to take the plebiscite
throughout the whole of the Duchy of Schleswig, which for this
purpose was to be divided into three zones. Finally, the idea of
taking a plebiscite in the most southerly zone was abandoned,
as the population of that district was purely German.
Article 109 of the Treaty established two zones for the
plebiscite. The northern, or first, zone was bounded on the
S. by a line passing through the islands of Rom and Sylt, keeping
S. of Tondern, and then running to the N. of Flensburg, through
the middle of the Flensburger Fjord, and leaving the island of
Alsen to the N. of the line. The second zone included the is-
lands of Sylt and Fohr and ran on, after bulging somewhat to
the S. to the Flensburger Fjord on the east. Within this second
zone lay Flensburg. The whole of the plebiscitary area had to
be evacuated by the German troops and civil authorities within
10 days after the Treaty of Peace came into force. Powers
of administration were transferred to an Inter-Allied Commis-
sion. In the first zone the plebiscite was to take place, at latest,
three weeks after the German evacuation; in the second zone,
at latest, five weeks after the plebiscite in the first zone. The
decision regarding the assignment of territory to Denmark
or to Germany on result of the plebiscite was to be taken on the
proposal of the Inter-Allied Commission with due consideration
for 1 the special economic and geographical conditions of the
region. The Danish Government appointed the former Reichs-
tag deputy Hansen to the post of Danish minister for Schleswig,
with the task of maintaining Danish interests in the plebiscitary
area. All persons, without distinction of sex, who had com-
pleted their twentieth year and either had been born in the
plebiscitary area or had lived there before Jan. i 1900, were
entitled to vote. On the German side, a German committee
for Schleswig was formed, and was entrusted with German
propaganda and preparations for the plebiscite.
On Jan. 15 1920 the Inter-Allied Commission, which had
previously assembled at Copenhagen, took over the administra-
tion of the plebiscitary area. The German officials had to
leave this territory, and their place was taken by native Landriite
and administrative officials appointed by the Commission.
The German troops evacuated the region by Jan. 20. A
battalion of British troops was stationed at Flensburg, a French
battalion at Hadersleben and another at Sonderburg. The
Inter-Allied Commission was composed of Marling (Great
Britain), Claudel (France), Heyste (Norway), and von Sydow
(Sweden). It promptly issued regulations for the plebiscite,
dealing with the voting qualification and the registration of
votes. A control over persons entering the plebiscitary area
was also established. A vigorous propaganda was initiated both
on the Danish and on the German side and led to a number of
incidents especially at Flensburg. The plebiscite in the first
zone took place on Feb. 10. On the whole it passed off quietly.
It resulted in a great Danish majority; 75,151 votes were cast
for Denmark and 25,231 for Germany. The larger towns,
Tondern, Hoyer, etc., had in all cases a German majority,
while the rural population, with the exception of a few German
enclaves, voted almost in its entirety Danish. The campaign
was much keener in the second zone, where the polling day
had been fixed for March 14. There were sharp conflicts,
particularly at Flensburg, where the burgomaster, Todsen, was
expelled by the Inter-Allied Commission. When a prohibition
against the display of flags on the day of the plebiscite was issued
on March 6, the German assessors of the Inter-Allied Com-
mission resigned their posts. Repeated collisions with the French
troops of occupation took place at Flensburg, and were not
unattended by bloodshed. The plebiscite resulted in a great
German success; about 51,000 votes were recorded for Germany
and only 13,000 for Denmark. There were only two communes
which had a Danish majority.
The determination of the frontier took a long time. Germany
advocated the so-called Tiedje line, while on the Danish side
propaganda was made for the so-called Clausen h'ne. The
Council of Ambassadors of the Allies gave its decision at the
beginning of June. On June 15 the president of the Paris
Peace Conference handed the German delegation a note in
which the German-Danish frontier was fixed as follows. It
begins at the entrance to the Flensburger Fjord, passes through
the middle of that fjord, reaches the mainland immediately
to the N. of Flensburg, leaves Flensburg to the S. and then
follows a line which reaches the North Sea at Sieltoft. The
island of Sylt falls to Germany, the island of Rom to Denmark.
On the whole this meant the adoption of the Clausen line. The
territory assigned to Denmark was at once handed over to her
on June 15, while the territory that remained German was forth-
with placed once more under German administration. German
troops reentered Flensburg on June 16 after the members of
the Inter-Allied Commission had left the town.
The detailed settlement of the territory to be ceded to Den-
mark was effected by a treaty concluded between Germany
and Denmark and signed in the middle of July. At the be-
ginning of July Denmark gradually took over the administra-
tion of the ceded districts, the administration of justice being
the last department to become Danish. It is worth noting that
the day of the plebiscite in the second zone coincided with the
Kapp Putsch in Berlin. (C. K.*)
SCHLICH, SIR WILLIAM (1840- ), British forestry expert,
was born at Darmstadt Feb. 28 1840, and educated there and at
the university of Giessen. In 1866 he entered the Indian Forests
Department, became conservator of Forests in 1871, and ten
years later inspector-general of Forests to the Government of
India. He was one of the pioneers of the study of forestry in
England, organizing the first school at Cooper's Hill, which was
afterwards transferred to Oxford in 1905. He was appointed pro-
fessor of Forestry at Oxford the same year. Among his books on
the subject are A Manual of Forestry (1889-95; 3 vols.), and For-
estry in the United Kingdom (1904). In 1901 he was elected a
fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1909 he was created K.C.I.E.
SCHMOLLER, GUSTAV (1838-1917), German political econo-
mist (see 24.344), died in 1917.
SCHOLL, AURELIEN (1833-1902), French author (see 24.356),
died in Paris April 16 1902.
SCHONAICH, FRANZ, FREIHERR VON (1843-1916), Austro-
Hungarian general of infantry and Minister of War, was born
at Vienna in 1843, and entered the army as a lieutenant in 1861.
He spent the greater part of his service on the general staff and
on special employments, especially as a chief of sections in the
War Ministry. For a short time in command of the IX. Corps
he became head of the Austrian Imperial Ministry of Defence,
after which he took over the charge of the Imperial War Minis-
try. Schonaich had an attractive personality, was a practised
orator, and well-informed in political matters. Therefore he
knew how to maintain good relations with the parliamentary
parties, to whom his capacity as an organizer, in the crisis of
the winter of 1908-9 (the annexation of Bosnia and Herzego-
vina), was of great advantage. He was less successful in con-
nexion with the Defence Act of 1911, the financial basis of which
he was only able to arrange with important restrictions and
serious limitations. In this matter he came into conflict with
other influential personages, a circumstance which led to his
retirement in the autumn of 1911. During the World War he
was in supreme command of the War Provisioning Department,
and died at that post in the spring of 1916.
SCHOULER, JAMES (1839- ), American lawyer and his-
torian (see 24.377), published in 1913 a seventh volume of his
History of the United Slates of- America Under the Constitution,
covering the period of reconstruction (1865-71). The original
plan of his work had been enlarged by the publication in 1899 of a
sixth volume, covering the period 1861-5.
SCHREINER, OLIVE (c. 1862-1920), pen-name of Mrs.
Cronwright Schreiner, was born in Basutoland, the daughter
of a German missionary sent out by the London missionary
SCHREINER, W. P. SCHWAB
377
society. She was a sister of W. P. Schreiner, afterwards Prime
Minister of Cape Colony, and married in 1894 Mr. S. C. Cron-
wright, also a S. African politician. Early in 1882, when she was
20 years old, she brought to England the MS. of her first novel,
The Story of an African Farm, and submitted it first to George
Meredith, then reader for Chapman & Hall. He praised the
book and suggested certain alterations, most of which she ac-
cepted. Eventually it was published by the firm in 1883, over
the pseudonym " Ralph Iron." Its success was immediate, but
nothing else that she wrote had quite the same literary quality.
Her later work includes Dreams (1891); Trooper Peter Halkett
of Mashonaland (1897), a much-criticized attack on the first
settlers in Rhodesia; An English South African's View of the
Situation (1899); and Woman and Labour (1911), a fragment of
an earlier MS. which had been burnt with other papers during
the S. African War. She died at Cape Town in Det. 1920.
SCHREINER, WILLIAM PHILIP (1837-1919), South African
lawyer and statesman, the youngest son of a German missionary,
was born in the district of Herschel, Cape Colony. He studied
law at Cape Town and at Cambridge and London universities.
He was called to the bar (Inner Temple) in 1882 and the same
year returned to the Cape where he was admitted an advocate
of the Supreme Court. He soon attained success and was for
many years leader of the Cape bar. In 1893 Schreiner, who had
been legal adviser to the High Commissioner since 1887, began
his political career as attorney-general in the second Ministry
of Cecil Rhodes. He resigned the same year, took the same
portfolio again in Sept. 1894 and remained in office until the
Jameson Raid brought about the downfall of the Rhodes Min-
istry. In 1898, having helped to bring about the fall of the
Sprigg Ministry, Schreiner became Prime Minister of Cape
Colony and held that position when the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-
1902 began. During the crisis which preceded the outbreak of
hostilities he allowed the passage of armaments to the Dutch
republics, and when the war broke out he wished to keep Cape
Colony neutral (see 5. 244). Acute differences in the Cabinet
caused Schreiner to resign office in June 1900. Later he advo-
cated, unsuccessfully, the federation instead of the unification
of the South African colonies. In 1914 he accepted the office
of High Commissioner of the Union in London and held that
post until his death. He died at Llandrindod Wells on June
28 1919. Schreiner married, in 1884, Frances, sister of F. W.
Reitz, President of the Orange Free State. He was a brother
of Olive Schreiner, the novelist. Schreiner was a man of high
attainments, great industry and impressive speech. His
qualities showed at their best at the bar, and the proper crown
of his career would have been a seat on the bench. But as a
politician he suffered from a lack of suppleness which dis-
qualified him from becoming a popular leader. He had also
too much of the cross-bench mind. He was a sincere friend
of the natives, and, in 1908-9 successfully defended Dinizulu
against the charges of treason and murder brought against him.
He also went to London as a delegate of the Coloured Races
Political Association to oppose restrictions in the Act of Union.
SCHULTZ, HERMANN (1836-1903), German theologian (see
24.382), died in 1903.
SCHURMAN, JACOB GOULD (1854- ), American educa-
tionist (see 24.386), was appointed in 1912 U.S. minister to
Greece and Montenegro, serving one year. During the World
War, when Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare, he
urged that American rights be firmly insisted upon; he pointed
out that the destruction of the " Lusitania " in 1915 threatened
to efface the distinction between combatants and non-combat-
ants long recognized by civilized peoples. In 1915 he was first
vice-president of the N.Y. State Constitutional Convention. In
Oct. 1917 he was appointed a member of the N.Y. State Food
Commission, resigning in June 1918 to go to France as lecturer
to American soldiers under the auspices of the Y.M.C.A. He
was opposed to many of President Wilson's policies, especially
in connexion with Mexico, and also to Article X. of the Covenant
of the League of Nations, believing that it would involve the
United States in war. As early as 1913 he urged the independence
of the Philippines in the near future; in 1914 he declared in fa-
vour of woman suffrage. He resigned the presidency of Cornell
University in 1920. He was appointed minister to China in 1921.
He was the author of The Balkan Wars 1912-1913 (1914, lectures
at Princeton).
SCHUSTER, SIR ARTHUR (1851- ), British physicist,
was born in Frankfort-on-Main Sept. 12 1851, the son of Francis
Joseph Schuster, of Frankfort, who in early life made his home
in London, where he carried on a successful business as merchant-
banker in Cannon St., his three sons, Ernest Joseph (b.iSso),
subsequently a well-known lawyer, Arthur, and Felix (see below),
being brought up, like himself, as British subjects. Arthur Schus-
ter was educated at Owens College, Manchester, and at Heidel-
berg University, and devoted himself to a scientific career as an
astronomer and mathematical physicist. He was chief of the
" Eclipse " expedition to Siam in 1875, and from 1888 to 1907 was
professor of physics in Manchester University, his main work for
many years being connected with advanced research in spectro-
scopy, on which subject he contributed the article in the gth ed.
of the E.B. in 1887 (as also to the nth ed. in 1910). He was
awarded the royal medal of the Royal Society in 1893, and was
one of the secretaries of the Royal Society from 1912 till 1920.
He was president of the British Association in 1915, having in
1892 acted as sectional president for astronomy, and he became
well known throughout the scientific world, receiving hon. de-
grees from both Oxford and Cambridge. He was also secretary
of the International Research Council, and during the World
War, both in that capacity and as a representative of the Royal
Society, he did invaluable work as a scientific adviser in con-
nexion with the organization of research in various departments.
He was knighted in 1920, and was appointed a member of the
royal commission on the universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
His numerous publications include works on Theory of Optics
(2nd ed. 1909), The Progress of Physics (1911) and Britain's
Heritage of Science (1917).
His brother, SIR FELIX SCHUSTER, Bart. (1854- ), was
also educated at Owens College, Manchester, and studied fur-
ther abroad, afterwards making his career in London banking.
From 1895 he was identified, as governor, with the Union Bank
of London, afterwards the Union of London & Smiths Bank,
and in 1918 amalgamated with the National Provincial Bank as
the National Provincial & Union Bank of England. He was a
member of the Council of India from 1906 to 1916, and became
chairman both of the Central Association of Bankers and of the
Committee of London Clearing Banks. In these years he es-
tablished for himself a leading position in financial and economic
circles, and was made a member of several important Govern-
ment committees and royal commissions, his annual addresses
to the shareholders of his bank being recognized, with those of
Sir Edward Holden (of the London, City & Midland Bank), as
among the most important contributions of the day to sound
thinking on current monetary problems. He was created a
baronet in 1906.
SCHWAB, CHARLES MICHAEL (1862- ), American cap-
italist, was born at Williamsburg, Pa., April 18 1862. He was
educated in the .public schools and at St. Francis College,
Loretto, Pa., where he gained an elementary knowledge of
engineering. From 1878 to 1880 he was a clerk in a store at
Braddock, Pa., and then became a stake driver in the engineer-
ing corps of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works of Carnegie Bros.
& Co. His ability brought him rapid promotion and in 1881 he
was made chief engineer and assistant manager. Six years later
he was appointed superintendent of the Homestead Steel Works.
In 1889, on the recommendation of Henry Frick, he was made
general superintendent of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, and
in 1892, after the formation of the Carnegie Steel Co., he was
made also general superintendent of the Homestead Works. In
1897 he was elected president of the Carnegie Steel Co., and
when this was merged in 1901 in the U.S. Steel Corp. he was
made president of the latter. He resigned in 1903. He then
turned his attention to shipbuilding and a few years later with
other capitalists secured control of the Bethlehem Steel Corp.,
378
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
which owned the Bethlehem Steel Co., and several other cor-
porations engaged in the iron, steel and shipbuilding business.
He was made chairman of the board of directors. After the out-
break of the World War in 1914 and before the United States
entered it, these companies filled orders for the Allies aggregating
between 400 and 500 million dollars. The manufacture of sub-
marines for England raised the question of neutrality, but this
was solved by shipping parts to Canada, where they were
assembled. It was generally understock that German interests
made attempts to secure control f the Bethlehem works in
order to shut off munitions from the Allies, and a report that
Mr. Schwab was offered $100,000,000 for his interest was not
only widely published but was given prominence in a reception
given to him by the New York Chamber of Commerce, and
neither then nor at any other time denied by Mr. Schwab.
After America's entrance into the war special attention was
given to the speeding up of shipbuilding, and in April 1918, at
the urgent request of President Wilson, Mr. Schwab became
director-general of the shipbuilding board of the Emergency
Fleet Corp. His power of rousing enthusiasm among workers
by personal contact began immediately to produce results. The
resulting output for 1918 was 410 steel vessels (2,570,077 dead-
weight tonnage), 106 wooden ships (376,480 deadweight ton-
nage), and 10 composite ships (37,500 deadweight tonnage), a
total of 526 vessels. After the signing of the Armistice in Nov.
1918, feeling that his services were no longer required, he resigned
from the Emergency Fleet Corp. in Dec. and returned to his
position as chairman of the board of directors of the Bethlehem
Steel Corp. Later, charges were brought that he had wrongfully
used Government money for expenses unrelated to public duties
during his tenure of office, but official investigation completely
exonerated him. His benefactions include a Catholic church at
Loretto, as well as buildings and endowment for St. Francis
College; a church at Braddock, Pa., a school at Weatherly, Pa.,
and a country home on Staten Island, N.Y., for children of the
New York Foundling Hospital.
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT This is one of the names
adopted for a certain body of principles and methods of manage-
ment which have been propounded as applicable to industrial
undertakings, other names being Efficiency Engineering and
Industrial Management. Developed in the United States, main-
ly since about 1905, and particularly in connexion with en-
gineering work, the methods of Scientific Management have
exercised a profound influence on methods of factory manage-
ment in England and on the continent of Europe, as well as in
America. Though applicable to most of the problems of in-
dustrial administration, they have in fact been worked out main-
ly in' connexion with the control of workshop processes.
The theory underlying Scientific Management is briefly that
there is " one best way " of doing every act that has to be per-
formed in a workshop, and that it is the duty of the management
to discover that " one best way " and to make such arrangements
as will ensure that it is always carried out. The method of pro-
cedure may be indicated by propounding the following three
questions :-
1. What are the factors which limit the speed of a particular
workshop process or machine?
2. Why is it that the volume of output from a particular process
is always less at the end of the week than the product of the speed
of the process or of the machine, multiplied by the working hours in
the week, would lead one to expect?
3. Why do some workers produce so much more than others work-
ing under the same conditions?
An attempt to discover full answers to these questions leads
to very far-reaching inquiries, and radical changes in organiza-
tion and administrative methods may become necessary if the
results of such inquiries are to be put to effective use.
Thus, the investigations prompted by the first question may
be expected to lead to modifications of the mechanism and con-
struction of a machine to enable it to run faster; to modifications
of tools or appliances used; to changes of the material used for
machine parts, for tools or for accessory purposes. Changes in
the design of the work to be done might also follow, which, while
leaving the product just as suitable for its purpose as before,
would enable the process to be carried out faster. A different
method of handling the work, the machine or the tools might be
developed, involving a new series of motions on the part of the
workman which would result in a saving of time. Not only
would specific improvements be made of the kind suggested
above, but the effect of each of the many elements which influ-
enced and limited the speed of a process would be reduced to a
law, the knowledge of which would save a great deal of ex-
perimentation in applying the process to changed conditions.
Investigation of the second question might lead to equally
valuable discoveries. For instance, it might be found that the
process was stopped altogether for portions of the working week
for such reasons as lack of continuous supply of material to be
worked on; changes of the " set-up " of a machine due to change
in the nature of the work to be done; breakdowns of the machine;
adjusting or sharpening of tools; waiting for instructions and
many other possible causes. The attempt to remedy these
would lead to the development of methods of work-control and
planning. These would aim at ensuring that material was always
ready to hand to be worked on; that all work of a like nature was
carried through at the one time, to avoid needless resetting of
machines; that tools and appliances were ready to hand; that
instructions as to the next job were prepared and ready in ad-
vance; that the nature of each new piece of work was clearly
described and so on. Schemes of periodic inspection or adjust-
ment of machines or tools might be indicated in order to reduce
time lost through breakdowns.
The third question would lead to the discovery that different
workmen had slightly different ways of doing the same thing,
and that the ways of the faster workers could be explained to and
adopted by the others; that some workers were temperamen-
tally more suited to a particular kind of work than others; that
some were not trying; that others were trying too hard and were
worrying themselves by their failure; that in some cases the re-
lations between the workmen and the foreman were happy and
in other cases not.
The remedying of these troubles would lead to careful methods
of choosing workmen for particular jobs, to ensure that men of
suitable temperament as well as capacity and skill were em-
ployed; to schemes of instruction for showing the worker exactly
what was required of him, and for teaching him the methods
which had been found to be the best for carrying out the work
in question. A scheme of payment by result might be developed,
to give the workman the necessary incentive to ensure that he
would profit by the instruction given him and would follow the
methods laid down. The methods of control, the relationship of
the various grades of personnel and the demarcation of the
spheres of authority of the various officers of the workshop
might also require rearranging, to allow of the foregoing changes
and to ensure satisfactory relations between the workmen and
those directing them. Built up on the result of such investiga-
tions as have been indicated, a variety of systems of manage-
ment have grown up, one emphasizing one factor and another
specializing in another direction, and all known by the general
description of Scientific Management.
The origin of the movement is traceable to the work of F. W.
Taylor, an American engineer, for many years a manager in the
works of the Bethlehem Steel Co., Midvale, Pa. His investiga-
tions, leading later to the development of his methods and prin-
ciples of management, sprang from the attempt on his part to
lay down a standard fair day's work and to see that he got it from
the men under his control. This led him into a deep analysis of
the elements affecting the amount of work that could be done in
a given time, and in turn by the kind of steps already indicated
to the formulation of his system. One of the largest single pieces
of investigation carried through by him was concerned with es-
tablishing the laws governing the rate of removal of metal by
cutting-tools in a machine. This was carried on at intervals
during 26 years. One result of it was the discovery in 1899 of
modifications in the composition of tool steel from which the
modern high-speed steel was developed. The whole results were
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
379
published in 1906 in the Transactions of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers under the title" The Art of Cutting Metals."
In this Taylor distinguished 12 different factors as influencing
the possible speed, and he established formulae expressing the
effect which each had on the rate at which metal could be re-
moved during a machining operation. He found that the maxi-
mum speed of working could only be attained by a correct
adjustment of each variable in relation to all the others. To
enable this calculation to be made quickly, one of Taylor's
assistants, C. G. Earth, devised a type of compound slide rule,
by which the best adjustment of the 12 variables referred to
could quickly be found, so establishing the combination of condi-
tions under which the work could be done in the shortest time.
An account of these slide rules was published in the Transactions
of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1904). A
special slide rule was needed for every variation of every type of
machine, and in order to reduce this complication it was neces-
sary to group together all machines capable of doing similar
work and to modify them so as to make their movements identi-
cal. One calculation and one slide rule would then serve for all
the machines of a group. In other words, machines were, where
possible, standardized.
To enable maximum cutting speeds to be attained Taylor
established, as a result of the foregoing investigation, a set of
standard cutting tools for the commonest kinds of machine opera-
tions, such as lathe work. These standard tools were specified as
to contour of cutting edge, all angles of cutting edge, size of
shank and hardening treatment, etc.
Another piece of standardization work resulting from Taylor's
investigations was in connexion with the design and use of belt
\ drives. Obviously, if a machine was to be called on to give its
maximum performance the means of driving it must be suitable
to ensure adequate power. This necessitated an investigation
into the laws of power transmission by belting and the drawing
up of rules for the standardization both of the material of the
belts themselves and of the conditions under which they should
be used. One of the most important of these conditions is the
tightness of the belt before starting up the drive. Besides laying
down suitable rules for this, apparatus was designed for measur-
ing and checking it. Accounts of this work were published by
Taylor in 1894 and elaborated by Barth in 1908, both in the
Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Concurrently with all this investigation another line of
thought had been receiving attention, both from Taylor and
others, again mostly in connexion with the engineering trade.
This was the problem of obtaining from the workman a higher
level of effort than he gave under ordinary methods of workshop
management. Although " piece work " payment by the piece
as against payment by the hour or day was in very general
use in many industries, the practice of "cutting the rate" had
reduced its efficiency as a stimulus to maximum effort. One of
the earliest attempts was the development during the 'eighties
by H. R. Towne of the Yale & Towne Mfg. Co., United States,
of a scheme called by him " gain sharing," according to which
improvements in the efficiency of a works department resulted
in the payment to workers in it of a bonus on a prearranged
scale. Other plans were the Rowan scheme, which consisted
. in the fixing of a variable rate per piece, the rate falling ac-
cording to a fixed scale as the workmen's output rose. By this
plan, although the workman benefitted by extra effort, the rate
of increase of benefit constantly diminished. The aim was to
avoid the temptation to "cut the rate" while still making an
attempt to fix a standard of expected output from the workman.
This plan was published in 1891.
In 1895 Taylor published his Differential Piece Rate, which
may be considered to be the basis on which all the multitudinous
systems of payment by result of the Scientific Management
movement are founded. Taylor's system contained two revo-
lutionary ideas. The first was the careful specification in great
detail of the work to be done, with standard times allowed for
each element of the work as against the " overall " time hitherto
specified for the complete job. The second was the offering of
an increased rate of return to the worker for increases in his
efficiency exactly the opposite to the Rowan plan. This was
achieved by offering two alternative piece rates, the lower to
apply if the work was done at less than the standard speed
and the higher if it were done at the standard speed or faster.
The feasibility of this scheme depended entirely on the accuracy
with which the "standard time" could be determined. So im-
portant did this become that the idea of " time study," with
its later development of " motion study," is probably the best-
known feature of Scientific Management, and indeed is often
taken to be synonymous with it.
Many modifications of Taylor's scheme of payment by result
were developed by other workers in the movement. All retained
as their basis the setting of a standard time by careful time
study, the time being built up of the times for the elements of
the work, and the nature of the work to be done and the methods
to be followed being specified in great detail. All provided
that the rate of incentive should increase at or about the
efficiency needed to accomplish the task. The best known of
these other schemes are the " Gantt bonus plan " by H. L.
Gantt, published in 1901, and that of Harrington Emerson,
published in 1909.
It will be realized that the characteristic features of Scientific
Management so far touched on the standardization of appli-
ances and methods, the detailed specification of the work to be
done, time and motion study, setting the workmen's task, regu-
lating his payment by his performance of it all lead to in-
creased complication of management functions.
The material equipment of a works requires special attention
to keep it in conformity with the standard. The quality of raw
material must be more carefully regulated to enable it to be
worked at the standard speeds and on the standard methods.
The elimination of waiting between jobs requires elaborate
planning of work; the making of time studies is the work of ex-
perts; the studies themselves require constant revision to suit
changes in design, working methods or material; the incentive
to output necessitates systematic inspection of work to ensure
the standards of accuracy or finish being maintained. In
these and numberless other directions work of a much higher
order than hitherto is demanded from the management staff if
the system is to function at all.
In order to enable the works management to cope with the
new demands made upon it, Taylor devised a new method of
administrative organization known as functional control, and
applied it particularly to the sphere of the shop foreman.
Under the usual methods of organization a foreman has com-
plete charge of the men under him. All instructions from the
higher management pass through him and reach the workman
as though they were the foreman's own orders. Taylor's idea
was that the instructions which had to be given to the workmen
under his system were so much more detailed and elaborate, and
dealt with so many more aspects of his work than hitherto, that
it became impossible to pass them through a single foreman. It
was impossible, he claimed, to find a foreman sufficiently expert
in all the sides of the control work or having a sufficiently rich
endowment of qualities to carry out the multiplicity of functions
now embodied in management. Thus, he would have to be
sufficiently skilled at the particular process to teach the men
under him how to carry it out; he should have the impartial
judgment of an inspector; he must have the assertiveness and
force of character needed to get a good day's work out of his
men; knowledge of character, sympathy and sense of justice
to deal with matters of discipline; he must be methodical and
sufficiently versed in clerical and statistical methods to plan out
his work and avoid loss of time between one job and another. He
must understand costing, methods of handling material, time
study and the setting and adjusting of piece or bonus rates, and
so on. Because of the obvious impossibility of creating a staff
of foremen who should be experts in all these lines, Taylor re-
placed the single foreman having complete charge of a group of
men by a number of " functional foremen," each specializing
on one aspect of management control. Each individual workman
3 8o
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
would now receive his orders from perhaps half a dozen experts.
One told him which job to do next, or in what order to do a series
of jobs. Another supplied him with the instructions as to the
nature of the work to be done or the article to be worked on.
Another told him at what speed to run his machine. Another
saw to the upkeep of the machine; another set the piece rate;
another judged the quality of the product, and so on. Behind
each of these functional foremen was a special department look-
ing after a particular aspect of management, of which he was
the mouthpiece, as far as the workman was concerned.
This rigid and h'teral working-out of Taylor's idea of " manage-
ment by experts" had usually to be modified in practice on ac-
count of the friction and confusion it almost inevitably led to,
due to the difficulty of defining sufficiently clearly the sphere of
each functional foreman, or to the clash of personalities.
Harrington Emerson embodied the necessary modification of
Taylor's scheme in his plan of "Staff and Line" organization,
published in 1909. In this the usual chain of executive authority,
the " line," wa* maintained, by which a group of men was wholly
answerable to a single foreman, a group of foremen to a depart-
mental manager, several of these to a works manager, and so on.
The experts, on the other hand, were collected into special " staff "
departments, and their functions were to advise or instruct the
"line" officials as to what instructions should be given, or how
their work could best be done. This plan gives scope in the
line organization for that personal leadership which was fatally
destroyed by Taylor's functional foremanship, but still enables
the methods of work and the technical policy to be laid down by
experts in the various functions.
The last of the three questions propounded at the beginning
of this article did not receive the same amount of attention as
the other two at the hands of any of the leaders of the Scientific
Management school of thought. Taylor in his paper on Shop
Management (1903) does, it is true, make a feature of selection
of the worker to suit the job, but his ideas in this direction were
very different from those of the later school of applied psychol-
ogy. Taylor's aim was the discovery, by records of individual
performance, which men were as a matter of fact most successful
in carrying out the task set them. The less successful were to be
shown the correct methods of working, but if they still failed to
reach the predetermined level of achievement, which was that
of a good man, not an average worker, they were to be discharged
to make room for others. A follower of Taylor, Dr. Katherine
Blackford, made an attempt at selection of the workers before-
hand, in distinction to Taylor's selection by trial and error on
the job. In her book, The Job, the Man and the Boss (1914), she
attempted to devise tests which should indicate the capacity
of men for various kinds of work, i.e. their chance of making
good if taken on and given trial. In view of the recent progress
of applied psychology in this field, her work is not, however,
worthy of serious consideration.
It may be useful to summarize the features embodied in
Scientific Management systems as actually applied to an in-
dustrial undertaking.
Standardization of all machines doing similar work; of all fac-
tory equipment, e.g. driving and power transmission gear, factory
furniture, etc. ; of all tools and appliances ; of materials to be worked
on; of routines; of quality of work, etc. The maintenance of the
standards usually necessitates several special departments, e.g. for
inspection of quality, for upkeep of machines and tools, for dissemina-
tion of information, etc.
Time and Motion Study. Time studies are made of the elements
of all jobs, as distinct from overall times. Motion study is a develop-
ment of time study, being an analysis by special methods (including
photographic and even cinematographic) of the motions involved
in an element of work. From this study motions or parts of motions
which are useless are eliminated and the new method taught to
the worker. The results of time and motion studies are embodied
in written instructions for the use of the worker. These are in con-
siderable detail, covering not only a full description of the work to
be done but also of the exact methods of doing it, the tools to be used,
the "setting" of the machine, etc., with times for each element both
of the machine's work and the work of handling.
Payment by Result. Some schemes of extra payment for the suc-
cessful performance of the task as laid down in the instruction based
on the time study.
Functional Management. This may vary from complete func-
tional foremanship to functional study of methods, technique and
procedure, the results being conveyed to the workman via a depart-
mental foreman.
Planning. A special functional department is charged with lay-
ing down the order of preference of all work, the sequence of opera-
tions or moves through which each job has to pass, the arranging
beforehand that all material, tools, appliances, etc., shall be on
hand for each job when needed, the conveying of all instructions
either to the foreman or to the workman according to the degree of
functional management in operation. The planning department is
also the central statistical bureau of the factory where all records of
the state of advancement of all jobs, of costs, of machines avail-
able, often of stores, of men available, etc., are kept.
These features do not exhaust all the functions of management,
but may be taken as those which distinguish Scientific Manage-
ment schemes of organization from earlier types. Of course,
certain of these features have been selected and applied in many
instances where the full and complete scheme has not been
adopted. A scheme which could claim to be ranked among the
instances of Scientific Management would, however, include all
the above features.
This account would not be complete without some mention
of the attitude of labour to Scientific Management. Taylor
himself, and later some of his followers, made extravagant
claims to the effect that the new methods, by enabling standards
of work to be laid down and the worker's achievement to be
measured and his exertion rewarded on a prearranged scale,
solved the labour problem. Not only has this happy result
failed to materialize, but the attitude of labour, suspicious at
the outset, has tended to harden into declared antagonism. The
extension of the system in America was opposed more and more
vigorously as time went on, leading to a serious strike against
it in the Watertown Arsenal in 1911.
As a result of growing antagonism the United States Commis-
sion on Industrial Relations in 1914 directed that an investiga-
tion into the working of Scientific Management should be made,
and appointed for this purpose Prof. R. F. Hoxie, of the univer-
sity of Chicago, with the assistance of a Scientific Management
expert and a labour leader. This Commission visited many of
the chief establishments in the United States at which Scientific
Management was in operation, and its findings are given in Prof.
Hoxie's book Scientific Management and Labor. Everywhere the
investigators found labour antagonistic; the objections which,
with minor ones, appear to be fundamental were as follows:
The system leads to " driving " the worker and to sweating, due to
its attempt to speed up all to the speed of the fastest.
The minute splitting up of jobs leads to very much increased
specialization of the worker, to the narrowing of his range of skill,
and consequently to the destruction of craftsmanship. The work
became more monotonous and less satisfying to the worker.
It was claimed that the individual task and reward, and the con-
stant selecting of the fastest workers, destroyed the solidarity of the
workers in a factory. The knowledge of a "trade" was no longer
necessary to the workmen; all the speciajized knowledge having
been acquired by the management, the workman had less to sell than
previously.
For these and other reasons it was claimed by the workers that
the system was anti-social; that it was undemocratic; that it
treated the worker as a tool, denied him scope for his personality,
and condemned him to endless routine meticulously laid down ana
arbitrarily enforced.
There can be no doubt that much of the resentment of labour
has been aroused by the personality and mental attitude of the
Scientific Management experts and the staffs they created in
the works which they reorganized, rather than by the fundamen-
tal ideas of their system. Their conception of industry was en-
tirely mechanical. Their organizations were ingenious struc-
tures of men, machines and routines. Each of these had its place
in their buildings, but like steel, brick and cement, though
differing in their qualities, all alike were simply building mate-
rials, inanimate and obedient to the hand of the builder.
This cast of mind inevitably bred bitter antagonism in labour,
and by the year 1921 there was already distinct evidence of a
change on the part of the most advanced organizers, both in
America and in England. It was significant of this change that
Taylor's scheme of functional foremanship had come to be re-
SCOTLAND
garded as mistaken even by many of his closest followers, who
were inclining to believe that in forfeiting the vital factor of
personal leadership the loss was greater than could be compen-
sated for by any amount of intensification of expert knowledge.
There was a growing tendency too to concentrate study and
standardization on the inanimate side of industry, on machines,
tools and equipment, on materials and their treatment, on
handling methods and appliances, on labour-saving devices,
rather than on speeding up and regulating the motions of the
worker. The same distinction was seen in the attitude of Brit-
ish labour leaders to Scientific Management. Among the more
intellectual leaders the accumulation of more and more of the
technical knowledge of an industry in the hands of the manage-
ment and the more detailed regulation and instruction of the
manual worker which results were recognized as inevitable.
They were seen to be merely a continuation of the process of re-
placing hand labour and hand skill by machinery. Such men
accepted the need for the application of science to industry as
far as the inanimate factors were concerned, and concentrated
their antagonism against the treatment of the worker as mere
impersonal mechanism.
By the end of the World War some 100-200 American under-
takings, largely engineering concerns, had adopted Scientific
Management in one or another of its forms, as a complete system.
In Great Britain the number of such firms was perhaps one-tenth
of those in America, and the positions in France and Germany
were perhaps less advanced still. The influence of the movement,
however, cannot be estimated by any such figures. For every
concern that had adopted the system in its entirety there were
10 or 20 that had adopted portions of it, or had modified their
previous methods of management under the influence of ideas
first given prominence by the Scientific Management school.
The conception of " the one best way," the belief that every act,
every relation and every implement of industry is worthy of
close and systematic study, has provided an inspiration and a
stimulus to management methods in all industries and in every
country, the effect of which can hardly be less than that of the
introduction into industry of machinery a hundred years ago.
(C. G. R.)
SCOTLAND (see 24.412*). The history of Scotland from 1910
to 1921 resolves itself largely into the effect of the World War
(1914-9) and of the conclusion of peace upon industry and com-
merce. In the history of actual military operations, Scotland
played, naturally, a small part, although for the first time in the
history of Great Britain as a sea-power, the main activities of
the fleet took place in Scottish waters. Zeppelins attacked
Edinburgh and the E. coast on April 2 1916. On May 2, in the
course of a raid which was upon an unusually large scale, but had
very slight results, a Zeppelin (20) missed Edinburgh and sailed
as far N. as Aberdeenshire, where it dropped bombs which fell
harmlessly on fields. Another fruitless expedition to the S.E.
of Scotland took place on Aug. 9 1916; the raiders got into
thick weather and their bombs were dropped in rural areas. On
May 15 1918, St. Kilda was bombarded by a German submarine
and damage was done to the church and some other buildings.
The surrender of the German fleet is the only other operation
definitely associated with Scotland. German naval emissaries
arrived in the Firth of Forth on Nov. 15 1918, and the surrender
began on Nov. 21. It was in Scapa Flow that the crews of 70
German warships scuttled their ships on June 21 1919.
The part played by Scotland in supplying man-power and in
providing munitions of war was worthy of the national tradition.
The Scottish recruiting record in the period preceding the intro-
duction of compulsory service will compare with that of any other
portion of the United Kingdom, and Scottish industries, like
those of England and Wales, were directed to the production of
war material. The Clyde, naturally, took a large part in naval
construction and repairs, and all over Scotland, munition fac-
tories came into existence. In the naval warfare, the E. coast of
Scotland was of great strategic importance.
Apart from the war and its effects, the ten years witnessed
few important internal events or movements. Trade and com-
merce were frequently interrupted by strikes, but the only se-
rious riots took place in Glasgow on Jan. 31 1919, when consid-
erable damage was done to buildings. Political interests, before
the war, pursued their traditional course, and in the general
election of Dec. 1910, Scotland returned 58 Liberal, n Unionist,
and 3 Labour or Socialist members. By the date of the Armistice,
party politics had undergone a complete transformation, and, at
the general election of Dec. 1918, Scotland, which by the Reform
Act of 1918 received two additional members, returned 58 sup-
porters of the Coalition, 7 Independent Liberals, 7 Labour rep-
resentatives and 2 Independents. A feature of the period has
been the large number of state visits paid by King George and
Queen Mary. An Accession Court was held at Holyrood in
June 1910, and, a year later, the King dedicated the new chapel
of the Thistle in St. Giles's cathedral, Edinburgh. Royal visits
to Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee, Perth and Stirling took place
in July 1914. During the war, the King paid some private visits
to centres of munition industries, and the programme of state
visits was resumed in July 1920, when the King and Queen held
a Court at Holyrood, and in their yachts visited the Clyde dur-
ing the regatta known as the " Clyde Fortnight."
In church affairs, the most important events have been the
issue in 1910 of the final Report of the Royal Co'mmission ap-
pointed under the Churches (Scotland) Act of 1905, allocating
the property of the old Free Church between the United Free
Church and the Free Church, and the series of negotiations for
union between the Church of Scotland and the United Free
Church, which became a matter of practical politics after the
discussions in the Assemblies of 1912 and had advanced so far
by 1919 that, on Dec. 17, the commission of the Assembly of the
Church of Scotland agreed to approach the Government with a
viey to carrying a bill through Parliament.
The recent growth of a keener appreciation of the value of
historical records and monuments is illustrated by the enact-
ment in 1913 of the Ancient Monuments Consolidation and
Amendment Act, by the work done by the Royal Commission on
Ancient Monuments, originally appointed in 1908, and by the
gift of four great historical buildings to the nation. In 1918,
Lord Glenconner presented Dryburgh Abbey to the nation, and
in the same year the Duke of Buccleuch followed his example by
the gift of Melrose Abbey. In 1919, the Duke of Roxburghe
made an arrangement with the Commissioners of Public Works
and Buildings by which Kelso Abbey became a national monu-
ment and is maintained by the State, and in 1920 Col. Hall
Dempster placed Restenneth Priory (Forfarshire) in the charge
of the Commissioners of Works for national guardianship and
for the benefit of the nation. On the other hand, by an outrage
attributed to suffragettes, Scotland lost on Feb. 26 1914 the
church of Whitekirk (Haddingtonshire), one of the few beau-
tiful pre-Reformation churches surviving.
Two important centenary celebrations took place in the
period the quin-centenary of the foundation of the university
of St. Andrews, held in 1911, when Lord Rosebery was installed
as Lord Rector and made a famous oration, and the sex-cen-
tenary of the victory of Bannockburn (June 24 1314), which
was celebrated by a procession and a banquet at Stirling on
June 27 1914, when Sir George Douglas delivered the address.
The town council of Aberdeen commemorated the quin-cen-
tenary of the battle of Harlaw, fought in 1411, and the town
council of Arbroath, in Sept. 1920, held a patriotic and religious
service to celebrate the sex-centenary of a famous assertion of
the independence of Scotland in a letter addressed to the Pope
by a Parliament which met in the abbey at Arbroath in 1320.
More practical evidence of renewed interest in Scottish history
was given by the success of the Scottish Historical Exhibition
at Glasgow, opened by the Duke of Connaught in May 1911,
the proceeds of which formed the main endowment of a Chair
of Scottish History and Literature founded in the university of
Glasgow in 1913.
The demand for some form of Scottish Home Rule has been
insistently pressed by its advocates since 1910 but there has
been no evidence of any wide-spread feeling on the topic, apart
' These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
3 82
SCOTLAND
from the more general question of the adoption of a system of
Devolution for the United Kingdom, a suggestion which re-
ceived much parliamentary support in the years 1918-20.
Apart from the extensions of Edinburgh and Glasgow, the
most important municipal event is the amalgamation, in 1920,
of Motherwell (about 42,860 inhabitants) with Wishaw (about
27,484 inhabitants) to form a single municipality known as
Motherwell and Wishaw.
Legislation. In addition to the emergency war legislation which
affected Scotland equally with England the decade 1911-20 was
marked by a series of important legislative enactments, intimately
affecting the political and social life of the country. A vast change
was made in the parliamentary electorate by the Representation of
the People Act of 1918, which increased the number of voters
(counties, burghs and universities) from 800,448 at the general
election of Dec. 1910, to 2,211,178 at the general election held in
Dec. 1918. The Fourth Reform Act (1918) not only made a
wide extension of the franchise; it also, by its redistribution of
the constituencies, severed the last link with the old tradition
of Scottish parliamentary representation as it existed before the
union. The shire ceased to be the unit of county representation,
and the old Scottish system of separate burghal representation
was abandoned. The burgesses had sat in the Scottish Par-
liament, as a separate estate, from a much earlier period than the
commissioners of shires, and the royal burghs, which they repre-
sented, had special trading privileges which distinguished their inter-
ests from those of the counties in which they were situated. The
principle, adopted in 1707, of grouping together small burghs, some-
times geographically distant, as separate constituencies, was retained
in 1832, 1868 and 1885; e.g. the inland burgh of Elgin voted with
the distant seaport of Peterhead, instead of forming part of the con-
stituency of Morayshire. In 1918 the burgh of Perth, which had
enjoyed separate representation, and eight groups or districts of
burghs were merged in county constituencies; six districts of burghs
still exist, but the constituent members of each group are in close
geographical proximity. The last vestiges of the privileges of royal
burghs, in which the distinctively Scottish system of distribution
originated, had been removed as long ago as 1846.
The other important Acts of the period may be described as
social legislation, dealing with housing and provision for medical
attendance, land questions, temperance and education. An Act
of 1909 had extended to Scotland the Housing of Working Classes
Acts, 1900-3, with certain modifications, and had given powers to
local authorities, with the consent of the Scottish Local Government
Board, for the compulsory acquirement of land ; for the borrowing
of money from the Public Works Loan Commissioners to provide
working-class dwelling-houses; and for the execution of town-plan-
ning schemes. The shortage of houses which became a serious social
danger after the war, not only led to various emergency Acts limit-
ing rents and mortgage interest and severely restricting the powers of
landlords to terminate existing tenancies, but was also one of the
causes of the creation of a Scottish Board of Health by an Act of
1919. The powers and duties of the Local Government Board for
Scotland, and the Scottish Insurance Commissioners and also some
powers of the Privy Council conferred by a large variety of recent
Acts, were transferred to the Board of Health, which was entrusted
with the execution of all measures conducive to the health of the
people. A Housing (Scotland) Act of the same year (9 & 10 Geo. V.,
C. 60) gave to the new Board of Health the supervision of the
schemes of local authorities for the provision of working-class dwell-
ings, and empowered it, in the event of the failure of local authorities
to prepare schemes, to make a public inquiry in any such locality
and to arrange for the preparation of a scheme. The Act made pro-
vision for financial assistance (under the supervision of the Board
of 'Health) to local authorities, public utility societies, and housing
trusts, for the building of houses, largely increased the powers of
local authorities as regards compulsory purchase, and made it com-
pulsory for them to prepare town-planning schemes. Other mea-
sures affecting public health which were passed during the decade
were the Highlands and Islands (Medical Service) Grant Act of
1913, which created an annual grant of 42,000 for the improvement
of medical services and nursing in the Highlands and Islands; and
the Midwives (Scotland) Act of 1915! which provided for the train-
ing and certification of midwives. The powers granted to the Privy
Council under these two Acts are among those transferred to the
Board of Health. The first Annual Report of the Board of Health
(for the year 1919) showed that 212 housing schemes had been sub-
mitted by local authorities, providing for the erection of 112,573
houses, the total pop. represented by the authorities being 4,169,501.
The report brought out the interesting point that, even in localities
which are near stone quarries, the cost of building in stone exceeded,
by a considerable sum, the cost of building in brick.
A very important measure dealing with land was passed in 1911.
By the Small Landholders (Scotland) Act, the Scottish Land Court
and the Board of Agriculture for Scotland were constituted, and the
provisions of the earlier Crofters Acts were extended to other small
landholders, and were amended in various respects. A dignified
status was given to the Land Court by a provision that its chairman
should enjoy the same rank and tenure of office as a judge of the
Court of Session. The powers of the Board of Agriculture and Fish-
eries, under previous statutes, were distributed between the Board of
Agriculture and the Board of Fisheries, and an Agricultural (Scot-
land) Fund was created for the establishment, enlargement and im-
provement of small holdings. Disputes between landlords and the
Board of Agriculture are settled in the Land Court, which also deter-
mines the amount payable to landowners as compensation for per-
manent improvements, fixes rents in certain cases and prescribes
regulations for pasture, grazing and common rights. The decisions
of the Land Court are not subject to review by other courts, though
the Court of Session may be consulted by the Land Court on ques-
tions of law. The first Report of the Land Court, for the nine months
ending Dec. 31 1912, showed that 2,434 applications for small hold-
ings had been received, and that 256 had been decided, the total
rents, in these cases, being reduced from 2,226 i6s. to 1,568 2s.
and arrears of rent amounting to 1,721 145. being reduced to 771
193. In 1919, "fair rents" were fixed for 170 holdings, the average
reduction of rent being 10%, and 275 holdings were re-valued, at the
expiry of seven years from the fixing of a " fa'ir rent "; the original
rents of these holdings amounted to 2,823, the first "fair rents"
to 1,927, and the rents fixed in 1919 to 2,058, representing an in-
crease of over 6J % on the previous decisions an indication of the
improvement in the value of land. Further provision for the acqui-
sition of land for the purposes of small holdings was made by the
Land Settlement (Scotland) Act of 1019 (9 & 10 Geo. V., C. 97),
which also amended the Small Landowners Act of 1911. Fresh
powers were given to the Board of Agriculture by the removal of
restrictions as to total area to be acquired and as to methods of pur-
chasing or taking land on lease or feu, and by widening the range of
its activities. A large series of statutes for crofts and small holdings
is now in operation, and the Land Court in its 1919 Report drew
attention to the urgent necessity for their codification in order to
remove ambiguities, inconsistencies, and difficulties of interpreta-
tion. Less important measures dealing with land were the Feudal
Casualties Act of 1914, for providing for the redemption of dupli-
cands and grassums (entry fees) and other sums payable by feu-
holders to their superiors at intervals of more than a year; the
Entail (Scotland) Act of 1914 restricting the possibilities of future
entails of land or property ; and the Duplicands of Feuduties (Scot-
land) Act of 1920, passed to reverse the effect of a decision of the
House of Lords in 1919 that a" duplicand" payment of a feuduty
means, unless otherwise defined in a deed, the payment of double
the regular feuduty in addition to the ordinary annual payment.
The Act defines a duplicand, in accordance with what has been the
traditional usage, as "one year's feuduty only over and above the
feuduty for the year." The prevalence of the system of feus in Scot-
land rendered the legal decision a matter of considerable importance.
Liquor Licensing. The Temperance Act (Scotland) 1913 pro-
vided that, on the Act's coming into force in June 1920, local author-
ities should, on the receipt of signed requisitions from electors in
their areas, take a poll on three alternative resolutions dealing with
the number of licenses in an area. The resolutions were (i) that
there should be no change in the system of licensing, (2) that the
licensing court should grant not more than 75% of the licenses pre-
viously in force and (3) that no license should be granted within
the area, except, in special circumstances, to bona fide hotel and
restaurant keepers, who might be allowed to sell drink in retail to
residents in hotels or to persons taking meals at restaurants. The
areas were defined as burghs of a pop. not exceeding 25,000 ; separate
wards in larger burghs; and parishes in the counties. The voters
were defined as electors to town councils in burghs and electors to
parish councils in the counties. Each voter could vote for only one
resolution, but, where a no-license resolution was not carried, the
votes given for no-license were to be added to the votes given for
limitation of licenses. A no-license resolution was to require 55 %
of the recorded votes in a poll of not less than 35 % of the electors, in
order to be carried; a limitation resolution required a bare majority
vote in a poll of the same size. Polls were held in Nov. and Dec.
1920, in 580 out of 1,221 polling areas; of the remainder, about 300
were areas in which no license existed, and in the rest no requisitions
were submitted for a poll. The polls took place in all the towns and
in the more thickly populated rural districts. Five hundred and nine
areas voted for no change, 35 for limitation of licenses, and 40 for
no license. The total numbers of votes were: 708,727 (60%) for
no change; 19,400 (1-6%) for limitation; and 453.728 (38-4%) for
no license. In Glasgow, four wards (Camphill, Cathcart, Pollok-
shields and Whiteinch) voted for no license, and nine wards for
limitation; in Edinburgh, Dundee and Aberdeen no change was
carried in every ward. There were in Nov. 1020, 9,371 licensed prem-
ises in Scotland, of which 1,471 were hotels or inns, 4,847 were
public-houses and 3,053 were grocers' shops. The reduction made
in May 1921, in accordance with the result of the polls, involved the
extinction of about 450 licenses, a majority being in urban areas,
where middle-class residential districts voted for the abolition or
reduction of licenses. Glasgow contributed 99 to the total number of
withdrawals of licenses, jbut these were chiefly in the residential dis-
tricts already named or in other residential districts like Govanhill,
Kelvinside, Park and Pollokshaws, in which there was an unusually
SCOTLAND
383
large proportion of grocers' licenses. Among the smaller towns
which "went dry" were Buckie, Cullen, Kirkintilloch, Sanquhar,
Lerwick, Stornoway, Stromness and Wick. The contest was fought
by the Temperance party on a prohibition programme, and its in-
fluence was thrown against the limitation resolution; the result
was, therefore, rather a repudiation of prohibition than an indica-
tion of satisfaction with existing licensing conditions. The Act of
1913 provided for further polls, on a requisition by electors, in Nov.
and Dec. 1923, but the experience of the poll of 1920 made it clear
that modifications were required in the Act, especially in the defini-
tion of an "area "as a single ward in the larger burghs, which must
be treated as a whole in order to secure that any reduction of licenses
shall be more equally distributed than was possible in 1920.
Education. A large amount of attention has been devoted to
education, with a corresponding increase in public expenditure,
both national and local. The English Education Act of 1918, which
marks an era in State provision for education, was accompanied by
the Education (Scotland) Act of the same year. The Act swept away
the system of school-boards, created in 1872, in favour of the prin-
ciple of a larger area for educational administration than a parish.
The new administrative body created by the Act is known by the
awkward name of an Educational Authority. Five large burghs,
Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Dundee and Leith, were made
separate educational areas; the number has since been reduced to
four by the amalgamation of Leith with Edinburgh. Elsewhere, the
area is the county, including the burghs within its bounds, and the
. Secretary for Scotland was empowered to make, by order, electoral
divisions within the areas, to define the number of members of each
educational authority, and to apportion the representatives among the
divisions of the area. Electors to educational authorities are the
persons registered as local government electors under the Represen-
tation of the People Act (1918). Voting is conducted on the prin-
ciple of proportional representation; each elector has one transfer-
able vote. School management committees, acting under an educa-
tion authority and including representatives of parents and of teach-
ers, exercise general powers of supervision and management, but
have no control over finance, or over the appointment or dismissal
of teachers. Education authorities are empowered to expend public
money not only on the maintenance of schools but also on the pro-
vision of food and of books for the children (including books for gen-
eral reading), and they may make grants to pay travelling expenses
of young persons resident at a distance from the nearest interme-
diary or secondary school, and may give assistance to a qualified
person attending a university or training college. They are bound
to provide free primary, intermediary and secondary education in
all districts, but may maintain a limited number of fee-paying schools
and may also make contributions to certain schools not under their
jurisdiction. Religious instruction may be given in the schools, but
no child whose parents object to such instruction is thereby to lose
any other advantage of the school. Voluntary or denominational
schools may be (and nearly all have been) transferred to educational
authorities and managed as public schools, their teachers being
appointed by the local authority and approved as to character and
religious belief by representatives of the church or body by whom
the school was conducted. In such transferred schools, the time
devoted to religious instruction is not less than it was under the
former management. Voluntary schools, not thus transferred,
are not eligible for grants from the Education Fund ; new voluntary
schools may be established by educational authorities under con-
ditions similar to those affecting transferred schools. An educational
authority administers the Education Fund of the area, arising from
Government grants or loans, supplemented by its own education
rate, which is fixed by the authority and levied by the parish councils
of the area. The Act also extended the school age to 15 years and
severely limited the employment of children of school age, prohibiting
the employment of children under 15 in factories, workshops, mines
or quarries, and forbidding street trading by persons under seven-
teen. A system of continuation schools was also provided for.
An attendance of 320 hours annually in a continuation school may
be required from all young persons up to the age of 18, unless their
education is otherwise provided for, and instruction in such schools
is to include English and general education, instruction for special
forms of employment, and physical culture; when the scheme comes
into operation, employers will be bound to afford facilities for an
attendance of 320 hours, exclusive of hours between 7 P.M. and 8 A.M.,
unless hours within these limits are sanctioned by the Scottish Edu-
cation Department, the approval of which is also required for the
exercise of a large number of the powers conferred by the Act.
The operation of the Act of 1918, contemporaneously with a large
increase in the salaries of teachers, has resulted in a vast increase of
expenditure. The estimate for ordinary public education in Scot-
land for the year ending March 31 1911, was 2,253,725, and for the
year ending March 31 1921, 6,877,220, and to this increase have to
be added the large sums raised by local rates, which have risen pro-
portionally. The system of assessment, based on house rent, and
divided, in almost equal proportions, between proprietor and tenant,
is generally regarded as being no longer suitable to the circumstances,
the value of the house occupied by a ratepayer not affording a satis-
factory test of his ability to pay, and a demand has been made for
the substitution of a local income tax; some reform of the system
of local rates has been promised by the Secretary for Scotland. In
addition to State grants for elementary and secondary education,
financial assistance to the Scottish universities has been increased
from an estimate of 93,000 in the year ending March 31 1911 to
an estimate of 195,000 for the year ending March 31 1921, besides
a share of a non-recurring grant to universities and other institutions
adversely affected by the war. Private benefactions, including
grants from the Carnegie Trustees, have provided funds for the in-
stitution of new chairs and lectureships in all the universities,
including chairs of Scottish History and Literature, French,
German, Bacteriology, Organic Chemistry, Physiological Chem-
istry, Mercantile Law and Engineering at Glasgow; chairs of
Agriculture and Political Economy at Aberdeen; and chairs of
French, German, Accounting and Business Method, Chemistry in
relation to Medicine, Zoology, Forestry, Clinical Medicine, Bacteri-
ology, Tuberculosis, Therapeutics and Psychiatry at Edinburgh.
Evidence as to social conditions is available in reports of Govern-
ment departments. The Mental Deficiency and Lunacy (Scotland)
Act of 1913 reconstituted the existing Commissioners of Lunacy
as a General Board of Control and amended the Lunacy Laws. The
Board's first Annual Report (for 1914) showed that there were
19,557 insane persons in Scotland, of whom 16,870 were paupers.
In 1919 the total was 17,580, of whom 14,562 were paupers. The
latest Report of the Board draws attention to the decrease, pointing
out that the average total for the five years from 1911 to 1915 was
18,537, and for the five years 1916-20, 18,132, and remarks that
" it may be assumed that but for the influence of the war the numbers
in the last quinquennium would, have been at least 19,883 instead of
18,132." The Prison Commissioners, in their Report for 1919, state
that the influence of war conditions was ceasing to operate at the
end of that year. The total number of persons committed to prison
in 1918 was 9,773 as compared with 14,505 in 1917 and 43,535 in
1914. The figures for 1918 are the lowest on record; there was a con-
tinued decrease in the first four months of 1919, but the total number
of commitments for that year was 11,725: similarly, the judicial
statistics for 1919 show an increase of 26-9% in the number of per-
sons dealt with in criminal courts, as compared with the previous
year, the numbers being 80,152 in 1918 and 101,687 in 1919. The
total for 1911 was 155,537. The most satisfactory feature of the
year 1919 was a decrease (from 10,772 to 9,176) in the number of
persons dealt with in juvenile courts, as compared with 1918; the
numbers of such persons had risen during the war from 10,761 in 191 1
to 11,851 in 1915 and 12,180 in 1917, a result attributed to the ab-
sence of paternal control during the war years.
Shipbuilding. The figures of production in Scottish shipbuild-
ing for 1911 represented a considerable increase over 1909 and 1910,
the number of vessels being 557 in 1911 against 450 in 1910, and the
tonnage 671,624 against 420,250. These numbers exceeded the pre-
vious record of production 757 vessels with a tonnage of 675,173
in 1907 because the I.H.P. (indicated horse power) figures were
742,299 in 1907 and 837,668 in 1911. The output for 1911 consisted
chiefly of vessels of moderate size, and the types of vessels were very
varied. The main increase was, naturally, in the Clyde area; the E.
coast shipbuilding areas (the Forth, the Tay, the Dee and the Moray
Firth) produced 144 vessels with a tonnage of 41,041 and I.H.P.
47,739 an increase of 13,183 tons and 17,31 1 I.H.P. upon 1910. In
1912, a fresh record was created, the total Scottish tonnage being
688,188, with I.H.P. 914,741, and in 1913 the figures rose to a ton-
nage of 809,711 and I.H.P. 1,148,225. The Clyde output for 1913 was
more than double that of any other British shipbuilding area, except
the Tyne, and it exceeded the output of the Tyne by 317,000 tons;
the advance since 1910 was the most remarkable in the whole history
of Clyde shipbuilding, for the tonnage of 1910 had been nearly
doubled in 1913; but the increasing cost of production caused some
anxiety about the future. Among the larger vessels built before
the outbreak of war were H.M.S. Conqueror," the largest battle-
ship yet built on the Clyde, which was launched in 1911, and the liner
"Aquitania," the largest vessel then built for the merchant serv-
ice (tonnage 45,600, speed 23 knots), which was launched in 1913.
In the seven months of 1914 which preceded the outbreak of war, the
output showed a continuous decrease, and a period of depression
was believed to be at hand, and from Aug. three of the largest yards
had to devote practically their whole attention to naval construction.
The total tonnage as published for 1914 was 460,258 with I.H.P.
496,120, but these figures are exclusive of the construction of war-
ships and must be compared with the 1913 figures for mercantile con-
struction, viz.: 692,601 tons with I.H.P. 649,240 a decrease of
232,343 tons and 153,120 I.H.P. The naval figures, now available,
show that the outbreak of war had not merely checked the depression
but had produced a fresh " boom " in Scottish shipbuilding. In 1915
mercantile construction amounted to a tonnage of 233,501, with
I.H.P. 205,288 figures not far below the U.S.A. construction for the
year although the yards were almost entirely controlled by Govern-
ment, and merchant work was neglected. No separate Scottish
figures for 1916 were published until after the close of the war, and,
in 1917, the mercantile tonnage for the United Kingdom was a state
secret. Mercantile construction had been, to a large extent, in
abeyance until the end of 1916, but great activity was shown in this
SCOTLAND
department in 1917 and 1918. The totals (including naval construc-
tion) for the five war years were:
Vessels
Tonnage
I.H.P.
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
481
386
477
517
585
591.396
331.410
541.527
502,875
613,709
,192,347
,231,043
,898,044
,628,950
.958,944
In no one of the war years did the tonnage approach that of 1913,
but this is explained by the circumstance that the proportion of ton-
nage to I.H.P. is much smaller in naval than in mercantile construc-
tion, and the 1913 I.H.P. figures were exceeded in every year of the
war. In the war years, the volume of naval repairs was also very great.
In 1919 the tonnage figures of Scottish yards rose to 729,490 with
I.H.P. 1,590,894, and in 1920 to 778,914, with I.H.P. 673,040; the
figures relate entirely to mercantile shipping, as naval construction
was stopped. The increase of tonnage over 1918 was in the building
of many cargo steamers, the average size of which was greater than
before the war, and the decrease in new machinery indicated in the
I.H.P. figures is explained by the circumstances that such steamers are
of comparatively low power. Judged by the test of tonnage, the out-
put for 1920 was not far below that of 1913, although the machinery
installed was not much more than half; compared with the purely
mercantile output of 1913, both the tonnage and the I.H.P. figures
were larger in 1920, and the year ranked as second only to 1913, but
the prospects for the future were very poor.
Snipping. The year 1911 was marked by a rise in freights which
continued throughout 1912 and the first half of 1913, but in the end
of that year there was something like a collapse, and the " slump"
continued until the outbreak of war, when a temporary suspension of
chartering was followed by a very sharp rise in freights which con-
tinued, progressively until Government control began, in 1917. A
further rise took place at the beginning of 1918 in order to cover
Government liability for losses in tonnage through sinkings. The
reorganization of Scottish shipping, after the interruption of the
war, did not make much progress until the latter half of 1919, owing
to the necessities of demobilization ; and the process of reorganiza-
tion was hampered in 1920 by labour troubles and especially by the
uncertainty of the export coal trade. Freights continued to be high
in the early part of the year, but even high rates proved to be unprof-
itable in view of the cost of coal and of labour and rises in harbour
tolls, stevedoring, and insurance premiums; and in the end of the
year there was a " slump" in freights. The effect of the war may be
traced in the decrease in the total number of vessels registered in
Scottish ports. In 1914 there were 494 sailing vessels, with net ton-
nage 153,323 and 3,441 steam vessels with net tonnage 2,675,720
a total of 3,935 vessels with net tonnage 2,829,043. In 1918 there
were 354 sailing vessels with net tonnage 82,181 and 2,759 steam
vessels with net tonnage 1,797,907 a total of 3,113 vessels with net
tonnage 1,880,088, the decrease in tonnage being constant and pro-
gressive until 1918, in which year there was a check to the rate of the
downward movement. The decrease in net tonnage registered in
Scottish ports was 172,134 in 1915, 232,994 in 1916, 389,183 in 1917
and 154,644 in 1918, the figures in each case representing the decrease
on those of the previous year. Statistics showing the recovery in
1919 and 1920 were not available in Feb. 1921. The following table
shows the effects of the war and of the first year of peace upon the
imports and exports of merchandise at Scottish ports:
the E. of Scotland, which is largely dependent on overseas trade. Ex-
ports further decreased from 1915 to 191 7. In 1918 they amounted to
7,460,000 tons, or about 45 % of the pre-war average, but, in the
end of that year, shipments to foreign countries were almost entirely
suspended, owing to the demand for bunker coal and for coal for Ad-
miralty and home use. Exports were specially low in the Forth
area because the ports of Bo'ness. Grangemouth, Granton, and Burn-
tisland were largely or entirely requisitioned by the Admiralty. In
1920 the coal controller, to safeguard an expanding home demand,
placed very severe restrictions upon exports; and Scottish exports,
in the first ten months of that year, amounted to 1,156,475 tons as
compared with 2,129,059 tons in the first ten months of 1919 ; these
figures are exclusive of bunker coal. Total output was reduced by
strikes in 1912 and in 1920, and, during the war, by shortage of
labour. Prices were low at the beginning of 1911 and fell in the first
half of the year, but, by the beginning of 1912, they showed an ad-
vance of from is. to 2s. per ton in all classes of fuel. Prices remained
high in 1912 and rose in 1913; they varied at different periods in 1914,
and the advance of recent years began in 1915, although there were
remarkable fluctuations in 1916. Maximum retail prices were fixed
for home consumption in 1917. After the Armistice, prices advanced
rapidly in the second half of 1919, and the supply was unequal to the
demand. Export prices reached an unprecedented level in 1920, but
the beginning of 1921 witnessed a "slump" in exports. Before the
war, the Scottish coal trade had to face German competition. At
one time, Germany was an important market for Scottish coal, but
exports to Germany had fallen to under 3,000,000 tons, and German
coal was competing with Scottish coal in foreign markets. New mar-
kets were, however, being opened up, and from 1911-4 Fife coal
was developing large exports to S. America. A new dock at Methil,
built principally for this trade by the North British Railway Co. (at
a cost of nearly 1,000,000), was opened in 1913.
Iron and Steel. In spite of a temporary decline in the price of
hematite pig-iron and steel scrap in 1911, the decade opened well
for the steel and iron trades. There was an increase in steel exports
in 1911 and it was maintained, in spite of the coal strike, in 1912,
and in the first half of 1913; but German competition was severely
felt both in home and in Japanese, Canadian and Indian markets.
In 1914 both the pig-iron trade and the steel trade were inactive,
but a rapid improvement followed the outbreak of war, and steel and
malleable iron continued to be in great demand throughout the war.
The pig-iron market, on the other hand, suffered in 1915 from an un-
precedented advance in the price of ore and from freight difficulties.
Early in 1916 all the works in which pig-iron was produced were
placed under the Ministry of Munitions, and there was a steady de-
mand in spite of reduced exports. The pressure of work in the steel
and iron trades continued after the decontrol of steel in Jan. 1919
and of iron in the following April, and prices were high. In the
end of the year steel ship-plates were 19 153., boiler ship-plates
24 IDS., and angles 19 53., net per ton delivered on the Clyde,
as compared with 7 2s. 6d., 7 173. 6d., and 6 153., respectively,
the highest prices in 1911. Hematite iron rose to 2ios. per ton as
compared with 723., the highest price in 1911. Prices reached still
higher levels in 1920, demand far exceeding supply in the earlier part
of the year, but prices proved to be too high for remunerative trade,
and reductions were made in November. Imports of pig-iron from
France and Belgium were begun, but in quantities so small that com-
petition with Scottish production had not yet become serious.
Mineral Oil. The Scottish mineral oil trade, the centre of which is
W. Lothian, was suffering severely from foreign competition in the
Imports in
British and Irish Exports
Foreign and Colonial Exports ....
Total in
1911
1915
1917
1918
1919
46,937,758
46,683,953
677,301
58,442,334
38,242,899
1,442,711
76,970,468
44,048,744
1,025,380
'09.343.866
32,333.700
526,349
112,631,887
69,661,877
6,146,906
O4.2OO.OI 2
q8.l27.Q44
122,044,592
142,203,915
188,440,670
Coal. The table at the foot of the page shows the output of
Scottish coal in the decade.
The export trade before the war amounted in round numbers to
16,000,000 tons per annum, of which 6,500,000 represented bunker
coal and coal shipped to home ports. The outbreak of war at once
closed markets in Germany, Austria, Russia, and Turkey, and inter-
rupted trade with other countries. The effect was specially felt in
years immediately preceding the war. Low prices and decreased
dividends marked the year 1911 ; there was a revival in 1912, due
partly to the general " boom " in trade and partly to the opening up
of wider markets, and 1913 was also prosperous in spite of the grow-
ing competition of the Mexican oilfields. Production remained
about the average of over 3,000,000 tons of shale in 1914, but prices
fluctuated, and exports decreased from 324,704 tons of oil in 1913 to
No. of mines at work under Coal
Mines Act
No. of persons employed
No. of tons of coal produced
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
5i8
520
542
547
535
537
522
522
The
138,377
143,302
147,549
146,168
121,854
127,104
130,027
124,475
144,286
estimated output for 1920 was 31,00
41,718,163
39,518,629
42,456,516
38,847,362
35,596,856
36,193,000
38,569,964
31,890,218
32,457,864
0,000 tons
SCOTLAND
385
311,000 tons. Prices were maintained at a high level throughout
the war, and the demand was steady, but, at the beginning of 1919,
the largely increased cost of production rendered it very doubtful
if the industry (which was estimated to employ directly about 10,000
workpeople and indirectly probably about 50,000) could be continued
on a remunerative basis. The problem was solved by an offer from
the Anglo-Persian Oil Co. to form a new consolidated company
known as Scottish Oils Ltd.; its acceptance by the shareholders
of the Scottish companies allied the Scottish oil trade with a strong
group of oil interests under one central management, and the result
has been satisfactory, although demand decreased in the end of 1920
owing to the general uncertainty of trade conditions.
Textiles. The woollen trade in the Borders had a year of great
prosperity in 1911, the output and the export trade (especially with
Germany) being very great. Thread and yarn makers had also a
prosperous year, and the linen trade of Dunfermline was steady,
though not brisk, but the jute trade of Dundee passed through one
of its worst years, with unprecedented curtailment of production,
due chiefly to over-production in Calcutta. The following year saw
a remarkable revival in the jute industry, which enjoyed a period of
unparalleled success, the woollen trade continued to be prosperous
and conditions in the linen trade were normal. Prosperity in textile
industries continued through 1913 and was not checked until the
outbreak of war, when the export of tweeds and linen came suddenly
to an end, and the textile industries as a whole suffered from a de-
crease in the purchase of luxuries and from the cessation of imports
of raw material. Jute, which had been prosperous in the early part
of the year, became unremunerative towards its close. New outlets
were found in the manufacture of khaki cloths, flannel shirtings, and
military blankets, but reorganization took time and was delayed
by lack of dyes and by the circumstance that Scottish flannel was
largely made from Belgian raw materials. Throughout the war, the
Dunfermline linen trade suffered more severely than other textiles,
the looms being unsuitable for the goods which were required. The
jute trade recovered in 1915, largely owing to Government orders.
These conditions continued to the end of the war; prices, in spite
of Government control, were very high, and rose after the Armistice.
The year 1919 was very prosperous for the jute trade, and linen
made a considerable recovery, in spite of difficulties about raw
material, but the woollen trade suffered from a poor clip after a
severe winter and a late spring. The general prosperity in textile
trades continued into the first quarter of 1920, but was followed by
an almost complete cessation of demand for woollen and linen goods,
and similar conditions prevailed in the jute trade. All over, prices,
as determined by cost of production, were too high for the consumer.
Agriculture. Agricultural conditions have undergone a large
number of changes. In 1910, agriculture was an unprofitable occu-
pation for the tenant, and rents were low on the average, about
half what they were in the 'eighties. Agricultural wages were also
comparatively low, although they had recently advanced, and the
average weekly earnings for all classes of agricultural labourers were
higher in Scotland than in England. Farmers were feeling the bur-
den of foreign competition and of the expense of the machinery neces-
sary for scientific farming. The food problem during the war gave
a new impetus to agriculture, the effect of which may be seen from
the following table:
Area under:
Crops and
grass
acres
Arable
land
acres
Permanent
grass
acres
Corn
crops
acres
1911
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
4,845.835
4,786,179
4,781,416
4,775,525
4,776,200
4,761,101
4,751,475
3,348,568
3,295,040
3,290,543
3,303,180
3,360,342
3,453,494
3,408,479
1,497,267
1,491-139
,490,873
,472,345
,415,858
,307,607
,342,996
,218,055
,186,432
,220,307
,234,748
,273,549
,493,169
,378,318
The largest increase in production was in the years 1917 and 1918.
In 1917, the total produce of wheat was 304,169 quarters (an increase
of 2 1,000 quarters over 1916) and in 1918 it rose 10402,000 quarters.
The figures for barley and bere are 704,788 quarters in 1917 (an
increase of 57,600 quarters over 1916) and 677,000 in 1918; and
for oats 5,446,931 quarters in 1917 and 6,457,oooin 1918. The total
produce of the potato crop was 1,110,085 tons in 1917 (an increase of
579,000 tons on 1916) and 1 , 1 5 1 ,000 tons in 1918. Live stock showed
similar variations; the number of horses rose from 206,474 in 1911
and 198,704 in 1915 to 207,113 in 1916 and 210,048 in 1917, falling
slightly in 1918. Numbers of sheep and pigs declined slightly in
the war years sheep from 7,164,342 in 1911 to 6,878,198 in 1918,
and pigs from 171,115 in 191: to 118,007 in 1918, but cattle rose
from 1,200,017 in 1911 to 1,225,330 in 1916 (1,209,842 in 1918).
The increases in corn crops and potatoes were the result not only
of economic conditions, such as rising prices, but also of administra-
tive and legislative measures. In the summer of 1915 the Secretary
for Scotland appointed a departmental committee to report on the
measures necessary to increase the production of food during the
war; in 1916, the attention of military tribunals was directed to
xxxii. 13
agricultural necessities, and the army lent military labour at certain
seasons of the year. The Corn Production Act of 1917 led to the
division of Scotland into districts with District Wages Committees
to fix wages. The general prosperity of agriculture is shown by the
rise in Fiars Prices average prices ascertained annually by an in-
quiry held by the sheriff of a county in order to fix the amounts pay-
able to parish ministers for each kind of grain. The prices vary
considerably in different counties, but the value of all sorts of grain
and of oatmeal was doubled or trebled between 1911 and 1918, and
remained at its high level through igip with a slight decline in 1920.
The wages of agricultural labourers increased proportionally, and
their standard of living rose, giving impetus to a tendency notable
before the war, to abandon the traditional brose and porridge in
favor of more expensive foods and especially butcher's meat. A
result of agricultural prosperity was a very large number of sales of
land in 1919 and 1920. Scotland, to a large extent, ceased to be a
country of huge estates, and the number of farmers who farm their
own lands greatly increased.
Forestry. Before the war, there was a revival of interest in
forestry, due to the exertions of several Scottish landlords, and
to the action of the Board of Agriculture and the Development
Commission. In 1912, a departmental committee, appointed to
select a suitable locality for a demonstration forest area, issued an
elaborate report on steps for the promotion of sylviculture, some of
their suggestions being adopted by the Development Commission
in 1913. These developments were interrupted by the war, for scar-
city of labour put an end to afforestation, and the extensive demand
for timber brought about a depletion of woodland areas from 1915
onwards. It was estimated in 1916 that more than half of a home
production of 40,000,000 cubic ft. of timber had come from Scottish
forests. The depletion of woodlands was continued owing to the
demand for timber for purposes of reconstruction in 1919 and 1920,
and in June of the latter year there was a series of destructive forest
fires in Ross-shire, Inverness-shire and Aberdeenshire. In 1919, a
Forestry Act, passed for the United Kingdom, transferred to the
Forestry Commission the powers in this respect of the Board of
Agriculture for Scotland. The Commission had acquired, by the
end of 1920, about 60,000 ac., of which about half was plantable.
Fisheries. The character of the Scottish fishing industry was
already undergoing an important development by the year 1910.
It was ceasing to be conducted by small fishing boats, owned by the
fishermen who used them, and was passing into the hands of large
companies whose capital provided the nec'essary fleets of steam drift-
ers. The capitalization of the industry was extending to salmon
fisheries, which were being bought up by wealthy companies. These
conditions have persisted even in the Highlands and Islands, where
the combination of fishing with the cultivation of crofts became
much less common. . In 1910, the Scottish fishing fleet consisted of
9,724 vessels, valued at 4,409,027, of which 1,073 (valued at 2,457,-
586) were propelled by steam; in 1919, there were 6,534 fishing ves-
sels, valued at 7,198,431, of which 3,722 were sailing or rowing
boats; the remainder consisted of 294 steam trawlers (valued at
3,342,255), 767 steam drifters, and 1,751 auxiliary motors. The
number of boats which possessed auxiliary motors in 1910 was 156.
Between 1910 and 1919, the number of sailing and rowing boats de-
creased from 8,175 to 3,722, and the estimated value from 642,902
to 122,823. The sailing and rowing boats were manned by 25,985
men and boys in 1910, and by 9, 830 in 1919; the total number of men
and boys employed as crews decreased from 38,941 in 1910 to 27,408
in 1919. The increase of motor vessels in the western area was a
notable feature of the period. In 1910, 40 motor vessels belonged to
Campbeltown and 1 1 to Ballantrae, and 23 to other W. coast fishing
ports; in 1919, the numbers at Campbeltown and Ballantrae had
increased to 78 and 88 respectively and there were 209 belonging to
other ports, of which Loch Carron and Skye possessed 80 (as com-
pared with 4 in 1910) and Inverary 70 (as compared with 8 in 1910).
Stornoway, where there were no mechanically propelled vessels in
1910, had 1 8 steam liners and drifters and 13 motor-boats in 1919. The
steam trawlers werestill, in 1919, confined to Leith, Montrose, Aber-
deen (which possessed 193 out of 294), and Peterhead, except for 8 be-
longing to Greenock. The large use of motor-boats was partly a result
of the diversion of steam drifters to other purposes during the
war, and the demand for them decreased in 1919, when steam
drifters again became available. In the course of the war, 302 trawl-
ers, 829 drifters, and 133 motor-boats (a total of 1,264 fishing vessels)
were requisitioned by the Admiralty, chiefly as naval auxiliaries.
Of these, about 100 were lost while on war service; of the remainder,
all except 131 were released in 1919 and most of them had been re-
conditioned and were again engaged in the fishing industry by the
end of that year. The number of Scottish fishing vessels sunk while
engaged in fishing in the course of the war was 96, of which 51 were
trawlers. In June 1915, no fewer than 34 vessels were lost, and the
experience of that month led to the enforcement of very severe re-
strictions upon the fishing industry. The effect of war restrictions
is evident from the total quantities of fish (exclusive of shell-fish)
landed in Scotland in successive years by Scottish vessels: 1913,
7,267,328 cwts. ; 1914, 6,926,241 cwts. ; 1915, 2,319,390 cwts. ; 1916,
3,412,030 cwts.; 1917, 3,079,768 cwts.; and 1918, 3,313,228 cwts.
In 1919, the quantity rose to 5,968,866 cwts. The value of the catch
naturally rose in proportion to scarcity; the value of over 7! million
386
SCOTT, C SCOTT, R. F.
cwts. in 1913 was 3,733,379; of about 2j million cwts. in 1915,
2,051,171 ; and of over 3 million cwts. in 1917, 3,645,015. The most
remarkable rise occurred in 1918, when about 3^ million cwts. were
valued at 5,991,693. In a week of Jan. of that year, the average
price of all white fish sold in Aberdeen was 7 95. 2d. per cwt.
Maximum prices were fixed, but they had necessarily to be fixed at a
high level in view of scarcity of labour and the special dangers attach-
ing to fishing industry. In 1919, the increase in quantity over 1918
was 80 %, but the value was 6,063,739 an increase of only a little
above I %, as compared with 1918 ; but the average price in 1919 was
about double that of 1910, and prices remained high through 1920.
The stress of the outbreak of war was felt specially heavily by the
herring industry, for the chief markets for cured herrings were in
continental Europe and communication was cut off. There was a
large existing stock of unsold herrings, and great quantities had been
sent to German ports. As the war progressed, decreased production
and increased home demand led to a great improvement, and exports
were resumed in 1916, 366,682 barrels of herring were exported
(as compared with 1,385,323 barrels in 1913), and 113,284 barrels in
1917 so that 1914 was the only disastrous war year. Increased
production in 1919 brought about a difficult situation, for political
and economic conditions in Russia and in Central Europe prevented
the resumption of trade, and the industry was saved from disaster
by a Government guarantee, which was renewed for 1920, but was
refused for 1921, which opened with very gloomy prospects for the
herring fishing industry. A committee of the Fishery Board recom-
mended in 1919 that whaling operations should be prohibited in any
part of Shetland, on the ground that the decline of the herring fishing
in Shetland is directjy connected with the introduction and develop-
ment of whaling, an industry carried on almost entirely by foreigners.
Railways and Transport. No new railways have been constructed
since 1911, and the whole railway conditions have been abnormal
since 1914. Serious railway accidents during the decade include a
collision at Burntisland on April 14 1914, in which two railway
employees were killed; collapse of a culvert near Carrbridge on
June 18 1914, involving a disaster to a train and the deaths of five
passengers by drowning; and an accident at Ratho on Jan. 3 1917
resulting in 12 deaths. The gravest railway disaster occurred to a
troop train at Quintin's Hill, near Gretna, on May 22 1915, when227
of the 7th Royal Scots were killed and 246 were injured. The acci-
dent occurred through the carelessness of two signalmen, both of
whom received sentences of imprisonment. There has been a large
increase in motor transport, but agriculture, fishing, mining and
commerce are still handicapped by the lack of transport facilities.
The proportion of mileage of railway to pop. is much smaller in
Scotland than in such a small maritime country as Sweden, the num-
ber of miles of railway per 10,000 pop. being 16-2 in Sweden and 8-2
in Scotland. Transport conditions compare even more unfavourably
with Belgium, which has a great system of canals, in addition to an
elaborate system of railways, light railways and steam tramways.
A committee on Rural Transport, appointed by the Secretary for
Scotland, reported in 1919 that the construction of a considerable
number of railways and light railways is essential for the development
of the country, especially of inland straths and glens in varjous
regions and of the VV. coast and the islands. They gave illustrations
of the results of lack of transport the impossibility of growing early
potatoes on soil specially suitable, the continued use of land for
sheep farming which could be turned into good meadow land, the
closing of a lead mine and the impracticability of working iron stone.
In many districts, land could carry more stock and would be capable
of closer settlement if better transport were available. The system
of water transport could also be extended with advantage. Scottish
canals fell largely into disuse after the introduction of railways, and
some of them were acquired for the construction of their permanent
way by railway companies. The total mileage of canals in Scotland is
183. There has been much discussion of the project of a reconstruc-
tion of the Forth and Clyde Canal, but without any result. The
question of transport is closely associated with the utilization of
water-power, several schemes for which are under consideration,
the most important being schemes for the utilization of water-power
in the districts of Lochaber and Fort William. In the large towns,
there has been a great development of systems of electric tramways
and motor omnibuses, and motor vehicles running in rural districts
have proved formidable competitors to the railways.
Highlands and Islands. The Board of Agriculture issued in 1913
a report on home industries in the Highlands and Islands by Prof.
R. W. Scott, who pointed out that most of the existing home indus-
tries depend upon raw materials derived from the land the hosiery
and tweed industry using wool, and the basket industry, osiers, and
that the encouragenemt of these industries must be closely connected
with general agricultural policy. Shetland industries depend upon an
improvement of the wool of Shetland sheep; in the Hebrides a
deterioration in the quality of home-grown wool has led to large
imports for Harris tweeds, while in Skye little has been done to
encourage the cultivation of osiers. The report recommended the
creation of local committees, under the authority of the Board, to
supervise cottage industries, but the outbreak of war prevented the
carrying out of the suggestions made. The home industries in exist-
ence in the Highlands and Islands in 1911 were hosiery, wool and
worsted manufacture, basket-making, lace-making, silk-spinning,
shirt-making, umbrella manufacture, straw hats and bonnets manu-
facture, small ware and fancy goods, but only one person was re-
ported as engaged in lace-making. The total number of workers in
home industries was 5,649, about 500 of whom were males. An at-
tempt by Lord Leverhulme to establish in Stornoway a large fish-
curing and packing industry and to develop the whole resources of
the island has been hampered by the seizure of land by returned
soldiers, and the future of the project was in 1921 still uncertain.
Lord Leverhulme's proposals included the construction at Storn-
oway of a fishing harbour superior to any existing harbour on the
W. coast or in the western islands and the completion of a canning
factory and of carding and spinning mills, the building of which was
begun before the interruption of the execution of the scheme by the
" raiding " of farms in the spring of 1920. The organization not
'only of the fishing industry but also of the Lewis and Harris hand-
woven tweed industry was thus contemplated, along with the open-
ing up of the common grazing lands in Lewis and Harris and the
provision of some 3,000 allotments of a quarter of an acre in size,
selected so as not to interfere with existing dairy or other farms.
The effects of the World War can readily be traced in Scotland of
the present day. The efforts made, alike for the recruiting of the
fighting armies, for the production of ships and munitions, and for
the maintenance of food supplies, and generally, of the social and
national organization, rendered those years the most strenuous period
in the whole history of the country, and constitute a record of courage
and endurance which cannot but leave its mark upon the national
character. Like other portions of the Empire, Scotland has, since
the end of 1918, suffered from the weariness produced by stupen-
dous effort and from a consequent restlessness and impatience which
has found vent in industrial disputes and in an eager adoption, by
some of the youth, of new social ideals, in which the influence of
Russian Bolshevik experiments and propaganda has been conspic-
uous. Such manifestations can be paralleled from other periods
following the end of a great military struggle, and there is already
evidence that the disturbances in organization and habit produced
by the experiences of the war have reached their climax, and, with
the restoration of commercial and industrial prosperity, will
cease to operate adversely upon the peace of the country.
(R. S. R.)
SCOTT, CYRIL (1870- ), English musical composer, pianist
and author, born at Oxton, Birkenhead, Sept. 27 1879, was musi-
cally educated at the Hoch conservatorium, Frankfurt A/M,
chiefly under Ivan Knorr. While still in the pupil stage Scott
heard his first symphony performed at Darmstadt in 1899. On
Scott's return to England Hans Richter produced an orchestra
suite by him at Liverpool. Subsequently Scott produced a vast
amount of music, more especially of songs, most of which are on
the same high level as that of the Schumacherlieder of his student
days. Violin and pianoforte music also poured from his pen. A
series of early overtures written for plays by Maeterlinck seem to
have been suppressed, but there remain a Christmas overture, the
two fine Passacaglias, the Ballad of Fair Helen, La Belle Dame
sans Merci, and a pianoforte concerto and also two quintets, a
piano quartet and a violin sonata. Scott also published several
volumes of poems, including The Voice of the Ancient (1910);
The Vales of Unity (1912); The Celestial Aftermath (1915) and
the prose book The Philosophy of Modernism (1917). In 1920 his
Nativity Hymn was accepted for publication by the Carnegie
Trust, and in 1921 he paid a visit to the United States.
SCOTT, SIR JOHN EDWARD ARTHUR MURRAY, BART. (1847-
1912), English art collector, was born at Boulogne Feb. 23 1847.
The son of an English doctor at Boulogne, he became secretary to
Sir Richard Wallace, heir of the 4th Marquess of Hertford. He
helped Sir Richard to organize relief for the sufferers of the siege of
Paris in 1870, and after the siege, to transport the treasures of the
Hertford art collection from Paris to Bethnal Green museum. It
was largely through his influence that Sir Richard Wallace's
widow left the collection en bloc to the British nation, together with
Hertford house, and he acted as chairman of the trustees' com-
mittee until his death. He became a trustee of the National Gallery
in 1897, was created a baronet in 1899, and a K.C.B. in 1908. He
died in London Jan. 17 1913.
SCOTT, ROBERT FALCON (1868-1912), English sailor and ex-
plorer, was born at Devonport June 6 1 868, the son of John Edward
Scott of Outlands, Devonport, and entered the navy in 1882. He
was promoted lieutenant and appointed to the " Amphion " in
1889, and torpedo-lieutenant to the " Majestic," flagship of the
Channel Squadron, 1898, becoming commander 1900. He com-
manded the National Antarctic expedition of 1901-4(566 21.966) and
in 1 905 published his account of it in TheVoyage of the " Discovery."
SCOTT-GATTY SCRIABIN
387
On his return he was promoted captain and commanded first the
" Victorious," flagship of the Channel Squadron, and subsequently
the " Essex " and the " Bulwark." He was awarded the gold medals
of the Royal Geographical Society and of the Royal Scottish
Geographical Society, and received medals from the geographical
societies of many foreign countries, and an hon. degree from Cam-
bridge. During part of 1909 he was naval assistant to the Second
Sea Lord of the Admiralty, and in June 1910 he again set out for
the Antarctic in the " Terra Nova" in command of a new expedition,
financed partly by private individuals but aided by a Govern-
ment grant. He arrived at Lyttelton, N.Z., in Oct. and reached
McMurdo Sound at the end of the year. On Nov. 2 1911 he started
on his journey of 850 m. to the Pole, accompanied all the way
by Dr. E. A. Wilson, Capt. L. E. G. Gates, Lt. H. R. Bowers, and
Petty-Officer Edgar Evans. He reached the Beardmore glacier on
Dec. 10 and on Jan. 4 1913 left behind him his last supporting
party in lat. 87 32' S. When last heard of he was about I5om. from
the Pole, which his record shows that he reached Jan. 17 only to
find Amundsen's tent and records left there one month earlier.
On the return journey Evans fell (Feb. 17) in descending the
Beardmore glacier and died shortly after. Blizzards were
encountered and progress was slow. Food ran short, and on
March 17 Oates went out alone to die. Three days later a fresh
blizzard checked the survivors, whose supply of oil-fuel was ex-
hausted and their food-supply very low. Scott's last entry in his
diary was made on March 24. He was then only n m. from One
Ton depot and a supply of food; but he was unable to reach it
and died, with Wilson and Bowers, on or about March 27 1912.
A search party, sent out from the base in March 191 2, had been
driven back from One Ton depot by the weather, and it was recog-
nized that there was no chance of Scott's party surviving the
winter. Nothing further could be attempted until Oct., when
search parties went out, and on Nov. 12 Dr. Atkinson and Mr.
Wright found Scott's tent with the bodies of Scott, Bowers and
Wilson and the valuable scientific records. Capt. Scott had a
warm sympathy for scientific research and a good knowledge of
many branches of science qualifying him for the leadership of an
expedition, the main results of which were obtained by the labours
of his scientific colleagues. The news of the disaster did not reach
England until the survivors landed in N.Z. Feb. 10 1913. A me-
morial service, held in St. Paul's cathedral, London, Feb. 14,
was attended by King George, and by royal warrant the rank and
precedence of the wife of a K.C.B. were conferred on Capt. Scott's
widow. A fund was raised as a memorial of Capt. Scott, from which
ample provision was made for the surviving relatives of the lost
explorers, and the balance was devoted to the promotion of polar
research, a substantial amount being granted in 1921 towards the
endowment of the Polar Research Institute of the Geographical
department of the university of Cambridge.
On Sept. 2 1908, Scott had married Miss E. A. Kathleen Bruce,
daughter of Canon Lloyd Bruce. Lady Scott had attained some
reputation as a sculptor, and, later, executed statues of her husband,
which have been erected in Waterloo Place, London, and at Ports-
mouth. Her other works include a statue of his companion, Dr.
Wilson, at Cheltenham, one of Capt. Smith of the "Titanic" at
Litchfield, and portrait busts of Mr. Asquith, Lord Knutsford,
John Galsworthy, Granville Barker, and other well-known con-
temporaries. She was one of the first women to undertake muni-
tion making, and in 1916 she became private secretary to the
secretary of the Ministry of Pensions. In Jan. 1922 her engage-
ment to Lt.-Comm. Edward Hilton Young, D.S.O., M.P. (b.
1879), financial secretary to the Treasury, was announced.
SCOTT-GATTY, SIR ALFRED SCOTT (1847-1918), British her-
ald and genealogist, was born at Ecclesfield, Yorks, April 26 1847,
the son of the Rev. Alfred Gatty, vicar of Ecclesfield and sub-dean
of York, by his wife Margaret Scott (see 11.530), a popular writer.
One of his sisters was Juliana 'Horatia Orr-Ewing (see 10.40), the
writer of children's books. The additional name of Scott was as-
sumed by him by royal licence in 1892. He was educated at Marl-
borough and Christ's College, Cambridge. In 1880 he entered the
Heralds' College and became Rouge Dragon pursuivant, and in
1886 was^appointed York herald. In 1899 he became registrar of
the college, and in 1904 was made Garter principal king-at-arms
and knighted. Sir Alfred Scott-Gatty was an authority on her-
aldry and genealogy, and presented many copies of records to the
Heralds' College. He was also an accomplished musician, many
of whose songs became popular. In 1911 he was created K.C.V.O.
He died in London Dec. 18 1918.
SCRIABIN, ALEXANDER NICHOLAEVICH (1871-1915), Rus-
sian composer, was born at Moscow on Christmas day 1871
(O.S.). His father was a lawyer; his mother, a good pianist and
pupil of Leschetitsky, died when he was one year of age. His
schooling was received in the Moscow Cadet Corps, but he
never showed any liking for the military career for which he was
intended, and at 18 entered the Moscow Conservatory of Music
where he was a pupil of Safanov and Tanier. On leaving the
conservatory Scriabin was greatly helped by the patriotic music
publisher Belayef, who brought out his earlier works and
arranged a European piano recital tour for him. At 20 he
returned to Moscow and joined the conservatory staff. Later
he again travelled, this time for six years, visiting the United
States amongst other countries. He then settled in Brussels
for some time, and in 1910 returned to Moscow. In 1914 Scriabin
visited England, giving two piano recitals, playing his own
Concerto and appearing as pianist in his Prometheus. He was
then suffering from a tumour of the lip, from which, soon after
his return, he died, April 14, 1915.
As a composer Scriabin represents what may be called the classical
school carried forward to its most advanced point. The form of his
sonata and symphony movements he derives from Mozart, through
Beethoven; however bewildering these may at first sound, they will
be found, on a second or third hearing, to be laid out on essentially
the Mozart-Beethoven lines. In his pianistic idiom and general
pianistic" qualities of style, Scriabin derives largely from Chopin,
of whose work he was a great admirer. All this then indicates a
conservative side to his composition, but he was more radical in his
harmonies, and it was, probably, largely the novelty of these that
retarded appreciation of his later works. Gradually he evolved what
may be called a new scale or, from another point of view, a new
chord. It consists of the upper partials of the fourth octave from the
fundamental note, less two (taking C as the fundamental note
C, D, E, F#, A, Bb or, arranged as a superposition of fourths, as
Scriabin most frequently uses them, C, F#, Bb, E, A, D). The hint
of this new harmonic scheme may be seen in the earliest compositions,
and its development was fairly regular and consistent, until it came
to dominate his later output. In his later works he discards entirely
the old key signatures. In his orchestration Scriabin calls for a
large force, and uses it very freely : his scores are excessively contra-
puntal in texture, the various instruments moving very independ-
ently and weaving together their respective themes : muted brass plays
a large part in his orchestral colour scheme. In the First Symphony
a chorus is used in the finale ; the " Poem of Fire " also uses a chorus,
but in an orchestral way, no words being supplied. For the last-
named work the composer also wrote an optional part for a " Tas-
tiera per luce," or keyboard of light, the intention being that varying
colours should play upon a screen as the work was being performed.
The composer was greatly interested in theories as to a correspond-
ence between the musical scale and the scale of colours. In his
great Mystery (left unfinished at his death) music, dance, speech,
perfume and colour were to be combined; this work was to be
rather a work of ritual than of art, and was to express its author's
idealistic mysticism through the medium of 2,000 participants.
It is usual to look upon Scriabin's musical work as largely the
expression of theosophical views, and undoubtedly much of his in-
spiration was drawn from the works of Blavatsky and others. He
was not, however, a close reader, or a careful thinker. Seizing the
main idea of a book or a creed, he would neglect the details, and his
imagination would quickly develop a huge scheme of thought having
little relation to what he had read. The titles of many of his works
and of their separate parts, and the marks of expression affixed to
particular passages, indicate plainly the existence of a spiritual
programme." The emancipation of the human soul through cease-
less striving, and its achievement of self-expression, may be said,
very roughly, to represent the general sense of the spiritual basis of
Scriabin's musical works.
The works of Scriabin have been variously classed into periods. A
logical classification is into four periods as follows: 1st period, with
a strong Chopin influence; the dividing line between this and the 2nd
period runs through the First Symphony, and the 2nd period shows
some Wagner and Liszt influences; the dividing line between this
and the 3rd period runs through the Fifth Sonata, and a 4th period
begins with the " Poem of Fire."
Works. Orchestral: Revery (op. 24); Symph. I. (26); Symph.
II. (29); Symph. III., or Divine Poem (43); Symph. IV. (54):
Prometheus, or " Poem of Fire " (60). Piano: Sonatas I. (op. 6);
3 88
SCULPTURE
II. (19); III. (23); IV. (30); V. (53); VI. (62); VII. (64); VIII.
(66); IX. (68); X. (70). A very large number of preludes, Etudes,
impromptus, mazurkas, poems, etc., including the great " Vers la
Flamme" poem and the much-discussed last work, the Five Pre-
ludes (op. 74). Piano and Orchestra : Concerto (op. 20). No songs
or chamber music are included in Scriabin's output. (P. A. S.)
SCULPTURE (see 24.488). The state of coma which, so far
as public interest is concerned, had afflicted European, and
particularly British, sculpture up to the neighbourhood of 1910,
yielded at about that date to a long-sustained treatment of
shocks administered by the exhibitors of what has been regarded
as " freak " sculpture. These shocks, sporadic but startling
and lingering in their effect, had persisted throughout the pre-
ceding decade, and the so-called " rebels," authors of these
frequently unintelligible sculptural efforts, found their ranks
considerably swelled by converts to a system that seemed both
easy of adoption and financially profitable. Hitherto, indeed,
British sculpture had been well-nigh moribund, and only on
occasion had the public evinced an interest in the case by crowd-
ing the bedside of the invalid to witness in some London gallery
the delirium of the dying art as represented by the works of some
new " rebel."
The attention of the public was caught and their mind en-
tertained to an unusual degree in the closing years of the last
century when Rodin, the great French master, startled the
world by his originality of thought and won admiration by the
freshness and vigour of his work. The interest thus awakened
was, however, ill sustained in England, until the breach with
academicism which Rodin inaugurated by his originality and
independence was reflected and rendered wider in the work of
the artistic " rebels " in Great Britain. The wave of revulsion
from academicism and realism reached perhaps its high-water
mark in 1910, and in 1921 had shown no sign of ebbing.
It would be difficult to classify these revolutionaries or to
apply to their work any generic term, yet this movement has
something in common with the post-impressionism of the paint-
ers. It had reached England from the Continent, where it was
far more widely spread and had rooted more deeply. In France
it received smaller encouragement than in Germany and Aus-
tria, where its influence is revealed in much of the recent monu-
mental sculpture. The gospel of the movement forbids in chief
any show of anatomical detail, and allows but little of true con-
struction or of natural forms.
There can be little doubt that to this movement, in part at
least, was due the awakening of public interest in sculpture
about the year 1910. It was during the following year that con-
siderable efforts were made to collect for public exhibition the
works of that foremost of British sculptors, Alfred Stevens.
That these efforts were successful was plain from the space de-
voted to the exhibition in the Tate Gallery during Nov. and
Dec. 1911 and Jan. following. This exhibition constituted in
the case of the majority of visitors a first introduction to the
finest sculptor Great Britain had produced. The interest it
provoked encouraged a scheme for a further and more perma-
nent collection and preservation of the scattered works of this
great master. Public interest in Stevens was promoted to a very
large extent by the labours of the Stevens Memorial Committee,
and by the enthusiasm and solicitude of Prof. Legros, and it
was on behalf of this Committee that in 191 1 the late Sir William
Richmond presented to the trustees of the gallery an interesting
bust of Stevens by Edouard Lanteri. Since then the collection
at the Tate Gallery has been enriched by a cast of Stevens's
remarkably fine chimney piece at Dorchester House.
Foremost of European sculptural works raised in 1911 were,
in Rome, the large memorial to King Victor Emmanuel, and, in
London, the great memorial to Queen Victoria at Buckingham
Palace. The Victor Emmanuel monument reveals no individual-
ism or inspiration in its design or modelling. The Victoria Mem-
orial, largest of sculptural monuments in London, is imposing in
its effect and is magnificently situated at the head of the Mall
and before the Palace. In 1912 the great bronze quadriga by
Adrian Jones was placed upon Decimus Burton's arch at the top
of Constitution Hill, London.
The revival of sculpture which marked this period was not
evident alone in parochial and civic patronage; it was found
not for the first time a suitable and convenient, and certainly
an effective, channel) through which might be expressed interna-
tional courtesies adaptable to various occasions. Three such
works, which might be regarded as political, were erected in
London during the year 1920-1, to which reference will be made
later. During 1912 two such monuments were unveiled in France,
both of which were in the form of courtesies between that coun-
try and Great Britain. On April 12 M. Poincare unveiled at
Nice the Queen Victoria Memorial, and on April 13 a memorial
to King Edward was presented to the public at Cannes.
In the meantime one of the most important events of 1912
in England was the completion of Alfred Stevens's monument
to the Duke of Wellington in St. Paul's Cathedral by the addition
of the bronze equestrian statue of the duke which was designed
to surmount the monument. Alfred Stevens, the designer of
this splendid work, had died leaving the memorial incomplete,
and it must for ever remain a matter for regret that many im-
portant architectural features in Stevens's original design were
modified with results destructive to the purity of the style and
the elasticity of the structure. It was not until 45 years after
Stevens's untimely death that the screens were removed and the
completed monument revealed to the public gaze. Fortunately
the great sculptor had left behind him a small model which he
had designed for the equestrian group, and John Tweed, who
was finally commissioned to carry out this portion of the work,
followed and developed with no mean intelligence the ideas con-
veyed in the small original model. The result is not, however, as
happy as could have been desired. The horse is in the Renais-
sance style as intended by Stevens, and is in keeping with the
rest of the design; the light is quite inadequate to illuminate the
upper parts of the monument, which is far too high for its posi-
tion, the bronze group barely clearing the overhead structure of
the building and consequently suffering some obscurity.
The Tate Gallery, in London, latterly more fittingly known as
the National Gallery of British Art, was enriched by the addition
of Havard Thomas's bronze statue " Lycidas," the gift of Mr.
and Mrs. E. Sadler, while perhaps the most interesting work in
the Royal Academy exhibition of 1912 was the same sculptor's
statue " Thyrsis," which was acquired by the Felton Bequest
Committee for the National Gallery of Melbourne.
The outbreak of the World War had no immediately noticeable
effect on British sculpture. The work shown at the Royal
Academy exhibition just then concluded had been of an unusua' -
ly high standard, Sir Thomas Brock's statue of Capt. Cook had
been set up in the Mall, London, and a very large number of
works of some importance were well on the way to completion
in the autumn of 1914. These did much to cover any paucity
which might have been apparent in the exhibition of the follow-
ing year. Nevertheless, upon the outbreak of hostilities a vast
number of contracts for important architectural sculpture were
at once cancelled or their execution postponed. This, it is hardly
necessary to say, resulted in a period of distress and stagnation
which terminated only with the demand for war memorials after
the signing of the Armistice.
While general attention was focussed upon the war, British
sculpture suffered a severe blow by the death of Prof. Edouard
Lanteri, of the Royal College of Art. As a sculptor his output
amounted to little, but, as he himself would have had it, the
fruits of his teaching will long survive him, and those sound con-
structive principles of sculpture which he taught will remain an
influence in that distinctively British school of sculpture which
he endeavoured to promote.
Two works of outstanding beauty and remarkable workman-
ship in the Academy exhibition of 1914 should be mentioned:
Havard Thomas's bronze cast of his " Thyrsis," which had
appeared in wax two years previously, and Derwent Wood's
bronze bust of Mr. Henry James.
No sculpture of importance was made public during 1915
beyond Rodin's " Burghers of Calais," Lady Scott's statue of
Capt. Scott, and such works as were exhibited at the Royal
SEAMAN SEDGWICK
389
Academy. Mr. Toft's figure, " The Bather," was a notable
exhibit, and it was bought by the Trustees of the Chantrey
Bequest for the national collection. A large work in marble
which attracted much attention was the statue " Premier Matin "
by the Belgian sculptor Egide Rombeaux. Political interest in
Serbia, arising out of the war, was in part responsible for the
exhibition this year in London of the work of Mestrovic, the
Serbian sculptor; his work, though showing an extreme revolt
against academicism, is undoubtedly powerful and full of indi-
vidualism. Rodin's already well-known bronze group, " The
Burghers of Calais," purchased in 1912 by the National Arts
Collection fund, was erected in Victoria Tower Gardens, London,
and the memorial statue of Capt. Scott was set up in Waterloo
Place, London.
Derwent Wood won further honour with his child's head
(a portrait of Master Charles Haviland Hillman) in the Academy
in 1917. This year was specially marked, however, by the death
of that greatest of modern sculptors, Auguste Rodin, a master
who has exercised probably a greater influence upon the sculp-
ture of his day than has any before him. His works had long
since found their way into every important public and private
collection of modern art in Europe and America; a triumph of
extraordinary significance, because it was not until compara-
tively late in his career that he won official recognition.
In Aug. 1919 a picturesque figure was removed from sculpture
circles by the death of Walter Winans. Never a sculptor of
more than technical ability, Winans worked to please himself
and for the entertainment of his friends. Horses and shooting
were perhaps as great a passion with him, and, though in sculp-
ture he was a gifted dilettante and no more, he had some suc-
cesses and was widely known.
Save for the few exceptions of those men who were physically
unable to render war-service, almost every British sculptor had
now been for some time with the fighting forces or engaged in
the hospitals or munition works at home. Metals particularly
those of which bronze is constituted were controlled by Gov-
ernment in order to safeguard the supply necessary to the manu-
facture of war munitions. This supply, though sufficient for
those needs, did not very far exceed them; it is worthy of note,
therefore, that the Government, in the interests of sculpture,
ascertained the average amount of bronze used by those sculp-
tors who were still at work, and assigned to each such quantity
of metal as was in fair proportion to his previous needs. Beyond
this, however, the British Government did little or nothing to
encourage or to make use of sculpture, though Germany, in the
meantime, found a valuable weapon in the production of war
medals, which were designed as propaganda to serve the double
purpose of heartening the German people by commemorating
real or supposed victories and of disseminating in neutral coun-
tries evidence of Albion's perfidy and of the success of German
arms. These medals, of which some hundred or more were de-
signed, are in very many cases works of a high artistic order,
and several museums in Great Britain have secured fairly
representative collections of them.
During 1920-1 no fewer than three public statues which may
well fall under the category of "International Courtesies" were
erected in London: the monument of "Gratitude" (a bronze
group by Victor Rousseau) the gift of Belgium erected on
the Thames Embankment in Canning Enclosure, Westminster;
the statue of Abraham Lincoln by Saint-Gaudens a gift of the
United States; and the bronze replica of Houdon's George
Washington, presented by the state of Virginia and set up in
Trafalgar Square.
The London memorial to Nurse Cavell by Sir George Framp-
ton, erected near St. Martin's church, Trafalgar Square, caused
something like a sensation in 1920 by the evidence it gave of
this well-known academic sculptor's conversion to simple and
severe forms of archaicism. This was particularly noticeable in
the treatment of the architectural forms. Some remarkable
sculpture was exhibited in June 1921 by Paul Manship, a
sculptor of great individuality and strength of modelling. In
July 1921 Bertram MacKennal's equestrian statue of King
Edward VII. was unveiled in Waterloo Place by King George.
The sculptor was knighted after the ceremony. In Scotland
Mr. Pettendrigh MacGillivry was made " King's Sculptor," a
title that has no counterpart in England. (C. Po.)
UNITED STATES. Although the period 1910-20 brought to
light no new master in American sculpture, it showed an in-
crease in the number of sculptors, and much good work was
done. D. C. French, who in 1920 had reached the age of 70,
was still indefatigable; conspicuous among his later works were
the " Melvin Memorial" and the statue of Emerson, both at
Concord, Mass. ; " Lincoln," at Lincoln, Neb. ; the Longfellow
and Lafayette reliefs; the exquisite Spencer Trask Memorial
at Saratoga Springs, N.Y.; and the imposing " Lincoln" for
Washington, D.C., besides a score of architectural groups of
high value. F. W. MacMonnies erected a " Pioneer Fountain "
at Denver and a Washington group at Princeton, N.J. G. G.
Barnard was as always original; his gigantic processionals in
Harrisburg, like his rugged " Lincoln " in Cincinnati, compelled
attention and discussion. Paul Bartlett devoted years to his
equestrian " Lafayette " for Paris, following this with the pedi-
mental group for the capitol, Washington, D.C. Henry Shrady's
monument to General Grant (Washington, D.C.) was a
work of sincerity. H. A. MacNeil embellished Ohio's capitol
with his "McKinley Memorial" and Albany with a soldiers'
monument. St. Paul and Springfield, 111., and Worcester, Mass.,
gained new works by Andrew O'Connor. A. A. Weinman's
Baltimore group, C. Keek's " Republic " in Pittsburgh, and
H. A. Lukeman's various monuments were important contribu-
tions. Karl Bitter's untimely death in 1915 was a great loss;
among his last works were the admirable East pediment of the
Wisconsin state capitol, the austere " Carl Schurz " (New York),
and the " Lowry Memorial " in Minneapolis. Another good pedi-
ment was that of the Kentucky capitol by Charles Niehaus.
Miss Anna Hyatt's "Joan of Arc" (New York) was completely
successful. Cyrus E. Dallin continued his mounted Indians;
" The Appeal to the Great Spirit " was perhaps the finest. J. E.
Eraser's " End of the Trail " was a notable achievement. Among
portrait statues were Weinman's seated "Lincoln" (Hodgens-
ville, Ky.); Edmund T. Quinn's "Edwin Booth" (New York);
R. Tait McKenzie's "Whitefield" (Philadelphia) ; and Leonard
Crunelle's "Governor Oglesby" (Chicago). Herbert Adams
produced his "Bryant" (New York), as also his graceful Mac-
Millan Fountain in Washington, D.C. In portrait busts Charles
Grafly continued to lead, with his former pupil, Albin Polasek,
a close second. Atillio Piccirilli's " Outcast " and "A Soul " were
sculpture " by first intention." McCartan's graceful fauns and
Rudolf Evans' beautiful "Golden Hour" were of this period.
Chester Beach and Paul Manship continued their successful
work. Sherry Fry's fountain for St. George, Staten Island, re-
vealed skill of a high order. Evelyn Longman was well repre-
sented by her Allison Memorial (Des Moines, la.), and the
Illinois Centennial Monument, Logan Square, Chicago. Nellie
V. Walker had important works in many western cities for
example, her heroic "Keokuk." Lorado i'aft's " Black Hawk "
and several fountains were also of this period. Doubtless the
most stimulating event of the decade was the Panama-Pacific
Exposition of 1913 in San Francisco. Among the many sculp-
tors who made valuable contribution to its display of decorative
art were Calder. Aitken, Rath, MacNeil, Jaegers, and Konti.
(L. T.)
SEAMAN, SIR OWEN (1861- ), English poet and editor of
Punch (see 24.543), was knighted in 1914. His later volumes in-
clude War Time (1915); Made in England (1916) and From the
Home Front (1918), mainly reprints of verses contributed to
Punch. At the beginning of the World War he joined the " Veter-
ans " corps of the former Inns of Court Volunteers, later known as
the Inns of Court Reserve Corps (2nd batt. of the County of Lon-
don Volunteer Regt.). He was gazetted lieutenant in 1916.
SEDGWICK, ADAM (1856-1913), English biologist, was born
at Norwich Sept. 28 1856. Educated at Marlborough, King's
College, London, and Trinity College, Cambridge, he became fel-
low and tutor of his college and assisted F. M. Balfour, the first
390
SEEBOHM SEISMOLOGY
professor of animal morphology at Cambridge. From 1890 to
1907 he held a readership in that subject himself, and in 1907
became professor of zoology in Cambridge University. Two years
later he was transferred to the Imperial College of Science and
Technology in the same capacity. Details of his work in cytology
and embryology are to be found in 7.720, 9.320 and 328. He died
in London Feb. 27 1913.
SEEBOHM, FREDERIC (1833-1912), English historian, was a
native of Bradford and came of a Quaker family. His interest in
problems of modern life, social and religious, led him to study the
conditions of English rural life in the past and the religious move-
ments of the Reformation. In his English Village Community
(1853) he dwelt on the survival of Roman influences in agricultural
life; and in his Tribal Systems in Wales (1895) he reconstituted
a Celtic society from I4th century evidence. He died at Hitchin
Feb. 6 1912.
SEELY, SIR CHARLES, IST BART. (1833-1915), British politi-
cian was born at Lincoln Aug. 1 1 1833. He came of a family which
held large property, including coal-mines, in the Midlands, and
also in the Isle of Wight. In 1869 he entered the House of Com-
mons as Liberal member for Nottingham, but lost his seat at the
general election of 1874. He was reelected in 1880, but seceded
from the Liberal party on Irish Home Rule, and in 1885 lost his
seat. He was once more elected in 1892, and held the seat until
1895. In 1896 he was created a baronet. Sir Charles Seely was a
warm supporter of the Volunteer movement. He died suddenly
at Brooke House, Isle of Wight, April 16 1915.
His youngest son, JOHN EDWARD BERNARD SEELY (1868- ),
British politician, was born at Brooke Hill Hall, Derbyshire, May
31 1868. Educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, he
was called to the bar in 1897, and from 1900 to 1001 served with
the yeomanry during the South African War. In 1900 he entered
the House of Commons as Liberal member for the Isle of Wight,
but was defeated at the 1906 election. He was, however, elected
the same year for the Abercromby division of Liverpool. In 1908
he entered the Asquith Government as Under-Secretary for the
Colonies, but in 1910 lost his seat, although in the second general
election of that year he stood successfully for the Ilkeston division
of Derbyshire. In 1911 he was made Under-Secretary for War, and
in 1912 became War Minister. Owing, however, to the events
attending the Curragh incident of 1914, he resigned in the summer.
He served in the army with distinction in the World War, rising
to the rank of general in 1918, and on his return to official life be-
came parliamentary under-secretary to the Ministry of Munitions
and deputy-Minister of Munitions (1918). In Jan. 1919 he became
Under-Secretary for Air, and president of the Air Council, but re-
signed in Nov. of the same year.
SEGUR, PIERRE M. M. H., MARQUIS DE (1853-1916),
French author (see 24.584), died at Poissy Aug. 13 1916.
SEISMOLOGY (see 8.817 and 24.589). Strictly speaking,
seismology is that department of knowledge which is concerned
with the study of earthquakes, and such was its meaning up to
the end of the igth century, the older seismology being exclu-
sively concerned with the earthquake which could be felt. In
the early nineties it was discovered that suitably designed and
sufficiently sensitive seismometers recorded disturbances which
were evidently connected with great earthquakes, and, as it was
known that the intensity of disturbance decreased with an in-
crease of distance from the central region of greatest violence, it
was natural to conclude that the very small disturbances,
registered at great distances, were due to the same cause that
gave rise to the destructive earthquake. With the accumulation
of observations difficulties began to arise; it was found that
neither the magnitude of the disturbance, nor the distance at
which record could be obtained, bore any constant relation to
the magnitude of the earthquake. Some shocks of great violence
gave small records, not very extensively distributed, while
others of much less severity at the place of origin gave much
larger records and were registered all over the earth. The
distant records, however, continued to be regarded as records
of the earthquake itself, and are still generally described as such.
In 1909 R. D. Oldham, when examining the circumstances
of the Californian earthquake of 1906, arrived at the conclusion
that the fractures and dislocations of the surface rocks, which
gave rise to the destructive earthquakes, were but a secondary
consequence of a deep-seated disturbance, to which he gave the
name of bathyseism, and suggested that this, and not the earth-
quake, was the origin of the disturbance which, propagated
through the interior of the earth, gave rise to the long-distance
records, commonly known as seismograms. Subsequent con-
sideration of other earthquakes confirmed his belief in the cor-
rectness of the conclusion, and from this it results that the word
"seismology" is at present being used to cover two distinct and
independent departments of study, which may be distinguished
as leleseismology (rrjXt, distant) or the study of the long-distance
records, and engysseismology (lyyvs, near) or the study of the
earthquake proper, each being distinct and independent offshoots
of the bathyseism, or deep-seated disturbance. It is the first of
these which, at the present day, is more especially meant by
seismology, and it is an instance of the way in which words
gradually depart from their original meaning, that the term
should have come to imply something which has no direct
connexion with earthquakes.
Nothing is known at present of the origin of the bathyseism,
and very little of the depth at which it originates. The latter
probably varies considerably, those disturbances which give
rise to well-marked teleseisms and moderate surface earth-
quakes taking place at greater depths than others which are
accompanied by violent and destructive earthquakes. The only
suggestion which has yet appeared of the depth of origin is by
Dr. G. W. Walker, who has followed up certain investigations,
started by Prince Boris Galitzin, of the angle of emergencies of
the wave-paths, and finds that in many cases they indicate an
origin at a considerable depth (it may be as much as 1,200 km.)
below the surface. These investigations require following up
before they can be accepted as conclusive, but the suggestion is
of interest; there is no inherent impossibility, and it seems to
offer a possible explanation of some difficulties which have
arisen in the interpretation of the long-distance seismograms.
Since 1910 many improvements in detail have been made in
the instruments used for obtaining the long-distance records
of the newer, or tele-, seismology, and an entirely new principle
was introduced by the late Prince Boris Galitzin for a direct
measurement of the acceleration of the true motion of the
ground. This instrument is based on the fact that, if a plate of
quartz is subjected to pressure between two sheets of metal, a
free electric charge appears in those sheets, the amount of which
is proportioned to the pressure. An instrument was actually
constructed on this principle and subjected to experimental
tests, but has not been applied to the recording of natural dis-
turbances, owing to the death of the inventor and the effects of
the political revolution in Russia.
The rate of propagation of wave-motion through the earth,
as registered by long-distance seismographs, has been investigated
by Dr. C. G. Knott, who has succeeded in solving the mathemat-
ical difficulties of the problem. He finds that the rate of trans-
mission of both the first phase, condensational, and of the second
phase, distortional, waves increases continuously till the wave-
path attains a depth of about three-tenths of the earth's radius,
the wave-paths reaching lesser depths than this having a con-
tinuously curved form, convex towards the centre of the earth.
Beyond this the rate of propagation is nearly constant, even de-
creasing at certain depths so that some of the wave paths are
concave towards the centre in part of their course. Below six-
tenths of the radius the distortional wave is killed out, and is
not registered at distances greater than 1 20 from the epicentre.
The rate of propagation of the two forms of wave-motion is about
7-2 and 4-0 km. per second respectively, near the surface of the
earth, and about 12-8 and 6-8 at depths of over 1,500 kilometres.
For the older seismology or study of earthquakes proper,, see
GEOLOGY (section Dynamical Geology).
AUTHORITIES. The best general introduction to the newer seis-
mology is Dr. G. W. Walker, Modern Seismology (1913). The most
complete is by Prince B. Galitzin, original in Russian; a German
translation, Vorlesungen in Seismometrie, appeared in 1912. G. W.
SEITZ SELF-DETERMINATION
391
Walker, "Focal depth and the Time Curve," Brit. Assn. Rep. (1917.
p 13). C. G. Knott, " The Propagation of Earthquake Waves
Through the Earth, and Connected Problems," Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin-
burgh (1919, p. 157)- ( R - D - O; )
SEITZ, KARL (1869- ), Austrian politician, was born at
Vienna on Sept. 4 1869, the son of a wood merchant. Left with-
out parents at an early age, he grew up in an orphanage, and, after
completing his course in the public elementary school, began to
learn the tailoring trade, until through the medium of patrons he
was provided with a place in the teachers' seminary at St. Pb'lten.
In this way he became an elementary school teacher. Originally
inclined to the German National party, he joined in 1888 the So-
cial Democratic party. He organized the Social Democratic
teachers of Vienna, and in the Diet of Lower Austria waged a fierce
fight against Burgomaster Lueger and the dominant Christian
Socialist party. Elected to the Austrian Reichsrat in 1901, he be-
came, after the death of Pernerstorfer, its vice-president down to
its dissolution. After the revolution of 1918 he was president of
the German-Austrian National Assembly, and subsequently of the
national parliament (Nationalrat) until the new elections in Oct.
1920, and federal president until Nov. 1920. He was in 1921 chair-
man of the committee of the Social Democratic party and of the
parliamentary party, and vice-president of the Nationalrat.
SELBORNE, WILLIAM WALDEGRAVE PALMER, 2ND EARL OF
(1859- ), English politician (see 24.599), on his return from
the governorship of South Africa resumed his prominent posi-
tion in the House of Lords. He took an active share in defending
the House against Liberal attack, and was one of the leading
" Die-hards " who maintained an uncompromising resistance to
the Parliament bill. In regard to Irish Home Rule, he constantly
pressed for a referendum to the people. As a former First Lord
of the Admiralty, he contributed decisively to the condemnation
passed by the House on the Declaration of London. When the
World War came he was largely occupied with his military du-
ties with the 3rd Battalion of the Hampshire Regiment; but he
joined the first Coalition Ministry as Minister of Agriculture
and Fisheries. As minister he appointed a committee of technical
experts and practical agriculturists, under the chairmanship of
Lord Milner, to report on the means of maintaining and increas-
ing food production in England and Wales; but, fortified by the
opinion of a Scottish committee appointed for the same purpose,
he and the Government rejected the English committee's recom-
mendation to guarantee farmers a minimum price of 453. a
quarter for the four years following the harvest of 1916. He
preferred a plan for organization and cooperation through the
county councils and the Board of Agriculture. In June of the
following year he resigned his office because he disapproved of
the Irish policy accepted by Mr. Asquith's Government as a
result of Mr. Lloyd George's negotiations with Irish leaders.
He did not join Mr. Lloyd George's Ministry, and after the war
he was mainly conspicuous in ecclesiastical matters; he was
forward in promoting the movement for self-government in the
Church which culminated in the Church Enabling Act of 1919.
His elder son, ROUNDELL, CECIL, VISCT. WOLMER (b. 1887), en-
tered Parliament in 1910, and proved an active member of
the Unionist party. A younger son was killed in the war.
SELF-DETERMINATION. This phrase, defined in the Oxford
New English Dictionary as " the determination of one's mind or
will by itself towards an object," was used exclusively, from the
1 7th century to within quite recent years, as a synonym for
" free will " in the individual person, as opposed to the deter-
mination of this will by God's predestination the doctrine of
Determinism. Thus John Scott, in his Christian Life (1683-6),
speaks of " necessary agents, that have no Free-will or Principle
of Self-determination," and Bishop Stillingfleet, in his Origines
Sacrae (1662), of giving man " the freedom of his actions, and a
self-determining power." The New English Dictionary fails to
show any use of the phrase in earlier days in the sense in which
it became widespread and familiar at the close of the World War,
and it has been commonly assumed that it was a new word
coined, or rather adapted from the Russian Samo-obrazhenie, to
give convenient expression to the political principle for which
the nations of the Entente were then supposed to be fighting,
that is to say, the right of nations to determine their own alle-
giance and form of government. It had, however, been used in
this sense even before the war. Thus in his article on ROME
in the earlier volumes (nth edition) of this Encyclopaedia (a
recension of the gth edition article by Prof. H. F. Pelham) Prof.
H. Stuart Jones, writing of the Roman provincial government,
says that " nothing could compensate for the lack of self-deter-
mination " (see 23.653).
It was after the Revolution of March 1917 in Russia that
self-determination " as a political catch-word came into sud-
den prominence. On April 10 the Russian Government, then
dominated by the Radical element under Kerensky, issued a
statement which said, among other things, that " Free Russia
does not aim at dominating other nations; .... its object
is to establish a durable peace on the basis of the rights of
nations to decide their own destiny." The substance of this
proclamation was at once condensed into the formula " self-
determination, no annexations, no indemnities," which was to
produce so profound, and in some ways so disastrous, an influence
on the world-settlement which followed the war. The principle
of self-determination had, indeed, already been laid down by
President Wilson in his address to Congress of Jan. 22 1917.
No peace can last," he said, " or ought to last, which does not
recognize and accept the principle that Governments derive all
their just powers from the consent of the governed." The prin-
ciple, and the words in which it is defined, are those of the
American Declaration of Independence; it was not till a year
later that President Wilson himself crystallized this principle
in the word " self-determination " in the address to Congress of
Feb. ii 1918, in which he defined the Fourteen Points; and on
this occasion the phrase is still marked as a neologism by being
printed between inverted commas. " ' Self-determination ' is
not a mere phrase," he said; " it is an imperative principle of
action which statesmen will henceforth ignore at their peril."
Two months later, in his speech of April 6, the phrase had become,
as it were, naturalized; he speaks of " the free self-determination
of nations upon which all the modern world insists." The
inverted commas no longer appear.
President Wilson has been blamed in certain quarters for his
failure at the Peace Conference in 1919 to make the principle
of self-determination the only basis of the ultimate settlement,
for allowing the old diplomatic Adam too much say in the
adjustment of national boundaries. In this respect the blame
is not deserved; for he had early pointed out that the application
of the principle must be conditional; the fourth of the " Four
Principles " laid down in his speech of Feb. n 1918 was " that
all well-defined national aspirations shall be accorded the utmost
satisfaction that can be accorded them without introducing new
or perpetuating old elements of discord and antagonism that
would be likely to break the peace of Europe and consequently
the world." This is, of course, a serious limitation of the prin-
ciple of self-determination in its practical application, since it
involves a check upon this determination by an outside authority,
which authority President Wilson defined as " the organized
force of mankind " embodied in the League of Nations but
which in effect has been, and always must be, those nations that
are in a position to make their will prevail, whether inside or
outside the League. In practice, then, self-determination has
proved largely illusory. The Treaty of Versailles made advances
towards the application of the principle, but these advances were
tentative and timid. No transferences of territory of the first
importance such as those of Alsace-Lorraine to France or of
Posen and West Prussia to Poland were made subject to
plebiscites. In the treaty with Germany plebiscites were pre-
scribed in the cases of the districts of Allenstein and Marien-
werder, of Upper Silesia and of North Schleswig, and negative
plebiscites in the case of Eupen and Malmedy. In the Austrian
treaty plebiscites were prescribed in the cases of Klagenfurt and
Teschen, but it was only in the former case that a popular vote
was actually taken. A plebiscite was refused in the case of
Western Hungary, transferred to the Republic of Austria under
392
SELF-DETERMINATION
the name of Burgenland. The case of East Galicia was left open,
and so remained in 1921. Experience in the case of Upper Silesia
abundantly proved the wisdom of thus limiting the right of
self-determination. Plebiscites had worked smoothly enough in
the case of fairly homogeneous areas defined by ancient bound-
aries, as in Avignon in 1791 and Savoy and Nice in 1860; they
are altogether another matter in districts inhabited by mixed
populations divided by bitter national jealousies. The method
proved in any case to be costly and dilatory. In large areas it
involved an extensive military control which the victorious
Allies were unable to provide, while it was impossible to set up
provisional governments to supervise the partition of areas over
which they exercised control.
' The experience of the diplomatists at Versailles has then, if
properly studied, great value as a corrective to the dreams of
idealists who persist in building theories for an imaginary world.
But, apart from this experience, it is certain that the principle
of self-determination could not be universally applied without
overthrowing all that remains of the world's order. Yet the
principle remains, in spite of disillusionment, a powerful solvent
of established bodies politic, and it is therefore still important
to understand its implications. The phrase " the self-determi-
nation of nations " is widely accepted as the expression of a prin-
ciple as clear as it is just. So far as the meaning of self-deter-
mination is concerned, it is indeed clear enough. What is not
so clear is what is meant by a " nation." This is a subject
round which interminable discussions have centred, and which
must be examined if the full implications of the principle of self-
determination are to be realized.
Definition of Nation and Nationality. Legally denned, a na-
tion is the aggregate of the subjects or citizens of a particular
sovereign state, and nationality is the quality of such subjection
or citizenship. But the word " nation " has also a wider mean-
ing, which the New English Dictionary embodies in the following
inclusive definition: "A nation is an extensive aggregate of
persons closely associated with each other by common descent,
language, or history, so as to form a distinct race or people,
usually organized as a separate political State and occupying a
definite territory." This definition is open to criticism, as
involving some confusion of thought: and this confusion is not
made less confounded by the definition of " nationality " as
primarily synonymous with " nation " but " frequently a people
potentially but not actually a nation," while a " people " is
defined as " a body of persons composing a community, tribe,
race, or nation."
The truth is that the vagueness of our terms reflects the
vagueness of our ideas about a problem the intricacies of which
we have only recently been called upon to unravel. No satis-
factory definition of the word " nation " is possible because,
save in its legal sense, it conveys no definite idea ; and the same
is true of the word " nationality." Yet a clear definition is the
essential preliminary to any fruitful discussion. It is proposed
then, for the purposes of the present argument, to use the word
" nation " in the sense of " the sum of people constituting a
sovereign and independent body politic," the Latin populus as
distinguished from natio. The word " nationality " it is pro-
posed to deprive of its legal connotation, and to define a nation-
ality as " an extensive aggregate of persons conscious of a com-
munity of sentiments, experiences, or qualities which make
them feel themselves a distinct people." The various elements
that produce this consciousness will be discussed later. They
have an important bearing on the practical problem which was
only very imperfectly solved by the Treaty of Versailles, namely,
the problem raised by the claim of nationalities, thus defined,
to become nations. The complexity and perils of the issues
involved in this claim may be illuminated by the fact that, even
now, in the actual polities of the world, nationalities and nations
nowhere coincide. It remains, therefore, of great importance to
determine what are the essential qualities of nationality and
what are its necessary relations to the conception of the state.
Theories of Nationality. On few subjects has there been so
great a difference of opinion as on the question of what con-
stitutes nationality. Fichte explained it, in terms of his tran-
scendental philosophy, as a thing divine and spiritual, a mani-
festation of the mind of God revealing itself in the national soul.
So, too, for Mazzini, the prophet of the Italian risorgimento,
nationality was a thing sacred, not to be profaned by a cold
analysis of its elements, but believed in and suffered for as a
prime article of faith the " faith in liberty "; for him the map
of Europe would have to be redrawn on national lines as the
necessary first step towards " the universal association of the
human race." l No student of the history of the rise of nation-
alities during the last hundred years will underrate the part
played by such prophets as these. Yet their enthusiasm by
itself explains nothing and would have achieved nothing; it is
like fire, itself a subtle and mysterious element, which yet needs
very material fuel to feed its destructive and creative force.
The explanation of the phenomena of nationality, as other
thinkers have realized, must be sought, not in the region of
metaphysics, but in that of observed facts.
If we analyze the composition of the several nationalities, we
find these elements: race, language, religion, common habitat,
common conditions, mode of life and manners, political asso-
ciation. These elements are, however, never all present at the
same time, and none of them is essential. Community of race,
even where this is put in the forefront of the claim of nationality,
is mainly a politic fiction, at least in countries of European
civilization, in which the races are inextricably mixed up.
Language, again, is as little as race the criterion of nationality,
It may be, as Bluntschli says, the expression of a common spirit
and of intellectual intercourse, and as such it may be brought
powerfully to the aid of nationality, as in the case of the Czech
language in Bohemia, or, still more strikingly, of the English
language in the United States. But nationality and inherited
community of speech are not identical. The Swiss are a distinct
nationality, though they speak four different languages. Com-
munity of language, on the other hand, has not prevented the
British and the Americans from developing different nation-
alities. Religion, too, has clearly no necessary connexion with
nationality, though it has played a great part in creating and
stereotyping nationalities, notably in countries of backward
civilization, as in the Balkan peninsula or in Ireland. A common
habitat and common conditions are doubtless powerful influences
at times in determining nationality; but people have thus lived
together for centuries without developing a national conscious-
ness, and in many cases notably in the east of Europe they
have evolved separate national consciousnesses in spite of a
common habitat and common conditions. As for manners and
mode of life, these are apt to raise stronger barriers between
classes than between nationalities. Lastly, political association,
though as in the case of the Swiss it sometimes encourages
the spirit of nationality, is more often its result than its cause.
All these elements, then, may or may not contribute towards
the formation of 'a nationality, but when we have summed them
up we are no nearer to a solution of the problem of its formation.
Some theorists seek this solution in a psychological process.
" A nationality," says Bluntschli, " only comes into being slowly,
by a psychological process which gradually produces in a mass
of men a distinctive form of existence and community of life,
and stereotypes these as the inheritance of the race." 1 For him
time, and a tradition of many generations, are the essential
conditions. This may be true of the evolution of new nation-
alities; it is not true of the creation of a new sentiment of
nationality in even large masses of persons. It is, for instance,
1 Scritti (18 vols., Milan-Rome, 1861-91), viii., 205; xi., 181, 243;
xii., 245. Mazzini avoided the practical problem involved in the
reconstruction of Europe on national lines by saying that it was
sufficient to indicate the " large lines " and " to leave details to the
future and to the votes of the peoples " (x., 137). His own plan of
reconstruction included the restoration to Poland of the frontiers
of 1772, and the setting up of a Bohemian-Moravian-Hungarian fed-
eration. As Signer Salvemini (Mazzini, 1920) points out, " the
' design of God ' was not quite so clear as Mazzini believed."
1 Lehre vom modernen Stoat (sth ed. of Allgemeines Staatsrecht,
1875), i., p. 92.
SELF-DETERMINATION
393
the boast of the United States that they have been able to
absorb annually some million of alien immigrants, and that one
generation has usually sufficed to give them not only the name
but the full sense of American nationality. The " psychological "
element, indeed, may be admitted, but it does not explain ths
whole of the phenomena nor the ultimate driving force, so to
speak, of nationality.
The German historian Karl Lamprecht came nearer the truth
when he added another element, the economic, as the creative
force in the evolution of nationality. Like Bluntschli, he found
a general law for this evolution in the development of the Volks-
geist, but he explains this development by changes in economic
conditions. Nationality, that is to say, is but a manifestation
of the instinct of men to group themselves for the defence of
their common interests, and it follows that the groups thus
formed tend to shift and change with the ebb and flow of the
economic struggle for existence. This view, which if it be
sound obviously conflicts with the belief that the triumph of
the principle of self-determination would bring permanent peace
to the world, was elaborated by the Austrian Socialist Otto
Bauer, in his Nationalitatenfrage, with special reference to the
nationality question in the former Habsburg Monarchy. " It
is," he said, " the battles of the economic classes, everywhere
active, the changes in the means and the conditions of work
which determine the strength and weakness, the death and
rebirth of nationalities." The determining factors of nationality
in Austria-Hungary which for the purpose of this study might
be considered the laboratory of Europe he declared to be not
cultural but economic. The mass of men, the peasants and the
labourers, are incapable of that consciousness of a widespread,
common, inherited culture which is supposed to be the hall-
mark of nationality; but they are dissatisfied with their lot,
resentful of the dominant powers whom they hold responsible,
and ready therefore to group themselves against them.
This revolutionary tendency, which among the lower classes
of the dominant races is anti-national and cosmopolitan, is apt
among subject races to express itself in nationalism. The process
was strikingly exemplified in Bohemia, where the flood of Czech
nationality followed the channels opened up by industrial
change, and German nationality succumbed not so much to
cultural as to* economic pressure. Before the World War the
same process was taking place in all the eastern marches of
Germany in Silesia, in Posen, and in East and West Prussia,
in which for years past the German element had been succumb-
ing to the irresistible flood of Polish nationality, of which the
unifying force was the economic opposition of the Slav prole-
tariat and peasantry to the German capitalist and governing
classes. The same phenomenon is apparent in the case of Ireland.
The idealists of Sinn Fein never succeeded in inspiring the shrewd
peasantry with their own enthusiasm for their " Milesian past ";
the use of the renovated Gaelic language remained a conceit of
the " intellectuals " of the cities; and the labourers and peas-
ants were won to the Republican cause by a frank appeal to
their economic interests the promise of small holdings and of
freedom from war taxation and the burden of the national debt.
It is then clear that there is an economic basis for nationality,
and that, whatever other elements may enter into it, a sense of
community of material interests is always present. It may be
added that this sense is the strongest and most essential factor,
and that without it nothing else will serve to maintain the com-
mon sentiment. Common origin, common language and a com-
mon tradition of culture and laws will not preserve the unity of
a nationality when the material interests of its parts come into
violent conflict. This truth received its most momentous illus-
tration in the secession of the southern states of the American
Union in 1860-1 and the bitter struggle that followed. The
principle of state sovereignty and independence on the one side,
and that of American national union on the other, did but dis-
guise the true causes of the struggle, which were less political
than economic; the agricultural south was determined to pre-
serve its economic system, based on negro slavery; the indus-
trial north was primarily inspired, not by any abstract love of
coloured humanity, but by the economic objection of the labour-
ing masses to the slave system.
Relation of Nationality to the Nation or State. In considering
the relation between the idea of nationality and that of the
state we are apt to be confused by the romantic and idealistic
tinge given to the idea of nationality by the poets and philos-
ophers of the struggles for freedom. A nationality, conceived
as something divinely inspired, is believed to have not only the
capacity but the right to become a nation, and its legitimate
growth to be necessarily stunted if it be prevented from doing
so. Bluntschli, for instance, described a nationality as an
incomplete organism which could only become completed as an
effective " personality " by political organization as a nation or
state, and some such idea underlay the Liberal enthusiasm for
that " principle of nationalities " which during the last hundred
years has so profoundly changed the map of the world. But
when we come to examine this principle, as stated by its most
conspicuous champions, we find no clear conception of what it
ultimately involves, while the main question of what con-
stitutes a nationality is consistently begged. The late M.
Emile Ollivier, for instance, defines the principle of nationality
(and incidentally of self-determination) as follows:
This principle is that every association of men called a people is
an independent individuality; free, sovereign, enjoying the impre-
scriptible right of self-determination (de disposer d'elle-meme) both
in internal and external affairs. 1
If the word "people" be taken in its usual non-political
sense, this statement was, and remains, obviously untrue, or
represents at most an aspiratiqn; if it means a nation, then the
principle as here defined is merely that of the sovereign inde-
pendence of nations, i.e. states, which has always been a fun-
damental doctrine of international law; it is, that is to say,
a conservative, not a revolutionary principle. But this is not
what M. Ollivier meant by it. For him, as the apologist of
the Liberal Empire, the principle of nationality was dynamic,
not static; it involved a regrouping of the nations, not as
Alexander I. of Russia had once proposed by the formation
from above of homogeneous populations fenced off by their
natural boundaries, but by the free vote of the people con-
cerned the Napoleonic plebiscite. This principle of nation-
alities, he says in his L' Empire liberal, is to be carefully dis-
tinguished from the theory of great agglomerations, the natural
limits of the race, for race has nothing to do with it :
In the politics of nationality there are no natural frontiers. The
true frontiers are those fixed by the will of the populations. The idea
of race is barbarous, exclusive, retrograde, having nothing in com-
mon with the large, holy, civilizing idea of country (patrie).
Renan, in his Qu'est-ce qu'une nation? comes to much the same
conclusion. A Zolherein, he says, is not a patrie; a nation is
a grand aggregation of men with a moral conscience which
causes them to sacrifice their individual interests to those of the
community; wherever the existence of such a moral conscience
is proved a nation exists as of right. " If there is any doubt
as to its frontiers, consult the populations in dispute."
This solution of a difficult problem would be admirably easy
were the rivalries of nationalities confined to the frontiers of
states, which we have the best reason to know they are not, and
were these frontiers themselves a mere question of marks on the
map. But in any case, as Herr Bauer points out, this " psycho-
logical-voluntarist " theory begs the whole question of nation-
ality, for it does not explain the factors that determine the will
of populations to form a nation or to attach themselves to a
nation already formed supposing they are conscious of pos-
sessing a choice. It does not, that is to say, give us the real con-
necting link between nationality and the state, nor does it
explain why in the igth century, for the first time, nationality
was erected into a Staatsprinzip.
Historically it seems clear that the explanation is at least
largely economic. It may be true that a Zolherein does not
constitute a patrie, but the experience of Germany proved that
it may be a powerful element in the constitution of one. It was
1 L' Empire liberal, i., p. 164.
394
SELF-DETERMINATION
not enthusiasm for the abstract rights of man which bound
together the old provinces of France in a sense of common
nationality; it was the economic gains of the Revolution, the
creation of a prosperous nation of bourgeois and of peasant pro-
prietors, that made the patrie. It needed the passion of Mazzini
and Garibaldi for an ideal Italy to rouse the Italians to throw off
the yoke of an oppressive and alien system, but it was the long
prosaic labours of Cavour that laid firmly the economic basis of
Italian unity. Instances, indeed, might be multiplied to show
that, whatever may be the constituent elements of nationality,
it is only a strong sense of common material interests that can
create and maintain a nation. It is certainly no mere coincidence
that the development of the principle of nationality during the
ipth century kept pace with the vast economic changes pro-
duced by the industrial revolution.
The factor of sentiment is not, of course, excluded; but the
sentiment of nationality is not a thing apart, or especially holy,
It is, as Mr. A. J. Balfour has pointed out, but one of a group
of such sentiments for which there is no common name. Man
is a gregarious animal; he has the group instinct; and this
implies also the instinct of self-sacrifice for the sake of the
group esprit de corps, the civic sense, local or national patri-
otism. All human associations are directed to some common
good, and from the point of view of the group sentiment it
matters little how this good is conceived whether as material
or spiritual. A trade union is an association for a purely eco-
nomic purpose; but it demands self-sacrifice on the part of its
members, and it certainly develops a strong sense of esprit de
corps. To say, then, that the strongest and most permanent
bond of a nation is the sense of common interests is not to
belittle the value of loyalty to a national cause.
The modern world has become so accustomed to hearing of
nationality as the basis, or the only sound basis, of the state
that it is apt to forget how very recent is this conception, which
for many people is rooted in the very nature and justice of
things. The sentiment of nationality is of course very ancient;
it is indeed (as the Latin word natio, from nasci, " to be born,"
implies) a natural development of the sentiment of the family
and the tribe. But this sentiment was, until comparatively
recently, not consciously associated with any conception of the
state as we understand the term. The ancient Greeks were
strongly conscious of their common Hellenism, but their polit-
ical unit was the city state; there was a Greek people, but no
Greek nation. The Roman Empire, which, as it were, flattened
out national differences throughout the civilized world, was in
essence the expansion of the city state; it was in no sense
" national," even from the point of view of the Romans. The
Middle Ages, which inherited the Roman tradition, recognized
nationality, but not as the constituent principle of bodies
politic. The voting in general councils of the Church was by
" nations," but these had so little to do with the conception of
states that it was not until the Council of Constance, in 1414,
that a fourth nation was added to the Italians, the French and
the Germans the English, who had hitherto been included
among the Germans. Yet so early as the nth century the poet
of the Chanson de Roland celebrates " French " valour and puts
into the mouths of his warriors praises of " sweet France," and
in the next century the German minnesingers are denouncing
" welsh " arrogance and exalting German nationality. Yet there
was so such thing as a national state, the root reason being that
the material basis of society was feudal, that is to say, deter-
mined by the ownership of land the only stable form of wealth
then existing and by an elaborate system of reciprocal services
and obligations which took no account whatever of the frontiers
of nationality. With the growth of the fenced cities, and of the
commerce of which they were the centres, the feudal system
gradually decayed. But the monarchies which rose upon its
ruins had still for the most part a purely territorial basis, and
so continued as long as landownership gave the strongest title
to wealth and power, that is to say, until the beginning of the
igth century. The industrial revolution, with the vast impetus
it gave to international commerce and the new self-conscious
classes it created, sapped their foundations. Artificial bound-
aries became a nuisance, and the German Zolherein was the
beginning on a large scale of a process of economic concentra-
tion, segregation and exclusion which has continued ever since,
and is likely still to continue. To say that it is economic pres-
sure which has largely determined the formation of nations is
not to pretend that the economic vision of peoples is always
clear. The group instinct sometimes defeats its own ends.
The disappearance in 1918, for instance, of the last of the great
purely territorial monarchies, Austria-Hungary, destroyed an
economic unit of the greatest importance to all its constituent
countries. It used to be said that if Austria did not exist, Austria
would have to be created. This was from the political point of
view. From the economic it was true still.
National Expansion. " If men had any strong sense of the
community of nations," says Bertrand Russell, " nationalism
would serve to define the boundaries of the various nations.
But because men only feel community within their own nation,
nothing but force is able to make them respect the rights of
other nations, even when they are asserting similar rights on
their own behalf " (Principles of Social Reconstruction, p. 33).
The truth of this is revealed in the whole history of the last
hundred years. The Magyars, after securing their own liberty
by a gallant struggle, proceeded to force their own national
ideals on the races subject to them. The Germans, welded into
a great nation by " blood and iron," embarked on a policy of
conquest beyond their own borders. The Italians, when they
had liberated themselves from the Germans, aimed at recapturing
the " national frontiers " of Italy, though this involved the
attempt to absorb alien populations, and even began to dream
of reestablishing the Mediterranean empire of Rome. The
Poles, reunited after a century and a half of agony, scarcely
waited for the ink on the Treaty of Versailles to dry before
starting on the great adventure of reconquering their frontiers
of 1772. Even Bolshevist Russia, wicked fairy godmother of
the bantling " self-determination," showed little disposition to
allow her outlying provinces to determine themselves. The Sinn
Feiners in Ireland passionately claimed self-determination for
themselves, but equally passionately resented its application to
the solid minority in Ireland concentrated in north-east Ulster
when they too demanded it.
All this, though lamentable from the point of view of self-
determination considered as an instrument of peace, is merely
the natural outcome of this principle considered as the expres-
sion of group selfishness. If the national group is bound together
by a vivid sense of common and exclusive interests, sooner or
later it will seek to expand, if it is a healthy organism and thus
subject to the ordinary laws of growth. German political theory
before the World War conceived of the national group as such
an organism, and as subject to the universal law of the struggle
for existence and the survival of the fittest. "A cessation of
growth," said Paul Rohrbach in his Der Deutsche Gedanke,
" would be for us a catastrophe both internal and external, for
under our present conditions it could not possibly be natural
or voluntary, but would only happen when another people or
combination of peoples should hurl us to the ground in such a
way as to make us infirm for a long while to come." " In every
great nation," he says again, " the instinct of self-preservation
reveals itself in the form of a natural pressure to expand, which
only finds its frontiers where it meets other national-political
counteracting forces strong enough to resist it." From the ideal
point of view this " doctrine of conquest " is, of course, wholly
evil and misguided. From the strictly scientific point of view,
judged that is to say by the experience of the past and even of
the last few years, it must at least be treated with respect. To
this world-old doctrine of conquest, reinforced by the new spirit
of national exclusiveness, the new doctrine of democratic self-
determination, combined with a new organized spirit of inter-
national good-will, is prescribed as an antidote. How far is it
likely to prove effective?
Self-determination and Peace. The advantage of the old
unnational conception of the state was that it offered no rigid
SELOUS, F. C. SENUSSI
395
to the economic expansion of the nationalities, in so far
as these existed outside the political sphere, the overflow of a
nationality in one state percolating, or occasionally flooding,
into another without any sense of inconvenience to the state
invaded, which merely received a very often welcome addition
to the Biumber of its subjects. In the days before the industrial
revolution these transferences of population were, indeed, more
often determined by other than economic causes. Thus in the
i yth century some 30,000 Slav and Albanian families migrated
into tihe Habsburg dominions, Slavonia and southern Hungary,
in order to escape the fury of the Turks; Flemish and French
Protestants fled in thousands to the British Islands; and the
Electors of Brandenburg peopled their wast* spaces with Hugue-
not refugees from France and Protestant refugees from southern
Germany. In the industrial age the migrations took another
form. German industrial expansion demanded a vast supply of
cheap labour, and this was provided by a mass immigration of
Sla^s, which created misgiving even when the German Empire
was supremely powerful. 1 Little misgiving -was created, on the
other hand, by the still vaster immigration of all the less devel-
oped -nationalities of Europe into the United States and, later,
into 'the British Dominions. The process, indeed, was in itself
unobjectionable so long as the migrating masses carried with
them no conscious sentiment of nationality in a political sense,
and no claim to assert themselves as separate entities, i.e, so
long as allegiance was conceived as due not to the nationality
but to the state. It is quite another thing when, under the
principle of self-determination, the balance of nationalities in
any given state becomes a matter of vital importance to the
state itself. The Emperor Leopold I. would hardly have given
special privileges to the Slavs who sought refuge in his domin-
ions had he foreseen that this migration would lead, some 200
years later, to the downfall of the Habsburg Empire and dynasty.
The damger of similar consequences is increased when the con-
stitution -of the state itself is made dependent upon a popular
vote, and all the signs point to the fact that self-contained
nations will no longer permit promiscuous immigration the
United States has set the example by " tightening up " its
immigration laws and will be increasingly intolerant of national
divergencies within their own borders. The effect of the principle
of self-determination, logically applied, would therefore be to
establish the nationalities as jealously segregated nations, prob-
ably surrounded by tariff walls, certainly defended against dan-
gerous infiltration of alien elements from without by rigid rules
as to naturalization, and earnestly bent on reducing all within
their borders to the same national model. The danger to peace
of attempting to confine the expansive forces of nationalism
within such artificial limits is obvious, and the danger will not
be avoided by the creation of an international force, such as the
League of Nations, charged with the duty of preserving the
status quo or of readjusting it according to the ebb and flow of
the national life of the several communities; for the pressure of
the forces of expansion of vigorous nationalities, artificially
restrained, would blow the League to pieces.
It may be that the economic development of the world, by
increasingly demonstrating the interdependence of nations, will
reduce the sentiment of nationality to the position it occupied
during the long ages when it was not the basis of the state, still
less an intolerant crusading power. But the World War at least
proved that the international movement associated with labour,
disfigured as it was by its insistence on the necessity of a new
form of war that of class against class was powerless against
the passion of nationality. The true hope of peace for the future
lies in the recovery by the world of the idea of the state, what-
ever form it may take, as a thing apart from and above the idea
of nationality and infinitely tolerant of national divergencies.
It is the ideal towards which the British Empire has been con-
sistently tending. The ideal League of Nations will be some
such loose confederation, embracing all the world, of which each
constituent state, while guarding its own interests, will realize
that these interests are bound up with those of the totality of
1 See a remarkable series in the Frankfurter Zcitung in 1911.
states. For such a universal union, however, the world is not
ripe; for there are peoples who are not yet capable of self-
government, and will only become so, if ever, by a long process
of education. To talk of self-determination for such peoples is
a mockery. It is also a wrong; for, as Senator Elihu Root
wisely said with reference to the Philippines, " the right to gov-
ernment is prior to the right to self-government."
See W. Alison Phillips, " Europe and the Problem of Nationality,"
Edinburgh Rev. for Jan. 1915, of which parts are incorporated in the
above article ;J.W. Headlam-Morley, " Plebiscites," Quarterly Rev.
for July 1921 (No. 468); Sarah Wambaugh, A Monograph on Pleb-
iscites, with a collection of Official Documents (1921); Plebiscites,
vol. xxv. of the Peace Handbooks issued by the Historical Section
of the Foreign Office (1920); A History of the Peace Conference of
Paris, edited by H. W. V. Temperley (3 vols., 1920). Among more
modern foreign works on the subject are Schallmeyer, Vererbung
und Auslese im Lebenslaufe der Volker (1903) ; Kirchhoff, Zur
Verstdndigung ilber die Begriffe " Nation " und " Nationalitdt "
(1905) ; Otto Bauer, Nationalitdtenfrage und die Sozialdemokratie
(1907). (W. A. P.)
SELOUS, FREDERICK COURTNEY (1851-1917), English ex-
plorer (see 24. 614), in 1909 organized Mr. Roosevelt's hunting ex-
pedition in East Africa, and in 1910 represented Britain at the
Congress of Field Sports held at Vienna. In Aug. 1914 he offered hii
services to the War Office, but they were declined on account of
his age (he was over 62). Persistence, however, gained him a sub-
altern's commission (Feb. 1915) in the Legion of Frontiersmen
(25th Fusiliers) and he reached Mombasa in May following. Se-
lous took part in many engagements in the East African campaign,
was promoted captain and (Sept. 1916) given the D.S.O. He
was killed in action at Beho Beho on Jan. 4 1917 (a year after his
eldest son had been killed on the western front). His private col-
lection of trophies was given by his widow (Mary Maddy, whom
he married in 1894) to the Natural History Museum, London,
where in June 1920 a national memorial to him was unveiled a
bronze half-figure by W. R. Colton a Selous scholarship being
also founded at his old school, Rugby.
See J. G. Millar's Life of Frederick Courtney Selous (London 1918),
and Geog. Jnl., vol. xlix. (1917).
SENUSSI AND SENUSSITES (see 24.649) .The military activity
of the Senussi from 1900 to 1910 had been directed against the
advance of the French in the regions bordering the Sahara be-
tween Lake Chad and the Nile basin. There was evidence of an
BtXr-*-*-*- ^L
.< M.'mm.d..lHo mr . *
/*FlFIlter. 8 k " T*
,-f** \ i \ A.
THE SENUSSI COUNTRY
increase of adherents to the sect in Egypt and in Arabia; in N.W.
Africa and in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Senussiism made prac-
tically nt> headway.
396
SENUSSI AND SENUSSITES
Activity in Cyrenaica. While continuing hostilities against
the French, the Senussi sheikh Sayed (Sidi) Ahmad esh Sherif
in 191 1 aided the Turks in Cyrenaica, then commanded by Enver
Bey (later Pasha) in the campaign against Italy. The traditional
policy of the Senussites was one of suspicion in regard to the
Turks but they had been won over by Pan-Islamic propaganda.
By the Treaty of Lausanne, Oct. 1912, the Turks agreed to
evacuate Tripoli and Cyrenaica. At that time the Italians held
only the chief seaports of Cyrenaica, the rest of the country being
in the military occupation of the Senussites and their allies.
Sidi Ahmad continued the war with Italy, aided by a body of
Turkish troops, which, contrary to treaty engagements, remained
in Cyrenaica. The Italians devoted their attention to the occu-
pation of the hinterland of Tripoli (including Fezzan), a process
completed in Aug. 1914. In Cyrenaica they remained mainly on
the defensive. General Ameglio, appointed governor of Cyre-
naica towards the end of 1913, had however begun a vigorous
campaign against the Senussites, when in Feb. 1914, in conse-
quence of the threatening situation in the Balkans, orders were
issued from Rome to suspend operations.
' When the World War began, and while Italy still remained
neutral, Turkish agents, with German support, sought to make
Cyrenaica and Tripoli bases of action against the French and
British. To the tribes which rose in revolt in Tripoli and its
hinterland the Senussites gave some support, but Sidi Ahmad,
through the intermediary of chiefs friendly to Italy, was con-
ducting unofficial negotiations, and had the Italians been willing
to acknowledge his independence an accommodation with them
might have been reached. He refused however to accept the
position of "a protected Bey." By the spring of 1915 he was
again attacking Italian posts. Strong efforts had been made for
some time by the Turks and their German advisers to induce
the Senussites to invade western Egypt; a special Turkish mis-
sion now visited Sidi Ahmad and endeavoured to get him to
proclaim a jihad. The Senussi sheikh was disinclined to take the
advice offered him. The Senussites had always maintained good
relations with Egypt for much of their trade they were depen-
dent upon the good-will of the Egyptian authorities. It was the
demonstration that the Turco-Germans could give him sub-
stantial military and financial aid which finally changed Sidi
Ahmad's views. A large number of Turkish officers and some
Arabic-speaking German officers from the German garrison at
Constantinople were smuggled into Cyrenaica, a matter of little
difficulty. Among the arrivals was Nuri Bey, a half brother of
Enver Pasha who exercised much influence. Nuri was joined in
April 1915 by Ga'far Pasha, an Europeanized Arab of consider-
able ability, and with and after Ga'far came arms, ammunition
and other stores, including wireless and telephonic apparatus. 1
By Aug. 1915 the Germans were using the landing places be-
tween Sollum and Tobruk as submarine bases. The time for
putting the Turco-German plans into operation was approach-
ing. These plans were, mainly through Senussite instrumentality,
to threaten at once French north and central Africa, Nigeria,
Egypt and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It was also designed
to penetrate to Cameroon and establish land communication
between the Mediterranean and the Gulf of Guinea. The Ger-
man Emperor, as " Islam's Protector," exhorted Sidi Ahmad
to "expel infidels from territory which belonged to true be-
lievers." But besides the Senussi sheikh the only important chief
won over to the cause was 'All Dinar, Sultan of Darfur, a trib-
utary state of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and the plan failed.
French determination to secure their position in the central
Sudan contributed largely to the localization of the conflict. In
1909-10 the French had conquered Wadai (see 28.225), which
adjoins Darfur, thereby withdrawing from the Senussite sphere
a country in which they had been all powerful. In 1913, push-
ing N. from Kanem into the Saharan borderland, Colonel Largeau
conquered Borku, capturing 'Ain Galakka, the Senussite south-
l The German political agent was a certain Mannismann, who
after the defeat of Sidi Ahmad endeavoured to persuade the Senus-
sites to continue the war. He was attacked and killed in the desert
by tribesmen hostile to Ahmad.
ern base, in November, of that year. In the middle of 1914
Bardai, the chief settlement in the Tibesti highlands, was occu-
pied. 2 These newly conquered regions on the southern fringe of
the Libyan Desert were placed under the control of Lt.-Col. J.
Tilho. Though risings against their authority by chiefs acting
on Senussite instructions, and raids by nomads continued up to
the early months of 1917, the French posts formed an effective
barrier against any Senussite advance into central Africa.
Campaign in Western Egypt. Since May 1915 the danger of
a Senussite invasion of western Egypt had existed. It was due
to the great tact with which Lt.-Col. C. L. Snow, 3 who com-
manded the small force stationed in western Egypt, handled a
very delicate situation that the rupture with the Senussites was
delayed till Nov. 1915. At the last moment, early in November, a
final effort was made to avoid a break, Sidi Mohammed el
Idris, Senussite envoy in Egypt, being sent to Cyrenaica to
arrange for the Senussi sheikh " to get rid of his Turkish advisers
in return for a sum of money." It was too late; Sidi Ahmad was
already well supplied with German gold as well as arms.
The enemy plan of campaign was to advance in parallel lines
with two forces, one across the Libyan plateau, a great lime-
stone tableland the other farther S. along the string of oases
leading from Siwa to the Nile. Simultaneously the Sultan of
Darfur was to rise in revolt, invade Kordofan and advance
on Khartum. The plan was boldly conceived, but the danger
to Egypt and the Sudan was not chiefly in the military force
at the command of the Senussi sheikh and his allies. That
danger lay in the spiritual authority exercised by Sidi Ahmad
and the high prestige he enjoyed in Egypt. Many if not most
of the 200,000 Bedouins of western Egypt were adherents of
the Senussi sect and should the Senussi forces gain any strik-
ing success it "might lead to serious religious and internal dis-
orders." So wrote Gen. Sir John Maxwell, then commanding
the forces in Egypt, who added that the Senussi peril was his
principal source of anxiety not the Turkish attack on the
Suez Canal.
The opening of the campaign was accompanied by great ac-
tivity by German submarines off the Cyrenaican coast and in
the Gulf of Sollum; among the boats sunk were the British aux-
iliary cruiser " Tara " and the horse transport " Moorina." Sur-
vivors of the crews were handed over to the Senussi and suffered
great privations (Cyrenaica is a very desolate country and the
Senussites themselves were often short of food). Land hostilities
began on Nov. 15 but in view of the isolation and smallness of
the Egyptian garrisons at Sollum and other advanced posts
they were withdrawn, and a stretch of country 200 m. or more
in length was at once overrun by the Senussites. They advanced
as far as Dabya (90 m. W. of Alexandria and the terminus of
the railway along the coast), sweeping past, but not attacking
Mersa Matruh, the chief port of western Egypt and reached by
boat from Alexandria in 1 2 hours. This port was made the base
for the British operations.
General Maxwell's endeavour, in view of the internal situation,
was to avoid anything in the nature of a reverse, to keep the
enemy as far as possible from the Nile valley, and, as soon as
possible, to strike a decisive blow at the Senussi and by his defeat
to diminish his influence as a spiritual potentate. These aims
were achieved, but at the outset the difficulty was to get together
a force strong enough to undertake operation. In Aug. 1915,
when the situation on the western Egyptian frontier became
critical, the Gallipoli campaign was being vigorously prosecuted,
while the Turks had again advanced towards the Suez Canal.
When the Senussi invasion occurred the decision to evacuate
Gallipoli had not yet been taken, while the British Government
had just committed itself to the Salonika campaign. In these
circumstances Sir John Maxwell had to content himself with
collecting a " scratch " force to oppose the Senussi. The strength
2 Turkish troops had occupied Tibesti in 1910 and Borku in 1911.
They were recalled at the outbreak of the war with Italy.
3 Col. Snow was killed in the first action (Dec. II 1915) by an
Arab whom he was endeavouring to persuade to surrender. He had
served over 20 years in the Egyptian coastguard and was intimately
acquainted with the desert tribes.
SENUSSI AND SENUSSITES
397
of the Senussi is conjectural. The Turkish troops with them
may have numbered 1,000; the Muhafizia or Senussite regulars
were perhaps 5,000 strong. In addition there was an irregular
body of tribesmen, Arabs and Arabized Berbers, probably
numbering 20,000, all well armed and accustomed to desert
warfare, but undisciplined and untrustworthy. The Senussites
were well supplied with rifles and small-arms munitions; they
had field guns and machine-guns; they had an ample camel
transport and many of their troops were well mounted. With
them were about 100 Europeans; Ga'far Pasha was commander-
in-chief, and was accompanied by Sidi Ahmad and Nuri Bey.
Through bad leadership, or from other causes not explained,
the Senussi offensive was not carried out as planned. When the
advance across the Libyan plateau was made, Siwa oasis was also
occupied; but no further progress towards the Nile by that route
was then attempted. Moreover, 'Ali Dinar of Darfur, who had
formally renounced his allegiance to the Sudan Government in
April 1915, while preaching a jihad and indulging in abusive
letter writing, 1 did not carry out his threat of invasion. Thus at
the outset the British had to deal only with the enemy advance
along the Mediterranean coast.
Orders for the formation of a Western Frontier Force were
issued on Nov. 20. Maj.-Gen. A. Wallace, who was given the
command, took up his headquarters at Matruh on Dec. 7. His
troops consisted of Yeomanry, Territorials, Australians, New
Zealanders, Indians and Egyptians, with a squadron of armoured
cars and a squadron of aeroplanes. The striking force was a
composite mounted brigade under Brig.-Gen. J. D. T. Tyndale
Biscoe and a composite infantry brigade under Brig.-Gen. the
Earl of Lucan. " Regiments and staff had been collected," wrote
Sir John Maxwell, " somewhat hastily. . . . The composite
yeomanry brigade contained men from 20 or more different
regiments. . . . It was not until the middle of Feb. (1916) that
the condition of the Western Frontier Force could be considered
really satisfactory."
The Senussites were engaged on Dec. u and 13 in the neigh-
bourhood of Matruh with indecisive result. Having received
reinforcements, General Wallace again engaged the enemy, on
Christmas Day, at Gebel Medwa, a few miles from the coast.
The Senussites, severely handled, retreated to Halazin (officially
misspelt Hazalin), 25 m. S.W. of Matruh. Torrential rains now
interrupted operations; in any case General Wallace was too
weak to resume the offensive until further reinforced. The first of
these new reinforcements consisted of the 2nd Regt. of the ist
South African Infantry Brigade, which disembarked at Matruh
on Jan. 20 and 21 1916. They were the first S. Africans from
the Union to take part in the war outside the limits of S. Africa. 2
On. Jan. 23 the Senussites were attacked at Halazin and after
an eight-hours' stubborn engagement were defeated and fled.
The country had been turned by the rains into a quagmire and
mud played an important and unfortunate part throughout.
General Wallace's successes now induced many of the Egyp-
tian Bedouin (mostly the Walad 'Ali tribesmen) to desert the
Senussi cause. Wallace had been tied to his base at Matruh by
lack of sufficient camel transport, but by February this difficulty
was overcome and the force had been further strengthened,
partly by more South African infantry. The time for a real
offensive had come. At this period General Wallace resigned and
was succeeded by Maj.-Gen. W. E. Peyton (Feb. 9 1916).
On Feb. 20 General Peyton sent forward a force under Brig.-
Gen. H. T. Lukin (commander of the ist S. African Inf. Brig.)
with orders to take Barrini, 50 m. E. of Sollum. On the 26th
an engagement was fought at Agagia, in which Ga'far Pasha
attempted to carry out his favourite manoeuvre an enveloping
movement. This movement was checked, the infantry pressed
forward and after a two-hours' struggle the Senussites were
compelled to evacuate their position. The yeomanry were then
sent in pursuit, and the Dorset Regiment (under Col. H. M.
1 He addressed one letter to " The Governor of Hell in Kordofan
and the Inspector of Flames in Nahud."
1 A volunteer force raised in Rhodesia (the 2nd Rhodesian Regt.)
had gone to E. Africa in 1915.
Souter) in a fine charge broke into the enemy lines and captured
Ga'far Pasha. 3 Nuri Bey took over the command of the Senussi
forces, which offered little further resistance. Two British col-
umns advanced on Sollum, which was reoccupied on March 14.
Sollum is close to the Cyrenaican frontier and into Cyrenaica,
that is into Italian territory, Nuri Bey and his forces retreated
after blowing up their main ammunition dump. General Peyton
did not further pursue Nuri, but on March 17 a squadron
of armoured cars, under Major the Duke of Westminster,
raced 120 m. across the desert and rescued the survivors some
90 in number of the " Tara " and " Moorina." Shortly after-
wards General Peyton's force was reduced, the S. Africans leaving
in April for France.
Sidi Ahmad had been with Ga'far Pasha until the end of
Jan. 1916. He then went to Siwa and began the advance along
the oases that lead to the Nile. The advance came too late to
be effective, but on Feb. 1 1 Senussites occupied Baharia oasis,
some 100 m. from the fertile and densely peopled districts of
Fayum and Minia. Before the end of February the Senussites
had also occupied the more southerly oases of Farafra and Dakh-
la. Thereupon the Egyptian officials were withdrawn from
Kharga (the Great Oasis), which is connected by railway with
the Nile valley, and the Senussites proceeded to occupy it. The
strategical importance of the oases is great, but having no troops
available for an offensive in S.W. Egypt, General Maxwell took
defensive measures only. A command under Maj.-Gen. J.
Adye patrolled the region from the Fayum to Assiut and Esna.
The oases were kept under constant observation by aeroplanes,
and the Senussites did not emerge from them. After the complete
defeat of their northern force they abandoned Kharga, which
was reoccupied by the British on April 15 1916. Gen. Sir Archi-
bald Murray had meanwhile (March 19) succeeded General Max-
well in the Egyptian command.
Darfur Campaign. At this period, in the Sudan, the Sirdar,
Gen. Sir Reginald Wingate, was dealing with 'Ali Dinar of Dar-
fur. For over a year the Sultan had been openly defiant and
since Dec. 1915 had been making arrangements to invade Kor-
dofan. As the Sudan Government had not in 1915 any force
available for action in Darfur, negotiations were entered into
with him, but without result, and the belief grew in the Sudan
that the Government was too weak to deal with so powerful a
sultan ('Ali Dinar had a regular "slave" army some 10,000 in
number, for the most part well armed). Early in 1916 it had
become imperative to clear up the situation if the general peace
of the Sudan was to be preserved. Though it was the worst
season of the year for military operations the Sirdar determined
to anticipate 'Ali Dinar's offensive. An expeditionary force,
3,000 strong, was organized under command of Maj. (tempor-
ary Lt.-Col.) P. V. Kelly. Except for a detachment of the R.F.C.
the troops consisted entirely of units of the Egyptian army
this being the first time since the Mahdia that Egyptian troops
had fought Sudanese Arabs. The expedition was highly success-
ful. It was remarkable for the manner in which transport diffi-
culties were overcome. Khartum, the base, is 500 m. by rail
from the nearest seaport: El Obeid, railhead, is 428 m. from
Khartum; and from El Obeid the force had to advance nearly
400 m. across a desolate roadless country. It then had to engage
a numerically superior enemy of indomitable valour. Battle
was given by the Darfurians on May 22 (1916) at Beringa, near
El Fasher, 'Ali Dinar's capital. A body of 2,000 riflemen, sup-
ported by a large mounted force, attacked the Egyptians with
all the accustomed bravery of the Dervish warrior. They were
beaten back, counter-charged and completely defeated, losing
3 Like many other Arab officers and men in the Turkish army who
fell into the hands of the British, Ga'far Pasha joined the Arab forces
under the Emir Faisal and took part in the Syrian campaign against
the Turks. After his capture at Agagia he had been confined in the
citadel at Cairo. He tried to escape by means of a rope. Ga'far
being a very heavy man, the rope broke ; he fell, injured himself, and
was removed to hospital. While there, he learned of the Sherif of
Mecca's revolt and resolved to join his forces. In 1920 he became
Minister of Defence in the Provisional Arab Government of Meso-
potamia. He was a delegate at the Near East Conference held in
Cairo in March 1921.
398
SERBIA
over 50% of their number in killed alone. 'Ali Dinar and a con-
siderable following of horsemen fled from the field. The party
was chased and bombed by airmen, but the Sultan made good
his escape. He retired to the confines of French central
Africa. In Oct. 1916 a column was sent against him; he again
fled, was pursued and killed in action on Nov. 6.
The Siwa Defeat. In the oases west of the Nile (where Maj.-
Gen. W. A. Watson had taken over the command) there was
little change between April and Oct. 1916. The patrolling of
the desert front, over 800 m. in length, was done by light motor-
cars, the Imperial Camel Corps and aeroplanes. In October, the
British, with slight opposition, reoccupied Dakhla oasis, where
Sidi Ahmad had a farm and where he had been living for some
months. From Dakhla a daring attempt was made by a party
of British, in motor-cars, to reconnoitre Kufra, but it was found
impossible to cross the belt of sand dunes west of the oasis.
Sidi Ahmad now retired by way of Farfara and Baharia oases
to Siwa. As long as he remained there he was not utterly dis-
credited in the eyes of the Egyptians. It was therefore decided
to attack Siwa with a force sent in motor-cars from Matruh. The
distance to be covered was 150 m., but the ground was for the
most part hard. Leaving Matruh on Feb. i 1917, the armoured-
car force, under Brig.-Gen. H. W. Hodgson, reached the escarp-
ment, below which lies Siwa oasis, the next afternoon, and was
in action the whole of Feb. 3. The Senussites were about 1,000
strong, including 800 riflemen, and had mountain and machine-
guns. An attempt to rush the cars was frustrated, but the action
appeared to be indecisive. However, at daybreak the next morn-
ing the Senussites, having blown up their ammunition, retreated
west. The head of their column was ambushed, but the main
body got away. Sidi Ahmad, with Mohammed Salih (ex-com-
mander of the Egyptian coastguard, who had deserted at the
beginning of the campaign), had already fled to Jarabub (the
oasis in which is the mosque-tomb of the founder of the Senus-
site fraternity). Thither he was not pursued, and in the Kufra
oases he had a practically inaccessible place of refuge.
Nevertheless, with the defeat of Siwa the danger to Egypt
from the Senussi movement disappeared and though raids were
made on the Darfur border they did not seriously affect the Su-
dan. In Cyrenaica, too, the situation was altered. An Anglo-
Italian agreement had been concluded in July 1916 for common
action against the Senussi and it was in contemplation to trans-
fer from the Egyptian to the Italian sphere Jarabub and that
part of the Libyan Desert containing Kufra.
An Understanding with Italy. During 1917 and 1918 Turkish
and German influence among the Senussites steadily declined
while strong efforts were made by the Italians to come to an
understanding with the sect. They secured the release of 700
Italian soldiers, prisoners of war. Sidi Mohammed el Idris, the
former envoy to Egypt, and the eldest son of Senussi el Mahdi,
had disapproved his cousin's action and had taken no part in
the invasion of Egypt. He had an influential following and was
desirous of peace with both Italy and Great Britain. After the
fight at Siwa he entered into an agreement with both Powers.
Sidi Ahmad himself was deeply committed to his Turkish and
German counsellors. Many of these, including Nuri Bey, had
left Cyrenaica. In the summer of 1918 the Idrisi party gained
the mastery in the Senussite ranks. Sidi Ahmad's position was
undermined and he found it convenient to quit Cyrenaica. In
August of that year he was conveyed by a German submarine from
Misurata to Polo, whence he went to Turkey, still claiming to be
the head of the brotherhood. In 1919 he " girded the Sultan with
the sword of 'Othman " but in 1920 had turned Nationalist and
aided Mustafa Kemal.
The Senussi chiefs in Libya had chosen Sidi Mohammed el
Idris as Grand Senussi, and the new head of the order in Jan.
1919 sent a mission to Rome, when Italian sovereignty was
implicitly recognized. Neither Italy, France or Great Britain
had challenged the right of the Senussi sheikh to exercise spirit-
ual authority over the members of the brotherhood; Italy in
1917 had gone further and had acknowledged Sidi Mohammed's
temporal authority in what may be called his hereditary domin-
ions. By the accord of Regima concluded Nov. 1920 the 1917
agreement was Fatified and Sidi Mohammed, to whom the
Italians gave the title of emir (prince), himself visited Rome to
pay homage to the King of Italy. An indication of Sidi Moham-
med's attitude was the permission he granted at this time to an
English woman to visit Kufra, though in the guise of a Moslem.
The lady in question, Mrs. Rosita Forbes, testified to the de-
sire of the Senussi chiefs to resume trade with Egypt.
AUTHORITIES. See the despatches of Sir John Maxwell, Sir
Archibald Murray and Sir Reginald Wingate (London Gazette sup-
plements June 21, Sept. 25, Oct. 25 and Dec. I 1916 and May 27
1919); The Times History of the War, vol. ix., chap. cxlv. ; Lt.-
Col. J. Tilho, "The Exploration of Tibeste ... in 1912-7," Geog.
JnL. vol. Ivi. (1920); Capt. Gwatkin Williams, R.N., In the
Hands of the Senussi (1916) ; Rosita Forbes, The Secret of the Sahara:
Kufra (1921); W. T. Massey, The Desert Campaigns (1918).
(F. R. C.)
SERBIA (see 24.686) had in 1910 an area of 48,303 sq. km.,
which after the Balkan wars was increased to 87,358 sq. kilo-
metres. The pop., according to the census taken on Dec. 31
1910, was 2,91 1, 701, showing an increase of 417,931 over that of
1900. The country was divided into 18 districts, as follows,
(the pop. is shown in brackets): Belgrade 1 (155,815), Belgrade
City (89,876), Valjevo (157,648), Vranja (252,937), Kragujevac
(189,025), Krajina (112,142), Krusevac (167,371), Morava
(203,638), Nis (198,768), Pirot (112,314), Podrina (238,275),
Pozarevac (259,906), Rudnik (85,340), Smederevo (143,216),
Timok (149,538), Toplica (110,216), Uzice (146,763), Cacak
(138,911). Of this total pop. 2,528,819 lived in the country,
and only 382,882 in towns. Of these the most populous were
Belgrade (89,876), Ni (24,949), Kragujevac (18,452), Les-
kovac (14,236), Pozarevac (13,411), Sabac (12,100), Vranja
(11,439), Pirot (10,737). In iQo the density of population
was 51.6 per sq. kilometre.
The territory acquired by Serbia in the wars of 1912-3 con-
tained (according to not very reliable statistics) a pop. of
1,481,614, divided among the following 12 districts: Pri-
jepolje (49,315), RaSa (81,214), Zvefane (81,643), Kosovo
(193,337), Prizren (124,101), Tetovo (146,803), Skoplje (Uskub,
157,078), Kumanovo (144,983), Bregalnisa (101,442), TikveS
(84,657), Bitolj (Monastir, 252,646), Okhrida (84,395).
Thus Serbia on the eve of the World War had a pop. of
roughly 4,500,000. The births, deaths, and marriages in Serbia
amounted in 1911 and 1912 to 107,219 and 114,257, to 64,369
and 63,358, and to 30,420 and 13,289 respectively.
Agriculture. Serbia is a land of small holdings, the former Turkish
proprietors having been expropriated in 1833 and 1880: in 1900, out
of a total of 401,093 families, no less than 91-5% were owners of land.
Of these only 86 persons owned over 100 hectares of land, and only
three persons over 300, while there were 98,253 properties (33-4%)
of under three hectares. There has been a very rapid development
of cooperative societies since 1895 (900 in 1909, with 35,000 members;
1,200 in 1913, with 40,000 members).
Of a total area of 2,045,176 hectares there was in 1905 (a) culti-
vated land 1,223,671 (arable land 1,027,815, gardens 25,815, vine-
yards 33,101, orchards 136,939); (6) grazing land 418,391; (c) com-
mons and uncultivated land 110,101. In 1908 the chief products of
the harvest were (in tons) maize 533,691, cereals 457,734, hay and
clover 226,858, straw 777,728, plums 530,061, potatoes 54,946.
In 1905 (latest statistics available) the live stock was distributed
as follows: horses 1/4,363, cattle 969,953, pigs 908,580, sheep 3,160,-
166, goats 510,063.
Forests. Over one-third of Serbia's total area (3,750,000 ac.) is
forest land, all but 750,000 ac. of this belonging to the State or the
various communes. The chief varieties of tree are beech (750,00030.),
oak and conifers.
Mines. The mining industry of Serbia has a great future, but
has hitherto been but little developed, owing to lack of capital and
means of transport. Table I gives the export of ores (in metric tons)
according to the last statistics available. That these are merely the
first primitive beginnings is best shown by the fact that in the year
1 The phonetic spellings of the names of the districts and towns,
following the system adopted by the Committee of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society, are: Belgrade, Valyevo, Vranya, Kraguyevats,
Krajina, Krushevats, Morava, Nish, Pirot, Podrina, Pozharevats,
Rudnik, Smederevo, Timok, Toplitsa, Uzhitse, Chachak, Lesko-
vats, Shabats, Priyepolye, Rasha, Zvechane, Kosovo, Prizram,
Tetovo, Skoplye, Kumanovo, Bregalnitsa, Tikvesh, Okhrida. The
spellings given above follow the Croatian form or its equivalent.
SERBIA
399
TABLE i. Exports of Ores.
1904
1906
1908
Coal and Lignite .
Gold (in kilogrammes)
Silver " . .
Black copper ....
Lead
Antimony ....
Pyrites
Cement ... . .
2,631,810
89
48
1,641
245
4,725
52,500
2,375,067
139
3
7,6i3
213
3,200
92,357
296,125
191
823
2,198
1,552
261
32,726
11,074
1910 a single copper mine (Bpr) exported ore to the value of over
8,000,000 francs, thus exceeding the total result of all the mines
given above.
Foreign Trade. The progress of Serbian trade may best be gath-
ered from the following Tables 2 and 3. In 1910 maize to the value
TABLE 2. Imports and Exports.
1905-7
(triennial)
1908-10
(triennial)
1909
1910
1911
Imports
Exports .
6,821,000
9,004,000
9,196,000
10,626,000
2,941,403
3,719,270
3,387,826
3-935,521
(?)
4,676,640
TABLE 3. Distribution of Trade.
Imports from
Exports to
Germany .
Austria-Hungary
U.K. and Brit-
ish Colonies .
Turkey
France
Italy .
Russia
1909.
1,154,068
711,894
303,409
194,224
141,460
93,800
77,294
1910.
i,399,033
645-930
456,997
237,382
144,144
145,798
72,925
1909.
623,791
1,163,866
5,696
878,967
97,172
121,864
815
1910.
876,594
712,875
66,892
938,837
47,644
42,786
541
of over 21,400,000 francs was exported. The famous plum industry
(known to the west only through German intermediaries) accounted
in 1908 for the export of 49,042 tons of prunes (value 10,350,721
francs) and of 14,398 tons of plum jam (value 3,251,093 francs).
The pig trade, upon which Serbia's prosperity very largely depended,
having been injured by Austria-Hungary s tariff policy, a new
system of slaughter-houses was established in Belgrade, and in 1911
the chief of these exported 9,751 tons of pork (68,047 head). By
1913 the amount exported had risen to 12,913 tons (100,776 head).
Finance. On Jan. I 1913 the public debt amounted to 26,362,-
240. Table 4 shows how the budget balanced in the years before
the war. In 1915 the budget was fixed at the same figure. From
1915 to 1918, owing to the conquest of the country, no proper
budget was possible, the Government and army subsisting upon
the subsidies of the Allied Powers.
TABLE 4. Finance.
Revenue Expenditure
Surplus
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
4,145,764 4,132,945
4,611,109 4,602,913
4,805,458 4,803,272
4,972,758
5,230,588
8,572,826
12,818
8,198
' 2,186
Education. In 1909 there were only 1,296 elementary schools in
Serbia with 2,584 teachers and 138,434^ pupils, and 20 secondary
schools with 393 teachers and 7,317 pupils. In 1910-11 the univer-
sity of Belgrade had 1,025 students. Only 27% of the pop. could
read and write.
Army. After 1908 great efforts were made to increase the effi-
ciency of the army. Organized under a system of obligatory serv-
ice, the war strength in 1914 was estimated at 350,000 men, which,
with the addition of -the Landsturm, could be raised to about
400,000. (See ARMY : Balkan Armies.)
POLITICAL HISTORY, 1909-18
The annexation of Bosnia by Austria-Hungary in 1908 marked
a turning point in the history of Serbia. Henceforth public
opinion, supported by prominent statesmen in every party,
was practically unanimous in regarding a conflict with Austria-
Hungary as sooner or later inevitable. This belief had at once
a national and an economic basis: for Count Aehrenthal not
merely supported the Hungarian policy of repressing Yugoslav
national aspirations inside the Dual Monarchy, but obstructed
Serbia's commercial development by tariff and frontier restric-
tions, by a veto upon eithejr direct access to the sea or a common
frontier with Montenegro, and by opposition to all idea of Balkan
cooperation. Those Serbs who feared so unequal a conflict
and would have preferred a more conciliatory attitude towards
Austria-Hungary, were reduced to silence by Aehrenthal's re-
fusal to admit the international aspect of the problem or to
consider the Serbian proposals for arbitration before the Hague
Tribunal. Isolated in Europe and jealously shut off from her
natural outlets on the Adriatic, Serbia was driven to seek new
political and economic ties in the east and south. The policy
of Aehrenthal inevitably strengthened the tendencies towards
the creation of a Balkan League, and these were accelerated
by the political unrest evoked throughout the Balkan Penin-
sula by the Young Turk Revolution.
The Balkan League. The idea of a Balkan League was by
no means new. It had been advocated as early as 1844 by the
Serbian statesman Garasanin, and formed the subject of seri-
ous negotiations between Prince Michael Obrenovic and the
Bulgarian exiles of his day, and also between Kossuth, Prince
Michael, and Prince Cuza of Rumania. The last serious
overtures had been made in 1891 by the Greek premier Tri-
coupis, and after their betrayal to the Porte by Stambulov the
idea remained dormant for nearly 20 years. The speech of
the Russian Foreign Minister Isvolski on Christmas Day 1908,
advocating a league between Turkey and the three Balkan
Slav States, inaugurated a new era of Russian activity in the
Balkans, under the active direction of Tcharikov, the ambas-
sador at Constantinople, and Hartwig, who rapidly acquired
great influence as minister at Belgrade. In the spring of 1910
the kings of Bulgaria and Serbia paid successive visits to St.
Petersburg and Constantinople, and Dr. Milovanovic, the Ser-
bian Foreign Minister, was especially active in his endeavours
to secure the adhesion of Turkey to a general Balkan League.
His views were also shared by Venizelos, who came into power
in Greece in October of the same year, and even to a lesser degree
by Gesov, a Russophil, who became Bulgarian premier in March
1911. In view, however, of the increasingly chauvinistic
attitude of the Young Turk regime in Macedonia and Albania,
Venizelos considered it advisable to make overtures to Bulgaria,
with a view to common defensive action against a possible
Turkish attack. His initiative led to important secret negotia-
tions, in which Mr. J. D.Bourchier, The Times correspondent,
acted as intermediary. These preceded by at least five months
the first conversations between Serbia and Bulgaria, which
appear to have originated from an overture made by Rizov
in Belgrade at the instance of King Ferdinand. 1 On Oct. n
1911 Gesov, on his return from the west, had a long discussion
with Milovanovic in the train between Belgrade and Nish,
and secret negotiations continued throughout the winter. The
coming of age of Prince Boris of Bulgaria in Feb. 1912 was at-
tended by the crown princes of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and
Rumania, and this demonstration was widely regarded as a
symbol of increasing cooperation between the Christian States
of the peninsula. On March 13 1912 a secret treaty of alliance
was concluded between Serbia and Bulgaria, and was supple-
mented on May 12 by a military convention. On May 29 a
similar treaty was concluded between Bulgaria and Greece.
There was no actual treaty binding Serbia and Greece, while
the Serbo-Montenegrin treaty, concluded as late as Sept. 1912,
was less political than military and provided for separate
though parallel action.
The Treaties. By the terms of the Serbo-Bulgarian agree-
ment each State was bound to assist the other with all its forces,
in the event of an attack by one or more States unspecified,
and in particular in the event of any Great Power trying to
annex any portion of Turkey's Balkan possessions. If internal
troubles should arise in Turkey, either ally might initiate pro-
posals for military action, and any point upon which agreement
was not reached, should then be referred to Russia for decision.
Special provision was made for possible conquests, Serbia rec-
ognizing Bulgaria's rights over the territory lying east of the
Rhodope Mountains and the Struma river, and Bulgaria simi-
larly recognizing Serbia's rights north and west of the Sar
(Shar) Mountains. The districts lying between these limits^
1 See Samouprava, Oct. 28 1913.
4oo
SERBIA
the Aegean and the Lake of Okhrida, were to form " a distinct
autonomous province "; but should their partition prove
inevitable, then Serbia undertook to make no claim beyond a
line drawn from the Lake of Okhrida to near Kriva Palanka
on the old Turco-Bulgarian frontier and including Skoplje, but
not Monastir, Prilep or Veles. In the event of a dispute, the
Tsar was to act as arbitrator, and Bulgaria undertook to accept
the more southerly line as its new frontier with Serbia, if the
Tsar should decide in favour of the latter. In the event of
war, Bulgaria undertook to place at least 200,000, Serbia at least
150,000, men in the field against Turkey. If either Turkey or
Rumania attacked Bulgaria, Serbia was to send 100,000 men to
her aid; while Bulgaria on her part must provide 200,000 men in
support of Serbia, in the event of an attack by Austria-Hungary. 1
The treaty between Bulgaria and Greece was much more in-
definite, though it provided for mutual aid against Turkey,
not merely in case of direct military aggression, but also of the
infringement of treaty rights and of the principles of inter-
national law a phrase which was of course intended to cover
the championship of co-nationals in Macedonia or Thrace
against Ottoman misrule.
No attempt was made to define the territorial claims of the
two countries in the event of a successful war, and the division
of the spoils was thus left to the chance of a future agreement.
The military convention was not concluded till Sept. 22, when
events were already moving rapidly. By it Greece undertook
to provide at least 120,000 men against Turkey, while Bulgaria
increased the contingent already promised in her agreement
with Serbia to 300,000 men. Special clauses provided for a
blockade of the Aegean by the Greek fleet, and forbade the
conclusion of peace or even of an armistice without the con-
sent of all the allies.
The League, Turkey and the Powers. Internal disorder had
spread rapidly throughout Turkey in Europe in the year following
Italy's invasion of Tripoli: and the ferocious policy of suppres-
sion adopted by the Committee of Union and Progress towards
all the non-Turkish nationalities culminated in a reign of terror
at the parliamentary elections of 1912, in a recrudescence of
Komitaji activities, and in an Albanian rising even more wide-
spread and more determined than in the two previous summers.
The premature death of Milovanovic on July i not merely de-
prived Serbia of her ablest modern statesman, but removed one
of the few restraining influences in any Balkan capital. He was
succeeded as premier by Trifkovic, and in the conduct of foreign
affairs by the Old Radical leader Pasic, who placed almost
unreserved reliance on Russian support and worked in the closest
accord with Hartwig. On Sept. 12 Pasic became premier at
the head of a purely Old Radical Cabinet.
By this time not even the most pacific statesmanship could
have arrested the growing anarchy in Turkey. Public opinion
in Belgrade and Sofia was roused by a massacre of Bulgarians
at Kocana (Kochana) on Aug. i, and by the report of similar
outrages in the Sanjak. By the middle of the month, Uskub,
and the entire district recognized by the secret treaty as Serbian,
were in the hands of the insurgent Albanians; and the con-
cessions granted by the Porte, while failing to arrest the move-
ment, only served as an incentive to swift action on the part
of the neighbouring States.
The somewhat vague proposals for decentralization and
administrative reform put forward by Count Berchtold on
Aug. 20 prompted the Balkan allies to hasten their preparations.
While the slow-moving concert of Europe was discussing alter-
native proposals for Turkish reform, the Porte suddenly held up
Serbian war material at Salonika and began to mass troops round
Adrianople. Before any collective step had been taken by the
Powers, the situation was gravely compromised by the almost
simultaneous mobilization of the Bulgarian, Serbian, Greek
1 Gesov in his Memoirs asserts that King Ferdinand in signing
this was decided by his knowledge of the text of a secret Austro-
Rumanian military convention, permitting Rumania in the event
of war with Russia, to annex not only Bessarabia, but also Silistra,
and even Ruscuk (Ruschuk), Sumla (Shumla) and Varna.
and Turkish armies (Oct. i). At the last moment the Porte
announced its intention to enforce the Vilayet Law of 1880,
which had been allowed to remain on paper for a whole genera-
tion. But this was very naturally regarded by the Balkan
allies merely as a fresh attempt at evasion, and the Powers
still further alarmed them by a note which, in its endeavours
to soothe Turkish susceptibilities, laid far more stress upon
Turkish territorial integrity and sovereign rights than upon the
cause of reform. Simultaneously the Powers warned the four
Balkan States against warlike action and assured them that
even in the event of victory no change in the territorial status
quo would be tolerated. The further announcement of their
intention after a lapse of 34 years to enforce the Treaty
of Berlin, decided the four allies to precipitate events, and before
the impending note could be formally communicated, the King
of Montenegro, by an act of undoubted collusion, declared war
upon Turkey. On Oct. 13 the other three Balkan Govern-
ments presented to the Porte a series of far-reaching demands,
culminating in racial autonomy for all the nationalities of the
Ottoman Empire, and four days later the Turks, without deign-
ing to answer, declared war on Serbia and Bulgaria. (For the
military events, see BALKAN WARS.) All the Great Powers,
though for quite divergent reasons, genuinely attempted to pre-
vent war. This is equally true of Russia, who, though privy
to most of the designs of the Balkan allies, disapproved because
she could not wholly control the time and method of action,
and of Austria-Hungary, to whom the existence of an anti-
Austrian clause in the treaty had been betrayed, but who already
reckoned confidently upon setting the allies at variance before
it could come into operation. That the Powers, having failed
to prevent war, adopted a passive attitude during its early
stages, was due to the almost universal assumption in official
circles that the Turks would be victorious, and that the refrac-
tory Balkan States would soon be only too glad to accept a settle-
ment dictated from without.
The First Balkan War. The rapid and overwhelming success
of the allies radically transformed the situation. By the end of
November Turkish rule in Europe was restricted to the Chatalja
lines, the Gallipoli Peninsula, and the three fortresses of Adri-
anople, Janina (Yannina) and Scutari. The Serbs in par-
ticular, after the victories of Kumanovo and Monastir, were in
actual occupation of all Macedonia west of the Vardar, and had
reached the Adriatic at Durazzo and Medua. They were thus
able to go far beyond their obligations under the military con-
vention, by help to the Bulgarians investing Adrianople.
Kumanovo was much more than an ordinary victory. It
restored to Serbia that self-confidence which had been so gravely
shaken by the rebuffs and scandals of the previous 30 years:
and throughout the Yugoslav provinces of Austria-Hungary
it was hailed as an atonement for Serbia's downfall on the
field of Kosovo, and as a pledge of her new mission as the
Southern Slav Piedmont. In Croatia especially, where the
Hungarian Government had suspended the constitution and
established Cuvaj as dictator, there were continual demon-
strations in favour of the Balkan allies, even on the part of
sections of the population hitherto regarded as Serbophobe.
Austria-Hungary at first adopted 'a waiting attitude, but as the
Serbs approached the Adriatic, she suddenly ordered a general
mobilization, and suppressed all public expressions of feeling,
while the official press of Vienna and Budapest adopted a menac-
ing tone towards Serbia. Great prominence was given to the
alleged insults offered to Herr Prochaska, Austro-Hungarian
consul at Prizren, and for some days public opinion was allowed
to believe that he had been shamefully mutilated by Serbian
officers. It only transpired at a much later date that Prochaska,
known to be in touch with the open enemies of Serbia in the
Sanjak, had been entirely unmolested by the invaders, but
that on the other hand he had received definite instructions
from Vienna to create an " incident " such as might provide
a pretext for action. The Austro-Hungarian chief-of-staff and
War Minister, Gens. Conrad and Auffenberg, are known to have
favoured a radical solution of the Southern Slav question by
SERBIA
401
immediate war with Serbia (see under AUSTRIAN EMPIRE:
Foreign Policy): and Count Forgacs, who as minister in Bel-
grade, had supervised the anti-Serbian forgeries exposed at the
Friedjung trial, was now permanent under-secretary at the
Ballplatz and using all his influence with Count Berchtold in
favour of war. There is practical certainty, however, that the
Archduke Francis Ferdinand on this occasion supported Francis
Joseph's aversion to war, and that the decisive factor was Italy's
opposition to any "forward" policy from Vienna. As negotia-
tions were already proceeding between Berlin, Vienna and
Rome for a fifth renewal of the Triple Alliance (actually signed
on Dec. 5 1912 for six years), Italy was able to use as a lever
the special Austro-Italian agreement of 1909, by which Austria-
Hungary had pledged herself to make no change in the Balkan
status quo, " without a previous agreement with Italy, based on
the principle of compensation." Moreover, Berlin, concerned
for the Alliance, insisted strongly in Vienna upon the need for
reassuring Rome by a more moderate attitude towards Serbia.
The march of events had taken Vienna altogether by surprise,
and in complying with its ally's wishes, it was influenced by the
altered outlook of the Great Powers. On Oct. 8, in a last
effort to avert war, they had warned the Balkan States that
no territorial changes would be tolerated. But the success of
the campaign and the general relief with which public opinion
hailed the downfall of Turkish rule in Europe, soon led to a
change in their attitude. On Oct. 30 M. Poincare proposed a
general declaration of desinteressement in territorial questions:
and though this was rejected by Vienna, its moral effect was
only increased when Mr. Asquith spoke in favour of recognizing
the accomplished fact and remaking the map of eastern Europe.
On Nov. 2 this view was strongly endorsed by M. Sazonov.
For the moment all that Count Berchtold could do was to
encourage Bulgarian designs on Constantinople and attempt
to sow dissensions among the allies. The Turks, seeing them-
selves isolated in Europe, made overtures of peace as early as
the nth to King Ferdinand, who was not willing to consider
them until his troops had been checked before Chatalja. On
the 25th, however, negotiations were opened and resulted, not
in peace, but in an armistice (Dec. 3) pending a general peace
conference in London. When this opened at St. James's Palace
on Dec. 16, Serbia was represented by the ex-premier and
historian Novakovic, the president of the Skupstina Nikolic,
and the minister in Paris, Vesnic. The wisdom of the allies
in excluding Greece from the armistice soon became apparent:
for her command of the sea limited the Turks to the Anatolian
railway as the sole channel of reinforcement. In London Turkey
pursued a policy of dilatory diplomatic intrigue and only receded
inch by inch before the very drastic demands of the allies.
After a month had been wasted, the Powers, with unexpected
unanimity, presented a joint note to the Porte, advising the
cession of Adrianople to Bulgaria and hinting at the loss of
Constantinople as a possible consequence of renewed hostilities
(Jan. 18 1913). Kiamil Pasha laid the proposals of the Powers
before a specially convoked council of notables, and was on the
point of yielding when the extremists of the Committee of Union
and Progress overthrew his Cabinet and murdered the com-
mander-in-chief, Nazim Pasha (Jan. 23). In view of the
united front presented by the Powers, there can be little doubt
that the new Cabinet would soon have been driven to the neces-
sary concessions. But the Balkan delegates, rightly or wrongly,
took the protestations of the Young Turks at their face value,
and broke off the negotiations on Jan. 28. The council of
ambassadors initiated by Sir Edward Grey continued to sit in
London, and devoted especial attention to the Albanian problem
and to the friction produced between Albanians and Serbs by
the latter's presence on the Adriatic. Since the commandant
of Scutari, Hasan Riza, declined to recognize the armistice,
hostilities before the town had continued throughout Dec. and
Jan., and Serbia sent repeated reinforcements to the aid of the
Montenegrins.
Resumed Hostilities. When war was resumed on Feb. 3 the
brunt fell upon Bulgaria, and the Serbs, being complete masters
of Macedonia, were free to contribute 47,000 men and a siege
train of 38 guns to the operations against Adrianople, which
held out until March 26. The dispute which arose as to whether
Shukri Pasha had surrendered to the Bulgarians or to the
Serbs, was in itself quite unprofitable, but was a symptom of
the friction which was daily increasing between the two allies.
Gen. Stepanovic, who commanded the Serbian contingent, was
allowed to pass through Sofia with his staff, without a single
greeting, and on April 16 Bulgaria renewed the armistice with
Turkey, without waiting for her allies. The final phase of the
war concentrated round Scutari, which Montenegro and Serbia
made desperate efforts to reduce. Even the announcement
that the council of ambassadors, in fixing the frontiers of the
new Albanian State, had definitely included Scutari (while
leaving Dibra, Prizren, Pec [Ipek] and Djakovo to the two Serb
kingdoms) only served as an incentive to create if possible a
fresh fait accompli. But Austria-Hungary upheld her veto,
and on March 20 addressed a severe note to Montenegro,
reproaching her for the murder of a Bosnian Franciscan and
other incidents, and at the same time dispatched a strong
naval squadron to the southern Adriatic. Her next step was
to urge upon the Powers a collective demand for the cessation
of hostilities and the withdrawal of the Montenegrin and Ser-
bian forces from the territory assigned to Albania, and to
threaten the use of force unless at least the civil population of
Scutari were allowed to leave the town (March 23). This
demand was supported by Britain, partly in order to avert a
conflict, and was conceded: but the close support of Cetinje
by Belgrade rendered the danger of Austro-Hungarian inter-
vention increasingly acute. On March 31 the Powers ordered
Montenegro to cease hostilities, and on her refusal established
a naval blockade of her strip of coast. This seemingly illusory
measure at least had the effect of restraining Austria-Hungary,
who could not act separately so long as the Powers held to-
gether. It was, however, simply defied by King Nicholas,
who gained time by consenting to the withdrawal of the Serbian
troops and meanwhile closed the frontier and conducted secret
negotiations with Essad Pasha, commandant of the town since
the assassination of Hasan Riza on March 30. On April 23
Scutari surrendered to the Montenegrins, and the Powers had
difficulty in restraining Austria-Hungary from immediate action.
What finally decided her appears to have been the knowledge
that her seizure of Mount Lovcen (Lovchen), the key to Cetinje,
would be followed by Italy's occupation of Valona, with its
control of the entrance to the Adriatic.
Amid the countless rival intrigues the Powers presented in
public a unanimous front, and on May 14 the Montenegrins
found themselves obliged to surrender Scutari to Adml. Burney,
as commander of the international fleet. Negotiations could
now be resumed in London for a general peace (May 20), and
the Powers found it easier to take a strong line. Before the
delegates could be brought to business, it was necessary for
Sir E. Grey to inform them, with quite undiplomatic bluntness,
that unless they were prepared to conclude peace without further
delay they had better leave London altogether. By the Treaty
of London, which was signed on May 30 I9T3, and only con-
tained seven brief articles, Turkey ceded to the four allies con-
jointly the island of Crete and all territory lying to the west of
the Enos-Midia line, and all the contracting parties agreed -to
refer the settlement of Albania and the Aegean Islands to the
five European Great Powers, and all financial questions to the
International Commission convoked in Paris.
The Dispute between the Allies. The Balkan allies were now
faced by the thorny problem of dividing the spoils. Macedonian
autonomy, which the treaty had laid down as the ideal solution,
was from the first abandoned by all parties. Their success, as
it had far exceeded their expectations, also increased their
appetites and encouraged them to extend their claims. Thus
while Serbia found herself in effective possession of most of
Macedonia, and remembered the imperial traditions of Stephen
Dusan, Bulgaria saw the possibility of acquiring Adrianople
and Thrace, and not content with the " Big Bulgaria " of the
4O2
SERBIA
Treaty of San Stefano, dreamed of " the four seas" (the Adri-
atic as well as the Black, Aegean and Marmora). The four
Governments seemed each bent upon annexing a maximum of
territory, and thus too often became the tools of Powers whose
ambitious plans of political and military equilibrium they had
unconsciously upset. Above all, the long delays in restoring
peace stabilized the various regimes of occupation and proved
fatal to mutual understanding. Between Bulgaria and Greece
there was no territorial bargain, and no obvious means of reaching
one, while Serbia as early as Jan. 23 formally raised the question
of a revision of the Serbo-Bulgarian treaty. This rested on the
argument that Serbia was entitled to compensation for four
reasons (i) that she had furnished her ally with military
support far in excess of her bargain, (2) that she had absolved
Bulgaria from her military obligations in Macedonia, (3) that
she had loyally continued the war three months after her own
work was done, and (4) that the acquisition of Adrianople by
Bulgaria radically modified the basis upon which the bargain
rested. But if Serbia's attitude is to be justified, it must be
on the broader ground that events had transformed the situation
still further to her disadvantage in another direction. Her
two parallel aims in the war had been the political liberation of
her kinsmen under Turkish rule, and her own economic emancipa-
tion by means of free access to the sea; and from the practical
rather than the sentimental standpoint the second was much
the more vital. Her whole calculation centred upon securing
the Sanjak, Kosovo and a link with Montenegro, and a port
in northern Albania (as the best substitute for access through
Herzegovina); and when Austria-Hungary imposed her veto
upon the latter, the Vardar valley became Serbia's only possible
alternative outlet, and this involved her retention of Veles,
Prilep, Monastir and Okhrida as well as the " disputed zone."
That Vienna deliberately aimed at thus embroiling Serbia and
Bulgaria is shown by the fact that during the earlier Albanian
negotiations Count Berchtold had offered to Serbia the whob
of the Vardar valley with Salonika itself, if she would renounce
her Adriatic claims. Bulgaria, on her side, insisted on the
literal interpretation of the treaty and showed herself indifferent
to Serbia's difficulties on the west.
Meanwhile Russia had made every effort to avert a conflict,
Sazonov going so far as to express regret at the Serbo-Greek
negotiations (April 17), while warning Bulgaria of possible
danger from Rumania, in the event of aggression against Serbia
(April 28). On April 30 the Russian ministers in Sofia and
Belgrade simultaneously reminded the wo allies of their obli-
gation to submit disputes to Russian arbitration. But Sazonov's
success in settling a Bulgaro-Rumanian frontier dispute had
only served to render Sofia more unyielding, and on May 19 the
Bulgarian commander-in-chief wrote to the premier, assuming
war with Serbia and Greece to be inevitable, and urging con-
centration against the former. The pressure very rightly
brought to bear by Sir E. Grey upon the peace delegates in
favour of the Treaty of London was misinterpreted by the
Bulgarians (who alone had any motive for haste) as a guarantee
of that Treaty against Turkey, and as dispensing them from the
need of guarding their eastern frontier. They were still further
encouraged by the openly Serbophobe tone of the official press
in Vienna and Budapest: and King Ferdinand had already
ordered Gen. Savov to hasten the transference of the army
from the Thracian to the Macedonian front, when on May 27
Pasic, under pressure from the Serbian opposition, publicly
committed his Government to the demand for treaty revision.
This hastened the resignation of the pacific Gesov, behind
whose back King Ferdinand was already concerting aggressive
action. Before he went, Gesov, under strong Russian pressure,
met Pasic at Tsaribrod (June i) and agreed to Russia's proposal
for a meeting of Balkan premiers at St. Petersburg; but a further
proposal for the immediate reduction of the allied armies to a
third, though accepted by Serbia and Greece, failed owing to
the impossible conditions put forward by Gen. Savov. Gesov's
successor, Dr. Danev, opposed the meeting of the premiers,
contended that Russia had already prejudged the case by even
considering revision, and relied increasingly upon Austria-
Hungary. That his confidence was not ungrounded is shown by
Count Berchtold's assurance to Rumania in May that the Dual
Monarchy was ready to defend Bulgaria " even by force of
arms." l Serbia and Greece on their part were fully alive to the
danger; there had been informal talks between Venizelos and
Novakovic in London, and between Prince Alexander of Serbia
and Prince Nicholas of Greece in January and March at Salonika.
After the accession of King Constantino, a less conciliatory mood
prevailed in Athens and Belgrade, each of whom in turn made
secret overtures to Rumania for a defensive alliance, but with-
out success (April 19, June 8). Their own agreement was
hastened by the common danger, and the Serbo-Greek military
convention of May 14 was revised on June i and supplemented
by a definite treaty of alliance for 10 years. While the first of
these provided for mutual military support in case of a Bul-
garian attack upon either ally, the second extended the casus
foederis to an attack by a third Power, " in circumstances en-
visaged by the Treaty of Alliance between Greece and Serbia."
Both the wording and the events of the moment make it clear that
the intention was to guard against an Austro-Hungarian attack
upon Serbia; in 1913 King Constantino took this risk, but in
1915 he was to deny its application.
On June 8 the Russian Government made its supreme effort
for peace, by inducing the Tsar to address a personal appeal to
the kings of Serbia and Bulgaria, which closed with the warning
that " the first to make war would be responsible before the
Slav cause." King Peter's courteous though somewhat ambig-
uous answer was never published; but that of King Ferdinand,
which threw the entire blame upon Serbia and argued that the
Bulgarian claim had long been admitted by Russia, was a fresh
blow to the cause of peace. On June 13 the Powers made a
joint demarche at Sofia and Belgrade in favour of demobilization,
but Bulgaria imposed the impossible condition of a preliminary
joint occupation of the disputed territory. Her attitude stiffened
still further after the speech of the new Hungarian premier,
Count Tisza, who emphasized the right of the Balkan States
to settle differences in their own way even by war and de-
clared that Austria-Hungary could not allow any other Power
to acquire special prerogatives in the peninsula (June 19). As
a natural result, Russia's fresh proposals for a conference of
Balkan premiers in St. Petersburg, while promptly accepted
by Belgrade and Athens, were met by Dr. Danev with a reiterated
demand for joint occupation, and a virtual ultimatum giving
Russia a week in which to pronounce as arbiter and 48 hours to
announce compliance with the request. With Sazonov's sharp
reply bidding Bulgaria to expect nothing more from Russia,
St. Petersburg's influence over Sofia may be said to have ended.
Count Tarnowski, the Austro-Hungarian minister in Sofia, was
supreme in the counsels of King Ferdinand during the critical
fortnight that followed. The deadlock was complete, when
on June 22 the Serbian Cabinet was driven to resign, owing to
the resentment of the military party at its alleged moderation.
The most it could do was to place itself unreservedly in Russia's
hands, and when this was endorsed by the Skupstina after
a stormy secret session Pasic resumed office (June 26). But
Russia was by this time powerless to avert the catastrophe.
The Second Balkan War. On the night of June 29, without
previous declaration of war, the Bulgarian armies made an
almost simultaneous attack upon the Serbs and Greeks. Their
extended order and lack of proper reserves showed how greatly
they had underestimated their enemy, and Gen. Savov is
credibly reported to have declared that he could cut through
the Serbs like " a knife through rotten cheese." But the
Serbian generalissimo, Gen. Putnik, was fully alive to the
Bulgarian preparations, and in confidential orders to his com-
manding officers had warned them that the Bulgars would
" use their amicable relations with us " for a surprise attack.
In point of fact, on certain sectors those who carried out this
" stab in the back " had been dining only a few hours earlier
1 Prince Fiirstenberg to Take Jonescu, who published the facts
in La Roumanie, Dec. 15 1914.
SERBIA
403
with their Serbian comrades across the lines. It is probable
that Savov did not aim at regular war, but hoped by a sudden
shock to drive a wedge between Serbs and Greeks, seize the
coveted districts of Macedonia and then hold them until the
foreign intervention which he believed to be imminent should
settle the dispute on a basis of " beati possidentes." This is
borne out, not merely by captured despatches, but by the amaz-
ing fact that when Putnik's forces everywhere held their own,
Savov on July I telegraphed the order to stop hostilities. But
the war so lightly begun could no longer be stopped. That
afternoon the Serbian counter-offensive opened, and a proclama-
tion of King Peter, prepared some weeks previously in Belgrade,
with a blank space for insertion of the date, was issued to the
troops. The desperate struggle which continued almost uninter-
ruptedly from July I to 9 is known as the battle of the Bregal-
nica (Bregalnitsa), though it actually extended over a much
wider front. At its close the Bulgarians found themselves cut
into two by the inaccessible Plaskovica Mts., and were obliged
not merely to relax their hold upon the Vardar valley at Krivo-
lak, but to abandon the whole Ovcepolje (Ovche Polye) district,
the strategic key to central Macedonia.
It appears certain that the original attack took place without
the knowledge of the Danev Cabinet and contrary to its unani-
mous decision. 1 But that the premier was contemplating war
at an early date is shown by his request that Vienna should
ascertain whether the Turtucaia-Balcik (Balchik) line would
buy Rumania's neutrality (June 28) and by his warning to the
Rumanian minister that Serbian resistance would be over before
Rumania could complete her mobilization (July i). That
there were two parallel policies in Sofia is further shown by the
fact that on the very day of the request to Vienna the Rumanian
Government officially informed Bulgaria that it would not
remain neutral in the event of war. During the mutual re-
criminations that followed defeat, Dr. Danev publicly asserted
(i) that Count Tarnowsky had already given assurances to King
Ferdinand that Austro-Hungarian troops would re-occupy the
Sanjak in the event of a Serbo-Bulgarian war, and (2) that on
June 26 a treaty was signed between Austria-Hungary and Bul-
garia, by which the latter bound herself, in the event of an Austro-
Serbian or an Austro-Russian war, to mobilize enough troops
to paralyse Serbia's action, while Austria-Hungary in her turn
undertook to prevent, either by diplomatic or military action,
any attack of Rumania upon Bulgaria in the event of the latter
becoming involved in war with the allies, and even to intervene
herself, should the war take a turn unfavourable to Bulgaria.
These assertions have never been contradicted: the first co-
incides with the known facts, but for the second documentary
evidence is as yet lacking. The memorandum addressed by
Radoslavov and Genadiev to King Ferdinand on July 6
advocating a close accord with Austria-Hungary as the sole
hope of averting disaster neither proves nor disproves the ex-
istence of an alliance, for they may well have written in igno-
rance of a secret compact; but it should have served as an index
to the attitude of those statesmen in 1915.
The Treaty of Bucharest. By July 17 the Serbs had forced
back the Bulgarians at all points to the frontier of 1912, and
could henceforth adopt a mainly defensive attitude; but on July
16 Rumania declared war and began to throw troops across the
Danube, while on July 15 the Porte repudiated the provisions
of the Treaty of London and ordered Enver Pasha to advance
upon Adrianople.
The frantic appeals of Sofia to the Powers to enforce upon
Turkey respect for a treaty concluded under their auspices
were disregarded, and Western public opinion was not inclined
to save Bulgaria from the consequences of her own act. At the
same time the entry of two new combatants greatly complicated
Austria-Hungary's designs of intervention. She was held
back by both her allies Italy, who viewed with alarm the
Balkan activities of any outside power and was determined to
insist upon compensation, and Germany, who feared the loss
of Rumania for the Triple Alliance, and the consequent derange-
1 Gesov, The Balkan League, p. 92.
ment of the military balance in Europe. William II. was further
influenced by a triple personal motive the appeal of his brother-
in-law King Constantine, old friendship for King Charles, and
active dislike for King Ferdinand. This momentary divergence
of view between Vienna and Berlin sealed Bulgaria's fate:
though Vienna and St. Petersburg united to hold back Rumania
from occupying Sofia or claiming the Ruscuk (Ruschuk) -Varna
line. Bulgaria had no course left but to sign an armistice on
July 31 and to open peace negotiations at Bucharest with her
four Christian neighbours. This apparent emancipation of the
smaller Powers from the European concert's control decided
Austria-Hungary in favour of belated action against Serbia.
But on Aug. 9 the Italian Government made it clear to Vienna
that it would not recognize the casus foederis of the Triple Al-
liance as applicable to such a case; 2 and the combined pressure
of Rome and Berlin, coupled with the certainty of Russian aid
to Serbia, again averted war at the last moment.
The Treaty of Bucharest, signed on Aug. 10, gave to Rumania
the Turtucaia-Balcik line, deprived Bulgaria of almost all her
conquests in Macedonia and left her to settle the fate of Thrace
as best she could with Turkey. Serbia acquired all Macedonia
to the W. of the Vardar, and to the E. the districts of Slip (Istib
or Shtip) and Kocana; but at the last moment Bulgaria was
left in possession of a dangerous salient at Strumnica (Stru-
mitsa), which enabled her to threaten Serbia's only railway
connexion with the Aegean. The new Serbo-Greek frontier
had already been fixed by mutual agreement, and ran from
Gjevgjeli (Gyevgyeli or Gevgeli) (30 m. N. of Salonika) to the
S.E. corner of the Lake of Okhrida, leaving Fiorina and most
of the Monastir-Salonika railway to the Greeks. The Treaty
of Constantinople, which was concluded between Bulgaria and
Turkey on Sept. 29 and deprived the former of the greater
part of Thrace, did not directly concern Serbia; but the indiffer-
ence shown by her and her new allies, and still more by Britain
and Russia, to Turkey's violation of a treaty which was their
joint work and indeed was morally binding upon them, was to
be dearly paid for by Bulgaria's attitude in the World War.
The treaties marked a new orientation in the Near East. Slav
cooperation was replaced by mutual hatred, which promptly
threw defeated Bulgaria into the arms of Turkey and pre-
disposed both for an alliance with Berlin; Rumania's ties with the
Triple Alliance were sensibly loosened, while Greece was drawn
in two directions by dynastic attractions and party rancours.
The military balance had undoubtedly been altered to the
disadvantage of the Triple Alliance, yet it was to William II.
that King Charles addressed a cordial telegram on the con-
clusion of peace, " which thanks to you remains definitive,"
and it was to the joint efforts of France and Germany that Greece
owed Kavalla.
The Albanian Conflict. Austria-Hungary now concentrated
her attention upon Albania, and thereby rendered still more
acute the relations between Serbs and Albanians. In the
past three decades the latter had been rapidly ousting the
former from the historic territories of Kosovo, Prizren and
Decani (Dechani), and now tried to justify present possession
by a claim as autochthonous owners of the soil. The mountain-
ous and inaccessible character of these borderlands and the
extreme backwardness of their population made a guerrilla
warfare almost inevitable; and the summons addressed to
Belgrade by the Great Powers for the withdrawal of the Serbian
troops (Aug. 19) was a signal for further trouble. Late in
Sept. there was a formidable Albanian rising, and the insur-
gents, aided by numerous bands from beyond the frontier and
armed with foreign rifles, seized Dibra and even Okhrida, and
forced Serbia to remobilize the Morava division and many of
her reserves. In order to prevent fresh raids, the Serbs occupied
certain strategic points in Albania, and this gave Austria-Hun-
gary excuse for a sharp warning. Thus for the first fortnight
of October there was once more acute friction between Vienna
and Belgrade. At last Serbia accepted the inevitable and with-
2 The essential facts were first revealed by Signer Giolitti in the
Italian Parliament in Dec. 1914.
404
SERBIA
drew her troops, but covered her retreat by a note to the Great
Powers, begging them to enjoin upon their Albanian proteges
a respect for the frontiers created for their benefit (1804). Even
after this crisis was over, Count Berchtold made further trouble
for Serbia by steadily opposing her Government's very natural
desire to take over, so far as Serbian territory was concerned,
the shares of the Orient railway hitherto owned by Austrian
subjects. Vienna's permanent ill-will was further revealed by
attempts to block the conclusion of a concordat between Serbia
and the Vatican. 1
By Christmas 1913 the situation in Old Serbia 2 was rapidly
becoming normal, but the administration in the new territory
left much to be desired, and the closing of Bulgarian schools,
the expulsion of Exarchist clergy and occasional excesses against
the Moslem population caused serious unrest and discontent.
The Paiic administration became absorbed in defending itself
against the increasingly violent onslaughts of the Opposition.
In Dec. 1913 and again on June 2 1914 it resigned, but eventually
remained in office. On March 4 the Opposition had withdrawn
from the Chamber as a protest against alleged unconstitutional
action of the Government in budget matters. But though the
tension was increased by the activities of a powerful military
clique known as " The Black Hand " and by the sudden and
arbitrary seizure of its club premises by the masterful Minister
of the Interior, Protic, the Government was still in office in
the summer. The visit of Crown Prince Alexander and Pasic
to St. Petersburg early in February had given rise to rumours
of a new Balkan League under Russian auspices; but the advent
of Radoslavov to power in Sofia had really made any such plan
impracticable, and King Charles of Rumania, though bent
upon cooperation with Serbia and receiving the Tsar with
special honours at Constanta (Constantsa), had no idea of
breaking his connexion with the Triple Alliance.
The Assassination of the Archduke. On June 24 King Peter,
incapacitated by ill-health, appointed Prince Alexander as
Regent, and simultaneously dissolved Parliament, Pasid having
in April pledged himself to the election as for a " Great Skup-
stina " for constitutional changes. Only four days later the
assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife
at Sarajevo revived the latent Austro-Serbian conflict in a more
acute form than ever. The authors of the crime, Princip and
Cabrinovic, belonged to a group of Bosnian Serb students,
mostly under the age of 20, who gave terrorist expression to the
universal discontent aroused by Austro-Hungarian repression
throughout her Yugoslav provinces. The victories of Serbia
during the Balkan Wars and the openly hostile policy pursued
towards her by Vienna and Budapest had assured to her in the
eyes of public opinion the position of the Yugoslav Piedmont.
Thus no external incentive to the crime was needed: and the
young hotheads were further swayed by sentimental considera-
tions. The motive of the Archduke's visit was to conduct
manoeuvres which had no meaning save as a rehearsal for a
future campaign against Serbia: while the selection of " Vidov-
dan " (St. Vitus's Day the anniversary of Kosovo) for his
public reception in Sarajevo was regarded as a deliberate chal-
lenge to the Serb idea. It was, however, proved that the assassins
had been in Belgrade and had been secretly smuggled across the
Drina into Bosnia, after receiving hand grenades and revolvers
from the Serbian Komitajis Major Tankosid and Ciganovic.
On these facts the Ballplatz sought to establish the complicity
of the Serbian Government, but for this no evidence has ever
been produced. Indeed presumption overwhelmingly favours
the opposite theory. The country was exhausted by two wars;
the Albanian campaign in the previous autumn had shown the
reluctance of the peasant soldiers to return to the colours, and
it was now the eve of harvest. Military stocks were alarmingly
1 This statesmanlike measure was negotiated by Vesnic, the
Serbian minister in Paris, and Gavrilovic (afterwards Yugoslav
minister in London), aided by Bakutic, a Croat expert in canon
law, from Sebenico.
2 Since 1912 this name was transferred to the original kingdom
and the " Old Serbia " of Turkish times became " New Serbia."
low, as the next winter was to show. The young Prince had
only just assumed the reins of Government; the position of
the Cabinet was shaky, and a fierce electoral campaign was
opening. The Concordat with the Vatican had only just been
signed, and delicate negotiations with Montenegro for a customs
and military union and perhaps even a dynastic arrangement,
were still pending. Serbia had every conceivable motive for
avoiding aggressive action. After the tragedy, it is difficult
to see what other course her Government could have pursued;
its one omission was to offer a thorough inquiry, without wait-
ing for any suggestion from Vienna. The situation was from
the first envenomed by the press of Belgrade, Vienna and Buda-
pest; but it is to be noted that while the former had always had
an irresponsible and highly scurrilous section, which the Govern-
ment was unable to restrain owing to the lack of any proper
press or libel laws, the two latter had always been extremely sensi-
tive to the directive of the Ballplatz, and the worst offences
were committed by journals with the strongest official ties.
Austria-Hungary and Serbia. The ominous silence preserved
by Austria-Hungary for nearly three weeks after the murder
has been very largely explained by the documents published
since the war by the Austrian and German republican Govern-
ments. From memoranda on Balkan policy prepared for Count
Berchtold during May 1914, and re-drafted by him personally
both before and after the murder, it is evident that Austria-
Hungary was pressing upon Germany the need for clearing up
the situation with Rumania, and for attaching Bulgaria to the
Triple Alliance, and that Germany wished to use Bucharest
as a bridge between Vienna and Belgrade, but dropped this
idea after the tragedy. On July 2 Francis Joseph wrote to
William II. that the main basis of Austro-Hungarian policy
must be the isolation of Serbia, and " her elimination as a
political factor in the Balkans," again advocated alliance with
Bulgaria and proposed that Rumania should be warned that the
friends of Serbia cannot be the friends of Austria-Hungary and
Germany. 3 On reading the letter the Emperor William said
that he must be prepared for European complications and must
therefore talk with his Chancellor; but he at once authorized
Count Szogyeny to inform Francis Joseph that he might reckon
upon Germany's full support " even in this case," and he urged
that if there was to be an advance into Serbia, it should be
at once, especially as Russia was certain to be hostile, though
unprepared for war (July 5).* Next day Herr von Bethmann
Hollweg instructed the German minister in Sofia to cooperate
with his Austro-Hungarian colleague in favour of the Bulgarian
alliance, and the German minister in Bucharest to announce
Germany's abandonment of all idea of agreement with Serbia.
That Germany gave carte blanche to Austria-Hungary has been
vehemently denied by Bethmann Hollweg in his Memoirs, but
is admitted in so many words in the preface to the official
German White Book, 6 and is proved by Herr von Tschirschky's
assurances to Francis Joseph on July 2, by the instructions
which he received from William II. and Bethmann Hollweg,
and by William's letter of July 14 to Francis Joseph. 6 As
early as July 8, Tschirschky reported to Berlin Berchtold's
intention of drafting an ultimatum in such a form that " its
acceptance seems out of the question," r and not merely is there
no trace of Berlin rebuking this tendency, but there are repeated
signs of impatience in Berlin at Vienna's delays. Not merely
was the full initiative left to Vienna, 8 but on July 12 there was a
joint decision between Vienna and Berlin not to inform Italy
of their intentions, but to place her before " an irretrievable
situation." ' In Vienna the only counsels of moderation came
from the Hungarian premier, Count Tisza, who at the Crown
* Goos, Das Wiener Kabinett und die Entstehung des Weltkrieges,
p. 29.
'Ibid., p. 31.
6 P. 5 (Authorized English Edition).
6 Die Deutschen Dokumente, Nos. n, 15, 26.
7 Ibid., No. 19.
8 Goos, op. cit., p. 44.
Diplomatiscke Aktenstiicke (Republik Oesterreich) i., p. 51
(No. 16).
SERBIA
405
Council of July 7 opposed Count Berchtold and declined to
admit war to be inevitable. He deprecated a surprise attack,
without previous diplomatic action, as likely to place Austria-
Hungary in a bad light before Europe and rally the Balkan
States against her; he favoured harsh, but not impossible
(unerfullbar) demands upon Serbia, and even if their re-
fusal should lead to war, he would not favour Serbia's complete
annihilation, partly because Russia would then be forced
to intervene, and partly because as Hungarian premier he
could not sanction annexations at Serbia's expense. (Here
he was following the traditional Hungarian view that the inclu-
sion of further Slavs in the Dual Monarchy was a menace to
Magyar supremacy in Hungary.) All the other ministers pres-
ent viz. the three joint ministers, Berchtold, Bilinski, and
Krobatin, the Austrian premier Count Stiirgkh and the chief-
of-staff Baron Conrad were agreed that a mere diplomatic
success, even if it led to the public humiliation of Serbia,
would be worthless, and that demands must be addressed to her
such as would render rejection, and consequent military action,
probable. By threatening to resign, Count Tisza carried his
point that there should be no mobilization until the ultimatum
had been rejected. 1 His attitude is clearly revealed by two
memoranda which he addressed to Francis Joseph on July i
and 8. In the first he condemns Berchtold's idea of using
Sarajevo as an excuse for the final reckoning with Serbia as
" a fatal blunder," but begs Francis Joseph to make every
effort to overcome William's " prejudice in favour of Serbia."
From the second it transpires that it was " the satisfactory
assurances " of Berlin which had decided all Tisza's colleagues
in favour of war with Serbia. He himself dissents, and insists
that Serbia must be given a chance of escape, though only
through severe diplomatic defeat. This is necessary in order
to avoid complications with Italy, to ensure Britain's sympathy
and to enable Russia to remain inactive. 2 On July 14, however,
after full discussion with Berchtold, Tisza called upon Tschir-
schky and announced that " he had abandoned his original
doubts and is quite in accord with energetic action," 3 and that
" the note will be so drafted that its acceptance may be virtually
ruled out." 4 Berchtold on his side informed Tschirschky that
Tisza had not merely come round to his view, but had " in certain
points introduced a stiffening." On July 15, in answering an
interpellation, Tisza denied that war was inevitable, but signifi-
cantly added that a State which does not regard war as ultima
ratio cannot maintain itself as a State. Thus while Tisza
must be credited with statesmanship such as was signally
lacking in his colleagues, his final decision and his subsequent
zeal in the conduct of war make it impossible to claim him
or his Government as unwilling actors in the great struggle,
just as it is beyond dispute that the Magyar policy towards
Croatia and the nationalities was a foremost factor in provok-
ing the Austro-Serbian conflict which actually fired that train.
The Ultimatum to Serbia. A further proof of Germany's
failure to exercise a restraining influence on her ally is afforded
by the detailed note presented on July 20 by the Serbian charge
d'affaires in Berlin to Herr von Jagow, expressing the strongest
detestation of the murder, the desire for friendly relations with
Austria-Hungary and a readiness to meet all such demands as
might be compatible with State independence. 6 Jagow, how-
ever, deliberately refrained from taking up the note's con-
cluding appeal for friendly intervention in Vienna, and there
is no evidence to show that he even reported to Count Berchtold
the Serbian appeal, while on the contrary he ignored King
Charles's offer of mediation on July 10. The secret of the
ultimatum was jealously guarded, and the long delay, created,
as was intended, a false sense of security in some quarters.
Its delivery at Belgrade, which took place at 6 P.M. on July 23,
was carefully timed for the moment after President Poincare's
departure from St. Petersburg after his State visit, the object
1 Goos, op. cit., pp. 53-62.
1 Goos, pp. 62-70.
* Diplomatische Aktenstiicke I, No. 23.
4 Die Deutschen Dokumente, No. 49.
6 Die Deutschen Dokumente, No. 86.
being to eliminate the chances of French mediation. The
ultimatum, after reminding the Serbian Government of its formal
undertakings of March 31 1909, charged it with " culpable
tolerance " of terrorist propaganda directed against Austria-
Hungary and blamed Serbian officers and functionaries with
planning the Sarajevo murders. It therefore demanded that
the " Narodna Odbrana " (League of .National Defence) and
any similar society guilty of anti-Austrian propaganda should
be dissolved, that objectionable passages should be expunged
from Serbian educational works, that all officers or officials
whom Austria-Hungary might name as guilty of propaganda
should be dismissed, and that the Belgrade Government should
not merely arrest certain specified persons charged with com-
plicity, but should order the trial of others, allow Austro-Hun-
garian delegates to take part in the inquiry and accept the
collaboration of Austro-Hungarian officials " in the suppression
of the subversive movement."
The general impression produced by this document upon
European opinion is best summarized in the words of Sir E.
Grey, who telegraphed the next day to Sir M. de Bunsen, that
he " had never before seen one State address to another inde-
pendent State a document of so formidable a character." The
fifth demand in particular (that of collaboration), he pointed
out, " would be hardly consistent with the maintenance of
Serbia's independent sovereignty." 6 None the less, Serbia in
her reply actually consented to " such collaboration as agrees
with the principle of international law, with criminal procedure
and with good neighbourly relations." Only on one point did
she reply in the negative; the share of Austro-Hungarian officials
in the actual inquiry would, it was argued, be a violation of
the constitution and the criminal code, but even this could be
met by " communications in concrete cases." On all other
points there was unqualified submission, and in certain respects,
such as the offer to introduce legislation for fuller control of the
press and to stiffen frontier regulations regarding weapons,
the answer went much further than had been demanded. As
a final proof of sincerity, Serbia offered to submit any outstand-
ing points to the decision of the Hague Tribunal or even to the
Great Powers which had imposed upon her the declaration of
March 31 zooo. 7 Thus Serbia is found for the third time in
six years offering to submit herself to the verdict of the Hague
the two previous occasions being the Bosnian crisis and the
Friedjung trial and each time it is Austria-Hungary who
rejects the proposal. Three days later, as a last resort, the
Serbian Government informed the Italian Foreign Minister that
it was even prepared to swallow the whole note, " if only some
explanation were given regarding the mode in which Austrian
agents would require to intervene," and went so far as to offer
to accept these explanations from a third party, if Austria-
Hungary was not disposed to give them to Serbia direct. 8
Austria-Hungary had demanded an answer to her note by
6 P.M. on July 25, thus leaving a period of 48 hours for either
reply or mediation. The official 'documents published in Berlin
and Vienna since the war make it abundantly clear that the
Ballplatz deliberately couched the note in such terms as to be
unacceptable; but even in 1914 this was obvious from its tenor
and from the significant fact that Baron Giesl, who received the
Serbian answer from Pasic a quarter of an hour before the
expiry of the time limit, instantly handed him a fresh note
announcing the rupture of diplomatic relations and the im-
mediate departure of himself and his staff. Moreover the
text of the answer was kept secret in Vienna for several days,
until a sarcastic commentary could be added; and Belgrade,
presumably owing to the confusion which prevailed there,
appears to have taken no steps to bring it promptly to the
notice of the other Powers. 9 This is the more regrettable,
since even William II. (to judge from his marginal notes on
* British Diplomatic Correspondence, No. 5.
7 British Diplomatic Correspondence, No. jp.
8 British Diplomatic Correspondence, No. 04.
" e.g. it was communicated to Sir E. Grey by the Serbian minis-
ter on the same day on which it reached London through the Aus-
trian embassy with Count Berchtold's comments.
406
SERBIA
diplomatic documents, as published since the Revolution) was
impressed by the moderation of the Serbs, regarded Vienna's
essential wishes as fulfilled and expressed the view that Giesl
ought to have remained in Belgrade. His ministers, however,
had failed to support Sir E. Grey's proposal for a prolongation
of the time limit, and were thus responsible for bringing Russia
into action. On July 27 the Tsar replied to a despairing appeal
of the Prince Regent for assistance to Serbia, by a telegram
strongly urging him to " neglect no step which might lead to a
settlement," but conveying the assurance that " Russia will
in no case disinterest herself in the fate of Serbia." 1 On July
28 Austria-Hungary formally declared war upon Serbia, and
on the same day rejected the Russian proposal for a friendly
exchange of views between Vienna and St. Petersburg. 2
Henceforward the Austro-Serbian quarrel is merged in the
larger diplomatic conflict between Alliance and Entente. Due
stress ought, however, to be laid upon one of Sir Edward Grey's
many efforts to avert war even at the last moment. On July
29 he received Count Mensdorff's assurance that Austria-Hun-
gary " had no idea of territorial aggrandisement," and when he
hinted that there were other means of turning Serbia " into a
sort of vassal state," received the rejoinder ' that before the
Balkan War Serbia had always been regarded as being in the
Austrian sphere of influence." 3 Undeterred by this ominous
attitude, Sir Edward on July 30 put forward the proposal that
Austria-Hungary, after occupying Belgrade, should cease her
advance and consent to discussions with Russia, who otherwise
could not be expected to "suspend military preparations." 4
In other words, Belgrade would become a kind of pledge in
Vienna's hands for the attainment of a satisfactory settlement.
The elaborate dispute regarding the Russian and German mobi-
lizations has hitherto obscured the essential fact that on July
31 Francis Joseph definitely, almost petulantly, refused the
British proposal as transmitted through Berlin, 6 thereby render-
ing the military action of St. Petersburg inevitable.
The Outbreak of War. When Baron Giesl presented the
ultimatum, Pasic had been absent electioneering in the prov-
inces; but he at once returned to Belgrade, and on July 25
mobilization was ordered, and the seat of Government and the
archives were hastily transferred to Nish. In view of so grave
a crisis elections became impossible, and as parliamentary sanc-
tion was more than ever necessary, the Government had no
other course than to ignore the fact of dissolution and to call
the previous Skupstina once more into existence. At its first
meeting in Nish on Aug. i, the entire Opposition endorsed the
Government's action, and for the moment party life was in
abeyance. Parliament also ratified the Concordat with the Vati-
can and a law ensuring to Catholicism full freedom of worship
in Serbia. There was an unexpected delay in the invasion of
Serbia, and it was not till Aug. 12 that the first Austro-Hun-
garian troops crossed the Drina and the Save. After 12 days of
desperate fighting (known as the battle of the Jader) the invaders
were thrown back across the frontier, this being the first definite
Allied victory. Unduly elated by this success and by the news
of Russia's rapid advance in Galicia, the Serbs were now led to
underestimate Austria-Hungary's resources, and encouraged by
the Allies, passed to the offensive early in September. Their
rash invasion of Syrmia a necessary preliminary to any suc-
cessful penetration of Bosnia from the east soon proved beyond
their strength and had to be abandoned by Sept. 13; and the joy-
ous welcome everywhere accorded to them by the population
merely brought down a cruel vengeance on its head when the
Austro-Hungarian army returned. A further mistake was made
in attempting to hold the rich but strategically indefensible
Mafiva (Machva) district, doubtless owing to the horrid excesses
committed there by the enemy during their first inroad. None the
less the Serbs were able to check a second Austrian advance across
1 Serbian Blue Book, Nos. 37 and 43.
2 Russian Orange Book, No. 25, and British Diplomatic Corres-
pondence, No. 93.
3 British Diplomatic Correspondence, No. Qi.
4 Ibid., Nos. 103 and no.
5 Die Deutschen Dokumente, No. 482.
the Drina in mid-September. But on Nov. 6 General Potiorek
began a third invasion in great force, and during the next month
steadily pressed back the Serbian forces into the heart of their
country. The danger was aggravated by shortage of ammuni-
tion, and when at last the necessary supplies began to arrive, a
large force of Bulgarians armed with machine-guns and acting
with the connivance of Sofia, raided the Vardar railway from
the Strumnica salient and destroyed an important bridge on the
only line by which the new guns could be moved up to the front.
The enforced evacuation of Belgrade on Nov. 29 revealed the
extremity of the danger, and brought the latent political crisis
to a head. On Dec. 5 the purely Radical Cabinet resigned and
was succeeded on Dec. 13 by a Coalition Government, in which
Pasic remained premier, but the leaders of all parties save the
Liberals received portfolios. It was however in this blackest
week that the Skupstina unanimously endorsed the Govern-
ment's declaration that its foremost war aim was " the libera-
tion and union of all our Serb, Croat and Slovene brethren not
yet set free." This was the first public step of Serbia in favour
of Yugoslav unity.
Serbia after the Austrian Rout. With the arrival of muni-
tions from the West the army's flagging spirits revived, and
the brilliant offensive initiated on Dec. 2 by Gen. Misic and
the ist Army resulted, after a twelve days' battle along the whole
front, in the complete rout of Potiorek. By Dec. 14 Serbian
soil was for the third time entirely free from invaders, and an
enormous booty was captured. But the enemy left deadly in-
fection behind him, and by the early spring of 1915 exhausted
Serbia was immobilized by a typhus epidemic which is estimated
to have caused about 300,000 deaths among the civil popula-
tion. A notable part in checking its ravages was played by
Lady Paget as head of the Serbian Relief Fund units in Skoplje,
and by Col. Hunter and a R.A.M.C. detachment, who organized
a scheme of disinfection on the whole Serbian railway system.
The latter step appears to have been taken in view of the possi-
bility of Allied troops being employed upon the Danube, an idea
which receded from the general design, in proportion as the
Austro-German recovery in Galicia became more marked. Ser-
bia's negative role during 1915 was due not only to exhaustion
but to considerations of high policy. The attitude of Bul-
garia was from the first extremely equivocal, and Serbia, had she
listened to certain ill-considered pleas for a fresh offensive into
Hungary, would have been at any moment liable to an attack
from the rear, unless she could rely upon Greece or the Allies
to hold Bulgaria in check. Meanwhile the Entente was eagerly
working for the intervention of Italy and of Bulgaria, neither
of whom could receive adequate satisfaction save at the expense
of Serbian aspirations. During the winter pressure was repeat-
edly brought to bear upon Nish to make territorial concessions
to Bulgaria in Macedonia; but the one and only condition upon
which Serbia could safely have considered this namely, that
the Allies should guarantee Yugoslav unity in the event of
victory was precluded by their parallel negotiations with
Italy, whose official policy it was to prevent, not to further,
Yugoslav unity, and to whom by the Treaty of London, concluded
on April 26 1915, no less than 700,000 Yugoslavs were assigned.
The fact that this treaty's concealment from Serbia was made
an absolute condition by Rome, did not tend to diminish the
reserve of the Nish Government, who almost immediately
learned the essential facts through Mr. Supilo's discoveries in
official circles at Petrograd. The Serbs, who were not formally
recognized as Allies by the Western Powers, were more conscious
than ever of the value to them of the Vardar valley, which would
form part of any serious concessions to Bulgaria; and they
were from the first sceptical as to the possibility of winning
over Bulgaria, whom they believed to be tied to Vienna and
Berlin by a secret compact. They were further handicapped
by the attitude of Greece, who in the autumn of 1914 exercised
her right of veto, under the Serbo-Greek Treaty, upon any
cession of territory to Bulgaria and was prepared to demand
Monastir as compensation. This attitude could not be ignored
at a period when Greece was still ready to intervene on the side
SERBIA
407
of the Allies, and when even King Constantine had firmly
rejected William II. 's suggestion that he should fall upon
Serbia and tear up the Treaty of Bucharest. What changed
the views of both Athens and Sofia was simply the unfavour-
able turn in the military fortunes of the Allies. As long as the
Bulgarians thought that the Dardanelles would be forced, their
help could probably have been secured in return for the promise
of Macedonia and the guarantee of an Allied occupation: what
was lacking was the corresponding pledge to Serbia. The
conclusion of a Bulgarian loan in Berlin in Feb. was the first
sign of a change, and after March neutrality was the best that
the Allies could hope for from Bulgaria, though she showed
great skill in furthering Bulgarophil illusions in the West. Thus
the concrete proposals addressed to Sofia by the Entente on May
20, over Serbia's head, came two months too late. The Rado-
slavov Cabinet now played for time, and while asking on June
15 for further details, concluded parallel negotiations with
Turkey regarding the Thracian railway. On July 18 the
official Narodni Prava spoke of the impossibility of Bulgaria
keeping out of the war, and public opinion freely discussed the
rival alternatives. The final reply of the Entente (Aug. 3)
offered Bulgaria the " whole uncontested zone " of the treaty
of 1913, with immediate occupation as far as the Vardar; dis-
cussion even of Skoplje and of the " contested zone " after peace;
Seres at once and Kavalla in the future; and the Enos-Midia
line in Thrace. The price was to be war upon Turkey. Greece
at once protested, and the Emperor William urged his brother-
in-law on no account to cede Kavalla. But the decisive factor
was the fall of Warsaw on Aug. 8; not only public opinion, but
the general staff now regarded Germany's triumph as inevitable.
The Turco-Bulgarian agreement was initialed on the very day
after the Allied note, and completed at the end of the month,
and on Aug. 20 its negotiator, the Germanophil 2ekov, replaced
Ficco as War Minister. Meanwhile the position of the Pasic
Cabinet was extremely delicate. It loyally declined to discuss
the indirect overtures made to it from Vienna, and stood
officially for the programme of unity: but during the summer,
yielding to pressure from the reactionaries in Petrograd, it
showed a readiness to limit its claims to the territory generally
regarded as purely Orthodox viz. Banat, Syrmia, Bosnia-
Herzegovina and South Dalmatia and to leave the Catholic
Croats and Slovenes to their fate. This scheme would have
fitted in with Italian designs and with the Treaty of London,
which envisaged three separate Slav States, an enlarged Serbia,
an enlarged Montenegro and a reduced Croatia. Its weakness
lay in the ignorance of its promoters; for even such a division
would have left well over a -million Catholics in " Orthodox "
Serbia. Its failure, however, was above all due to the vigilance
of Mr. Supilo and his colleagues of the Yugoslav committee.
The Conquest of Serbia. In the late summer the Serbian
Government was unduly optimistic as to Greek and Rumanian
intervention, and its disbelief in a German invasion was en-
couraged by Allied military opinion. Only three weeks before
Mackensen crossed the Danube, Lord Kitchener, in conversa-
tion with a Serbian representative, gave his opinion that any
action from the north was mere bluff. Hence though the Skup-
tina on Sept. 5 authorized the Government to make terri-
torial concessions, Pasic adopted a waiting attitude. Bulgaria's
mobilization, two days after the opening of the Austro-German
bombardment along the river front, proved his calculations
to have been correct. Yet even at this moment Allied opinion
hoped that Bulgaria might enter on the Entente side, and
therefore a veto was imposed upon the Serbian general staff's
plan for an immediate attack upon Sofia before the Bulgarian
army was ready (Sept. 27). Next day Sir Edward Grey in the
House of Commons announced that in the event of Bulgaria's
aggression " we are prepared to give to our friends in the Balkans
all the support in our power, in the manner that would be most
welcome to them, in concert with our Allies, without reserve and
without qualification." Relying on the fulfilment of this pledge,
the Serbs devoted their main effort to checking the Austro-
German advance and remained on the defensive towards Bul-
garia. The danger was increased by King Constantine's repu-
diation of Greece's treaty obligations towards Serbia and the
overthrow of Venizelos. That statesman, however, had enquired
of the Allies as early as Sept. 23, whether, if Bulgaria declared
war on Serbia, and if Greece asked Serbia to supply the 150,000
men stipulated by the Serbo-Greek Treaty for such a contin-
gency, France and Britain would assume Serbia's obligation for
her; and an affirmative answer was received within 48 hours.
On Oct. 6, the rupture with Bulgaria was complete. The fatal
delays in sending the promised troops, coupled with Allied
insistence that the Serbs should hold back Mackensen to the
last moment, belong to military history; but their results were
eminently political. At the critical moment of the Bulgarian
menace to the Nish-Salonika railway there were at Salonika not
150,000 Allied troops ready for action, but 35,000 French, and
13,000 British, the latter under strict injunctions from London
not to cross the frontier into Serbia. 1 Nish was decorated to
welcome Allies who never came. The whole Serbian plan of
campaign collapsed, and the armies, losing control of the rail-
way southwards, retired precipitately through the passes
leading to the plain of Kosovo. General Sarrail, informed that
he must not expect reinforcements, was forced to arrest his
belated offensive northwards (Nov. 12) and soon to withdraw
to the west of the Vardar. The Serbs were thus cut off from
Allied help, lost Skoplje and only just escaped envelopment
by the converging Austro-German and Bulgarian armies. The
final retreat of the Serbian army and Government took place
in the dead of winter across the inhospitable snow mountains of
Albania and Montenegro to Scutari, Medua and Durazzo, a
smaller section escaping southwards from Prizren and augment-
ing the Serbian forces south of Monastir. Fortunately, the
general exodus of the civilian population was checked before
it had gone too far; but the retreat stands out as one of the
great tragedies of the war, and the loss of life which it involved
must have far exceeded 100,000 and is estimated at twice that
number by very sober authorities. 2 After dreadful sufferings
the fugitives were conveyed by Allied transports to Corfu,
which for the remainder of the war became the seat of the
Serbian Government and a base for the convalescence and
reorganization of the army. Notable assistance was rendered
by British voluntary units, and some idea of the generous
response of the British public to Serbia's need may be gathered
from the fact that the Serbian Relief Fund from first to last
collected over 1,000,000 in money and material, and employed
over 700 workers in Serbia, Albania, Corfu, Salonika, Corsica,
Biserta and France, while the Scottish Women's Hospitals
under Dr. Elsie Inglis performed notable services for the Serbs
both on the Balkan and the Russian fronts. The deaths of
Mrs. Dearmer, Mrs. Harley (Lord French's sister), Mrs. Haver-
field, Dr. Inglis herself and many others set a seal on the new-
found friendship of the two nations.
Conquered Serbia was divided for administrative purposes
between Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria, the latter holding the
Timok, Nish, Skoplje and Macedonia: all that remained to the
Serbs was a fragment of territory south of Monastir. Bulgaria
now threw off the mask and officially declared the Serbian State
to have ceased to exist. It therefore enrolled all men of military
age throughout the occupied territory and in Feb. 1917 extended
this to include the whole male population. It refused to recog-
nize the Serbian Red Cross and took possession of the Serbian
Legation in Sofia. All " ownerless " land was confiscated, all
Serbian schools, law courts, and inscriptions were Bulgarized,
libraries and collections were either destroyed or removed to
Bulgaria, the Serbian clergy were evicted, and there were whole-
sale deportations. A formidable rising in the mountains be-
hind Kursumlje (Kurshumlye) was brutally repressed, with over
2,000 executions (March 1917). The war aims now repeatedly
avowed by Sofia were the annexation not only of Macedonia,
but of Kosovo and Prizren, and the whole upper Morava and
Timok valleys: a common frontier with Hungary: the prevention
1 See Gen. Sarrail, Man commandement en Orient, p. 27.
*G. Djurifi, in Royal Statistical Journal, May 1919.
408
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS
of Yugoslav unity and of Russia's acquisition of Constantinople:
and (after Rumania's entry) the retention of the whole Dobruja.
Dr. Radoslavov more than once proclaimed Bulgaria's resolve
to keep all her conquests, 1 and his official organs declared that
Serbia's reconstitution, "no matter under what form, would be
a perpetual menace to Balkan peace " and will never be per-
mitted. 2 Austria-Hungary showed much greater reserve, airing
from time to time various alternative schemes for a vassal South-
ern Slav State under the Habsburgs, keeping Prince Mirko of
Montenegro as a possible candidate for its throne and employ-
ing agents in Switzerland to sow dissension among the exiles.
The Serbs in Exile. Soon after the establishment of the
Serbian Government at Corfu party rivalries began to revive.
The deputies were scattered, living mostly on the Riviera, an
independent press was impossible, and regular Allied subsidies
made the Government virtually immune from serious demo-
cratic control. The supersession of the Voivode Putnik and
almost all his staff caused great indignation, and though the
whole Serbian Coalition must bear the responsibility, it was
known to be the work of Pasid, and his masterful colleague in the
Radical party, Protic, then still out of office. In Aug. 1916 an
attempt is alleged to have been made upon the life of the Prince
Regent at the front, and the Government, after vainly urging
the Skupstina to institute a new form of courts-martial, pro-
ceeded in the winter while the joint advance under Sarrail was
crowned by the capture of Monastir from the Bulgarians to
order numerous arrests on a charge of conspiracy and murder.
Among those implicated were the late governor of Macedonia,
Gen. Popovid, the ex- War Minister Gen. Bojanovic, and several
distinguished staff officers: many line officers known for their
gallantry were placed on the retired list or confined to the
island at Corfu.
The Conspiracy Trial which opened in Salonika in Jan. 1917
and was conducted behind the shelter of a strict military censor-
ship, resulted in a death sentence upon nine Serbian officers,
and notably of Col. Dimitrijevic, the head of a secret society
known as " Union or Death," or more colloquially the Black
Hand, whose chief aim had been to fan nationalist sentiments
in the army. There is no doubt that " Apis," as Dimitrijevid
was called throughout the Slavonic South, interfered unwarrant-
ably in politics, and it is probable that he had his hand in the
Sarajevo murder; but the lack of convincing evidence for the
alleged conspiracy makes it probable that he was the victim
of rival military and political cliques. Strong pressure of the
Old Radical leaders forced the Prince Regent to sign three death
warrants and to disregard appeals for mercy from the Western
capitals. This trial revived all the old party dissensions:
the reactionaries had triumphed on the very eve of the collapse
of their chief support, the Tsarist Government. Pasid found
himself between two fires the need for a more democratic
restatement of foreign policy, and the demand of the young
Radical and Progressive parties for a revision of the Salonika
trial. Refusal led to their withdrawal from the Cabinet, and its
reconstruction on a purely Old Radical basis under Pasid and
Protic. The last occasion when all parties cooperated was on
July 20 1917, when the Declaration of Corfu, drawn up between
Dr. Trumbid for the Yugoslav committee and Pasid for the
Serbian Government, met with unanimous approval. Pasid,
having strengthened his position abroad by a visit to Paris and
London, declined to convoke Parliament for four months after
the legal period had expired. At last, as the result of a direct
appeal of its President to the Crown, it met in Corfu on Feb.
12 1918; and* the Government resigned, but after weeks of
fruitless negotiation for a coalition ministry, was allowed to
resume office. The Opposition, which numbered 60 as against
64 Old Radicals, still insisted on the revision of the trial and
the transference of foreign affairs from Pasic to their own
candidate Draskovid; and in April, when the budget was intro-
duced, they withdrew in a body from the Chamber, thus leaving
the Government without the quorum of 84 required by the
1 e.g. in Vossiche Zeitung, Oct. 10 1916.
3 e.g. Narodni Prava, May 19, Kambana, Oct. 9 1916.
Serbian Constitution. Serbian public opinion was too scattered
and disorganized to be effective, and the Corfu Government
tried to discredit its opponents' action before the uninformed
West, as defeatist or even Austrophil. Thus throughout the
spring and summer of 1918 there was acute and growing tension
among the rival Serbian groups, and the real initiative in the
Yugoslav question and in the political campaign against Austria-
Hungary, had passed to Trumbid, Benes, Lansing and the Allies
and to the leaders of the movement inside the Dual Monarchy.
Pasid had reverted to his Pan-Serb attitude, opposed inclusion
of Dr. Trumbid in a Yugoslav and no longer purely Serb Cabinet,
and steadily obstructed the Yugoslav committee's work. There
was, moreover, a certain section in the army which aimed at
Serbia's military occupation and annexation of Habsburg ter-
ritory, rather than a free union on equal terms. Fortunately
all such ideas were absent from the mind of Voivode Misic,
whose comprehension of the issues at stake was illustrated by
his special encouragement of the Yugoslav volunteers and by
his signal tact in dealing with the newly constituted Government
in Zagreb. Events, moreover, favoured union on terms of full
equality; for Austria-Hungary had ceased to exist and her author-
ity had been shaken off by all her Yugoslav subjects long before
the Serbian army in its northward advance had even reached
Belgrade. Any slight possibilities of initial friction were averted
by Italy's action in advancing beyond the Armistice line; the
whole Croat and Slovene population thus clamoured for the
arrival of the Serbian army and received it everywhere as their
liberator from Habsburg rule and their champion in the com-
plications which then seemed imminent. (For the completion
of national unity, see YUGOSLAVIA.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. General: C. Jirecek, Geschichte der Serben (to
!537. 2 vols., 1913 and 1917), and 5/aa* und Gesellschaft im miltel-
alterlichen Serbien (1913); S. Novakovic, Die Wiedergeburt des Ser-
bischen Staates (1912); G. Yakshitch, L'Europe el la Resurrection de
la Serbie (2nd ed., 1919); H. W. V. Temperley, History of Serbia
(1917); S. Stanojevic, History of Serbia (in Serbian, 1913); Jovan
Cvijid, La Peninsule Balkanique (1919) and Govorii Clanci (Speeches
and Essays, 2 vols., 1921); G. Gravier, Les Frontieres Historiques
de la Serbie (1919). Of war literature may be mentioned: E. Denis,
La Grande Serbie (1916); Miss Waring, Serbia (1918); G. Yelinic-
Devas, La nouvelle Serbie (1919); Crawfurd Price, Serbia's Part in
the War (1918); Barby, L'epopee Serbe (1916). On the Balkan wars,
see Diplomaticus, Nationalism and War in the Near East (1915);
R. W. Seton- Watson, The Rise of Nationality in the Balkans (1917);
Immanuel, Der Balkankrieg (1913) ; H. Barby, Les Victoires Serbes
(1913) and Bregalnitsa (1913). On economics, see Vuk Primorac,
La Question Yougoslave (1918) ; G. Djurid, " A Survey of the Devel-
opment of the Serbian (S. Slav) Nation " (Royal Statistical Journal,
May 1919); La Serbie Economique, 1914-1918 (1918); M. Zebitch,
La Serbie Agricole (1917); Costa Stoyanovitch, Economic Problems
of Serbia (1919). The Serbian standpoint on the Albanian question
can be found in Vladan Georgevitch, Die Serbische Frage (1909)
and Balkanicus (S. Protic), Le Probleme Albanais (1913); on the
Macedonian question in Tihomar Georgevitch, Macedonia (1918).
For sources concerning origin of war, see A. F. Pribram, Collected
Diplomatic Documents: Die Politischen Geheimvertrdge Oesterreich-
Ungarns (1879-1914) (1920); R. Gooss, Das Wiener Kabinett und
die Entstehung des Weltkrieges (1920); Diplomatische Aktenstucke
(1920); Die Deutschen Dokumente (4 vols., 1920); H. Kanner, Die
Neuesten Geschichtslugen (1921). See also History of the Peace Con-
ference (ed. H. W. V. Temperley, vol. iv.). (R. W. S.-W.)
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS. Although the Balkan area developed
into one of the side-shows of the World War, it was there that it
started in 1914 with the ultimatum of Austria-Hungary to Ser-
bia. The 1914 operations and the conquest of Serbia in 1915 are
narrated in separate sections below. Under SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS
an account is given separately of the Allied operations on the
southern Serbian front, 1915-8.
I. OPERATIONS IN 1914
The Austro-Hungarian military problem in starting a cam-
paign against Serbia was complicated by the prospect of a Rus-
sian intervention in Galicia. The alternatives were: to defeat
Serbia completely before the Russian threat became deadly, or
to stand on the defensive against Serbia till after a great battle
had decided the issue in Galicia.
The strategic geography of Serbia was, in its broad lines,
simple. On the N. side there is the formidable obstacle of the
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS
409
Danube and Sava, on the W. the line of the Drina, a river not
very broad, but rapid and difficult to bridge, these rivers form-
ing the actual frontier. 1 Initially then the assailant must begin
by forcing a river barrier, whatever the direction of his advance,
and his power to do so depended: (a) on the communications on
his own side of the river, which would enable him to collect the
troops and material for forcing the passage; (b) on the barrier
itself; and (c) on the defensive positions available for the Serbs
inside the barrier. Taking all these factors together, an attack
on the northern barrier offered the best chances of success. It
was the course chosen by Prince Eugene in 1717 and by Macken-
sen in 1916, and it was that which the Serbs themselves regarded
as most likely to be taken in August 1914. The reasons which led
the Austrian commander to choose differently will be considered
presently. More important than the choice of a point at which the
barriers could most easily be forced was the choice of a direction
for the subsequent advance. The objectives were plain enough,
the defeat of the Serbian field army and the occupation of the
most important part of the country. Without the attainment of
these objectives, Austria could not pretend to have conquered,
or even to have defeated, Serbia. Both, however, were attain-
able by an invasion of the Belgrade-Pozharevats-Kraguyevats-
Krushevats region, conventionally called the Morava valley.
This was the richest part of the country, and the centre of all
its communications. Here and here only could the Serbian
army be definitely brought to action under conditions in which
the Austrian superiority of numbers would be effective.
This region could be approached from the N. (Belgrade or
Danube-Pozharevats front), from the N.W. (Sava and Lower
Drina front), from the W. (Middle Drina front) or from the S.W.
(Upper Drina front). 2 The first named was the most direct
route. For the forcing of the Danube 3 five railheads on the
Hungarian side were available, for the prosecution of the advance
the Orient railway (Belgrade-Constantinople) and' various
branches of it. The country was rich in local supplies, populous,
and relatively well provided with roads, and the general trend of
the natural features, governing that of the lines of communica-
tion, was from N. to S. On the other hand, the defender would
of course be best prepared for attack on this front, and the
Danube obstacle was here most difficult to overcome, in spite of
the command of the water ensured by the Austrian monitors. 4
Next in importance were the lines of advance from the Sava and
Lower Drina, and especially those from the Sava, since the Drina
valley was totally destitute of railway approaches on the Hungar-
ian side. In the angle of the Sava and Drina lies the fertile plain
of the Machva; many favourable points exist on the Sava for the
forcing of a crossing, and the town of Shabats in particular offers
a choice of tolerable roads leading S. to the slopes of the Tser
(Cer) range S.W. to Valyevo, and W. to Arangyelovats, the
last-named route conducting an invader to either Palanka or
Kraguyevats in the Morava region. In conjunction with such an
advance, an operation on the left, over the Lower Kolubara, sup-
plied from the Sava, would lead to the rear of Belgrade, while on
the other flank a successful operation by troops organized for
mountain warfare by Valyevo over the Kolubara and Rudnik
ranges to Gorni Milanovats and Chachak would threaten the
rear of the whole Morava region. As a way of turning the great
obstacle of the Danube front, the lines of advance grouped on
the axis Shabats-Arangyelovats possessed tempting advantages.
But, considered from the point of view of supply, the disadvan-
tages were very serious. Not only was this the longest route
'In its upper course the Drina passes inside the Austrian frontier,
and direct advance into Serbia is therefore possible from the region
of Vishegrad. But this roadless, mountainous region is quite unfitted
for the movements of large forces.
1 Attack from the stretch of the Danube front lying in the moun-
tains between Weisskirchen and the Iron Gates was regarded by
both sides as outside the limits of probability.
* The lowest reaches of the Sava are usually considered as belong-
ing to this front.
4 Six in number, armed with 4-y-in. guns, and armoured.
6 The small line connecting Shabats with Loznitsa was of no
importance except in the case of stabilized trench warfare m the
Machva.
between the railheads of deployment and the final objective, but
it was destitute of railways 6 E. of the Kolubara. West of
that river, indeed, the line Valyevo-Arangyelovats-Palanka lay
in the very axis of the march, and a branch-line connected this
with Obrenovats on the Sava, where water-borne supplies could be
unloaded. But the barrier of the Kolubara and the ridge behind
it had to be mastered before this branch could be used, and it
was certain that the Serbs could assemble in time to fight on the
Kolubara line if not W. of it. That is, from deployment to the
first great battle the campaign would have to be carried out with
road transport, and in the case of the rightmost routes (axis
Valyevo-Chachak) pack transport only.
From the Middle Drina (Lyeshnitsa-Lyuboviya front) all
routes converge on Valyevo, at the head of the Kolubara.
Thence operations towards Arangyelovats, Gorni Milanovats
and Chachak would take the course already discussed. But up
to Valyevo operations would lie wholly in mountainous country *
and would depend for supply almost entirely on pack transport
from distant railheads for in Bosnia the railways come to an
end 25-27 m. W. of the Drina, and from that river to Valyevo is a
further 32 miles. All arguments against the choice of the Shabats
route therefore applied with far greater force to the Valyevo
route. Farther S., in the region of Vishegrad, operations into
Old Serbia by way of Uzhitse might gain a footing, or help a
Valyevo force to gain a footing, at Chachak. But such opera-
tions would be mountain warfare pure and simple. Although in
this part the railway runs right up to the frontier, no body of
troops large enough to deal with the Serbian army could be col-
lected and fed in the upper valley of the western Morava, either
by way of Uzhitse or by way of Valyevo. As a threat to the flank
and rear of a beaten Serbian army retreating up the Morava
valley, such manceuvres might be effective; but to the beating
of that army they could contribute practically nothing. Opera-
tions from Vishegrad into New Serbia would be too eccentric to
have the slightest influence upon the conflict of armies in the
Morava valley, and the same would apply to operations from
Focha or from the Herzegovina against Montenegro, supposing
that state to join Serbia in resisting the Austrian advance.
Operations in this quarter would be scarcely more than guerrilla.
On a review of the conditions, then, the most logical plan of
campaign from the Austrian point of view would be a frontal
operation S. from the Danube front, coupled with an enveloping
movement from the Sava (or Sava-Lower Drina) front directed
on Arangyelovats, the latter either preceding the other by some
days and seeking to surprise possession of the Kolubara ridge, or
following it and directed to the flank and rear of an ascertained
position of the enemy. Loosely connected with these main opera-
tions an advance from the Middle Drina or Vishegrad or both on
Chachak and the western Morava had advantages for the exploi-
tation of victory, but not for the winning of it. Such a plan was
proposed before the war in the Austrian staff, and practically the
same plan was assumed by the Serbians as the basis of their
defensive deployment. Whether any or all of these operations
could be carried through before the Russians intervened, or
before their intervention became dangerous, would depend on
available time. If no time at all were available, a pure defensive
was the only course. If time for a thorough conquest, all the
operations above mentioned with proper proportioning of
strength would contribute something to a decisive success. In
any intermediate conditions, one or more of the subsidiary opera-
tions would be omitted from the plan, and, especially, if a mini-
mum time were available only the direct S. attack from the
Danube front would be admissible, with or without a collateral
attempt by light forces from Shabats or Obrenovats to. seize the
Kolubara ridge.
The calculation of this available time depended principally
upon the arrangements made between the Austrian and the Ger-
man staffs for initial operations in Poland, Galicia and E. Prus-
sia. For this a plan had been drawn up by Conrad von Hotzen-
dorf and Moltke in consultation; and, on the basis of this plan,
* Even the Yadar valley road was in many places unsuitable for
wheeled transport.
4io
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS
the scheme of operations adopted against Serbia was apparently
the full scheme outlined above; concentric advance from all the
fronts in varying strengths and at various dates. Nearly half the
army was placed in position for this advance, and the Austrian
supreme headquarters intended to conduct the campaign itself.
But at the last moment, it is asserted, the Germans, rightly or
wrongly, changed their minds, the allies' scheme for Poland and
Galicia fell to pieces, and, in trying to adapt their plans to the
new conditions, the Austrians threw their S.E. forces into con-
fusion before they had even deployed. The responsibility for a
grave initial blunder, then, lies ultimately with Moltke, if he
failed to keep his promise, or with Conrad, if he interpreted a
mere interchange of views as a binding engagement. In any case
the effect was to withdraw the forces on the San-Danube front to
another theatre amid the battle for the river crossings.
The Yadar Campaign. The deployment, carried out accord-
ing to the original scheme, 1 in spite of the fact that, at some date
not yet known, it had been decided to make a radical alteration,
was as follows:
II. Army. General of Cavalry Bohm-Ermolji on the Danube-
Sava front from Weisskirchen to Mitrowitz (Mitrovicza). Left to
right VII. Corps (34th and I7th Divs.); 7th Div.; IV. Corps
(32nd and 3ist Divs.); IX. Corps (29th Div. only); loth Cavalry
Division. In reserve 23pd Honved Division. Total: 131 battalions,
42 squadrons, 56 batteries.
V. Army. -General of Infantry Liborius von Frank. On the Lower
Drina from mouth to Lyuboviya, and Jeft to right VIII. Corps
' ith Div., 2lst Landwehr Div. and combined brigade) ; XIII. Corps
j6th Div., 42nd Honved Div., one brigade, one mountain brigade),
'otal: 79 battalions, 15 squadrons, 39 batteries.
VI. Army. Feldzeugmeister Potiorek. Vishegrad-Focha region,
left to right XV. Corps (ist and 48th Div. staffs with 4 mountain
brigades) ; XIV. Corps (l8th Div. staff and 6 mountain brigades) ; in
reserve doth Honved Division. Detached, facing Montenegro, 47th
Div. and 3rd Mountain Brigade. Total : 74 battalions, 5 squadrons,
40 batteries.
Each army had in addition one Landsturm brigade and the V.
and II. one to three " march " (i.e., reinforcement) brigades.
Of these forces the II. Army was withdrawn on Aug. 14,* leav-
ing the others in full battle on the Drina. That this battle was in
being, however, was due not to Conrad, who naturally, under
the changed conditions ordered the " Balkan Forces " to stand
on the defensive, but to "Feldzeugmeister" Potiorek, comman-
der-in-chief as well as commander of the VI. Army. This officer,
high in favour at Court, had been for some years viceroy in Bos-
nia-Herzegovina, and regarded the problem from the standpoint
of the Sarajevo residency rather than from that of a military head-
quarters faced with a military problem. He saw above every-
thing else the possibility of the Serbians advancing over the
Drina to excite insurrection among their brothers and cousins,
although there was nothing in the layout of the Serbian deploy-
ment to suggest this, and he not only kept the centre of gravity
of the forces on the Drina, but, on his own responsibility,
launched a "preventive" offensive on this unfavourable front.
On the Serbian side, general mobilization had been ordered on
July 25, months since the demobilization that marked the end of
the Balkan Wars. Of a population of about 3,100,000 in Old
Serbia and about i ,800,000 in New Serbia (where there had been
no time to set up the administrative machinery of conscription),
489,500 men were mobilized at the outset and some 43,000 more
between August and September.
On Aug. 5 1914 Montenegro declared war on Austria-Hun-
gary. Her forces amounted to about 50,000 militia with very
little artillery, and were of no direct assistance to Serbia. But
they occupied the attention of three mountain brigades of the
enemy's army and, what was perhaps more important, they
added considerably to Potiorek's politico-military anxieties.
Strategically, there were three possible courses open to the
Serbs: the defensive in their own country, the offensive W. into
Bosnia, Herzegovina and Croatia, and the offensive N. into Hun-
gary; but the first course was the only one practicable. An offen-
1 The III. Corps (6th and 28th Divs., 22nd Landwehr Div.), how-
ever, which mobilized with the other seven corps, did not proceed
to the Serbian front, but was dispatched to the Dniester at once
1 It arrived in Galicia too late for the crisis there.
sive into Bosnia, even with Montenegrin aid, could only have
succeeded if the populations there had been ready to rise at the
first signal, which they were not. Politically, it would have
played into the hands of the enemy by showing the world that
Austria's fear of Serbian ambitions had been justifiable. Mili-
tarily, an offensive over the Drina presented the same supply
difficulties in either direction. An offensive into Hungary,
whether to the right or left of the Danube, must begin with the
forcing of the Danube or the Sava, and in view of the dispropor-
tion between the opposed forces had no chance of success unless
the bulk of the Austro-Hungarian army were at the same time
closely engaged in Galicia and Poland. In the initial stages of
the operations at any rate, therefore, such a movement was out
of the question.
The strategy adopted was, therefore, purely defensive, in spite
of the offensive victories of 1912-3 and the mania for the offen-
sive at all costs and in all conditions which then pervaded almost
every army in Europe.
The order of battle was as follows, the Crown Prince Alexander
being commander-in-chief, and Voivode R. Putnik chief -of-staff,
with headquarters at Kraguyevats:
I. Army. General Boyovich. Divisions Timok I., Timok II.,
Morava II., Danube II., 52 battalions, 7 squadrons, 26 batteries:
approximate strength 55,000, grouped about Palanka and Racha
and Topola.
//. Army. General Stepanovich. Divisions Shumaja I., Mo-
rava I., Danube I., and " Combined Division." 64 battalions, 10
squadrons, 33 batteries, about 71,000 men. Grouped about Arang-
yelovats, Lazarevats, Belgrade.
///. Army. General Yurichich-Stiirm. Divisions Drina I., Drina
II., 28 battalions, 5 squadrons, 16 batteries, about 32,000. Grouped
around Valyevo.
Uzhitse Army. General Boyanovich. Division Shumaja II.,
Uzhitse Brigade, 24 battalions, 2 squadrons, II batteries, about
26,000. Grouped at Uzhitse and Bainabashta.
Independent Cavalry Division. Sixteen squadrons, one battery,
about 3,000 concentrated at Ub.
Belgrade Group. About 9 battalions, 2 squadrons, 10 batteries.
Obrenovats Croup. About II battalions, sJ batteries.
Other frontier troops, in all about 25 battalions, 13 batteries.
In infantry, therefore, the Serbians had about 213 battalions
to pit against the 272 of the enemy's II., V. and VI. Armies.
On the other hand, nine out of ten of the men in these 213 battal-
ions had fought in the wars of 1912-3. In artillery the opposed
forces were nearly equal, about no Serbian to about 130 Austro-
Hungarian; three-quarters of the Serbian guns were of a better
model than the Austrian, and some heavy artillery was available.
On the other hand, the equipment of the Austrians and their re-
sources in ammunition and stores were much superior, for Serbia
was nearly isolated, the one available arsenal was small, and
stocks depleted in the Balkan Wars had not been made good.
In sum, then, it would appear that the Austrian expeditionary
force even counting the II. Army which appeared only to be
withdrawn, and the III. Corps which did not appear at all was
none too strong for the defeat of the Serbian field army, let alone
its destruction. And as soon as it had been decided to withdraw
the II. Army, replacing it by a mere screen along the Danube, it
was or should have been obvious that the 141 battalions, 17
squadrons and 70 batteries of the V. and VI. Armies were far too
weak a force to attempt an offensive into difficult country held
by superior numbers of well-trained and war-experienced troops.
Potiorek, however, decided otherwise.
From July 26 to August n only minor incidents took place
bombardments of Belgrade and other places, by the monitors,
raids over the river for reconnaissance purposes. Then, on the
night of August 11-12, the Austrian main bodies began to cross
on a wide front at Drenovats (near Shabats) on the Sava, several
points between Lyeshnitsa and Loznitsa on the Lower Drina, and
Zvornik and Lyuboviya on the Middle Drina. On the I2th the
frontier troops of the Drina defence were pushed back concen-
trically in the general direction of Valyevo, those of the Sava
defence driven out of Shabats. E. of that point the II. Army,
under orders for Galicia, remained inactive except for the seizure
of Gipsy Island (Ostrovo Tsiganlya) close above Belgrade, while
in and S. of the Vishegrad region the XV. and XVI. Austrian
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS
411
corps were preoccupied by the activity of the Uzhitse army, 1
and the Montenegrins. 2
During the 12th and following days the Serbian headquarters
became convinced that nothing was likely to come from the Dan-
ube front, and shifted the centre of gravity of their forces towards
the Upper Kolubara. The calvary division at Ub was ordered to
reconnoitre towards Shabats and to separate the Shabats column
of the enemy from the Drina columns. The II. Army was to push
the right wing (Shumaja I.) against Shabats, and its centre and
left along the Tser and Iverak ridges and the Yadar valley in
conjunction with the III. Army, which concentrated forward
from Valyevo to Zavlaka and Krupany to support its retiring
outposts. The I. Army was to take over the whole northern front
as far as Obrenovats. The Danube ist Div. was transferred to
it, the II. Army receiving Timok I. in exchange. 3 These move-
ments, in spite of forced marching, took time, and but for the
difficulties which at once arose in the Austrian army the V.
Army had only wheeled transport so forward a. concentration
would have been impossible. As it was, the dispositions were
practically realized by the night of Aug. 15-16, when the battle
proper opened with the Austrians on the front Shabats-Slepce-
vish (elements of IV. Corps, and 2Qth Div., X. Corps, both
of II. Army) ; Bela Reka-Tser plateau and Lyeshnitsa valley
(VIII. Corps) ; Iverak ridge and Yadar valley W. of Yarebitse
(36th Div., XIII. Corps) ; W. of Krupany and N.E. of Lyuboviya
(remainder of XIII. Corps).
During the night and the day following there was heavy fight-
ing on this line. The Serbian cavalry division, supported by
Shumaja I. of the II. Army, pushed up to and towards the left of
the positions of the Austrians about Shabats. The II. Army
arrived in sufficient strength to hold a line on Tser, in the Lye-
shnitsa valley, and on Iverak, in touch with the right of the III.
Army W. of Yarebitse. But the centre and especially the left of
that army retired under severe pressure from the Austrians
(right of XIII. Corps) who, in this case equipped for mountain
warfare, were able to capture Krupany and enforce the swinging-
back of the whole Serbian left wing. Yarebitse was given up and,
pivoting on the right of the II. Army, the remainder of that army
and the III. took up new positions in an arc about Zavlaka
(night of 1 6-i 7th).
On the 1 7th the Serbian cavalry spread over the Machva,
intercepting communications between the Austrian Shabats
force and the columns working along Tser plateau. 4 But Shu-
1 On Aug. 2-4, Serbian forces captured Uvats, Rudo and Usti-
var, and raided the Drina immediately below Vishegrad. Other
raids were pushed, with Montenegrin cooperation, over the Metalka
Saddle on Chaynicha (Cajnice), and towards Focha. On the 7th
an Austrian advance from Vishegrad on Gradishte was checked by
the Serbians. On the i6th a Serbian attempt to capture Vishegrad
by forces from Uvats, Gradishte and the hills to the N.E. was
repulsed. The Austrian XV. and XVI. Corps at the same time took
the offensive on the front Vishegrad-Chaynicha. While the left
flank was being cleared by sharp mountain fighting (igth) about
Chelebish (S.E. of Focha), the Chaynicha force crossed the Metalka
Saddle and moved on Plevlye, Pnyepolye, while the Rudo troops
on the left forced the Serbian positions on the Lim at Uvats and
Priboy (2Oth 22nd) and the Vishegrad troops repulsed a second
attack on their stronghold (2Oth-2ist). But at this moment the
collapse of the main offensive on the Drina compelled the Austrians
to retreat to Vishegrad and Focha, whither they were followed by
the Uzhitse army and the Montenegrin Plevlye group.
s On Aug. 71 1 Montenegrin forces raided Artovatz on the Gatsko
road and Klobuchi on the Trbinye road. Cattaro was intermittently
bombarded, and Budua raided, from Mount Lovchen. These raids
were repelled by the Austrian 3rd Mountain Brigade and 47th Divi-
sion. But on Aug. 15 the main body of the Montenegrins appeared
before Bilek (Bileva) which they blockaded for some time. On the
25th-26th, however, a northward sortie of the garrison, coupled
with a southward advance of the 3rd Mountain Brigade from Gatsko,
caused the Montenegrins to give up the blockade, and on Aug. 30
Sept. 2, forces from Trbinye cooperating, the 3rd Mountain Brigade
and the Bilek force drove back the invaders into their own terri-
tory. A threat to the Montenegrin rear by part of the 3rd Moun-
tain Brigade which advanced from Gatsko S.E. to Visznitsa Do
largely contributed'to the result.
3 This distant division seems to have reached the front on the 1 8th.
4 The Austro-Hungarian force at Shabats was limited to pure
self-defence by orders of the army command which was preparing
maja I., advancing from the S. on Shabats, was arrested by
entrenched infantry some 3 m. short of its objective. The II.
Army on Tser and Iverak and the right of the III. Army in the
Yadar valley maintained an unbroken front, and on Tser in par-
ticular carried out counter-attacks, but the continued pressure
from the S.W. on the centre and left of the III. Army compelled
a further retreat. Here the situation was becoming critical, the
Austrian 42nd Div. threatening to seize the Valyevo road to
Osechina behind the Serbian positions, while farther to the S.E.
only third-ban troops stood between the Austrian mountain
brigades and the Petska- Valyevo road. 6
On the 1 8th the fighting continued in front of Shabats, and
Shumaja I. drew back to Slatina, while the cavalry division,
meeting the Austrian 2ist Landwehr Div. about Lipolist, fell
back to concentrate in line between Shumaja I. and the Tser
ridge. On Tser and Iverak the day was a repetition of the i7th,
with more pronounced counter-attacks on the front of the de-
fence. On the right of the II. Army the strong position of Kozan-
ingrad on Tser was stormed and held, in spite of the fact that
reserves had been given up to strengthen the III. Army. On the
critical wing of that army also the day was rather more favour-
able, thanks to the arrival of the II. Army reserves alluded to
above, which by counter-attacks prevented an imminent breach
in the centre of the III. Army, now E. of Zavlaka, in the Yadar
valley. Farther to the S.W., little ground was gained by the
Austrian mountain troops, the Serbians still holding Rozan and
Proslop at night.
The igth was destined to be the critical day. On the Serbian
right, the Austrian Shabats force, now superior in numbers to
Shumaja I., took the offensive and drove back the Serbs to the
river Dobrava, while the 2ist Landwehr Div. from Lipolist
pressed back the cavalry division a short distance. On the left of
the general front, the III. Army and the left of the II. lost
ground, both in the Yadar valley and on the extreme left where
Rozan and Proslop and even Petska fell into the enemy's hands.
But in the centre, on Tser and Iverak, a definite change in the
situation set in. Freed by the capture of Kozaningrad on the
previous day, the Serbian " Combined " division on Tser pushed
ahead rapidly along the ridge, although with every advance it
was more and more ahead of the troops on either flank. This suc-
cess not only imposed caution on the assailants of the cavalry
division on the Machva plain, but, what was of decisive impor-
tance, brought them into positions overlooking the Lyeshnitsa
valley. Threatened in rear, and with their wheeled transport
exposed to capture, the Austrians began to fall back not only in
that valley but also on Iverak before Morava I., and General
Stepanovich decided to ignore the grave position of affairs on his
left and force victory in the Yadar valley. The " Combined "
division and Morava I., therefore, always echeloned from right
to left, drove along Tser and Iverak, Timok I. in the Yadar valley
conforming. The battle of the Yadar was decided.
On the 2oth the drive along the ridges was accentuated more
and more, and the Austrians fought no longer for victory, but
for escape. So vigorous was the pursuit on Tser that a part of the
" Combined " division outran all support and barely escaped
destruction in the rear of the enemy's lines. Both along Tser
and along Iverak, artillery was, with great efforts, pushed up
behind the advancing infantry to shell the valleys below. In the
Yadar valley Yarebitse was captured by 10 A.M. and the general
pursuit ended near the Drina the same evening. The right wing
of the Austrians, less hard pressed and better organized for
movement in rough country, retired in good order. Morava II.,
from Valyevo, only reached Krupany on the 2ist. No attempt
was made, however, by the Austrians either on the Lower or the
"or the move to Galicia. After crossing on the I2th, it was actually
withdrawn again on the I4th, leaving only outposts on the hostile
bank. At Potiorek's request, however, the 2gth Div. was again sent
over the river on or about the I7th.
6 So serious was the situation that already on the l6th G.H.Q.
bad ordered Morava II. of the I. Army, hitherto posted about Laza-
revats to meet a possible attack by Obrenovats, to move by forced
marches to a position astride the Petska Valyevo road. The divi-
sion reached this position on the i8th.
412
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS
Middle Drina to keep a foothold on the right hand, and on the
22nd the whole river front was again occupied by the Serbians.
Meanwhile the troops of the Austrian II. Army had ceased to
press Shumaja I. on the line of the Dobrava, and begun to fall
back on Shabats, and the 2ist Landwehr Div. in the plain like-
wise retreated on the Drina, followed by the Serbian cavalry
division which gleaned prisoners, guns and vehicles. On Aug.
21-22, Shumaja I., reinforced by troops from Tser on its left,
and also by Timok II. from the I. Army, advanced from the S.E.,
S., and S.W. on Shabats, held by elements of the IV. Corps and
by the zgth Div., under the command of General Tersztyanski.
On the 23rd sharp counter-strokes were made by the Austrians
to hold off pressure on their river flank. Only rear-guards
remained in Shabats when the Serbs attacked on the 24th.
So ended the first invasion of Serbia. The principal reason
for its failure was the Austrian commander-in-chief 's undervalua-
tion of the military, and overvaluation of the political, factors
with which he had to deal. Neither on the part of the Higher
Command nor on the part of the Court was pressure brought to
bear on him. Nor, after the event, did he attempt to find scape-
goats among his subordinates. What he did, he did in the exer-
cise of unfettered judgment. But history will not regard this
judgment as of a high order. To hurry * on an offensive in moun-
tainous country, from a starting-point at a maximum distance
from the strategically decisive point, with three armies equipped
in the main for warfare in the plains, of which one was under
orders for another theatre, is so astonishing a proceeding that it
can only be assumed that. the campaign was never intended to
be more than a demonstration of activity, analogous to a puni-
tive march up some valley of the Indian frontier region. And
indeed, Potiorek's position as civil and military commander of a
rough frontier region has been very aptly compared to that of
an Indian viceroy. Regarded from this standpoint, the advance
over the Drina is an operation differing in degree only from the
advance of the XV. and XVI. Corps on the Lim or that of the 3rd
Mountain Brigade into the fastnesses S.E. of Gatsko. And in
such an operation the assistance of the II. Army might no doubt
be dispensed with. But if the ground of justification be thus
shifted, the basis of criticism is shifted also, and in that case
what is to be said of a modern European commander-in-chief
who thought that an organized army of n strong divisions,
recently victorious in two campaigns over other organized
armies, could be treated as though it were on the military-tech-
nical level of a frontier tribe? Actually, it appears that the
astonishment and dismay of the commanders, from army down
to and below division commanders, at the incomprehensible
sequence of events was no small factor in the issue.
Of the conduct of operations on the Serbian side it need only
be said that Putnik's management of his forces in space and time,
and the choice of the moment and place of counter-attack, were
masterly. To gain great results, the risks of a forward concentra-
tion were accepted, but always under such conditions that the
chances and profits of success were greater than the chances and
losses of defeat. The object was limited, but its attainment com-
plete without remainder.
At the same time, in this as in many other instances, the idea
of a limitation of objective has been criticised per se. Only a
detailed reconstruction of the conditions at the moment of the
counter-offensive would make a final judgment to be formed on
the question in the present case; and for that the materials not
only have not been published but are probably not even in
existence, since the bulk of the Serbian archives were destroyed
in the autumn of 1915. But this much may be said, that the
Serbians were, in point of ammunition and transport, ill-equipped
for a great strategic pursuit either into Bosnia or into Hungary,
that the great battle in Galicia was only just opening, and its
consequences could scarcely be foreseen, and that the strain of
the forced marches imposed by the forward concentration, fol-
lowed by that of hill fighting, had told heavily on the victors.
The Syrmian Operation and the Massed Austro-Hungarian
1 The Commander of the V. Army, von Frank, protested against
this hurry, and only submitted to a formal order.
Attack. The Yadar and Shabats operations closed, then, on the
river line, but meanwhile no events had taken place on the front
E. of Obrenovats, and the Austro-Hungarians were palpably
withdrawing forces by all railheads between Weisskirchen and
Mitrovitsa, and after a short rest the Serbian command decided
to push an offensive over the Sava into Syrmia (Srem), the sub-
district of Hungary lying in the angle between the Sava and Dan-
ube. In this region were three of the six railheads at the enemy's
disposal and an important lateral line. Its occupation would
therefore thrust back the line of deployment of any future attack
from the N., and the new front to be held defensively at the fur-
ther limit of the.occupied area would lie in and across the Fruska
mountain range (the Mitrovitsa-Peterwardein), and thence along
a part of the Danube which was exceptionally strong as an
obstacle owing to the marshes and channels at the confluence of
the Theiss to Semlin and the old Danube front. This gained,
it would be possible to embark upon an invasion of Bosnia with-
out fear of a sudden attack in flank and rear.
As early as the 26th, two days after the reconquest of Shabats,
Putnik issued general instructions regrouping the army for the
new project. The II. Army (now to consist of Morava I., Timok
I., Timok II., and " Combined " divisions) was to occupy and
defend the Lower Drina to Lyeshnitsa exclusive. The III. Army
(Drina I., Drina II., Morava II.) was to hold from Lyeshnitsa
inclusive to Zvornik. A special detachment, reporting directly
to G.H.Q., was to hold the crossings below and at Lyuboviya.
The I. Army (Shumaja I., Danube I., cavalry division) was to
assemble towards Shabats and prepare to force a passage into
Syrmia. The Belgrade and Pozharevats groups were to continue
in their defensive missions, the former to be prepared to cooperate
with the I. Army in the capture of Semlin, the latter to dispatch
its principal formation, Danube II., to Obrenovats for Sept. 9.
The Uzhitse Army was to continue its mountain offensive towards
Vishegrad, in concert with the Montenegrin Plevlye group. The
date of the Sava crossing was to be ordered by G.H.Q., and mean-
while the II. and IV. Armies were instructed to reconnoitre
crossing places on the Drina line, and to obtain all possible intelli-
gence as to the condition of the enemy in their front.
A pause followed, while the preliminary work was being carried
out and the I. Army being marched over from the Morava valley.
The enemy was occupied with reorganization, and with the reliefs
and takings-over consequent on the withdrawal of the II. Army.
On the whole northern front there remained one post-line divi-
sion only, the 2gth; along the rivers themselves were Landsturm
formations. Yet Potiorek was in fact contemplating a new
thrust on the Drina; and the 2Qth Div. was ordered to be ready
to cooperate by forcing a passage of the Sava at Yarak. Thus
it befell that the division was grouped between Huma, Yarak
and Nikinci when the Serbian offensive was launched. Apart
from it, there were no formations in Syrmia other than the
regiments holding the thin surveillance line.
On Sept. 3 General Krauss, commanding the 2gth A.H. Div.,
received word that the Serbs intended to force the passage of the
Sava below Mitrovitsa. This report he more than half-disbe-
lieved, and in any case, regarding Mitrovitsa- Yarak as the centre
of gravity of the Serbian offensive into Syrmia, he was content
to leave his forces grouped as they were for Potiorek's intended
advance. This was to take place on the 7th, and for it the 7th
Inf. Div. was added to Krauss's command, henceforward known
as the " Combined Corps Krauss."
On the night of Sept. 5-6, the Serbian preparations being com-
plete, the passage was forced in two places, between Mitrovitsa
and Yarak by Timok I. of the II. Army, and at the Kupinovo
loop by the I. Army. The former, intended more as a demonstra-
tion than an operative crossing, was successfully achieved, but
the eager troops pressed on without making a bridgehead, fell
into the midst of Krauss's troops and, driven back on the river,
were overwhelmed in the attempt to recross, five battalions being
completely destroyed.
The Kupinovo division, on the other hand, secured their posi-
tion with a bridgehead line before pushing on. Fortune favoured
them, too, for the defence here consisted of Landsturm forces
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS
directed by a headquarters at Peterwardein, and Krauss, bound
to Yarak by his orders to cooperate in Potiorek's Drina offensive
which had not been cancelled, only sent his newly arriving 7th
Div., piecemeal, to assist the Landsturm in holding the Syrmian
plain. This was, of course, unknown to the Serbian I. Army,
which developed its advance cautiously across the plain and by
the night of the 8th occupied a front from Platicheno near Klenak
by Brestac round to Progar. In the next days, the left stood
almost fast while the right pushed out, cleared a passage for the
troops at Obrenovats, and by a threat to the rear of Semlin forced
the enemy to give up that place to the Belgrade forces. Lastly,
the right of the line swung up with its flank on the Danube and
its centre on Gorubintsi; the intention was to bring this right
wing by a wheel into the W. part of the Fruska range and so to
make good the line across that range from river to river which
was the objective, without losing men in a frontal battle against
the enemy's strong forces about Huma and Mitrovitsa. For
three more days it was persisted in, then on the evening of Sept.
n, owing to the situation of affairs on the Drina front, it was
given up. On the i2th, i3th and i4th a methodical retreat, with
which Krauss's agth Div., though released at last from
Mitrovitsa- Yarak, was unable to interfere seriously, brought the
Serbian I. Army and Belgrade and Obrenovats forces back to
their original positions whence the field divisions were hurried
with all speed to take part in the new battle of the Drina.
Potiorek's second offensive had opened on the night of Sept.
7-8. The VIII. Corps (with which originally the 2gth Div. was
to have cooperated) bordered the Lower Drina as far up as Biyel-
yina, the XIII. from that point to Kozluk, the XV. thence to
Zvornik, and finally the major part of the XVI. corps opposite
Lyuboviya, the remainder, as in the previous phase, facing the
Uzhitse Army and the Montenegrins. The Serbs were, as the
result of the Yadar operations and the proposed offensive into
Bosnia, deployed in strength, and this, on the one hand, increased
the probability of repulsing any given attempt, but on the other
made it more difficult to deal with any break-through that might
actually occur, as the defence system lacked depth.
The attack began with the VIII. Corps. Here it only succeeded
in establishing a bridgehead in the N.W. corner of the Machva,
covering temporary bridges at Parashnitsa; and the expected
cooperative attempt of the 2gth Div. at Yarak was not made, as,
by the date fixed for this cooperation (the gfh), Krauss had con-
cluded that the failure of the VIII. Corps was too clear, and the
situation in Syrmia too critical to allow it.
But farther S., on the front of the XV. Austrian Corps and the
right of the XIII., the Serbians' III. Army had more difficult con-
ditions for defence, and on the night of Sept. 8-9 the passage
was forced first at Brasinski Han and then at Zvornik. Crossings
followed at other points farther up as far as Lyuboviya. The
Serbs were forced back to the Guchevo-Boranya-Yagodnya ridge.
By the nth the situation on this wing was serious enough for
the Serbian command to order the cessation of the Syrmian offen-
sive and the transfer of the I. Army with all possible speed to the
region of Valyevo-Petska.
Meanwhile, local reserves gathered from behind the centre had
been dispatched to establish a front Yagodnya-Brankovac-Ro-
zani-Proslop. Behind this line, the reassembly of the I. Army
about Valyevo was to take place. Its headquarters were ordered
to Valyevo, its forces to the same point as a preliminary to con-
centrating about Petska, whence the enemy was to be attacked
in flank and rear towards Krupany, Zavlaka or Osechitsa, accord-
ing to the amplitude of his presumed sweep. The definite line of
resistance on which battle was to be accepted if the Austrian pres-
sure was maintained, was from the Dobrava S. of Shabats to
Brestovats and Tser ridge (II. Army), thence in the hills about
Zavlaka or about Osechitsa (III. Army), according to circum-
stances, to whatever point on the Petska- Valyevo road the con-
centrating I. Army l was able to reach in time.
1 To aid in this concentration, only the Danube I. Div. was to be
disengaged at once in Syrmia, and the army was to be reconstituted
by this division's picking up en route Danube II. from Obrenovats
and a division of the II. Army from Tekerish. This latter did not
join, becoming absorbed in the lower Yadar fighting.
Two days later the situation was suddenly modified again. On
the night of i2-i3th parts of the Austro-Hungarian XIII. Corps
began to cross the Drina at Kuriachista, midway between Lye-
shnitsa and Loznitsa, opposite the left of the II. Serbian Army,
which was by now weakened through giving up local reserves and
taking over an extended front for the benefit of the III. Army.
This new move threatened not only to cut the Serbian line in
two, but to roll up the whole Guchevo-Yagodnya position by a
drive along the Yadar valley behind it.
With this, the battle becomes too tangled for brief description.
Though the particular threat from Kuriachista was soon ended,
the left of the Austro-Hungarian XV. Corps developed strong
attacks on Loznitsa. The struggle for the W. end of Guchevo
ridge and the lower part of the Yadar valley was fed from day to
day by successive reinforcements arriving on each side. Here,
minor contests for the possession of minor ground features,
attempts to hold a hill long enough for it to be crossed with guns,
or to storm it before it could be crowned, went on for days collat-
erally with the pressure exercised by the Austrian mountain
troops of the XVI. Corps on the left of the Serbian III. Army,
until the forces of the Serbian I. Army began to appear on Sept.
15. Next day, with a considerable force in hand, the I. Army staff
mounted a counter-attack which bore back the Austrians from
the line W. of Kostaynik-Sanats (pt. 83s)-Sokoloka Planina-
Petska, to one which on the evening of the i8th ran fromW. of
Kostaynik-Sanats-Veles-Karashitsa-Lyuboviya. Then, .with
further Serbian gains to the right of Sanats, fighting died away all
along the line and trench warfare set in on the front from Kara-
shista to Lyuboviya, the Austrians and Serbs facing one another
on the line Guchevo-Boranya-Yagodnya-spur S. of Yagodnya.
On the Machva front, meanwhile, the offensive of the VIII.
Corps, which had at first obtained only a bridgehead at Para-
shnitsa, was resumed in combination with a crossing at Yarak by
Krauss's corps, when Syrmia had been evacuated by the Serbs.
Here also, after violent but narrow-fronted attacks, trench war-
fare set in on the line of the two bridgeheads (N. of Shabats-
Glushtsi, and Ravnye-Serbian Racha) which on Oct. 31 were
united in one by a successful advance of the VIII. Corps from
Ravnye to Glushtsi.
The second phase had been very different from the first. The
Austrian staff had taken their opponent seriously, and laid their
plans carefully, and it was only after the greatest exertions and
very heavy losses that the Serbs had succeeded in pushing back
the invaders. Even so, the latter had mastered the greatest part
of the river obstacles, and in the absence of aircraft on the side of
the defence, could carry on all preparations for a fresh offensive,
unseen behind their firmly held trench-line.
Meanwhile, the Uzhitse Army and the Montenegrins, who at
the close of the first phase were following up the retreating Aus-
trians towards Vishegrad, had developed a series of operations
which, like the expedition into Syrmia, were designed to prepare
the way for a serious offensive of the II. and III. Armies over the
Drina. This being forestalled by the Austrian offensive, the
operations of the Uzhitse Army and its allies were without prac-
tical effect. They were, however, vigorously conducted. 2
1 On Sept. 4 Goles Height, S.E. of Vishegrad, was stormed by
Shumaja II., while farther up the Dwina, other Serbian and Monte-
negrin forces attacked at Ustipratsa, Gorazda and Focha. At the
latter place the Montenegrins broke through on Sept. II, and a
raid was pushed deep into the enemy's country, while a number of
simultaneous attacks at Gorazda, Ustipratsa, Vishegrad and Baina-
bashta caused the Austrian 8th Mountain Brigade to draw back to
Han Pesak and Srebenitsa, when it crossed the rear of its Corps
(XVI.) fighting N. of Lyuboviya. This and the other Austrian
mountain brigades, however, maintained an active war of raids and
expeditions in the mountains. The Montenegrin main body, from
Focha, moved E. to Kalinovik, which it captured and then -evacu-
ated. Other Montenegrins from Focha and Serbs from the Vishe-
grad and Rogatitsa region threatened Sarajevo for some time,
though periodically cleared away by expeditions of the mountain
brigade from Sarajevo and the 8th Mountain Brigade from Srebe-
nitsa and Han Pesak. Meanwhile, the bulk of the Serbian Uzhitse
forces (Shumaja II.) advanced by Han Pesak on Vlasenitsa, and
also to Srebenitsa. Indecisive fighting took place at the former
during the last of September and the first of October, but at Sre-
benitsa the threat to the rear of the Austrian XVI. Corps was dissi-
414
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS
The Kolubara Campaign. The course of the war during Sept-
ember and October had not been favourable to Austria-Hungary.
Galicia had been lost, and the line of battle had receded W. until
it lay in the region of Lodz-Cracow-the Dunajec and the Car-
pathians. In November, the campaign in the western theatres
had ended in deadlock. Falkenhayn had succeeded to the control
of German operations, and his doctrine of wearing-down strategy
was taking shape. Winter was at hand.
Nevertheless, Potiorek meant to resume active operations.
No binding order prevented him from doing so. Conrad's instruc-
tions were that he was to prevent an irruption of the Serbs into
Austro-Hungarian territory, but it was left to him to decide
whether that defence should be passive or conducted offensively
by partial attacks. The Emperor expressed the wish that Poti-
orek would succeed in defending the monarchy, to which the
Feldzeugmeister replied that he " hoped to do a good deal better
than that." Falkenhayn, with his wider outlook, suggested a
sudden seizure of the N.E. corner of Serbia with the view of
opening up a line of munitions transport to Turkey, but this proj-
ect aroused no interest at the headquarters of the " viceroy " of
Bosnia, who was resolved to drive another offensive into Serbia
with all his might, at the first favourable opportunity.
The Serbians meanwhile had suffered severely from the unfa-
miliar conditions of trench warfare, notably in the Machva, and
at the end of October Putnik had decided to evacuate the line in
that quarter. The Austrian attack of Oct. 31, therefore, met
with only outpost resistance, and Shabats was occupied two
days later, while monitor activity continued on the rivers. 1
The advance of Krauss and the VIII. Corps in the Machva was
the first stage of the new general offensive. On the night of the
4~Sth it was developed by a frontal attack from Shabats com-
bined with a fresh crossing at Mishar, the Serbians continuing
their retreat to the line N. Dobrava-Dobrits-Tser ridge. On the
next night (Nov. 5-6) a heavy bombardment opened along the
whole Austrian front, especially on that of the Guchevo range.
On the 6th, infantry pressure began along the mountains from the
W. end of Guchevo as far as Yagodnya. Once more, evidently,
Potiorek intended the centre of gravity of his attack to be on the
right and right centre, the front of his own army composed of
mountain troops long familiar to him, and well equipped for the
work. On the 6th, from the slopes of Guchevo itself he issued a
proclamation, stirring his troops to the highest efforts by prom-
ising them this time the " annihilation " of the " exhausted "
enemy. Nor were these empty words, for the condition of the
Serbian moral at this time and their shortage of ammunition
were evident.
At this opening moment, the dispositions and order of battle
on both sides were as follows:
Serbian II. Army (Vidoyevitsa-Dobrava) : Morava I., Timok
II., Shumaja I., Timok II., Cav. div. and details; 63 battalions,
27 squadrons, 34 batteries.
///. Army (Yadar-Kostaynik) : Drina I., Drina II., Combined
Division; 40 battalions, 6 squadrons, 1 8 batteries.
I. Army, under Boyovish (Kostaynik-Uzovnitsa stream and
Drina): Morava III., Danube I., Danube II. (temporarily de-
pated by a counter-attack of the 8th Mountain Brigade when that
formation returned from an expedition in relief of Sarajevo. The
Serbian column retreated whence it had come, to Bamabashta.
Finally, when on the main front much warfare set in, the Serbians
and Montenegrins began slowly to retire to their respective fron-
tiers, while on the other side a systematic drive was carried out by
large forces of the XV. and XVI. Corps. One Austrian group ad-
vanced from Sarajevo E. on Rogatitsa, and won a severe engage-
ment on Romanja Planina on Oct. 21-22. While another following
up the retirement of the Serbs from Vlasenitsa advanced on Roga-
titsa from the N. The Montenegrins between Focha and Katinovik
did not give way without inflicting severe losses on the group opposed
to them. But by the end of October all the allied forces had with-
drawn behind the Drina. Farther S., the region of Artovats was
again the scene of some irregular fighting in October.
1 During October, there had been many local engagements on the
Danube-Sava front. Belgrade was frequently bombarded. The
defence was very active, and minefields were placed at several
points, to one of which, near Shabats, the monitor " Temes " fell
victim on Oct. 23. In the main, however, the Austrians kept the
upper hand.
tached to II. Army); Lyuboviya detachment; 44 battalions, 9
squadrons, 24! batteries.
Uzhitse Army, under Aratich (along Upper Drina from Tirye-
shnitsa stream to the Lim, front continued thence by Montene-
grins): Shumaja II., Lim detachments, Uzhitse Brigade; 34 battal-
ions, 2 squadrons, 12 batteries.
Belgrade Detachment, under Zhivkovich (Brestovik-Pechani) :
17 battalions, one squadron, 9 field and some medium batteries.
Obrenovats Detachment (Pechani-Vukodrazh R.) : 6 battalions,
3 batteries.
Branicevo Group and Kraina Group (Brestovik-Kladovo) : 12 bat-
talions, 4 batteries.
(The three last-mentioned forces were on the river front.)
Serbian total: 226 battalions of all categories, 41 squadrons,
113 batteries, modern and B.L.
The Austro-Hungarian forces and dispositions, as established
by the Serbians, were as follows :
River front from Shabats E. : 55 battalions, almost entirely Land-
sturm.
Shabats- Machva-Loznitsa front (V. Army, in order from left to
right Krauss, VIII., XIII.): 87 battalions.
Loznitsa-Lyuboviya (VI. Army, XV., XVI. Corps, 40 Honved
Divs., and other troops) : 1 10 battalions.
South-west of Lyuboviya: mountain troops (1-2 brigades).
On the 7th, the VI. Army attacked and pushed the Serbian
III. Army off the entire Guchevo ridge, and bore back the I.
Army * and the right of the Uzhitse Army till the latter, marking
the extreme left of the battlefronts, stood on Trsvena Stena.
On the 8th the retrograde movement of the III. and I. Armies
continued to the line Kozaningrad (pt. 706) on Tser-Strasha
(i424)-Zavlaka-Petrina Stena-Proslop. Meanwhile, the Serbs
on the Machva retiring to the line Kozaningrad-the Dobrava were
under strong pressure. Next day, in the midst of general activity
on the water, an Austrian regiment forced the passage of the
Danube at Semendria, threatening an inroad in the Morava
valley itself, and part of the Belgrade force was hurried E. to
deal with this threat, which it did successfully.
The reports from the front had already decided Putnik to
withdraw to a line covering Valyevo, viz. Obrenovats group,
Kolubara mouth to Skela; II. Army, Ub-Blizonzhski heights;
III. Army, Yantina-Kamenitsa; I. Army, Yolina Breza-Sovachki
Kik; Uzhitse Army, right Trsvena Stena-centre and left Vishe-
grad to river Lim. But it soon became apparent that a stand
could not be made on this line. Moral was low, with mixture of
units considerable. In the two Drina divisions of the II. Army in
particular men feared for their families and considerable numbers
left the ranks and made their way home, while accompanying the
retreat were hundreds of refugee families with their carts and
beasts, fugitive or requisitioned. From the interior, new drafts
came up in thousands and congested Valyevo.
Though the army was by no means in dissolution, it was un-
disguisedly in full retreat. By order of G.H.Q. communications
were destroyed in the retirement.
The line now to be taken up was the so-called " Kolubara line,"
which from the rear followed that river to the confluence of the
tributary Lig, then, by the Lig to Gukosi and thence by height
700 to the Malyen ridge at Malyen (point 997). The Kolubara
part of the line (with a defensive flank along the Sava) was to be
held by the Obrenovats group; from just below Lazarevats to
Malyen inclusive was allotted to the II., III. and I. Armies west.
The Uzhitse Army was to leave one brigade at Kadinyacha on the
ridge between Rogatitsa and Uzhitse, the remainder astride
the Vishegrad-Uzhitse road at Shargan.
By the evening of Nov. 14, the Obrenovats detachment had
taken up its positions behind the Kolubara, the II. Army had
fallen back from Kotsielevo towards Lazarevats and the Middle
Kolubara, the III. Army, always manoeuvring so as to extricate
its right before its left could be turned, was astride the Yadar-
Valyevo road at the water parting about Kamenitsa, and the I.
Army continued, the line S. to Velovitsa, with its Rogatitsa
detachment (somewhat out of touch) pushing the left in the
2 The I. Army was short of Danube II., which had been taken to
strengthen the II. Army N. of Tser. Habitual disregard of the order
of battle, i.e. an unnecessary regrouping, has been criticised as a
peculiar failing in the Serbian method of conducting operations.
Often, of course, there was no alternative. But there seems some
justification for the criticism, nevertheless.
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS
higher mountains. By the evening of the i6th, the positions
were: Obrenovats group, Obrenovats-Konatitsa; Cavalry di-
vision, Konatitsa-S.W. of Stepoyevats;II.Army, Voluyak-Laza-
revats-Chavka;III. Army, Chibutkovitsa-Ivanovatsa; I. Army,
Gukoshi-Mednik-Bachinovats-Ruda-Malyen; Uzhitse Army,
right S.E. of Yasenovats-Yelova Gai, and left Shargan and
Leshka Gora.
The weather was terrible, but Potiorek, sure of success, drove
on his troops to new efforts, although communications became
worse and longer day by day. On the i;th the cavalry at Kona-
titsa was threatened, and had to be reinforced, while the moun-
tain troops of the XVI. Corps, pushing along the ridge of Malyen,
reached Strazara (pt. 1000). On the i8th the position of Choka
on the front of the II. Army was attacked. But the main bodies
of the invaders' columns were not yet up to the front. The Serbs
thus enjoyed a relative respite, and their left, at Malyen, was able
to reestablish patrol communication with the Uzhitse Army.
On the igth the Austro-Hungarian main bodies began to exer-
cise general pressure, their efforts being specially directed on the
angle of the Kolubara and the Lig, and on the point where the
line crossed the Yadar river (Gukoshi and Mednik heights) . On
the zoth the battle followed the same course, and Putnik
ordered an offensive to be resumed on both flanks. But the
time was not ripe, and the army and divisional generals re-
ported themselves unable to carry it out.
On the 2ist the Austrian XVI. Corps broke the Gukoshi-
Malyen line in its centre and the defence was brought back to
Gukoshi-552-Rayats-Suvobor-Malyen, and on the 23rd the
Malyen position was evacuated and touch with the Uzhitse Army
again lost. Nothing now intervened between the XVI. Corps and
the head of the western Morava valley, but the weather and the
distance of its supply sources, and the liability of the convoys to
be cut off by descents of the Uzhitse Army, imposed caution, and
for some days only minor fighting occurred here.
In reality, it was not here that Potiorek intended to win his
victory, but farther north. The initial phase of the operations
was complete when Valyevo was in his hands, and secured against
attack from the S. by a sufficient foreground. The next was to
be the driving back of the Serbs from the Lower Kolubara, the
cutting off of Belgrade, the opening of the Obrenovats- Valyevo
railway for supply, and finally the advance in the dry and not
too hilly country N. of Lazarevats into the Morava valley, accom-
panied in its last stages by a descent upon Chachak and Gorni
Milanovats in the enemy's rear.
The weather had, however, converted the poor roads of the Ub
country into deep mud, and the regulation military transport
foundered in this mud, so that the intended rapid advance by
Krauss and the VIII. Corps to the Kolubara had been impossible.
The mountain troops had outpaced the scheme, and it was not
till the 22nd that the Austrian V. Army was able to open a real
attack on the Kolubara. By the 25th it had made good the
passage, but progress was slow, and at that date only Chopka and
Konatitsa had fallen. Obrenovats still held.
Putnik had now resolved to give up Belgrade. Ammunition
was expected, but had not arrived. Moral was becoming lower
and lower, and only ruthless concentration on essentials would
enable the army to last till the day when, with pouches and
wagons refilled, counter-offensives could be launched. Meanwhile,
his policy was to fight for time, so as to evacuate Belgrade as
thoroughly as possible. 1 Then the Belgrade and Obrenovats
forces were combined and posted on the line Varovnitsa-Kosmai-
Sibnitsa (night of 2o-3oth), in touch on the right with the
Pozharevats (or Branicevo) force, which held the Danube
front astride the Morava. The Austrians entered Belgrade on
Dec. i.
On Dec. 2 the Serbian positions were as follows:
Belgrade-Obrenovats force, Varovnitsa-52O|-3 1 3-Rogacko Brdo-28 1 .
//. Army (4 divisions and cavalry division), Sibnitsa Olbrezak
Ravani (3i8)-Medvyednik (36s)-Vayan (490).
1 Some French naval guns had to be blown up, as they could not
be removed. Before destruction they fired all their ammunition
into Bezania.
777. Army (3 divisions), Mramor (398)-Kalanyevitse-489-52O-
Motika (603).
7. Army (4 divisions), (now commanded by Mishich), Nakuchani-
Vrnchani-Sinoshevtsi-Galich (7O3)-Vuskova Glavitsa.
Uzhitse Army (equivalent of 2 divisions) Kita-Kablar-Ovchar-
Markovitsa.
On the Austro-Hungarian side they were :
V. Army: Combined Corps and VIII. Corps, area E. of Lower
Kolubara and S. of Belgrade; XIII. Corps, Arapovats-Trbush-
nitsa-Parlog-Liplye.
VI. Army: XV. Corps, Vrlaya-Golubats; XVI. Corps, Vrano-
vitsa-Leusitsi-Ruyevitsa (583), detachments Godun, Pozhega,
Arilye.
Both opponents were by now almost worn out. Suffering from
their exertions, their losses, and the absence of food, shelter and
ammunition, they were held together only by the inertia of the
system. In this condition victory would fall to that side which
first found a stimulus. This came to the defenders in two forms,
the example of the old King, who took a rifle and fought in the
ranks, and the arrival of the long-expected ammunition.
On the night of the 2nd, while Potiorek was slowly regrouping
his forces to develop the attack on his left, Putnik issued orders
for a general offensive S. of Sibnitsa "in order to profit by the
enemy's present weakness and raise the moral of our troops."
The II. Army was to drive the enemy over the Kolubara; the
III. (Drina II. and " Combined " division) to push towards the
old line on the Lig; the I. to make good the line Krivareka-Lo-
zany-Teochin (in order from right to left, Timok II., Morava II.,
Danube I., Danube II.); of the Uzhitse Army the available por-
tion of Shumaja II. to attack N. and N.W. along Pranyani and
Goina Gora; the Lira detachment to attack between the Lush-
nitsa and Venchaska streams by Breziak N. ; the remainder of
this undispersed army standing fast or forming a defensive flank
for the advancing centre.
The counter-offensive was delivered or launched on the morn-
ing of Dec. 3, and was quite unexpected by the Austrians. The
Uzhitse Army's offensive wing reached a line astride its assigned
ridges marked by Ruyevitsa and Godun. The I. Army drove the
XVI. Corps back to the line Byezna-Ozrem-Kriva Reka. The
III. Army reached the line Vrlaya-Lipet, the I. Okressak-Barose-
vats-295-347, while on its right the cavalry maintained contact,
at Slatina, with the defensive right flank, the Belgrade-Obreno-
vats force.
Next day the Uzhitse Army's advance was sharply arrested,
and it only maintained its ground on the line 37o-Ruyevitsa-
Godun-Oruyewitsa-Krstats. But the I. Army drove a deep
wedge, and by nightfall occupied Golubats-Prostruga-Rayets-
Suvobor-Babina Glava. The III. and II. Armies met with stiff
resistance. The III. made no progress, and the southern wing of
the II. was hung up by the unshaken resistance of Kremenitsa^
the N. wing reached Arapovats and Sakulya. No serious fighting
occurred on the part of the cavalry or on that of the Belgrade-
Obrenovats force, and the commander of the latter, fearing that
an envelopment was in progress, extended his right to the heights
E. of Grotska. Next day Putnik, conscious also of the danger of
allowing the regrouped Austrians to break through into the
Morava region and envelop his right, caused the II. Army to
extend its right (Timok II.) past Vitnitsa to Kosmay heights,
behind the cavalry. The attack of the centre was in fact at a
standstill, and it was evident that it was impossible to defeat the
enemy's leftward regrouping of flank attack.
On this day (Dec. 5) the Uzhitse Army's attack, numerically
weak and divided amongst several directions, came to a standstill.
But the success of the I. Army on the ridge of Prostruga was
made definitive, the Austrian XVI. Corps brigades retiring N.
towards the Kolubara with heavy losses.
On the 6th the I. Army pursued its opponents N. and down-
hill towards Valyevo, while on the left of its flank the Uzhitse
Army made advances N., N.W. and W. against weakening oppo-
sition, and on the right the III. Army reached the line of the Lig.
But simultaneously, the storm broke on the extreme right, where
the slowly prepared attack of Krauss and the VIII. Corps was
launched at last. The line of defence held, but Timok I. from the
II. Army was set in motion for the extreme right.
416
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS
On the 7th, while the I. and Uzhitse Armies continued their
advance to Valyevo and Uzhitse respectively their opponents
withdrawing divergently on the Loznitsa and Shabats routes
the III. turned the flank of the defenders of Kremenika and thus
enabled the II. Army, weak as it now was, to make progress
towards Lazarevats and Voluyak height. But on the right the
Austrian attack made real progress and approached the advanced
line of the Kosmay position. On the 8th and again on the Qth the
Kosmay line itself was taken and retaken. On the evening of the
9th the alignment of the Serbian defensive flank was from the
Danube E. of Grotska, by Umchari, Varovnitsa, and Kosmay
to the Kolubara valley near Sakallia. Lazarevats was reoccu-
pied by troops of the II. Army on the 9th, and the III. Army,
coming up into line with the I., bordered the Kolubara as far
as Valyevo, these two armies beginning the pursuit of those
Austrian forces which had taken the Shabats direction in their
retreat.
The 9th was in fact the turning-point of the battle, as the 3rd
had been that of the campaign. On the evening of that day Poti-
orek, ill informed of the state of affairs in the N., and deeply
impressed with the defeat of the mountain troops (VI. Army)
which he had himself accompanied and directed, gave orders for
a general retreat on Belgrade, Shabats and Loznitsa. On that
day also Putnik issued general directions for the continuance of
an offensive which was evidently yielding much greater results
than those aimed at in the instructions of Dec. 2.
The position of affairs on which the new scheme was based was:
heavy and apparently increasing pressure on the Kosmay front
(VIII. and Krauss), indicating an attempt to break through into
the Morava region; stiff resistance of the enemy (XIII. Corps
of II. Army) between that front and the Kolubara, and on
that river astride the Ub routes; and full retreat of the Austro-
Hungarian XV. and XVI. Corps in the divergent directions of
Shabats, Loznitsa and Vishcgrad.
Putnik's objects were two: to follow up the retreating XV. and
XVI. Corps quickly so as to regain possession of the national ter-
ritory and rescue the inhabitants, and to attack the enemy north-
ern forces f rontally and in flank before they could prepare a win-
ter position on the Belgrade loop. Attacked all along the front and
threatened on their right, he hoped that the Austrians would
evacuate the capital without ruinous street-fighting. Some hopes
were no doubt cherished of cutting off the retreat of the two
corps (VIII. and Krauss) but they were slight. The physical
conditions were adverse. " Our national mud," hitherto Put-
nik's ally, became now a hindrance.
On the loth, therefore, the Uzhitse Army continued to pursue in
the direction of Bainabashta and Rogatitsa, part of the I. Army
pushed along the Loznitsa road, part towards Shabats, while the
III. Army, with its left already over the Kolubara S. of Ub, began
to wheel to the N., pivoting on Lazarevats, with the outer flank
following the direction of Ub-Obrenovats.
But already on that day, the battle at Kosmay diminished
instead of increasing in intensity. The Austrians began to draw
back. Hopes of completing the wheel of the III. Army vanished.
The Austro-Hungarian XIII. Corps gave ground only slowly.
The renewed moral of the Serbs had sufficed to give them victory,
but it could not force them through the phase of exploitation,
when it was evident that the enemy was evacuating the country
of his own accord and also that he would not be hustled. Had the
Ub-Obrenovats direction been assigned to troops of the I. Army,
which alone of the five larger formations had really experienced
the sensation of clear victory, it is possible, though by no means
certain, that the envelopment might have succeeded. As it was
the last phase of the battle was practically a frontal drive E. of
the Kolubara, with heavy local fighting and the gleaning of pris-
oners and spoil, but no dib&cle. When on the i3th the left divi-
sion of the III. Army seized Obrenovats, the Austrians had al-
ready withdrawn clear of the flanking threat. They had, owing
to the state of the VIII. Corps, decided not to make a stand on the
Belgrade loop, and after one day's further fighting, they evacu-
ated Belgrade which the Serbian patrols reoccupied at 10 A.M.
on the isth. Meanwhile, Shabats, Loznitsa and Bainabashta
had been reached and reoccupied. by the pursuing columns of
the I. and Uzhitse Armies. *
The recovery of the country and the capital intact, and the
capture of 41,000 prisoners and 133 guns, with large quantities of
stores, even though no Sedan had been achieved, constituted a
victory that was both decisive and after a crisis of moral such
as that of the end of November wonderful. It gave Serbia peace
in the midst of World War for a few months to come. But her
losses had been very heavy. In the three battle periods of 1914,
69,000 Serbian soldiers had been killed or had died of sickness,
perhaps 15,000 had been taken prisoners, and probably 180,000
had been wounded, out of a mobilized force which at the outset
numbered 490,00.
II. THE CONQUEST OF SERB:*, 1915
When the third 'punitive expedition ended in failure, Potiorek
was relieved of the command, and the V. and VI. Armies were
fused in one called the " Balkan Forces," to which the Archduke
Eugene was appointed as commander, with Krauss as his chief-
of -staff . Under cover of outposts along the rivers, the corps were
reorganized and disposed for the defence of Hungary. Soon the
VIII. and XIII. Corps were withdrawn for service in other thea-
tres, and on Italy's entry into the war the Archduke and Krauss
were transferred to Laibach to command the new front, General
Tersztyanski being left with a much weakened force opposite the
Serbs. The latter indeed were not fitted for the offensive. Not
only were their numbers greatly reduced by the battles of 1914,
but an epidemic of typhus devastated their ranks still further.
Meanwhile, Falkenhayn, reasoning not in the spirit of a Bos-
nian viceroy who wished to teach a lesson, but in that of a modern
war-manager, had become convinced of the necessity of open-
ing a road to Turkey for the transit of munitions and expert per-
sonnel. The desire to reserve or to recoup forces for this pur-
pose went so far, indeed, that he constantly imposed a brake on
Hindenburg's and Conrad's proposals for decisive operations in
the Russian theatre. At one time in the spring, the beginnings
of a German army were assembled in Hungary, though the
scheme at that period only one of clipping off the N.E. corner
of Serbia was abandoned before effect had been given to it.
Later, when the first fear of the Italians had died away, and the
Russian campaign was nearing its end, it was taken up again.
Throughout the spring and summer negotiations had been in
progress for winning, or buying, Bulgaria's active support. Fal-
kenhayn exercised all his influence to keep these alive, even under
difficult circumstances, for though Bulgaria's price was high, with-
out Bulgarian aid no forces that could be spared from other fronts
would suffice for the clearance of the Orient railway, while the
nature of Bulgaria's reward imposed the conquest of Macedonia
in addition to the military occupation of N. Serbia. There were,
further, internal difficulties between the two allies on the ques-
tion of command. Bulgaria insisted on a German commander as
chief, and found in this matter, naturally, Falkenhayn's entire
support, but Conrad, ever jealous of the prestige of the Austro-
Hungarian army and hostile to German control, long refused his
consent. It was not, indeed, until the verge of the offensive that
a formula acceptable to all these states was discovered.
The plan of operations adopted was the reverse of Potiorek's,
and was substantially that proposed by Krauss and by Terszty-
anski successively, viz., direct attack over the Sava and Danube,
coupled with a cooperative attack from the Machva, for the
securing of the Kolubara line and its railway. But it had the
further element of Bulgarian intervention on the right rear of the
defence which, if energetic and controlled as to timing and direc-
tion by the same commander-in-chief as the frontal offensive,
would be decisive. The appointed commander-in-chief of the
group of armies was Mackensen. He was to have under him the
reconstituted XI. German Army (Gallwitz), the reconstituted
1 During the period of the Kolubara campaign, there was a cer-
tain amount of minor fighting between the Montenegrins and the
Austrian forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, on the Drina, about
Artpvats, and about Trbinye. No results of importance were
achieved on either side.
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS
417
Austro-Hungarian III. Army (Kovess), and one Bulgarian army,
the I. Another, smaller, Bulgarian army (the II., Todorov), not
under Mackensen's command, was assembled for the seizure of
Macedonia. The political treaty of alliance was ratified on Sept.
4, at Sofia, the military arrangements embodied in a convention at
Pless on the 6th. According to the latter, within a period of 30-35
days, Germany and Austro-Hungary were to engage 6 divisions
each and Bulgaria 4 (each equivalent in infantry strength to 2
normal divisions). 1 Another Bulgarian division was to operate,
as above mentioned, into New Serbia (Macedonia).
Accordingly, Kovess's army, consisting of the Austro-Hunga-
rian VIII. and XIX., and the German XXII. Res. Corps (seven
divisions), was assembled in Syrmia, and Gallwitz's III., IV.
Res. and X. Res. Corps (also seven divisions) in the Banat.
The Bulgarian I. Army (Boyadiev) (ist, sth, 6th and 8th
Divs.) was disposed in the region of Vidin, Kula, Bclogradchik
and Tsaribrod. The small Austrian forces still available in Bos-
nia after meeting the demand of the Italian front, were to operate
in the Upper Drina region, to hold the Montenegrins in check.
On the Serbian side, there was a definite and perhaps a decisive
inferiority in numbers. Battle in 1914 and typhus in 1915 had
cost the little country 125,864 dead by Oct. i 1915, without
counting permanently disabled men and prisoners. Gaps had
been made good by calling up two new conscript classes, and the
ration strength had increased to 572,171 in August. But this
figure was far in excess of that available for fighting service
indeed, the German intelligence staff estimated the latter at not
more than 200,000.
The Serbian dispositions were generally as follows: Drina
front from the Lim to Bainabashta, Montenegrin forces; Middle
and Lower Drina, Machva to Kolubara (exclusive), III. Army
(Yurichich-Sturm), 3 divisions; Kolubara to Grotska, Belgrade
force (Zhivkovich); the Lower Morava, II. Army (Mishich), 3
divisions; general reserve, Palanka, 2 divisions and cavalry divi-
sion; in the N.E. angle were the Branicevo and Kraina groups.
On the Zayechar-Knzajchevats front, the Timok army (Goyko-
vich), on the Nish-Pirot route and to the S. as far as Vranya,
the II. Army (Stepanovich), and on the routes into Bulgaria,
E. of Uskub, Boyovich's group, comprised 4 divisions and 3 Ban
formations.
These dispositions, which at first sight seem to dispose in cor-
don, weak everywhere, at least five-sixths of the available force,
indicate not only a sense of the danger impending on the E. side,
which the Western Powers had forbidden Serbia to meet by a pre-
ventive offensive, but also the hope of assistance from Salonika.
The help of Greece was invoked under the terms of the treaty of
alliance of 1913, that of the Western Powers had been promised,
if tardily and with reservations. To deploy, facing N., with
three-fifths of her forces, and to guard the route to Salonika with
the remainder, was, in sum, Putnik's plan.
As against an attack supported by artillery on the 1914 scale,
there would have been no reason to suppose that this type of
defence would be less successful than it had been in the Kolubara
campaign. One line after another could be defended, and when
the dead point of the offensive was reached, the reinforced
defenders would deliver the counter-stroke of reconquest.
But tactics, unhappily for Serbia, had advanced since 1914,
notably German tactics. Discreet reconnaissances, under the
direction of the German Lt.-Col. Hentsch, chief-of-staff of Mack-
ensen's group of armies the same who had borne so grave a
responsibility at the Marne had been carried out for weeks past,
for the purpose of fixing of battery positions and working out
technical details of the Sava and Danube passages. Searchlights
were assembled, large troop barges constructed, and for the pro-
tection of the main crossings heavy artillery was massed. 2
1 An interesting sidelight is thrown on the relations of the allies
by the fact that Germany thought it necessary to require from Bul-
garia a written guarantee of unimpeded transport freedom through
Bulgarian territory.
2 In the case of the Belgrade crossing, no fewer than 20 batteries
of heavy and superheavy artillery were collected, nearly half of
which consisted in 30-5 and 42-cm. howitzers, and i8-cm. long guns.
In addition, about 90 field guns and howitzers were engaged.
xxxn. 14
Oct. 6 was fixed as the initial day for Kovess * and Gallwitz,
the nth for the Bulgarians.
The bombardment opened on the 5th, laying towns and vil-
lages in ruin all along the line; but on the Serbian side only out-
posts held the river lines, local reserves being kept under cover.
Kovess's main crossing place was to be Belgrade, opposite
which place technical preparations had been multiplied and two
corps out of three assembled. The third (XIX. Austro-Hunga-
rian) was to pass the Drina at Byelyina, and the Sava at Shabats,
Kupinovo, Progar and Zabrezh, in order to create bridgeheads
and to prevent the defenders from concentrating to the eastward
Gallwitz's crossings were to take place at Ram and at Semen-
dria, on each side of the Morava mouth, opposite which points lay
the railheads, and at the island of Temes Sziget between them;
the attack was to be accompanied by a demonstration from
Orsova and a Bulgarian threat towards Negotin.
On Kovess's front the secondary crossings, especially in the
Machva, secured footholds on the S. side of the water, but all
attempts to advance out of the waterlogged river valleys them-
selves were checked (Oct. 7). Opposite Belgrade, in the early
morning hours of the 7th, the first boatloads of troops of the VIII.
Corps pushed off into the stream under cover of innumerable
searchlights, heavy artillery fire, and monitor activity, while a
little way up the Sava the XXII. Res. Corps put over its advanced
troops into Ostrovo Tsiganliya (Gipsy Island). Zhivkovich had
16 battalions and nearly all the Serbian heavy artillery, including
French and British 6-in. guns, to oppose to them. The landing
the only operation in the World War analogous in form and spirit
to that of the Gallipoli Peninsula succeeded, but only after the
fiercest fighting was the foothold really made good and room
secured on the front of both attacking corps for the passage and
deployment of large forces. On the night of g-ioth, Zhivkovich
abandoned the attempt to hold the town, and fell back a little
way S., on the line Zarkovo-(249)-Visznitsa.
Simultaneously, Gallwitz's 3 corps had been launched, on both
sides of the Morava. Preceded by a demonstration at Orsova on
the 6th, the left corps (X. Res.) forced the passage at Ram on the
night of 6~7th, and drove inland, over the Anatema heights to
Kuryatse, threatening Pozharevats from the north-east. The IV.
Res. Corps (3 divisions) seized Temes Sziget Island with little
difficulty and reached Brezhani (Brezani). But the front from
Semendria to Gatsko defied the III. Corps, and not only pro-
tected the right rear of Zhivkovich, but gave time to Putnik to
bring troops from the Machva. 4
Nevertheless, it was clear by the nth that the nver barrier was
lost and Putnik began a steady policy of fighting successive de-
laying actions on the N. front, while at all costs keeping back the
Bulgarians on the right and rear, in order to gain time for the
arrival of French and British aid, the first elements of which had
already reached Salonika.
On the 1 2th Mackensen opened the general advance, in the
midst of a gale which, known as the Kossova, descends season-
ally upon the country from the south-east. Kovess made slow
progress till the i6th, when the Serbians evacuated under pres-
sure the Petrov Grob-Avala-Velika Kamen line, and fell back to
Melyak-Ripany-line of R. Ralya.
Gallwitz by that date had enforced the evacuation of Pozhare-
vats, cleared the way for his III. Corps to advance on the Semen-
dria front, and brought his left flank to Bozevats. To the E. of
Kovess, the Austrian offensive was a simple follow-up of the
retiring Serbs, who now attempted no real defence W. of the
Kolubara, though small forces with local riflemen delayed the
Austrians long enough for the families and the live stock to be
evacuated on Valyevo. The Montenegrins, and with them some
Serbs, were maintaining a particularly independent struggle
between the Yadar and the Lim.
By this time the Bulgarian advance on the right flank had
begun, though some days later than had been intended. In the
south, Todorov's II. Army (7th Div. with improvised formations)
3 The Drina portion of Kovess's army was, however, behind time.
4 AH Austrian forces in Bosnia were late in their preparations
and took no effective part in the offensive.
418
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS
prepared to threaten the flank of the Salonika railway from Stru-
mitsa, the Ovchepolye from Kyustendil, and Vranya from Trn.
The I. Army advanced on the various routes to attack Zayechar,
Knyazhevats and Pirot; on these the Serbs had advanced to meet
them, always with the idea of gaining time, and by the i6th very
little progress had been made by the invaders, except by one
regiment which by a daring mountain march seized Vranya and
cut the railway there. This success weakened the position of the,
Serbian forces on the Egri Palanka road at Stratsin, and when,
farther S., Todorov turned their right by Kochana and pushed
cavalry to Veles, they evacuated the Ovchepolye (Oct. 18-19).
On the zist Uskub itself fell into the hands of the Bulgarians and
the Salonika line was lost, though a counter-attack recovered
Veles from the Bulgarian cavalry two days later.
At that moment for the first time, the French from Salonika
came into action, threatening Strumitsa and Todorov's left.
It was too late.
On the northern wing of the Bulgarian army, Boyadiev's cen-
tral columns cut the road between Zayechar and Knyazhevats
on the 2ist, and farther to the Bulgarian right, Negotin was
occupied by the invaders, who there made contact with the
Orsova detachment of the XI. Army. The Serbs in this quarter
offered little resistance, their rear being already threatened by
Gallwitz's progress in the Morava valley.
In that region the fighting had been heavy, the weather severe,
and it was not till the igth that Mackensen's two armies mastered
the Ralya line. On the 2ist, the date on which the Bulgarians
seized Uskub and the French came on the scene at Strumitsa
station, Mackensen's N. front was marked by the line Shapina-
Selevats-S. of Kosmay. On the 23rd it lay on the line Lazare-
vats-N.of Arangyelovats-N.of Palanka-Petrovats, and the Ser-
bian eastern fronts began to be in difficulties, though some days
were still to elapse before Goykovich's force finally disappeared
and junction was effected between Boyadiev's right and Gall-
witz's left. In W. Serbia the Austrians from Bosnia were begin-
ning to be active, and the country-side was being evacuated by
men, women and children, with their animals and belongings.
From Uzhitse as well as from Valyevo, the emigration had set in
towards Novipazar.
Putnik's left armies were now falling back concentrically
towards Kralyevo-Krushevats, in proportion as his E. front
caved in. On Oct. 30, after no light efforts, the XIX. Austro-
Hungarian and XXII. Res. Corps of Kovess's army were S. of
Gorni Milanovats, the VIII. Austro-Hungarian Corps S. of
Raibrovats, Gallwitz's army to the S. of Lapovo-Petrovats. The
Serbs had evacuated Zayechar on the 25th, Knyazhevats on the
2yth, and after a fierce resistance and repeated counter-strokes
from Pirot, Stepanovich had retired on Bela Palanka on the 29th.
Farther to the S., Todorov's attention had been thoroughly
attracted to the Strumitsa side, and the position at Uskub and
on the Upper Vardar had scarcely changed.
From Nov. i onwards, the final desperate effort was made by
the Serbians to gain time for the arrival of the French and British
by holding the arc Chachak-Kraguyevats-Yagodnya-Nish-Les-
koyats. Still the Bulgarians were held back in this phase, but
the Germans and Austrians steadily advanced. Kraguyevats
fell, with its arsenal, on Nov. i ; Yagodnya on the 3rd, Kralyevo
on the same day, Paratyin on the sth. For some days longer the
defence continued stubborn on the S. side of the W. Morava and
about Varvarin in the Morava valley, where a salient was held
to enable the last elements of the Serbian IV. Army (Goykovich)
to extricate itself from the closing vice. But by the gth the
defence on this line was at an end, and Mackensen was preparing
the dispatch of the XXII. Res. Corps to another theatre, having
received the Alpine Corps (division) in lieu.
On the E. front meantime, Stepanovich's counter-attacks had
completely held up the Bulgarians at Bela Palanka, while a great
part of the population flowed away through Nish into Kossovo.
It was not until Nov. 4, when Boyadiev had received a fresh
division (the 9th) and Paratyin had fallen, that orders were given
to evacuate Nish, and that centre was held by rear-guards till the
Sth. Leskovats resisted till the 7th.
The Orient railway, the objective for which Falkenhayn had
planned the campaign, was now clear from Germany to Con-
stantinople, and with his usual economy he was already think-
ing of withdrawing the German forces to other theatres. 1 The
Serbian army, plainly in dissolution, had ceased to be a menace
to the Danube monarchy. But new problems were arising the
Albanian question, the problem of Greece and the Allied Salo-
nika army, the question of a submarine base on the Aegean. In all
these, each of the three victors had a different standpoint, and
fresh difficulties set in between the three Governments. Belong-
ing as they do to the Salonika phase of the Balkan campaigns,
these problems will not be dealt with here, and it only remains to
describe, briefly, the last stages of the Serbian tragedy.
Substantially, the results of the Bulgarian cooperation had
fallen considerably short of what was expected. The tough
resistance of Stepanovich, and even of the small IV. Army in
the N.E. corner, had kept back the eastern danger until it was
too late for an envelopment. Indeed, considerable portions of
Boyadiev's army those oriented on Negotin and Zayechar, if
not also that on the Knyazhevats route were already crowded
out of the closing front. For effective envelopment of the
Serbian right, there only remained the N. portion of Todorov's
II. Army, and, with the increasing arrival of French and
British in the region of Rahovo and Doiran, this Bulgarian
general was obliged to be cautious, while encircling attack upon
the Serbian left was practically excluded by the fact that the
Bosnian forces had made a late start and were traversing very
difficult country. Supply and weather conditions, moreover,
were becoming serious for the invaders. Practically, nothing
could now prevent the remnant of the Serbian army from escap-
ing into Albania, should it choose to do so.
But for this desperate measure, which would involve the loss
of all war material and of many thousands of lives in the road-
less, snow-bound interior of Albania, the Serbian command was
not yet prepared. It seemed preferable to attempt to break
through towards the S., where the long-expected Allied army
was now advancing and Todorov was in difficulties.
The II. Bulgarian Army had, after seizing Uskub and taking,
losing and retaking Veles, moved out fan-wise against the
mountains N.W. and W. of Vranya, Kachanik, Kalkandclen,
and the Babuna pass, while its extreme left was on the defensive
against Sarrail's Rahovo group, and its left centre column was
moving down from Shtip on Krivolak and Kavadar, where also
Sarrail was collecting a considerable force. In the existing con-
ditions it was evidently more important, from Todorov's point
of view, to bar the Vardar valley against Sarrail than to attempt
to force the mountain barrier of the Kara Dagh and the Shar
Dagh. He therefore placed his centre of gravity well to the S.,
leaving his N. flank covered by a mixed force drawn partly from
the I., partly from the II. Army.
Against this force, Putnik assembled the remnants of 5 divi-
sions E. of Prishtina, and with them assumed the offensive with
all the violence of which his troops were still capable, on Nov. 9.
This began on the gth, driving the Bulgarian group of General
Ribarov back to Vranya in the one direction and towards Kuma-
novo in the other. By the isth Ribarov's right was in extreme
difficulties. But the arrival of part of the I. Bulgarian Army
from Leskovats on the left rear of the attacking wedge rescued
it. By now the general front of the Austrian and German pur-
suit had reached Uvats, the line of the Ibar, Yaver (Javor),
Kurshumlye. Pressure on the rear was too close to allow of
persistence in the southward break-through. The moral rally
which had permitted that attempt was dying away on all the
defended avenues, and Putnik made up his mind to escape
through Albania with what could be saved of the army and the
people. Between Nov. 20-25, the historic Kossovopolye witnessed
another last effort of the Serbian people, then everything flowed
away towards Ipek (Pech), Dyakovo and Prizren.
At these points the pursuit ceased in the first week of Decem-
ber. It had practically become Bulgarian alone. Such German
1 As above mentioned, Mackensen was given orders almost on
the battlefield to send away the XXII. Res. Corps.
SERVIA SEX
419
troops as remained in the theatre when Falkenhayn's orders had
been carried out were sent down the Vardar, into the midst of
the Bulgarian II. Army. The Austrians diverged into Monte-
negro, which was completely occupied, with some severe local
fighting and much secret negotiation, by the third week in Jan.
1916. But the end of pursuit did not mean rest and reorgani-
zation for the poor remnant of the Serbian army. It was impos-
sible to live at the halt; and a midwinter march through the
Albanian mountains, brought those whom its rigours left alive
to the coast of the Adriatic. Thence, after some delay, they were
transferred to Corfu, where the Western Powers provided food,
equipment, clothing and stores, so mitigating a disaster that
they might have prevented. (C. F. A.)
SERVIA: see SERBIA.
SETON-KARR, SIR HENRY (1853-1914), British big-game
hunter, was born in India Feb. 5 1853. Educated at Harrow and
Corpus Christi College, Oxford, he was called to the bar in 1879,
but developed a taste for travel and big-game hunting which
carried him all over the world. He also interested himself
in state colonization and was a member of the Royal Commission
on Food Supplies in Time of War. He published The Call to Arms
(1900-1) and My Sporting Holidays (1904). He represented
S.W. Lanes. (St. Helens) in the House of Commons from 1885 to
1906 and was knighted in 1902. He lost his life when the " Em-
press of Ireland " sank in the river St. Lawrence May 29 1914.
SEX (see 24.745*). The problem of the determination of sex
has in recent years been greatly elucidated. Knowledge has come
from several sources. Both breeding experiments and cytological
observation have severally led, as will be seen, to concordant con-
clusions, proving that the sex of the offspring is generally decided
by one or other of the germ-cells which unite in fertilization. But
though in ordinary circumstances the mode of determination is
now known, there are nevertheless indications that in special
cases the normal course may be altered or at least disturbed by
various influences, the operation of which is not understood. The
reconciliation of this latter class of evidence with the former has
not yet been satisfactorily effected.
Sex Determined by Spermatozoa. Knowledge of sex-determi-
nation began with the observation of Henking (1891) that in cer-
tain insects the spermatozoa were of two kinds, (i) those which
contained a supernumerary, unpaired, or accessory chromosome
(see CYTOLOGY), now generally called the X-chromosome, and
(2) those without this body. McClung (1902) first suggested
that this chromosome might be a determiner of sex, and took it
to be the peculiarity of the male, but Miss Stevens (1905) and
E. B. Wilson (1905), to whom the development of this part of
the subject is chiefly due, proved that the spermatozoa bearing
the X-chromosome are in these animals destined to form females.
The eggs are alike in each possessing an X, and thus the somatic
or diploid cells of the daughters come to have 2 X, one received
from their mother and one from their father, whereas the diploid
cells of the sons have one only, received from their mother.
Since the gametes of the male are of two kinds, that sex is said to
be hetero-gametic, the female being homo-gamelic. Further obser-
vation, however, showed that the organization of even nearly
allied genera of insects is by no means uniform in respect of the
sex-chromosomes. Though unpaired in the males of some
genera, the X may in others have a pair or " mate" of smaller
size, known as the Y-chromosome. Between these and other
genera in which the male has a pair of sex-chromosomes not visibly
different from each other there are several transitional conditions.
In a considerable number of forms also, the X is represented by a
group of separate chromosomes, regarded as collectively the
mates of the Y.
The X-chromosome has been seen in several orders of insects,
especially Hemiptera, Orthoptera and Coleoptera, in spiders,
myriapods and some nematodes. In man it is said (Guyer) to
be represented by a pair corresponding to a single Y-chromosome.
Sex Determined by Ova. Naturally this discovery that the
male is hetero-gametic was at first supposed to be of universal
application, but the next advance, which resulted from experi-
mental breeding, showed that this simple view could not be enter-
tained. The Currant Moth (Abraxas grossulariata) has a variety
lacticolor, characterized by a deficiency of black pigment, till then
known only in the female. Doncaster, instituting experiments
with this variety, found that by breeding such females with nor-
mal males the Fi family consisted of males and females, all
normal. 1 Interbred, these gave Ft composed of two normal
males: one normal female: one lacticolor female. But lacticolor
9 XFicf produced families containing normal o", normal 9 , lacti-
color cf and lacticolor 9 , all in equal numbers. On breeding any
normal grossulariata 9 with the lacticolor & now produced, the
sons were all grossulariata and the daughters all lacticolor.
Other interpretations have been proposed, but it is evident
that the eggs of the grossulariata 9 are of two kinds, (i) those
which are destined to be females, and do not carry the grossu-
lariata factor, (2) those which do carry this factor, and are des-
tined to be males (Bateson and Punnett). Taking the factors
G, grossulariata: g, its absence; F, femaleness: /, its absence, the
results may be represented symbolically thus:
I. Lact. 9 XGrosscf
F/:gg I ff.Gg
r
F Gross 9
F/:Gg
gametes Fg ; /G
X
Gross cf
Jf-Gg
/G;/g
I
I Gross 9
F/;Gg
i Lact. 9
F/:gg
2 Grossed
I I
Lact. 9 Gross 9
F/.gg Ff.Gg
Gross 9
Lact. 9 X transmitting Gross o*
F/.gg I ff.Gg
X
I I
Lact. c? Gross c
Jf.gg ff.Gg
Lact.c?
gametes Fg;/G
Lact. 9s Gross cTs
F/:gg /.Gg
Sex- Limitation and Sex-Linkage. Such a system of heredity
is sometimes called " sex-limited," and the descent of the charac-
ter so limited serves as an indication of the mode by which the
factor determining sex is transmitted from parent to offspring.
The proof that in these moths sex is determined by the eggs, or
in other words that the female is the hetero-gametic sex, is thus
complete. The same has been shown to be true of birds. In
fowls, several conditions have been shown to be sex-limited to
females; e.g. black as against the cuckoo-markings of the Plymouth
Rock; golden (as in Sebrights or Hamburgs) as against silver;
the black pigment of Silky fowls is suppressed by a sex-limited
factor -which inhibits this development, etc. In canaries the
peculiar form of albinism known as Cinnamon, and in doves
the pale albinotic variety shows a similar behaviour. We have
thus to recognize that, paradoxical as it may appear, sex is in
some animals determined by the sperm, and in others by the
eggs. Man belongs to the former class. Apart from the cyto-
logical evidence, as yet unconfirmed, the descent of sex-limited
conditions, notably colour-blindness, demonstrates this. Substi-
tuting male for female, colour-blindness, is transmitted in man
exactly as the lacticolor character is in the moths. A colour-blind
man mated with a normal woman has sons and daughters with
normal colour-vision. The sons cannot transmit the colour-
blindness, but the daughters transmit it to half their sons who
are therefore colour-blind. Moreover, when the transmitting
female is mated with the colour-blind man, the colour-blind fe-
male is produced, just as in the corresponding mating (3) in the
grossulariata experiment, the lacticolor male was formed. Finally
when the colour-blind woman mates with a normal man the sons
are all colour-blind and the daughters are all transmitters.
Following Doncaster's notation in the grossulariata scheme, if M,
maleness, be substituted for F, and N, normal colour-vision, for
G, the same analysis represents the observed facts: the transmit-
1 In genetics the following symbols are frequently used :9 = female;
cf =male; X = mated with; FI, F 2 , etc. = the first filial family, the
second, etc.
" These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
420
SEX
ting female (Nnmm) in man, for example, corresponds with the
male Ggff, etc. in grossulariata.
There is thus no doubt that just as in the bird and the moth
the female produces two kinds of eggs destined respectively to
form females and males, so in man the male produces two kinds
of sperms destined to form respectively males and females.
Cytological Interpretation. The notation given above provides
the simplest representation of the empirically observed facts
without any attempt to refer them to cytological phenomena.
This attractive branch of Genetics has been actively developed
by T. H. Morgan and his colleagues with remarkable success;
and though serious difficulties remain, the incidence of the sex-
limited characteristics can so readily be interpreted as depending
on the distribution of sex-chromosomes, observed or hypotheti-
cal, that a causative influence has with great plausibility been
attributed to them. Starting from the now familiar fact that in
certain animals the XY male has visibly one X-chromosome and
the XX female two, it is argued that the " double dose " of X is
the cause of the female characteristics and that one dose of the
same element produces the male attributes. If, then, in such
animals the dominant factors, which show linkage, be supposed
to be also carried in the X-chromosome, the sex-limited distribu-
tion of the negative characteristics to males will result. At first
sight the fact that in other animals the female is hetero-gametic
seems irreconcilable with this scheme, but, by making the assump-
tion that in these females a similar cytological apparatus exists,
the genetic observations may be represented on the same plan as
that adopted for the hetero-gametic males. For the hetero-
gametic female may be represented as XY and the male as XX,
and here again if the X carries the positive element, say the G of
grossulariata, then the gamete of the composition XG is always
destined to the sons, and Yg to the daughters, as the facts re-
quire. Perhaps the strongest evidence in favour of the chromo-
some hypothesis has been found in the phenomenon of "non-
disjunction " in Drosophila, the fruit-fly, whose genetical composi-
tion has been studied more fully than that of any other organism
(see GENETICS). In this creature sex-limitation is to males, and
the male is hetero-gametic; but, exceptionally, unexpected forms
appear, as, for instance, red-eyed males in the mating where
white-eyed alone should normally be produced. Bridges found
that in such individuals and among the families containing these
abnormal members, irregularities in the occurrence of the
chromosomes could be demonstrated. Apparently in some
maturation division two X-chromosomes had passed to the same
egg, others receiving none. From this a series of exceptionally
constituted gametes are derived which could have brought about
the observed exceptions. Another line of argument pointing to
the same conclusion has been derived by Morgan and his asso-
ciates from a study of gynandromorphs the curious individuals
composed of more or less irregular patchwork of male and female
tissues, which are formed with some frequency especially among
the various orders of insects. A number of these have occurred
in the pedigreed families of Drosophila, and on analysis it was
found possible in almost every case to refer the characters shown
in the several parts to their parental origin.
A primary objection to these modes of interpretation is that
the cytological conclusions rest on a still slender basis of observa-
tion. As regards the forms with hetero-gametic females an
unpaired chromosome has been reported to exist in the females
of two moths (Phragmatobia and a Psychid), but on the other
hand, Guyer states that in certain birds the male has an unpaired
chromosome. Commonly, moreover, no consistent cytological
distinction between the two sexes can be observed. But a still
more fundamental difficulty besets the conception of the charac-
teristics of either sex as dependent on a merely quantitative
distinction. From arguments which cannot be here developed
the Y-chromosome is regarded as demonstrably empty, and
containing no determining elements, and XY is therefore to be
understood as in potentiality merely the half of XX. Chemical
phenomena, vaguely analogous, have been appealed to as making
this system of interpretation less inadmissible than it at first
appears, but that it is beset by grave objections cannot be denied.
Cytology has been of great assistance in codifying the ap-
parently contradictory records as to the intricate series of
parthenogenetic or agamic and sexual forms of the Hymenoptera
and Hemiptera. We have learnt for example that in Hemiptera
(Morgan; von Baehr) when fertilization produces females only,
the fact is due to the death of all the sperms, which do not bear
the X-chromosome. But in these groups it not rarely happens
(Neuroterus, Doncaster) that the fertilized females give rise
parthenogenetically to other females of which, without fertiliza-
tion, some produce females only and others males only, but no
cytological distinction between these two types of females has
been seen. Whatever be the true cytological account of sex-
determination, we have nevertheless to recognize that femaleness
and maleness respectively, though similar throughout the Meta-
zoa both in outward manifestations and in deeper physiological
features, are constructed upon at least two distinct genetic plans.
To reconcile the infrequency of visible cytological distinctions
between the sexes with the chromosome hypothesis it has been
suggested that the critical bodies are in such cases attached to
other chromosomes, but this, though undeniable as a possibility,
is as an argument dangerously tinged with obscurantism, a
comment which applies to many of the subordinate hypotheses
supporting the chromosome theory of genetic causation.
The situation is one through which many scientific problems
have passed before final solution has been obtained. By independ-
ent lines of evidence conclusions largely identical have been
reached. The facts are not in dispute, but a consistent interpre-
tation of the whole series has not at present been obtained.
Disturbance of Normal Sex-Ratios: the Production of Inter-
Sexes. Hybridization is not rarely followed by a disturbance
of the normal sex-ratio. From canary females crossed with other
finches and from domestic hens crossed with cock-pheasants male
mules (sterile) are easily bred but female mules seldom if ever.
Among Bovidae some crosses give fertile females but sterile males
(S. v. Nathusius) and the same occurs in a cross between species
of cavies (Detlefsen). Among Lepidoptera a series of such ex-
amples are known, the first having been observed by Standfuss,
who called attention to the absence or scarcity of females in many
species-crosses. Recently Goldschmidt, working with races or
species of Lymantria dispar brought together from many coun-
tries, carried out a remarkable series of experiments. He found
that a Japanese race used as 9 X European cf gave normal males
and females, but that in the reciprocal cross though the males
came normal, the females were intcrsexes, exhibiting many
transitional stages, approaching males in various degrees both
in form, colour and instincts. When Japanese males of certain
races were used, the whole of the female offspring are said to
have been thus transformed into males. Goldschmidt states
that the various races can be arranged in an ascending scale
according to the completeness with which these effects are
produced, but the phenomena showed many complications not
as yet adequately represented, notably the appearance of par-
tially transformed male intersexes in the p2 generation raised
by inter-breeding the normal offspring raised in the first experi-
ment. It has been pointed out by J. B. S. Haldane (1920, unpub-
lished) that, apart from certain exceptions, a general principle
can be perceived in this group of phenomena. If in hybrid off-
spring either sex is consistently missing or defective, this will be
the hetero-gametic sex, e.g. in birds and Lepidoptera the female,
in mammals, the male.
Sex of Twins. The facts hitherto dealt with all go to prove
that sex is determined by the gametic contribution made by one
or other of the parents and that this is the normal course is not
open to question. In harmony with that conception of sex-
determination, it is found that when, as in twinning of embryos
and generally when the fertilized egg multiplies by division, the
products are commonly all of the same sex. In the armadillo
(Tatusia novem-cincla), studied in detail by Newman, four em-
bryos, demonstrably arising by division of one blastodermic vesicle
(developing ovum), are usually produced at a birth and are
always of the same sex, the four being all males or all females.
Patterson found an exception in the case of the parasitic
SEX
421
Hymenopteron Paracopidosomopsis, which by polyembryonic
division sometimes produces both males, females and inter-
mediates. That something analogous to non-disjunction here
occurs is an acceptable interpretation of this anomalous
instance. But there is a remarkable group of incontrovertible
facts which show that sometimes the normal course' of sex-
development may be disturbed. F. Lillie discovered a remarkable
example. When in horned cattle twins of opposite sexes occur,
the female is sometimes sterile, being called a free-martin. It
might be thought that these twins arose by division of one
fertilized ovum, but Lillie by study of material from the Chicago
stock-yards proved that an ovum had dehisced from each ovary
and that therefore the twins were originally distinct. He further
showed that sometimes the twins had an actual anastomosis
between their foetal circulations. The presence of a male embryo
must therefore be regarded as having the power of inhibiting the
development of the female embryo, poisoning it in so far as the
formation of the reproductive organs is concerned.
Effects of External Conditions. Disturbance of the normal
sex-ratios as a consequence of various interferences, such as
starvation, high or low temperature, etc., has several times been
alleged to occur, especially in Amphibia, and the evidence of R.
Hertwig that delay in fertilizing the eggs of the frogs causes the
production of a preponderance of males has been fully confirmed.
Circumstantial details preclude the obvious suggestion that this
is a result of differential mortality. Hertwig thought that inas-
much as the polar bodies are excluded very late, after the eggs
are laid, his result might perhaps be reconciled with the concep-
tion of cytological pre-determination if the conditions of the
experiment could in some way have decided which elements
should be retained in the egg and which ejected in the polar body.
Recently Seiler has made an observation of this kind in regard
to a Psychid moth, Talaeporia. He states that if the females are
kept in a high temperature while the eggs are undergoing
maturation, it can be seen on cytological examination that the
accessory chromosome more frequently remains in the egg,
and that as a matter of observation more males are produced,
the converse occurring under cold conditions. Until we know
definitely which sex in Amphibia is hetero-gametic the discussion
can scarcely be carried further, but the frequency with which
transitional forms are found in the Ichthyopsida raises a prob-
ability that the facts are of a higher order of complexity. As to
the genetical composition of the Amphibian intersexes, an impor-
tant observation has lately been made by Crew. From the eggs
of a female fertilized by a male showing intersexual characters
774 tadpoles were reared, all females. According to Baltzer,
sex in Bonellia is directly determined by the conditions of larval
life. The female is of course an animal of considerable size,
whereas the male is a minute creature parasitic on her. Larvae
which find the proboscis of the female and attach themselves to
it are said to develop into males, those which remain free-
swimming becoming females. Larvae artificially detached from
the proboscis become intersexes. Adequate controls, by which
the hypothesis of predisposition may be excluded, would in such
an instance be most difficult to institute.
Effects of Castration. Collateral evidence bearing on the
nature of the distinction between the sexes has been drawn from
many sources, especially from the results of castration, but
though the facts thus empirically observed are of much physiolog-
ical interest, they have no very direct bearing on the primary
problem. The reproductive glands, acting chiefly, if not entirely,
by virtue of the secretions (hormones) of their interstitial
components, have often a great influence on the development
and maintenance of secondary sexual characters, but the part
played by the hormones must obviously be of a secondary nature.
Removal of the genital glands has divers effects in various animals.
In good agreement with the discovery that in the bird the female
is the hetero-gametic sex, it is found that both in the fowl and
the duck (Goodale) the removal of the ovary induces the plum-
age and some other characteristics of the male. The female is
thus an organism in which the male attributes are concealed or
recessive, whereas a capon does not develop hen-feathering.
Moreover, Morgan found that in the Sebright bantam, the males
of which are " henny " in plumage (not in combs or wattles),
after castration the cocks acquire ordinary male plumage, which
may naturally be interpreted to mean that the hen-feathering
of these cocks is due to their possession of part of the female
complex which has been transferred to*them. Morgan and Pun-
nett also have shown that the henny character behaves as
dominant in breeding, a fact which proves that the dominance
proper to the whole female complex of the bird pertains also to
that part of the complex which controls the plumage.
Castration performed on moths during the larval stage has
not produced modification of secondary sexual characters
(Oudemans). In crabs, however, the destruction of the testes by
certain parasites produces very striking " feminization " of the
abdomen and appendages (Geoffrey Smith), but we do not know
which sex in Crustacea is hetero-gametic. We are without a satis-
factory interpretation of this group of observations, some of
which superficially considered seem to run counter to the facts of
gametic determination already established, but the disturbances
of the normal course may commonly, though perhaps not always,
be conceived of as due to interruption of the chain of events by
which the full effects of gametic predetermination are developed.
Hermaphrodites. Attention should be called to a remarkable
lacuna in our knowledge of sex-determination. Up to the present
nothing has been yet discovered either by cytological or analyti-
cal methods as to the genetical relation of the hermaphrodite
types among animals to those in which the sexes are distinct. In
plants a little progress has, as will appear, been made, pointing
to the conclusion that the hermaphrodite is dominant, containing
something which the females at least do not, but as to hermaphro-
dite animals nothing can be said with confidence. This is much
to be regretted, as the whole subject might be greatly advanced
by such knowledge.
General considerations. From the observation that the two
sexes are formed by modification of a common structural plan,
and from the fact that by interferences, of which some have been
mentioned, individuals cytologically, or at least gametically,
destined to be of .one sex may be made to assume more or less of
the characteristics of the other, the conclusion has often been
announced that each sex contains the other latent in it. To this
expression, in the light of modern knowledge, no precise meaning
can be attached, and it probably conveys nothing of essential
truth. The primary sexual distinctions evidently depend on
factorial elements which follow more or less closely the familiar
principles of Mendelian segregation. The determining factor for
sex should probably be regarded as a complex, usually transmitted
in its entirety, but capable by accidental errors of cell-division of
being disintegrated, so that the elements responsible for special
characteristics may become detached from the rest and may even
be passed over to the sex which normally does not receive them.
For example, the races of fowls which do not incubate have
presumably thus lost a portion of the dominant sex-complex;
the hen-like cocks of the Sebright bantam may be represented as
having acquired that ingredient of the female sex-factor which in
the normal female inhibits the formation of the sickle-feathers
and hackles of the cock, and so on. A similar representation may
be applied to those cases (e.g. Phalaropes) in which the cocks are
hen-like and normally incubate the eggs. It is not unreasonable
to suppose that the transference of an actual fragment of critical
material, presumably a portion of a chromosome, is responsible
for the physiological abnormality. The literature of obstetrics
and of stock-breeding abounds with nostrums for the arbitrary
regulation of sex in man and the domestic animals, but from what
is accurately known of the mechanism of sex-determination,
nothing favourable to these claims can yet be adduced. Nor can
any explanation be offered of the fairly constant departures from
equality which normally occur in man and various domesticated
animals. In the pig, ox and rabbit the male births are said
sensibly to exceed the female, but in the horse and sheep there is
a small excess of female births. The races of man show definite
differences in the proportions of the sexes at birth. Of living
births, taking females at 1,000, the males for England and Wales
422
SGAMBATI SHACKLETON
were for some time slightly below 1,040, which, though about the
same as the proportion in Japan, is somewhat low in comparison
with Germany, several European countries, and the white popula-
tion of the United States, in which the males are about 1,060.
On the other hand for the coloured population of the United
States the male births aie still less in proportion (in the year
1890, 1,024) and occasionally fall actually below the female
number (998 in 1900). In all countries for which data can be
obtained the proportion of males among still-births is very largely
in excess of the females. Such divergences usually point to differ-
ential mortality or to the action of lethal factors, but in view of
the large excess of males among still-births this account is not
readily applicable here. The excess of males (surviving infancy)
is exceptionally large in certain, though not all, of the families
affected with the tendency to bleed profusely from trifling in-
juries, known as haemophilia. This is one of the sex-linked ab-
normalities appearing in males which follow much the same
system of descent as colour-blindness. Illegitimate births in most
countries show a distinct diminution in the excess of males.
Since the publication of Diising, the proposition which he
(following earlier writers) developed, that war produces an in-
crease in the proportion of male births, has been widely dissemi-
nated. S. Newcomb investigated data as to births in the United
States during the Civil War but found no positive result, and
other parts of the evidence have been declared to be fallacious.
Nevertheless, statistics for Great Britain and also those for
Germany during the World War show a progressive rise which
can scarcely be deemed insignificant. It should be remarked,
however, that this rise had begun in Prussia some years before
the war. On the other hand, no similar change has taken place in
the neutral countries. For an adequate consideration of the
facts many concomitant phenomena must be taken into account;
for example, the fact that the total birth-rate of Prussia fell in
the war period to less than half. Whatever be the immediate
cause of the rise in male births, it is likely that it should be
referred to the incidence of a differential pre-natal mortality
rather than to any more fundamental genetic process.
Sex in Plants. The attempt to make a factorial analysis of
sex in the higher plants has not led to clear conclusions. Dioe-
cious plants suitable for experiment are few. Correns, from results
obtained in reciprocal crosses made between Bryonia dioica and
the monoecious B. alba, inferred that the male of dioica was
heterogametic, but the argument did not amount to proof.
Shull's experiments with Lychnis dioica and a variation having
the elements of both sexes present together were also beset with
many complications and obscurities. In dioecious mosses the
Marchals proved that segregation, in respect of sex, normally
occurs at spore-formation, but both their experiments and those
of Collins gave indications of further complexities. Sphaerocar-
pos, a liverwort, produces spores in tetrads, and of the four, two
became males and two females. C. E. Allen states that the female
spores each receive an accessory chromosome larger than that
which passes to the male spores. Blakeslee showed that Mucors
consist of several strains which may be called + and , and that
conjugation only takes place when a + culture comes into contact
with a culture. These strains may with great probability be
regarded as two sexes, but the results were complicated by the
discovery of other strains which are indifferent. We meet here
the same difficulty noted in the case of animals, that the factorial
relations between hermaphrodite plants and the dioecious forms
have not yet been successfully represented. Varieties having the
stamens to a greater or less degree aborted are not uncom-
mon among the species of flowering plants which are normally
hermaphrodite. If the deficiency is extreme, the variety is not
merely in function female, but it is in a condition morphologically
not distinguishable from the females of plants dioecious in the
strict sense such as Lychnis dioica or tiespertina. When such
female varieties are fertilized with pollen from the hermaphrodite
type the resulting family may be a mixture of hermaphrodites
and females, but not rarely females only are produced. As the
hermaphrodite is a dominant this evidence demonstrates that the
hermaphrodite factor must thus be relegated to the female side,
the male side taking the recessive in which the anthers are
aborted. Such " unilateral " distribution of the factors may
exist in regard to colour, double flowers and probably many other
factorial distinctions, and the conception of sex-linkage is in a
special and limited sense applicable to them (C. Pellew). Other-
wise nothing comparable with the sex-linkage of animals has
yet been discovered in plants. It must always be remembered
that, on account of the complications created by the existence of
a syncopated alternation of generations in the higher plants, no
direct parallel between sex, as manifested in them, and that of
animals can be instituted.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Text-books: W. Bateson, Mendel's Principles
of Heredity (3rd. ed.. 1913); L. Doncaster. The Determination
of Sex (1914); R. Goldschmidt, Mechanismus und Physiologic der
Geschlechtsbestimmung (1920); T. H. Morgan, Heredity and Sex
(2nd. ed., 1914). References to most of the authorities named are
given in these works. Special references: C. E. Allen, " The basis of
Sex inheritance in Sphaerocarpos," Proc. Amer. Phil. Sac., 58 (1919) ;
VV. Bateson and R. C. Punnett, " The Inheritance of the peculiar
Pigmentation of the Silky Fowl," Jour. Genetics, I (1911) ; W. Bate-
son, "Genetic Segregation," Proc. Roy. Soc., B, 91 (1920); F.
Baltzer, " Die Bestimmung des Geschfechts nebst einer Analyse
des Geschlechtsdimorphismus bei Bpnellis," Mitt. Zool. Stat. Neapel,
22 (1914); C. B. Bridges, " Non-disjunction as proof of the Chro-
mosome Theory of Heredity," Genetics, I (1916), see also his ar-
ticle " Triploids in Drosophila," Science, Sept. 29 1921 ; E. J. Collins,
"Sex-segregation in the Bryophyta," Jour. Genetics, vih. (1919);
C. Correns " Die geschlechtliche Tendenz d. Keimzellen gemischt-
geschlechtiger Pflanzen," Zts. f. Bot., xii. ; F. A. E. Crew, "Sex-
reversal in Frogs and Toads," Jour. Gen., xi. (1921) ; J. A. Detlefsen,
" Genetic Studies on a Cavy Species Cross," Carnegie Institution
Publication No. 205 (1914); L. Doncaster and G. H. Raynor,
" Breeding Experiments with Lepidoptera," Proc. Zool. Soc. (l,
1906); R. Goldschmidt, " Untersuchungen iiberdie Intersexualitiit,"
Zts. f. ind. Abst. u. Vererbungslehre, 23 (1920); F. R. Lillie, "The
Free-martin, a study of the action of Sex hormones in the foetal
life of Cattle," Jour. Exp. Zool. (1917); T. H. Morgan and C. B.
Bridges, " Sex-linked Inheritance in Drosophila," Carnegie Institu-
tion Publication No. 237; T. H. Morgan, C. B. Bridges and A. H.
Sturtevant, " Contributions to the Genetics of Drosophila Melano-
gaster," ibid. No. 278 (1919); T. H. Morgan, "The Genetic and
operative evidence relating to Secondary Sexual characters," ibid.,
No. 285 (1919) ; H. H. Nevyman and J. T. Patterson, " Development
of the nine-banded Armadillo," Jour. Morph., 21 ; J. Th. Oudemans,
" Falter aus castrirten Raupen," Zool. Jahresb., xii. (see also J.
Meisenheimer, Verh. Deut. Zool. Soc., xviii.) ; J. T. Patterson,
" Studies on the Biology of Paracopidospmopsis," Biol. Bull., 32-35
(1917-8) ; C. Pellew, " Types of Segregation," Jour. Gen., yi. (1917) ;
J. Seller, " Das Verhalten d. Geschlechtschromosomen bei Lepidop-
teren," Arch. z. Zellfprschung, xiii. (1914); and Zts. f. ind. Abst. u.
Vererbungslehre, xviii. (1917). For evidence as to human statistics:
H. Lucht, " Das Geschlechtsverhaltniss d. Gebprenen in Preussen
wahrend des Krieges," Zts. d. Preuss. Statistischen Landesamts,
Jahrg. 60 (1920) ; B. Mallet, " Pres. Address," Jour. Roy. Stat. Soc.,
81 (1918); J. B. Nichols, Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assn., i. (1907);
A. A. Tschuprow, " Zur Frage d. sinkenden Knabeniiberschiisses
unter d. ehelich Geborenen," Bull, de L'Insl. internal, de Statistique,
xx. (1915). (W. BN.)
SGAMBATI, GIOVANNI (1843-1914), Italian composer (see
24.757), died at Rome Dec. 15 1914.
SHACKLETON, SIR ERNEST HENRY (1874-1922), British
polar explorer, was born at Kilkee Feb. 15 1874. He was edu-
cated at Dulwich College, and afterwards entered the merchant
service, subsequently becoming a lieutenant in the R.N.R. In
1901 he joined the Antarctic expedition of Capt. Scott in the
" Discovery," but had to return home on account of ill health.
In 1908 he organized his first Antarctic expedition, largely fitted
out by himself, which started from New Zealand in the " Nim-
rod," and achieved important results, reaching a point on the
Antarctic continent about 97 m. from the South Pole (see 21.968).
For this he was knighted in 1909, also receiving the C.V.O.,
while the Government contributed 20,000 towards the expenses
of the expedition. He equipped a second expedition which left
England in the " Endurance," Aug. i 1914, with the idea of
approaching the Antarctic continent from Weddell Sea and
ultimately joining hands with another party whose ship, the
"Aurora," was to start from Australia and approach by way
of Ross Sea. Owing largely to bad ice conditions, the expe-
dition was almost uniformly unfortunate (see ANTARCTIC
REGIONS). The story of this expedition was related by Sir
Ernest Shackleton in South (1919). He received the King's
SHANGHAI SHAW, A. H.
423
Polar medal and many honours from learned societies. In
addition to the work mentioned above, he published The Heart
of the Antarctic (1909). In 1921, in the " Quest," he organized
a third expedition, which set sail in September; but while it
was still on its way he died from an attack of angina pectoris,
on board, off Georgia I., Jan. 5 1922.
SHANGHAI, China (see 24.799). During 1911-21 the popu-
lation and trade of Shanghai expanded steadily, as the result of
the development of the port's railway communications with the
interior and of the increasing development of cotton-spinning,
shipbuilding and other industrial enterprises. At the same time
the wealth and importance of the foreign settlements rapidly
increased, chiefly because of the large number of Chinese officials,
capitalists and political refugees who sought there security from
the civil strife and disorders prevalent throughout the interior
after the revolution.
The city's rate of expansion is reflected in the maritime customs
returns, which show that the gross value of the trade of the port in
1919 amounted to 768 million taels, which, at an average exchange
of 55. 8d., represents 217,000,000. In 1908 the sterling value of the
trade was 40,400,000. The changed conditions of international
commerce brought about by the World War were manifested in the
fact that in 1919, for the first time, the United States took the first
place in the list of Shanghai's foreign trade, with a margin of 28 mil-
lion taels over that of Japan, thus reversing the position occupied
by the two countries in 1918. The trade of Great Britain, which
before the war headed the list, showed signs of recovering some of its
lost ground, especially in the matter of Manchester cotton goods.
The total pop. of Shanghai, as estimated by the Imperial Maritime
Customs, was 1,000,000 in 1916, an estimate which included the in-
habitants of the native city as well as those of the international and
French settlements ; but the actual total to-day must be consider-
ably higher, for the Chinese pop. of the international settlement
alone was 620,401 in 1915, and was estimated at 673,000 in June
1919. No reliable statistics are forthcoming in regard to the popu-
lation of the native city (which displays but little evidence of the
reformers' activities) nor of that of the Chinese-controlled suburbs of
the foreign settlements, but it may be assumed to be increasing,
while that of the French municipality has grown very rapidly since
its boundaries were enlarged and its area developed by a progressive
scheme of road construction. The foreign pop. of the international
settlement in 1919 was calculated to be 22,000; at the last census
(Oct. 1913) the total was 18,519, of which number 7,169 were Japa-
nese, 4,822 British, 1,323 Portuguese, 1,307 Americans and 1,155
Germans. After the conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War, the
number of Japanese residents increased much more rapidly than
that of any other nation, but as the franchise for the election of the
Land-renters' Executive Council is limited by property-owning or tax-
paying qualifications, the British community still retains its predomi-
nant influence in municipal affairs. The Land-renters' list at the
beginning of 1920 showed 1,100 British voters, as against 300
Japanese, 230 Americans and 150 Germans. The steady expansion
of the revenues collected by the self-governing Council of the Inter-
national Settlement (in which the Chinese Government has no juris-
diction) affords evidence of the growth and prosperity of the city
during the past decade. In 1911 the rates and taxes collected were
2,589,628 taels; in 1919 the total was 4,419,961. The street traffic
returns are significant not only of rapid growth but of changing
conditions. In 1911 the council licensed II, III jinrikishas, 1,277
carriages, 217 motor-cars, 5,310 wheelbarrows, 199 sedan-chairs
and 958 carts; the corresponding figures for 1919 were 14,726 jinrik-
ishas, 831 carriages, 1,378 motor-cars, 8,667 wheelbarrows, 18 sedan-
chairs and 2,141 carts. Industrial enterprise during this period was
greatly stimulated by the improved facilities for the transport of
raw materials provided by railway construction in the interior;
cotton-mills, in particular, increased rapidly, the number of these
at Shanghai at the close of 1920 being 26, with a total of 901,898
spindles. Factories were also established for the making of flour,
cigarettes, matches, etc., and, as in Japan, a new development of
the retail trade was manifested by the establishment of large depart-
ment stores, conducted on European and American lines.
The political importance of Shanghai, as the headquarters of
Young China and a sanctuary for political refugees of all descrip-
tions, naturally increased during and after the upheaval of the
Chinese Revolution. Many wealthy and conservative officials
of the old regime sought and found security for themselves and
their property within the limits of the extra-territorialized For-
eign Settlements; later, in 1913, the expulsion of the Kuo-Min-
tang politicians from Peking .by President Yuan led many of
these southern Parliamentarians to make Shanghai their head-
quarters, and each succeeding year of civil strife added to the
numbers of those who sought shelter from its widespread dis-
orders under the shelter of the municipality. Nor were the
political refugees all Chinese, for, after the revolt of the Koreans
against the Japanese Government in 1919, " the Provisional
Government of the Korean Republic " established itself at
Shanghai. Thus the little spot originally set apart as a place of
residence for foreign traders came by force of circumstances to
be the birthplace and centre of political activities in China, the
vernacular press at Shanghai (including several of the most
influential newspapers in the country) being generally in oppo-
sition to the policy of Peking and in sympathy with the views of
the student class. By common consent of the contending factions,
the Peace Conference convened in 1919 to discuss the differences
between the Peking Government and the southern " Constitu-
tionalists " was held in the neutral territory of the international
settlement. An interesting feature of Young China's political
activities in 1919-20 of particular importance to the future of
Shanghai lay in its increasing insistence, on the one hand, on the
abolition of the foreigners' extra-territorial rights and, on the
other, on the recognition of the Chinese taxpayers' claim to a
share in the direct executive government of the settlement, a
claim which (while morally undeniable) would, if successful,
effectively put an end to the conditions by virtue of which the
Foreign settlements have afforded security for life and property
during periods of widespread disorder in China.
See George Lanning and Samuel Couling, The History of Shang-
hai (1920). (J. Q. P. B.)
SHANNON, CHARLES HAZELWOOD (1865- ), English
painter (see 24.801), was elected A.R.A. in 1911, and in 1918
became vice-president of the International Society of Sculptors,
Painters and Gravers. His more recent works include " The
Amethyst Necklace" (1907), "The Morning Toilet" (1912),
" The Embroidered Shawl " (1914), and " The Incoming Tide "
(1918); while in 1918 he produced various portraits, including
those of Princess Patricia of Connaught, Miss Lillah McCarthy,
and Miss Hilda Moore (" The Lady in Black "). Among his
lithographs may be mentioned " Playmates " (1908), " Ebb
Tide" (1917), "The Tidal River," and "A Sharp Corner"
(1919). In 1920 he was elected R.A.
SHAUGHNESSY, THOMAS GEORGE SHAUGHNESSY, IST
BARON (1853- ), Canadian railway president, was born at
Milwaukee Oct. 6 1853, his parents being Irish. He was educated
at St. Gall's academy, Wisconsin, and began his railway service
at the age of sixteen. In 1882 he joined the staff of the Canadian
Pacific as general purchasing agent, and by 1891 had risen to be
its vice-president. From 1899 to 1918 he was president and chair-
man of the board of directors, as well as a director of all the
allied lines. He was knighted in 1901, created K.C.V.O. in 1907,
and raised to the peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron
Shaughnessy of Montreal and of Ashford, co. Limerick, in 1916.
His two sons, William James Shaughnessy (b. 1883) and Alfred
Thomas Shaughnessy (b. 1887) served in the Canadian Expe-
ditionary Force during the World War, and the younger was
killed in action in 1916.
SHAW, ANNA HOWARD (1847-1919), American reformer, was
born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England, Feb. 14 1847. When she
was a small child her parents moved to Massachusetts, and soon
afterwards to Michigan, where her father cleared a farm, 40 m.
from the nearest post-office and 100 m. from the railway. From
1872 to 1875 she studied at Albion College, Mich., and in 1878
graduated from the Theological School of Boston University.
The district conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church
granted her a local preacher's licence, and she held pastorates
at Hingham and East Dennis, Mass., remaining in the latter
place seven, years, until 1885. Meanwhile the New England
Conference of the M.E. Church refused to ordain her because
of her sex, and the refusal was upheld by the General Conference
at Cincinnati in 1880. But the same year she was ordained in
the Methodist Protestant Church. While preaching she had
studied medicine and received the degree of M.D. from Boston
University in 1885. She was then chosen lecturer for the Massa-
chusetts Woman's Suffrage Association. The following year she
was made national superintendent of franchise of the Women's
424
SHAW, G. B. SHELL-SHOCK
Christian Temperance Union, serving for six years. She was
also associated after 1886 with the National American Woman's
Suffrage Association as lecturer, vice-president-at-large, and
from 1904-15 as president, when she declined reelection. She
had spoken in every state, before many state Legislatures, and
before Congressional committees. She was a member of the
International Council of Women; the International Suffrage
Alliance; the National Society for Broader Education and the
League to Enforce Peace. In 1917 she was appointed chairman
of the woman's committee of the Council of National Defense,
and in 1918 edited for this committee a department in the Ladies'
Home Journal. She died at Moylan, Pa., July 2 1919, shortly
after the passage of the suffrage amendment to the Federal
Constitution by Congress. Her last message was an appeal to
women to use their influence for the ratification of the League
of Nations. She was the author of The Story of a Pioneer (1915,
with Elizabeth Jordan) and joint editor of The Yellow Ribbon
Speaker (1891, with Alice Stone Blackwell and Lucy Elmira
Anthony).
SHAW, GEORGE BERNARD (1856- ), British dramatist
(see 24.812), produced on the London stage subsequently to 1910
Fanny's First Play (1911), Overruled (1912), Androcles and the
Lion and Great Catherine (1913) and Pygmalion and The Music
Cure (1914). He also produced in Dublin, or at special per-
formances in London, the one-act plays O'Flaherty, V.C. and
Augustus does his Bit (both satires on problems of the World
War), The Inca of Jerusalem and Annajanska, and published
a three-act play Heartbreak House (1919), produced in New
York, and also in a German version in Vienna in Nov. 1920. A
few months after the outbreak of war he published, as a special
supplement to The New Statesman, an outspoken deliverance on
" Common Sense and the War," which occasioned much comment
and earned him some unpopularity. In 1921 he published Back
to Methuselah. (See ENGLISH LITERATURE.)
SHAW, JOHN BYAM (1872-1919), English painter, was born
at Madras Nov. 13 1872, the son of John Shaw, registrar of the
high court of Madras. He came to England in 1878, and his first
art teaching was obtained at the St. John's Wood school of art.
He entered the Royal Academy schools in 1889, and his picture
" Rose Mary " was hung in 1893. One of his best-known works
was " Love the Conqueror " (1899). He illustrated a great
number of books, among them being Browning's Poems (1898);
Tales from Boccaccio (1899); Pilgrim's Progress (1904); Edgar
Allan Poe's Tales (1900), etc. In 1911 he established, with Rex
Vicat Cole (b. 1870), a school of art at Kensington. He died in
London Jan. 26 1919.
SHAW, RICHARD NORMAN (1831-1912), English architect
(see 24.813), died at Hampstead Nov. 17 1912.
SHAW, SIR WILLIAM NAPIER (1854- ), British meteorol-
ogist, was born at Birmingham, March 4 1854. He was educated
at King Edward's school, Birmingham, Emmanuel College,
Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1877, and the univer-
sity of Berlin. From 1887-99 he was university lecturer in ex-
perimental physics at Cambridge, from 1898-9 assistant director
of the Cavendish laboratory, and from 1890-9 senior tutor of
Emmanuel College. In 1891 he was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society. In 1897 he became a member of the Meteorological
Council, and was from 1900 to 1905 its secretary, in the latter
year being appointed director of the Meteorological Office. In
1907 he became reader in meteorology in the university of Lon-
don. He was president of the mathematical and physical section
of the British Association in 1908 and of the educational section
in 1919, and in 1919 was president of the International Confer-
ence of Meteorologists held in Paris. He was knighted in 1915,
and in 1920 retired from his position at the Meteorological Office.
Sir Napier Shaw's works include Life History of Surface Air
Currents (with R. G. K. Lempfert, 1906); Air Currents and the
Laws of Ventilation (1907); Forecasting Weather (1911); Manual
of Meteorology (1919) ; besides many papers in scientific journals
and valuable reports of meteorological and other subjects. He
received many honours and distinctions, including the Symons
medal of the Royal Meteorological Society.
SHELL-SHOCK, the popular name given during the World
War to an obscure form of nervous disease which became rife
among the armies. The term "shell-shock" appears to have
been officially adopted in Great Britain in 1916, although cases
to which this term might have been equally applicable had oc-
curred in the English and French armies from the beginning of
the war and onwards. It is probable, although it is not recorded,
that similar cases occurred in previous bloody wars; but never
before have such vast numbers of men been subjected to such
terrific strain, dangers and horrors from forces generated by
explosives. In consequence thereof the term "shell-shock,"
applied to all forms of war psycho-neurosis, found ready accept-
ance by the press and public, but by neurologists it was generally
regarded as a misnomer unless it were strictly limited to cases
of concussion or commotion of the brain directly caused by the
violence of the forces generated by the explosion.
Early in the war, and subsequently, cases of sudden death of
groups of men without visible external signs of injury were
recorded. They were particularly noted when the explosive
forces were generated in confined spaces, where percussion and
repercussion would be intensified in their effects upon the cerebro-
spinal fluid, which acts as a water-jacket to the central nervous
system and especially protects the vital centres in the medulla
from concussion. Carbon-monoxide poisoning was also con-
sidered a possible cause of such a death, and especially was this
likely in the case of explosion of mines or the imperfect detona-
tion of shells in closed spaces, such as dugouts, saps or ravines.
The great majority of cases diagnosed as " shell-shock " were
not commotional in origin, but emotional, and due in most in-
stances to the existence in the sufferer of an inborn timorous,
neuropathic or psychopathic disposition; but in a certain number
of cases an emotional instability was acquired by the prolonged
strain and stress of war. Thus fatigue, insomnia, anxiety and
infective disease frequently combined to cause a neuro-poten-
tially sound individual, with an excellent record of service, to
become emotive and to develop "shell-shock," the final break-
down having been precipitated by a shell bursting near to him.
The present writer had the opportunity of examining post-mor-
tem the brain in such a case, and it snowed rupture of minute
vessels and haemorrhages into the substance of the brain and
cerebro-spinal fluid.
In the absence of objective signs during life, such as ruptured
tympanum, and changes in the cerebro-spinal fluid for example,
the existence of blood it would be impossible for the medical
officers to decide whether such a case was primarily commotional
or emotional. This is an important matter, for the former was
classed as a battle casualty and entitled the sufferer to a gratuity.
The large number of British cases claiming a gratuity for "shell-
shock" led to the promulgation of Army Form W 3436, which
required circumstantial evidence by an eye-witness of the prox-
imity of the soldier to the bursting shell. Even then great
difficulties were experienced in coming to a just decision, for a
purely commotional case, if not severe, usually recovered more
rapidly than an emotional one; consequently a record of service
and the severity, character and persistence of symptons had to
be taken into account.
The diagnosis of " shell-shock " was made at the Casualty
Clearing and Field Ambulance stations, and when a barrage
was opened prior to the attack of the enemy, or other intense
shell-fire, medical officers at the front-line stations had little
time to investigate the numbers of casualties coming in, and
until the later period of the war cases of " shell-shock " were sent
to the base hospitals. The wish, in a great number of these cases
was not to go back to an intolerable situation; and fear, associated
with the instinct of self-preservation, arose as an unconscious
defence mechanism, and persisted in maintaining such hysteri-
cal manifestations as amnesia, tremors, paralyses, contractures,
convulsive tics, aphonia, mutism, blindness, deafness and other
functional sensori-motor disabilities. Whereas hysterical mani-
festations were extremely common in the ranks,they were relative-
ly rare among the officers, who suffered from neurasthenia and
anxiety neurosis instead. These two forms of psycho-neurosis
SHERMAN SHEVKET
425
in no essential manner differed from those affecting civilians of
either sex (see 14.211 and 19.432).
Among the causes which led to the prevalence of cases diag-
nosed " shell-shock " was the neurological and psychological inex-
perience of medical officers in the diagnosis and treatment of
psycho-neurosis. Another was the degree of discipline, moral
and esprit de corps in a regiment; this largely depended upon the
personality of the commanding officer, the medical officer and
the quartermaster, their efficiency in performing their duties and
their endeavours to supervise the welfare of their men so far as
the emergencies of war permitted. Thus confidence and will-
power were inspired in the men to face with them any situation,
and " shell-shock " cases were relatively few in such regiments as
compared with the number of cases in a regiment with poor moral
and discipline, where suggestion played an important part.
It is generally accepted by medical authorities in England and
abroad that the stress and strain of war, including exposure to
shell-fire, does not produce psychoses such as epilepsy, manic
depressive insanity, dementia-praecox, obsessional psychas-
thenia, or an organic disease like general paralysis, but it may
excite or reveal them. It is, however, admitted that exhaustion
or toxic psychoses with mental confusion of a temporary charac-
ter are often due solely to the stress and strain of war.
Relation of "Shell-shock" to Court-Martial Procedure. As a
result of questions in Parliament and a debate opened on April
28 1920 by Lord Southborough, a War Office committee, with
Lord Southborough as president, was constituted July 1920
with the following terms of reference:
" To consider the different types of hysteria and traumatic neurosis
called ' shell-shock ' ; to collate the expert knowledge of the service
medical authorities and the medical profession from the experience
of the war, with a view of recording for future use the ascertained
facts as to its crisis, nature and remedial treatment and to advise
whether, by military training or education, some scientific method of
guarding against its occurrence can be devised."
In the House of Lords debate, in which Lord Home, Viscount
Peel and Lord Haldane took part, a good deal of attention was
devoted to court-martial procedure, and especially in relation
to " shell-shock " and to death sentences in connexion with cow-
ardice and desertion. From what was said it seems probable that in
the early days of the war, before " shell-shock " was fully under-
stood, a few men were shot who, in the light of further knowledge
and experience, could not have been held responsible for their
actions. The question arises, When is a man who has pleaded
" shell-shock " (taken in its widest acceptance) to be held respon-
sible for and conscious of the quality of his acts? The psychology
of the emotion of fear in relation to the instinct of self-preserva-
tion and the will-power to control supplies a basis upon which to
answer this question. The emotion of fear is associated with
three instinctive reactions, as we see in animals: (i) flight; (2)
immobility; (3) concealment. In war practically every man,
even the bravest, before a battle may experience fear; but a
soldier should, by suitable training and confidence in his superior
officers, overcome this by will-power, and thus convert the pri-
mary reaction of fear into that of anger. How can a medical
officer differentiate between cowardice and fear causing an
irresponsible lack of will-power in a man to control his actions in
the face of difficulties and dangers? The doctor should know the
man's personality, his previous record and what his comrades
thought of him. It is not so much what he says as what he did,
or what he has done, which will help towards a decision. There
are, however, certain signs in a man who refuses to go forward in
action or who runs away, that show he cannot be held altogether
responsible for his action. He may be dazed in consequence of
" shell-shock " and be the subject of mental confusion; there may
be physical signs of fear over which he has no voluntary control,
namely rapid action of the heart, dilatation of the pupils, sweat-
ing, blueness and coldness of the hands, often protrusion of the
eyeballs, and an expression on the face which is hard to simulate.
These conditions, associated with trembling, are sufficient indi-
cations of true fear inhibiting the will.
Out of the psychology of fear arises the question whether
in recruiting there is any test by which the unfitness for active
service on account of a nervous disposition can be ascertained.
And, if so, whether it would be desirable to eliminate from the
army such a man without probation. It is a fact that many
highly intelligent men with nervous instability may, if suitably
trained, develop into most efficient officers and non-commissioned
officers. Much depends upon the method of training and on those
who undertake the training. A sensitive nature with self-esteem
must not be broken by harshness or injustice, which produces
a mental conflict ending in an anxiety-neurosis or neurasthenia.
It is generally admitted that under no circumstances should an
imbecile, an epileptic or an individual who has suffered with a
previous attack of insanity be recruited.
For further information the reader is referred to Parliamentary
Debates, House of Lords, Wed. April 28 1920, vol. xxxix., No. 29.
See also Sir F. W. Mott, Shell Shock and War Neurosis (1919).
(F. W. Mo.)
SHERMAN, JAMES SCHOOLCRAFT (1855-1912), American
politician, was born near Utica, N.Y., Oct. 24 1855. He grad-
uated from Hamilton College in 1878, was admitted to the bar
in 1880, and practised in Utica until 1907. In early manhood he
left the Democratic party, became a Republican, and as such
was elected mayor of Utica in 1884. In 1886 he was elected to
the National House of Representatives and was returned con-
tinuously until 1908, excepting the term 1891-3. He was a dele-
gate to the National Republican Convention in 1892; chairman
of the Republican State Convention in 1895, 1900, and 1908;
and chairman of the Republican National Committee in 1906.
For 1 2 years he was chairman of the House Committee on Indian
Affairs a subject naturally of great interest to him, as he was
a relative of Henry R. Schoolcraft (see 24.359) and the Sherman
Institute in California, an Indian school, bears his name. At the
Republican National Convention of 1908 he was nominated vice-
president on the first ballot and was elected on the ticket with
William Howard Taft. Four years later he was renominated,
but he died at Utica, Oct. 30 1912, shortly before the elections.
SHEVKET, MAHMUD (1858-1913), Turkish pasha, was born
at Bagdad in 1858, and from early youth showed marked quali-
ties of intellect and personality. He received his military train-
ing at the military college in Constantinople, 1875-80, and after
a very brief period of service with the troops was given an ap-
pointment on the general staff. Von der Goltz, who at that time
was reorganizing the Turkish army, thought very highly of the
young Shevket, and it was through his agency that the latter
was sent to Germany to manage the reequipment of the Turkish
army. As a result he remained from 1884 to 1894 in the small
arms factory of Mauser Bros., at Oberndorf on the Neckar. He
also studied armament problems in France for a short time, and
in 1894, as the reward of his labours, was made inspector of
military arsenals in Constantinople. From 1901 to 1903 he was
military governor of the Hejaz, in Arabia, then in what amounted
to a state of war. He next went in a like capacity to Kossovo
(Uskub), and there came in contact with the Young Turk
movement, which had its headquarters in Salonika. In 1908
Abdul Hamid averted the break-up of the old regime by summon-
ing a National Assembly. This state of things, however, did not
last long. In the spring of 1909 the Old and Young Turks were
struggling for supremacy. A powerful Old Turk counter-revolu-
tion was prepared, but, in mid-April, the III. Army Corps, under
Hussein Husni Pasha, marched from Salonika against Constanti-
nople. At San Stefano Mahmud Shevket took over the command,
and, after heavy fighting, forced his way on April 4 into Constan-
tinople. Impressed by his victory the National Assembly no
longer dared to oppose the will of the Young Turks, and on
April 26 voted the deposition of Abdul Hamid. Mahmud Shev-
ket was the hero of the day. But he did not care for politics,
which he considered had been the ruin of the Turkish corps of
officers, and preferred to confine his activities to purely military
matters. The next few years afforded him plenty of opportuni-
ties. In 1910 and 1911 he put down a revolt of the Malissors
with great energy, and in 1912 fought against the rebels in Al-
bania. In the summer of 1912 he became Minister of War, and
in Jan. 1913 succeeded Kiamil as Grand Vizier. He took a very
426
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
active part in army reforms, but he came into conflict with the
Union Liberale, which took its orders from Sherif Pasha in Paris,
and he was murdered by one of its members on June n 1913.
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING (see 24.867). The period from
1910-21 was marked by great progress in shipbuilding; that
progress was in some ways interrupted, in others stimulated, by
the World War, which overshadowed every phase of develop-
ment both in commercial and naval enterprise. The naval
strengths during ten years after 1921 of the chief nations were
restricted as a result of the decisions summarized in the article
WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.
The great object of the Allied belligerents during the war
being to obtain the maximum output both of war material and
of merchant ships on which their supplies depended, those respon-
sible for the building of all types of ships naturally turned their
attention to standardization. This had the effect of retarding
the adoption of new inventions on the one hand; but on the
other the novel circumstances and continued development of
material by Germany during the war, and the ruthless use made
of that war material, continually called for novel devices and
new types of ships to meet and defeat the continually changing
and ever-increasing intensity of the campaign. This, whilst it
produced many new types of warships and countless devices for
their improvement in offence and defence, in the case of many
classes of warships, but more particularly in the design of mer-
chant ships, had the effect of developing standardized types,
both in Great Britain and later in America, in order to increase
the numbers of ships for transport purposes of all kinds and so
counter the enormous losses due to the German submarine cam-
paign. After the Armistice, although at first there was an enor-
mous demand for ships of all classes, the slump in trade in 1920-1
and the very high prices of ships had the effect of reducing the
demand. In Great Britain many of the warships building after
the Armistice were broken up and no new ships had in 1921 been
started. The output of merchant ships was in 1921 steadily de-
clining, so that it could not be said that shipbuilding had yet re-
sumed that steady advance which was being made before the war.
The outstanding features which have affected the design of all
classes of ships specially are the gradual adoption of oil in lieu of
coal as a fuel, the further development of the steam turbine, and,
for certain classes of vessels, the progress made with internal-
combustion engines (see INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES).
In the British navy, and to a great extent in other navies,
during this period, oil most completely superseded coal for steam-
raising. At first destroyers were the only type of vessel, apart
from submarines, in which coal was altogether abolished as a
fuel in the British navy. Then in 1912 light cruisers of the " Are-
thusa " class had oil only. A little later in that year, in the
" Queen Elizabeth " class of battleships oil was decided upon as
the only fuel for the first time in a capital ship. Subsequently to
that, no British warship proper, with the exception of the " Ra-
leigh " class of io,ooo-ton light cruisers, which were destined for
world-wide work, had anything but oil as a fuel, and in the
" Raleighs " seven-eighths of the power was derived from oil.
This change was a very momentous one to make, especially
when it is considered that in Welsh coal Great Britain possessed
the finest and then the cheapest steam coal in the world. In
spite of this, however, the advantages of oil were so great that,
when in use it had been found satisfactory, coal was relegated to
be the fuel of none but special or auxiliary ships in the navy.
The advantages of oil may be summarized shortly as follows:
For the same weight it has 50% more thermal value than coal.
It occupies less space and can be stowed in spaces inconvenient
for coal and other stores. Boilers with oil remain much cleaner
for a long period, so that full power can be kept up indefinitely
as long as the fuel lasts. Oil can be easily taken on board at any
time, thus not calling upon the crew for the great exertion in-
volved in coaling ship hurriedly, perhaps just before their ener-
gies are required for fighting an action. The exertion of stoking
is entirely done away with and far fewer men are required in the
stokehold, which is always clean and comfortable. With oil also
much larger boilers can be used, which saves space in the boiler-
rooms. Though there are other contingent advantages, those
named are enough to show that the British Admiralty took a
wise course in adopting oil for all fighting ships, and this was
amply proved during the war.
Subsequently, owing to the very high price of coal and of
wages for firemen, many of the advantages enumerated above
induced merchant shipowners to adopt oil in place of coal for
high-powered passenger vessels. In low-speed cargo-boats the
great economy of internal-combustion engines as compared with
steam-engines, makes the advantage of the adoption of oil still
more paramount, and the number of these vessels has been
largely increased. The comparatively low powers, however,
which can be got with internal-combustion engines prevented
their being adopted up to 1921 for fast merchant ships or for any
warships, except submarines, which generally have compara-
tively low power and moderate speed. In submarines a much
lighter internal-combustion engine than that used for cargo
vessels has been developed, with a high number of revolutions.
Another very important advance in marine engines has been
gained by the used of toothed gearing. This gear enabling the
high number of revolutions in turbines to be reduced, so that
large slow-running propellers can be used in conjunction with
very quick-running efficient turbines, a much higher efficiency
has been secured and increased speed of ship and economy of
working has resulted. In its present form this gearing was first
introduced in 1910 by Sir Charles Parsons in connexion with the
turbine engines of a merchant vessel named the " Vespasian."
The success of the trials of this ship led to the further adoption
of gearing, and for the British navy it was first tried in destroyers,
then in some light cruisers, and was in 1921 gradually coming
into use for most war ships and many mercantile ships. The
largest ship in which it had been adopted was H.M.S. " Hood."
I. BRITISH WARSHIPS
Taking the first most important type of British warship, namely
capital ships, the naval actions in the Russo-Japanese war of
1904-5 had demonstrated the capital importance of the heavy
long-range gun, while the turbine system of propulsion had been
sufficiently tested in high-speed passenger vessels and small
warships to justify its adoption, at any rate experimentally, in
warships of a larger size. These changes were, no doubt, bold
ones, both as regards guns and machinery; but the wisdom of
their selection for the design of the first " Dreadnought," in 1905,
was sufficiently vindicated by subsequent experience, and by the
general acceptance of these two features by other naval Powers.
Laid down in Oct. 1905, the original " Dreadnought " proved
so successful that from 1907 onwards the designs of British capi-
tal ships moved on progressive lines without departing from the
essential principle of the " Dreadnought " type, viz. a ship
carrying an all-big-gun armament, adequately protected for
taking her place in the line of battle, and of a speed at least equal
to that of any foreign ship of similar rank.
The next 10 years therefore saw a succession of post- " Dread-
nought " battleships in which the primary armament passed from
the ten iz-in. guns of the " Dreadnought " through the ten 13-5-
in. guns of the " Orion " (all on the centre line of the ship) to the
eight is-in. guns of the " Queen Elizabeth," an increase, within
that brief period, of over 126% in the heavy projectile weight
of discharge. There was no secondary battery, properly speak-
ing. The " Dreadnought " carried 24 i2-pdrs. for repelling
T.B.D. attack, but this armament was soon recognized as being
too light for the ever-increasing size and power of destroyers,
and in subsequent ships up to the " King George V." class
(inclusive) batteries of 12 to 16 4-in. guns were mounted as high
up as possible to repel the attack of destroyers. In the " Iron
Duke " and " Queen Elizabeth " classes 6-in. Q.F. guns were
substituted for the 4-in., as the latter weapon was then thought
to be insufficient against destroyers and light cruisers.
The speed of these battleships was kept at the uniform level of
21 knots up to and including the " Iron Duke " class. The type
of turbine machinery on four shafts, which had proved so satis-
factory in the original " Dreadnought," became the standard,
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
427
but the growth in displacement necessitated a corresponding
increase in power to attain the requisite speed. The use of oil fuel
in association with coal was maintained until the " Queen Eliza-
beth " class was reached, when the greater advantages of oil fuel
and the improved methods of its combustion finally caused the
abandonment of coal as fuel. A noteworthy feature of these
remarkable vessels was the advance in speed to 25 knots, necessi-
tating, on a slightly larger displacement than that of their pred-
ecessors, an increase of about 150% in the power.
Concurrently with the development of the battleship proper,
that of the British battle cruiser may be followed with advantage.
Up to the inception of the " Dreadnought " design nothing more
ambitious than an armament consisting of g-2-in. guns associated
with 7'5-in. guns ("Warrior" and "Minotaur," 1903-4) had
been attempted in armoured cruisers. But the same reasons
which caused the evolution of the all-big-gun battleships from
the mixed armament of the " King Edward VII." and " Lord
Nelson " classes now called for a similar simplification in the
armoured cruiser designs. The outcome of this policy was the
production of the " Invincible " class of " cruiser battleships,"
now generally known as " battle cruisers."
In these vessels the additional power necessary for their 4 to 5
knots superiority of speed over the " Dreadnought " was obtained
at the sacrifice of two i2-ih. guns and some loss of armour pro-
tection. The value of speed, which in battleships had always
been a debatable point, was, of course, incontestable for the
battle cruisers, and the development of the type has, both before
and since the outbreak of the war, kept pace with the insistent
demands of the strategist for the highest speed obtainable. With-
in the lo-year period referred to above, the increase in speed and
power from the "Invincible" (25 knots for 41,000 H.P.) to the
"Renown" (32 knots for 120,000 H.P.) required an increase in
displacement from 17,250 tons to 26,500 tons, the relative
increase in power being over 190 per cent. Finally in the " Hood "
a speed of 32 knots with 144,000 H.P. on a displacement of 41,200
tons, an increase of 235% in power was involved.
The wisdom of the policy which initiated this new era in naval
construction, relegating temporarily into the background the
former British supremacy in capital ships, was naturally the sub-
ject of much criticism. But evolution in warship construction is
not the property of any one navy, and there is little doubt that,
at the conclusion of the Japanese war, the world stood on the
threshold of a new era in naval architecture. If British naval
supremacy was to be maintained it had to be done by leading
the world along the new path of warship design, without waiting
for others to utilize the advantages that had been rendered
possible by progress in armour, guns and machinery. How great
an advance the " Dreadnought " represented on previous ships
may be gauged from the particulars given in Table I.
TABLE I. Comparison between " Dreadnought " and the Best
Previous Skips.
" Dread-
nought "
(as de-
signed)
Best Pre-
vious
Ship
Number of 12-in. guns carried.
10
4
Length of line of battle for equal num-
ber of 12-in. guns on the broadside
Ratio
I tO 2
Total muzzle energy per broadside of
,
,
12-in. guns
Length of line of battle for equal 12-in.
\ft.-tonsj
J I45,OOO
\ft.-tons
' broadside gun power ....
Ratio
I to 2-6
Tons displacement per 12-in. gun .
1,785
3-750
First cost per 12-in. gun in line of battle.
175,000
280,000
Annual upkeep of ship per 12-in. gun car-
ried. 1
34,800
62,300
Speed (knots)
21
19
Endurance :
At economical speed (nautical m.)
5,800
5,790
At 16 knots (nautical m.)
4,000
3,000
Other navies were not slow to follow the lead given by Great
1 This includes pay, victualling, repairs, coal, stores, etc., together
with an addition of 15% per annum of first cost, for interest and
depreciation, etc
Britain. The veil of secrecy in which the new types were closely
shrouded whetted the emulation as well as the curiosity of other
nations. Germany, ever ready to reap where others have
sown, set about preparing for the change, and two years later
produced the "Nassau" class, with 12 n-in. guns as main
armament and 12 6-in. guns as anti-destroyer armament. At
the rate of three a year She continued to lay down ships of this
type improved in armament as time progressed each batch
being accompanied by a battle cruiser of corresponding power
and speed. Other nations fell into step, and, during the five or
six years preceding the outbreak of war, produced, with variants
appropriate to their several necessities, all-big-gun ships carrying
a main armament of 10 or 12 primary weapons grouped in turrets
shielding two, three, or even four guns each.
While the German output of capital ships had, once it got
under way, continued with methodical regularity, British naval
construction had suffered from the vagaries inseparable from
divergent political views and aspirations.
Under the " Cawdor Memorandum " of Nov. 30 1905 it had
been laid down that the minimum British requirements would be
four large armoured ships a year, and the " Dreadnought " with
the three " Invincibles " fulfilled this condition, but in each of
the two following years only three battleships (and no battle
cruisers) were laid down, while the 1908-9 programme only pro-
vided for one battleship (" Neptune ") and one armoured cruiser
(" Indefatigable "). Efforts had been made to induce Germany
to curtail her naval expansion " a year's holiday in naval con-
struction " being suggested but such hopes as were based on
this contingency gradually faded before the inexorable German
determination to challenge British sea supremacy. In the 1909-
10 estimates provision was therefore made for laying down four
capital ships, two in July 1009 (" Colossus " and " Hercules ")
and two in Nov. (" Orion " and " Lion "), while four " contin-
gent " ships (" Monarch," " Thunderer," " Conqueror " and
" Princess Royal ") were to be laid down in April 1910, if the
German menace showed no signs of abating. So far from this
latter being the case, there was an acceleration in the dates of
laying down the .German ships, and the programme outlined above
was therefore punctually carried out. The 1909-10 programme,
it will be seen, was a memorable one in the history of British
naval construction, and its adoption enabled Great Britain to
maintain her naval supremacy, which otherwise would have
been jeopardized.
Notwithstanding the atmosphere of uncertainty created by
the delays due to hopes of a reduction of armaments, the rate of
progress on warships under construction was well maintained,
and, with a few exceptions, Great Britain was able to complete
the largest battleships within 24 to 30 months of laying down,
a performance which compared favourably with the best achieve-
ments abroad, and which not even Germany with her methodical
preparations was able to equal.
The disposition of the heavy guns in both battleships and battle
cruisers had, during the first five years of this period, undergone
several important modifications. In the " Dreadnought," " Bellero-
phon " and " St. Vincent " classes the five two-gun turrets were
placed as in the diagram : A being on the forecastle deck, the re-
maining turrets on the upper deck, giving eight guns on each broad-
side, six ahead and six astern.
The " Invincibles," which carried one turret (X) less, had the two
middle turrets P and Q disposed en echelon, and the superstructure
amidships was so arranged as to enable all eight guns to fire on
either broadside. The middle turrets were, however, placed so near
to one another that serious trouble was experienced from gun blast
when firing across the deck. In the battle cruisers of the " Indefatig-
able " class, and the battleships of the " Neptune " and " Colossus "
classes, therefore, where a similar arrangement was adopted, the
centre pair of turrets were spaced wider apart. A further change in
the arrangement of turrets was adopted for the first time in these
428
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
battleships, where the after-pair were disposed at different deck
levels to enable X turret to fire over Y. This arrangement, which
now became the standard practice, while it introduced some diffi-
culty in providing for stability, was economical of space, and simpli-
fied many of the gunnery problems connected with the ship; it
gave, moreover, a higher gun platform for some of the armament.
While the offensive qualities of the battleships had continued to
increase in successive types, the need for improved defence, particu-
larly against mine and torpedo attack, had not been overlooked.
The adoption of protective bulkheads against under-water attack
as carried out in the " Dreadnought " and subsequent capital ships
was the outcome of the naval engagements of the Russo-Japanese
war. The Russian battleship " Tsareyitch," in particular, had been
fitted with a protective deck which, instead of being continued to
the side of the ship, was turned down in wake of the magazines,
forming a heavy longitudinal bulkhead situated some distance from
the ship's side. This protection had enabled her to resist success-
fully the explosion of several torpedoes. It was decided to incor-
porate in the " Dreadnought " design some under r water protection
to the vitals. Within the limits of displacement available it was not
possible to do' more than protect the magazines and shell-rooms.
These were given 2-in. protective bulkhead plating at the three
centre-line turrets, and 4-in. protective bulkhead plating outside
the two beam turrets, as the latter, being situated nearer the sides
of the vessel, were consequently much more vulnerable.
In the subsequent " Bellerophqn " and " St. Vincent " classes
this side protection was developed in the form of a continuous longi-
tudinal protective bulkhead terminated by protective transverse
bulkheads completely boxing in the magazines and shell-rooms of
the five turrets and the main machinery spaces enclosed between
them. The thickness varies frorn ij in. to 3 in. according to the
distance of the bulkhead from the outer shell of the ship. In a verti-
cal direction the bulkhead ran from the outer bottom to just above
the lower edge of the side armour. In the " Hercules " and " Orion "
classes there was a reversion to the original " Dreadnought " sys-
tem of isolated protection to the various compartments immediately
below each of the three groups of turrets, the remainder of the
ship's hull below water-line being unprotected. In the " King
George V." and " Iron Duke " classes the under-water protection
was extended by joining up the portions between the two foremost
turrets to those below the centre turret, so that only the ends of the
ship and something less than the middle third remained unpro-
tected. Concurrently with the battleships this form of protection
was also fitted in the battle cruisers, but limited to the magazines
and shell-rooms.
Finally, in the " Queen Elizabeth " (the torpedo menace having
increased) the continuous longitudinal protective bulkheads were
once more incorporated, and with the transverse protective bulk-
heads at each end, girdling the ship throughout nearly her entire
length, so that not only shell-rooms and magazines, but engine-
ana boiler-rooms had the protection of a bulkhead 2 in. thick some
10 ft. from the ship's side, with the addition of another longitudinal
bulkhead of 17 Ibs. plating placed (at a distance of 7 ft. amidships
and at varying distances at the ends) on the inner side of the pro-
tective bulkhead, further minimizing the risk of damage to the
vitals of the ship from the effects of an explosion.
The arrangement of the protective bulkheads in the " Royal
Sovereign " class generally followed that of " Queen Elizabeth,"
but their thickness was l^ inches.
The efficiency of this system of protection, which a series of experi-
ments had established, was demonstrated at Jutland, and it was
further improved upon by the later forms of bulge protection.
The construction of British battle cruisers had proceeded con-
currently with that of the battleships, although in smaller num-
bers. The demands made upon the engineering staff to provide
for the large increases of power already referred to involved
many difficult problems, but the " Indefatigable " was neverthe-
less completed (in 1911) within two years of laying down, and
the later ships, "Lion," "Princess Royal," " Queen Mary," and
" Tiger," followed on in succeeding years, each marking some
advance in power and speed. Two other battle cruisers of the
" Indefatigable " type, viz. " New Zealand " and " Australia,"
built for the Dominions from whence they took their names, had
also been completed and were available for reinforcing the battle
cruiser squadrons.
When the World War broke out in Aug. 1914 there were, more-
over, four capital ships building in England for foreign Powers
two for Turkey and two for the Chilean Government. The two
Turkish ships had just been completed and commissioned, one at
Armstrong's and the other at Vickers', and were on the eve of
sailing when war was declared. As both vessels were subject to
preemption in the event of war, the Government promptly took
them over and added them to the British fleet under the names
of " Agincourt " and " Erin " respectively.
Of the two Chilean ships building in England at Armstrong's,
the " Almirante Latorre " (10 i4-in. guns and 16 6-in. guns) was
the further advanced, and she was taken over and renamed
" Canada." She was completed in Sept. 1915. The " Almirante
Cochrane " was taken over in 1918 for conversion into an air-
craft carrier, being renamed " Eagle."
There were thus at the outbreak of war the following com-
pleted capital ships on the offensive British list:
" Erin " and " Agincourt " (purchased) .... 2
" Iron Duke " class . . . . . . . .2'
" King George V." class 4
" Orion " class 4
" Colossus " class 2
" Neptune " i
" St. Vincent " class 3
" Bellerophon " class 3
" Dreadnought " i
Battleships " . .22
" Queen Mary " i
" Lion " and " Princess Royal " 2
" Indefatigable," " Australia," and " New Zealand " . 3
" Invincible," " Inflexible," " Indomitable " . . .3
Battle cruisers 9
The total armament comprised in the above completed ships was
as follows: 134 13'5-in. guns; 162 12-in.; 60 6-in.; 360 4-in., of
which 18 were anti-aircraft 3 ; 62 3-in. and 12-pdr., of which 38 were
anti-aircraft ; 46 6-pdr. and 3-pounder.
Of the older battleships, from the "Majestic" class (1895)
onwards, the British navy possessed:
" Lord Nelson " class 2
" King Edward VII." class 8
" Swiftsure " class 2
" Duncan " class 5
" Formidable " class .2
" Canopus " class 6
" Majestic " class 9
These older ships, whose speeds ranged from 17 knots to igj
knots, comprised a total armament of 152 1 2-in.; 8 lo-in. ; 52 9'2-in.;
28 7'5-in.; 4^16 6-in.; 28 14-pdr., and 530 12-pounder. They were, of
course, not in a position to meet modern " Dreadnoughts " on equal
terms, but they compared favourably in offensive and defensive
qualities with contemporary German warships, while being numeri-
cally in considerable superiority. They all rendered useful service
during the war.
The old " Revenge," completed in 1894 (renamed "Redoubt-
able " in 1914), the last available vessel of the old " Royal Sov-
ereign " class, was commissioned and rendered useful service in
the Belgian coast bombardments of 1914 and 1915.
In addition to the " Tiger " and the two remaining ships of the
" Iron Duke " class which were approaching completion, there
were five " Queen Elizabeths " in a more or less advanced state
of construction, and five " Royal Sovereigns " laid down eight to
ten months previously. The " Queen Elizabeth," being the far-
thest advanced, was pushed on with all possible speed, and by
Jan. 1915 she was sufficiently completed to be commissioned and
sent out to the Mediterranean, where she took part in the bom-
bardment of the Dardanelles forts.
With regard to the design of British capital ships in the past, a
most serious limitation had been the restricted width of the graving-
docks in Great Britain. This involved keeping the extreme beam
of the ships within about 90 feet. Had wider docks been available,
thus making it possible to have had a greater beam, the designs on
the same length and draught could have embodied more fighting
qualities, such as armour, armament, greater stability in case of
damage, and improved under-water protection. This condition sub-
sisted until the completion of the two big floating docks for Ports-
mouth 4 and the Medway, the two locks at Portsmouth, and
the large graving-docks at Rosyth ; but the shortage of wide docks
was a serious handicap during the war, and it was necessary to
make use of the Gladstone Dock at Liverpool and the dock at
Avonmouth.
1 Two more nearly complete.
1 One more (" Tiger ") nearly complete.
3 The anti-aircraft armament was not provided until after the
outbreak of war, when such provision became necessary.
* Portsmouth floating dock was transferred to Invergordon in
1914, and the Medway Lock to the Tyne in 1915.
PLATE III.
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
FIG. 14. H.M.S. Ceres.
FIG. 16. H.M.S. Danae.
- a \
u
*-
A.
FIG. 1 8. H.M.S. Hawkin
FIG. 29. H.M. Submarine Mi.
FIG. 22. H.M.S. Shakespeare.
FIG. 23. H.M.S. Torch.
FIG. 27. H.M. Submarine
FIG. 26. H.M.S. Primula.
FIG. 28. H.M. Submarine La.
FIG. 30. H.M.S. Argus.
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
429
Even in 1921 there was a great need for more British floating docks
of the largest description. This was more especially apparent on
the Clyde, where there was no dock, either floating or graving,
which could take capital ships.
The German ships were not handicapped in this way, and most
of their later capital ships had widths of between 90 and 100 ft.,
which enabled them to carry more armour, and as far as it is possible
to judge, they stood a good deal of battering without showing any
lack of stability, while they proved to be good gun platforms, at any
rate for work in the North Sea.
Immediately after war was declared great pressure was exer-
cised to complete the ships then building for the British navy,
and to order such other vessels as could be designed and finished
in the shortest possible time. The view held in the early days
that the war would only last a year necessarily coloured all Uiat
was done in the way of naval design and construction. Generally
speaking, therefore, the construction of new battleships was
ruled out. With the acquisition of the" Agincourt,"" Erin "and
" Canada," which were building in England for foreign Govern-
ments in private yards, and in view of the certain early comple-
tion of the remaining two vessels of the " Iron Duke " class,
shortly to be followed by the vessels of the " Queen Elizabeth "
class, Great Britain had a great preponderance of heavier capital
ships, or Dreadnoughts, over the enemy; and as this class of
ship takes longer to design and construct than any other, it was
obviously a prudent course to concentrate on such types as were
specially needed and could be built more quickly.
It should also be remembered that the menace of the subma-
rine, which was from the first beginning to loom as a vital factor
in the war, pointed in the direction of large numbers of patrol
boats, torpedo-boat destroyers, and smaller types of vessels to
deal with this menace. No time, therefore, was lost in placing
orders for additional British destroyers, submarines, light cruis-
ers, sloops, mine-sweepers, patrol boats, etc.; and it very soon
became clear that the Royal dockyards and the regular warship-
building contractors would not be able to cope with the mass of
new construction that was required. Accordingly, orders for
many of the last-named classes were placed with builders who
had hitherto only been accustomed to mercantile work. With
the arrangements that were made, however, for superintending
and overseeing the work by the Admiralty, with the assistance of
the registration societies Lloyd's and the British Corporation
very little difficulty was experienced in getting the work satis-
factorily carried out by the firms new to this class of shipbuilding,
and success attended the arrangements made.
Table II. gives the number and tonnage of vessels added to the
British navy during the war. The total number (including other
classes besides those in the table) was 1,513, of approximately
2,356,000 tons displacement.
TABLE II. British Warships Completed and Lost Between Aug. 4
1914 and Nov. II 1918.
Completions
Losses
Approx.
Approx.
Dis-
Dis-
No.
place-
No.
place-
ment
ment
Battleships
15
395,ooo
13
201,000
Battle cruisers ....
3
81,500
3
63,000
Cruisers
3
56,500
13
158,500
Light cruisers ....
36
143,000
12
46,000
Monitors
40
126,000
6
14,000
Aircraft-carriers ....
8
67,500
3
27,500
Flotilla leaders ....
28
45-Soo
3
5,ooo
Torpedo-boat destroyers .
255
273,000
64
52,000
Submarines
146
151-500
54
43,500
P. and P. C. boats
63
40,000
2
1,000
Sloops
124
155-500
18
22,500
Paddle mine-sweepers .
34
27,500
Twin screw mine-sweepers .
55
43,000
Patrol gunboats ....
3
27,000
Oilers and petrol carriers .
67
436,000
Whalers, trawlers and drifters .
382
173.500
Battleships. To take ships added to the British navy during the
war in the proper order, it is necessary to begin with battleships of
the " Iron Duke " class. The particulars of Dreadnoughts built
after the " Hercules " are given in Table III.
The " Iron Duke " class (see fig. i), of which there were four,
followed the " King George V." class, both in sequence of time and
in general characteristics. The same main armament, similarly
arranged, with the five turrets all on the centre line of the ship,
was adhered to, the chief difference in the " Iron Dukes " being
that instead of the 4-in. guns forming the secondary armament, a
battery of 12 6-in. guns protected by 6-in. armour was finally
decided upon. The protection also was somewhat increased over
that of the " King George V.," involving an increase in dimensions
over any previous British battleships. Two of the class were laid
down in Jan. 1912 and two in May, the four vessels being completed
,in March, June, Oct. and Nov. 1914, so that two were ready just
TABLE III. Particulars of British Battleships.
Vessel
Date of
Launch
Length between
perpendiculars;
(length over all)
Breadth
Mean
Draught
Load Dis-
placement :
Tons
Speed :
Knots
Horse
Power
Armament
Thick-
est side
of
Armour
" Orion "
1910
" Thunderer "
1911
545 ft. (581 ft.)
88 ft. 6 in.
27 ft. 6 in.
22,500
21
27,000
10 13'5-in.
12 in.
" Conqueror "
1911
1 6 4-in.
" Monarch "
1911
3 2i-in. T. T.
" King George V."
1911
" Centurion "
1911
555ft- (597ft.6in.)
89ft.
27 ft. 6 in.
23,000
21
27,000
10 13'5-in-
12 in.
" Ajax "
1912
16 4-in.
" Audacious "
1912
3 2 1 -in. T. T.
" Iron Duke "
1912
" Marlborough ".
1912
580 ft. (622 ft. 9 in.)
90 ft.
28ft.
25,000
21
29,000
10 13'5-in.
12 in.
" Emperor of
12 6-m.
India" .
1913
4 2 1 -in. T. T.
" Benbow " .
1913
" Queen Eliza-
beth " .
1913
" Warspite "
1913
" Barham "
1914
6ooft. (643ft.9in.)
90 ft. 6 in.
28 ft. 9 in.
27,500
25
75,000
8 is-in.
13 in.
" Valiant " .
1914
12 6-in.
" Malaya " .
1915
4 2i-in. T. T.
" Royal Sov-
ereign ".
1915
" Royal Oak " .
1914
" Revenge ".
1915
58oft. (624ft-3in.)
88 ft. 6 in.
28 ft. 6 in.
25,750
23
40,000
8 15-in.
13 in.
" Resolution "
1915
102 ft. with
14 6-in.
bulge.
4 2 1 -in. T. T.
" Ramillies "
1916
" Agincourt "
1913
632ft. (67ift.6in.)
89 ft.
27 ft.
27,500 .
22
34,000
14 !2-in.20 6-in
9 in.
3 2i-in. T. T.
" Erin "
1913
525 ft. (559 ft. 6 in.)
91 ft. 7 in.
28 ft. 6 in.
23,000
21
26,000
io-i3-5-in. l6-6-in
12 in.
4 2i-in. T. T.
" Canada " .
1913
625 ft. (661 ft.)
92 ft.
28 ft. 6 in.
28,000
22}
37,000
10 i4-in.i6 6-in
9 in.
4 2l-in. T. T.
430
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
before, and two shortly after, the declaration of war. Four torpedo-
tubes were carried in lieu of three in the previous ships, and after
the battle of Jutland a considerable amount of additional protec-
tion was added over the magazines a course which was practically
adopted in all British ships at that time as a precautionary measure.
Only in one case was any portion of a shell found to have pene-
trated below the protective deck; but with the ever-increasing
range at which actions were fought, and the increasing penetration
of improved shell, the danger of the decks being inadequate had to
be considered. Special interest is attached to this class, as the " Iron
Duke " was the fleet flagship during the whole time of Adml. Jelli-
coe's appointment as commander-in-chief, and she was in action at
Jutland with her sister ships.
FIG. i.
The " Marlborough," it should be specially noted, was the only
British battleship of the post-" Dreadnought " type struck by a
torpedo during the whole war, and the value of the longitudinal pro-
tective bulkhead and of the subdivision and arrangements adopted
was clearly shown, as the ship was able to remain in the line, no
vital damage being done. She was afterwards safely docked in the
Tyne and repaired. This is specially interesting, as many of the
older ships, some with centre-line bulkheads and with other arrange-
ments not so good for dealing with under-water damage, were sunk
in the Dardanelles and elsewhere by enemy torpedoes.
FIG. 2.
The next type to note is the " Queen Elizabeth " class of the
1912-3 programme (see figs. 2 and 3). Three of these vessels, after
taking a little more than two years to build, were completed in
Jan., March and Oct. 1915. The other two were completed in
Feb. 1916. A very considerable departure was made in the " Queen
Elizabeth " from any previous " Dreadnoughts," the 15-in. gun
taking the place of the 13'5-in., and the designed speed being
increased by 4 knots over previous " Dreadnoughts," whilst the
secondary armament was similar to that of the " Iron Dukes,"
consisting of 6-in. guns. Their very great increase of speed involved
more than doubling the H.P. of the " Iron Duke " to give the 25
knots desired, and the great increase in the weight of the 15-in.
guns and mountings over the 13-5-in. meant accepting only four
turrets with eight 15-in. guns, as against five turrets with 10 13-5-in.
guns in the previous ships, and even so the armament was consid-
erably heavier. The further great departure from previous practice
in battleships was the adoption of oil only as the fuel. This necessi-
tated special arrangements of the oil bunkers, many of which were
30 ft. in height, and required special construction to withstand the
head of oil. The armour and protection were fully maintained as
compared with previous ships, but all these additions involved
increasing the displacement to 27,500 tons.
In the battle of Jutland the Fifth Battle Squadron, consisting of
four vessels of this class, were heavily engaged for several hours,
and although they inflicted and sustained heavy punishment, espe-
cially in the case of " Warspite," all the vessels gave a splendid
account of themselves and were not seriously damaged or put out
of action. After the battle of Jutland additional protection was
added to the magazines. The oil fuel proved a complete success in
the stress of war conditions, it being found easier to keep up a high
sustained speed, with the smaller complement carried.
It should be noted that Sir Philip Watts was responsible as
Director of Naval Construction for the design of the " Iron Duke"
and " Queen Elizabeth " classes, thus completing a series of 27
battleships of the " Dreadnought " type designed and built during
his tenure of office at the Admiralty in addition to the large num-
ber of battle cruisers, light cruisers, destroyers and other vessels
built during that period truly a great record.
Following the " Queen Elizabeths " came the " Royal Sov-
ereign " class of the 1913-4 programme (see figs. 4 and 5). These
were the first capital ships built by the Admiralty to Sir Eustace
d'Eyncourt's designs, he having succeeded Sir P. Watts in Aug.
1912. These vessels were to have the same armament as the " Queen
Elizabeth," but as there was some question about the supply of oil
fuel when the design was discussed, it was decided to revert to coal,
ana also to accept the slower speed of 21 knots, which would make
them more homogeneous with other " Dreadnoughts." Subse-
quently, when the vessels were in process of construction and the
great advantages of the use of oil fuel with other types of warships
became apparent, it was decided to change from coal to oil, so enab-
ling increased power, giving a speed of about 23 knots, to be obtained.
When fully laden with about 4,000 tons of oil, the " Revenge "
attained 22 knots, which was equal to about 23 knots in the designed
load condition. A somewhat different disposition of deck and side
armour was also adopted by which the thick protective deck at the
centre of the ship was brought up to the level of the main deck;
this portion of the protective deck being thus well above the level
of the deep load line, and giving more protected freeboard in the
damaged condition than on any of our earlier battleships. This
was an important feature, as a somewhat reduced metacentric
height was decided upon for these ships with a view to making them
steadier gun-platforms than some of the ships with more initial sta-
bility. The vessels were provided with good under-water protec-
tion, which was later reinforced by adding outside bulge protec-
tion. This was done to " Ramillies " before her launch and to the
other vessels of the class after they had been in commission some
time. The addition of " bulges " was suggested first by Sir E.
d'Eyncourt originally for the Edgar " class, for which this form of
protection was added in 1914 after experiments had been made.
The results proved the efficiency of the bulges.
The three battleships taken over by Great Britain from foreign
Governments were of different types. H.M.S. "Agincourt" (see
fig. 6) was commenced in Sept. 1911 for the Brazilian Government,
from designs got out under Mr. Perrett at Elswick, but modified
by Sir E. d'Eyncourt in Rio Janeiro, where he was then represent-
ing the Armstrong firm, before his appointment at the Admiralty.
The Brazilian authorities, after much discussion, decided upon 14
12-in. guns, twin-mounted in seven turrets. This involved a ship
with a length of 632 ft. between perpendiculars and 670 ft.^pver all.
The main armour was somewhat lighter than that of British " Dread-
noughts " and in other respects, such as fuelling facilities, the ship
hardly came up to the British standard. However, she was well
reported on, and the 14 big guns were liked by the gunnery officers,
who preferred a large number of guns for their salvoes. Certain
alterations had to be made to fit her for the British service, but in
the main she was left as designed.
It should be mentioned that in 1914 the " Agincourt " was trans-
ferred by Brazil to Turkey and she was on the point of leaving the
Tyne for Constantinople when, on the declaration of war, she was
taken over by the British Government.
The design of the " Erin " was settled by three firms, Armstrong's,
Vickers and John Brown, in consultation with the Turkish authori-
ties, for whom the vessel was built, being commenced in 1911. In
general characteristics she more nearly followed the " King George
V." class than any other British ship, except that the secondary
armament consisted of 6-in. guns, as in the " Iron Duke " class.
This vessel also was taken over by the British Government in Aug.
1914, and certain modifications made to fit her for the British
service. In respect of quantity of fuel carried, the " Erin " was
below the standard adopted for vessels designed for the British navy.
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
43i
The third ship taken over from a foreign Government was ordered
and commenced in 1911 at Elswick from designs prepared at Els-
wick by Mr. Perrett for the Chilean Government. There were two
. ships of the class, the " Almirante Latorre " (which became H.M.S.
" Canada "), and the sister ship the "Almirante Cochrane" (now
H.M.S. " Eagle "). The " Canada " had 10 14-in. guns, twin-
mounted, in the centre line, and was originally designed to have
22 4-7-in. as the secondary battery, but this was subsequently
altered to 16 6-in. guns. The protection again was somewhat lighter
than that of the British " Dreadnoughts," but the speed was rather
higher, viz. 22 f knots, and as a matter of fact this speed was con-
siderably exceeded on trial. The ship was taken over by the British
Admiralty in Sept. 1914, and completed, after certain necessary
modifications, a year later. Her fuel consisted of coal, with the
addition of a certain amount of oil, as in most British battleships.
In 1920 the " Canada " was returned to the Chilean Government
under her original name.
The sister ship, " Almirante Cochrane," remained in an uncom-
pleted condition on the stocks at Elswick till early in 1918, when
she was taken over by the British Government and rearranged as
an aircraft-carrying ship. She was renamed H.M.S. " Eagle,"
and as a compliment to the U. S. navy, she was, at the request of
the Admiralty, launched by Mrs. Page, the wife of the then Ameri-
can Ambassador to Great Britain.
Battle Cruisers. As regards the British battle cruisers later than
the " Princess Royal," particulars are given in Table IV.
The "Tiger" was included in the 1911-2 programme and fol-
lowed on the " Queen Mary," the general features of the two ships
being much alike, the chief differences being that the secondary
armament of " Tiger " is 12 6-in. guns in lieu of 16 4-in. in " Queen
Mary," and " Tiger " has two submerged torpedo-rooms, whereas
" Queen Mary " had only one.
The " Tiger " was laid down at Clydebank on June 12 1912, and
completed in Oct. 1914. In common with so many ships completed
during the war, the early commissioning and joining of the fleet
was so imperative that no exhaustive trials in deep water were car-
ried out, but the runs made on the Polperro course showed that the
designed power of 108,000 S.H.P. could be obtained with little diffi-
culty, corresponding to a speed of 30 knots. In the early stages of
the design the oil-fuel capacity was very largely increased from
1,000 tons originally intended to a maximum oil stowage of 3,480
tons, in addition to the 3,320 tons of coal.
FIG. 7.
At the commencement of the war two additional battleships of
slightly modified " Royal Sovereign " type, viz. the " Renown "
and " Repulse " (see figs. 7 and 8), had been laid down, but in view
of the long time it would take to complete these ships, the construc-
tion was not pressed forward. Immediately after the battle of the
Falkland Is., in which the British battle cruisers " Invincible " and
" Inflexible," in company with other smaller cruisers, annihilated
Von Spec's fleet, the value of the battle cruiser type became very
apparent, and on the initiative of Lord Fisher, then First Sea Lord,
it was decided to stop the construction of " Renown " and " Re-
pulse " as battleships and to alter the design completely into that
of very fast battle cruisers.
Instructions to redesign these ships were given about Christmas
1914. The new design had to give a speed of 32 knots, with the
largest number of big guns possible for such a vessel, and with pro-
tection similar to that of the " Invincible " class. A modified form
of bulge was adopted in these ships to give additional under-water
protection against torpedo attack. After the war further addi-
tions were made to the bulge protection and to the armour.
FIG. 9.
The general outline design was completed and approved in ten
days, and 6 15-in. guns adopted as the main armament, the second-
ary armament consisting of 17 4-in. guns, of which 15 were mounted
in five specially designed triple-gun mountings. It was necessary
that the ships should be completed at the earliest possible date,
and the "Tiger's " machinery was repeated with some additional
boilers, with oil as the fuel, thus increasing the power to 120,000,
which, with the extra length given to the ship, made it possible to
obtain the desired speed of 32 knots.
Lord Fisher also insisted that the ships must be completed within
15 months an abnormally short time for an entirely new design
this period of completion was not realized, although not greatly
exceeded. By Jan. 21 1915 the two firms entrusted with the orders,
viz. Messrs. John Brown and Fairfield, were supplied with sufficient
information to enable them to proceed with the structure, and both
keels were laid on Jan. 25, which was Lord Fisher's birthday. All
the drawings and specifications were completed by April and the
design finally approved in that month.
The arrangement of the whole ship, showing the protection, is
given in fig. 7, the plating over the magazines having been consid-
erably increased as a result of the Jutland fight.
" Repulse " was launched in Jan. 1916, less than a year from the
laying -down, and "Renown" was launched three months later.
" Repulse " went through her commissioning trials early in Aug.,
and " Renown " followed one month later and was completed in
September. The speed of " Repulse " on trial was over 31 J knots
in the deep condition, and the " Renown " obtained 32-6 knots
mean speed in the normal condition.
The construction of these vessels in a little over one and a half
years from the first order to get out the design constitutes a record
in design and construction of two such important vessels, and
reflected great credit, not only upon the Royal Corps of Naval
Constructors, but also upon the contractors and all concerned in
the construction and completion of the vessels. In fact, the Admir-
alty conveyed their appreciation of this to Sir E. d'Eyncourt, the
Director of Naval Construction, in a letter dated Sept. 1916.
The battle cruiser H.M.S. " Hood " (see figs. 9 and 10), the latest
addition up to 1921 to the capital ships of the British Fleet, was
designed early in 1916, and had only just been ordered from Messrs.
J. Brown & Co. when the battle of Jutland took place. This great
event naturally led to a revision of the design and in view of the
damage which was then done to British battle cruisers and also to
TABLE IV. Particulars of British Battle Cruisers.
Vessel
Date of
Launch
Length between
perpendiculars;
(length over all)
Breadth
Mean
Draught
Load dis-
placement :
Tons
Speed :
Knots
Horse
Power
Armament
Thick-
est side
Armour
" Lion "
1910)
660 ft.
88 ft. 6 in.
28 ft.
26,350
28
70,000
8 i3-5-in.
9 in.
Princess
16 4-in.
t: Royal " .
19" J
(700 ft.)
2 2 1 -in. T.T.
" Queen Mary " .
1912
600 ft.(703ft.6in.)
Sgft.
28 ft.
27,000
28
75,000
8 13-5-in.
9 in.
16 4-in.
2 -21-ift. S.T.
" Tiger "
1913
660 ft. (704 ft.)
90 ft. 6 in.
28 ft. 6 in.
28,500
30
108,000
8 13-s-in.
9 in.
12 6-1 n.
4 2i-in. T.T.
" Renown "
1916!
750 ft.
90 ft.
25 ft. 6 in.
26,500
32
120,000
6 is-in.
6 in.
" Repulse " .
1916;
(794 ft.)
17 4-in.
2 2 1 -in. T.T.
" Hood "
1918
810 ft. (860 ft.)
104 ft.
28 ft. 6 in.
41,200
32
144,000
8 15-in.
12 in.
12 5'5-in.
6 2i-m. T.T.
432
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
the German ships of similar type, it was deemed advisable to increase
the armour protection, if possible. As the result of very extensive
investigations, it was found possible, by accepting a deeper draught
and a slightly reduced speed, to add very considerably to the pro-
tection of the vessel as already designed, without otherwise seriously
affecting the design of the ship as a whole. The alterations were
of a very radical character, the armour belt being increased from 8
to 12 in. and the barbettes from 9 to 12 in.; and certain increases
were also made in the deck protection. At the same time the eight
I5-in. gun mountings had their design modified to admit of an ele-
vation of 30 degrees, and certain other modifications were made,
both in the torpedo armament and also in the arrangements for pre-
venting the flash penetrating to the magazines a form of protec-
tion which was elaborated for all British ships at this time. All these
increases involved an additional weight of nearly 5,000 tons, the
legend displacement of the " Hood " becoming finally 41,200 tons
when carrying 1,200 tons of fuel; the ship then having a draught of
28J ft., and a draught of 315 ft. with full fuel load, viz. 4,000 tons.
The original length and beam of the ship were maintained as
before. Some extra plating had to be provided on the decks for
strength purposes, but the under- water protection against torpedoes
was retained as in the original design. With the modifications made,
the " Hood " when completed was by far the most up-to-date capi-
tal ship in existence.
The changes in the design and other circumstances militated
against the quick construction of the ship, and it was about four
years from the approval of the original design in April 1916 to the
time of her completion, this being about double the time taken to
build recent British capital ships, and nearly three times that taken
to build the " Repulse " and " Renown." The modifications were,
however, quite justified by the circumstances, and they made the
ship a much more powerfully protected one, whilst increasing her
displacement, and consequently the weight of material to be worked,
to about 50% more than that of " Repulse " and " Renown."
The main machinery of the " Hood," consisting of geared tur-
bines to develop 144,000 H.P., has the largest power which has ever
been put through gearing, namely, 36,000 H.P. on each of the four
shafts. The machinery is placed in three engine-rooms, of which
the forward one contains two independent sets for the outer shafts;
the middle and after engine-rooms contain one independent set
for each of the inner shafts. This power, which was designed to give
32 knots for the earlier design of 36,300 tons displacement, was
expected to give at least 31 knots in deep water with 210 revolutions
of the propellers, at a displacement of 41,200 tons for the " Hood "
as built. The 24 boilers represented the small-tube type with
forced draught, arranged in four boiler-rooms. Such boilers were
first adopted for large vessels in the " Courageous " class. Oil is the
only fuel used in " Hood." On trials on the measured mile the
"Hood" obtained a speed of 32-07 knots with 151,000 S.H.P. at
42,200 tons displacement, and 31-9 knots with 150,000 S.H.P. at
44,600 tons displacement.
It will be seen from the plan (fig. 9) that the main armament of
eight 15-in. guns was mounted, as in recent British battleships of
the " Queen Elizabeth " and " Royal Sovereign " classes, in four
turrets, all on the centre line, with very large arcs of training, the
forward ones training to 60 abaft the beam, and the after ones to
60 before the beam. The anti-torpedo-boat destroyer armament
consists of twelve 5i-in. guns arranged on the forecastle deck and
shelter deck. There are also four 4-in. anti-aircraft guns on the
shelter deck aft. There are two 2i-in. submerged torpedo tubes,
each in a separate compartment forward, and four 2l-in. above-
water torpedo tubes between the upper and forecastle decks; these
above-water tubes being a further addition since the original design
was made. The distribution of armour is also shown. The 12-in.
belt had a length of 562 ft. and a depth of 9 ft. 6 inches. Above the
main belt was a strake of J-in. armour to the height of the upp^r
deck, and above that again there was 5-in. armour between the
upper and forecastle decks. The side armour all sloped outward
from below, the shell being thus unable to hit the armour normally,
so that the virtual thicknesses were somewhat greater. There was
thick plating behind all the armour, varying from 2 in. over the
greater portion to ij in. and I in. elsewhere. The torpedo protec-
tion consisted of the bulge arrangement, with an outer compart-
ment of air and an inner one specially strengthened with the neces-
sary separating bulkheads, etc. This protection extended through-
put the whole length of the machinery spaces and magazines, and
it has been proved that it renders the ship as safe against attack from
torpedoes under water as she is against gun attack above water.
The oil fuel tanks are arranged along the sides, thus giving addi-
tional protection. The " Hood " was successfully launched in Aug.
1918 at Clydebank, the ceremony being performed by Lady Hood,
widow of Adml. Hood, who lost his life whilst gallantly leading
into action the Third Battle-Cruiser Squadron at Jutland. The
launching weight was about 22,000 tons. As the other three ships
of the class which were commenced had none of them reached the
launching stage at the time of the Armistice, it was subsequently
decided not to proceed with them, in view of the international con-
ditions, and the " Howe," " Rodney " and " Anson " were accord-
ingly scrapped.
As regards the general design of the ship, the " Hood " may be
cited as an example of what can be achieved by going to a large
size. Her design embodies the armament and armour protection
of a first-class battleship, including also good under-water protect-
tion against torpedoes, and at the same time gives the speed of the
fastest battle cruisers. This involved great length and displacement.
The under-water bulge protection, which has entirely superseded
the provision of torpedo netting, is additional to anything pro-
vided in pre-war " Dreadnoughts."
In connexion with the size of the " Hood " and general considera-
tions of design, it is interesting to note the chief characteristics of
the " Queen Elizabeth " and " Renown." The " Queen Eliza-
beth " is a well-armoured ship of about 28,000 tons, with eight 15-in.
guns and speed of 25 knots, while " Renown," of slightly less dis-
placement, viz. 27,000 tons, though of greater length, is a vessel
with 7 knots more speed than " Queen Elizabeth," but with only
six 15-in. guns against eight, and approximately about half the
armour protection provided in the " Queen Elizabeth." The
"Hood" has the same armament, viz. eight 15-in. guns, as the
" Queen Elizabeth," armour protection fully equal to and, in fact,
rather heavier in the aggregate than that of the " Queen Eliza-
beth," 7 knots more speed than the " Queen Elizabeth," which
makes the speed about equal to that of " Renown," and in addition
complete protection against torpedo attack.
FIG. 1 1 .
Large Light Cruisers. Early in 1915, as sanction was not given
by the British Government for building more capital ships taking
two years or longer to complete, while additional light cruisers had
been already approved of, it was decided to build " Courageous "
and " Glorious ' (figs. II and 12) on the lines of very large light
cruisers mounting a few guns of heaviest calibre, so as to be able to
annihilate any enemy light cruisers or raiders. They were to have
light protection, similar to British light cruisers, and a speed of not
less than 32 knots, the draught being restricted to about 22 ft.,
or about 5 ft. less than any existing battleships or battle cruiser
carrying such heavy guns, the main armament of four 15-in. guns in
two turrets, one forward and one aft, making them a match for any
raider or light cruiser that might be encountered. At this time it
should also be remembered that the armaments of ships, especially
as regards heavy guns, had to be regulated by the guns and gun
mountings which would be available or could be manufactured in a
short time, and this condition applied to the 15-in. mountings which
were adopted for these ships. The secondary armament consisted
of eighteen 4-in. guns in six triple mountings, similar to the triple
mountings of the " Renown " and " Repulse." The side arrrour
consisted of 2-in. protective plating added to the I-in. shell plating,
and a thin protective deck was worked all fore and aft, but this was
considerably thickened over the magazines after Jutland. A modi-
fied " bulge " was arranged for, as in " Renown " and " Repulse."
The machinery adopted for these ships was of the type fitted in
the light cruiser " Champion." It consisted of a 4-shaft arrange-
ment of geared turbines, the power being transmitted to the pro-
peller shafts by double helical gearing. The eighteen boilers of
Yarrow small-tube type were also similar to those of the light cruisers,
and with all-oil firing a power of 90,000 S.H.P. at about 340 revolu-
tions of propellers was aimed at. Such trials as it was possible to
make showed that 32 knots could easily be obtained at the designed
displacement, and on service this was actually exceeded.
It was intended that these vessels should be built in a year, or
as near that as possible, but this was not realized, and the ships were
both commissioned in Oct. 1916.
The " Furious " (see fig. 13), was similar to, but a modification of,
the " Courageous " and " Glorious," having about the same length
and the same machinery, but the form of midship section was some-
what different, having a more pronounced bulge and a simpler form
of main framing and structure of the hull. The armament also was
different ; each turret, instead of having two 15-in. guns, was arranged
to carry one big gun of i8-in. bore.
Early in the spring of 1917 the necessity for having fast aeroplane-
carriers became very obvious, and it was approved to fit " Furious "
for this purpose. This entailed the removal of the fore turret and
making other considerable alterations. A large hangar was built
on the forecastle deck, and a flying-off platform 160 ft. long was
arranged on the roof of the hangar, which was designed to house
about 10 machines. Later it was decided to remove the after-turret
as well, and a flying-on deck 300 ft. long, extending from the funnel
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
433
aft, was constructed. The secondary armament, which had con-
sisted originally of II si-in. guns, was retained, with the exception
of one gun; the remaining 10 guns being rearranged. Four sets of
triple 2i-in. torpedo tubes were fitted on the upper deck aft, and
one pair each side on the upper deck forward.
After these alterations were completed, the ship was tried and
commissioned in July 1917, a speed of 31^ knots being obtained
with 94,000 S.H.P. at 330 revolutions. From the speed point of
view the great advantage of size and length is clearly shown in these
ships compared to T.B.D.s, since with about three times the H.P.
of a destroyer it is possible to drive a ship of nearly 20 times the
displacement at the same speed. This in smooth water; in anything
of a head sea the T.B.D.s are left behind altogether by the great
ships (see Table V.).
Light Cruisers. Following upon the previous light cruisers of the
town classes, a very important departure was made in the light
cruiser design in the programme 1912-3, when the " Arethusa "
class (see fig. 14) was designed by Sir Philip Watts. The importance
attached to speed was specially brought out in this design, and it
was decided to install very powerful machinery of 40,000 S.H.P.
and this could only be achieved by adopting engines and boilers
closely approximating to those hitherto used only for destroyers.
In conjunction with high speed a good armament was provided,
consisting of two 6-in. and six 4-in. guns, though in the original
design the armament consisted entirely of 4-in. guns. The ship's
sides up to the level of the upper deck were protected by a high
tensile plating varying from 2-in. to ij-in. and i-in. in addition to
the i-in. shell plating. This arrangement of plating also greatly
added to the strength and stiffness of the ship. Further particulars
of the class are given in Table V.
The " Arethusa " and other light cruisers were in the action off
Heligoland on Aug. 28 1914.
In the 1913-4 programme the " Calliope " class, slightly larger
vessels than the " Arethusas," but with the same power, were
decided upon, the designs being made by Sir E. d'Eyncourt. After
considerable discussion regarding the merits of mixed or homo-
geneous armament, it was decided to give these vessels two 6-in.
guns, both on the centre line placed aft, and eight 4-in. guns. The
protection consisted, as in the previous design, of a belt with a total
thickness of approximately 3 inches. Most of this class had practi-
cally the same machinery as the " Arethusa," but Parsons geared
turbines were installed in two of them, the " Calliope " having
four shafts and the " Champion " two shafts. This was at the
time a very important experiment, the putting of 20,000 H.P.
through gearing being a very bold departure from anything which
had been hitherto contemplated. The final results obtained with
"Champion" were, however, excellent, and she obtained a speed
of 295 knots with 337 revolutions and about 41,000 S.H.P., this
speed being slightly in excess of any of the other vessels of the class
at corresponding displacement.
The " C " class are the first ships, other than battleships, to have
superposed guns on the middle line, a sort of spoon-shaped bul-
wark being fitted to protect the crew of the lower from the blast of
the upper gun firing over them.
For the subsequent vessels of the " C " class reference should be
made to the tables, which show a gradual growth in size and power
of armament; "Ceres" class (fig. 14) finally having a length of
425 ft. and a beam of 43 ft. 6 in., and a normal displacement of
about 4,200 tons. These vessels carried five 6-in. guns, all on the
centre line.
FIG. 15.
The next class were the " D's " (figs. 15 and 16), the general
arrangement and protection of which followed that of the " Ceres,"
except that six 6-in. guns were carried on the centre line instead of
five. The power was only slightly increased in these ships over the
previous classes, but the revolutions were reduced to 275, all these
later classes having the twin-screw geared arrangement, and ajthough
the displacement of the " D's " increased to 4,650 tons, tfie addi-
tional length and the reduction of revolutions enabled the speed of
close upon 30 knots of the whole class of light cruisers " C's " and
" D's " to be maintained.
In addition to these light cruisers, which were all to Admiralty
design, two vessels the " Birkenhead " and " Chester " built at
Messrs. Cammell, Laird's for the Greek Government, were pur-
chased in 1915. These vessels were considerably heavier than the
"C " class and more closely resembled the British " Chatham "
class. They carried an armament of ten sJ-in. guns. The boilers
were modified to burn only oil in the " Chester," instead of coal and
oil as in the " Birkenhead," and the resulting increase in power to
31,000 gave the former a speed of 26 J knots.
Designs were prepared in 1915 of the " Raleigh " class (figs. 17
and 1 8), a considerably heavier type of light cruiser, more especially
suited for ocean work in any part of the world. They were to have a
speed of 30 knots and a large radius of action. Various armaments
were considered, and it was finally decided to adopt an armament
of seven 7'5-in. guns with twelve 3-in. (four being on high-angle
mountings). Five of the big guns were placed on the centre line,
FIG. 17.
and the other two were on the broadsides amidships. The bow and
stern guns were superposed, thus giving a fire of four guns, both
ahead and astern, and six guns on either broadside. These ships
were originally designed to burn oil and coal, but the coal-burning
boilers were subsequently altered in three ships of the class to burn
a larger amount of oil, the original power of 60,000 S.H.P. on a four-
shaft geared turbine arrangement being thus considerably increased
up to about 70,000 shaft horse power.
These vessels also differed from the light cruisers referred to above
in having modified bulges as protection against under-water attack.
The protective plating was similar to that of the other light cruisers.
One of these ships, the " Cavendish," was altered into an aircraft-
carrier, and renamed " Vindictive."
Monitors (see Table V.). The first vessels of this type to be
added (or reintroduced) to the British navy were the three ex-
Brazilian river monitors built by Messrs. Vickers, Ltd., and taken
over by the British Government in Aug. 1914^, and renaned " Hum-
ber," " Mersey " and " Severn." The particulars of these vessels
are given in the table, from which it will be seen that the armament
consisted of medium-calibre guns, viz. 6-in. and 4'7-inches. These
vessels, though designed for river service, did very good work in the
war, both on the E. -African and Belgian coasts.
The need for vessels of the monitor type mounting heavy guns
soon became apparent, and in Nov. 1914 it was decided to prepare
designs of monitors of more substantial structure for sea-going
service, but of light draught, with good protection and carrying
some heavy guns, the light draught combining the advantages of
being able to go close inshore and greatly reducing the risk of being
struck by a torpedo.
The earliest design was that of the 14-in. gun monitors, four in
number, which was commenced in 1914. Four twin-mounted 14-in.
guns and mountings were available, and with the very simple form
of structure adopted, these vessels were designed and built in six
months. They were quickly followed by the 12-in. monitors, which
were of similar design but carried pairs of 12-in. guns, taken from
older battleships. These vessels were also built in about six months.
They all had a complete bulge of a form which was of simple con-
struction, with an air space outboard and a water space between
that and the ship proper.
Following on the 12-in. monitors, early in Jan. 1915 two more
vessels were ordered, mounting a pair of 15-m. guns. For these
ships, internal-combustion engines, which were well under way,
but designed for another purpose, were installed. These vessels
were named the " Marshal Ney " and " Marshal Soult."
In Sept. 1915 two improved 15-in. monitors were ordered and
named the "Erebus" and "Terror" (figs. 19 and 20). These were
of finer form, of more horse power and a speed of 14 knots.
Following the earlier 15-in. monitors, some much smaller vessels,
each carrying a g-2-in. gun, were designed, and others again which
carried 6-in. guns. A good many of both large and small monitors
went out to the Dardanelles in the early part of the war, and did
very good work, and for a long time they seemed to bear a charmed
life, as they enioyed complete immunity from torpedo attack.
Later, however, the " Erebus " and " Terror " were both torpedoed ;
the latter received three torpedoes, two hitting forward of the bulge
with severe damage resulting; the third, which hit the bulge itself,
did very little damage. The former ship was hit full amidships by
a distance-controlled boat carrying a very heavy charge, but the
bulge gave her complete protection and both ships were quickly re-
paired. It is interesting to note in this connexion that some of the old
434
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
TABLE V. British Light Cruisers, Destroyers, Submarines, etc.
Length
Displace-
ment :
Tons
Speed:
Knots
Horse-
Power
LIGHT CRUISERS
Date of
Launch
between
Perps.
(Length
Breadth
Draught
Armament
Side
Armour
over all)
ft.
ft. in.
ft. in.
" Courageous " .
1916
735
81 o
21 6
17,400
32
90,000
4 15 in. 18 4 in.
3 in.
(786)
14 21 in. T. T.
" Raleigh "...
1917-21
565
(605)
65 o
17 3
9
750
30-1
60,000-70,000
7 7-5 in. 123 in.
621 in. T. T.
3 in.
" Chatham " Class .
1912-3
430
49 10
15 10
5
440
25*
25,000
8 or 9 6 in.
3 in.
(457)
221 in. T. T.
" Arethusa " " .
I9I3-4
410
39 o
13 6
3
500
30
40,000
3 6 in. 4 4 in.
3 in-
(436)
821 in. T. T.
" Calliope " " . .
I9H-5
420
41 6
13 6
3
750
30
40,000
4 6 in.
3 in.
(446)
421 in. T. T.
"Caledon" " .
1916-7
425
42 9
14 i
4
1 20
29
40,000
5 6 in.
3 in.
(450)
8 21 in. T. T.
"Ceres" " . .
1917
425
43 6
14 i
4
190
29
40,000
ditto
3 in.
(45)
" D " " . .
1918
445
46 o
14 3
4,650
29
40,000
6 6 in.
3 in.
(4/i)
1221 in. T. T.
"E" " .
1919-20
545
54 6
16 6
7,550
33
80,000
7 6 in.
3 in.
(570)
1221 in. T. T.
MONITORS:
" Erebus " ...
1916
405
88 o
II O
8,000
12
6,000
2 15 in.; 8 4 in.
9-2 in. Gun Monitors
1915
177
31 o
6 o
540
12
600
I 9-2 in.
6 in. Gun Monitors .
1915
177
31 o
4 o
355
10
400
2 6 in.
DESTROYERS:
" M " Class
1914
273
26 8
8 8
i
025
34
25
ooo
3 ~ 4 ^ o
421 in. T. T.
" R " & " S " Class
1916-8
276
26 8
9 o
1,065
36
27
ooo
34 in.
421 in. T. T.
"V"&"W" " . .
1917-9
312
29 6
9 o
i,
300
34
27,
ooo
4 4 in. or 4 7 in.
4 or 6 21 in. T. T.
DESTROYER
LEADERS:
" Kempenfelt " Class
1914
325
3i 9
IO O
1,650
34
36,000
44 in- ,
" Scott " & " Shake-
421 in. T. T.
speare "...
1917-9
3321
3i 9
10.
i,
800
36
42
ooo
54'7 in-
621 in. T. T.
PATROL BOATS:
573
22
4,000
"P " Class .
1915
224*
23 9
7 7
I 4 in.
214 in. T. T.
SLOOPS ....
1915
268
33 6
II O
i,
250
17
2,
400
2 4 in. or 4-7 in.
MINE-SWEEPERS:
Paddle ....
1916
246
29 o
6 9
810
15
I,
400
13 in.
Twin-screw
1916
231
28 o
7 o
750
16
1, 8OO
13 in.
Sur-
Sab-
Sur-
Sub-
Sur-
Sub-
SUBMARINES:
face
merged
: ace
merged
face
merged
"E" Class
1912
181
22 6
12 6
660
800
15
IO
1, 600
840
i3 in.
5 1 8 in. T. T.
"J" " . . .
1915
275
23 o
14 o
1,210
1,820
I9i
9i
3,600
1,350
I 3 in. or 4 in.
6 1 8 in. T. T.
"K" "
1916
338
26 6
16 o
1, 880
2,560
24
9
10,000
1,400
I 4 in. i 3 in.
8 1 8 in. T. T.
I 4 in.
" L " "
1917
231
23 6
13 6
890
1,070
17*
toj
2,400
i, 600
6 18 in. T. T.
'-'M" " ...
1917
296
24 6
15 9
1, 600
1,95
16
9i
2,400
i, 600
I 12 in. I 3 in.
4 i8or2i in. T. T.
"R" "
1918
163
15 6
ii 7
420
500
9*
15
240
1,200
6 18 in. T. T.
"CHINA GUNBOATS:"
Large ....
1915
237*
36 o
4 o
645
14
2,000
2 6 in.
Small ....
Id 15
126
20 o
2 O
98
10
175
I 4 in.; I 3 in.
British cruisers of the " Edgar " class, which had had bulges added
to them early in the war, were torpedoed in the Mediterranean, but
the bulge gave them complete protection. They were taken to port
and repaired. In fact, no bulged ship struck by a torpedo was sunk.
On the heavier monitors it may be remarked that of all ships
carrying heavy guns these vessels were probably more often in
action off the Belgian coast and elsewhere than any of our heavy-
gun ships, and they no doubt gave the enemy in occupation of that
coast a very anxious time.
Destroyers and Flotilla Leaders (Table V.). With regard to the
development of British destroyers and flotilla leaders during the
war reference may be made to the tables and plans (figs. 21, 22, 23
and 24). These vessels gradually increased in size and power, and
war requirements continually added to the weights which they had
to carry, including considerably more fuel, heavier armament both
of guns and torpedoes, depth charges, larger bridges, and other
additions. In fact, some of the ships which before the war were
9oo-ton vessels, exceeded 1,000 tons towards the end. The intro-
duction, however, of the geared turbine added enormously to the
efficiency of the machinery and propellers.
.During the war nearly 300 T.B.D.'s and flotilla leaders, which
are simply a larger form of T.B.D. with improved accommodation,
were added to the British fleet, and the whole class of these vessels
was called upon to do continuous work often in heavy weather.
They came through the ordeal with very few breakdowns of n achin-
ery or other parts of the ship, whilst the duties they were called
upon to perform in combating the submarines, convoying, etc were
continuous and varied. Numbers of these vessels were built by
firms who had never built a warship before, but the work turned out
by them fully met the Admiralty requirements.
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
435
The flotilla leaders, with a deep load displacement of about 2,000
tons and an armament of five 4-in. or 4'7-in. guns, and with their
very high speed, might well be described as fast scouts or third-
class cruisers.
Patrol Boats (Table V. and fig. 25). Patrol boats were specially
designed to relieve the T.B.D.'s of some of their duties such as
patrolling, submarine-hunting and escort work, for which high speed
was not a necessity. They had to be as small as possible, consistent
with keeping the sea in all weathers, with sufficient speed to run
down submarines, besides having shallow draught and all top hamper
kept low to prevent their being seen at a distance. Economy of fuel
was also an important feature, and it was desirable to have them
built of mild steel rather than high-tensile steel, in order to simplify
the construction. Some were provided with a special hard steel
ram, with which a considerable number of ene_my submarines were
sunk. The various features were combined in a vessel of some-
thing under 600 tons, with geared turbine engines of 3,800 H.P.,
giving a speed of over 22 knots, with 330 revolutions of the pro-
pellers. The boats had large rudder area and were cut up aft, so
that they could turn very quickly upon the enemy a most important
feature for ramming purposes. They proved very valuable boats
FIG. 19.
on service and did a great deal of work against the submarines in all
weathers. They were armed with only one 4-in. gun, mounted in a
commanding position on the forward superstructure, one 2-pdr. and
two 14-in. torpedo tubes, and later it was arranged to carry depth
charges. Their cost was, of course, considerably less than that of a
modern destroyer.
Some of these boats were afterwards disguised to look like small
mercantile craft a device which also proved quite successful.
Sloops and Mine-Sweepers. On the outbreak of war it became
clear that there would be a great demand for mine-sweeping vessels.
A good many coasting and cross-channel steamers were taken up
for this purpose, but more were required, and it was decided in
Dec. 1914 to build twelve single screw ships (fig. 26) of simple
design to this end. With the view of hastening construction, it was
decided to adopt mercantile practice as far as possible in both hull
and machinery. The vessels, although of very fine form, were built
of simple construction and under Lloyd's survey. The boilers were
of ordinary Scotch type, and single screw machinery was provided.
CD
Liter Vessels have 4-4-7' Gun
FIG. 21.
in lieu of4t4Gun
In the end nearly 100 of these vessels were built, and the arma-
ment, which at first was two 12-pdrs., was subsequently increased to
two 4-in. or two 4-7-in. guns. A great many of these vessels were
built in about six months from the order, and the first 36 averaged
25 weeks in building. They proved excellent sea boats, and were
used not only for mine-sweeping, but also for submarine work and
for convoying. At later stages some of these vessels were disguised
as ordinary merchant ships. They were economical steamers, and
were able to attain a full speed of 17 knots, with a H.P. of about
1, 800 to 2,000 in the earlier, which was increased to 2,500 in the
later, vessels.
Several of the vessels were mined, but although the damage they
sustained was very severe, they kept afloat and were repaired.
The Admiralty was asked to design and provide some vessels of
this type for the French Government, and eight of these were
designed by Sir E. d'Eyncourt and built for that purpose and armed
with somewhat heavier armament than our own ships. The French
Government were very satisfied with the vessels.
In addition to this, at a later stage, for sweeping in shallow water,
some paddle mine-sweepers were designed at the Admiralty. These
were 15-knot boats, with draught just under 6 ft. 9 inches. They
did good work, but were of course not such good sea boats as the
sloops. As there was some danger of mines getting under the pad-
dles, a further design of twin-screw mine-sweepers was got out.
These were vessels of about 800 tons and about 16 knots speed.
Submarines (Table V. and figs. 27, 28 and 29). During the war
the design of submarines was enormously developed. A very large
number of these vessels were added to the British Fleet. There
were some twelve different types, some embodying very special
requirements and all being improvements on their predecessors.
The Admiralty produced the fastest internal-combustion engined
submarine in "J" class, which attained a speed of over 19 knots.
As a still higher speed was wanted for fleet work, the " K " boats
were designed with a surface speed of 24 knots. To arrive at this
it was necessary to go to steam, and special arrangements had to
be made for shutting down watertight the funnels, etc. However,
all these difficulties were overcome.
It is an interesting point about these vessels that, besides the
steam turbines for full speed on the surface and the electric drive
when under water, they were provided with a Diesel engine for use
just before diving or immediately after breaking surface, in order
to quicken diving or getting away after coming up.
Although the Germans had the advantage of more power per
cylinder in their Diesel engines, Great Britain produced submarines,
faster and more heavily armed than theirs.
M. I. submarine was a monitor submarine armed with a 12-in.
gun; she was an experimental boat, and proved quite successful.
" China Gunboats." For use in Mesopotamia or for river work
two classes of so-called " China gunboats " were designed by Messrs.
Yarrow. The smaller of these vessels, 120 ft. long and of about loo
tons, were constructed in Great Britain in such a way that the parts
could be sent out to Abadan, where they were assembled, and the
vessels reerected and completed under the supervision of Admiralty
officers. Some of the larger boats 230 ft. long and of 645 tons, were
completed in England and went out to Mesopotamia, where all of
them were of the greatest service in that campaign. Most useful
work was also done by motor launches and many other types.
Other Auxiliary Craft and Aircraft Carriers. The Admiralty was
called upon to design many other auxiliary craft notably some fast
Fleet oilers which were able to carry 5,000 tons of oil and had a
speed of 15 knots. There were also designed a great number of
special smaller craft for all purposes, and a number of merchant
ships were taken over and modified to meet diverse requirements.
The most important modifications were those made to vessels
taken over and converted into aircraft-carriers, including " Cam-
pania," "Ark," "Royal," " Engadine," "Riviera," etc.; the
Furious " was also altered, and the " Cavendish " (now named
" Vindictive ") was converted into an aircraft-carrier. The " Argus"
(fig. 30) was originally built as a passenger mail ship of 20 knots,
and was taken over and converted into an aircraft-carrier with
complete flush deck, the funnels being carried aft in long horizontal
ducts, discharging the smoke astern. The " Eagle " was taken for
conversion into a large aircraft-carrier with a somewhat different
arrangement, with the funnels and all deck erections included on an
" island " on one side of the deck. Aircraft-carrying ships are in
fact gradually becoming more important for the Fleet.
Altogether during the four years more than 2,000,000 tons were
added to the navy, at a cost between 250,000,000 and 300,000,000
sterling, exclusive of modifications to auxiliaries. Reference to the
navy estimates shows that the aggregate sum spent during the four
years before the war on new construction amounted to approximately
60,000,000. In fact, during the four years 1915-8, more tonnage
was built for the British navy than during the previous 25 years.
II. NAVIES OF OTHER COUNTRIES
During the period 1910-20 foreign naval construction of all
types generally followed the line of British designs, with one or
two important exceptions which must not be overlooked.
The most important departure from the British practice was in
respect of the number of guns mounted in the barbettes. Triple-
gun mountings for the main armament have been adopted
by several nations, viz. France, Italy, Austria, Russia and the
United States, while in 1914 the French began the construction
of quadruple-gun turrets, but neither these turrets nor the ships
for which they were intended have been completed.
The British example in regard to the adoption of turbine ma-
chinery for propulsion of the first " Dreadnought " battleship
and battle cruisers was not followed by the other nations at once.
In some cases, for example, Japan and the United States, sister
vessels were built, one having turbine engines and the other
reciprocating engines. Finally, however, turbine engines were
almost universally adopted, while the United States made a fur-
436
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
ther advance by the adoption of the electric drive. The first
American battleship in which this was installed was the " New
Mexico," and it was arranged for all subsequent vessels to be
propelled similarly.
In the adoption of oil only as the fuel the British again took
the lead, and up to Aug. 1921 this had only been followed by the
United States. The German authorities had considered that
their sources of supply were not sufficiently reliable to justify
their depending on oil alone.
On the whole, therefore, it may be said that the designs, apart
from the above features, of foreign warships did not differ essen-
tially from the British types, as can be seen from the notes and
tables which follow.
Of the minor navies, many of which depended on British or
other foreign builders for the design and construction of their
warships, little need be said, as with the war the development of
their navies practically ceased, and some of the most important
vessels, such as the battleships building for Chile and Turkey,
were taken over for the British navy.
At the Armistice both the German and Austrian navies ceased
to exist as factors in the general naval situation, all their prin-
cipal ships being surrendered to the Allies, the great majority of
the vessels being finally destroyed, either being broken up or
used as targets, with the exception of a few of the less important
units, such as light cruisers and destroyers, which were incorpor-
ated in the French and Italian navies.
Battleships
(i) United States. The first vessels of the " Dreadnought "
type constructed for the U.S. navy were the " Michigan " and
" South Carolina," launched in 1908. These vessels, carrying only
eight 12-in. guns, were of about 2,000 tons less displacement than
the " Dreadnought," and 2 knots slower than this vessel. The
main armament of the U.S. vessels was disposed, however, in an
original manner, constituting a bold departure in that they were
all mounted on the centre line of the vessel in two superposed twin-
gun turrets forward, and two aft, with large arcs of training on each
beam. This arrangement of turrets gave an ahead and astern fire
of four guns and a broadside fire of all the eight guns. The water-
line armour belt was II in. thick with 8 in. above. Cage masts
constructed of a large number of steel tubes were fitted in these
vessels and such masts have been fitted in all later U. S. capital
ships and also in some of the earlier vessels in substitution of their
original masts. The " Michigan " and " South Carolina " were
propelled by twin screws driven by reciprocating engines, thus differ-
ing from the " Dreadnought."
The next battleships built were the " North Dakota " and
" Delaware," launched respectively in 1908 and 1909. These vessels
were a considerable advance in size over their predecessors, being
more than 60 ft. longer, 4,000 tons heavier, and two knots faster,
while they carried two additional 12-in. guns. The 10 guns were
mounted all on the centre line, the two turrets forward being super-
posed as in the previous class, while the three turrets aft were
arranged so that one could fire over the other two, which were both
on the same deck so that one could only fire on either broadside.
The arrangement of guns thus increased the broadside fire but left
the ahead and astern fire as before. The armour belt consisted of a
tier of II in. at the water-line, with a tier of 8 in. above. The
advance in speed involved an increase of 50% in the H.P. of the
engines, viz. from 16,500 to 25,000. Turbines of the Curtis type were
installed in the " North Dakota " for the first time in a U. S. capi-
tal ship, but the " Delaware " was fitted with reciprocating engines.
An important departure in these vessels was the fitting of 14 5-in.
guns as secondary armament in a battery amidships, protected by
5-in. armour.
The next pair of battleships, named the " Utah," launched in
1909 and the " Florida," launched in 1910, were enlarged " North
Dakotas," but both had Parsons turbine engines of 28,000 shaft
horse-power. The tonnage was increased to 21,800 tons on the same
draught, and the speed remained practically the same. The length
was increased slightly to 521 ft. and the beam to 88 ft. The main
armament was the same in number of guns and arrangement of
turrets as in the " North Dakota," but the secondary armament
was increased to 16 5-in. guns, protected by 5-in. armour. The
armour was practically the same as in the previous vessels.
The succeeding pair of battleships, " Arkansas " and " Wyo-
ming," launched in 1911, were characterized by another large
increase in dimensions, the length being increased to 562 ft. and the
beam to 93 ft., while on the same draught as previous vessels the
displacement was 26,000 tons. The engines were Parsons turbines
of about 28,000 S.H.P., the speed being about J knot less than the
" Utah," of the same power but 4,000 tons less displacement. The
greatly increased displacement enabled 12 12-in. guns to be mounted
in six twin-gun turrets arranged all on the centre line in three super-
posed groups, one group forward, another just abaft of amidships
and the remaining group aft. The ahead and astern fire thus
remained as in previous vessels at four guns, hut all 12 guns could
be fired on either broadside. The secondary armament was 16 5-in.
guns in a 6-in. armoured battery. The protection was generally
similar to the' previous vessels, the water-line belt and barbette
armour being II in. thick. The turrets and conning tower were of
12-in. armour.
These vessels were the last U. S. battleships mounting 12-in. guns.
The example of the British in fitting 13'5-in. guns in the " Onon "
class was followed by the adoption of 14-in. guns in the next vessels
laid down by the United States. These were the " Texas " and
" New York," launched in 1912, the dimensions of which were
slightly greater than those of the " Arkansas " and the displace-
ment 1,000 tons greater. Ten 14-in. guns constituted the main
armament and was mounted in five twin turrets, arranged gener-
ally in a similar manner to the British " Orion," four guns firing
ahead and astern and all 10 on either broadside. The secondary
armament remained as before, 16 5-in. guns being mounted in an
amidships battery protected by 6-in. armour. The water-line belt
was 12 in. thick with a 9-in. belt above it, and the protection gener-
ally was somewhat greater than that of the previous vessels. An
important feature in these vessels was the return to reciprocating
engines, which on a power of 27,000 gave the vessels a speed of 21
knots. The reintroduction of this type of engine was made chiefly
to obtain greater economy at cruising speeds.
The next pair of battleships, " Nevada " and " Oklahoma,"
launched in 1914, were of slightly increased length and tonnage.
The main armament was the same numerically as the " New
York's," but was arranged in four turrets, two containing two guns
each and the other two three guns each. The twin-gun turrets were
superposed above the triple-gun turrets at each end of the vessels.
The secondary armament, of the " Nevada " and " Oklahoma "
consisted of 12 5-in. guns arranged in an unprotected battery farther
forward than in previous vessels. Turbines were again adopted for
the propulsion of the " Nevada," but reciprocating engines were
fitted in the " Oklahoma." The reduced power of the machinery,
viz. 24,800 H.P. of both vessels, resulted in a reduced speed of 2OJ
knots.
The British example of adoption of oil only as the fuel for the " Queen
Elizabeth " class was followed by the United States in the " Nevada "
and " Oklahoma," the total quantity of fuel arranged for, however,
being 2,000 tons, compared with 3,400 tons in " Queen Elizabeth."
The saving in weight resulting from the adoption of triple-gun
turrets and oil fuel enabled considerable additions to be made to
the armour protection of the " Nevada " and " Oklahoma." The
belt amidships was 13^ in. thick and extended from 8$ ft. below to
9 ft. above the water-line. The conning tower was protected by
l6-in. armour, this being also the thickness of the front plates of
the twin-gun turrets, those of the triple-gun turrets being of l8-in.
armour. The vessels are further distinguished from their predeces-
sors in that only one funnel, instead of two, is fitted. The uptakes
are protected by I3j-in. armour.
The " Nevada " and " Oklahoma " were succeeded by the
" Pennsylvania " and " Arizona " (fig. 31), launched in 1915, in
which the dimensions were further increased and the displacement
became 31,400 tons. The main armament was increased to 12 14-in.
guns arranged in four triple turrets in two superposed groups for-
ward and aft. The secondary armament originally consisted of 22
5-in. guns, but has been reduced to fourteen. The protection of
the vessels was generally similar to that of the " Nevada " and
" Oklahoma," but the side armour was increased to 14 in. maximum.
Turbine engines were fitted in both vessels of the class, the " Penn-
sylvania ' ' having geared cruising turbines in order to secure economy.
The " New Mexico," " Idaho " and " Mississippi," launched in
1917, were similar in general design, protection, and main arma-
ment to the " Pennsylvania." .The displacement was slightly
increased to 32,000 tons. The main armament of 12 14-in. guns was
again arranged in four triple turrets, with front plates of i8-in.
armour, side plates 9 in. to 10 in. and roof plates 5 inches. The
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
437
secondary battery of 14 5-in. guns was fitted a deck higher than in
" Pennsylvania " and was unprotected.
The " New Mexico " was distinguished from her sister vessels
by the adoption of electric motors for her propulsion, the other two
vessels having turbines arranged as previously; she had two turbo-
electric generating sets of 11,400 kw. capacity installed, and this
electric power was transmitted electrically to four motors of, nomi-
nally, 6,600 H.P., one on each of the four propelling shafts. These
motors were reversible, thus avoiding, as in the ordinary turbine
method of propulsion, the necessity for astern as well as ahead
prime movers. The electric drive appears to have been successful,
especially as the " New Mexico " was not originally designed for
this method of propulsion; the accommodation for the machinery
being obtained by modifications in the arrangement of the spaces
provided in the original design for turbines, without affecting the
other features of the design. The vessel was put through exhaustive
trials with satisfactory results, a maximum speed of just over 21
knots being obtained at 31,200 H.P. on a displacement of 32,800 tons,
with economical steam and fuel consumption. An advantage con-
ferred by the electric drive at cruising ship speeds arises from the
ability to obtain the necessary power from only one of the electric
generating sets, which can thus be worked at nearly full power and
therefore give very good efficiency. The " New Mexico " escorted
President Wilson across the Atlantic, and on both eastward and
westward voyages only one turbine generating set was used. The
weight of the machinery was greater per H.P. than that of turbine
machinery of about the same power in British warships, but it was
considered that this was capable of improvement in the future,
especially in the case of vessels intended from the outset to have
the electric drive. The electric drive has been adopted for all suc-
ceeding U.S. capital ships.
The " Tennessee " and " California," launched in 1919, were
practically repeats of the " New Mexico," the displacement being
32,300 tons. These vessels, however, have two funnels. Also a new
system of under-water protection (which has since been adopted
for all U.S. battleships) was introduced. This consists of five verti-
cal longitudinal bulkheads extending parallel to the ship's side from
the forward to the after magazines, thus protecting the whole of the
vitals of the ship. The innermost bulkhead is about 17 ft. inboard,
the other bulkheads being approximately equidistant from one
another; the bulkheads next to the skin bulkhead and innermost
bulkhead are all thin plating, the other three being of thicker plating ;
the middle three of the five spaces formed by this arrangement are
utilized as oil-fuel bunkers.
In Aug. 1915 Congress approved the first building programme
ever drawn up for the U.S. navy, according to which 10 battle-
ships, 6-battle cruisers, 10 scouts (or light cruisers), 50 destroyers,
9 fleet and 58 coast submarines were to be added in three years to
the U.S. navy, in addition to a number of auxiliary vessels.
The first battleships to be built under this programme were the
"Colorado" (launched 1921), "Maryland" (launched 1920 and
completed 1921), " Washington " and " West Virginia." The dimen-
sions of these vessels are not greatly different from the " Tennessee,"
except that the displacement is slightly greater, being 32,600 tons,
the H.P. of the electric propelling machinery being increased to 28,-
900 to maintain the speed of 21 knots. The chief departure in the
new vessels was the adoption of 8 i6-in. guns as the primary arma-
ment, arranged in four twin-gun turrets superposed in pairs forward
and aft. The secondary armament consists of 14 5-in. guns. The
armour protection is generally as in the " New Mexico " class.
FIG. 32.
The remaining six battleships of the 1916 programme had not
yet been launched in 1921. Their names are " South Dakota,"
" Indiana," " Montana," " North Carolina," " Iowa," and " Mas-
sachusetts " (fig. 32). They are a very great advance on their prede-
cessors, being 684 ft. long, 106 ft. wide and displacing 43,200 tons
on a draught of 31 feet. An increased speed, 23 knots, is aimed at,
the electric drive being of 60,000 horse-power. The main arma-
ment is increased by 50%, consisting of 12 i6-in. guns mounted in
four triple-gun turrets, and the secondary armament comprises
16 6-in. guns. The torpedo armament was two submerged 2i-in.
torpedo tubes throughout all the battleships described in the fore-
going. In 1919 a second three-year programme was considered, to
consist of 156 vessels in all, including a further batch of 10 battle-
ships and six battle-cruisers.
(2) France. The French navy did not immediately adopt the
single-calibre main armament, their first vessels, designed after
the " Dreadnought " era had begun, being the " Danton " class,
which resembled the " Lord Nelson " in armament, 12 9'4-in. guns
being carried in addition to the usual 4 12-in. guns. They were
about 2,000 tons heavier than the " Lord Nelson " and were fitted
with turbines of 22,500 H.P., giving a speed of 20 knots.
The first French battleships of the " Dreadnought " type were
the " Jean Bart " class, launched in 1911 and 1912. These vessels,
" Jean Bart," " Paris," " France " and " Courbet," were a consid-
erable advance on the " Danton " class, being 546 ft. long, as
against 481 ft., with increased beam and draught, and displacement
of 23,100 tons. Turbine machinery of 28,000 fl.P. was fitted, giving
a speed of 20 knots. The main armament comprised 12 12-in. guns
mounted in six twin-gun turrets arranged in two superposed groups
forward and aft, with the remaining two turrets on the broadsides
amidships. The ahead and astern fire was thus 6 guns and broad-
side 10 guns. The secondary armament was very numerous, con-
sisting of 22 5-5-in. guns protected by y-in. armour. The side armour
was ioj in. thick, tapering to 7 in. at the bow and stern, the turret
armour being also lof in. thick.
The " Jean Bart " successfully withstood torpedo attack by an
Austrian submarine in 1915, being struck well forward. Compart-
ments were flooded, but the vessel proceeded under her own power
to Malta, where she was repaired in H.M. Dockyard.
The next battleships built by the French were the " Bretagne "
(name ship of the class) (fig. 33), " Lorraine " and " Provence," all
launched in 1913, practically repeats of the " Jean Barts," except
that the main armament consisted of ip 13'4-in. guns mounted in
five twin-gun turrets, all on the centre line of the vessels, the usual
superposed groups of two turrets forward and aft, the fifth turret
being amidships. The secondary armament again consisted of 22
5'5-in. guns, arranged slightly differently from the " Jean Bart,"
but this number was decreased after the war to 18, during a partial
reconstruction when director-firing was installed on a new tripod
foremast.
These vessels were the last battleships completed for the French
navy, the completion of the five vessels of the "Normandie" class,
launched in 1914 and 1915, having been abandoned, with the
exception of the " Beam," which has been converted into an air-
craft-carrier. The " Normandie " class were designed to carry 12
13'4-in. in three quadruple-gun turrets, a unique arrangement.
The four guns in each turret were arranged on two mountings, so
that virtually they comprised two twin guns. The secondary arma-
ment was to have consisted of 18 5'5-in. guns. The machinery in-
tended for these vessels was of an interesting type, consisting of a
combination of turbine and reciprocating engines, the two inner
shafts being driven by turbines and the two outer shafts by recipro-
cating engines, which alone were powerful enough to have given the
vessels a speed of 16 knots, the full power of 35,000 H.P. being
designed to give a maximum speed of 21 knots.
It was intended to have laid down in Oct. 1914 four battleships of
the " Duquesne " type, but the outbreak of the war caused this
intention to be abandoned. The vessels were designed to carry 16
13'4-in. guns in four quadruple-gun turrets, arranged in two super-
posed groups forward and aft. The displacement was to have been
29,500 tons, and, with combination turbine and reciprocating engine,
a speed of 23 knots was anticipated.
It should be noted that during the whole war period the French
Government dockyards, and many private yards also, devoted their
whole capacity to the production of munitions of all kinds for the
army ; naval work being almost entirely relegated to the background.
No provision was made in the French naval budget for 1921 for
the construction of any capital ships.
(3) Japan. The " Satsuma " and " Aki " were the first battle-
ships built in Japan after the " Dreadnought " era had begun.
They were a development of the " Kashima " class, and therefore
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
resembled in type the " Lord Nelson." Launched in 1906 and 1907,
they mounted 4 12-in. and 12 to-in. guns on a displacement of
about 19,500 tons. Turbine machinery of 24,000 H.P. was fitted in
the " Aki," giving a speed of 2Oj knots. The " Satsuma," with
reciprocating engines of 18,500 H.P., was 2 knots slower.
The first Japanese battleships of the " Dreadnought " type were
the " Settsu," launched in 1911, and the " Kawachi," launched in
1912. The latter vessel was blown up in 1918 in a Japanese har-
bour by the explosion of her magazines. These vessels were of
20,800 tons and mounted 12 12-in. guns, arranged in six twin-gun
turrets, one forward and aft on the centre line and the other four on
the broadsides. The ahead and astern fire was thus 6 guns and
broadside fire 8 guns. The secondary armament was 10 6-in. guns,
mounted in an amidship battery protected by 6-in. armour. Eight
4'7-in. guns were also mounted. The armour belt was 12 in. thick
amidships at the water-line and 9 in. above, with 5-in. armour for-
ward and aft, the 12-in. guns were protected by n-in. armour, and
the conning tower by 12-in. armour. Turbine machinery of 25,000
H.P. was fitted, giving a speed of 2Oj knots.
FIG. 34.
Large increases in dimensions and power characterized the next
class (fig. 34) of Japanese battleships, 14-in. guns being adopted.
These vessels were the " Fuso " and " Yamashiro," of 30,600 tons
and 40,000 H.P., launched in 1914 and 1915 respectively, and the
" Ise " and " Hyuga," of 31,260 tons and 45,000 H.P., launched
in 1916 and 1917. The mam armament consisted of 12 14-in. guns
mounted in twin-gun turrets all arranged on the centre line of the
vessel. Two turrets are superposed forward, with a similar arrange-
ment aft, the remaining two turrets being abaft the forward and
after funnels respectively. The first pair of vessels named mount
16 6-in. guns, and the second pair 20 5~5-in. guns, as the secondary
armament in an amidships battery protected by 6-in. armour.
The belt and turret armour is 12 in. thick. The speed of the vessels
is about. 22 j knots.
FIG. 35.
The next class of Japanese battleships are characterized by the
fitting of l6-in. guns. These vessels were " Nagato " (launched
1919 and completed 1920) and " Mutsu " (launched 1920), of 33,800
tons displacement, and " Tosa " and " Kaga " (building 1921) of
40,600 tons displacement. The former pair of vessels mount 8 i6-in.
guns in four twin-gun turrets arranged in the now usual manner,
with 20 5'5-in. guns as secondary armament. The latter pair of
vessels were probably to mount 10 i6-in. guns. The torpedo arma-
ment, which in previous vessels consisted of five or six submerged
tubes, was increased to eight tubes, four of which are mounted
above the water-line. The vessels were slightly faster than pre-
vious vessels, a speed of 23^ knots being intended, geared turbines
providing the requisite power, which was about 46,000 in the
' Nagato " and " Mutsu " and 60,000 in the " Tosa " and " Kaga."
Under the 1920-8 Navy Law four battleships were projected.
(4) Germany. The " Dreadnought " type of battleship was
adopted at once by Germany, the advance from the " Deutschland "
class (of the " Formidable " type) being made without trial as
wasdone in some other navies, of vessels of the " King Edward VII."
or " Lord Nelson " types. The first German " Dreadnoughts "
were the four vessels of the " Nassau " class, launched in 1908.
Shorter but wider and somewhat heavier than the " Dreadnought,"
the " Nassau," on a displacement of 18,600 tons, carried 12 n-in.
guns in six twin-gun turrets, mounted one at each end on the centre
line, and two on each broadside, thus giving an ahead and astern
fire of six guns and broadside fire of eight. The secondary armament
consisted of 12 s-g-in. guns, mounted m a battery protected by 7-in.
armour. A large torpedo armament of six i7~7-in. submerged tubes
was fitted. The water-line armour belt was ll in. thick, with an
8-in. belt above, and tapering to 5 in. forward and 4 in. aft. The
speed was 19 knots, the requisite H.P. of 20,000 being developed by
reciprocating engines.
The " Nassau " class was followed by the four ships of the " Hel-
goland " class (fig. 35), launched in 1909 and 1910. These vessels
marked a considerable increase in dimensions and displacement.
The 12-in. gun was adopted for the first time in these vessels, the
Germans claiming that this weapon was the equivalent of the 13-5-in.
gun then being adopted by the British in the " Orion " class. The
" Helgoland " carried 12 12-in. guns arranged similarly to the n-in.
guns in the " Nassau." The secondary armament was increased to
'4 5'9-in. guns and the six submerged tubes were of ig-7-in. diam-
eter. The protection was generally the same asthat of the " Nas-
sau " class. The speed was increased to 20-5 knots. The various
increases involved a displacement of 22,440 tons and engines of
25,000 H.P., but the reciprocating type was still adhered to.
The " Kaiser" class (five vessels), launched in 1911 and 1912,
were slightly larger and faster than the " Helgoland " class, being
of 24,300 tons and 21 knots, but the main armament was reduced
to ip 12-in. guns without loss of broadside fire, as they were arranged
similarly to the British " Neptune " (designed two years pre-
viously), with one turret forward, two superposed aft and two broad-
side turrets en echelon, all guns thus being able to fire on either
broadside. The secondary armament was unaltered and the bow
torpedo tube was omitted. The armour protection was considerably
increased, the water-line belt being of 13$ in. maximum thickness
tapering to 9 in., with an upper belt of 7j in., the secondary battery
above and both ends of the ship being protected by a like thick-
ness. Turbine engines were installed for the first time in German
battleships, the power being 28,000 for a speed of 21 knots, which
was somewhat exceeded on trials.
The four ships of the " Konig " class (see fig. 36), launched in 1913
and 1914, were, with the exception of slightly greater dimensions
and displacement, generally repeats of the " Kaiser " class in respect
of number and calibre of guns and torpedo tubes and of protection.
The main armament was arranged all on the centre line, as in the
British " Orion " class, the amidship turret being, however, between
the two funnels. An important advance lay in the increased oil-
fuel (700 tons) capacity, previous vessels having only 200 tons.
The last battleships built by the Germans were the " Baden "
and " Bayern " (see fig. 37), launched in 1915, two others of the class
not being completed at the time of the Armistice. A very complete
description of the " Baden " was given in a paper read by Mr.,S. V.
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
439
Goodall before the Institution of Naval Architects in March 1921.
The " Baden^" and " Bayern "were about 3,000 tons heavier than
the " Konig " class, the dimensions being increased proportionately.
The chief difference, however, was in the main armament, 8 15-in.
guns being mounted in four turrets on the centre line in two super-
posed groups forward and aft, as in the British " Queen Elizabeth."
The secondary armament was increased to 16 5-g-in. guns, and the
torpedo armament consisted originally of 5 23-6-in. submerged
tubes, one forward in the stem and the other on the broadside for-
ward and aft. The forward torpedo room was damaged by an
under-water explosion and when repairs were made the torpedo
tubes were not replaced. Turbine machinery of about 50,000 H,P.
total was fitted, driving three propellers, and a speed of about
22 knots was obtained on trials. The main armour belt was 135
in. thick, tapering to 6f in. at the lower edge. Above was a belt of
lo-in. armour extending to the upper deck. The secondary battery
was protected by 6|-in. armour. Forward the side armour was 6 in.
thick and aft 7 inches. The latter and a deck of 4! in. thickness
provided protection to the steering gear. The maximum thickness
of armour for the barbettes, turrets, and conning tower was 13!
inches. Protection against under-water attack was provided by a
longitudinal bulkhead 2 in. thick, set in about 13 ft. from the side.
(5) Italy. The first Italian " Dreadnought was the " Dante
Alighieri," of 19,200 tons, launched in 1910. This vessel was then
remarkable for the high designed speed of 23 knots and the adoption
of triple-gun mountings for the main armament of 12-in. guns, of
which 12 were carried in turrets all fitted on the centre line of the
vessel. The turrets, funnels and masts were so disposed that the
vessel could practically be described as " double-ended." The ves-
sel was protected by a water-line belt of lo-in. (maximum) armour
amidships and 4-in. at the ends, with an upper belt of 6-in., by
which 12 of the secondary battery of 20 4-7-guns were protected.
The remaining 8 4'7-in. guns were mounted in four twin-gun tur-
rets on the upper deck. The i2-in.-gun turrets had a maximum thick-
ness of lo-in. armour. Turbine engines of 26,000 H.P. were fitted;
these developed 35,000 H.P. on trial, when 24 knots were attained.
Three torpedo tubes were fitted.
The " Dante Alighieri " was followed by the " Conte di Cavour,"
"Leonardo da Vinci" and " Giulio Cesare," launched in 1911.
These vessels were 3,000 tons heavier than their predecessor and
mounted an extra 12-in. gun, making 13 in all, four of which were in
two twin-gun turrets superposed above triple-gun turrets forward
and aft, a further triple-gun turret being fitted amidships. This
arrangement enabled an increased all-round fire to be obtained
over the previous vessel. The secondary armament of 18 4'7-in.
guns was carried in an amidships battery protected by 5-in. armour,
which was above the upper belt of g-in. armour, the water-line belt
being lo-in. amidships and 4-in. at the ends. Turret armour was
lo-in. and conning tower 12-inches. Turbine engines of 24,000 H.P.
were fitted to give a speed of 22 knots.
FIG. 38.
The " Andrea Doria " and " Caio Duilio " (see fig. 38), launched
in 1913, were slightly longer and heavier than the " Conte di
Cavour," but except for an improved secondary armament of 16
6-in. guns fitted abreast the forward and after turrets, the changes
were of a minor nature.
The " Leonardo da Vinci," blown up at Taranto in 1916 by the
explosion of her magazine, was refloated and dry-docked upside
down in 1919. After repairs she was floated out of dock still upside
down and then righted. This operation reflects the greatest credit
upon the Royal Italian Corps of Naval Constructors, who conducted
the operations throughout. The vessel, will, however, not be restored
as a warship, but utilized for a subsidiary service.
The last four battleships laid down in 1914 and 1915 for the
Italian Navy, the " Caracciolo " class, have not been completed.
They were to have been generally similar in size, armament, speed
and protection to the " Queen Elizabeth."
(6) Russia, The Russian navy has ceased to exist as an impor-
tant factor, but technically the various classes of battleships built
are of interest.
Following the construction of two vessels of the intermediate
" Lord Nelson " type, four battleships of the " Petropavlovsk "
class were launched in 1911 and three of the " Imperator Alex-
ander III." class (for the Black Sea Fleet) in 1914. The first four
were slightly heavier, longer and faster than the others, but their
general characteristics are similar. They all mount 12 12-in. in
four triple-gun turrets on the centre line of the vessel, arranged
similarly to the Italian " Dante Alighieri," the speed of which, 23
knots, was the same as that of the " Sevastopol," the Black Sea
vessels being 2 knots slower, all the vessels having turbine engines.
The " Imperatritza Marie " was blown up by an internal explo-
sion at Sevastopol in 1916, and refloated and docked upside down in
1919, similarly to the " Leonardo da Vinci."
(7) Austria. Three battleships of intermediate (" Lord Nel-
son ") type were completed in 1910 and 1911. Following these
vessels four " Dreadnoughts " of the " Viribus Unitis " class were
completed in 1912-5. On a displacement of 20,000 tons, 12 12-in.
guns in four triple-gun turrets (of n-in. armour maximum) were
carried in two -superposed groups forward and aft with 12 5-g-in.
guns as secondary armament in an amidships battery protected by
6-in. armour. The water-line belt was n in. amidships and 5 in.
at the ends. An upper belt of 8 in. was fitted amidships. Turbine
engines of 25,000 H.P. gave a speed of about 20 knots.
Two vessels, the " Szant Istyan " of this class and the old battle-
ship " Wien," were sunk during the war as the result of daring
attacks by Italian fast motor-boats. The " Viribus Unitis " sank
in 1918, due to the explosion of a mine placed in contact with the
vessel by two Italian officers in a small torpedo-like motor-boat.
A contemplated programme of four battleships of 25,000 tons,
carrying eight 15-in. guns, did not materialize owing to the war.
(8) Argentina. The only " Dreadnought " battleships are the
" Moreno " and " Rivadavia," launched in the United States in
1911 and completed in 1914; 12 12-in. guns, in six twin-gun turrets,
and 12 6-in. guns are carried on a displacement of 27,600 tons, tur-
bine engines of 39,500 H.P. giving a speed of 22^ knots.
(9) Brazil. The " Rio de Janeiro," laid down at Armstrong's,
Newcastle, in 1911, was sold later to Turkey, from whom the vessel
was requisitioned by the British on the outbreak of the World
War, and renamed " Agincourt." The " Minas Geraes " and
" Sao Paulo " are thus the only two " Dreadnought " battleships
possessed by Brazil.
(10) Chile. The " Almirante Latorre " and " Aljnirante Coch-
rane " were building at Armstrong's in 1914 for the Chilean navy.
The former vessel, after service during the war as H.M.S. " Can-
ada," was sold back to Chile, but the latter vessel remains as
H.M.S. " Eagle." Chile thus possesses only one " Dreadnought."
(n) Greece. -The " Salamis, ' of 19,500 tons and 23 knots speed,
building in Germany at the outbreak of war in 1914, had not been
completed. The four twin-gun turrets constructed in the United
States for this vessel were purchased by the British and fitted in the
first four large monitors.
(12) Norway. The " Nidaros " and " Bjorgvin " (coast-defence
battleships), launched by Armstrong's in 1914, were taken over by
the British during the war and completed, with the addition of
bulges, as H.M.S. " Glatton " and " Gorgon."
(13) Spain. The smallest " Dreadnought " battleships ever de-
signed have been completed for the Spanish navy. On a displace-
ment of 15,500 tons, the " Alfonso XIII.," " Espana," and
" Jaime I." carry 8 12-in. guns in four turrets (the amidships tur-
rets being en echelon) and 20 4-in. guns. Turbine engines of 15,000
H.P. give a speed of 195 knots. Armour protection consists of a
9-in. water-line belt, with lo-in. armour for the turrets and con-
ning tower. The vessels were built in Spain from designs and under
the supervision of British firms.
(14) Sweden. Three small battleships, the " Sverige " (com-
pleted in 1917), and the " Drottning-Victoria " and the " Gustav V."
(which in 1921 were nearing completion), are of 7,600 tons displace-
ment. They mount four n-in. and eight 6-in. guns, and with tur-
bine engines of 22,000 H.P. a speed of 22 knots is expected.
(15) Turkey. Two battleships completing in England for the
Turkish navy were taken over by the British Government on the
outbreak of war and renamed " Agincourt " and " Erin."
Battle Cruisers
Up to 1921 battle cruisers had been built only for Japan, Ger-
many and Russia, besides Great Britain (see Table VII.). The
United States had six vessels building.
United States. The " Lexington " class (fig. 39) were designed
in 1916, but no progress was made in their construction during the
war. After the Armistice their design was reconsidered. The dis-
placement was increased from 35,300 tons to 43,500 tons, the n ain
armament being changed from 10 14-in. guns to 8 i6-in. guns. The
S.H.P. was 180,000 total, driving four propellers, and this was esti-
mated to give 35 knots as the original design displacement and 33i
knots for the final design. This enormous H.P. (the maximum so
far contemplated for any ship) is developed by the electric drive,
on generally similar but improved lines to that of the " New
Mexico." Oil fuel only is burnt in the boilers. The changes made
included considerably increased protection against gunfire and
under-water attack. The result of all the changes made is that the
vessels will be powerful battle cruisers, with good offensive and
defensive qualities as compared with the initial design. The torpedo
440
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
TABLE VI. Non-British Battleships, 1921.
Country and
Class
No.
in
Class
Date of
Launch
Length
Ft. In.
Breadth
Ft. In.
Draught
Ft. In.
Displace-
ment : Tons
Speed :
Knots
Horse-
Power
Armament
Side
Armour
UNITED STATES:
" South Carolina "
2
1908
453 o
8oi
27
16,000
18}
16,500
8 12 in. 12 3 in.
II in.
2 21 in. T. T.
" Delaware "
2
1908-9
519 o
85*
29
20,000
21
25,000
10 12 in. 14 5 in.
2 21 in. T. T.
II in.
" Florida "...
2
1909-10
521 6
88J
29}
21,825
20|
28,000
10 12 in. 16 5 in.
II in.
2 21 in. T. T.
" Arkansas " .
2
1911
562 o
93i
29}
26,000
20}
28,000
12 12 in. 165 in.
II in.
2 21 in. T. T.
" New York " .
2
1912
573
95i
29}
27,000
21
28,000
10 14 in. 16 5 in.
12 in.
4 21 in. T. T.
" Nevada "...
2
1914
583 o
.95*
29}
27,500
20}
24,800
10 14 in. 12 5 in.
13* in.
2 21 in. T. T.
" Pennsylvania " .
2
1915
608 o
97
3
31,400
21
34,000
12 14 in. 14 5 in.
2 21 in. T. T.
14 in.
" New Mexico " .
3
1917
624 o
97*
30
32,000
21
27,500
12 14 in. 14 5 in.
14 in.
32,000
4 21 in. T. T.
32,000
" Tennessee "
2
1919
624 o
97}
30
32,300
21
28,500
12 14 in. 14 15 in.
221 in. T. T.
14 in.
" Maryland "
4
1920 &
bldg.
624 o
97}
30}
32,600
21
28,900
8 16 in. 14 5 in.
221 in. T. T.
14 in.
" South Dakota ".
6
Bldg.
684 o
106
31
43,200
23
60,000
12 16 in. 16 6 in.
14 in.
2 21 in. T. T.
FRANCE:
"Jean Bart".
4
1911-2
544 6
88}
29!
23,100
2O
28,000
12 12 in. 22 5-5in.
418 in. T. T.
loj in.
" Bretagne " .
3
1913
544 6
88}
29!
23,200
2O
29,000
12 13-4 in. 22 5-sin.
loj in.
4 18 in. T. T.
" Normandie "
5
I9I4-5
574 o
89
29
24,800
21
35,ooo
12 13-4 in. 24 5-5in.
12 in.
not completed.
621 in. T. T.
JAPAN:
fi Aki " .
2
1907
460 o
83}
27}
19,800
20}
24,000
4 12 in. 12 10 in.
9 in.
518 in. T. T.
" Settsu "...
2
I9II
500 o
84
27
20,800
20}
26,500
12 12 in. 10 6 in.
5 T. T.
12 in.
" Fuso '.' ...
4
1914-7
640 o
94
28}
31,000
23
45,000
12 14 in. 20 5-5 in.
12 in.
6T. T.
1919
" Kaga "...
4
and
700 o
40,600
23!
8 16 in. 20 5-5 in.
13 >i.
bldg.
GERMANY:
" Nassau "...
4
1908
478 o
88 4
26 7
18,600
19
20,000
12 II in. 12 5-9 in.
6 17-7 in. T. T.
1 1 -4 in.
" Ostfriesland " .
4
1909-10
546 3
93 6
26 ii
22,440
20-5
25,000
12 12 in. 14 5-9 in.
n-8 in.
6 19-7 in. T. T.
" Kaiser "...
5
1911-2
564 4
95 2
27 3
24,310
21
28,000
10 12 in. 14 5-9 in.
13-8 in.
.
5 19;7 in. T. T.
" Konig "...
4
I9I3-4
573 2
96 9
27 4
25,390
21
28,000
10 12 in. 14 5-9 in.
13-8 in.
519-7 in. T. T.
" Baden " .
4
1915
588 7
98 5
27 8
28,070
21
50,000
8 15 in. 16 5-9 in.
13-8 in.
3 23-6 in. T. T.
ITALY:
" Dante Alighieri "
i
1910
549 6
87 6
28 6
19,200
23
26,000
12 12 in. 20 4-7 in.
lo in.
318 in. T. T.
" Giulio Cesare " .
3
1911
576 o
92 o
29 o
22,000
22
24,000
13 12 in. 18 4-7 in.
10 in.
318 in. T. T.
" Caio Duilio "
2
1913
576 o
92 o
29 o
22,6OO
22
25,000
ditto
IO in.
" Caracciolo "
4
laid down.
691 o
97 o
29 o
30,000
25
70,000
8 15 in. 16 6 in.
13 in.
I9H-5
not completed.
RUSSIA :
" Petropavlosk "
4
I9II
590 o
87 o
27 3
23,000
23
42,000
12 12 in. 16 4-7 in.
9 in.
418 in. T. T.
" Imperator
Alexander III."
3
I9I3-4
550
89 6
29 o
22,600
21
23,000
12 12 in. 20 5-1 in.
12 in.
4 18 in. T. T.
AUSTRIA :
" Viribus Unitis "
4
I9II-4
530
89 3
27 o
2O,OOO
2O
25,000
12 12 in. 12 5-9 in.
II in.
421 in. T. T.
ARGENTINA:
" Moreno "...
2
I9II
585 o
95 o
28' o
27,6OO
22}
39,500
12 12 in. 12 6 in.
12 in.
221 in. T. T.
BRAZIL:
" Minas Geraes " .
2
1908-9
543 o
83 o
25 o
I9,2OO
21
23.500
12 12 in. 22 4-7 in.
9 in.
CHILE:
10 14 in. 16 6 in.
" Almirante Latorre " .
I
1913
661 o
92 o
28 6
28,OOO
22?
37,ooo
421 in. T. T.
9 in.
SPAIN:
" Alfonso XIII." .
3
I9I2-4
459 o
78 9
25 6
15,500
19}
15,000
8 12 in. 20 4 in.
9 in.
SWEDEN :
" Sverige "...
3
1914
397 o
61 o
21 6
7.OOO
22
22,000
4 ii in. 8 6 in.
8 in.
2 18 in. T. T.
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
PLATE IV.
FIG. 45. White Star (ex-German) Liner Majestic.
FIG. 51. Richborough Train Ferry (Kent, England).
FIG. 48. U.S. (ex-German) Liner George Washington.
FIG. 52. Cunard Liner Aguitania (as Hospital Ship).
FIG. 49. American Liner Centennial State
FIG. 46. White Star Liner Britannic.
FIG. 53. White Star Liner Olympic (as Troopship).
FIG. 47. Cunard Liner Samaria.
FIG. 54. Castle Liner Llandovery Castle (sinking).
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
FIG. 32a. U.S. Battleship Xorth Carolina Class.
PLATE V.
FIG. 393. U.S. Battle-Cruiser Lexington and Class.
FIG. 423. U.S. Scout Cruisers Nos. 4-13.
FIG. 313. U.S. Battleship Pennsylvania.
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
441
armament is very large for a U.S. vessel, consisting as it does of
four submerged and four above- water 21 -in. torpedo tubes. None
of the vessels had yet been launched in 1921.
Russia. Four battle cruisers were launched in 1915, but they
had not been completed up to 1921. On a displacement of 32,200
tons, with a length of 750 ft., 12 14-in. and 24 5-in. guns and 6 tor-
ji,rA
I Jill
c
be
do tubes were to have been carried, turbine engines of 66,000 H.P.
using estimated to give a speed of 27 knots. The side armour had a
maximum thickness of 12 inches.
Japan. The " Tsukuba " and " Ikoma " were laid down in
1905 and the " Kurama " and " Ibuki " in 1907. These vessels are
classed as battle cruisers, but they lacked the high speed consid-
ered an essential feature of the battle-cruiser type. The " Tsu-
kuba " was blown up in a Japanese harbour in 1917. The next
battle cruisers built by Japan were the four vessels of the " Kongo "
class, launched in 1912-3, the name ship being constructed by Vick-
ers at Barrow, and her sisters in Japan. These vessels resemble the
" Lion " class, having an armament of 8 14-in. and 16 6-in. guns on
a displacement of 27,500 tons, a speed of 27 knots being obtained
with turbines developing 64,000 horse-power. The vessels are well
~ 'tected by lo-in. (maximum) armour, and they carry a power-
ful torpedo armament of 8 submerged 2i-in. torpedo tubes. Four
battle cruisers of the " Amagi " class were in 1921 under construc-
tion. They were reported to be vessels of 40,000 tons displacement
and 30 knots speed, with a main armament of 8 i6-in. guns.
Germany. As with the " Dreadnought " type of battleship, the
Germans followed the British in their battle cruisers. The first
vessel of the type, " Von der Tann," was launched in 1909. On a
displacement of 19,100 tons she carried 8 n-in. and 12 5'9-in. guns.
The armour belt was of lo-in. (maximum) thickness and her designed
speed was 24 knots, the turbine engines developing about 45,000
horse-Dower. This speed and H.P. were exceeded on trials. The
" Moltke " (1910), " Goeben " (1911), of 22,600 tons and 25 knots,
and " Seydlitz " (1912), of 24,600 tons and 26 knots (fig. 40) were
generally improvements on the " Von der Tann." The main arma-
ment consisted of to ll-in. guns arranged as in the British " Nep-
tune " (of two years earlier design), as compared with 8 13-5-in.
guns in contemporary British battle cruisers. The " Goeben " was
transferred to Turkey early in the war, having been in the Mediter-
ranean when the war broke out. Return to Germany being impos-
sible, she escaped to Constantinople. The " Seydlitz " was badly
damaged at the battles of Dogger Bank (1915) and Jutland (1916).
Her return to harbour after the latter was only effected with great
difficulty, and probably only the close proximity of the German
coast enabled her to reach port in time. The " Derfflinger " (1913)
and " Liitzow " (1913) were the first German battle cruisers to
mount 12-in. guns, of which they carried eight on a displacement
of 26,200 tons. The speed was 26J knots and maximum armour
12 in. thick. The " Lutzow " was sunk at the battle of Jut-
land. The " Hindenburg " (fig. 41), launched in 1915 and com-
pleted in 1917, and " Mackensen, ' launched in 1917 but not com-
pleted, were virtually repeats of the " Lutzow," with the same arma-
ment, but improved speed of 28 knots. The " Graf von Spee,"
also launched in 1917 but not completed, was of 27,000 tons, with
six 15-in. guns as the main armament. A sister vessel, " Prinz
Eitel Friedrich," had not been launched at the Armistice. The
last three vessels were dismantled, as well as other battle cruisers
whose construction had not been far advanced.
Light Cruisers
The light cruiser type of warship has in recent years been con-
structed by very few nations (see Table VIII.). The United Stales
TABLE VII. Battle Cruisers of Non-British Navies.
Country and
Class
No.
in
Class
Date of
Launch
Length
Breadth
Draught
Displace-
ment : Tons
Speed
Knots
Horse-
Power
Armament
Side
Armour
UNITED STATES:
ft. in.
ft. in.
ft. in.
in.
" Lexington "
6
Bldg.
874 o
105 6
31
43,500
33l
180,000
8 16 in. 16 6 in.
8
421 in. T. T.
RUSSIA:
" Navarin " .
4
I? 15
Not
750 o
IOO O
3
32,200
27
66,000
12 14 in. 24 5 in.
6 1 8 in. T. T
12
com-
pleted.
JAPAN:
4 Kongo "
4
1913
653 6
92 o
27*
27,500
27i
64,000
8 14 in. 16 6 in.
8
8 21 in. T. T.
" Amagi "
4
Bldg.
850 o
IOO O
40,000
30
8 16 in.
GERMANY:
" Blucher " .
i
1908
528 6
80 5
26*
15,500
24
32,000
12 8'2 in. 8 5-9 in.
7
417-7 in. T. T.
" Von der Tann "
i
1909
562 8
87 3
26 7
19,100
24
43-6oo
8 ii in. io 5-9 in.
9-8
4 17-7 in. T. T.
" Moltke " .
2
1910-1
610 3
96 10
26 ii
22,640
25
52,000
io ii in. 12 5-9 in.
II
4 19'7 in- T. T.
" Seydlitz " .
" Derfflinger "
I
2
1912
1913
656 2
689 o
93 6
95 2
27
27i
24,610
26,180
26*
26J
63,000
63,000
ditto.
8 12 in. 12 5-9 in.
n-8
12
4 19-7 in. T. T.
" Hindenburg "
2
I9I5-7
697 o
96 3
27 *
26,640
28
85,000
8 12 in. 12 5-9 in.
6 19-7 in. T. T.
12
442
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
TABLE VIII. Light Cruisers of Non-British Navies.
Country
Date of
Launch
Length
Ft.
Breadth
Ft.
Draught
Ft.
Displace-
ment Tons
Speed
Knots
Horse-
Power
Armament
Side
Armour
In.
UNITED STATES:
" Omaha " . . .10
1920
5555
55
Hi
7-500
33 1
90,000
12 6 in.
and
421 in. T. T.
bldg.
JAPAN:
" Yahagi "... 3
1911
475
465
I6J
4-950
26
22,500
86 in.
3
3 18 in. T .T.
" Tatsuta "... 2
1918
44
4i
13
3-500
31
51,000
45-5 in.
3
621 in. T. T.
" Tama " ... 20
1919
500
46?
15!
5,500
33
90,000
75-5 in.
3
8-21 in. T. T.
ITALY:
" Basilicata " . . . 2
1914
272
42
I6J
2-450
I6i
5,000
6 6 in.
2 T. T.
GERMANY:
\
"Stralsund" ....
1912
446
43 i
16
4,480
27
24,000
75-9 in-
217-7 in- T. T.
" Regensburg "...
1914
456
45
17
4,850
27*
26,000
75-9 in.
(now French " Strasbourg ")
2 19-7 in. T. T.
" Konigsberg "...
1915
45
43*
16
4,200
28i
45,000
75-9 in-
(now French " Metz ")
419-7 in. T. T.
" Frankfurt " .
1915
465
45i
17
5.120
28
45,000
85-9 in-
219-7 in. T. T.
" Brummer " .
1915
43
4'
I5i
4,000
30
46,000
45-9 in. 300
mines 4 19-7 T. T.
"Coin"
. 1918
489
47
I6J
5,600
27*
29,000
85-9 m.
423-6 in. T. T.
RUSSIA:
Admiral class ....
1915
535
51
18
7,600
30
55.000
155 in.
2 1 8 in. T. T-
did not construct 'any after the completion of the " Salem " class in
1908 until after the World War, when the construction of 10 light
cruisers of the " Omaha " class (fig. 42) was commenced. These
vessels were designed in 1916 and their construction authorized
by the Act of Congress o 1917. The chief characteristics of these
vessels, which are classed as " Scouts " by the U.S. navy, are an
over-all length of 555* ft., a displacement of 7,100 tons, S.H.P. of
turbine engines 90,000, giving an estimated speed of 35 knots. The
armament at first consisted of eight 6-in. guns arranged in double-
FIG. 42.
storied batteries of four guns each, forward and aft, but recently
this armament has been augmented by the addition of a twin 6-in.
gun turret on the centre line forward and aft. The torpedo arma-
ment is to consist of two 21 -in. above- water torpedo tubes. Pro-
tection, consisting of 3-in. total, is provided amidships to the machin-
ery compartments. With the exception of some protection to the
steering gear, the side protection does not appear to be so extensive
as that provided for British light cruisers. Oil fuel only is burnt in
the boilers of these vessels, the machinery arrangement of which is
of considerable interest. The turbine engines drive four propellers,
the engines for the outer shafts being accommodated in an engine-
room situated between two groups of boiler-rooms, the engines for
the inner shafts being in another engine-room abaft the second group
of boilers. The turbines are geared, the reduction gears being of the
Westinghouse floating-frame type. Cruising turbines are fitted to
obtain economy at cruising speeds.
Japan. Three light cruisers were completed for Japan in 1912.
These vessels, of about 5,000 tons displacement, 26 knots and carry-
ing eight 6-in. guns, are very similar to their British contemporaries
of the " Newcastle " class. No other light cruisers were built by
Japan until the " Tatsuta " and " Tenryu " were laid down in 1917
and completed in 1919. These vessels are in general characteristics
similar to the British " Arethusa " class, with higher speed and
reduced armament. On a displacement of 3,500 tons, a speed of 31
knots is obtained with 51,000 H.P. and four 5'5-in. guns are carried.
Following these vessels were eight light cruisers of the " Tama "
class, some of which have been launched. Twelve additional light
cruisers of the 1920 programme will follow. It is understood that
these 20 vessels are generally of the same class and are a consider-
able improvement upon the " Tatsuta." On a displacement of 5,500
tons, seven 5'5-in. guns will be carried and engines of 90,000 H.P.
will be fitted to give a designed speed of 36 knots.
Germany. The German naval programme provided for a small
number of light cruisers to be built each year. The four vessels of
the " Coin " class, completed in 1910 and 1911, were of 4,280 tons,
25J knots and carried 12 4-i-in. guns. They were an advance in
size and speed on their predecessors. In 1912 and 1913 six vessels of
slightly greater displacement and speed than the " Coin," but with
the same armament, were completed. The next 14 vessels, completed
1914-5, were of 5,000 tons, 27 knots, 30,000 H.P., and had an im-
proved armament of 2 S-g-in. and 10 4-i-in. guns. During the World
War a number of light cruisers were built, the chief characteristics
of which were their improved armaments, 6, 7, and 8 5-g-in. guns
Jinn
3-e-
FIG. 43.
being carried. Some of the earlier cruisers were rearmed with s-g-in,
guns in lieu of 4-i-in. guns originally fitted. The "Brummer'
and " Bremse," two of the surrendered vessels, were interesting
ships. They were mine-laying cruisers of 4,000 tons, and, with tur-
bine engines of 46,000 H.P., were generally credited with a speed of
34 knots, but this was at least 4 knots higher than the actual spc-rd.
They were arranged to carry about 300 mines. One of the chief
differences between British and German light cruisers lay in the
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
443
protection. British vessels, after the " Weymouth " class, were
protected by side plating of 3-in. total thickness, the German ves-
sels having less or no side protection, but with decks of i-in. or
2-in. thickness. A number of light cruisers were under construc-
tion at the Armistice. The " Coin " is typical of them. On a water-
line length of 489 ft. and displacement of 5,600 tons, she was to
have carried 8 s-g-in. guns (five of which could be fired on the broad-
side), 3 32-in. H.A. guns and 4 revolving 23-6-in. torpedo tubes.
Turbine engines of 29,000 S.H.P. were to have been provided for a
speed of 27^ knots. The protection consisted of about 2j-in. side
and j-in. deck.
Four of the German light cruisers were incorporated, with new
names, in the French navy, and three in the Italian navy.
Austria. In 1910 the light cruiser " Admiral Spaun " was com-
pleted and in 1914 three similar but slightly improved vessels.
These were of 3,500 tons, 27 knots, and mounted 9 3'9-in. guns.
Two of these vessels were taken into the Italian navy, and one into
the French navy, all with new names.
Italy. Six small light cruisers were completed between 1912 and
1916. The most interesting were the " Quarto " class (three ves-
sels), of 3,400 tons and 28 knots, carrying 6 4'7-in. and 6 3-in. guns
(see fig. 43).
Russia.. At the outbreak of the World War two small light
cruisers, which were taken over by Germany, were under construc-
tion in German yards. One is now in the French navy, and the other
was lost at Jutland. Eight light cruisers of a larger and more pow-
erful type were under construction in Russia, but were not com-
pleted. They were designed to be 520 ft. long, of 7,600 tons dis-
placement, armed with 15 5-in. guns, and, with turbines of 55,000 H.P.
a speed of 30 knots was expected.
Holland. Two light cruisers of 7,000 tons and 30 knots, with 10
5-9-in. guns, were under construction for a long time, but had not
yet been completed in 1921.
Spain. A light cruiser of 5,600 tons, generally similar to the
British " Birmingham," was being completed in 1921, and others
of this class were projected.
France. Six light cruisers of 5,000 tons, 30 knots speed and 8 5-5-
in. guns, were projected in the 1920 programme.
Torpedo-Boats and Submarines
Specifications of the torpedo-boats and flotilla leaders and sub-
marines of foreign navies are given in Tables IX. and X., and the
reader is referred to the Transactions of the Institute of Naval A rchi-
tects, 1920, for further information.
(3) MERCHANT SHIPS
The ordinary course of mercantile shipbuilding development,
which continued from 1910 until the autumn of 1914, was
abruptly checked by the World War. As the result, merchant
shipbuilding was practically stopped in France, Germany, Italy
and Austria, and it was very much reduced in the United
Kingdom owing to men joining the colours. At the same time a
great fillip was given to shipbuilding in the United States and
neutral countries. In England many of the best ships building
were requisitioned and fitted out for war services, or for auxil-
iary services with the fleet. Large numbers of vessels were also
withdrawn from the mercantile fleet for similar purposes, and
this, together with the great losses due to submarines, very
quickly created great demands for new ships. Shipbuilding
resources were developed with great rapidity all over the world,
leading up to: (i) a vastly increased output; (2) new types of
vessels which could be constructed quickly; (3) development of
new methods of construction. At the same time a vast increase
took place in the plant of all kinds for the manufacture of
armament, etc. The services rendered by the mercantile marine
during the war were invaluable (see SHIPPING), while, broadly
speaking, the ships themselves stood the brunt of war with
very remarkable success. In some cases, however, large pas-
senger ships were quickly sunk because of the existence of
passages, or doors in bulkheads, which permitted the sea to
find access to compartments other than those directly damaged,
thus leading to the foundering of the vessels. This caused
renewed attention to be given in all maritime countries to
matters of life-saving and subdivision.
Many very notable vessels were lost. Some of the best known
are shown in Table XI. Among these losses, the " Britannic "
and " Justicia " (formerly " Statendam ") were the largest
vessels building in the United Kingdom in 1014.
After the war the German ships which had been seized or
interned were distributed among the Allies. Germany also had
to surrender all ships above 1,600 tons afloat or on the stocks,
many smaller ones, floating docks, cranes, and other craft,
amounting to about 3,000,000 tons. These were divided chiefly
between Britain and the United States, with smaller shares to
France and Japan. She also had to undertake to build 1,000,000
tons for the Allies if required, but this was not enforced. Table
12 gives the names of some of the most noteworthy vessels
thus distributed.
TABLE IX. Torpedo-Boats and Flotilla Leaders.
Navy
Date of
Launch
Length
Ft.
Dis-
place-
ment
Tons
Horse-
Power
Speed
Knots
Armament
Chile
1912
320
1, 800
30,000
31
2 4-7 in. 2 4 in.
4 21 in. T. T.
France <
1914
1917
269
272
880
675
17,000
10,000
3
29
2 3-9 in.
4 18 in. T. T.
I 4-7 in. 43 in.
418 in. T. T.
Italy . .
TQT-Z
2l8
77O
18,000
W
4 4 in.
418 in. T. T.
Japan ........ .
IQl6
-1*6
I ^OO
08 OOO
\A.
3 4-7 in.
6 21 in. T. T.
United States
1917
314
1,200
27,000
35
44 in.
12 T. T.
Germany
1914
1917
1917
1918
322
280
200
360
1,35
1,000
350
2,400
40,000
24,000
6,000
54,000
37
33
26
35
4 4' i in. 24 mines
619-7 in. T. T.
34-1 in.
6 19-7 in. T. T.
23-4 in -
117-7 in- T. T.
45-9 in.
423-6 in. T. T.
Russia
1917
315
1,260
30,000
35
44 in.
918 in. T. T.
Austria
1912
266
787
17,000
33
2 4 in. 4 3 in.
2 T. T.
Italy
I9l6
"*IO
i 4.60
40 ooo
7C
5 4-7
4 21 in. T. T.
444
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
Table XII. includes a number of very fine vessels which Ger-
many was building in 1914 to compete with the " Aquitania,"
" Olympic," and such types of British ships, in order to gain a
still larger proportion of the Atlantic trade. Amongst them were
the largest vessels afloat in 1921. In certain cases German
companies were afterwards enabled to repurchase from the Allies
some of the surrendered ships, which then reverted to German
ownership. Austria had to surrender all her shipping, about
1 1 million tons. This was handed over to Italy, with the excep-
tion of about 70,000 tons for France.
Statistics. The world's output had reached a maximum of
3,330,000 tons in 1913, and was falling again in 1914. The tonnage
launched in the United Kingdom reached the record total of approxi-
mately 2,000,000 tons in 1913, and in 1914 it had decreased by over
10 per cent. Great efforts had been made in France, Germany,
Holland, Japan and Norway, and the totals in these countries
showed distinctly upward tendencies. In the United States very
great fluctuations occurred ; the output on the coast had fallen to
95,000 tons, and on the Great Lakes to 75,000 tons in 1911, while
in 1913 228,000 tons were launched on the coast and only 48,000
tons on the Lakes.
Table XI 1 1. shows the tonnage of ships launched in various coun-
tries from 1910-20. The diagram Fig. 44 has been prepared on the
basis of these figures. The striking results obtained in the British
colonies and Japan will be noted, and the overwhelming influence
of U.S. shipbuilding. Many of the American yards which were
specially constructed for war purposes were in 1921 being closed,
TABLE X. Submarines of Non-British Navies.
Navy
Date of
Launch
Length
Ft.
Displacement : Tons
Horse-Power
Speed: Knots
Armament
Surface
Submerged
Surface
Submerged
Surface
Sub-
merged
BRAZIL ....
1913
150
250
3/0
800
14
8^
2 18 in. T. T.
CHILE ....
1915
ISO
35
470
480
640
. 13
n
418 in. T. T.
FRANCE ....
1916
173
410
560
1,300
900
I3i
8
13 in.
8 18 in. T. T.
1917
243
850
1,180
2,900
1,650
17
I0j
23 m.
8 1 8 in. T. T.
ITALY ....
1915
207
700
1,000
2,600
1,300
18
10
2 14 V'dr.
6 1 8 in. T. T.
JAPAN
1917
215
700
1,070
2,600
1,300
18
IO
13 >n-
6 18 in. T. T.
UNITED STATES
1918
1 86
570
680
880
900
i3i
I0|
13 in.
4 21 in. T. T.
1918
264
1,100
1,500
4,000
1,500
20
II J
23 m.
8 21 in. T. T.
GERMANY
1914-8
Class:
U86
41
230
800
940
2,400
1,180
i6i
8
14-1 in. 13-5 m-
*
or 2 4-1 in. 4 T. T.
Ui42 ....
it
320
2,160
2,760
6,000
2,600
18
8
25-9 m.
6T. T.
UBi
ii
92
128
143
60
1 20
6J
si
I machine gun.
2T. T.
UB48 ....
ii
181
521
657
1,100
760
I3l
7i
I 4-1 in.
ST. T.
UCi
i
in
176
185
90
138
6*
5
I machine gun.
12 mines.
UCgo ....
ii
184
496
575
650
600
12
6i
I 4-1 in. 14 mines.
3 T. T.
UE7I ....
ii
1 86
762
846
900
800
ioi
8
I 3-5 in. 36 mines.
2 T. T.
UEnr ....
ii
267
1,170
i,5i5
2,400
1,150
15
71
I 5-9 in. or 2 4- 1 in.
42 mines. 4 T. T.
Deutschland (Ui52>
214
1,525
1,885
800
800
IO
5h
2 rf. 9 T in -
TABLE XI. Merchant-ships lost in the War.
Name
Tonnage
(Gross)
Country
Name
Tonnage
(Gross)
Country
' Alcantara "
.
15,831
U.K.
' Koningen Emma " .
9,181
Dutch
' Andania " .
I3-4 5
"
' Laconia "
18,099
U.K.
' Arabic "
15,801
"
' La Provence " .
!3>753
French
' Aurania "
'3 >93 6
"
' Laurentic "
14,892
U.K.
' Avenger " (ex. " Ao
1 Ballarat "
earc
a")'
13.441
11,120
ii
ii
' Llandovery Castle "
' Lusitania '
ii,493
30,096
ii
' Britannic "
.
48,158
ii
' Medina "
12,350
"
' Bonheur "
.
7,132
Norway
1 Minnehaha "
13,714
"
' Calgarian "
' Cameronia " .
17,515
10,963
U.K.
' O. B. Jennings "
' Oceanic " .
10,290
17,274
U.S.A.
U.K.
' Campania "
.
12,884
"
'Otaki" .
9,575
H
' Cap Trafalgar "
18,710
German
' President Lincoln " .
18,168
U.S.A.
' City of Adelaide "
' City of Paris "
8,389
9,239
U.K.
' Principe Umberto".
' Rotorua " .
7,929
11,140
Italian
U.K.
' Covington "
16,339
U.S.A.
' Royal Edward "
11,117
i i
' FranConia "
.
18,150
U.K.
' San Hilario " .
10,157
' Gallia "
' Glenart Castle "
14,966
6,824
French
U.K.
' Transylvania " . .
14-315
7,562
..
' Hirano Maru "
.
W|WMB
7,936
Japan
' Tubantia " . .
13.9"
Dutch
' Ivernia " .
14,278
U.K.
' Tuscania "
14,348
U.K.
' Justicia " .
32,234
'
' Volturno " .
1 1 ,496
Italian
' Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse "
13,952
German
' Yasaka Maru "
10,932
Japan
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
445
while others were falling back rapidly to pre-war conditions (see
SHIPPING: United States).
In the United Kingdom, from the middle of 1915, a committee of
the Board of Trade, in conjunction with the Transport Department
of the Admiralty, assumed control of the British mercantile marine,
including shipbuilding. A Merchant Shipbuilding Advisory Com-
mittee was formed, with Sir George Carter as chairman. In Dec.
1916 the Ministry of Shipping was set up, under Sir Joseph Maclay.
The Shipbuilding Advisory Committee was enlarged, and on its
advice steps were taken to standardize the types of merchant ships
to be built, and to simplify the details of construction both of hull
and machinery to secure the greatest and quickest output possible.
Five types of " standard ships " were designed, varying from 3,000
to 8,000 tons deadweight, and between Dec. 1916 and April 1917
considerable numbers of these vessels were ordered. In order to
harmonize the work of shipbuilding for the Admiralty and the mer-
cantile marine, the whole was placed under one authority, Sir Eric
Geddes, in June 1917, when he assumed office as controller of the
Navy. Arrangements were made for setting up new shipyards with
a view to producing " fabricated " ships, which could be put together
with very much reduced amounts of skilled labour; but the results
were disappointing, and at the end of 1918 the output in the United
Kingdom was still only at the rate of 1,500,000 tons per annum.
In March 1918 Lord Pirrie was appointed controller-general of
TABLE XII. Ownership of Some Notable ex-German Ships.
Old Name
Gross Tons
New Name
New Owners
" Amerika " ....
22,622
" America "
U.S. Government.
" Barbarossa " ....
10,984
" Mercury "
U.S. Government.
" Batavia " . c . . .
1 1 ,464
" Batavia "
French Government.
" Berlin " . ' ....
17,324
" Arabic "
White Star Line.
' Bismarck " ....
56,000
" Majestic "
White Star Line.
' Bliicher " ....
12,350
" Leopoldina "
Brazilian Government.
' Bremen " ....
11,540
" Bremen " ....
Shipping Controller (P. & O. S. Nav. Co.)
' Bulgaria " ....
11,440
' Philippines "
U.S. Shipping Board.
' Cap Arcona "...
9,832
' Cap Arcona "
U.S. Shipping Board.
' Cap Finisterre " .
14,503
' Cap Finisterre " .
Japanese Government.
' Cap Ortegal " ....
7,818
' Cap Ortegal " .
French Government.
' Cap Polonio " ....
20,597
' Cap Polonio " .
P. & O. Steam Nav. Co.
' Cleveland " .
15,746
' King Alexander "
\
(ex " Mobile ")
Byron S. S. Co. Ltd.
" Columbus "
35,ooo
" Homeric "
White Star Line.
" Friedrich der Grosse" .
" Fritz "
10,688
3,o83
" Huron "
" Assyrian "
U.S. Shipping Board.
Ellerman Line.
" George Washington " .
" Graf Waldersee " .
25,570
I3J93
" George Washington "
"Graf Waldersee "
U.S. Shipping Board.
Shipping Controller (P. & O. S. Nav. Co.)
" Grosser Kurfiirst "...
12,642
" Aeolus " '
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Imperator "
52,022
" Berengaria " . . . .
Cunard S. S. Co.
" Johann Heinrich "...
" Burchard "
19,980
" Limburgia " ....
(Koninklyke Hollandsche Lloyd).
" Kaiserin Auguste "...
24,58l
" Empress of Scotland "
Canadian Pacific.
" Victoria "
" Kaiser Wilhelm II." .
I9,36i
" Agamemnon " .
U.S. (Navy Dept.).
" Kigoma "
8,156
" Algeria "
Anchor Line.
" Coin "
7,409
" Amphion "
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Konig Albert "
10,643
" Ferdinando "
Italian Government.
" Palasciano " . . . .
" Konigin Luise "
11,103
" Omar " . . . . .
Orient S. N. Co.
" Konig Wilhelm II."
9,410
" Madawaska "
U.S. Government.
" Kronprinzessin Cecilie "
18,372
" Mount Vernon "...
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Kronprinz Wilhelm " .
14,901
" Von Steuben " ' .
U.S. Government.
" Main "
10, 1 86
" Main "
French Government.
" Moltke "
12,335
" Pesaro "
Italian Government.
" Neckar "
9,709
" Potomac "
(ex " Antigone ") .
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Patricia "
14,466
" Patricia "
Shipping Controller (Ellerman Line).
" Pennsylvania "
13,333
" Nansemond " .
U.S. Shipping Board.
" President Grant " .
18,072
" President Grant "...
U.S. (War Dept.).
" Pretoria "
13,234
" Pretoria "
Shipping Controller (Ellerman Line).
" Princess Alice " . . . .
10,421
" Princess Matoika " .
U.S. (War Dept.).
" Prinz Eitel Friedrich " .
8,170
" Mount Clay " .
(ex " De Kalb ") .
American S. & C. Nav. Corp.
" Prinz Friedrich Wilhelm " .
17,099
" Empress of China " .
Canadian Pacific Ocean Services, Ltd.
" Prinzess Irene " .
10,352
" Pocahontas " .
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Rhein "
9,959
" Susquehanna " .
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Tirpitz "
19,300
" Empress of India " .
C.P.O. Services Ltd.
" Vaterland "
54,282
" Leviathan "
U.S. Government.
" Wm. Oswald "-....
20,200
" Brabantia " '.
Kon. Holl. Lloyd.
" Wittekind "
5,640
" Freedom " . _ .
(ex " Iroquois ") .
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Ypiranga "
8,103
" Assyria "
Anchor Line.
" Zeppelin "
14,167
" Ormuz "
Orient S. Nav. Co.
TABLE XIII. Tonnage Launched in 1910-20 (in thousands of tons).
Year
U.K.
Brit. Dom.
U.S.
Japan
France
Germany
Holland
Other
Countries
Total
1910
i,H3
26
331
30
Si
159
7i
116
1,957
1911
,804
20
172
44
125
256
93
137
2,651
1912
,737
35
284
58
in
375
99
2OI
2.900
1913
,932
48
276
65
176
465
104
266
3,332
1914
,684
47
2OI
86
114
387
118
216
*2,8 5 3
1915
651
22
177
49
25
(No returns)
113
163
*I,2OO
1916
608
32
504
146
43
do.
1 80
175
*i,688
1917
,163
94
998
350
19
do.
149
165
*2,938
1918
-348
280
3,033
490
H
do.
74
2O9
*5,448
1919
,620
359
4,075
612
33
do.
137
308
*7,H4
1920
2,056
204
2,476
457
93
do.
183
393
*5,862
'Returns not complete.
446
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
merchant shipbuilding and given extraordinary powers. The new
shipyards were pushed on during 1918, but had scarcely come into
active production when the Armistice was signed.
TABLE XIV. Gross Tonnage of Shipping owned in 1910-21
(in millions of tons).
Country
1910
1914
1919
1920
1921
United Kingdom and Colo-
nies
19-0
21-0
18-6
2O-6
22-1
United States
5-i
5-4
13-1
16-0
17-0
Germany ....
4'3
5-5
3-5
0-7
0-7
France
1-9
2-3
2-2
3'2
3-7
Japan
i-i
1-7
2-3
3-o
3-4
Norway
2-0
2-5
1-9
2-2
2-6
Denmark ....
0-7
0-8
0-7
0-8
I-O
Sweden
9
i-i
I'D
I-I
1-2
Italy ....
i'3
1-7
1-4
2-2
2-6
Holland. ....
I-O
i-5
1-6
1-8
2-2
All other Countries
4-5
5-6
4-6
5-6
5-5
Total, World's Shipping.
41-8
49-1
50-9
57-2
62-0
Largely as a result of the efforts of the United States, by the end
of 1918 ships were being built at the rate of 7,000,000 tons per
annum, against the pre-war record of 3,330,000 tons per annum.
In June 1920 the steam tonnage of the world amounted to about
54,000,000 tons, notwithstanding the losses of the war. The total
losses had amounted to about 9,000,000 tons of British ships and
6,000,000 tons others, making a total of 15,000,000 tons. Of the
total, 2,000,000 tons were due to ordinary marine risks.
FIG. 44.
Motor-Ships. The period 191021 saw immense changes in
the means of propulsion. In 191 1 the " Selandia " and " Jutlandia "
were launched, and a number of other vessels were being built, in
which internal-combustion engines of a more or less experimental
character were being fitted. Lloyd's Register reports that by 1914
there were 290 motor-ships of 234,000 tons gross, while in 1921 there
were no fewer than 1,447 ships of 1,263,000 tons gross, so that in
1921 there were nearly five times as many motor-ships in existence
as there were in 1914, and the tonnage ol these ships was nearly six
times as great. In these seven years motor-vessels increased from
47 to 2-1 per cent of the world's tonnage.
Dr. Diesel's master patents expired in 1909 and 1910, and since
then many successful types of internal-combustion engines have been
established in Europe and in America (see INTERNAL-COMBUSTION
ENGINES), and the proportion of motor to steam vessels building
rapidly increased. In June 1921 183 motor-vessels of 502,944 tons
were under construction, and out of this number 57 of 241,003 tons
were being built in the United Kingdom.
Oil Burners. Another very great improvement is in the use of
oil instead of coal under steam boilers. Lloyd's Register reports that
in 1914 364 vessels of 1,310,000 tons were fitted to burn oil, but in
1921 these had increased to 2,563 ships of 12,797,000 tons, or from
2-62 to 20-65% f the world's tonnage. In the United States four
vessels burn oil to every three vessels burning coal. This use of oil
fuel has demanded a large increase in the number of oil-tank
steamers. In 1914 there were 385 tankers of 1,479,000 tons, while
in 1921 there were 861 tankers of 4,419,000 tons, an increase from
2-94 to 7-16 per cent of the world's tonnage.
Electric Drive. It has been the almost universal practice for
submarines to be propelled by electric motors when submerged.
In a few cases of small surface vessels electric drive had also been
used prior to 1910. The earliest recorded appears to be Nobel's
tank vessel " Sarmat," fitted with the system in 1904. About 1910
a small vessel named the " Electric Arc " was built on the Clyde to
test the method of electric transmission devised by Mavor, using
Squirrel cage motors. The experiment was not altogether a suc-
cess, but it gave a good deal of experience. Mavor proceeded to
America and discussed his ideas with Emmet, and no doubt assisted
Emmet in the great undertaking carried out for the American navy
in the collier " Jupiter " (now aircraft-carrier " Langley "). The
American navy built three colliers at this time of identical dimen-
sions, about 20,000 tons displacement, 7,500 H.P., 15 knots full
speed, and cargo 12,000 tons. The " Cyclops " has two recipro-
cating engines, the " Neptune " has Parsons turbines and a West-
inghouse floating frame mechanical gearing, while the " Jupiter "
was fitted with a Curtis turbo-electric generator, running at 2,000
revolutions, giving alternating current at 2,200 volts, and motors
driving two propeller shafts at no revolutions. The reported engine
room weight of the " Jupiter " is 223 tons, compared with 343 tons
in " Cyclops " and 189 tons in " Neptune."
Mavor's next step was to fit up an installation of 1,500 S.H.P. in
the " Tynemount," built by Messrs. Swan, Hunter & Co. in 1913.
This vessel was 250 ft. long, 1,644 tons gross, and of about 8 knots
speed. This system, however, did not admit of development on a
large scale.
The next important progress was made in Sweden, where two sister
vessels were built, 225 ft. x 36 ft. x 15^ ft., 2,250 displacement, 975
tons gross. Each was provided with 900 H.P. for nj knots. In the
" Mimer " triple expansion reciprocating engines were fitted. In
the " Mjolmer " Ljungstrom turbo-generators running at 800 r.p.m.
were fitted, with two motors of 450 H.P. each, and geared to a single
propeller shaft running at 85 r.p.m. It was reported that fuel con-
sumption was reduced by over 40%, to -89 Ib. per I. H.P. per hour,
and that a saving of 74 tons in weight was effected. A large number
of other vessels have since been fitted on the " Ljungstrom " sys-
tem. These include the " Turbinia, " of 2,259 tons and 1,020 H.P.,
built in 1916 in Sweden, and the " Wulsty Castle," of 3,566 tons
and 1,500 S.H.P., built in 1918 by Blumer of Sundcrland. It was
reported that in 1921 there were 40 vessels building in different
countries on this system with the aggregate of 70,000 horse power.
The success of the " Jupiter " was so great that electric trans-
mission was adopted by the U.S. navy for a great many of their
later ships, even of the highest power. The next great experiment
in electrical propulsion was put in hand by the U.S. Shipping Board,
who decided to remove the mechanical gearing in 12 vessels and fit
an electric drive instead. The first vessel taken was named " Eclipse,"
the next three vessels " Archer," " Independence " and " Victo-
rious." The " Eclipse " is 440 x 56 x 35-2., of 7,589 tons gross and
11,900 dead- weight. The boilers are fitted with Dahl oil burners,
steam 215 Ib. and 200 super heated. One turbine of the Curtis
Impulse type is fitted to run at 2,000 r.p.m. A three-phased genera-
tor supplies current at 2,300 volts. An induction motor is fitted
directly on the propeller shaft working at 2,300 volts and running
at 100 r.p.m. for 3,000 H.P. The speed may range from 20 to 1 10%
of the normal. The result of the trials was very gratifying. The
reports as to the first voyage were not quite so good. The other
three vessels named had not yet gone on service in 1921.
Another very interesting case is that of the " Cuba," a vessel
310 x 40 x 26-9 of 2,963 tons gross. This vessel has also been fitted
with a turbine electric drive by the General Electric Co., Schenec-
tady, but in this case a synchronous motor is fitted. Steam of 190
Ib. with 200 super heat is supplied to an 8-stage Curtis turbine, as
in " Eclipso" This runs at 3,000 r.p.m. and 1,150 volts. The motor
gives 3,000 H.P. at 100 r.p.m. and 1,150 volts, and is fitted directly
on the shaft. The trials of this vessel were well reported on. Both
vessels are of 1 1 knots speed.
The question of the efficiency and economy of the electric drive
was being very much discussed in 1921. On the one hand it was
said that the transmission loss of the electrical system was 8%
instead of 3% with the mechanical current, but the other ships
with electrical current reported very good economy of fuel.
Wood Vessels. In 1914 wood vessels amounted to I % of the
total steam tonnage, but owine to the special building during the
war it had risen to nearly 4% in 1921. Of this large increase the
United States owns one million tons.
The Emergency Fleet programme provided for ordering 1,067
wooden and composite ships, of 3,227,200 tons; but only 607 of
1,948,250 tons, were actually produced. In June 1921 288 cargo
carriers remained in the possession of the U.S. Shipping Board, 15
being on active service and 27^5 tied up. The board also had 14 tugs,
of which 9 were on active service. Up to this date 21 1 had been sold,
12 of which had been built for service as cargo carriers and 61 as
tugs. One had been fitted for carrying oil in bulk. Seventy-four
were incomplete when sold. In Aug. 1921 the remaining wooden
vessels were reported to be sold to the Ship Construction and
Trading Company.
Concrete Ships. Prior to the war a number of small vessels for
harbour or river service had been built of ferro-concrete in Italy,
Norway and France. During the war a few experimental vessels of
small size were built in various places, and the system was adopted
to an increasing extent, practically all over the world. As larger
vessels were built, the methods received careful consideration, and
by proper development vessels up to 7,500 tons dead-weight were
successfully produced. The complication of rods and ties in the
larger vessels became very great, and sectional or panel systems
were introduced, as contrasted with the usual monolith system.
The reports as to results varied. The weight of hull was reported
to be from 50 to 100% more than for steel, or about equal to wood;
while the saving of steel for carrying a given dead-weight amounted
to 55 to 66% of the steel ship. This was an enormous advantage
during the steel shortage, and a further advantage was the power
to build by a new class of labour, giving a greater aggregate of
labour for shipbuilding. The most notable vessel was perhaps the
S.S. " Faith," built by the San Francisco Shipping Co. in 1918.
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
447
This vessel, 320 ft. long, 3,427 tons gross, and fitted to burn oil fuel,
was a great success. On arrival in England with a cargo the holds
were found to be absolutely dry. Table XV. gives the total tonnage
recorded of vessels of this type.
TABLE XV. Ferro-Concrete Vessels Included in " Lloyd's Register,"
1921-2.
Country
Steam and
Motor Vessels
Sai
Ves
No.
ing
sels
Total
No.
Tons
Tons
No.
Tons
United Kingdom
13
4,222
46
31,625
59
35,847
Canada (coast) .
I
320
i
320
United States
(sea) . .
15
73,894
15
73-894
Denmark
3
2,413
3
2 4I3
France .
3
2,383
I
816
4
3,199
Italy .
3
602
3
602
Norway
u
6,093
14
6,093
Spain .
I
273
i
273
Total
50
89.598
50
33,043
IOO
122,641
Large Liners. Particulars of notable Atlantic liners of recent
construction are given in Table XVI. When the " Lusitania " was
sunk during the war, the " Mauretania " (30,704 tons) was the
only pre-war 25-knot Atlantic liner left. She was followed, how-
ever by the " Aquitania " (45,647 tons), of 24 knots, launched by
John Brown & Co., for the Cunard Co., in 1914, and the " France,"
of 23,666 tons gross, launched at St. Nazaire for the Cie. Generate
Transatlantique in 1912. The " France " had turbines of 45,000
H.P. on four shafts for her 24 knots, and carried 1,926 passengers
besides her crew of six hundred. The " Aquitania " was completed
during the war as a hospital ship, but saw very little service as such.
After the war she was overhauled and fitted to burn oil fuel, so as
to carry 3,250 passengers.
In 1917 another great French liner was launched, the " Paris,"
of 33,700 tons; it was not completed until June 1921. She could
carry 98 passengers in cabins de luxe, 468 first-, 464 second-, 1,100
third-class (in cabins), also 1,100 steerage in open berths the total,
including crew, amounting to 3,900 persons. She was fitted with
four screws driven by Parsons' turbines, manufactured at Havre.
During completion she was modified to burn oil fuel on the Wall-
send-Howden system. On her first trip, with 12 boilers out of 15 in
service, she averaged 21 knots.
Of the great White Star liners, the " Adriatic," of 24,541 tons
gross, capable of carrying a total dead-weight of cargo and fuel of
19,710 tons, at a speed of i8J knots, may be taken as typical. A later
ship, the " Belgic," of 24,547 tbns gross, which was put prematurely
into service during the war (1917), could carry 22,025 tons at the
same speed. The " Adriatic," " Baltic," " Cedric " and " Celtic,"
averaging 22,600 tons gross, with a total dead-weight capacity of
over 55,000 tons, became well known to Atlantic passengers as the
" Big Four."
The White Star policy of combining comfort for passengers with
a large cargo-carrying capacity found its highest expression, how-
ever, in the " Olympic," of 46,359 tons, launched by Harland &
Wolff in 1911. She could carry a total of 12,770 tons dead-weight
on a draught of 34 ft. 7 in., with a displacement of 52,300 tons, and
could take 2,400 passengers, besides her crew of 900, across the
Atlantic at 21 knots. Having been altered to burn oil fuel, she
could take sufficient at New York (7,500 tons) to provide for the
double journey. Her maximum speed is 22j knots at 55,000 horse
power. The " Olympic " was in 1921 the biggest British-built
vessel, but her dimensions had been exceeded by the " Britannic,"
of 48,158 tons, which was launched by Harland & Wolff in 1914,
and was sunk in Greek waters while serving as a hospital ship in 1916.
Still larger, however, were the three great liners built in Germany
during 1912-4. The largest of these (and in 1921 the largest in the
world), the " Majestic," (fig. 45) launched by Blohm & Voss in
1914, and acquired by the White Star for entering service in 1922,
is of 56,000 tons gross. Turbines of about 100,000 H.P. on four
shafts, the greatest installation yet fitted in any merchant vessel,
give her an ocean speed-capacity of 23 knots. She is 956 ft. in
length, 100 ft. in width, and 102 ft. in height from keel to boat deck.
Parsons' turbines, arranged for triple expansion, are fitted on four
shafts, and steam is supplied by Yarrow water-tube boilers at 260-
Ib. pressure. The machinery weighs 8,500 tons, and 5,700 tons of
fuel are consumed on one trip. The funnels come up at the side of
the ship, joining together above, and thus leave the central part
clear for dining-halls, etc. The ventilation involves 18 m. of piping,
while there are 15,000 electric lamps, and 225 electric motors for
various purposes, requiring a total of 1,565 horse-power. She can
carry 4,000 passengers, while the food for one voyage includes 12
tons of fresh meat, 12 tons of vegetables, 14 tons of milk and about
5 tons of eggs.
Amongst the latest additions to the White Star line up to 1921
was the " Homeric," of 35,000 tons, carrying 2,700 passengers at
21 knots; she was launched at Danzig in 1913 as S.S. " Columbus."
The " Homeric " is notable as being the last Targe ship propelled by
reciprocating engines only, of which she has two sets, triple expan-
sion, cyls. soj in., 86 J in. (2), 96 in. and 70 in. stroke; but these
were exceeded in size by those of " Britannic," (fig. 46) which were
54 in., 84 in. (2), 97 in. and 75 in. stroke, to give 32,000 I. H.P.
on two wing shafts, and in addition " Brittannic " had l.p. tur-
bines to give 18,000 S.H.P. on two central shafts. The engines of
" Britannic " were probably the most powerful single sets made
for an ocean liner, while the " Kronprinzessin Cecilie " (now " Mount
Vernon ") had the greatest total I.H.P., as she had two sets of 4-cyl.
engines on each shaft; they were 37! in., 49 in., 75 in., and 112 in.
(quadruple expn.) and 71 in. stroke. Other new vessels being added
by the White Star line are: " Regina " (16,314 tons), and " Rim-
ouski " (9,281 tons) for Canadian service; " Laurentic " (18,000
tons), " Doric " (16,600 tons) and " Pittsburgh " (16,600) for U.S.
services.
The Cunard Co. acquired the " Berengaria " (formerly " Impera-
tor ") of 52,022 tons, launched by Vulcan Works, Hamburg, in
1012. This vessel has Parsons' turbines of 60,000 H.P. on four shafts
and can attain a speed of over 22 knots with 185 revolutions. She
carries 4,000 passengers and a crew of 1,200.
The Cunard Co. decided immediately after the war to build a
large number of intermediate vessels somewhat of the " Olympic "
type, but smaller and of less speed. The first four were 600 ft. ships
of about 21,000 tons gross and 27,000 tons displacement, at 3O-ft.
draught, and were named " Scythia," " Samaria," " Franconia,"
" Laconia." The " Samaria," (fig. 47) which may be taken as
typical, was built by Cammell Laird & Co. in 1921. Her engines
(turbines) are fitted with double helical speed reduction gear, to
drive the propellers at an economical speed. The boilers are of the
cylindrical type, fitted to burn oil fuel with forced draught on the
Wallsend-Howden combined system. They will give steam at
220 Ib. with 200 F., superheated by means of Schmidt's smoke-
tube type of superheater. Her twin screws are operated by Brown-
Curtis turbines, which run at 2,750 revolutions. Triple expansion
is arranged for as follows: On each side of the ship a H.P. and I. H.P.
turbine are fitted in tandem on the shaft of the first driving pinion,
and the l.p. turbine is fitted on the shaft of the second driving
pinion of the first reduction gear, both then operate through the
second reduction gear and give the propeller shafts a speed of 90
revs, per minute. The total S.H.P. of 13,500 gives a sea speed of 16
knots. The astern turbines are compound, and are incorporated in
the exhaust casings of the intermediate and low-pressure ahead
turbines, and give a total power equal to about 70% of the ahead
power. This may be taken as typical of the best turbine arrange-
ments of 1921. The " Samaria " can carry about 350 first-, 350
second- and 1,600 third-class passengers. Her deck machinery is
driven by electric power through hydraulic variable-speed gear at
each of the machines. Two large sets of turbo-driven generators
are provided for this purpose, and an oil-driven emergency dynamo
is also fitted. A gyro-compass installation is fitted, the master com-
pass being on one of the lower decks, with three separate controlled
compasses at suitable positions for navigation. Her subdivision is
on the most approved principle, with increased numbers of water-
tight bulkheads, the water-tight bulkhead doors being operated on
the Stone-Lloyd hydraulic system. She is further subdivided by
fireproof bulkheads-, and the " Gronwald " system of fire extinguish-
ing is installed. Electric passenger hoists are provided.
Among great pre-war German liners which came into the service
of U.S. shipping companies were the " America," of I^J knots and
22,622 tons, launched by Harland & Wolff, Belfast, in 1905, and
the " George Washington," (fig. 48) of 18 knots and 25,570 tons,
launched by the Vulcan Works, Stettin, in 1908. In addition, the
" Leviathan," of 54,282 tons, and 21 knots, launched by Blohm &
Voss, Hamburg, in 1914, was still in 1921 awaiting renovation and
allocation to service. During the war these great vessels were util-
ized to transport immense numbers of American troops across the
Atlantic. For this service they were specially prepared and ballasted,
and, on sailing, the " Leviathan" had what may perhaps be a record
draught for a vessel leaving port, viz. 40 ft. II in. " Leviathan "
carried as many as 1 1,000 troops on a single trip.
Among American liners the place of the old " St. Paul " has been
taken by ships of the " State " class, which were started as 522-ft.
troopships (fig. 49). The first on the Atlantic service were the
" Panhandle State," and the " Old North State," vessels of 10,500
tons, completed in 1920. There were five other vessels also of the
same type, 522 ft. overall, with 502 ft. between perpendiculars.
Supplemented by the great ex-German ships named above, they
enabled the Shipping Board to send their faster (535 ft.) State type
of vessel to the Pacific.
Germany in 1921 retained the old " Deutschland," which had
now only machinery for 15! knots, and was named " Hansa."
Just prior to the war Germany was building a series of splendid
vessels, most luxuriously fitted out, and supplied with every modern
device for the attraction and comfort of passengers in order to cap-
ture the S. American trade. They were fitted with a combination
of reciprocating engines and turbines. The best-known vessel,
" Cap Trafalgar," 18,710 tons, 17^ knots (1913), was, as an armed
merchant cruiser, met and sunk after a stiff fight by the Cunarder
" Carmania," also fitted out as an armed merchant cruiser. Other
vessels of the type were the " Cap Finisterre," 14,503 tons, 17 knots,
(1911) (now the " Taiyo Maru '), and the " Cap Polonio," 19,500
44 8
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
tons, 18 knots (1914). The last had specially luxurious apartments
to fit her for the use of the ex-Kaise/, but after the war British
owners could not run her at a profit, and she was sold back to
Germany, and was, in 1921, far the best and fastest German steamer.
France replied with the " Lutetia," 14,654 tons (1913), and the
" Massilia," 15,147 tons (1914), both having a combination of recip-
rocating engines and turbines for 20 knots.
The " Esperia," of 11,393 tons, the finest passenger vessel built
as such in Italy, was launched at Genoa in 1921. She is fitted with
Parsons' turbines, of 19,600 H.P., on two shafts, with mechanical
reduction gearing, for 21 knots, and carrying 480 passengers in addi-
tion to a crew of three hundred. Italy also ordered two fine vessels
in Great Britain. One, the " Conte Rosso," built by Beardmore,
Dalmuir, was requisitioned by the Admiralty, razeed to give an
uninterrupted flat deck, with no funnels, and fitted out as' the air-
craft-carrier " Argus." She was finished just before the Armistice.
To take her place another vessel of the same name was launched in
1921 by Beardmore, 15,500 tons, l8J knots speed, dimensions
570 ft. x 74-2 ft. x 36-1 feet. The second vessel, " Giulio Cesare,"
laid down by Swan, Hunter & Co. at Wallsend, stood half plated
during the war, and was finally completed in 1920, 21,500 tons, i8J
knots sea speed. In her the fitting-out of the German " Cap " ves-
sels was rivalled by a combination of British and Italian art, and
this vessel was in 1921 the largest and finest Italian liner, and the
finest vessel trading to S. American ports. She has four sets of
turbines of 21,900 H.P. with single reduction gearing driving four
propellers, giving a speed of 19^ knots speed on trial, and carries
243 passengers in de luxe state-rooms, 306 second-class, 800 steerage
and a crew of 520, giving a total of 1,869.
Spain had two fine vessels built just before the war, the " Infanta
Isabel de Borbon," of 10,348 tons, 175 knots, launched by Denny
at Dumbarton (1913), and the " Reina Victoria Eugene," 10,137
tons, launched by Swan, Hunter & Co. (1913), 175 knots, and of
about the same general dimensions. Both are fine well-fitted ves-
sels, and both have a combination of reciprocating engines and
turbines of 10,000 H.P. for propulsion at \l\ knots speed. Spain
also built herself vessels of a steadily improving class. The " Alfonso
XIII." (of 10,137 tons gross), built in 1921 at Bilbao, was the finest
vessel yet constructed in Spain. Her dimensions are 480 ft. x 61 ft.
x 41 feet. She is fitted with two sets of geared steam turbines of
10,300 S.H.P., giving 14 r.p.m. at the propellers, and a speed of
about 17 \ knots.
Particulars of notable recent Pacific liners are given in Table 17.
The wonderful development of what might be spoken of as secondary
liners is illustrated by the new vessels built for the Canadian Pacific
railway (now Canadian Pacific Ocean services). The " Empress of
Canada," of 22,000 tons and 22 knots, built in 1920 by Fairfield
will be the finest vessel on the Pacific Ocean.
TABLE XVI. Particulars of Notable Atlantic Liners.
Name
Tons
gross
Speed
Knots
Owners
Date of
buil.l.
Dimensions Builders
LED
Dead-
weight
Tons
Horse-
power
No. of
screws
Types of Machinery and Makers
Steam
pressure
Ibs.
" Mauretania "
30,704
26.6
Cunard Co.
1907
762.2 \ 88 K 57.1
12,280
70,000
4
Parsons' turbines
195
Swan Hunter, Newcastle.
Wallsend Slipway Co.
" Aquitania " .
45,647
24
Cunard Co.
1914
868.7 i QT x 49.7
12,913
60,000
4
Steam turbines
IQJ
}. Brown, Clydebank,
J. Brown, Clydebank.
Glasgow.
" Berengaria " .
52,022
22/4
Cunard Co.
1912
882.9 x 98.3 x 57.1
12,000
60,000
4
Steam turbines
(ex " Imper-
Vulcan Werke, Hamburg.
Vulcan Werke, Hamburg.
ator ")
" Scythia "
19,503
if
Cunard Co.
1921
600.7 x 73.8 x 40.7
1 2,400
2
Steam turbines
Vickers, Barrow
Vickers, Barrow.
" Samaria "
20,937
it
Cunard Co.
1921
601.5 x 73.7 x 40.7
12,400
13.500
2
Brown Curtis turbines with
220
Cammcll Laird,
double reduction gear.
Birkenhead.
Cammcll Laird.
" Britannic " .
48,158
White Star Co.
1014
852.5 X 94 X 59.5
50,000
3
Reciprocating & l.p. turbine
(lost in World
Harland & Wolff,
Harland & Wolff.
War).
Belfast.
" Olympic " .
46,439
31
White Star Co.
IQII
852.5 x 92.5 x 59.5
Harland & Wolff,
12,770
50,000
3
Reciprocating & l.p. turbine
Harland & Wolff.
215
Belfast.
" Majestic " .
56,000
23
White Star Co.
1914
012 x 100 x 57.1
....
100,000
4
Steam turbines
(ex " Bis-
Blohm & Voss, Hamburg.
Blohm & Voss, Hamburg.
marck ").
" Belgic " .
24,547
i8!>i
....
1917
670.4 x 78.4 x 44.7
22,025
3
Reciprocating & l.p. turbine
Harland & Wolff,
Harland & Wolff.
Belfast.
" Homeric "
35,000
19
White Star Co.
1913
750 x 83 x 48.9
2
Reciprocating
....
(ex " Colum-
F. Schichau, Dantzig.
F. Schichau, Elbing.
bus ").
" America "
22,622
16.7
U.S. Government
1005
668.8 x 71..) x 47.8
20,765
17,500
2
Reciprocating
2IO
(ex " Amer-
(War Department)
Harland & WolJf,
Harland & Wolff.
ika ").
Belfast.
" Leviathan " .
54,282
22>i
U.S. Government
1914
907.6 x 100.3 x 58.2
15,000
65,000
4
Steam turbines
240
(ex " Vater-
(Navy Department)
Blohm & Voss, Hamburg.
Ulohm & Voss.
land ").
" George Wash-
25,570
17
U.S. Shipping Board
1908
699.1 x 78.2 x 50.1
13,4*5
18,000
2
Reciprocating
215
ington ")
A. G. Vulcan, Stettin.
A. G. Vulcan, Stettin.
" Agamemnon "
(ex " Kaiser
19,361
21^
U.S. Shipping Board
1902
684.3 * 72.3 x 40.2
A. G. Vulcan, Stettin.
8,700
43.000
2
Reciprocating
A. G. Vulcan, Stettin.
213
Wilhelm II.")
" Panhandle
10,533
14
U.S. Shipping Board
1920
SO2.I x 62.2 x 28.3
1 3, ODD
7,ooo
2
Reciprocating
220
State" .
New York S. B. Corp.
New York S. B. Corp.
" France ".
23,666
24
Cie. Gen. Transatlantique
1913
689.0 x 75.6 x 51.4
6,384
45,000
4
Steam turbines
Ch. & Atel. de St. Nazaire,
Ch. & Atel. de St. Nazaire.
St. Nazaire.
"Paris" .
32,000
22
Cie. Gen. Transatlantique
1917
734.9 x 85.2 x 50.1
4
Steam turbines
Ch.& Atel.de St. Nazaire,
Chant, de Penhret. St. N.
St. Nazaire.
" Massilia "
15,147
2O
Cie. de Nav. Sud-
Atlantique.
1916
574.0 x 64.0 x 40.2
Forg. & Ch. dc la Mdit.,
4
Reciprocating & 2 l.n. turbines
Forg. & Ch. de la Me"dit.,M.S.L.
La Seyne.
" Rotterdam " .
24,149
17
Holland-Amerika Line
1908
650.5 x 77.4 x 43.5
2,451
2
Reciprocating
215
Harland & Wolff,
N.H.P.
Harland & Wolff, Belfast.
Belfast.
" Limburgia " .
19,980
17
Koninkl.-Hollandoche
1914
592.0 x 72.3 x 30.7
3
Reciprocating & l.p. turbine
Lloyd
J. C. Tecklenborg, A. G.,
J. C. Techlenborg, A. G., Geest.
Geestemunde.
" Giulio
21,500
jgr^
Nav. Gen. Italiana
1920
601.4 x 76.0 x 51.0
4
Steam turbines
Cesare "
Swan Hunter, Newcastle.
Wallsend Slipway Co. Ltd.,
Newcastle.
" Conte
Rosso " .
15.550
Lloyd Sabaudo Socy.
1921
570.0 x 74.2 x 36.1
Beardmore, Glasgow.
2
Steam turbines
W. Beardmore, Glasgow.
" Esperia "
11,393
20
Soc. Italiana di Servizi
Marittimi
1918
492.1 x 61.7 x 34.1
Soc. Esercizio Bacini
10,600
H.P.
2
Geared steam turbines
N. O. dero fie A Seotui. P.
Riva Trigoso.
" Infanta Isabel
de Borbon " .
10,348
Cia. Transatlantic*
1913
481.9 x 61.3 x 32.7
W. Denny Bros.,
6,229
22,186
3
Reciprocating & i l.p. turbine
Denny & Co., Dumbarton.
20O
Dumbarton.
" Stavenger-
fjord" .
12,977
ISX
Den Norske Amerika
Linje
1918
532.5 x 64.2 x 29.3
Cammell Laird & Co.,
7,2OO
1.567
N.H.P.
2
Reciprocating
Cammell Laird & Co.
2 2O
Birkenhead.
" Bergens-
10,709
Den Norske Amerika
1913
512.4 x 61.2 x 29.4
7,300
1,460
2
Reciprocating
2 2O
fjord " .
Linje
Cammell Laird & Co.,
N.H.P.
Cammell Laird & Co.
Birkenhead.
" Campania " .
(lost in World
12,884
22
Cunard Co.
1893
601.0 x 65.2 x 37.8
Fairfield Co. Ltd.,
N'H'P'
2
Reciprocating
Fairfield Co. Ltd., Glasgow.
165
War).
Glasgow.
" Great East-
18,915
13
Great Eastern S.S. Co.
1858
680.0 x 82.8 x 48.2
II.OOO
S. screw & paddles.
30
ern "
Millwall.
I.H.P
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
449
The U.S. Shipping Board has allotted many of its best vessels to
various companies for service on the Pacific. The " Wenatchee "
and " Creole State " are typical of the 535-ft. vessels so appropri-
ated. These vessels are 535 ft. overall, 516 ft. between perpendicu-
lars, with a beam of 72 ft., and moulded depth 27-8 ft., and to "A"
deck 50 ft.; about 14,000 tons gross. When loaded to a draught of
30-6 ft. their total dead-weight is 10,000 tons, and total displace-
ment 21,250 tons. They have accommodation for 257 first-class
and 300 second-class passengers, besides 200 of ship's company.
They can also carry 6,700 tons of cargo, and can maintain 17 J
knots for long distances, having obtained over 19 knots in some
cases on trial. They are fitted with water-tube boilers 265 lb., and
75 superheat. Westinghouse double-flow type turbines are fitted,
run at 3,650 revolutions, with double reduction gearing, to drive
two propellers at no revolutions. The smaller vessels of the same
type are 522 ft. overall, 502 ft. between perpendiculars; breadth
62 ft. and depth to " A " deck 42 ft. They only carry 78 passengers,
but they can take another 1,000 tons of cargo. They are fitted with
cylindrical boilers 220 lb., and two sets of four-cylinder triple expan-
sion engines giving 6,000 H.P. for 14 knots at 105 revolutions.
For service between Europe and Australia, via The Cape, the
" Ceramic," of 18,481 tons and 17 knots, triple screw, of the White
Star line, was the finest and largest vessel running in 1921. She
was built by Harland & Wolff in 1913, and can carry 19,590 tons
cargo, and bunkers, at a sea speed of 17 knots, with a maximum of
l8| knots. For the India and Australia service of the P. & O., a
new series of " N " class of steamers was being built. The first of
these " Naldera," 15,825 tons, was built by Caird, and used by the
Government during the war. " Narkunda," 16,118 tons, was the
first liner to be completed by Harland & Wolff at Belfast after the
war. These are vessels of 18} knots speed. For the India service
direct a new series " M " class was being built. Typical of these
is the " Mongolia," built by Armstrong, 550 ft. x 72 ft. x 42-3 ft.
When loaded to a draught of 30 ft. they will have a displacement of
24,500 tons, and 15,550 tons gross, and carry a dead-weight of about
13,000 tons. They can carry over 400 first- and second-class
passengers, and of seven cargo-holds two are insulated. Two later
vessels " Maloja " and " Mopltan " are 20,700 tons gross.
The Cunard Co. has also built a number of vessels of the " Auso-
nia " type for the Cape and Australia services. These vessels are
519 ft. x 65-3 ft. x 43 ft., and 13,000 tons gross at a draught of 29-6
feet. Their displacement is 20,420 tons with a dead-weight of 10,120.
Geared turbines of 8,500 H.P. are fitted for a speed of 15 knots.
They can carry over 500 cabin passengers and about 1,200 third-
class. The " Ausonia " is remarkable, as making a record of 1,000
ships built by Messrs. Armstrong, of a total of 3,000,000 tons. Of
these, 800 were merchant ships and 200 were warships.
The Australian Government was in 1921 providing itself with
seven liners of 12,500 tons, 15 knots full speed, built on the Isher-
wood longitudinal system. The " Largs Bay," built by Messrs.
Beardmore, may be taken as typical of all five. She is 530 ft. long,
breadth 68-3 ft., depth 39-8 ft., 12,500 tons gross tonnage, and can
carry 12,000 tons dead-weight at a draught of 29 ft. 9 in. and dis-
placement 23,120 tons. She can carry 730 third-class and about a
dozen first-class passengers. Machinery, of 9,000 S.H.P. on two
shafts, is provided for a speed of 15 knots; Parsons' geared turbines
are fitted in two complete sets. The h.p. turbines run at 3,200
revolutions, and l.p. turbines at 2,100. They are independently
connected to the shafts by double reduction gearing 35-5 to I, and
23-4 to I respectively, giving a speed of propellers of 90 revolutions
per minute, and on each ship astern turbines are provided equal to
60 to 65 % of the full power ahead.
South Africa. For the direct service to the Cape the Union Castle
line added the " Balmoral Castle," of 13,361 tons, of 18 knots maxi-
mum speed, in 1911. Two very fine vessels had in 1921 been recently
added: the " Arundel Castle," and "Windsor Castle," 650 ft. x
72 ft., and of 19,000 tons gross. They were the first four-funnelled
ships on the Cape line, and were fitted with 15,000 H.P., and single
reduction gear, to two shafts, for a sea speed of 17 knots. They
could carry 273 first-, 224 second- and 566 third-class passengers,
besides the crew of 400, and a large cargo, the total dead-weight
being 14,000 tons.
Coast and Channel Steamers, etc. The finest recent vessels of
these types have been built in America. Two remarkable vessels,
the " Great Northern " and " Northern Pacific," built by Cramp
in 1915 for service between San Francisco and Astoria, are 8,255
tons gross and 24 knots speed. They are 500 ft. x 63 ft. x 50-5 ft.,
moulded, to promenade deck. When loaded to 2l-ft. draught they
have dead-weight of 2,185 tons and displacement of 9,700. They
carry 550 first-class passengers and 316 second and third-class
passengers. They are fitted with 12 water tube boilers of the
Mosher type, and Parsons turbines driving three screws, and giving
22,000 S.H.P. These were, perhaps, the finest vessels that had yet
been built in the United States, though not the largest.
New Channel steamers have continued to be built in England,
France and Belgium. The fastest steamer on the English Channel
service in 1921 was the " Versailles," built in France and completed
in 192 1 , 305 ft. long and 36 ft. in breadth ; she had obtained 25 knots
on speed.
An important type of cross-channel steamer is the train ferry.
During the war such vessels were used by England for the first time.
These vessels are 363-5 ft. long, 61-5 ft. broad, draught 9 ft. forward
and 10 ft. aft. They displace 3,654 tons, and have 12 knots speed.
Two were built by Messrs. Armstrong and one by Messrs. Fair-
TABLE XVII. Particulars of Pacific, etc., Liners.
Name
Tons
gross
Speed
knots
Owners
Date
of
build
Dimensions
Builders
L. B. D.
Dead-
weight
Tons
Horse-
power
^*- us
'
6
Z&
Type of machinery and
makers
Steam
pres-
sure, lb.
" Wenatchee "
14,127
15
United States
1921
516-5 x 72-2x27-8
2
Steam turbines,
Shipping
New York S. B.
Westinghouse Electric &
Board.
Corp., N. J.
Mfg. Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.
" Aeolus " (ex
12,642
Hi
United States
1899
560-6x62-3x35-9
. .
1,016
2
Reciprocating,
. .
" Grosser
Shipping
F. Schichau,
N.H.P.
F. Schichau, Elbing.
Kurfiirst ")
Board.
Danzig.
" Arundel
19,600
18
Union Castle
1921
630-0x72-5x41-5
. .
. .
2
Steam turbines.
. .
Castle" . .
S.S. Co.
Harland &
Harland & Wolff.
Wolff. Belfast.
" Balmoral
Castle" . .
I3-36I
17*
Union Castle
S.S. Co.
1910
570-0x64-5x38-9
Fairfield, Glas-
N^P 4
2
Reciprocating,
Fairfield & Co.
220
gow.
" Ceramic".
18,481
17
White Star Line
1913
655-1x69-4x43-8
19,590
3
Reciprocating and I L.P.
. .
(Australian
Harland &
turbine,
Service).
Wolff, Belfast.
Harland & Wolff.
" Empress of
Canada ".
22,000
22
Canadian Pacific
Ocean Serv-
1920
627-0 x 77-7x42-0
Fairfield, Glas-
2
Steam turbines,
Fairfield, Glasgow.
ices, Ltd.
gow.
" Empress of
Asia "
16,909
21
Canadian Pacific
Ocean Serv-
J9I3
570-1 x 68-2 X42-O
Fairfield, Glas-
9,135
*$?.
4
Steam turbines,
Fairfield, Glasgow.
190
ices, Ltd.
gow.
" Niagara "
13,415
18
Union S. Ship-
ping Co. of
1913
524-7x66-3x34-5
J. Brown, Clyde-
12,000
3
Reciprocating,
J. Brown, Clydebank,
22O
New Zea-
bank, Glas-
Glasgow.
land, Ltd.
gow.
" Narkunda " .
16,118
i8J
P. & O. Line.
1920
581-4x69-4x27-7
1,428
2
Reciprocating,
Harland &
N.H.P.
Harland & Wolff.
Wolff, Belfast.
" Ausonia ".
13,050
15
Cunard S.S. Co.
1921
519-0x65-0x43-0
10,120
8,500
2
Parsons geared turbines,
22O
Armstrong,
Armstrong, Whitworth.
Whitworth &
Co., Newcastle
" Mongolia " .
15,550
I?
P. & O. Line.
1921
550-0x71-7x42-2
Armstrong,
13,000
13,000
2
Steam turbines,
Armstrong, Whitworth.
Whitworth &
Co., Newcastle
XXXII. 15
450
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
field. On the deck, well protected by deckhouses, are four lines of
rails, which will take 54 lO-ton wagons. Heavy guns and heavy
machinery of all description were transported by these vessels.
Some of the most remarkable vessels in the world are the Sound
and Lake steamers of the United States. Recent vessels on the Lakes
are the largest paddle steamers ever built, such as the " City of
Cleveland III." (1907), 4,568 tons and 19 knots speed; " City of
Detroit III." (1912), 6,061 tons and 20 knots speed; and " Seand-
bee " (1912), 6,381 tons, 19! knots. This last remarkable vessel is
484-5 ft. x 58-1 ft. x 24-0 ft. To drive her paddle wheels she is
fitted with compound, three cylinder engines; cylinders being, one
66 in. in diameter, and two 96 in. in diameter, with a stroke of 9 feet.
Developments in Shipbuilding. The greatest innovations during
1910-20 were in connexion with rapid shipbuilding during the war.
The production of " standard ships " in Great Britain has been
already referred to. Six types were " standardized " (see Carter
I.N.A., 1918, and, for detailed summary with dimensions, Ship-
builder, May 1918).
Others were approved at a later date, and permission to build
large numbers of such ships was given to various shipbuilders. In
these ships special methods were adopted to reduce risk of sub-
marine attack, such as improved sub-division, making both ends
alike, with bridge, poop and forecastle ends rounded, funnels and
masts symmetrical in profile elevation with regard to a vertical line
amidships, but not on the fore and aft centre line so as to increase
difficulty of detecting speed and course of vessel. Very greatly
improved accommodation for ship's company was also provided.
The best method of expediting the building of merchant ships
occupied many minds, and proposals were made by Sir Eustace
d'Eyncourt in 1917 to simplify the construction of war-time vessels
by making all frame-lines straight, and the plating so far as practi-
cable of developable surfaces. A successful design was proposed on
this basis, and adopted by the Controller of Merchant Shipbuilding
for use in the fabricated ships about to be built at the National Ship-
yards on the Severn. The first fabricated " straight line ship," the
S.S. " War Climax," was completed at Wallsend by Swan, Hunter&
Co., on Sept. 28 1918, 31 weeks from laying keel.
In Great Britain large numbers of vessels of standard designs were
built by various shipbuilders according to their usual routine. The
" fabricated " ship followed later. In the United States, however,
the standard ships were mostly fabricated ships also. The first
series were produced by the Submarine Boat Corporation in new
premises at Newark Bay. The most wonderful of all the American
shipyards was, however, at Hog's I., Philadelphia, which in less than
12 months passed from open 50 ft. ground to the greatest shipyard
in the world, with full equipment and deep water jetties. The con-
tract was signed on Sept. 13 1917, and work started Sept. 20. The
first keel (S.S. " Quistconck ") was laid Feb. 12 1918, launched
Aug. 5 1918, and by Jan. 8 1919, 16 vessels had been launched and
7 completed, 50 slips had been built and 7 jetties, 1,000 ft. long and
too ft. wide for fitting out afloat. By April 17 1920, 102 ships of
800,000 tons d.w. had been launched and 84 of 657,000 tons com-
pleted. The fabricated parts were prepared in 90 engineering works
from 10 to 1,500 m. away.
Ferro-Concrcte Ships. For many years small vessels had been
built of reinforced concrete in localities where steel and the special
labour required for steel shipbuilding was not available. Such ves-
sels had been built in Italy, Norway and France. Between 1887
and 1917 some 200 craft had been built, but in the latter year the
subject was more seriously considered, and craft of increasing size
were built, and greater numbers of them fitted with propelling
machinery. In England 1,000 ton barges, tugs of 750 h.p,, and cargo
steamers of 1,150 tons d.w. were built. The first steamship,
" Armistice," was built at Barrow, and was reported to run well and
cost very much less than a steel ship for upkeep. In Great Britain
most of the concrete vessels were tow barges, but in a number of
cases steam or oil engines were fitted. Cargo boats 1,150 tons d.w.
205 ft. x 32 ft. with engines of 350 I. H.P. for 7^ knots, and tugs
125 ft. x 27 ft. 6 in. with engines of 750 I. H.P. were built. In the
United States very much larger vessels were built as experience was
gained. The S.S. "Faith" was 320 ft. x 44-5 ft. x 30 ft. d.w.
3>95 tons on 22 ft. 6 in. draught, triple expansion engine of 1, 600
I.H.P. were fitted giving loj knots speed. Others were built of
3,000, 3,500 and 7,500 tons d.w. as well as eight oil tankers of
7,500 d.w. The Emergency Fleet Corporation ordered 56 ships
of an aggregate d.w. of 300,000 tons, besides 34 barges and lighters.
Welded Ships. The Oxy-Acetylene process, for cutting out dam-
aged portions of ships and machinery, and for welding in portions in
the course of repair, has been of great service, particularly for the
repairs of large forgings, castings and boilers. To a less extent the
"Thermit " process has been used for welding purposes, but its
application has been of a comparatively limited character. During
recent years very considerable progress has been made in develop-
ing systems of electric welding, which were used to carry out repair
work of considerable magnitude during the war. It has also been
proposed that the complete ship should be welded, thus avoiding
a great portion of the labour and expense of riveting. Several sys-
tems have been developed which can be operated in the ordinary
shipyard^ and considerable progress has been made in Sweden,
England, the United States and France. In 1915 a small vessel
was built by Geary at Ashtabula Harbour, Ohio. This vessel was
42 ft. long, II ft. beam and 6 ft. 6 in. draught, and the welding was
carried out with bare metallic electrodes. Two vessels of 52 to 62 ft.
in length have also been built, one in France in 1919 and one in 1920
in Sweden " Esab IV." In each case the welding was carried out by
the Kjellberg process, and each of these craft is propelled by semi-
Diesel crude oil engines, which can also be used to provide electric
power for welding, and compressed air for use in carrying out the
repairs of ships by this process as they float in harbour. In this
process the arc is also used, but a fireproof sleeve of non-conducting
material projects over the arc so as to shield the molten metal from
oxidization. A boiler 15 ft. 6 in. in diameter, known as the Haw-
thprn-Wyber boiler, has been successfully constructed by means of
this process. The process of the General Electric Co. is quite differ-
ent; in this case metallic contact takes place, the welding material is
raised to the necessary temperature by resistance to the passage of
the current, and it is at the same time pressed into place by hydraulic
pressure. A 46-ft. section of a 9,600 ton vessel being built in New Jer-
sey has been used to test the practicability of this, and other methods,
and it is reported that these experiments show a saving of 60 % on
labour and 15% on material, as compared with riveted work.
During the war a steel barge, 120 ft. by 16 ft. and 275 tons dis 1 -
placement, was built at Richborough, Kent, in order to test to what
extent labour could be saved. Here the Quasi-Arc process was used
and the vessel was satisfactorily completed. On this system the
steel electrode has a sheath of blue asbestos, which melts and flows
down over the molten metal, thereby extinguishing the arc. This
asbestos also forms a floating covering over the molten metal and
protects it from oxidization. In order to give further protection, an
aluminium wire is carried down by the side of the steel electrode, so
that the molten aluminium may take up any oxygen which gets
beneath the flux. Messrs. Laird built a small sea-going vessel, the
S.S. " Fullagar," in 1920, using the Quasi-Arc process. If welding
can be adopted as the general practice, a very large saving should
arise in the cost of labour, and an appreciable saving in the case of
weight and material.
FlG. 50.
Isherwood System. For many years warships have been built on
the longitudinal system of framing, i.e. the principal structural
members of the framing run fore and aft in continuous girders, the
transverse framing being of a secondary character (apart from bulk-
heads), and fitted between the longitudinal girders as necessary for
local support. This system of framing has not found general accept-
ance for merchant ships, because of the theory long held by ship-
owners that a merchant ship must have such strong transverse
frames that she may ground in an ordinary berth with a cargo on
board and without damage. With the improved wharf accommoda-
tion now available for important vessels this idea is being gradually
relinquished. The most important movement in this connexion
was inaugurated by Mr. (later Sir) Joseph Isherwood, who devised
a plan for utilizing the whole of the framing of the bottom of the
ship and of the decks so that it might be incorporated as part of the
structural girder strength of the ship. In 1908, six ships were built
of 31,000 tons; for the next six years, 40 or 50 ships were built per
annum; but in 1915, under war conditions, the number very greatly
increased, and in 1918, 250 ships of nearly 2,500,000 tons dead-
weight capacity were built. Clearer holds, greater strength and a
saving of about 10% of weight of structure are obtained, as well as
decreased cost of building. By June 1921 1,400 ships, aggregating
12,000,000 dead-weight, had been built on this system.
The combination of a longitudinal system in the double bottom,
and a transverse system above the bottom, has been adopted by
Mr. W. Millar of Greenock, and several vessels have been built on
the Millar system. Other systems in which a longitudinal construe-
SHIPPING
45i
tion is adopted are associated with various names Mr. Foster
King, Dr, Montgomery, and Sir Westcott Abell.
The " Unsinkable " Ship. A so-called " unsinkable " ship has
been designed by M. La Parmentier. It consists of two cylinders,
22 ft. in diameter and about 300 ft. in length, each divided into
7 holds, connected so as to form a vessel 320 ft. in length and about
48 ft. extreme breadth, estimated to carry 4,250 tons d.w. on a
draught of 16 ft. fitted with twin screws, and engines of 700 H.P.
for eight knots. In 1921 several such vessels were being built in
the United States.
Cruiser Sterns. Several of the new liners have a rounded stern,
with the profile sloping forward in a curved line as it rises from the
water upwards. This is called a " cruiser stern," and is being very
generally adopted. It gives somewhat increased capacity, and with
the same total length of ship provides a longer water-line, thus
facilitating propulsion. In the case of a 55O-ft. ship, for 18 knots
this meant a decrease of 2,000 H.P., which resulted in a saving of
225 tons of machinery, as well as 220 tons of fuel per trip, giving a
saving of over qoo tons available for extra cargo. In 1921 over 160
vessels were built with sterns formed in this way.
On this system the flat plate rudder is replaced by two curved
plate rudders (" Kitchen rudders "), forming an almost cylindrical
casing round the propeller. By revolving these curved rudders as
desired the stream of water is directed as necessary by reaction to
steer the ship. For going astern the rudders are brought together
abaft the propeller.
Safety at Sea. During the war many other points were developed
for increase of safety in navigation, such as use of range-finders,
directional wireless, gyro-compasses, reflex sound apparatus, " clear
view " weather screens, submarine sound signalling, and " Leader "
cables laid along the bed of the channel.
Following the loss of the " Titanic " on April 16 1912, rigorous
enquiries were conducted, in New York under Senator W. A. Smith
of Michigan, and in London under Lord Mersey. In both cases
recommendations were made that liners should have boats for all,
regular boat drill, more efficient W.T. arrangements, and improved
sub-division in construction. The British Board of Trade appointed
two committees. Sir Archibald Denny presided over the first com-
mittee (Bulkheads and Sub-Division) and Sir John Biles over the
second committee (Boats and Davits). As a result the Board of
Trade laid draft rules before Parliament (Paper Cd. 6402 1912) and
took immediate action to improve the supply of boats, while ship-
owners proceeded to improve the sub-division of their ships. An
International Convention was called with a view to similar treat-
ment of these questions by all maritime powers. This Convention
was signed on Jan. 20 1914 and rules embodying the agreement as
to life-saving appliances were immediately put into force in Great
Britain (Parliamentary Paper 219 Merchant Shipping Life-Saving
Appliances dated May 8 1914). The whole Convention was dis-
cussed in Parliament, and an Act was passed (Aug. 10 1914) author-
izing its adoption, but the Board of Trade was left with the power to
decide the date on which the Act was to be put into operation. On
account of the war, action was postponed, but discussions were pro-
ceeding in 1921 between the principal maritime powers with a view
to the holding of another Convention.
During the war a great demand arose for improved life-saving
appliances. The most successful of all these was the Carley Life
Raft, made in the United States. It is made in various sizes. A large
copper pipe is bent into the form of an O, brazed up to be airtight,
surrounded by cork and canvas, provided with a strong rope netting
to form a floor within the O, and fitted with hand ropes, etc.. This
type was the means of saving very many lives ; for instance, a float
9 ft. by 14 ft. will support more than 60 people.
Research and Experiment. Increasing attention is being given to
the study of naval architecture and marine engineering, and of
research, in America as well as in Europe. Chiefly owing to the
advocacy of Sir W. H. White, and the generosity of Sir A. F. Yar-
row, a national experimental tank has, in England, been provided
at the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington. The experi-
ment tank is intended for the service of any shipbuilding or ship-
owning firm. Primarily intended for the experimental investigation
of any problems connected with ship resistance and propulsion, it
has -successfully dealt with such different problems as the manoeu-
vring of ships, torques on rudder heads, skin friction, resistance due
to rough seas, rolling and pitching of ships, stability of ships and
hydroplanes in motion on the water, and the form of flying-boat
hulls for efficient and stable action in getting on and off the water.
During the war it dealt with many problems, including the detec-
tion of submarines, mine-sweeping, torpedo firing, design of anchored
mines, protection against torpedoes, and the design of standard ships.
(E. T. D'E.)
SHIPPING (see 24.983). In the decade following 1910, the
influence of the World War had a profound effect on the shipping
industry. Nor can it be limited to the period between the be-
ginning of Aug. 1914 and Nov. 1918, when the Armistice was
signed. For many months after the cessation of hostilities, a
great strain was imposed on the British mercantile marine in the
repatriation of millions of men. Goods which could not be trans-
ported during the war were waiting in vast accumulations to be
carried, and in 1921 the effects on shipping were still being shown.
In fact, so far-reaching were the effects that they were certain to
be felt for many years.
(i) UNITED KINGDOM
The year 1910 was, judged by the ideas then ruling, a compara-
tively satisfactory one for British shipping, although the industry
did not entirely escape the consequences of a strike of coal-
miners caused by difficulties traceable to the operation of the
Eight Hours Act. In 1911 there were a number of industrial
disturbances, notably in the collieries, on the railways, at the
docks, among seamen and in the cotton-mills. Yet rates of
freight were on a higher basis than for some years previously.
The time charter rate, i.e. the monthly rate of hire per ton
dead-weight for ordinary cargo steamers, may be taken as a
good barometer of the condition of freight rates generally. As
compared with a rate of about 33. a ton, or rather more, ruling in
1910, the time charter rate rose to about 55. in 1911. There was
a further upward movement in 1912, which was regarded as
a very satisfactory year for the shipping industry. Time charter
rates ranged from about 45. 6d. a ton to 73. 6d. Employment
for shipping was good, although, as some set-off to the increased
rates, there was a general rise in working costs. In 1913 rates
declined, partly owing to the increase in shipbuilding which had
been carried out during the good years. The year 1914, destined
to be one of the most important for shipping as for all other in-
dustries, opened with freights on a downward grade, and in mid-
summer the industry was in a very depressed condition. All
freight rates for cargo steamers were low, and the liner companies
were feeling the severe competition of the German ownerships.
The two great German companies in the N. Atlantic trade the
Hamburg-Amerika and the Norddeutscher Lloyd had been for
years claiming a larger share of the passenger traffic. In the
summer of 1914 the Deutsche-Australische Gesellschaft an-
nounced its intention of inaugurating a direct service from Ham-
burg to New Zealand. Discussions were in progress with the
British shipping managers when war broke out.
Beginning of the World War. Immediately a number of liners
were requisitioned by the British Government for service as
merchant cruisers, transports, and hospital ships. Freight mar-
kets were almost staggered by the unexpected blow which had
fallen, and, at first, chartering of all sorts came to a standstill.
Happily, the Government at once put into operation a scheme
of war insurance on the lines of the recommendations of a com-
mittee which had been previously appointed and was presided
over by Mr. Huth Jackson. These recommendations provided
for the granting of war insurance on shipping by the Government
up to 80% of the values. This insurance was worked through
the mutual associations of shipowners which were in existence
for the purpose of covering such liabilities as shipowners could
not obtain under ordinary marine insurance policies. In the
preparation of this scheme Sir Norman Hill, the secretary of the
Liverpool Steamship Owners' Assn., had taken an active part.
The shipping entered in the Liverpool Steamship Owners' Assn.
represented 3, 948, 623 tons, and that in the Liverpool and London
War Risks Assn., which included the great bulk of the liner ton-
nage of the United Kingdom, 6,371,329 tons.
There were also important associations of the same kind with
headquarters in London and on the N.E. coast. The main result
of putting this scheme at once into operation was that all ships
could proceed on their voyages and others could leave without
involving disaster to their owners if the vessels were captured or
destroyed by the enemy. Had no such scheme been available, a
great many vessels, if not all, must have been detained in port.
Commerce would immediately have come to a stop. In those
days it was the possibility of capture by the enemy's surface
cruisers that was in men's minds: that was considered serious
enough. The risk of destruction by the enemy's submarines had
hardly been taken into account.
As a complement to this scheme for the insurance of hulls,
there was also established a Government office for the insurance
452
SHIPPING
of cargo. The marine insurance market continued actively in
business, but underwriters had themselves realized that bad
news or heavy losses could easily have the result of forcing up
rates to levels that might be prohibitive for commerce. The
Government office was intended to exercise a steadying influence.
It was vital that essential goods should continue to be shipped,
and, if the risks were greater than insurance companies or private
underwriters could bear, it was for the nation to assume them.
The first rate quoted by the Government was 5 55. %. On
Aug. 8 the rate was reduced to 4 45., on Aug. 18 to 3 35., and
on Sept. 2 to 2 2S.
All the time underwriters in the market continued to write war
risks. Their rates of premium were frequently below those of the
Government, and there were many risks which the Government
office would not accept. For instance, the Government office
would not accept lines after a ship had left port. Merchants
sometimes found that larger quantities of goods had been shipped
than they had anticipated, or that the values were greater. Then
insurances were effected in the open market. As Germany was
no respecter of the rights of neutrals, insurances were also placed
in the market on behalf of steamship owners abroad. Some un-
derwriters of insurance companies and at Lloyd's wrote war
risks freely from the outset. They took big risks and made large
sums of money. The premium incomes of the insurance compa-
nies writing war risks were, in some cases, as much as five times
the pre-war standard. This was due not only to the demand for
insurance against war perils, but also to the great increase in
values of commodities which set in as they became scarce.
The Government office was inaugurated under the auspices
of the Board of Trade. The services of a number of leading under-
writers were enlisted. On Aug. 5 1914, the office was opened at
the Cannon Street hotel and the knowledge that there was a
market for the risks undoubtedly had a very reassuring effect.
While credit was due to several underwriters who gave their
services in the working of this scheme, much of the organization
fell upon Mr. W. E. Hargreaves, a leading member of Lloyd's,
who worked in close cooperation with the Board of Trade.
There were thus in existence from the very beginning of the
war facilities for the insurance of ships and cargoes against all
the perils that then had to be faced. There was not the same
mobilization of the shipping industry.
Immediately after the declaration of war, freights remained
listless. A very few shipowners were able to see what was coming,
and chartered neutral steamers for " time " at the low rates then
ruling, and, in the event, found the transactions very profitable.
Most shipowners, however, did not foresee the extremely heavy
demands which would be made by the Government upon the
industry for ships for direct war purposes. Cargo steamers were
requisitioned to act as colliers to the fleet and were needed to
carry supph'es to the armies abroad. It was not until the end of
1914 that freight rates began to move upwards. Just before
the outbreak of war the grain rate from Argentina which may be
regarded as a representative rate, was 125. 6d. per ton. By the
end of the year this freight had advanced to 505. per ton. It
rose again sharply in the autumn of 1915, and its movements
indicated the influence of the introduction of the Excess Profits
duty. On Sept. 20 of that year, when Mr. McKenna, the then
Chancellor of the Exchequer, introduced the tax, the Argentine
grain freight stood at 575. 6d. per ton. Within a month it had
risen to 705., by Nov. 20 it had advanced to 855., and by Dec. 20
to I2os. In 1916 the rate advanced further. By Jan. 20 of that
year it stood at 1405. and by Feb. 20 at 1573. 6d. The rate
further advanced in 1916 to 1835. 6d. Similar increases took
place in other shipping trades. These increases were clearly due,
in the first place, to the diminution in the supply of shipping
available for commerce, which, in turn, was caused by the ever-
increasing requirements of the Government, and by the destruc-
tion of shipping by the enemy, and also to the incidence of the
Excess Profits duty. This tax provided the argument that the
nation got the benefit of the increases. The Treasury did, but
not the country which had to pay for them in the increased cost
of imported commodities. It represented a form of taxation, at
the best, imposed without the authority of Parliament, and the
surplus remaining to the owners meant higher profits than, in
pre-war years, could ever have been thought possible by them.
For nearly two and a half years the real responsibility for the
shipping not requisitioned by the Admiralty rested with the
Board of Trade, of which Mr. Walter Runciman was then Presi-
dent. The President of the Board of Trade, with his multitudi-
nous duties of endeavouring to watch over the welfare of all
industries, was obviously incapable of giving the close attention
to shipping which all the circumstances demanded. The public
gradually became keenly interested in the rise that was proceed-
ing in freights and was irritated by it. As its interest developed,
it grew into indignation. The matter was raised in Parliament,
but the Government of the day showed complacency, regarding
the movement apparently as inevitable. It is true that on
Christmas Eve, 1915, when freights were still climbing, Mr. Ar-
thur Balfour referred in the House of Commons to the "terrible
level" of freights which, he admitted, increased the price, both
of the necessities of h'fe to the poor, and of many things which
were essential to the Government in the proper conduct of the
war. Yet the Government, when it was spurred into action,
contented itself with adopting further piecemeal measures.
Government Measures. One successful measure taken at the
outset might have formed a model for a broader policy, and, two
and a half years later, did so. This was the requisitioning by the
Government of the whole of the refrigerated space in the meat-
steamers trading between the United Kingdom and Australasia.
This transaction was followed, a few weeks afterwards, by the
requisitioning of similar space in the steamers trading with S.
America. Arrangements were, at the same time, concluded by the
Government with the meat companies for a proportion of their
weekly production at fixed prices. Thus, not only were there
ample supplies secured for the navy and army at reasonable cost,
but supplies were available to maintain the civil population.
In the autumn of 1914 owners were asked to keep the Admiral-
ty informed of the movements of their ships. It was a peculiar
fact that very little, if any, information was then in the hands of
any Government department of the services of the British
shipping companies. Such information had to be sought from
the companies themselves.
In the summer of 1916 a scheme was instituted, on behalf of
the Indian Government, for buying in India, transporting to the
United Kingdom and selling there the exportable surplus of the
Indian wheat crop and, through the formation of a committee of
brokers, the freight rates were kept on a comparatively moderate
basis. In the autumn of that year the Imperial Government was
forced into further action. A committee was appointed to con-
sider the desirability of particular voyages and a system of li-
cences was introduced. Another committee was formed for the
requisitioning of vessels for the transport of foodstuffs, and a
third, known as the Port and Transit Executive Committee, was
formed to deal with the congestion at the ports of the United
Kingdom, which, by then, had become a very serious matter.
As from March i 1916, licenses were required for all ships of
over 500 tons gross trading to and from the United Kingdom.
Licences were granted for whole services or particular voyages.
The system also enabled discrimination to be exercised between
the different ports of the United Kingdom and so it was impor-
tant in the relief of congestion.
The committee appointed to deal with the requisitioning of
ships for foodstuffs followed the policy of directing owners to
load their vessels where the need was most urgent and then to
leave the owners to accept the full market rates of freight.
The first chairman of the Port and Transit Executive Commit-
tee was Lord Inchcape, and the Committee included representa-
tives of the Admiralty, the War Office, shipping, railways and dock
authorities. It was subsequently strengthened by the addition of
Labour leaders. It owed responsibility, directly, to the Prime
Minister and adopted such measures as would tend to relieve
congestion at the ports. Its task was a formidable one and, while
the Committee was able to bring about certain reforms, it could
not entirely remove the troubles. These actually seemed to be
SHIPPING
453
at their worst after the Armistice. Immense supplies of commod-
ities which could not be moved during the war were poured into
the country, and the facilities for removing these proved quite
inadequate, with the result that ships were detained for long
periods, owing to inability to discharge their cargoes. Much
public attention was focussed on the waste of shipping thereby
involved. Strenuous efforts were made by all concerned to improve
the situation. As an indication of what was being done, the
Port of London Authority issued a weekly bulletin showing the
number of vessels detained, and continued to issue this until the
situation was completely changed and, early in 1921, the weekly
return showed that large numbers of steamers were laid up
idle owing to the lack of employment. Lord Inchcape was suc-
ceeded as Chairman of the Committee by Sir Norman Hill, who,
on a breakdown of health caused by overwork was, in turn,
succeeded at the end of 1919 by Sir John Barran. The Commit-
tee was formally dissolved by the Prime Minister early in 1921.
During the period of its activity it had wide powers, and, at the
outset, had, among other measures, effected a change in the Cus-
toms Regulations which, as was proved, were then having the
effect of accentuating the difficulties.
The chairman of the Ship Licensing Committee was Mr.
(afterwards Sir) Maurice Hill, and it included Mr. (afterwards
Sir) F. W. Lewis, then deputy chairman of Messrs. Furness,
Withy & Co., as vice-chairman, Mr. H. A. Sanderson (president
of the International Mercantile Marine Co. and chairman of the
Oceanic Steam Navigation Co.), Mr. Scholefield, of Newcastle,
Mr. Purdie, of Glasgow, and Mr. Burton Chadwick, of Liverpool.
The Committee for the requisitioning of ships was presided
over by Mr. J. H. Whitley, who in April 1921 became Speaker of
the House of Commons. It included three shipowners, namely,
Mr. (afterwards Sir) T. Royden, deputy chairman of the Cunard
Co., Mr. (afterwards Sir) E. W. Glover, of the shipowning firm
of Glover Bros., and Mr. R. D. Holt, the chief of the important
shipowning firm of Liverpool. All these members had previously
been advising the Transport Department of the Admiralty.
In spite of the measures that were being adopted, freights
remained on a very high level, and the shipping situation was
very unsatisfactory. The need for complete control was urged
persistently in The Times newspaper, and in Feb. 1916 the
Government was again forced to act. In that month an Alloca-
tion Committee, or Shipping Control Committee, was formed
in order to apportion the tonnage according to the various and
urgent demands that were made upon it. Lord Curzon was ap-
pointed chairman of this Committee. Other members were
Lord Faringdon, then better known as Sir Alexander Henderson,
Mr. Thomas Royden, and Mr. F. W. Lewis.
Supply of Tonnage. It became plainer every day that the
ever-reducing supply of tonnage was becoming less adequate to
meet all the demands made upon it. Consequently, the Govern-
ment decided to place restrictions on the importation of various
commodities. The first of these to be effected were paper, paper-
making materials, tobacco, dried fruits, furniture woods, stones
and slates. In March 1916, a prohibition was placed on the
importation of many articles under the general heading of
"luxuries." Among such articles were motor-cars for private use,
musical instruments, cutlery, hardware, cotton and woollen
manufactures, chinaware, fancy goods and soap. A restriction
was also placed on the importation of certain brewing materials.
The inadequacy of the tonnage to meet the supplies was at
that time due more to the requirements of the Government for
ships for direct war purposes than to the depredations of the
enemy. The highest quarterly loss of British shipping due to
the enemy was 356 ,000 tons in th e third quarter of 1915. Inigi6
the ratio of loss fell; in the second quarter, the total amounted
to 271,000 tons and in the third quarter to 284,000 tons. This
drop was, however, only temporary, and in the fourth quarter of
1916 the total sprang up sharply to 617,000 tons and then con-
tinued at a high rate until the conclusion of the Armistice.
Throughout 1916 what became known as the " shipping prob-
lem " continued to attract great public attention. Articles were
published in The Times urging the need of centralized control, in
order that the utmost use might be made of the continually de-
clining supply of tonnage and so that ships might be employed
in the most effective way, irrespective of the individual trades of
the ownerships to which they belonged. It was realized that this
could only be brought about when all ships were hired to the
Government, so that it would become for the owners a matter
of more or less inconsequence into which routes the vessels were
put. The principle of standardization was also persistently urged
in order that large numbers of vessels might be constructed on
identical plans and of parts fabricated from the same models. It
was not, however, until the formation of Mr. Lloyd George's
Government in Dec. 1916 that the shipping situation was com-
pletely taken in hand.
Ministry of Shipping. A feature of the new Government was
the creation of a Ministry of Shipping. As Shipping Controller,
Sir Joseph Maclay was appointed. Sir Joseph Maclay had been
known in shipping circles as a successful manager of cargo steam-
ers and, while he was little known to the general public, the
appointment was regarded in the shipping industry as a good
one. By his own wish Sir Joseph Maclay was not a member
of the House of Commons, but was represented there by Sir Leo
Chiozza Money, as parliamentary secretary.
Various measures were soon taken to secure a better grip of the
shipping problem. One of the most important of these was a
general requisitioning of liners by the Government. These ves-
sels were hired to the Government on the basis of what were
known as Blue-book terms those agreed early in the war with
the Admiralty by a committee of owners presided over by Lord
Inchcape. The management of such vessels as could be retained
in ordinary commerce was left with the owners, who were re-
quired to give a financial account of their stewardship to the
Government, and to pay over all profits above the Government
rates of hire. Under this system it was less important to the
individual ownerships into which routes their vessels were put.
It was well that control was centralized, for, early in 1917, the
enemy submarine war intensified and the losses greatly increased.
As compared with a loss of 617,000 tons in the last quarter of
1916, the British tonnage sunk in the first quarter of 1917 amounted
to 912,000 tons. The pinnacle was reached in April of that
year and for the second quarter of 1917 the losses totalled
i ,362,000 tons. Sinkings of foreign vessels were proceeding apace
all the time, and in the second quarter of 1917 the total losses for
the world amounted to 2,237,000 tons. The losses for each quar-
ter throughout the war period are shown in the following table
extracted from a White Paper (C-922i) issued at the end of 1918 :
Period
British
Foreign
Total of
World
Gross
Gross
Gross
tons
tons
tons
1914
Aug. and Sept
341,824
85,947
427,771'
4th Quarter
I54-72S
126,688
281,416
1915
1st Quarter
215-905
104,542
320,447
2nd "
223,676
156,743
380,419
3rd "
356,659
172,822
529,481
4th
3 7-I39
187,234
494-373
1916
1st Quarter
325,237
198,958
524,195
2nd "
270,690
251,599
522,289
3rd "
284,358
307,681
592,039
4th
617,563
541,780
1-159,343
1917
1st Quarter
911,840
707,533
1,619,373
2nd "
1,361,870
875,064
2,236,934
3rd "
952,938
541,535
1,494,473
4th
782,889
489,954
1,272,843
1918
1st Quarter
697,668
445,668
1,143,336
2nd "
630,862
331,145
962,007
3rd "
512,030
403.483
915,513
4th "
83,952
93,582
177,534
Totals
9,031,828
6,021.958
I5,053,76
This figure includes 210,653 gross tonnage interned in enemy
ports. After Oct. 31 the tonnage Tost by enemy action was: British
11,916, Foreign 2,159.
454
SHIPPING
-' New Construction. Attention was at once given by the Ship-
ping Controller to the need of construction, and a programme for
standardized ships was laid down. The principle of standardiza-
tion had already received practical recognition in June 1916,
when the Standard Shipbuilding Co., to operate at Chepstowon
the river Wye, was formed. This company received very power-
ful support, the capital being subscribed by, among other com-
panies, the P. & O. and British India, New Zealand Shipping,
Orient Steam Navigation, Federal Steam Navigation, Messrs.
Furness, Withy & Co., the Shire Line, Messrs. A. Weir & Co.,
Messrs. Harris & Dixon, Messrs. Trinder, Anderson & Co.,
Messrs. Bethell, Gwyn & Co., and Messrs Birt, Potter & Hughes.
Mr. James Caird, the head of Messrs. Turnbull, Martin & Co.,
was appointed chairman, and ^Mr. John Silley, managing director
of R. & H. Green and Silley Weir, an old and famous shipbuilding
firm, was appointed vice-chairman. In Aug. of that year this
company acquired the engineering firm of Edward Finch & Co.,
Ltd., which had originally been formed to build Brunei's Bridge
over the river Wye. In this yard three building slips were pre-
pared, and at the beginning of 1916 two cargo steamers of 3,300
tons were being built there, in addition to a large number of
smaller vessels. The first four slips for building steamers of up to
10,000 tons in the Standard Co.'s new yard were also being pre-
pared. Difficulties had to be overcome in the way of securing
sufficient labour and part of the scheme provided for the con-
struction of a garden city. Early in 1.917 much progress had been
made with the provision of housing accommodation under licences
from the Ministry of Munitions.
> These yards were subsequently taken over by the Government.
A great deal of money was spent upon them. Various difficul-
ties arose, and the results of the work there were very disap-
pointing. After the Armistice the great bulk of the property
was sold to private interests.
On assuming office, Sir Joseph Maclay at once tackled the
problem of shipbuilding, and appointed a committee to advise
him on all matters connected with the acceleration of merchant
ships under construction and nearing completion, and the general
administration of a new merchant shipbuilding programme.
This committee included Mr. (afterwards Sir) George J. Carter
(of Messrs. Cammell, Laird & Co., Ltd.), president of the Ship-
building Employers' Federation, as chairman; Mr. (afterwards
Sir) W. S. Abell, (chief surveyor to Lloyd's Register of- Shipping) ;
Mr. (afterwards Sir) F. N. Henderson (of D. & W. Henderson &
Co., Ltd.); Mr. James Marr (of J. L. Thompson & Sons, Ltd.);
Mr. Summers Hunter (of the North-Eastern Marine Engineering
Co., Ltd.); Mr. (afterwards Sir) C. J. O. Sanders (of the Marine
Department, Board of Trade); and Mr. (afterwards Sir) W.
p.owan Thomson (of Messrs. D. Jiowan & Co., Ltd., president
if the North-West (Clyde) Engineering Trades' Employers'
Association); Mr. A. R. Duncan, secretary to the Shipbuilding
Employers' Federation, who, as Sir Andrew Duncan was later
Appointed Coal Controller, was secretary to the new committee.
! The last word in merchant shipbuilding then rested with the
Admiralty, on the ground that it was necessary for the naval
Authorities to determine what proportion of labour and material
should be allotted to naval and merchant construction respec-
tively. These proportions were dependent on the view held as to
Whether it was better to concentrate on the building of destroy-
ers and other craft for the destruction of enemy submarines and
for the protection of merchant vessels, or to build merchant ships.
There was a great deal to be said for the theory that it was better
to prevent ships being sunk than to build vessels to replace those
destroyed. In May 1917 Sir Eric Geddes was appointed to the
j>ost of Navy Controller, and shortly afterwards, Maj.-Gen. A.
$. Collard, director of inland waterways and docks, in the depart-
ment of the director-general of movements and railways, was
appointed deputy controller for auxiliary shipbuilding. The
ktter term was used to cover all merchant vessels. In July 1917,
Sir Edward Carson was succeeded as First Lord of the Admiralty
by Sir Eric Geddes, and Mr. (afterwards Sir) Alan Anderson
became Navy Controller. The problem of merchant shipbuilding
was at this time acute. The British shipping destroyed by the
enemy in 1916 represented 1,498,000 tons, or nearly three times
the production in British yards. This had fallen from the very
poor total of 650,000 tons in 1913 to 541,000 tons in 1916. The
peak in British shipbuilding had been reached in 1913, when
2,280,000 tons gross had been built, consisting of 1,920,000 tons
of merchant vessels and 320,000 of warship tonnage calculated on
a converted basis. It was to repeat such a production that the
authorities at last aimed, the difficulties being enormously in-
creased by the fact that large numbers of skilled men had been
withdrawn from the shipbuilding industry for the fighting forces.
The military authorities agreed to release such skilled men as
could be spared, but as these were scattered over the various
theatres of war, their return was very slow.
When responsibility for mercantile shipbuilding was trans-
ferred from the Ministry of Shipping to the Admiralty, some
little friction arose between the new authorities responsible and
the old Advisory Committee to the Shipping Controller, and in
the autumn of 1918 a Shipbuilding Council to the Navy Con-
troller was created, consisting of the members of the old Commit-
tee and advisers from the Admiralty. The position continued in
some respects unsatisfactory, and in the spring of 1918, after an
agitation for a more energetic merchant shipbuilding programme,
Lord Pirrie was appointed Director-General of Merchant Ship-
building, the official appointment being announced in the House
of Commons on March 20 1918. He was regarded as the out-
standing figure in British shipbuilding, and he was able to infuse
energy into the shipbuilding programme. One of his first efforts
was very greatly to improve the organization for the repair of
damaged ships. Many vessels, after being torpedoed, managed
to limp into ports, some of which, notably Falmouth, became
seriously congested. A system of close and centralized control
of the repairing facilities was organized, and much was done to
make the damaged ships soon available again for service. The
assistance of the United States in merchant construction had
been earnestly invited. That country threw itself into the effort
with immense fervour, and the height of the shipbuilding cam-
paign was reached there in the summer of 1918. In June 1918, as
responsibility for merchant shipbuilding now rested with the
Department of the Controller-General, Sir. Alan Anderson re-
signed from the position of Navy Controller. After the Armis-
tice the responsibility for the completion of the merchant ship-
building programme was transferred again to Sir Joseph Maclay,
the Shipping Controller.
Financial results of the shipbuilding programme were de-
scribed in the House of Commons on March 12 1921, by Col.
Leslie Wilson, parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Ship-
ping. Colonel Wilson stated that the total cost of 228 ships
built in the United Kingdom for the Government was 36,481,-
ooo, and that the ships were subsequently sold for 47,591,000,
showing a total profit of 11,110,000. An agreement was entered
into with the Government by Lord Inchcape, who undertook to
distribute the ships to those British owners who desired them, in
proportion to their losses. The agreement was made on the
basis that no profit should accrue to him through the transaction.
Outside the United Kingdom there were built for the British
Government 122 ships, the vessels being built at much higher
prices than those paid for the vessels constructed in the United
Kingdom. The total cost of these vessels was 26,884,000, and
the selling price was 18,289,000, showing a loss on the ships
built abroad of 8,595,000. The net profit on 378 ships built and
sold, excluding any allowance for depreciation, was 2,515,000.
Colonel Wilson maintained that the Government would have
been fully justified in taking depreciation into account, and,
allowing 5% depreciation on 311 ships which were being worked,
there would have been a net profit not of 2,515,000, but of
5,122,000. Again, but for the new ships it would have been
necessary for the Government to try to charter neutral vessels,
for which high rates of freight would have had to be paid. This
would, it was estimated, have involved an additional expendi-
ture of 27,000,000. There was no question that the Government
acted wisely, at any rate from the financial point of view, in dis-
posing of the ships when it did. They were offered to the ship-
SHIPPING
455
ping industry at a time when freights were still high, and so
substantial prices were bid. A very different situation existed
when the ex-German ships allotted to this country were offered
to British shipowners, again through the medium of Lord Inch-
cape. Severe depression had, by then, fallen on the shipping
industry, and the absorption of the ships, many of which were
not of attractive type to British owners, was a very slow matter.
Replying to a question in the House of Commons on May 24
192 1, Sir Robert Home, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, stated
that 202 ex-enemy ships allotted to the British Empire for final
ownership had been sold, and that 85 merchant ships and 22
trawlers remained unsold. The gross amount realized was
14,523,074. From this gross total there fell to be deducted ex-
penses of repair, delivery, etc., and a considerable part of the
purchase money was payable in instalments over a period of
years. The net cash then passing was 6,500,000.
War Services of the Mercantile Marine. All the classes of
British ships which form a great mercantile marine rendered
services of immense value to the Allies during the war. Merchant
vessels, in comparison with warships, were once described as
being mere cockleshells, yet their crews faced the hidden dangers
of mine and torpedo without flinching. The persistent reduction
of the British mercantile marine which proceeded was a matter
of extreme gravity to the Allies. Experience showed that the
losses of the large and fast liners were, in every way, more for-
midable than those of the ordinary cargo vessels. When at last
the United Kingdom, enthusiastically supported by the United
States, bent energies on the construction of merchant vessels, it
was the simple cargo steamers that were built. In both countries
the plan of building simple vessels of standard type was adopted.
Everything that was complicated was ruled out. Straight lines
were substituted for curves, and parts were produced in great
numbers, so that identical ships could be built rapidly. In the
United States the principle of standard construction was car-
ried further than in England. There, steel works, which had
never undertaken shipbuilding work before, produced shapes and
angles for ships, and the assembling of the parts was carried out
by bridge builders and other steel workers who had had no pre-
vious experience of shipbuilding. In England fabrication on
somewhat similar lines was planned in connexion with the new
shipyards on the river Wye, of which control was assumed by
the Government, but these plans did not begin to show their full
effect until the conclusion of the war made such methods no
longer necessary. While, in a case of emergency, a good case
could be established for building cargo vessels in mass production,
like Ford motor-cars, there was no similar way of building the
large liners. In the height of the crisis and, indeed, throughout
the war, the building of such vessels yielded place to the need for
carriers of food and munitions. Yet the duties devolving on the
liners steadily increased. At first a comparatively small number
were requisitioned to serve as merchant cruisers, patrol vessels,
hospital ships, and transports. The Dardanelles campaign made
heavy demands on this type of vessel, and, later, the Salonika
expedition. The climax was reached when, in the spring, summer
and autumn of 1918 every possible ship that could be provided
was needed to transport American troops. Liners were with-
drawn from every British service and vessels never intended for
such work were put into the N. Atlantic route. It was indeed
fortunate for the nation that a large mercantile marine was in
existence at the outbreak of war, and the magnificent services
of some of the greatest ships will be always remembered.
Of all the crimes committed by Germany at sea, the destruc-
tion of the "Lusitania" on May 7 1915 remains the outstanding
example. The liner was torpedoed near the Old Head of Kinsale,
when 1,195 persons were drowned, including 291 women and 9
children. Represented in tonnage alone this loss was exceeded
by the "Britannic," sunk in the Aegean Sea on Nov. 21 1916, by
submarine or mine, while employed as a hospital ship. The
"Britannic," uncompleted on the outbreak of war, was of
48,158 tons and was the largest White Star liner. The "Lusi-
tania," built in 1907, was of 31,550 tons.
Splendid service was performed by the sister ship "Maure-
tania." At first she was employed in the ordinary trans-Atlantic
service, where her speed was of great importance in view of possi-
ble attacks by German cruisers. In June 1915 she flew the White
Ensign, conveying troops to Mudros for the Gallipoli campaign.
Four months later she became a hospital ship. In Dec. 1916 she
again became a troopship and brought Canadian troops to this
country. Early in 1918 she became an armed cruiser, but was
soon engaged in bringing American troops to Europe. She also
carried many distinguished passengers whose urgent duties made
it necessary for them to cross the Atlantic. Fine service was also
rendered by the Cunard liner " Aquitania," of 45,600 tons. Only
three round voyages between Liverpool and New York had been
made by this great ship before the war. At once she was requisi-
tioned by the Admiralty and was commissioned as a merchant
cruiser, leaving Liverpool in this capacity four days after the
outbreak of war. She became a transport later and carried
30,000 troops to the Dardanelles; then she became a hospital
ship and as such carried 25,000 men. Early in 1918 she was re-
fitted as a transport, and in nine voyages carried 60,000 Ameri-
can troops. The liner was extremely useful in repatriating troops
after the Armistice, and in the spring of 1921, in the middle of the
shipping depression, had the reputation of being the only ship
afloat that was earning any money. Besides carrying large
numbers of saloon passengers, she was eminently fitted for the 1
transport of emigrants, of whom she carried enormous numbers
from the Continent.
The "Carmania," well known as a Cunard liner before the
war, distinguished herself by sinking the German merchant
cruiser "Cap Trafalgar" in a duel. The "Laconia," another
Cunard liner, shared in the operations in the Rufiji river, East
Africa, when the German cruiser "Konigsberg" was sunk.
Besides the "Lusitania," the Cunard Co. lost the following
vessels: the "Caria," "Veria" (1915), "Franconia," "Alaunia"
(1916), "Ivernia," "Lycia," "Folia," "Trachia," "Feltria,"
"Ultonia," "Volodia," "Vinovia" (1917), "Andania," "Valeria,"
"Aurania," "Ansonia," "Vandalia," "Carpathia," "Flavia"
and "Ascania" (1918). These represented extremely serious
losses, and after the Armistice the company put in hand an ex-
tensive programme of construction. Unfortunately the cost of
building was then on a very high level.
Losses of the White Star Line were also serious and included,
besides the "Britannic," the "Oceanic," "Arabic," "Laurentic,"
"Cymric," "Afric," "Georgic," "Cedric" and "Delphic." Short-
ly after the outbreak of war, the "Oceanic," "Teutonic," "Ced-
ric," "Celtic" and "Laurentic" were commissioned as armed
cruisers. The "Laurentic" was sunk by submarine off the coast
of Ireland in Jan. 1917, while carrying gold, of which a substan-
tial proportion was recovered in salvage operations after the
Armistice. The "Teutonic," built in 1889, and one of the most
famous of the White Star liners, was subsequently acquired by
the Government and was later publicly offered for sale. Services
of immense value were rendered by the "Olympic" of 46,439
tons. She was employed in carrying troops to Gallipoli and in
bringing, first, Canadian troops, then Chinese labour battalions,
and, finally, American troops to Europe. Her war record in-
cluded that of transporting more than 200,000 persons during the
period, including the wives and families of Canadian soldiers
returning to Canada after the war. Among her special services
were the rescue of the company of the super-dreadnought battle-
ship "Audacious," sunk by a mine off the N. coast of Ireland,
and the ramming of a large German submarine in the English
Channel in May 1918.
Several of the ships of the allied company, the Atlantic Trans-
port Co., were employed in the transport of troops. These in-
cluded the liners " Minneapolis," " Minnesota," " Minnewaska,"
" Minnetonka," "Marquette," " Manitou," "Menominee,"
" Missouri " and " Maryland." Besides carrying troops, the ves-
sels of the Atlantic Transport Co. carried large numbers of horses
and mules, for which service the vessels were especially suitable.
The losses of the line, representing 24,100 tons, or 43% of the
fleet, included all the regular passenger liners which were most
favourably known in the trade between London and New York.
456
SHIPPING
Liners of the Canadian Pacific Ocean Services were employed
as merchant cruisers and transports. At once the "Alsatian,"
"Victorian" and "Virginian" were requisitioned and placed in
the roth Cruiser Squadron which was responsible for a share of
the blockade of Germany. The " Calgarian " was sunk on March
i 1918 when proceeding in charge of a convoy of 30 ships.
The total number of vessels lost by the P. & O. Co. and its
allied lines was 81, representing 491,600 tons, while 14 vessels of
76,600 tons were lost through marine causes. One of the most
heroic actions of war at sea was fought between the " Otaki "
of the associated New Zealand Shipping Co. (whose commander,
Lt. Archibald Bisset Smith, received a posthumous award of the
V.C.) and the disguised heavily armed German cruiser " Moewe."
After the "Otaki" had suffered several casualties and much
damage had been done to the hull which was heavily on fire, Lt.
Smith ordered the boats to be launched in order that the crew
might be rescued. He remained on the ship and went down with
her when the vessel sank with colours flying.
The Orient Co.'s liners "Otranto," "Orama" and "Otway"
were early commissioned as armed cruisers and, at the beginning
of 1915, the " Orvieto " and " Ophir " were likewise commissioned.
Subsequently the " Ophir " was bought by the Government.
Other vessels of the line were employed as transports. The
"Otranto" was lost by collision on Oct. 6 1918.
Heavy losses were suffered by the various companies controlled
by Sir John Ellerman. In all, 103 ocean vessels, with a total car-
go capacity of 600,000 to 750,000 tons, were destroyed. These
included the liner " City of Athens " mined off Cape Town in
Aug. 1917. The "City of Winchester" was the first merchant
vessel to be destroyed during the war, being captured by the
German cruiser " Konigsberg," while homeward bound from
India with a very valuable cargo of produce. Another liner
belonging to the Ellerman fleets was mined far from Europe.
The " City of Exeter," a fine passenger ship, struck a mine in the
Indian Ocean, about 400 m. from Bombay. Number i hold filled
at once, and the master gave orders for the passengers and crew
to leave the ship. Then the master and chief engineer returned
and, at grave risk, made a thorough examination of the ship.
They decided that, with the exercise of the greatest care, the
crippled vessel could reach Bombay under her own steam. The
passengers reembarked and the vessel safely arrived in port.
This was only one example of fine seamanship, of which there
were many hundreds of magnificent cases during the war. When
the enemy's submarine campaign became intensified not a voyage
through infested waters could have been completed without the
exercise of courage of the highest order, and repeatedly the sea-
manship and endurance of the officers and crews were put to the
severest test. There were lurking dangers for the ancient little
collier which had to feel her way up and down the North Sea, her
one protection being a little gun slight armament against a
powerfully armed submarine; for the great liners which pro-
ceeded without escort and relied on their speed, their own guns,
their "dazzle painting," and their zig-zag courses to baffle the
efforts of the enemy to sink them with, perhaps, several thousand
troops on board; and for the slower cargo vessels which, in convoy
formation, when thick weather obscured the other ships, ran the
very serious risk of collision.
Vessels of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co. had the distinc-
tion of being the first among British liners to be fitted before the
the war for carrying a gun for defensive purposes. This was in
accordance with the policy initiated, before the war, by Mr.
Winston Churchill when First Lord of the Admiralty. Royal
Mail vessels were largely employed as armed cruisers, transports
and hospital ships. As armed cruisers there were commissioned
the" Andes," "Arlanza," "Almanzora," "Avon," ("Avoca"),
" Ebro " and " Alcantara. " The last named, only lightly armed,
fought the disguised German raider " Greif " for 20 minutes in the
North Sea, and sank with colours flying just before her enemy
went to the bottom. The "Asturias" was torpedoed while
bearing all the marks of a hospital ship. Other ships of the line
which bore the Red Cross were the "Araguaya," "Drina,"
"Essequibo," "Tagus," "Agadir," "Berbice" and "Balantia"
(renamed " St. Margaret of Scotland "). Many vessels of the
fleets were sunk, including the large liners " Amazon," " Drina,"
and " Merionethshire."
No fewer than six of the Union-Castle liners were torpedoed
or mined while serving as hospital ships, namely, the " Galeka,"
"Braemar Castle," "Dover Castle," " Glenart Castle" (twice),
" Gloucester Castle," and " Llandovery Castle." While based
on Southampton the hospital ships of the company carried
331,000 British wounded officers and men to port and also
landed 8,200 enemy wounded. The liners "Armadale Castle,"
"Edinburgh Castle," "Kinfauns Castle," and "Kildonan
Castle " were commissioned as armed merchant cruisers. The
company's vessels also carried very large numbers of troops. It
was not surprising that, after the Armistice, many- months
elapsed before a sufficient number of vessels could be again
placed in the ordinary S. African passenger service to provide
weekly sailings.
Recognition of the services of British shipping during the war
was made by the King and his ministers in various speeches.
Speaking at the Guildhall on July 29 1919, the King declared
that the splendid services of the officers and men of the British
mercantile marine had been vital to the successful issue of the
war. From day to day these men had been facing death no less
than the soldiers in the fighting line, and, even when the sub-
marine menace was at its height, no single British crew ever
refused to sail. He urged the re-creation of the merchant navy
and the development of the ports as essential if the United
Kingdom was to regain its old supremacy.
Men of the mercantile marine marched in the procession of
the Allied and Associated Forces through the streets of London
on July 19, 1919. There was also a special pageant of the Sea
Services on Aug. Bank Holiday 1919. This took the form of a
procession of lifeboats, bearing the House flags of all the shipping
companies, from the Pool of London to Chelsea. The procession
was headed by a launch flying the flag of the Port of London
Authority, followed by a steam vessel of Trinity House, with
the Duke of Connaught, as Master, on board. Then came a
picket boat with a naval officer in charge as escort to the Royal
barge. In this were the King and Queen, Queen Alexandra, the
Prince of Wales, Prince Albert (afterwards Duke of York) and
other members of the Royal Family. Following this was a speci-
ally prepared barge bearing the Lords of the Admiralty and
then the Lord Mayor, as admiral of the Port of London, in the
barge of the commander-in-chief at the Nore. These were
followed by launches of the Ministry of Shipping, the Customs
and Excise, Lloyd's and the Thames Conservancy. A dozen
twelve-oared naval cutters, four picket boats and an armed
motor-launch of the navy, models of naval guns, motor and
steam lifeboats, a motor-launch carrying Trinity House pilots,
steam-boats of the Mercantile Marine Association and boats
from the training ships, fishermen's motor drifters, and vessels
representing the Missions to Seamen. The rear was brought up
by 70 lifeboats towed by tugs bearing the flags of the various
shipping ownerships. Bands were placed along the line of route
and famous old sea songs were sung. Such a commemoration
was unprecedented, but then the services of the mercantile
marine during the war were likewise unique.
The Commonwealth Government Line. In the summer of iqi6
a development occurred of great importance to shipping. For
some time Australia had been seriously disturbed about the
difficulties encountered in arranging for her exportable surplus
of wheat, a matter of vital importance to the Commonwealth.
With the ever-diminishing supply of tonnage, British vessels
had naturally been directed more and more into the N. Atlantic,
since it was obviously much quicker to bring wheat to the United
Kingdom less than 3,000 m. across the ocean than more than
12,000 miles. Mr. W. M. Hughes, the Prime Minister of Aus-
tralia, arrived in the United Kingdom in March 1916, but he got
little satisfaction from the Imperial authorities on the shipping
question. He sailed for home in June and, when he was on the
water, the announcement was made that he had bought, on
account of the Commonwealth Government, 15 second-hand
SHIPPING
457
cargo vessels. The steamers had an average dead-weight carrying
capacity of between 7,000 and 8,000 tons, and 10 of them were
taken from Messrs. BurrelTs Strath line. For the larger vessels
the price worked out at about 19 a ton. This was, perhaps,
from four to five times greater than the pre-war price, but as
events occurred, the purchase proved a profitable one, financially,
for Australia. One effect was that the vessels were removed from
the United Kingdom Register and were no longer subject to
excess profit taxation. This action of Mr. Hughes hardly com-
mended itself to any of the shipping authorities in the United
Kingdom, but he had shown unmistakably that full recognition
had to be given to the Australian viewpoint. In the autumn of
that year the President of the Board of Trade announced that
a large purchase had been made of Australian wheat on behalf
of the Imperial Government, and that a number of steamers had
been requisitioned to proceed to load the wheat in Australia.
As the supply of available shipping became steadily less, it
proved impracticable to transport all the wheat bought, and
immense quantities were stored in Australia until after the con-
clusion of the war.
The purchase of the 15 cargo vessels represented the founda-
tion of a Commonwealth Government line. Being free from
taxation and with freights ruling high, large profits were earned,
which made the venture temporarily, at any rate, profitable to
the Australian people. A number of German steamers seized
in Australia were added to the fleet and, later, ships were built
both in Australia and the United Kingdom. In 1919 Mr. W. M.
Hughes, on a visit to the United Kingdom, placed contracts for
five large steamers with leading builders. These were designed
for carrying a large amount of refrigerated cargo, and some
hundreds of third-class passengers. Limited accommodation
was to be provided for a few passengers in the saloon. The first
of these steamers, the " Moreton Bay," of 14,500 tons gross,
was launched from Messrs. Vickers's shipyard at Barrow on
April 23 1921. It was then asserted that the four other vessels
would be in the water during the ensuing few months, and that
all the vessels would be in service before the end of 1921. Between
the time of the placing of the contracts in 1919 and the time of
launching, the cost of ship construction had risen very seriously.
All work was done onihe " time and lime " principle, by which
the owners paid for the cost of materials, the cost of labour, an
allowance for overhead charges, and a sum, either as a fixed
amount or as a percentage on the outlay, as profit to the builders.
The ships were thus understood to have cost considerably more
than had been expected, and with freights falling, the problem
of making the vessels pay their way was enhanced. A wooden
ship programme carried out for Australia in the United States
was hardly successful financially. The building of wooden
vessels, of which large numbers were constructed for the Amer-
ican mercantile marine, could only be regarded as an emergency
measure. The inauguration of the Commonwealth line aroused
much criticism from shipping managers, who cordially disliked
the idea of a State enterprise. They maintained, and could do
so justifiably, that a State enterprise could be carried on without
the same consideration for profit and loss as a public company,
if, for instance, a Government chose to carry merchandise at
below cost price.
The Canadian Merchant Marine. Canada instituted a line of
Government steamers. It found itself after the Armistice with
a great fleet of vessels which had been built in the period of
emergency. Instead of offering them to the shipping industry,
it decided to operate them on account of the nation. A corpora-
tion was formed, entitled the Canadian Government Merchant
Marine, Ltd., in close conjunction with the Canadian National
railways. The policy of the management was to institute new
services and to work in cooperation with the existing lines,
rather than to compete with them. New services were established
to and from the United Kingdom and many parts of the world.
In 1920 an agreement was entered into with Messrs. Alfred
Holt & Co. for a joint trans-Pacific service to and- from Van-
couver, and with the British India Co. for a service between
Montreal and Indian ports, via the Suez Canal. In the United
Kingdom the Cunard Co. acted as managers for the line. The
usual practice in making these arrangements with the shipping
companies was for the Canadian National railways to represent
the steamship companies in Canada, and for the agents of the
shipping companies abroad to act similarly for the railways.
This policy of working in conjunction with the shipping com-
panies disarmed criticism, which was very strong in the case of
the Australian scheme.
Amalgamation and Fusion Schemes. Numerous amalgamations
and fusion schemes took place between 1910 and 1921. Sir Owen
Philipps, who at the beginning of 1910 was chairman of the Royal
Mail Steam Packet Co., was particularly active in the policy of
fusion. In that year the capital was acquired of the Pacific Steam
Navigation Co., which was mainly interested in the trade with the
E. and W. coasts of S. America. In the same year a fusion agreement
was entered into with Elder, Dempster & Co., Ltd., which owed its
development largely to the genius of the late Sir Alfred Jones. In
1911, the capital was acquired of Lamport & Holt, Ltd., largely
concerned in the trade between the United Kingdom and also the
United States and S. America, and in the same year an agreement
was entered into with the Glen Line, Ltd., which is concerned in
Far Eastern trade. Incidentally, the Glen Line is notable among
British ownerships for its policy of building motor-ships, which is
known to have been very successful. In 1912 the capital of the Union-
Castle Co. was acquired by the Royal Mail Co. and the Elder
Dempster Co. This, perhaps, was the most important of the fusion,
agreements which Sir Owen Philipps effected. The Union-Castle Co.,
a consolidation of the old Union and Castle companies in the S.
African trade, had been feeling the loss of a great chief in the death
of Sir Donald Currie, to whose extraordinary powers the line owed
very much. In 1913 control was secured of the Nelson Lines, Ltd.,
which was and is engaged in the carriage of meat to the United King-
dom from Argentina, together with participation in the passenger
trade. In 1917 an interest was acquired in MacAndrews& Co., Ltd.,
concerned in trade with the Peninsula; in the Coast Lines, Ltd., a
consolidation of coasting companies trading round the United
Kingdom; and in the Moss Line, Ltd. In 1919 an interest was se-
cured in the old-established ownership of David Maclver & Co., Ltd.,
in Messrs. Bullard, King & Co., Ltd., and in Messrs. J. & P. Hut-
chinspn, Ltd. While Sir Owen Philipps thus had enormous interests
in British shipping, Lord Inchcape was also to the forefront in effect-
ing fusion schemes.
At the end of 1914, Sir Thomas Sutherland retired from the posi-
tions of chairman and managing director of the P. & O. Company.
For 42 years he had occupied the office of managing director and for
34 years that of chairman. The expansion of the P. & O. Co. will
always be associated with his name. His last important act was to
effect an amalgamation with the British India Co., of which Lord
Inchcape was managing director. On the retirement of Sir Thomas
Sutherland, Lord Inchcape became chairman and managing director
of the P. & O. Company.
In June 1916, the P. & O. Co. acquired an interest in the New
Zealand Shipping Co., which, in turn, controlled the Federal Line
trading with Australia. Exactly a year later, in June 1917, a repre-
sentative interest was secured in the Union Steamship Co. of New
Zealand, which not only provided various coasting services in New
Zealand, but also maintained services with Australia, British
Columbia, and India. In the autumn of 1917 shares were secured in
the Hain & Mercantile Steamship Co., and also in the Nourse Line,
each of which possessed a considerable amount of cargo tonnage.
The fleets of these three companies, together, included 107 steamers
of 370,000 tons gross.
Other notable fusions of the war period included the acquisition of
a controlling interest in the Prince Line, Ltd., which had been as-
sociated with the name of its founder Mr. James Knott. This
acquisition, which was effected in Aug. 1916, involved the addition of
37 steamers, mainly cargo vessels, to those controlled by Messrs.
Furness, Withy.
In Oct. 1916, Sir John Ellerman, chief of the Ellerman Lines, ac-
quired all the shares of Messrs. Thomas Wilson, Sons & Co., Ltd.,
the Wilson fleet including nearly 80 vessels of about 200,000 tons.
Its services were based on Hull. At almost the same time an agree-
ment was concluded between the Anchor Line (Henderson Bros.,
Ltd.) and the Donaldson Line, Ltd., for a fusion, under the title
of the Anchor-Donaldson Line, with Sir Alfred Booth, chairman of
the Cunard Co., as chief of the new formation. The agreement meant
that the Cunard Co. secured control of the Donaldson Line, for it
already had a controlling interest in the Anchor Line.
Shipowners' Associations. Important work wasdone by the Liver-
pool Steamship Owners' Association, especially through the war
period. It acted on the principles upon which it was founded in
1848. These were, broadly, that the growth and prosperity of the
British mercantile marine is dependent on the enterprise, skill and
ability of the individuals directly concerned, and that neither State
control nor State aid can prove an effective substitute for these
qualities. The Association has not sought to interfere with the indi-
vidual freedom of its members. It has, however, consistently opposed
458
SHIPPING
all measures calculated either to transfer the control of the country's
shipping to official hands, or to hamper its development by rigid
rules and standards. It has recognized that the first duty of the ship-
owner is to secure the safety of the lives and property entrusted to his
care, but it has maintained that the individual shipowner, as long
as he is discharging that duty, is entitled to carry on his business in
the manner which will attain the best results.
' The Association had much to do, particularly through the work
of its secretary, Sir Norman Hill, with the establishment of the War
Risks Insurance Scheme. Throughout the war period it consistently
worked with the object of getting the maximum number of voyages
made and the maximum number of cargoes carried. It cooperated
with the Government authorities when control of shipping was
obviously necessary, and when the great emergency had passed, it
pressed for freedom for the shipping industry.
A marked development has take.n place in recent years in the
organization of London shipowners through an extension of the
activities of the Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdom.
Rather curiously, the formation of the Chamber in Feb. 1878, was
distinguished by the appointment of a Hull shipowner as president.
This member was Mr. Henry John Atkinson. The Chamber was
composed of local shipowning associations in various ports and of
most of the Protection and Indemnity Clubs, with a central office
in London. Its primary objects were to discuss questions affecting
shipping; to disseminate information, from time to time, on matters
concerning the industry, and to secure the advantages of united
action, especially in communications with the Government and va-
rious bodies. The Chamber did useful work for many years under its
original constitution, but the events of the war showed the need for
a more effective organization that would include all classes of ship-
ping. Largely due to the enterprise of Sir Kenneth Anderson, the
president of the Chamber in 1915, the reconstruction of the Chamber
was carried out. Sir Kenneth Anderson was succeeded as chairman
in 191-6 by Sir William Raeburn, who held the office for three years
assisted by Mr. J. Herbert Scrutton as vice-president. During the
years 1916-7 new life was put into the Chamber, and much was done
to keep the public informed on matters affecting the shipping in-
dustry. Until the reconstruction, the Chamber was fairly represent-
ative of the ordinary cargo steamship owners, but the great passen-
ger and cargo steamship companies had not actively been identified
with its work. In 1917 a number of highly important steamship
companies joined the Chamber, including the Peninsular and Orien-
tal Steam Navigation Co., the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co., and
the Union-Castle Mail Steamship Company. The finances were put
on a sound basis, enabling the necessary cost of maintaining the
work to be secured on the plan of a levy on the tonnage. New offices
were taken, and Mr. H. M. Cleminson, a leading shipping lawyer and
member of the firm of Messrs. Botterell & Roche, was appointed
general manager. Sir William Raeburn, who was elected president
in 1916, held office for two years and was succeeded as president by
Lord Inchcape in 1918, who also held the position for two years. In
1920 Mr. W. J. Noble was elected president. He was succeeded by
Sir Owen Philipps in 192 1 , with Sir Frederick Lewis as vice-president.
The constituents of the Chamber at the beginning of 1921 con-
sisted of 19 local and special associations, such as those at Belfast,
Swansea, on the N.E. coast and Glasgow; II Protection and In-
demnity Clubs; 7 Freight, Demurrage and Defence Clubs and ship-
owners entering their tonnage direct, of which early in 1921 there
was 5,430,800 tons. The aggregate amount of tonnage entered
under the heading of Protection and Indemnity Clubs represented
6,364,300 tons. Membership of these clubs is open to any shipowner
possessing a seaworthy vessel who wishes to cover himself against
third-party risks. Only British owners are eligible for membership
of the Chamber. Until 1919 the Chamber was not incorporated, but
in that year it obtained the grant of a Royal Charter. The business
of the Chamber is conducted by a council of shipowners who are
nominated by the various constituents. Incorporated in the Cham-
ber is the Documentary Committee, which examines and approves
forms of charter between shipowners and merchants.
Statistics. In the 1919-20 edition of Lloyd's Register of Shipping,
the figures for the mercantile marines of the principal maritime
countries before and after the war were set out. These figures were
so important and authoritative that they are given in the table follow-
ing. Outstanding facts were the decrease of 2,547,000 tons in the
shipping owned by the United Kingdom, the gain of 7,746,000 tons
to the seagoing merchant marine of the United States, the loss of
1,888,000 tons by Germany, and the gain of 617,000 tons to Japan.
In this edition the Register went further than setting out the actual
figures of gains and losses. It attempted to estimate the position of
the world's tonnage as it would have been if there had been no war.
There were obvious difficulties in the way of arriving at a definite
conclusion in the case of various countries, for many factors had to be
taken into account, but a careful estimate was prepared on the follow-
ing assumptions. These were: (l) it was reasonable to expect that
the percentage of addition to the world's tonnage would have
Continued at the ratio (a decreasing one) recorded during the previous
15 pre-war years, and that the percentage of the United Kingdom
tonnage to the world's tonnage would show, approximately, the
same ratio of decrease recorded during the most recent of these
years; (2) countries in which there had been a large addition of
Steam Tonnage of Principal Countries, 1014, 1919.
June 1914
June 1919
Difference
Country
Thousand
Thousand
Thous'd
Per
tons gross
tons gross
tons
cent
United Kingdom .
18,892
16,345
-2,547
- 13-5
British Dominions
1,632
1,863
+ 2 3I
+ 14-1
America (United
States) :
Seagoing ' .
2,027
9,773
+ 7,746
+382-1
Great Lakes
2,260
2,160
IOO
4-4
Austria-Hungary .
1,052
713
- 339
- 32-2
Denmark
770
631
- 139
- 18-1
France
1,922
1,962
+ 40
+ 2-1
Germany
5.I3S
3.247
-1,888
- 36-8
Greece
821
291
- 530
- 64-6
Holland
1-472
1.574
+ 102
+ 6-9
Italy
1-43
1,238
- 192
- 13-4
Japan
1,708
2,325
+ 617
+ 36-1
Norway
1,957
1.597
- 360
18-4
Spain
884
709
- 175
- 19-8
Sweden
1,015
9'7
- 98
- 9'7
Other Countries
2,427
2,552
+ 125
+ 5-2
Grand total
45,4 4
47.897
+2,493
+ 5-5
Total abroad .
26,512
3L552
+ 5,040
+ 19-0
tonnage during the previous quinquennial period miccht be expected
to show a reduction in the ratio of increase, and, as a rule, the larger
the previous increase the larger would such reduction be; (3) allow-
ances were made in the special cases of countries where pre-war
conditions pointed to the acquisition of tonnage, in the near future,
at a higher ratio than that recorded during the previous period.
The net result of the calculations made was to show that the
British mercantile marine had suffered a loss of 5,202,000 tons, and
foreign mercantile marines, with the exception of the United States of
America, a loss of 9,000,000 tons, making a total loss to the world of
14,202,000 tons. As a partial set-off to these losses, the United States
gained 6,729,000 tons, so that the net world's loss expressed in gross
tonnage, was 7,473,000 tons. Germany's loss was set out as 3,582,000
tons, but it was explained that her losses were actually greater, since
vessels which at the date of the Armistice had not been captured or
requisitioned by other countries were included in her mercantile
marine. Excluding enemy countries, the greatest sufferers after the
United Kingdom were Norway, whose losses were estimated at
1,025,000 tons; Italy, which suffered a diminution of 677,000 tons;
and France with an estimated loss of 536,000 tons.
In these calculations the question of the comparative efficiencies
of the pre-war and post-war merchant fleets was not taken into ac-
count. The Register pointed out that, apart from addition? to the
merchant fleets of the world before the war, replacements of steam
tonnage lost, broken up, etc., amounted each year to about ij%
of the total tonnage owned, while during the war it required new
tonnage equivalent to 33% of the steam tonnage owned in 1914 to
replace the losses. There is no doubt that a large amount of the ton-
nage afloat at the end of the war represented shipping which, in
ordinary conditions, would have been broken up and replaced by
modern and more economical vessels. How this factor affected the
statistical position is indicated by the statement that in the three
pre-war years 19113, nearly 2,000,000 tons of steamers were sold
to foreign owners and replaced by better vessels, while during the
three years 1916-8 probably less than 100,000 tons of steamers were
sold in this way. Further, a large proportion of the shipping built
during the war was, undoubtedly, not the equal in general efficiency
of that built in the few years immediately preceding. Taking all
these considerations into account, the Register estimated that,
through the war, the world had lost 8,500,000 tons gross of shipping,
representing a dead-weight carrying capacity of 12,500,000 tons.
Within 12 months the position was very much changed. The total
tonnage of the world increased from 47,897,000 tons in June 1919
to 53,905,000 tons in June 1920, an increase of 6,008,000 tons. The
loss suffered by the United Kingdom as at June 1919 of 2,547,000
tons had been reduced to a decrease of only 781 ,000 tons. The United
States gain of 7,746,000 tons had been increased to one of 10,379,000
tons. Germany's loss had been increased by the surrender of tonnage,
from 1,888,000 tons to 4,716,000 tons. Japan further increased her
gain of 617,000 tons to 1,288,000 tons. Once more the Register
endeavoured to estimate what would have been the position of the
world's mercantile marines in 1920 if there had been no war. It
found that the loss suffered by the United Kingdom was 2,920,000
tons; that of Germany 6,103,000 tons; and that of other countries
a loss of 3,330,000 tons, making a total loss of 12,353,000 tons. As
against this loss, the United States gained 8,837,000 tons, thus re-
ducing the world's net loss to 3,516,000 tons. This estimate again
did not take into account the question of the comparative efficiencies
of the mercantile marines before and after the war. While such cal-
culations are of great interest, the fact remains that, as the result of
the great shipbuilding effort during the war, the world's shipping was
greater in June 1920 by 9,282,000 tons. This figure was increased
further during the year. The president of the Chamber of Shipping
of the United Kingdom stated at the annual meeting held on Feb. 25
SHIPPING
459
1921, that the world's merchant shipping since 1914 had been
actually increased by more than 10,000,000 tons. Unfortunately for
the shipping industry, the world's trade had not developed in propor-
tion. Owing to the complete breakdown of credit in some countries
trade was practically at a standstill.
An unprecedented step was taken by the Register in April 1921,
when issuing its shipbuilding returns for the first quarter of the year.
It issued with these returns a statement to the effect that, as the times
were not normal, the figures of tonnage reported to be under con-
struction did not provide a true index of the relative position of the
shipbuilding industry as compared with, say, 12 months previously.
The total tonnage under construction in the United Kingdom at
the end of March 1921 was given as 3,798,500 tons represented by
884 vessels. In ordinary times such an amount of work in hand would
have indicated great activity and prosperity in the shipbuilding
industry. It compared, for example, with 1,890,800 tons under con-
struction at the end of March 1914, showing an increase of 1,907,700
tons, and with 1,722,100 tons under construction at the end of June
1914, the last quarter completed before the outbreak of the war. But
the amount of tonnage stated to be in course of construction at the
end of March 1921 included a considerable amount on which work
had been suspended, owing to the heavy fall in shipping values con-
sequent on the severe decline in freights and the corresponding de-
cline in the demand for tonnage. The tonnage on which work had
been suspended in this way amounted to 497,000 tons. There were
also included in the total figures some 350,000 tons, the completion
of which had been delayed owing to the cessation of work 'by ship
joiners. To arrive at comparative figures, it was therefore necessary
to deduct these two figures, amounting together to 847,000 tons,
from the amount of tonnage described as being under construction.
The total figures of tonnage on which work was actually proceeding
at the end of March 1921 was thereby reduced to 2,951,500 tons,
showing an increase of 847,000 tons over March 1914.
There would have been grounds for satisfaction in such an increase
if the world's commerce had been active. Unfortunately, enormous
numbers of the world's inhabitants were taking no part in inter-
national commerce, and, further, there were immense numbers who
were not producing goods or working at the same rate as before the
war. Consequently the construction of so much tonnage, although
the work was proceeding at a slow pace, could not be regarded
with unmixed satisfaction. Cancellations of shipbuilding contracts
by owners were common, and large sums were paid in order that
owners might be relieved of their commitments. The surplus of
ordinary cargo steamships was especially large. The losses of mail
and passenger liners during the war had not been made good, but the
high cost of building tended to prevent replacements.
As compared with the figures for the quarter ended Dec. 1920,
there was a reduction in the shipping launched during the first
quarter of 1921 of 146,000 tons. The tonnage started during the
quarter declined by 113,000 tons, while in the tonnage in prepara-
tion, but not actually commenced, there was a fall of 75 %, as com-
pared with the figures of the first quarter of 1920. Attention was
called by Lloyd's Register both at the end of 1920 and in the be-
ginning of 1921 to the lower rate of construction as compared with
pre-war times. In 1913 the average amount of tonnage completed
during each quarter was over 23 % of the total work in hand at the
beginning of the quarter^ whereas the figures for 1920 fell below 13 %.
During the first quarter of 1921 the output fell as low as 8 % of that
under construction at the beginning of the year.
The total amount of tonnage being built abroad was 3,288,100
tons not quite so large an amount as the tonnage described as being
under construction in the United Kingdom, but actually larger than
that on which work was actively proceeding there. The Register
pointed out that the returns for foreign countries, unlike those for
the United Kingdom, were not subject to any material reduction on
account of suspended or delayed work, of which there appeared to
be comparatively little in other countries. The shipping being built
abroad was less by 183,000 tons than that under construction at the
end of 1920. The decline was due to the continued decrease in the
United States of America, where the tonnage under construction
was less by 27 % than that building at the beginning of 1919. Apart
from the United States, the countries in which the largest amount of
shipbuilding was taking place were France, with 427,100 tons, an
increase for the quarter of about 30,000 tons; Holland with 417,600
tons; Italy with 351,600 tons; and Japan with 294,300 tons, an
increase of 46,000 tons.
The returns showed that there were then 187 steamers and motor-
ships, each of over 1,000 tons, with a total of 1,320,100 tons, under
construction for the carriage of oil in bulk. Of the total number,.
84, of 557, ooo tons, were under construction in the United Kingdom,
and 82, of 632,000 tons, in the United States. In the former the oil-
tank tonnage represented 57 % of the total amount of construction.
The tonnage of vessels under construction to be fitted with internal
combustion engines amounted to 503,800 tons.
A highly unsatisfactory feature was the diversion of a large amount
of British shipping from British to foreign shipyards for recondition-
ing. This was due to a refusal on the part of the ship joiners to accept
the lower wages proposed by the employers and the consequent cessa-
tion of work by the ship joiners in the United Kingdom for many
months. Large liners were diverted to Dutch and French ship re-
pairing works. The work of reconditioning was essential, and the
stoppage by the ship joiners meant the loss of a large amount of work
to the United Kingdom, which, it was to be feared, might have a
far-reaching effect on the British industry.
Condition and Prospects. What might be described as a bird's-
eye view of the state of the shipping industry during 191021 is
afforded by the course of prices of a new, ready, 7,5OO-ton cargo
steamer " as recorded in the chart published by the weekly shipping
journal Fairplay and described as " Fairplay's Curve." This type
of vessel may be considered representative of ordinary cargo steam-
ers. In 1910 the price of such a vessel was 37,000. Prices then
rose sharply and by the end of 1911 a price of 47,000 was reached.
A further rise took place in 1912 to 58,000. That year, as has been
shown, was a prosperous one for shipping, and from the high point
reached, values fell to 48,000 at the end of 1913. A further drop
occurred in 1914 to 43.000. The great rise then began. By the^nd
of 1914 the price had advanced to 60,000. In 1915 prices more than
doubled and 125,000 was reached. In 1916 there was a further ad-
vance to 188,000. The effect of the Excess Profits duty was seen
in 1917 and values fell to 165,000. In 1918 there was a recovery to
181,000 and then a fall to 169,000. An extraordinary rise took
place in 1919, the high price of 232,000 being reached. Early in
1920 there was a further upward movement. Then a great and
steady fall began and by the end of the year the value of 105,000
had been reached. In the first six months of 1920, values again
receded. On May 24 two new, ready steamers of 9,250 tons dead-
weight built by the Furness Shipbuilding Co. to Lloyd's highest
class were sold for 85,000 each, representing rather more than 9
a ton. These ships were of the shelter-deck type, with the tonnage
openings closed. Vessels of similar size with tonnage openings would
carry only 8,300 tons dead-weight, and on that basis the prices bid
for the two ships appear somewhat better. Another ship which was
of 5,500 tons dead-weight and was built by Charles Hill & Sons)
Ltd., of Bristol, was sold for 40,000, representing only rather more
than 7 a ton. This particular ship had not been launched, and was
not expected to be ready for sea for at least two months.
The Chamber of Shipping estimated that at the beginning of
1921 there were laid up in the United Kingdom, the United States
and Scandinavian ports, 5,000,000 tons dead-weight of shipping, or,
approximately 3,000,000 gross. This amount of tonnage was made
up of 2,250,000 tons in the United Kingdom, represented by 600
vessels, of 2,000,000 tons in the United States represented by 250
vessels, and of 750,000 tons represented by 428 vessels in Scandi-
navian ports. In addition, many vessels were laid up in Spain, Italy,
Japan and other countries, and in the early months of 1921, the
amount of tonnage laid up throughout the world steadily increased.
In 1920 there took place the greatest fall in freights that has ever
been recorded. The extent of the drop is shown by the movement
of the time charter rate, i.e. the monthly rate of hire for ordinary
cargo steamers. When vessels are chartered in this way the owners
provide and pay the crews and pay for the stores. The charterers
pay for the coal, since the amount consumed and the cost depend
upon the trade into which the vessel is put. At the beginning of 1920
the usual time charter rate for cargo steamers was 303. a ton dead-
weight. By midsummer the rate had dropped to 2Os. a ton or rather
less. By the end of the year the rate had fallen to IDS. a ton, and with
very little inquiry it fell further. By the end of the first quarter of
1921 steamers were chartered at a rate of 6s. a ton. There were also
heavy falls in the voyage rates.
As compared with maximum rates during the war for free British
steamers bringing grain from Argentina of about 1833. a ton, the
freight early in 1921 had fallen to about 353. Then, when the coal
stoppage occurred at the end of April, rates advanced, owing to the
necessity of steamers proceeding from this country in ballast, and to
the difficulty of securing bunkers. By the end of May, rates of about
575. 6d. a ton were being quoted for vessels that were available for
immediate loading. It was generally accepted in shipping circles
that a freight of about 503. was necessary to cover the cost of sending
a vessel to S. America in ballast and bringing her home with a cargo
of grain. The fact that, before the war, cargoes of coal had always
been available from the United Kingdom meant competition for the
homeward voyage and enabled freights to be restricted. The new
conditions were distinctly serious for the shipping industry.
Coal also represented a serious problem for the liner companies.
Sir Owen Philipps, chairman of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co.,
gave some figures respecting comparative costs at the annual meet-
ing of the company in June 1921. He stated that in 1902 the average
cost of all coal consumed by the company's steamers in all ports
served, including rail carriage and freight, was exactly 22s. a ton r
In 1903, the average price had increased to 22s. 3d., while 10 years
later, in 1913, the average cost, including railage and freight, had
increased to 22s. nd., which was then considered a very high aver T
age price. In 1920, the average cost per ton of all coal consumed bv
the company's steamers, including railage and freight, was 1203. la.
Early in 1921 the price fell very considerably, largely owing to
the supply of coal by Germany to France and Belgium, with a con-i
sequent falling off in the demand for British coal. Then when the
stoppage at the British collieries had been proceeding for some little;
time, and stocks were being exhausted, British shipping had to look
to the Continent for supplies.
460
SHIPPING
The Cunard and White Star companies were in a favourable
position as regards the great trans-Atlantic liners, " Aquitania," of
45,600 tons, and " Olympic," of 46,300 tons, since these vessels had
been adapted to the use of oil fuel in 1920. Oil fuel, after the war,
increased in popularity, although some owners hesitated to commit
themselves too much to it, owing to fears that supplies would not be
sufficiently abundant, and planned their vessels with a view to the
use of either oil or coal. Scandinavian owners, especially, pinned their
faith to motor-engines, and it was notable that while coal-burning
steamers were laid up idle, motor vessels belonging to the same
ownerships were being profitably employed. There was good reason
to believe that an extensive development of the use of motor-engines
was to be expected. It was quite certain in 1921 that a strenuous
competitive period lay ahead for shipping, and owners had to take
into account all possible measures conducive to cheap transport at
sea. (C. MA.)
(2) UNITED STATES
From the founding of the Federal Government in 1789 onward
the United States has possessed a considerable merchant marine.
For a hundred years it was the second power in amount of mer-
chant tonnage in the world, surpassed only by the United King-
dom. From the end of the Civil War in 1865 to the outbreak of
the World War in 1914, though the American flag was infre-
quently seen in foreign waters, a great and valuable merchant
shipping was in existence, with well-equipped shipyards and a
large force of officers and seamen, chiefly employed in home trade
on the Great Lakes or on the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific seaboards
with their insular dependencies. The American people at no time
in their history have been out of intimate touch with shipbuilding
and navigation.
Unlike other nations the United States has steadily maintained
an important and increasing waterborne domestic commerce
capable of holding its own with formidable railway competition.
This coastwise commerce, including the trade with Alaska, Porto
Rico and Hawaii, by an unshaken national policy, has been
reserved entirely to American vessels, and has had a significant
bearing on the development of the American merchant marine.
It is interesting to recall that in 1860, the year before the opening
of the Civil War, the commercial fleet of the United States was
divided almost equally between 2,379,396 gross tons registered
for foreign commerce and 2,644,867 tons enrolled or licensed
for coastwise carrying. In 1866, the year after the close of the
Civil War, the registered foreign trade fleet, as a result of the
war, had fallen off to 1,387,756 gross tons a decrease of almost
a million tons while the coastwise fleet had increased to 3,381,-
522 tons. This tendency of the foreign trade shipping to decrease,
and of the domestic trade fleet to grow, was even more manifest
by the year 1910, when the former had fallen to 782,517 gross
tons, or actually less than the 981,019 tons which the United
States had possessed a century earlier in 1810, while the coastal
fleet had increased to 6,668,966 tons, or more than twice as much
as the entire American commercial shipping of 1860.
This sharp contrast between the steady decline of the overseas
tonnage and the unbroken advance of the domestic tonnage is attrib-
utable to the intensity of foreign competition in the one trade and
to the absence of it in the other. Through those years the wages of
American crews and their subsistence and general style of living im-
posed a higher cost upon the operation of American ships, and Amer-
ican-built ships in addition bore a substantially higher cost of con-
struction. Moreover, American laws and regulations governing
ships have contributed somewhat to this higher expense by their
more exacting character. Against this higher expense the coastwise
vessels from 1860 onward were absolutely protected by the exclusion
of foreign vessels from domestic trade, while the overseas vessels were
protected in no way whatever, except for casual postal subsidies
to a few regular lines. In view of the fact that from 1860 high pro-
tection has been almost continuous in the United States, this excep-
tion of the most intensely competitive of industries, ocean shipping,
is difficult to understand. The generally accepted explanation is that
it has not been possible at any time to present a definite form of
national encouragement to the overseas shipping industry which was
acceptable to all of the various sections of the country. Subsidies
have almost been voted by Congress several times. Discriminating
customs duties and tonnage dues, an expedient first adopted in 1789
and maintained in whole or in part for 60 years thereafter, have had
a powerful advocacy but, as a matter of fact, have never been made
effective because of general commercial treaties which have forbid-
den them. "Free ships" that is, the free admission and registry
of foreign-built vessels instead of the general prohibition of American
registry for foreign-built vessels obtaining since 1789 were adopted
Year
Ships
Built
Registered
for
Foreign
Trade
Enrolled
or
Licensed
for
Coastwise
Trade
Total
Merchant
Marine
Proportion
of Value
of Imports
& Exports
Carried in
American
Ships
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
Gross
tons
342,068
291,162
232,669
346,155
316,250
Gross
tons
782.517
863,495
923.225
1,019,165
1.066,288
Gross
tons
6,668,966
6,720,313
6,737.046
6,816,980
5,818,^61
Gross
tons
7,508,082
7,638,790
7.7I4.I83
7,886,518
7,928,688
Per cent
8-7
8-7
9.4
8-9
8-6
for vessels of less than five years of age in the Panama Canal Act of
1912, but had remained wholly futile up to the war of 1914, which
suddenly gave exceptional value to the nag of the greatest neutral.
Pre-war Position. American overseas shipping as distin-
guished from coastwise shipping reached almost the lowest ebb
in 1910, when only 782,517 gross tons were recorded by the
Commissioner of Navigation as registered for foreign commerce
and sufficed to convey only 8- 7 % of the total imports and exports
of the United States. Though relatively little effort had been
bestowed upon the promotion of foreign commerce in these
years of wonderful domestic development, the total foreign
trade of the United States had increased markedly from a value
of $762,288,550 in 1860 to $2,982,799,622 in. 1910. Whatever
the cause of the decline of the overseas American merchant ma-
rine, it had certainly not been from any lack of cargoes.
No change or event of consequence marked the years from 1910
to 1914 in the annals of American shipbuilding or navigation.
Official records show the amount of shipbuilding, the total
registered overseas and the total coastwise tonnage, the total
merchant marine and the proportion of American overseas com-
merce conveyed in American ships, for the five fiscal years ending
June 30 1914, to have been as follows:
These records indicate a condition of virtual stagnation in the
American merchant marine during the period immediately before
the World War. New construction was only slightly in excess
year after year of tonnage lost or worn out and abandoned. It
was a time of disheartenment among those who desired to see an
adequate ocean service under the American flag, and a valuable
naval reserve for an emergency.
In the Panama Canal Act of Aug. 24 1912 Section 5 provided that
" No tolls shall be levied upon vessels engaged in the coastwise trade
of the United States." It was contended before and after the pas-
sage of this Act that it contravened the provision of the Hay-Paunce-
fote treaty, that " The canal shall be fre* and open ... to the
vessels of commerce and war of all nations ... on terms of en-
tire equality, so that there shall be no discrimination against any
nation or its citizens or subjects in respect to the conditions or charges
of traffic or otherwise." President Wilson, who had originally
favoured this exemption of American coastwise ships, and had been
elected on a platform approving it, unexpectedly early in 1914
advocated the repeal of the exemption provision on the ground that
it was in conflict with the treaty, and also that "repeafbe granted
by Congress in support of the foreign policy of the Administration."
After an animated debate in the course of which the President was
opposed by several senators of his own party, and at the same time
upheld by some eminent Republicans, including Senator Root of
New York, repeal was finally accomplished. No actual advantage had
accrued to American coastwise vessels from the toll exemption, for
the canal had not then been opened to commerce. It was opened
Aug. 15 1914, and was utilized in its first year by 1,317 vessels, in-
cluding merchant carriers, men-of-war and yachts, of an aggregate
net Panama Canal tonnage of 4,596,644. Tolls paid amounted to
$5,216,149. In the coast-to-coast fleet of the United States there
was soon a notable expansion, and new and important steamers of
10,000 or 12,000 tons dead-weight capacity were plying on the route
shortened from 13,000 m. via the Straits of Magellan to 6,000 m.
via the Canal. These large coastwise steamers were destined to
prove of abundant value to American overseas commerce in the
emergency presented by the war.
War Period. When the World War began in Europe Aug. I
1914 all but 8-6% of the imports and exports of the United
States were being conveyed in foreign vessels, chiefly of British
and German nationality. The first result was the voluntary
"interning" in American harbours of a considerable fleet of
SHIPPING
461
German and Austrian steamers, including the " Vaterland," the
largest ship afloat, and other passenger craft of the Hamburg-
American and North German Lloyd lines. Another and a much
more serious effect upon the carrying of American passengers,
mails and cargoes was produced when the British Government,
under the increasing stress of the conflict, withdrew month after
month from overseas service to and from American ports its
own passenger ships and freighters, for the transport service of
the gathering British armies and for the auxiliary service of the
war fleets. Then the lack of an adequate merchant shipping of
its own began to be severely felt throughout the United States.
In the autumn and winter of 1914 agriculture, both North and
South, was gravely depressed by the inability to export grain,
provisions and cotton, because of the scarcity of ocean ships.
Freight rates soon became exorbitant. In Dec. 1914 the freight
on cotton from New Orleans to Rotterdam had risen to three or
four times its pre-war figure, or to $2 per hundredweight. Grain
in July 1914 had been carried from New York to England for
four or five cents a bushel. In Dec. 1914 the cost was 16 to 17
cents, and it still went on advancing. The Democratic party, in
power at that time, had as a whole opposed shipping subsidies,
but in this crisis the Wilson administration early in 1915 brought
forward in Congress a proposal to create a great merchant marine
under government ownership and operation. This proposition
for what was stigmat-'zed as a dangerous adventure into state
socialism was sharp.y opposed in Congress by conservative
Democrats and the great body of Republicans. Meanwhile, the
crisis continuing, Great Britain, France and Norway in their
acute need of ships to make up for losses by German submarines,
began to place contracts for new tonnage in the established and
not over-busy shipyards of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the
United States. In the report for the fiscal year ending June 30
1916 the Commissioner of Navigation noted that of ships build-
ing or ordered at that date in American yards "fully 125,000
tons were for foreign shipowners," and that " since July i 1916
the tonnage ordered in American yards for foreign shipowners
exceeded that ordered for American owners." Many of these
vessels, it transpired, were being built by funds furnished or
guaranteed by the British Government.
So much antagonism had been created by the proposal for a
government-owned and operated merchant marine that it was
not until Sept. 7 1916 that the Shipping Act desired by President
Wilson was passed, and then in a much-amended form with
government ownership and operation reduced to a temporary
character. Section 3 of this important law provided:
" That a Board is hereby created, to be known as the United States
Shipping Board, and hereinafter referred to as the Board. The
Board shall be composed of five Commissioners, to be appointed by
the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate;
said Board shall annually elect one of its members as chairman and
one as vice-chairman.
"The first Commissioners appointed shall continue in office for
terms of two, three, four, five and six years respectively from the
date of their appointment, the term of each to be designated by the
President, but their successors shall be appointed for terms of six
years, except that any person chosen to fill a vacancy shall be
appointed only for the unexpired term of the Commissioner whom
he succeeds."
Under the authority of this act the President appointed on
Dec. 22 1916 the first Federal Shipping Board, headed by Mr.
William Denman, an admiralty lawyer of San Francisco. Not
one of the members of the Board had ever operated American-
flag ships in ocean commerce. Under the Act the Board was
authorized to form a shipping corporation with a capital stock
not exceeding $50,000,000, of which a majority was to be held
by the United States for the purchase, construction, equipment,
lease, charter and operation of merchant vessels in the commerce
of the United States. This became known as the Emergency
Fleet Corporation. Its power to operate vessels would cease,
under the original Act, five years after the close of the war.
Less than four months after the appointment of the first
Shipping Board the United States itself entered the World War,
and the powers and resources of the Board were immensely in-
creased by war legislation. Vast sums of money were placed at
the disposal of the Board for the rapid construction of merchant
ships on a scale before undreamed-of. Chairman Denman re-
signed on July 24 1917, and the President nominated in his
place Edward N. Hurley, who had been the President of the
Illinois Manufacturers' Association, an organization long commit-
ted to the development of the merchant marine. A subsequent
change made Charles M. Schwab, the steel manufacturer and
head of the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corp., the Director of the
Emergency Fleet Corporation. Under the stimulus of Messrs.
Hurley and Schwab, the war programme of merchant shipbuild-
ing, which had at first lagged badly, began to take on a new life
and vigour. These men had not only directed their vast organi-
zation, but aroused the country to respond with all its wealth
and power to Mr. Lloyd George's appeal for " Ships, and more
ships and yet more ships," to compensate for the havoc wrought
by the German submarines. When the United States entered
the war in the spring of 1917 there were in the country 37 steel
shipyards with 162 ways, and 24 wooden shipyards with 72 ways,
capable of launching vessels of 3,500 dead-weight tons. At the
signing of the Armistice there were in all 223 shipyards, steel
and wood, with a total of 1,099 ways.
There is no parallel in history for this swiftness with which
additional shipyards were created. In April 1917, when the
United States declared war, every one of the 234 shipways in
this country was occupied by a vessel under construction in
part for American owners, in part for foreign owners, the remain-
der for the navy or other branches of the Government. It was
absolutely necessary to create at once the additional facilities
required for the building of the 3,115 vessels of a total of 17,-
276,318 dead-weight tons provided for in the maximum building
programme of the Shipping Board. Scores of new shipyards, for
steel and wood vessels alike, had to be built. Proper sites were
rapidly selected on the Atlantic, the Gulf and the Pacific sea-
board, the yards hurriedly laid out, and the requisite tools and
machinery installed. This work was pushed with the utmost
vigour. Long before the new yards were ready a nation-wide
movement had started to recruit an army of shipyard volunteers.
It was represented to the workers that they were as truly serving
the Allied cause as if they had enlisted in the navy or army. This
new crusade was advanced by the State Councils of Defense and
by the Department of Labor. Within the first two weeks no
fewer than 280,000 workers were enrolled. At the signing of the
Armistice 381,000 men were employed in the old and new Ameri-
can shipyards, as against 44,000 when the war began.
American shipyards before 1917 were adequate only for the
fairly steady demand of the coast and lake trades and for the
requirements of the navy, which, however, were partly filled
from Government yards. Only now and then was an overseas
steamer constructed. But the coast and lake trades of the United
States employ many relatively large and heavy vessels of from
6,000 to 10,000 tons, fit for the 2,ooo-m. voyages from Portland,
Boston, New York and Philadelphia to the Gulf of Mexico, or
the 6,ooo-m. voyages through the Panama Canal between the
Atlantic and Pacific seaports. Six or seven yards on the Atlantic
and two on the Pacific before the war were capable of building
the most powerful dreadnoughts and armoured cruisers. Ocean
shipyards, large and small, possessed well-trained and experienced
managers and workmen, and there were also many excellent
shipyards on the Great Lakes. These efficient staffs were drawn
on for the more responsible positions in the new war-born ship-
yards. The great body of 381,000 workers enlisted were, of
course, unfamiliar with ship construction. Most of them had
never laboured in a shipyard of any kind. There were thousands
from the general building, electrical and other engineering trades,
and other thousands from inland farms. It was a composite
array, -and there was undoubtedly at first much inefficiency and
shirking. But the men already trained were set to show the
others. Proficiency was rewarded by high wages. The incompe-
tent were gradually weeded out. Appeals to patriotism were
effective. Riveting and other work was " speeded up " by offers
of prizes, and more and more all hands were made to realize
that they were taking an essential part in the winning of the war.
462
SHIPPING
As a result, unheard-of achievements in the way of production
speed were soon recorded. The " Tuckahoe," a 5,500 dead-weight
ton collier, was completed by the N.Y. Shipbuilding Co. at
Gamden, N. J., in 37 calendar days; the "Crawl Keys," a 3, 500-
ton freighter, at the Great Lakes Engineering Works, Ecorse,
Mich., in 34 days. Heavy 8,8oo-ton freighters were built in
Pacific shipyards in from 78 to 88 days, where before the war
from six to ten months would have been required. The Bethle-
hem Shipbuilding Corp. yard at Alameda, Cal., launched the
1 2,ooo-ton cargo liner " Invincible "31 days after the laying of her
keel. It was thoroughly realized that such haste would often mar
the quality of the work that ships built in such brief time might
well prove less efficient and enduring. But the Government and
the builders realized also that it was a race with the German
submarines, and that enough ships must be provided by what-
ever methods at whatever cost to feed and supply the Allies, and
to carry and sustain the troops that would soon be crowding over.
One expedient which greatly helped toward quick production
was the fabricated ship. One factor in the choice of this plan of
construction, never adopted on a large scale before, was the
success of the Submarine Boat Corp. in building in 1916 a fleet
of 550 submarine-chasers for the British Government. These
little vessels were of wood. It was obvious that steel would lend
itself more readily to fabrication, and Mr. Henry R. Sutphen,
Vice-President of the Submarine Boat Corp., submitted to the
Emergency Fleet Corp. a proposal for manufacturing standard
steel ships from the same kind of commercial structural steel
that is employed for buildings and bridges. This plan was
successfully carried out. Structural plates, shapes and other
material were prepared at plants all over the country where
they could be produced to the best advantage, and shipped to
the assembling yards for final riveting together, a certain number
of rivets indeed having already been driven before the material
arrived. -One hundred and fifty fabricated steamers of about
5,000 tons dead-weight were contracted for with the Submarine
Boat Corp.'s. yard on Newark Bay, N.J. One hundred and
eighty fabricated ships of about 7,500 tons were ordered from the
great Hog L Shipyard near Philadelphia. This shipyard, the
largest in the world, with 50 ways, was created in less than six
months under the direction of the engineers of the American
International Corp., out of what had been a waste marsh on the
shores of the Delaware River. With its ways, storehouses and
workshops it covered 900 acres. Its cost was $66,000,000.
On the completion of its building programme, and when its
ships were no longer needed, it afforded an admirable site for a
great rail and ship terminal.
Several hundred wooden steamers of a dead-weight capacity
of from 3,500 to 5,000 tons were ordered by the Emergency Fleet
Corp. in the war emergency. There was much criticism of this
project, for the building of wooden steamers for overseas service
had long been abandoned in America. Among practical men
there Jiever was any delusion that wooden steamers would be
of lasting value in peace time service. As Chairman Hurley of
the Shipping Board stated: "It was not contended by any re-
sponsible authority that wood ships would prove commercially
advantageous, that they would be formidable competitors with
the ships of the maritime powers in time of peace; but they were
regarded, at least as far as the subsequent development of the
wood ship programme was concerned, as mere war emergency
ships." It should be borne in mind also that when these wooden
steamers were contracted for a war lasting for years was con-
templated as possible, and elaborate general preparations were
being made to that end. As a matter of fact few wooden steam-
ers were completed in time to carry supplies before the signing
of the Armistice, and most of the wooden craft that did get to
sea were laid up as soon as possible. Many of them seemed
structurally 'fit, but their cargo capacity was too small to permit
of profitableJemployment. The Emergency Fleet Corp. built
more of the relatively small steel ships than could be absorbed
by the requirements of normal commerce. Justification for this
is to be found in the inexorable needs of war. These small steel
steamers of from 3,500 to 5,000 dead- weight tons are of a type
very useful in limited numbers in a near-by trade, like that with
the West Indies, for example. Some of them, particularly the
oil-burners, are capable of engaging advantageously in trans-
oceanic trades. Moreover, no steamers more than 260 feet in
length and of about 4,000 tons dead-weight capacity could be
brought out into the St. Lawrence River and the Atlantic
through the Canadian canals, and it was important in the war
months that the Great Lakes shipyards should be utilized.
American commerce, coastwise and overseas, is relatively a
trade of rather large cargoes. It is the larger ship, with the
lowest crew wage cost per ton, which American shipowners can
operate to the best advantage. Nevertheless, these prudential
considerations were frankly cast aside by the American Govern-
ment in the crisis of the war. The authorities deliberately
planned and built the kind of a merchant fleet that could be
most quickly constructed in the greatest numbers and employed
to the best advantage of their Allies.
After the War. On the signing of the Armistice immediate
steps were taken by the Shipping Board to reduce its programme
of construction. In most cases where a contract could be can-
celled at a cost to the Government less than the difference
between the cost to complete and the probable market value of
the ship at time of completion, cancellation was ordered. By
June 30 1920 the building programme of the Shipping Board,
which in Oct. 1918 had totalled 3,115 vessels of 17,276,318
dead-weight tons, was reduced to 2,315 vessels of 13,675,711
tons, of which 1,696 vessels of 11,656,961 tons were of steel
construction. An important element of the new fleet not can-
celled consisted of 23 passenger and cargo steamers of about
13,000 tons each, which were designed as army transports but
have been adapted to commercial use. This class of ships, of
which the American merchant marine still had too few, is adapted
to service across the Atlantic and Pacific and to South America.
Appropriations for the Emergency Fleet Corp. up to the end of the
fiscal year 1920 amounted to the immense sum of $3,255,413,024, of
which nearly all was expended for shipbuilding in the war emergency
and afterward. Government-built steamers cost on the average
$200 to $225 per dead-weight ton. Ships of the same type were built
in the United States before the war for from $60 to $70 per ton, as
compared with $40 to $60 in the United Kingdom. The record of
America's war effort is clearly written in the returns of the Commis-
sioner of Navigation of the total gross tonnage of shipbuilding in the
United States in the fiscal years from 1915 to 1920 inclusive:
Gross
Tonnage
Year Built
1915 225,122
1916 325.413
I9>7 664,479
1918 1,300,868
1919 3,326,621
1920 3,880,639
In 1920 a marked decline in shipbuilding set in as the Government
war programme approached completion. On March I 1921 only 330
steel vessels of a total gross tonnage of 1 ,434,000 tons were on the
ways. More than one-half of this tonnage was of tank oil carriers.
Fifty-four of the 330 vessels, representing 435,000 tons, were building
on Government account, and 276, of 999,000 tons, for private owner-
ship. This sharp decrease in shipbuilding was then manifest all over
the world, and was intensified by the shrinkage of trade and the
unprecedented fall of ocean freight rates, which characterized the
winter of 1920-1.
Manning and Operation. Far less formidable than the task
of creating new shipyards and building 13,000,000 dead-weight
tons of ships for the war emergency was the work of officering,
manning and operating these vessels. In the existing merchant
marine of the United States, in Aug. 1914, there was a trained
personnel of about 86,000, only a small part of whom could be
spared for the new overseas services which the war demanded.
Moreover, many of the trained American officers were required
at once in the navy and the naval reserve. Two steps were
promptly taken to meet the crisis; the President, by executive
order July 3 1917, suspended the provision that watch-officers
of vessels of the United State.s registered for the foreign trade
must be American citizens, and the Shipping Board established
an extensive sea recruiting and training bureau for the instruc-
SHIPPING
463
tion of both officers and men. Many who had followed the sea in
their youth and had left it now returned, and new recruits ap-
peared in great numbers. From June 30 1917 to June 30 1920
this service produced 9,642 licensed officers and 32,335 men, all
American citizens. Many others who did not pass through the
training service also joined the new ships, and wherever there
was need officers and men were ordered from the navy personnel,
which had reached a total strength of 500,000. Few ships were
anywhere seriously delayed for lack of crews.
For the control of the new Shipping Board tonnage a division
of operation was developed. Relatively few of the new vessels
were directly operated by the Board itself. Most of them were
placed in the hands of the established private companies or new
concerns which the war had brought into existence. The vessels
were placed on routes indicated by the Shipping Board. Their
freight rates were controlled by the Board during and for some
months after the war. Division of expenses and profits was difficult
to arrange, and was long the cause of much friction between private
operators and the Government. Not until 1920 was a fairly
satisfactory plan finally devised by which the Shipping Board
assumed the risk of the voyage, and a fixed percentage of the
gross receipts was allowed to the manager for his services.
Government ownership and operation of shipping, especially
in the stress of war, proved a difficult undertaking in the United
States, as elsewhere. Particularly important was the work of the
Ship Control Committee, which directed the movements of
shipping to the best advantage. This committee was composed
of President P. A. S. Franklin of the International Mercantile
Marine Co., President H. H. Raymond of the American Steam-
ship Owners' Association, and Sir Connop Guthrie, representing
the British Government.
At the signing of the Armistice, Nov. II 1918, the Shipping Board
controlled a total fleet of 1,196 vessels of 6,540,205 deadweight tons,
composed of American, requisitioned, chartered, neutral and seized
German tonnage. On Aug. 3 1917 the President, under authority
bestowed by an Act of June 15, requisitioned for the national service
all steel hulls and materials in American shipyards of vessels of over
2,500 deadweight tons, building either for American or foreign
owners, a total of 431 vessels, of 3,056,000 deadweight tons. On
Oct. 12 1917, as a further step in Federal control of the shipping
situation, another executive order requisitioned all American steel-
built power-driven cargo vessels of 2,500 deadweight tons and over,
and all American passenger vessels of 2,500 gross tons and over fit
for overseas service. This established control over an American
fleet of 444 vessels of 2,938,758 deadweight tons. Many of these
ships were transferred to their owners for operation. Others were
chartered to the war and navy departments. About 600,000 tons
of German vessels, seized in American ports when the United States
entered the war, were divided among the Shipping Board and the
army and navy. In addition the Shipping Board secured the use of
a considerable fleet of enemy vessels seized in waters of other coun-
tries. To obtain an adequate amount of tonnage the Board also
chartered many Allied and neutral ships, a resource which on Sept.
I 1918 amounted to 331 ships of a deadweight tonnage of 1,084,986.
By order of March 20 1918, an act which though necessary was
deeply regretted at the time, the President caused the navy to seize
for the use of the United States 87 Dutch vessels of 533,746 dead-
weight tons, at that time in or bound to American waters.
A little more than one-half of the two and one-quarter million Am-
erican soldiers sent to Europe were conveyed in the passenger steam-
ers of Great Britain, France and Italy, chiefly in large vessels of the
British lines. Most of the soldiers sent over under the American
-flag were borne in the former German liners that had had their
damaged machinery repaired. After the Armistice, however, most
of the American troops were repatriated under the colours of their
own country.
The La Follette Law. In the years from 1915 to 1920 inclusive
there were several important Federal enactments relative to the
merchant marine. One of these was the La Follette Seamen's Law,
approved March 4 1915, after a long and bitter controversy in the
House and Senate. This law to a large extent governs working con-
ditions on American ships at sea and in harbour. It requires a certain
fixed proportion of able seamen and certificated lifeboatmen, a com-
plement of boats and rafts sufficient for all passengers and crew, and
improved living spaces and sanitary conditions. Most of the Act in
tact deals with life-saving methods and appliances, in accordance
with the recommendations of the London Conference on safety of
life at sea, following the " Titanic " disaster. Several sections require
a more humane discipline than had been frequent in the old days.
One section, which has been the cause of much displeasure among the
foreign shipping companies, brought about the amendment of treaties
requiring the U.S. Government to seize and return to their ships
seamen deserting from foreign vessels in American waters. This,
and a complementary section permitting seamen of American or
foreign vessels to demand at every port the payment of one-half
of the wages due to them, once every five days, is charged with
promoting the desertion of foreign crews in American waters and of
burdening foreign companies with the cost of hiring substitutes at
the American wage rate and with the expense of returning these sub-
stitutes to their country. It is insisted by the seamen's unions, how-
ever, that these provisions of the law tend to bring foreign ship wages
up to American standards.
Other Legislation. By Act of Congress of Aug. 18 1914 the free
ship clause of the Panama Canal Act of Aug. 24 1912, which had
proved wholly ineffective, was amended by admitting ships more
than five years old, and exempting all foreign-built vessels admitted
to American registry from compliance with American survey, inspec-
tion and measurement laws and regulations. Under this amended
law 140 foreign-built vessels of 583,000 gross tons, owned by Amer-
ican citizens or corporations, were admitted to American registry
for foreign trade in the fiscal year 1915, when the security afforded
by the American flag was valuable. The number of vessels thus ad-
mitted fell off, however, to only 26, of 69,697 tons, in the fiscal year
1916, as the higher wages and operating costs of the American flag
came to be realized by the owners of foreign-built tonnage. Many
of these owners, indeed, sought to change their naturalized ships
back to foreign registry, and 160 American vessels, of 102,479 tons,
were transferred to foreign flags in 1916. On Feb. 5 1917 the Presi-
dent by executive order forbade the sale, lease or charter of American
vessels to foreign flags without the approval of the Shipping Board.
In the spring of 1920 a most important measure known as the
Merchant Marine Act of 1920, or the Jones law (from Senator Wes-
ley L. Jones, Chairman of the Committee on Commerce), was finally
passed by large majorities in Congress and signed June 5 by Presi-
dent Wilson. This Act solemnly declared it to be the purpose of the
American people to possess a merchant marine capable of carrying
" the greater portion " of their commerce and to serve as a naval or
military auxiliary in time of war, this merchant marine " ultimately
to be owned and operated privately by citizens of the United States. '
A new Shipping Board of seven members, fairly representative of
political parties and of all sections of the country, was authorized in
the Act and given large authority over the merchant marine. This
Board was directed to sell the Government-owned tonnage to pri-
vate owners "as soon as practicable." Postal subsidies and encour-
agement to new and necessary shipping routes were provided for.
Deferred rebates and discrimination against shippers \\ere forbid-
den. The coastwise law barring foreign ships was extended after
Feb. I 1922 to the trade between the Philippines and the United
States. Benefit of preferentially low railway rates on imports and
exports was reserved to American vessels wherever their capacity
is sufficient. Encouragement was given to American marine insur-
ance, and to the American Bureau of Shipping, the "American
Lloyd's." A new and favourable system of ship mortgages was
provided. American vessels in foreign trade were exempted from
excess profits taxes on condition that the amount of the exemption
and twice as much more of the capital of the owners were applied to
the building of other ships in the United States. The President was
directed to secure the amendment of provisions in commercial treaties
that prevented the United States from imposing discriminating cus-
toms taxes and tonnage dues on goods imported in ships of foreign
registry. President Wilson refused to carry out this last-named
requirement on the ground that the action indicated would provoke
the resentment of foreign ship-owners and their Governments. The
Treasury Department failed to prepare regulations for the application
of the clause exempting American foreign-trade ships from excess,
profits taxes. Preferential treatment for American ships in the dis-
patch of imports and exports hauled at low rates on American rail-
ways was not made effective by the Shipping Board and the Inter-:
state Commerce Commission, whose cooperation was necessary for.
the actual enforcement of the law.
Statistics. The amount of shipbuilding, the total registered over-
seas and coastwise tonnage, the total merchant marine, and the pro-
portion of American imports and exports conveyed in American ships-
for the six fiscal years ending June 30 1920 are as follows: ,
Year
Ship-
building
Registered
for
Foreign
Trade
Enrolled
or
Licensed
for
Coastwise
Trade
Total
Merchant
Marine
Proportion
of Value
of Imports
and Ex-
ports Car-
ried in
American
Ships
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
Gross
tons
225,122
325-413
664,479
1,300,868
3,326,621
3,880,639
Gross
tons
1,862,714
2,185,008
2,440,776
3,599,213
6,665,376
9,924,694
Gross
tons
6,486,384
6,244,550
6,392,583
6,282,474
6,201,426
6,357,706
Gross
tons
8,389,429
8,469,649
8,871,037
9,924,518
12,907,300
16,324,024
Per cent
14-3
16-3
18-6
21-9
27-8
42-7
464
SHOCK
A new Shipping Board, appointed in June 1921, by President
Harding, headed by Albert D. Lasker of Chicago and including Ad-
miral William S. Benson in its membership, quickly effected an im-
portant reorganization of the executives of the Board, installing a
group of practical shipping men as officials of the Emergency Fleet
Corporation, and committing to these men the active management
of the government-owned merchant fleet. Following this reorgani-
zation, the new Shipping Board addressed itself to the working put
of a comprehensive subsidy system for postal liners and cargo ships,
intended to facilitate the sale of the government-owned fleet to pri-
vate owners, as directed by the Merchant Marine Act of 1920.
(W. L. M.)
SHOCK, in surgery (see 24.991*). Experience during the
World War has thrown new light on the nature of " shock " in
pathology. The first effect of an injury is usually to produce a
state resembling that of fainting. This is clearly produced through
the nervous system and is recovered from more or less rapidly,
supposing that the injury is not in itself sufficiently severe to
be fatal. This " primary shock, " as it may be called, does not
show itself to any important degree in the case of operations
done under an anaesthetic. 'But it has long been familiar to
surgeons that another kind of shock may appear during or after
an operation. This " secondary shock " was of frequent occur-
rence during the war of 1914-8 and the cause of many deaths.
To define it, Cowell suggested the name " wound-shock." The
symptoms are very difficult to distinguish from those of mere
loss of blood, but it became obvious that it might be present
although actual haemorrhage had been very slight. This fact
is of significance in the interpretation of the actual pathology
of the condition, as will be seen later. As indicated above, it
does not show itself at once; it may, however, develop in less
than an hour if the injury has been great, and primary shock
may sometimes pass into it gradually without a period of recovery.
It shows itself by a state of general collapse, with pallor, cold-
ness, thirst, low blood pressure and the various consequences of
this, such as vomiting, sweating and sometimes rapid shallow
breathing. No evidence of heart failure or of paralysis of vaso-
motor centres has been obtained. The higher nerve-centres do
not suffer until the late stages. Pain is not a prominent factor.
If the state has not been of long duration nor of severe intensity,
it may pass off on warming and rest, but if left alone death
nearly always ensues.
Observations made by Sir Cuthbert Wallace in operations
before the war suggested to him that the actual injury to the
tissues, and especially to muscle, played an important part.
This surgeon noticed that operations involving much section or
removal of tissues were more liable to produce shock. The fact
might, of course, be also interpreted as the result of the irritation
of nerves, acting subconsciously on the centres; but Qufinu, a
French surgeon, at an early date in the war, propounded the
view that the serious effects of wounds are due to an absorption
into the blood of toxic products arising in the injured cells. This
view was confirmed by the recognition of the importance of early
removal of the injured parts; operative procedure was pushed
nearer and nearer to the fighting line as the war progressed. It
was also noticed that, even after shock had developed, a marked
improvement was frequently brought about by excision of the
damaged structures. Experimental work by Bayliss and Cannon
showed that it was possible to produce in anaesthetized cats a
condition similar to that of wound-shock. This could be done
by extensive injury to the muscles and skin of the legs. It was
found that the results were identical whether the nerve channels
from the injured tissues were severed or not, but that they were
absent if the blood returning from the tissue was prevented from
passing into the general circulation. Thus the name " traumatic
toxaemia," proposed by Quenu, is an appropriate descriptive
title for the state under consideration.
But what is the nature of the poison and how does it act?
These are important questions in dealing with appropriate meth-
ods of treatment. The possibility of bacterial toxins has been
definitely excluded, and although it cannot be stated that we
have yet found the actual substance produced in wounded tis-
sues, the work of Dale and his colleagues on the properties of a
dioxide from one of the component amino-acids found in the
proteins of tissues, namely histidine, shows that we have to deal
either with this compound or with a very closely related one.
Dale and Laidlaw found, in fact, that a small amount of
histamine injected into the veins of cats or dogs produced a large
fall of blood pressure, accompanied by the other signs of shock,
which increased progressively until death. The heart was unaf-
fected and continued to beat powerfully, although nearly empty
of blood. Now, until the work of Dale and Richards, it was be-
lieved that to produce a fall of blood pressure without removal of
blood or depressing the heart it was necessary that the muscular
coat of the arterioles should be relaxed and thereby the periph-
eral resistance decreased. But the previous work had shown that
histamine has the effect of causing contraction of all smooth
muscle, including that of the arterioles. The fall of pressure pro-
duced by a very small dose of histamine remained a paradox
until the work mentioned, which was published in 1918. In this
research it was shown that the effect was due to a wide-spread
dilatation of the capillary blood vessels. In order to appreciate
the significance of this discovery, a few words are necessary on
the reactions of the capillaries and on the importance of the
volume of blood in circulation. Although various observations
had been made indicating that the capillaries are not merely
inert channels, but that their walls are capable of contraction
and dilatation in response to chemical stimulation or nervous
influence, there seemed to be difficulty in realizing how proto-
plasmic cells such as those of the capillary wall succeed in doing
this. The changes of shape in amoeba and in pigment cells,
nevertheless, show the possibility. Dale and Richards, by an
ingenious series of experiments, demonstrated that histamine
does actually cause a marked widening and opening-up of the
capillaries of the body generally. It may also be pointed out
that Krogh has recently shown the existence of a nervous regu-
lation of these vessels, which appears to be of an antidromic na-
ture, like that of the dorsal roots described by Bayliss. Now,
when we observe how enormous a share of the total vascular
system the capillaries make up, we realize what a large volume
of the total circulating blood may be penned up or pooled in these
vessels when they are dilated, leaving very little to be sent
round by the heart to supply the organs with oxygen obtained by
its flow through the lungs. The whole of the body is therefore
suffering from want of fresh blood containing the oxygen neces-
sary for its existence.
These facts have caused renewed attention to be paid to the
question of the volume of blood in circulation. By the injection
into a vein of an innocuous dye, which does not quickly diffuse
out of the blood vessels, such as " vital-red " or better " congo-red "
(Harris), the degree of dilution of the amount injected indicates
the volume of the fluid part of the blood. When observations of
this kind were made by N. M. Keith on men suffering from
shock, it was found that, even when they had lost little or no
blood, the volume actually in circulation was greatly reduced.
Hence we are justified in postulating the presence of a toxic
action dilating capillaries, an action similar to that of histamine.
It was early recognized that shock might be greatly exagger-
ated or even brought on by various conditions incidental to the
state of the wounded man, or to the treatment necessary after-
wards. Some of these throw additional light on the subject.
Anaesthetics. Dale observed that a dose of histamine highly toxic
to a cat under ether was innocuous to a normal animal. Thus there
are processes in the healthy organism which either destroy the poison
rapidly but are inactive under ether, or the anaesthetic itself makes
the capillaries more sensitive. In any case, it was often noticed in
the war that a state of shock came on during an operation under
ether and that there was less risk with nitrous-oxide and oxygen.
Haemorrhage. Since the serious nature of shock is due to the defi-
ciency of circulating blood, it is obvious that when blood has actually
been lost a lesser degree of capillary stasis will suffice to induce shock.
This was also found to be the case, experimentally, by Dale and by
Bayliss and Cannon. A practical conclusion as regards operations
seems to be that loss of blood should be avoided as far as possible
and that means for replacing it by intravenous injection should be
at hand in case shock makes its appearance.
Thirst. There was always a notable demand for water by the
wounded soldier. If he was already suffering from thirst when
base called " histamine," which is formed by removal of carbon
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
SHORT SIAM
465
wounded, his blood volume was diminished. Water is a valuable
remedy and, as absorbed from the alimentary canal, it is very effect-
ive in restoring the blood volume. As we shall see, it is the actual
volume of the blood, rather than its dilution, that is of consequence.
Unfortunately, the vomiting frequently present in shock prevents
this treatment in many cases. Water or saline solution may, how-
ever, be given by the rectum.
Cold. Exposure to cold has a very potent exaggerating effect
in shock. It may happen that spontaneous recovery takes place in
the comparative comfort of the casualty clearing station, but, for
the reason to be given below, it is not well to wait long if no sign
of improvement is seen in a short time. It is difficult to give precise
reasons why cold is so markedly deleterious. It may be the result
of the generally depressing effect on all bodily functions, which would
naturally be greater in states of inadequate circulation of blood.
Anxiety and Fear are recognized also as predisposing factors of
shock. Perhaps the depressing effect is the cause, as with cold.
Treatment. Since the cause of the trouble is the deficiency of
blood in circulation, it is obvious that the chief remedy is to in-
crease this. Much attention was given during the war to im-
proving the methods of transfusing blood and there seems no
doubt that many lives were saved by this means. But donors
are not always available and it is clearly a matter of importance
to possess, if possible, an artificial solution which can be used in
unlimited amount. Simple saline or glucose solutions were soon
found to be useless. They disappear from the blood in less than
an hour. To prevent this disappearance, it is necessary to add to
the solution some colloid which has an osmotic pressure equal
to that of the colloids in normal blood. This is done in the
" gum-saline " introduced by Bayliss. The solution contains 6 %
or 7 % of pure gum arabic in addition to 0-9 % sodium chloride.
The reason for the addition of the colloid may be stated thus:
the blood-vessels are impermeable to colloids, hence the osmotic
pressure of these substances can manifest its effects. The im-
portant point is that it causes an attraction of water and thus
prevents any rapid filtration by the blood pressure on the arterial
side and brings about a reabsorption in the capillary and venous
regions, where the blood pressure is lower than the osmotic
pressure of the colloid. Thus a solution containing a sufficient
amount of gum arabic is not lost from the circulation.
Of course, the blood actually in circulation is diluted by such
injections, but the work of Gesell shows that the greater flow
more than compensates for the lesser oxygen-carrying capacity
per unit volume. Moreover, as the circulation improves, the
capillaries begin to give up their stationary corpuscles to the
general mass of blood.
When the state of shock is complicated by haemorrhage it
might seem that the addition of blood itself is imperative. It is
remarkable, however, that in actual experience the benefit of
gum-saline was more obvious after haemorrhage than in severe
cases of wound-shock without haemorrhage. It seems probable
that these latter cases were such as to have arrived at that stage
in which a second action of histamine shows itself. To this we
may now turn. After large doses or prolonged action of smaller
ones, the capillary blood-vessels become permeable to the colloids
of blood as well as to the salts. The addition of solutions of col-
loids or even blood itself is'useless in this stage. They are quickly
lost. It was found by observations on wounded men that the
plasma of the blood transfused was lost rapidly. Whether the
effect on the capillaries is a direct one or whether it is due to the
asphyxial state brought about by the low blood pressure is not
clear at present. Krogh brings evidence that, when the capil-
laries are rapidly and widely dilated, there may be formed minute
pores between the cells of their walls, which allow colloids to pass
through. The fact warns us, in any case, not to allow the state
of low blood pressure to last for any length of time.
Cases of shock in this stage were generally regarded as hope-
less. It was not found possible to restore them either by blood or
by gum-saline. Some experiments made later by Bayliss suggest,
however, the possibility that further repeated injections might
in some cases have been effective. Although the greater part of
the fluid of the first injection was lost, it seemed that some im-
provement in the state of the capillaries resulted, since a second
injection produced a slight permanent rise in the blood pressure
and a third injection recovery.
Owing to the fact that gum-saline is quite innocuous and can
now be obtained in sterilized form from the dealers, it should al-
ways be at hand in operations for use if shock threatens, as also
for accidents or serious haemorrhage from any cause.
See Special Reports, Nos. 25, 26, 27, Medical Research Council
(London H.M. Stationery Office, 1919) ; E. Quenu, La Toxemie
traumatique (Paris, Alcan, 1919) ; Bayliss, Intravenous Injections
in Wound-Shock (London, 1918). (W. M. B.)
SHORT, SIR FRANCIS JOB (1857- ), English engraver
(see 24.1007), was elected R.A. in 1911, and in the same year
was Knighted. In 1910 he became president of the Royal Society
of Painters, Etchers and Engravers. His later work exemplifies
every type of his activity. Among etchings, " On the Banks of
the Bure " and " The White Mill, Canterbury " show his adher-
ence to the use of line in that medium, and a version of Turner's
" Ehrenbreitstein to Coblentz " continues his series of translations
of paintings. He also added " Moonlight on the Medway at
Chatham " and " Dumbarton Rock " to the plates in etching and
mezzotint completing Turner's " Liber Studiorum." Two aqua-
tints, " The New Moon " (1918) and " 'Twixt Dawn and Day, "
show broad handling and remarkably rich quality in the darks;
and two mezzotints, "Orion over the Thames" (1913-4) and
" The Night Picket Boat at Hammersmith " (1914-5), are among
his finest plates in a medium peculiarly his own.
SHORTER, DORA (Sigerson) (1866-1918), Irish poet, was
born in Dublin, Aug. 16 1866. She was the daughter of Dr.
George Sigerson, the Celtic scholar, and married in 1896 Clement
K. Shorter (b. 1857), editor of the Sphere and other London
illustrated papers (see 19.563). Her first volume of verse appeared
in 1894, and she established a considerable reputation as a
writer of lyrics and ballads; the subjects often religious, or drawn
from the treasures of Irish legend, or in praise of the Irish
country. Her Collected Poems were published in 1909, and she
wrote one novel, Through Wintry Terrors (1907). She died in
London, Jan. 6 1918. Two posthumous volumes of poems
appeared in 1918 and 1919, as well as A Dull Day in London and
other sketches, with a preface by Thomas Hardy, in 1920.
SHORTT, EDWARD (1862- ), British lawyer and politi-
cian, was born at St. Anthony's Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
March 10 1862. He was educated at Durham school and Uni-
versity, and in 1890 was called to the bar. In 1907 he became
recorder of Sunderland and in 1910 a K.C. In 1910 he entered
the House of Commons as Liberal member for Newcastle. In
May 1918 he became Chief Secretary for Ireland, but in 1919
resigned and was appointed Home Secretary.
SIAM (see 25.2). For the purposes of administration the
kingdom of Siam is divided into 17 provinces (Monthons), the
area of which is given officially at 484,128 sq. kilometres. The
revised census figures for 1910-1 gave a pop. of 8,149,847, and
the official estimate of the pop. for the year 1920 was 9,022,000.
On the death in 1910 of King Chulalongkorn he was succeeded
by his son, the Crown Prince Maha Vajiravudh, who in 1917
assumed the title of King Rama VI. Under this monarch the
work of consolidation and development progressed steadily. To
foster the idea of the duty of national service among the elder
generation the " Wild Tiger " Corps was established. The Sia-
mese boy scout organization, of which the King became presi-
dent, educates the younger generation on the same lines. The
number of boy scouts was in 1920 over 15,000.
Among various changes may be noted the royal decree that all
privy purse property should be subjected to ordinary taxation, the
abolition of lottery farms and public gambling-houses, the strict
regulation of the opium traffic, and the great development of football
and other athletic sports. Under the patronage of the King, a Navy
League was established, and the Red Cross Society was reorganized.
The Red Cross Society has under its direction the Chulalongkorn
hospital, the Pasteur institute and laboratories for the preparation of
vaccines and serums.
The calendar has been revised. The Siamese year formerly dated
from the foundation of Bangkok. It now corresponds with the
Buddhist era. The new year begins on April I and terminates on
March 31. Hence April 1921 to March 1922 is, in the Siamese
calendar, B.E. 2464. The day is divided into two periods of 12
hours each as in Europe, except in the railways and the post and tele-
graph department, where the 24-hour day is used.
466
SIBELIUS SIBERIA
On July 22 1917 Siam declared war on Germany and Austria-
Hungary. Enemy aliens were interned, and later sent to intern-
ment camps in India. A military mission was sent to Europe
early in 1918, and a Siamese military contingent landed at Mar-
seilles in Aug. of the same year. This contingent comprised
motor ambulance transport, which rendered efficient service on
the western front, and an aviation corps. The aviators were
trained by French officers, and although many had gained
pilot's certificates, hostilities ceased before the corps was pre-
pared to commence operations. The contingent returned to
Siam in 1919. Siam was represented at the Versailles Peace
Conference by three delegates, who signed the general Peace
Treaty on behalf of their country.
The main clauses affecting Siam are Articles 135, 136 and 137.
In Article 135 Germany recognizes that all treaties, conventions and
agreements between her and Siam, and all rights, titles and privi-
leges derived therefrom, including all rights of extra-territorial juris-
diction, terminated as from July 22 1917. In Article 136 all goods
and property in Siam belonging to the German Empire or to any
German State, with the exception of premises used as diplomatic or
consular residences or offices, pass ipso facto and without compensa-
tion' to the Siamese Government, while the goods, property and
private rights of German nationals in Siam shall be dealt with in
accordance with the provisions of Part X (Economic Clauses) of the
Treaty. By Article 137 Germany waives all claims against the Si-
amese Government on behalf of herself or her nationals arising out
of the seizure or condemnation of German ships, the liquidation of
German property, or the internment of German nationals in Siam,
tiiis provision not to affect the rights of the parties interested in the
proceeds of any such liquidation, as governed by the provisions of
Part X (Economic Clauses) of the Treaty. Under the Treaty Siam
became a member of the League of Nations, and took part in the
first Assembly of the League at Geneva in 1920.
Agriculture. Owing to deficient rainfall in 1919, rice, the main
agricultural crop of Siam, was barely sufficient to supply the needs
of the population, and the price rose to five times pre-war rates.
To meet the deficiency the export was prohibited, but was resumed
in 1921. The question of extensive irrigation works, which had been
considered in the previous reign, was again investigated in 1915, and
important works were started. The difficulty of obtaining steel
work from abroad during the war delayed their progress but work
on the Prasak scheme, estimated to cost some 13,000,000 ticals, was
afterwards vigorously pushed forward, and was expected to be com-
pleted in 1922.
Army and Navy. The law of 1903 making military service com-
pulsory was revised in 1917. Every able-bodied man of 21 to 22
years of age is liable to be called to military service for a period of
two years with the colours, passing afterwards into the reserve, of
which there are three classes according to age. There are various
military schools for the training of officers, non-commissioned offi-
cers, aviators, military engineers, etc., as well as a General Staff
school. The arms and equipment are modern, and in 1914 a national
cartridge factory was established. The navy is recruited from the
maritime population under the military service law. There are
some 5,000 men available for service afloat, with a reserve of 20,000.
In 1920 a 35-knot destroyer was purchased from the British Admiral-
ty and rechristened the " Phra Ruang."
Communications. On the declaration of war the northern and
southern State railways were amalgamated under a Commissioner-
General, H.R.H. Prince Purachatra of Kambaeng Bejra. The per-
sonnel, which had included German engineers, became chiefly Sia-
mese, with a few engineers of Allied nationality. A standard metre
gauge was adopted for all lines. The southern line through the
Malay Peninsula was originally constructed of metre gauge to permit
of through connexion with the Federated Malay States railways.
The work of converting the northern line, first built to the normal
gauge of 4 ft. 8J in., was begun. A through service of trains from
Penang to Bangkok was opened on the southern line in 1918, and
in March 1920 railhead reached the Siam-Kelantan boundary. The
northern line reached Chiengmai in 1920, and the Bandara-Swanka-
lok branch was then under construction. The length of State lines
in 1920 was: opened 2,215 km., under construction 211 km., and
under survey 460 km. The average capital cost per km. of open
line was tcs. 54,584.
Education. There were in 1920 over 380,000 pupils receiving pri-
mary education, of whom 250,000 were being educated by priests in
the Buddhist monasteries, 100,000 in local and private schools and
30,000 in schools directly under the Ministry of Education. Second-
ary education, reaching a standard approximating to that of the
London University Matriculation, is provided for by the Ministry
of Education, with 120 schools attended by 8,500 pupils, by the two
Royal Pages' schools and King's College, under the direct patron-
age of the King, and by certain missionary schools. In 1917 the
Chulalongkorn University was opened at Bangkok with four Facul-
ties Medicine, Arts and Science, Engineering'and Political Science.
It includes hostels for too resident undergraduates.
Finance. Annual revenue rose from tcs. 17,334,469 in B.E. 2437
(1894-5) to tcs. 86,494,066 in B.E. 2460 (1917-8). During this
period the expenditure increased from tcs. 12,847,165 to tcs. 74,149,-
289. The national debt consisted in 1921 of two sterling loans both
of 4^%, one for 1,000,000 floated in 1905, and one for 3,000,000
floated in 1907, both free of taxes present or future, levied by the
Siamese Government and repayable by yearly drawings. The 1905
loan will be entirely paid off in 1945, and the 1907 loan in 1947. In
1909 a loan of 4,000,000, increased in 1913 to 4,750,000, was nego-
tiated with the Federated Malay States Government. This loan
is exclusively for constructing railways in the Malay Peninsula, the
amount advanced is limited to 750,000 in any one year, and interest
is at the rate of 4% on the money actually received. The amount
actually advanced on this account to March 31 1921 was 3,880,000,
when the total debt of the kingdom stood at 7,312,560.
The mint was closed to the free coinage of silver in 1902, and, sup-
ported by the Treasury, exchange had steadied to around tcs. 13 to
the pound sterling by 1909. In 1917 and 1918 the rate was main-
tained at tcs. 13-02 to the pound sterling, but by 1918 the Treasury
had sold to the banks tcs. 77,000,000, representing nearly 6,000,000
sterling. As a result of these sales a large proportion of Treasury
funds was transmitted abroad. The rise in the price of silver nearly
denuded the country of silver coinage, and in 1920 the exchange rose
to tcs. 10 to the pound sterling and over. The gold standard reserve
fund, established for the maintenance of the gold value of the tical,
remained untouched on March 31 1918 at 1,222,146.
Trade. For 1917-8 the value of imports exceeded tcs. 97 million,
including tcs. 3$ million of gold leaf and treasure. This shows an
increase of some 10 millions over the previous vear and 22 millions
over 1915-6. The exports amounted to tcs. 123! million, showing an
increase over the previous year of tcs. 2 million and over 1915-6
of nearly tcs. 18 million. The value of rice exported was over tcs.
97^ million and of teak tcs. sJ million.
Justice. The Penal Code became law in 1908, and the preparation
of other codes continues. All courts are under the Ministry of Jus-
tice. The judiciary is composed of native or European-trained Siam-
ese judges, assisted in cases where foreigners are concerned by Eu-
ropean legal advisers. In commercial cases where there is no Siamese
statute or precedent customary law is administered. Where prec-
edents are wanting the Siamese courts are guided generally by
English statutes and cases as circumstances admit. On the outbreak
of war with Germany and Austria a prize court was established to
deal with enemy ships seized "jure belli." Twenty-five enemy ves-
sels were taken, and condemned as lawful prize by this court.
Public Health. Modern sanitation began in Siam in 1897 with
the creation of a Public Health Department under a director-general,
assisted by a medical officer of health and a city engineer. The
principal developments have been the inspection of cattle and meat
and the regulation of the public abattoirs under veterinary inspec-
tion, the establishment of infectious diseases ho pitals, medical
treatment of the insane, quarantine, registration of births and deaths,
compulsory notification of plague and cerebro-spinal diseases,
and compulsory vaccination and revaccination against smallpox.
An efficient public-health laboratory has been organized under
the department. Bangkok is now efficiently drained and lighted.
Pure filtered water is supplied from the Government water works.
New roads have been cut through congested districts, and num-
erous bridges have been built over the canals which intersect the
city. On the outskirts new residential quarters have been laid out,
with broad roads lined with trees. (A. C. CA.)
SIBELIUS, JEAN JULIUS CHRISTIAN (1865- ), Finnish
musical composer, was born at Tavastehus, Finland, Dec. 1865.
He was educated at Helsingfors, and later studied music at Ber-
lin and Vienna. In 1916 he became a professor of literature at
Helsingfors. His orchestral works include " Romance in C "
(1890); Karelia (1893); Friihlingslied (1893); Finlandia (1905)
and five symphonies (1897, 1901, 1905, 1910, 1915). He also
composed many songs and pianoforte pieces. His music to the
tragedy Kaolema (1904) contains the " Valse triste," which has
gained wide popularity. In 1921 he visited England and pro-
duced his 5th symphony.
SIBERIA (see 25.10). The name Siberia now generally
excludes the Steppe provinces but includes Kamchatka and
Russian Sakhalin.
Little progress has been made in the mapping of the wide
tracts between the great rivers or the mountainous regions in
the south. Even in the existing maps of southern Siberia little
reliance can be placed on the detail except near the railway.
There are no large scale maps of northern Siberia. The whole
course of the Yenisei river has been mapped on a large scale,
the shores of Lake Baikal have been surveyed and geological
exploration in the Amur basin and some parts of the upper
Lena basin has resulted in accurate maps.
SIBERIA
467
Kamchatka contains a notable range of volcanoes which forms
part of the Pacific ring. Forty have been located of which 14 are
active. The loftiest active volcano, the loftiest mountain in Siberia,
is Klyuchevskaya, 16,130 feet. Koryatskaya is 11,522 feet.
Investigations in Lake Baikal have shown that there are three
basins of unequal extent and depth. The southerly basin has an
extreme depth of 791 fathoms, and is separated by a shoal ridge of
less than 300 fathoms from the middle and most extensive basin
which reaches 832 fathoms in depth. The northern basin does not
exceed 540 fathoms. On the W. of the lake the deep water goes in-
shore but on the E. the coastal waters are shoal. The area of the
lake is 13,200 sq. m.; its surface is 1,561 ft. above sea level.
New surveys of the Arctic coast by Tolmachev, Vilkitski and
others have resulted in considerable modifications in the chart.
Shitkov explored the Yamal peninsula and cleared up some doubtful
points in its hydrography. The small islands between the Gulf of
Yenisei and Taimir peninsula have proved to be more numerous
than was supposed and Taimir Gulf has been found to be relatively
narrow. Cape Chelyuskin lies in lat. 77 42' N. Nikolas Land and
other islands have been discovered to the N.W. of this cape, and
new discoveries have been made in the New Siberia and Wrangel Is.
(see ARCTIC REGIONS). There is still some doubt about the configura-
tion of the coast-line between Cape Chelyuskin and the Lena delta.
Hydrographical surveys have resulted in the discovery of some
harbours on the Arctic coast including several in Taimir Land;
Tiski Bay, E. of the Lena delta; and Chaun Bay in long. 170 E.
Surveys in the Sea of Okhotsk have shown that the best harbours
are Yamskaya Bay; Ola Bay, off Taui Bay; and Port Ayan. Ok-
hotsk is falling into decay owing to its poor site. In Kamchatka
Baron Korfa Gulf has been found to contain several good harbours.
In the Maritime province the best harbours, in addition to Peter the
Great Bay, are de Castries Bay, Imperial Bay and Olga Bay. De
Castries Bay, a little S. of the Amur mouth, affords a far better
and more accessible harbour than the Amur estuary. The Tartar
harbours are closed by ice from Nov. to April or May and the
Okhotsk harbours for a month or two longer.
Population. There has been no census since 1897 but i" 'Q'S the
pop. was estimated at 10,377,900 on the basis of the last census and
the yearly rate of increase. It was distributed as follows:
Governments and Provinces '
Area in
sq. m.
Population *
Dens-
ity per
sq. m.
Tobolsk (Govt.) .
535,739
2,085,700
3-9
Tomsk (Govt.)
327,173
4, 53,700
I2-O
Irkutsk (Govt.)
280,429
821,800
2-5
Yeniseisk (Govt.) .
981,607
1,143,900
I-I
Yakutsk (prov.)
1,530,253
332,600
O-2
Transbaikalia (prov.) . .
238,308
971,700
4-0
Amur (prov.) ....
154,795
261,500
1-6
Maritime or Primorsk (prov.)
266,486
631,600
3-o
Kamchatka (prov.)
502,424
41,600
O-I
Sakhalin (prov.)
14,668
34,000
o-5
Total
4,831,882
10,378,100
2-O
1 These indicate the administrative divisions in force under the
empire. The present (1921) divisions are uncertain and unstable.
2 The pop. estimates are probably somewhat too high.
The two Steppe provinces, Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk, which
are geographically part of Siberia, though they were administratively
distinct under the late imperial regime, have a combined area of
4 3,394 s q- m. and an estimated pop. (1915) of 2,421,400. The figures
given above include native tribes (see below).
Colonization. The Russians number over 85 % of the total pop.
of Siberia as a whole and about 93 % of the total pop. of western
Siberia (Tobolsk and Tomsk). The number of settlers entering
Asiatic Russia (including the Steppe provinces) from Russia in
Europe rose from 141,000 in 1906 to 619,000 in 1909. For some
years after there was a decline, due, it is said, to a succession of good
harvests in southern Russia: in 1912 and 1913 the annual immisra-
tion was little over 200,000. In 1914 it was 242,000. From 1906 to
1914 nearly 3,000,000 Russians entered Asiatic Russia, about
2,000,000 of whom went to Siberia. The Siberian railway zone
continued to attract most settlers in western and central Siberia but
many went to the Baraba steppe, the Altai region and the district
round Minusinsk and the upper Yenisei. The Uryankhai region
around the head streams of the Yenisei in the Sayansk mountains,
which is nominally part of outer Mongolia under the suzerainty of
China, contains many Russian settlers and for some years has been
more or less under Russian control. In Transbaikalia much land
is occupied by Cossacks and their descendants, and natives (largely
Buryats), but in the upper Amur and the Ussuri valleys there are
considerable areas of Russian settlement. The efforts, however,
that were made by the State before 1917 to attract colonists to the
Amur and Maritime provinces met with somewhat meagre response.
Attempts to colonize Kamchatka have been practically abandoned
and for many years Russian Sakhalin has failed to attract settlers.
North of lat. 58 N. in western Siberia, and lat. 54 N. in eastern
Siberia, there are very few Russians permanently settled. Total
exemption from military service and other privileges which the
State offered colonists in the lower valleys of the Yenisei and Lena
did not succeed in attracting many settlers. The migration of
Chinese and Koreans to the Amur and Ussuri valleys and the
Transbaikal region was marked for many years. The Chinese
came as temporary labourers but the Koreans were more inclined
to become permanent settlers. Japanese artizans are found through-
out eastern Siberia. In 1914 the Russian Government was making
attempts to exclude Asiatics at the same time that it offered induce-
ment to Russians to settle in the Far East.
Native Races. While no strictly ethnological classification of
Siberian natives is yet possible, it is recognized that the tribes of the
extreme N. and E., even if they differ from one another, have certain
characteristics in common which distinguish them from later ar-
rivals in Siberia. For these earlier tribes, who may possibly have
migrated to Siberia from America at a very early period, the name
Palaesiasts is used by Schrenk and Palaeo-Siberian by Czaplicka.
For later tribes the term Neo-Siberian has supplanted Ural-Altaians
to which there are linguistic and ethnological objections. Czaplicka
classifies the native tribes of Siberia as follows, taking numerical
statistics from Patkanov, who based his estimates on the census of
1897 which gives the latest trustworthy data: I. Palaeo-Siberians.
i. Chukchee; in north-eastern Siberia, 11,771. ii. Koryak; S.
of the Chukchee, 7,335. iii. Kamchadal; southern part of Kam-
chatka, 2,805. iv. Ainu; in southern Sakhalin and Yezo, 1,457.
v. Gilyak; near Amur mouth and in northern Sakhalin, 4,649.
yi. Eskimo; shores of Bering Strait, 1,307 (in Asia), vii. Aleut;
in Aleutian Is., 574. viii. Yukaghir; between the lower Yana and
lower Kolima, 754. ix. Chuvanzy; S. of Chaun Bay, 453. x.
Ostyak of Yenisei; on the lower Yenisei, 988. II. Neo-Siberians.
i. Finnic tribes (a) Ugrian Ostyak; lower and middle Ob, 17,221.
(b) Vogul or Maniza; middle Ob, 7,476. ii. Samoyedic tribes; in
far N. from Europe to Khatanga mouth, 12,502. iii. Turkic
tribes (mainly outside Siberia) (a) Yakut ; from the Lena to the Amur
and Sakhalin, 226,739. (b) Turco-Tartars of Tobolsk and Tomsk,
176, 124. iv. Mongolic tribes (a) Kalmuk or Eleut ; practically all
outside Siberia (b) Mongols proper or Kalkha, 402. (c) Buryat;
around Lake Baikal, 288,599. v - Tunguskic tribes (a) Tungus;
far eastern Siberia, 62,068. (b) other Tunguskic tribes, totalling
14,439, v ' z ' Chapogir: on the lower Tunguska; Goldi : on the lower
Amur; Lamut: on the shores of Sea of Okhotsk; Monagir: on the
middle Amur; Oroche: E. of the lower Amur; Orochon: on the
Olekma; Oroke: in Sakhalin; and Solon: S. of the middle Amur.
Tribes who live in the more fertile parts seem to be increasing in
numbers but those who occupy the more barren regions of the N.
are dwindling. The natives probably do not exceed one million.
There is much disease, particularly among the native tribes, al-
though the climate itself is not unhealthy. In addition to goitre,
leprosy occurs in the Lena and Amur valleys and elsewhere. Small-
pox is endemic in many parts and tuberculosis is prevalent. Cholera
is never absent in the Far East and occasionally assumes the pro-,
portions of an epidemic. Plague sometimes enters from Manchuria.
Venereal diseases are rampant throughout Siberia. A curious
nervous affection known as Arctic hysteria is common among the
natives of the far north. It is not infrequently associated with
melancholia and suicide. The hysterical manifestation of Shamanism
may not impossibly be associated with this nervous affliction.
Education. The last statistics date from 1912 when there were
6,245 schools in Siberia with a total of 341,271 pupils. The number
of pupils per 1,000 of the pop. was thirty-six. Out of every 100 per-
sons under nine years of age only 16 could read and write.
Towns. Towns situated on or near the railway have grown
rapidly but others have made little or no progress. In 1914 towns
with a pop. of 10,000 or over numbered at least 21 compared with
17 in 1900; but estimates of the pop. of Siberian towns vary con-
siderably and must be accepted with reserve. The largest towns are
Tomsk (112,000) and Irkutsk (113,000), the capitals of western
and eastern Siberia respectively. Omsk (128,000) is really a Si-
berian town but actually within the Steppes. Other large towns in
western Siberia are: Novo-Nikplaevsk (63,000), a centre of rapid
growth situated where the Siberian railway crosses the Ob; Barnaul
(52,000) and Biisk (28,000), both centres in the rich Altai region.
Kurgan (35,000) on the Tobol, a great agricultural market ; Tyumen
(30,000) now on the railway and a focus for trade between Russia and
Siberia; Tobolsk (21,000), a declining fur and fish market on the
Irtish; Kolivan (13,000) on the Ob, with agricultural interests;
Mariinsk (13,000), a mining centre on the railway and Achinsk
(10,000) a little farther east. In eastern Siberia other important
towns are: the great port of Vladivostok (95,000); the two Amur
ports and agricultural centres, Blagovyeshchensk (76,000) and
Khabarovsk (53,500) ; Chita (73,000) with growing agricultural and
commercial interests; Krasnoyavsk (73,000), the chief river and
railway port of the Yenisei; Nikolsk-Ussuriski (34,700), a rising
industrial and railway centre 70 m. from Vladivostok; Nikolaevsk
(12,500), the port at the Amur mouth; the two mining centres on
the Yenisei, Minusinsk (14,000) with agricultural interests, and
Yeniseisk (10,000) ; Kansk (10,000) on the upper Yenisei and Siberian
railway; Stryetensk (10,000), at the head of the Amur-Shilka navi-
468
SIBERIA
gation; and Verkhne-Udinsk (9,500), a railway and industrial centre
in Transbaikalia. The towns of the far N. are small and primitive.
Yakutsk, a fur-trading centre on the Lena, has a pop. of 8,200 and
Verkhoyansk, on the Yana, only 450. The pop. of Sredne-Kolimsk,
on the Kolima, which is the largest centre in the N.E. of Siberia,
is 650. Petropavlovsk, the capital of Kamchatka, has fallen to some
500; Alexandrovsk, the capital of Russian Sakhalin, about 6,000,
a figure, however, which includes more natives than Russians; and
Okhotsk to less than three hundred.
Agriculture. In western Siberia about 17,000 sq. m. are under
crops (1913) but there are still great areas of natural grassland
waiting for cultivation. In eastern Siberia agriculture has not
made great progress except in the southern Ussuri plain: natural
grasslands are scarce but there are many forest areas on the Amur
which, if cleared, would afford good agricultural land. The area
under crops in eastern Siberia is 2,800 sq. m. (1913). Agricultural
methods in the W. have undergone some improvement, through the
use of fertilizers and the importation of American agricultural
machinery. Many flour-mills have been erected. Western Siberia
sends its surplus wheat to Russia and eastern Siberia. The latter
region also imports corn from Manchuria. In 1913 the total cereal
production of Siberia was 68,200 cwt. and the average annual pro-
duction (1908-13) was 50,200 cwt.
Land Tenure. After the revolution of 1917 the State became the
owner of all land in Siberia except some 5,000,000 ac. granted to
Cossacks or other private persons. All other holders of land are
tenants of the State, enjoying in some cases hereditary leases. The
State ownership would seem to apply also to minerals, timber, fish-
eries and water power but some concessions have been recognized
in favour of foreigners.
Live Stock. The rearing of live stock has made more progress
than agriculture. In 1913 the Steppe towns of Petropavlovsk and
Omsk had become great centres for the export of meat to European
Russia, drawing a large part of their supply from the Tomsk province.
In the Transbaikal, Amur, and Maritime provinces cattle-breeding
promises to attain greater importance than agriculture, but the
meat supply of eastern Siberia is partly dependent on imports from
Manchuria. The successful acclimatization of the merino sheep in
central Siberia holds promise of much wool production in the
Yeniseisk and Irkutsk provinces. Pig-breeding is a growing in-
dustry in western and central Siberia and by 1914 bacon exports
had become important. Reindeer-breeding is the chief occupation
of most of the far northern tribes. Maral deer and other species
of wapiti are bred in the Altai, the Maritime province and elsewhere
for their horns, which to the Chinese have a reputed medicinal value.
The official figures (in round numbers) for the number of live stock
in Siberia in 1911 and 1914 are as follows:
Horses
Horned
cattle
Sheep and
goats
Pigs
1911
1914
4,598,000
4,840,000
5,719,000
6,541,000
5,250,000
5,745,000
1, 126,000
1,428,000
The dairy industry has developed quickly, fostered by State en-
couragement and the export facilities afforded by the railway. In
1912 there were 1,060 cooperative dairies in the Tobolsk province,
and 2,042 in the Tomsk province. The export of butter from western
Siberia reached 35,000 tons in 1903 and 76,000 tons in 1913: in
the latter year the home consumption accounted for an additional
75,000 tons. The industry is of less importance in eastern Siberia.
Hunting. The fur industry retains great importance and was
much stimulated during the early years of the World War by the
high price of skins. But decrease of game is causing hunting in
many parts of the N. to take a secondary place to fishing and
reindeer-breeding. The sable became so scarce that from 1913 to
1916 its slaughter was forbidden. The white fox is becoming rare.
The principal fur fairs are at Irbit (Feb.) and Yakutsk (July), but
Ishim, Blagovyeshchensk, Nikolaevsk and Anyui are also fre-
quented by traders in search of furs. Yakutsk has also a trade in
fossil ivory from the New Siberia Is.: in 1913 nearly 20 tons were
sold. In order to prevent their extermination the few seals of the
Commander Is. were protected for five years from 1912.
Fishing. In western Siberia the most important fisheries are
on the Ob. Tobolsk is the headquarters of the industry: Obdorsk,
Beresov, Surgut and Narim are also important centres. At least
10,000 men take part in the fishery and the annual ratch is about
15,000 tons. On the upper Irtish Pavlodar and Lake Zaisan are
centres of fishing. The fisheries of the lower Yenisei send S. about
3,000 tons every year. In Lake Baikal there are valuable fisheries
both in summer and, through the ice, in winter. In the Lena and
Kolima regions the natives live chiefly on fish but lack of transport
facilities prevents export. Fisheries in the Amur, Okhotsk and
Kamchatka regions steadily increase in importance. The fish are
mainly species of salmon but not the same as those in western
Siberia. The fisheries are largely in Japanese hands but legislation
in 1899 restricted to Russians all fisheries in the Amur and its estu-
uary. In 1913 the mouths of certain rivers on the Okhotsk and Kam-
chatka coasts were closed to all fishing in order to conserve the fish-
eries. In 1913 the Okhotsk and Kamchatka fisheries resulted in a
total catch of 46,000,000 salmon, most of which went to Japan.
Salmon caviar to the extent of 2,477 tons was exported from the
same districts. Salmon-canning is a new industry: in 1913 the out-
put from Kamchatka was over 500,000 tins, and from the lower
Amur 100,000 tins. Attempts to send frozen fish from the Amur to
Europe met with some success when begun in 1913. The fisheries
of Russian Sakhalin are losing their importance. In the Sea of
Japan the herring-fishing from Imperial and Peter the Great bays
is growing in value.
Timber. Siberian forests of commercial timber are estimated
to cover about 470,000 sq. m. or about one-tenth of the total area
of the country, but owing to absence of transport facilities only 150,-
ooo sq. m. are considered to be exploitable. In western Siberia there
is little trade in timber and the demands for home use and the havoc
of forest fires are decreasing the available supply. The principal
saw-mills are at Tobolsk, Tyumen, Omsk, Novp-Nikolaevsk and
Tomsk. In eastern Siberia the timber industry is confined to the
Amur and Maritime provinces except in respect of the demand for
fuel for railway, industrial and domestic purposes. The principal
saw-mills are at Irkutsk, Blagovyeshchensk, Nikolaevsk, Imperial
Bay, Vladivostok and Alexandrovsk (Sakhalin). Export is from
Vladivostok, Imperial, Olgi and Posiet bays to Australia, the British
Isles and Japan. Before the war great efforts were being made to
encourage this trade.
Minerals. Gold is the most important mineral in Siberia. The
Lena drainage area, especially the valleys of the Olekma and Vitim,
is considered to be the richest gold-producing area in the world. All
the gold worked is alluvial and the annual yield (1916) was some
400,000 oz. Bodaibo, connected by rail to the Vitim, is the centre of
the industry. The gold-fields of the Amur valley when fully ex-
plored will probably prove to be even greater in extent. The new
town of Zeya Frisian on the Zeya is the principal mining centre
on the middle Amur. The Bureya valley is also rich in gold. On
the lower Amur there are rich gold-fields near Lake Chyla. The
Amur gold is alluvial and most of it is very fine. British interests
control the principal gold-fields of both the Lena and Amur basins.
Gold is reported from several places on the Sea of Okhotsk, in the
Chukchee peninsula and in the Anadir region. The output in
Transbaikalia is falling off. In the Yeniseisk region there are valu-
able deposits in the Abakan valley. In western Siberia the gold out-
put is declining but, as placer mining gives way to quartz crushing,
shows prospect of reviving. Quartz veins are rich in the neighbour-
hood of Ust-Kamenogorsk and Lake Zaisan. The gold-bearing
rocks in Siberia as a whole, including the Urals, are estimated to
cover over 800,000 sq. miles. The total output of gold in 1913 was
estimated at 1,500,000 oz., of which over 90% was from eastern
Siberia ; but there is reason to doubt the accuracy of official figures.
In the same year the number of men employed in the gold industry
in Siberia was 56,400. Climate, labour and transport, apart from
political difficulties, afford obstacles in the development of the
industry. The output of silver has shown a decline for many years,
but numerous rich deposits are known to exist in the Altai region
and around Nerchinsk. The production of zinc has increased, largely
due to the rich Tyutikha mines in the Priamur. Lead is obtained
from these mines and also from the Altai mountains and Ust Or-
linskaya on the Lena. Zinc and lead mines at Riderski in the Altai
are linked to the Irtish by a 7o-m. narrow-gauge railway. Tin occurs
in the Onon valley in Transbaikalia, but it is little worked. New
deposits of graphite have been reported from Cape Dezhneva on
Bering Strait. Copper occurs mainly in the Urals and in the Kar-
karalinsk district of the Kirghiz steppes, both of which regions are
outside Siberia proper. There has been little if any progress in the
production of iron except in the Urals, but valuable deposits of iron'
ore are reported in the Amgun valley near the Amur mouth, in the
vicinity of Vladimir and Olgi Bays in the Priamur, in many parts
of the Altai and near Karkaralinsk in the Steppes. Considerable
coal deposits of varying quality have been located, but comparative-
ly few are mined. Want of markets and transport facilities are
drawbacks even where the coal is of good quality. The most prom-
ising deposits are the Kuznetsk beds in the Altai region which contain
coking coal; beds around Cheremkhoyskoe, 70 m. W. of Irkutsk,
where some 5,000,000 tons of lignitic coal are mined annually,
principally for use on the railway; the Suchan mines, 60 m. from
America Bay, on the Sea of Japan, and the Mongugai beds near Amur
Bay on the Tartary coast. The Mongugai beds and those at Due in
Sakhalin both consist of good anthracitic coal but neither is seriously
worked. Coal in the Amur and Lena valleys and Transbaikalia is
chiefly lignitic. There are large deposits of lignite at Baron Korfa
Gulf m Kamchatka. In the Kirghiz steppe coking coal is worked at
Ekibas-tuse. The mines, which are controlled by a British company,
are connected with the Irtish at Yermak by a railway 70 m. in length.
Petroleum-bearing strata exist on the eastern shores of Lake Baikal
and near Nabilski Bay in Sakhalin, but the oil is not exploited.
Manufactures. Manufactures on a large scale have made little
progress except in engineering works and repair shops for the
railways. The competition of the Ural iron foundries, which have
better transport facilities, has adversely affected the Siberian
foundries, but a few persist, notably at Petrovsk in Transbaikalia,
Blagovyeshchensk and Tyumen. At Ekibas-tuse in the Steppes the
zinc and lead ores from the Riderski mine are smelted. Some river
ports, as Khabarovsk, Blagovyeshchensk, build and repair vessels.
SICKERTSIDGWICK, A.
469
Tanneries, tallow factories, brickworks and breweries are widejy
scattered. Only 7-6% of the pop. is estimated to be engaged in
manufacturing industry (1914).
Communications. Efforts to open up communication with
Siberia by its northward flowing rivers and the Arctic Ocean have
met with some success, but access by this route is possible only in
the height of summer. Experience has shown that during Aug. and
Sept. ice seldom presents any real difficulty in the Kara Sea and a
steamer can rely on making the estuary of the Ob or Yenisei. One
or two vessels take this route annually. Along the eastern part of the
Arctic coast the only regular navigation is by occasional vessels
between the mouth of the Kolima and Vladivostok.
The Ob affords 17,000 m. of navigable waterways, but the delta
impedes communication with the Arctic Ocean. Seagoing vessels
can reach Obdorsk, but large vessels have to lie at Nakhodka Bay
in the Gulf of Ob. River steamers ascend the Ob to Biisk, 2,059 m.
from the sea, and the Irtish to Lake Zaisan, 3,100 m. from the sea.
The Ob- Yenisei canal between the Ket and the Kas is accessible
only to small barges. In 1915 there were 350 steamers and several
hundred barges on the Ob and its tributaries. The Yenisei is navi-
gated to Minusinsk, 2,045 m - from the mouth. Small seagoing
vessels can reach Yeniseisk, but larger vessels discharge and load at
Golchikha (Ghilghila) in the delta. The Yenisei is the only Siberian
river for which sailing directions and large-scale charts are published.
Beacons and buoys assist navigation. In 1915 there were 60 steamers
on the Yenisei. The tributaries are of little value for navigation.
The Lena has a navigable length of 2,760 m. to Kachugskoe, 230
m. from Irkutsk, the nearest point on the railway. In 1914 there
were some 30 steamers on the river, mainly between Yakutsk and
Vitimsk. The Vilyui, Aldan and Vitim are tributaries on which a
few steamers ply. The Amur with the Shilka is navigable for 2,000
m. to Stryetensk on the Siberian railway. There are many sandbanks,
but vessels drawing 3 ft. can make the whole journey. The river is
buoyed and marked and supplied with a few dredgers. Seagoing
vessels stop at Nikolaevsk in the delta, but if the stream was dredged
in a few places they could reach Khabarovsk. In 1916 there were
about 4^00 steamers and several thousand barges on the Amur and
its navigable tributaries. Practically all the vessels were Russian,
although Chinese vessels have equal rights down to Khabarovsk.
On the Sungari, the Manchurian tributary of the Amur, there is
Chinese and Japanese shipping. The Ussun is navigable throughout
its length. Steamers ascend the Ussuri and Sungacha to Kamen-
Ribolov, on Lake Khanka, 500 m. from Khabarovsk. Navigation on
Lake Baikal has become less important since the construction of the
railway round the southern end. In addition to two powerful ice-
breakers there are about 12 steamers on the lake, some of which
ascend the Selenga. The shores of Lake Baikal are well provided
with lighthouses. The best harbors are Baranchuk on the west
and Misovski on the east. Both are provided with breakwaters
and wharves and are on the Siberian railway.
In 1916 the railway mileage in Siberia was approximately 6,800
m., not counting the Chinese Eastern (trans-Manchurian) railway.
The Amur railway was built between 1908 and 1916. It marks a
reversion to the course originally projected for a railway to the
Pacific and provides a through route independent of Chinese territory.
The Amur railway is a single track linking Kuenga via the Amur
valley with Khabarovsk, 1,295 m.; the embankments and bridge
piers are built for a double track. There are branches to the Shilka
river at Chasoyaya, and to the Amur at Rcinova, Chernyaeva,
Blagovyeshchensk, Innokentievskaya, and Pashkova. The bridge
across the Amur at Khabarovsk is 7,038 ft. in length and has 22
spans. In western Siberia the line from Petrograd to Tyumen has
been extended via Ishim to Omsk on the original Siberian line. A
line from Ekaterinbcrg destined to reach Tobolsk goes via Irbit and
ends at Saitkovo on the Tavda river. The Altai railway from Novo-
Nikolaevsk to Barnaul (with a branch to Biisk) and Semipalatinsk,
408 m., was opened in 1915. It serves mining and agricultural
interests in one of the most promising parts of western Siberia.
The new line from Achinsk to Minusinsk, 300 m., opens a rich
agricultural district in the valley of the upper Yenisei and tributaries.
From Tatarskaya, 105 m. E. of Omsk, a line goes S. to Slavgorod,
196 m., in a region which in 1913 was attracting settlers. From Yur-
ga, 385 m. W. of Krasnoyarsk, a line to Kolchugino, 200 m., taps
rich coal-fields. These two lines were built by private enterprise. The
Siberian railway is now double-tracked from Omsk to Karimskaya
where the Stryetensk and Amur line begins. Some of the bridges
still require to be widened. There is a double track from Nikolsk-
Ussuriski, the junction of the Ussuri and Chinese Eastern railways,
to Vladivostok. A line 93 m. long connects the Suchan coal-mines
with Vladivostok. During the years 1915-6 the Siberian rolling-
stock was much increased from the United States, and new rail-
way shops were erected at Pervaya Ryeka near Vladivostok.
The telegraph system has been extended into Arctic Siberia:
lines follow the Ob to Beresov, the Yenisei to Turukhansk and the
Lena to Yakutsk and Vilyuisk. There are lines from Yakutsk to
Okhotsk and from Khabarovsk to Nikolaevsk with connexion to
Sakhalin. The Siberian telegraph system is linked via Semipalatinsk
with that of Turkestan, and via Chuguchak with that of Mongolia.
A second line to Mongolia between Kosh Agach, on the frontier,
and Kobdo was incomplete in 1921. The Siberian and Chinese
systems join at Kyakhta. Wireless telegraph stations exist in many
places in the far N., and in 1916 were working at Cape Mare Sale
in the Yamal peninsula; Dickson I. at the Yenisei mouth; Novo-
Mariinsk and Markovo on the Anadir; Gizhiga Bay; Okhotsk;
Khabarovsk; Nikolaevsk; Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka; Iman on
the Ussuri and Vladivostok.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. F. Baddeley, Russia, Mongolia, and China,
A.D. 1602-1676 (with many maps of northern Asia during the
XVI. and XVII. centuries, 2 vols., 1919) ; A. M. Stanilovski,- " Lake
Baikal," in Izvestia Imp. Russ. Geog., East Sib. Sect. No. 7. (1912, in
Russian); B. M. Shitkov, "The Yamal Peninsula," in Zap. Imp.
Russ. Geog. Soc. Gen. Geog. 49 (1913, in Russian); J. G. Grand,
" Les formes de relief dans 1'Altai Russe " in Fennia, 40, No. 2
(1919) ; Explorations geologiques dans les regions auriferes de la
Siberie (various volumes and dates, in Russian with French sum-
maries); V. Shostakovich, " Temperature of Rivers of Siberia," in
Zap. on Hydrography, 33 (1911, in Russian); The Jesup North
Pacific Expedition (1904-11), various volumes, mainly ethnological
and anthropological; Central Statistical Committee's Year Book
1914 (1915); S. Patkanoff, Statistical data for the racial composition
of the population of Siberia (1912, in Russian) ; M. A. Czaplicka,
Aboriginal Siberia (1915), with a full bibliography; A. Schultz,
" Die Verteilung des Landbesitzes in Sibirien " (with maps) in
Petermanns Mitleilungen, 66, p. 252 (1912); V. Rodevich, " The
Uriankhanski District and its Inhabitants " in Izvestia Imp. Russ.
Geog. Soc. 48, pp. 129-188 (in Russian). For a recent account of
Siberia, with maps, see Handbook of Siberia and Arctic Russia,
I. D. 1207 (prepared by N.I.D. Admiralty, 1918) and Atlas of
Asiatic Russia, with three volumes of text (1914, in Russian).
More general books include: M. G. Price, Siberia (1912); R. L.
Wright and B. Digby, Through Siberia (1913); O. Goebel, Von
Ural bis Sachalin (1913); F. Nansen, Through Siberia (1914, with
a valuable appendix on the Kara Sea) and "The Sea Route to
Siberia " in Geographical Journal (May 1914); M. D. Haviland, A
Summer on the Yenisei (1915); M. A. Czaplicka, My Siberian Year
(1916); I. W. Shklovsky, In Far North East Siberia (1916); K. Wie-
denfeld, Sibirien in Kultur und Wirtschaft (1916). (R. N. R. B.)
SICKERT, WALTER RICHARD (1860- ), British painter,
was born at Munich, May 31 1860, the son of the painter,
Oswald Adalbert Sickert, a well-known contributor to Flieg-
ende Blatter, and grandson of Johannes Sickert of Altona,
painter and lithographer. Walter Sickert studied painting and
etching under Whistler in Tite Street, Chelsea, but in 1885, fol-
lowing the advice of Degas, began to paint from drawings
instead of from nature. His first work on these lines, " Mam-
moth Comique," was published in the Yellow Book. The
dramatic quality of his work owes much to his study of the
technique of wood engraving and to his interest in the work of
John Leech and Charles Keene, while he was also much influenced
by Wilhelm Busch (see 4.869) and Adolf Oberlander (see 19.946).
His subject pictures include " Mamma mia po' areta " (1903),
" Noctes Ambrosianae " (1906), "The Camden Town Murder "
(1906), "Army and Navy" (1913), "Ennui" (1914), "Sinn
Fein" (1915), "Pierrots on Brighton Beach at Night " (1915),
" Baccarat at Dieppe " (1920) and " Supper at the Casino "
(1920). He also produced some architectural paintings, includ-
ing " Hotel Royal, Dieppe " (1900), " Miracoli " (1903),
"Lansdowne Crescent" (1917) and "Pulteney Bridge" (1918),
while his best known landscapes are " The Happy Valley "
(1919) and " The Priory of Auberville " (1919). Examples of
his work are in the British Museum, Tate Gallery, Bibliotheque
Nationale, the Luxemburg and the art galleries of Manchester
and Johannesburg. He became a member of the Societ6 du
Salon d'Automne, the Society of Twelve and the International
Society, and was a fellow of the Royal Society of Painters,
Etchers and Engravers. As a teacher he exercised a strong
influence over the younger school of British painters.
SICKLES, DANIEL EDGAR (1825-1914), American soldier
and diplomatist (see 25.36), died in New York City, May 3 1914.
In 1912 after having served for more than a quarter of a cen-
tury as chairman of the New York Monuments Commission he
was removed following the discovery of a shortage of $27,000.
His last years were disturbed by financial difficulties.
SIDGWICK, ARTHUR (1840-1920), English scholar (see
2S-39)i was in his later years an ardent advocate of the aboli-
tion of compulsory Greek at Oxford, both in the interest of the
classics and with the view of extending the field whence the
university should draw its students. He was also a warm sup-
porter of the admission of women to the university degrees, as he .
470
SIDGWICK SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE
had previously been both of woman suffrage and indeed of all
aspects of the higher education of women. He died at Oxford,
Sept. 25 1920.
His elder brother, WILLIAM CARR SIDGWICK (1834-1919),
also a classical scholar and fellow of Merton College, Oxford,
died at Rugby, Oct. 18 1919.
SIDGWICK, ELEANOR MILDRED (1845- ), British educa-
tionalist, was born in Scotland, March u 1845, the daughter of
James Balfour of Whittingehame and his wife Lady Blanche
Cecil. She was thus the sister of Mr. Arthur James Balfour.
She was educated at home, and in 1876 married the philosopher
Henry Sidgwick (see 25.39). Mr. and Mrs. Sidgwick were both
much interested in the advancement of the higher education of
women, and were actively concerned in the founding (1880) of
Newnham College, Cambridge, of which Miss Clough was the
first principal. On the death of Miss Clough in 1892, Mrs. Sidg-
wick succeeded her as principal, and retained the position until
1910. In that year she retired, and until 1919 was bursar of the
college. Mrs. Sidgwick shared her husband's interest in psychi-
cal phenomena, and in 1910 became secretary of the Society for
Psychical Research.
SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE. The earlier article on
FORTIFICATION (10.679) reviews the prevailing ideas of defence
against siege-warfare just before the World War. Opinion was
then still unsettled on fundamental points, as well as on those
differences in arrangement of the available elements of
defence which have always divided the military engineering
world into two or more schools. In the earlier days, Vauban and
his competitors might disagree as to design, but they were in
agreement as to purpose; and even at a later date, when the
"bastion" school carried on its controversies with the "polyg-
onal " or caponniere school, there was complete unity as to the
necessity of permanent fortifications and substantial unity as
to their functions. But the economic history of the igth century,
and the military history of its latter half, had brought the prin-
ciples as well as the practice of fortification into the melting-pot.
Amongst many reasons for this, the following were the more
important:
(a) The increased size of armies, made possible by the credit
system of finance, the universal service system of recruiting, the
industrial system which could arm them, and the road and rail
system which enabled them to disperse without risk in order to
feed on the countryside, or to remain massed without starving
through a breakdown of convoys, or both.
This increased size soon reached a point at which the old-
fashioned fortress ceased to be an adequate base for the army's
depots, or an adequate shelter in which to refit after defeat.
There were signs of this even in 1870, although by that date the
fortress had expanded into an entrenched camp of large perimeter,
and between 1870 and 1914 the scale of field artillery, field trans-
port and field ammunition for a given force, was practically
doubled.
(b) The character of war, as between " armed nations," in
which, in principle, a speedy decision by battle was sought at all
costs, whereas warfare between the old professional armies had
been prolonged from campaign to campaign. The objects
sought by each side were now rather spiritual than material, or
at any rate more general than local; and the fortress, which used
to be judged according to the degree of protection it gave to the
material objects of enemy desire a city, a province, a port
came to be judged according to the degree in which it aided or
impeded the manoeuvres of a field army seeking to win the war
in battle. The task of fortification thus became much less posi-
tive and definite, and a programme of works took on a some-
what speculative character.
(c) Development of communications, which, besides the effects
referred to under (a), had that of making civilized countries
everywhere or nearly everywhere penetrable. The fortress as
conceived of in the i8th and early igth century, therefore, no
longer exercised any power of control beyond the range of its
guns or the striking radius of its semi-mobile garrison. And it
could easily be " turned," and then either enveloped or by
means of a masking force eliminated as a factor in the campai
Cases indeed remained, and still remain, of " obligatory points
of passage," where local control of the route by means of fortifi-
cation implies strategic control of the adjacent regions which are
limited for their intercommunication to that route. Especially
is this true still of rail communication. But in the main, armies
and their transport can, in present-day west and central Europe,
move where they will, except through areas directly under the
tactical control of fortifications.
Further, the rapidity of communication as well as the wealth
of routes enables a modern state to concentrate its defensive
forces in the threatened region far more rapidly than of old, and
the necessity for fixed defences, to gain time for the assembly
of mobile forces, steadily declined.
(d) The development of the technique and manufacture of
weapons of war, from about 1860, became so rapid that permanent
fortifications of any given design were liable, like modern war-
ships, to fall into obsolescence after a brief life of usefulness which
contrasted sadly with the long career of a place like the old citadel
of Antwerp, built in 1567 and besieged with all the forms and
means of siegecraft in 1832.
Three out of four of these operating causes, it will be noted,
are extrinsic, and one only intrinsic. In the case of the latter,
operating alone, it is easy to conceive of a sort of duel between the
gun constructor and the military engineer, analogous to the con-
tinued contest of gun versus armour plate. Few fortresses have
ever had the good fortune to be fully up to date in design and
equipment at the moment of siege. The reply of the French
engineer who was asked what he would do if the Germans made
the length of their scaling ladders greater than the depth of his
ditches, expresses an inevitable condition of permanent fortifica-
tion design. " It will always be easier," he said, " for the Ger-
mans to make scaling ladders than for me to dig ditches." Simi-
larly, it will always be easier to make a new gun that will cut
through a given thickness of concrete or armour than to increase
the latter. For questions of expense apart the fort is a per-
manent sentry guarding against surprise, and the reconstruction
of its works is a heavy piece of engineering which not only takes
time but frequently renders them useless for the period of the
repairs. Thus, in 1914, war surprised the fortress of Belfort
when four of its principal works were under reconstruction.
And if, as is generally the case, the programme of recon-
struction is so drawn up as to minimize these risks, some part of
the fortification system is sure to be obsolescent at any given
moment. At any such moment, then, the question is not whether
the means of attack have the upper hand practically this is
almost always the case but whether the superiority is of such
an order that the fortress or fort is useless. The new long-ranging
powers of siege artillery in 1870, subjecting the area intra muros
to concentric bombardment by an indefinitely numerous attack-
ing artillery, and the demolishing powers of the superheavy
siege howitzers evolved in Germany and Austria between 1900
and 1914 at least as against average concrete were superiori-
ties of that order. 1 But such cases are not frequent in military
history, and it is more usual in modern times, especially to
find a sort of thrust and parry, in which the artillery of the attack
maintains a lead, but not a decisive lead.
The extrinsic causes in operation, meantime, were tending to
bring about radical changes in the very meaning of fortification.
Outwardly, the controversies of the period 1885-1914 turned
on technical questions, and chiefly on whether improvised fortifi-
cations could be shown to possess a resisting value practically
equivalent to that of permanent fortifications. But in reality it
was the feeling that the purposes and principles of fortification,
1 Even in this instance, it must be admitted, the event was due in
part to faulty designs which were not up to date even when laid
down. Thus the new Antwerp forts (see ANTWERP) were only built
to resist the 21 -cm. mortar, although the Japanese had already,
under very unfavourable conditions as to communications, man-
aged to employ 28-cm. pieces at Port Arthur. On the other hand
Fort Douaumont at Verdun, where the concrete was excellent
(1892) and of adequate thickness, resisted a far heavier bombard-
ment even by 42-cm. howitzers.
SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE
47i
as they had been understood in the past, no longer responded to
the needs of warfare, that produced the multiplicity of designs
and proposals for artillery works and infantry works, armoured
and unarmoured works, self-contained and mutually inter-
dependent works, and so on, characteristic of the period of un-
settlement. If most of this ingenuity remained, as it did, un-
convincing, this was due to the fact that there were great general
causes at work, of which, in default of war experience, only the
existence and not the effects could be seen.
The size of armies steadily increased, all the European conti-
nental Powers being drawn into a competition based on the
numbers of citizen soldiers who could be conscripted and finan-
cially maintained. The power of armament increased also, and
with it the possibility of holding a wider front per unit of armed
force. The special results of this, from -the point of view of fortifi-
cation and siegecraft, were the extension of perimeters and the
thinness with which a circle or arc of investment could now be
maintained. But the more general results were the more im-
portant. An army developed along a front of some hundreds of
miles could no longer be worked by radial lines of communication
centring upon one or two ring fortresses. In Napoleonic practice,
a stronghold of some sort was always the centre of operations
on which the army's movements pivoted; and only that portion
of the theoretical base-line, which was in relation with the strong-
hold in use at the moment, formed what has been called the
" effective " base. With the modern extended fronts, on the
contrary, the effective base has-widened more and more, until it
practically coincides with the theoretical base. In other words,
each part of a great army has its own lines of communication and
its own sources, the connexion between the army line and the
base line, or front edge of the home supply area, being a sheaf of
more or less parallel routes. Whatever local variations may
appear when portions of the system are isolated and examined
by themselves, in the ensemble the strategic structure of warfare
in civilized countries had become linear.
But the more the front extended, the more difficult it became
to collect any considerable force at one part of it for offensive
effort. The " parallel battle in all its horror " unit facing unit
all along the line was admitted to be the negation of general-
ship. But whether the dispositions were made a priori or by
manoeuvre within the battle, whether envelopment or break-
through were the method chosen, the parallel battle could only
be avoided by reducing the living forces on certain passive or
semi-passive parts of the line to a minimum. The small econo-
mies that could be effected on these parts by judicious tactical
arrangements in the open though certainly not to be despised
would no longer suffice to give the really considerable superiority
of force necessary for decisive victory on the active front. The
expedient of economizing force by sacrificing territory had be-
come, under modern conditions of social and economic life,
more dangerous than it had ever been before. Recourse was had,
therefore, to fortification. It became one of the roles, if not
indeed the principal role, of permanent fortification to economize
active living forces on the passive fronts a principle already
applied to field fortification within the tactical sphere. As soon
as the competition in numbers had set in all over military
Europe, we find permanent fortification developing a new tend-
ency to be linear instead of circular in type. The ring fortress
becomes a sort of end-redoubt to a long line of forts, usually
drawn along some natural barrier. This tendency is shown in
the creation of the Meuse line (Verdun-Toul), and the Moselle
line (fipinal-Bclfort) in France, the line Namur-Huy-Liege in
Belgium, the Sercth line in Rumania, the Bobr-Narew-Bug
line in northern Poland, and lastly the Dicdenhofen-Mctz and
Molsheim-Strassburg-Istein lines in Germany. In the same way,
most of the new ring fortresses that were not so connected by
permanent works were so placed as to be keystones of a linear
battle-system; conspicuous instances are the systems Lille-La
Fere-Laon-Reims-Verdun and Dijon-Langres-Epinal. Of the
rest setting aside the fortresses of eastern Europe where poverty
of communications enabled permanent works, as of old, to
dominate great areas by dominating a few nerve-centres we
find Antwerp, Copenhagen, Bucharest, Paris, designed as self-
sufficing ring-fortresses, but not so much for playing a part in a
battle-system as for serving as refuge for an army and a govern-
ment that for the time being could not maintain its line of battle
in the open field. Three of these four were called upon in the
World War to play the assigned r61e and it is significant that not
one of them did so successfully. Bucharest was evacuated as the
result of an unsuccessful linear battle in the foreground; Antwerp
was given up by the Belgian field army and Government as soon
as the choice had to be made between standing a siege and con-
tinuing the war in the open; while in. the crisis before the Marne
the evacuation even of Paris was seriously considered. 1 Two
ring-fortresses, Maubeuge and Bcsancon, were constructed in
France in advance of the battle-system, in order apparently to
draw upon themselves a part of the invader's effort condensed
on the wings, and to control certain nuclei of communications
which might otherwise be useful to him as he pressed forward.
But the latter task is really that of a barrier-fort, and indeed
Maubeuge was in process of being converted into a pure barrier
position when war broke out, the old intention of an isolated
defence d, entrance having been abandoned. The linear systems
with end-redoubts, on the other hand, performed in the war all
the services for which they had been designed, with the exception
of Liege-Namur; and even in this case failure so far as there
was failure was due not to any vice of principle but to other
factors.
The tendency to force a speedy decision in battle at all costs,
specially characteristic of citizen armies, could not but rein-
force the effects that the size of armies in itself produced upon
fortification. With such a tendency on both sides, the initial
deployment on each side would inevitably be carried out, wholly
or largely, in accordance with an a priori plan of battle. Stra-
tegic considerations for the side which had chosen the pure
offensive and moral and political considerations for the side
which had chosen the defensive-offensive, imposed concentra-
tion close up to the frontier, in the first case so as to seize
the initiative, and in the second so as to surrender as little
of the national territory and resources as possible. Frontier
fortification therefore had as its first duty protection of a line
or zone of railheads close behind it; and since railway communica-
tion is in principle highly sensitive, a system of ring-fortresses at
intervals could not give the same protection against sudden
raids as linear defences of equal trench-length. But there was a
further consideration. An a priori scheme of battle, with frontage
and not depth as its main characteristic, is liable to require con-
siderable modification when contact has been made and the
first serious combats have produced their varied results, and
thus a regrouping process begins in the course of the operation
itself. In this regrouping, fortification is called on not only to
protect the lateral shifting of masses by rail (as for instance the
moves of the French IX. and XVIII. Corps from eastern Lorraine
to the Ardennes in the middle of Aug. 1914), but also to send
away its own local reserves to the area of decision (as in the case
of the three French divisions transferred from the Meuse-line
front to the Somme at the end of Aug. 1914).
The more penetrable the country, the more pronounced the
linear character of the fortifications that must cover it. Not
knowing the direction of attack, the defender must cither prepare
for it at all points of his allotted frontage of influence, or else
resign himself to giving up country that ex hypothesi is economi-
cally valuable, and manoeuvre in retreat to gain time. The old
policy of devastating a deep zone to cover manoeuvre, occasion-
ally practicable when the organization of the state was simple and
predominantly agricultural, is almost or wholly inapplicable in
an industrial country. In Oct.-Nov. 1914 Hindenburg devastated
part of W. Poland as cover for a lateral regrouping. But when it
came to including Upper Silesia in the devastation programme,
industrial influences promptly intervened to mitigate it. The
1 In the event Paris played the part, originally assigned to Laon-
La Fere, of end-redoubt in the battle-system. Antwerp, after cap-
ture, was organized by the Germans for the same purpose; viz. to
serve as end-redoubt to the Antwerp-Meuse line.
472
SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE
expedient of making even a narrow zone truly impenetrable by
means of radical destructions, adopted by the Germans in France
in the spring of 1917, requires both time and an elaborate labour
programme, neither of which is available in a battle crisis. In
some cases, inundations serve the purpose, but even inundations
take time to spread. On the Yser front in Oct. 1914, five days
elapsed between the order to open the sluices and the creation of
an effective barrier thereby. Moreover, in a generally penetrable
country the area of decision might turn out to lie in an unex-
pected direction, and, if so, a system of fortifications designed
to protect regrouping by likly lateral routes might prove to be
useless for covering those which actually were required to be used.
Thus, a speculative element began to come into schemes of forti-
fication. It was no longer possible to justify heavy capital ex-
penditure on works by reference to plain and definite needs.
Already it was admitted that if the unexpected happened, it
would be necessary to make shift with improvised works; already
a considerable body of opinion held that permanent works, if
admitted at all, should be similar in general design to field works;
and the tendency in these circumstances was inevitably to trust
to the latter, which were cheaper, could be built just where they
were wanted, and according to many experts were just as good
in principle as permanent works, and indeed better than most of
the expensive fortifications already in existence.
This underground growth of the linear principle was fostered
by another cause. The time-honoured relation of the town and
its defences was altered. Under the influence of tradition theory
continued to conceive of the fortress as a circular defence round
a town. But the town had ceased to interest the military engi-
neer, who now called it the " nucleus." He disposed his ring of
defences at such a distance as to protect the nucleus from bom-
bardment, a convention which was imposing a larger and larger
perimeter with every improvement in the range of guns, but his
works were now meant primarily to take a share in the operations
in the field. That being so, except in such cases as that of Port
Arthur, where the nucleus contained establishments regarded
as essential to the conduct of the war, it was almost a matter of
indifference whether a particular town should be protected or not.
The old relation of the town and its walls had been based on the
fact that the walls preserved the town from pillage and murder.
In the course of time this had changed to a great extent, and in
the era of " cabinet wars " it had almost vanished. But the old
mediaeval spirit of the towns came to life again in such instances
as Zaragoza, Colberg, Venice, and even if the towns-people were
indifferent or sullen, the governor could usually resist pressure
from them, because he was strong in the conception of his plain
duty as a soldier to defend the post entrusted to him. But when
the defence perimeter had advanced out of sight of the town,
and the enceinte had either been turned into a public garden or
retained, demilitarized, as a historical monument only; when,
further, in peace-time no military barrier whatever differentiated
the defended area from the open country; when, lastly, two gen-
erations of railway traffic had destroyed the self-centred econo-
mic life of the town and blurred its particularism then from the
point of view of the town it was in much the same position as
any undefended town or village in the theatre of war. It might
come within the ambit of military operations or it might not;
if it did, it might either resist the invader heroically in the manner
of Belfort in 1870-1, or agitate for demilitarization as Lille did
in 1914, but the fact that a ring of forts lay out in the country
around it had very little influence either way on its conduct as
a town. Open towns in modern times have behaved like fort-
resses of old, and fortresses like open towns of old.
Correspondingly, the position and outlook of the governor has
changed. Formerly the town was his charge, and almost his
viceroyalty. His troops were his own; organized for sedentary
warfare and not for campaigning, they were not at the disposal
of a field army which happened to be operating in the neigh-
bourhood, and the town was in practice defended sometimes
with spirit, sometimes feebly whatever course operations took
outside. Up to the very eve of the World War a French fortress
governor was responsible to the Government only, and took no
orders from the commander-in-chief of the field armies. The
era of " cabinet wars " made little difference to this state of
things; the population might be indifferent to the war in the
towns as in the country, but to the governor and his troops the
fortress was still a charge to be defended. Moreover, it was a
real base for the armies in the field, in that the stores and supplies
for those armies were accumulated in the fortress, and a real
strategic aid in that it commanded routes that were obligatory
for both sides. But when, in our own times, the governor had
become simply the commander of a certain group of forces
destined like other forces to take their part in a general scheme
of battle; when the area within his defences had to a great extent
ceased to be the source of stores and supplies for the field army,
and when railways, needing protection at all points and not
merely at a focus, became the principal lines of communication,
the choice between evacuation and defence came to be governed
by larger considerations of strategy. The governor's decisions
therefore were assimilated in principle to those of any tactical
executant of the strategist's instructions. He might defend or
evacuate as a field commander might hold his ground or retire.
But the peculiar character of his responsibility was gone. Even
in France, the country which has been most tenacious of the
fortress tradition, the old regulation, already quoted, was modi-
fied in the 1913 " Regulations for the conduct of Higher Forma-
tions," which empowered the commandcr-in-chief to assume con-
trol of any fortress and its forces if he thought fit. 1
On the German side, units made up from fortress garrisons
formed quite one- third of the Eastern armies during the first cam-
paignsof 1914 operating sometimes a hundred miles away from
their fortress of origin and in the sequel, never returning to it.
In sum, therefore, causes of a general character operating
before 1914 produced these tendencies: (a) to divorce fortifica-
tions from their nucleus or central town, (b) to make them rather
linear than circular in trace, (c) to bring them into conformity
with the battle-scheme of the field armies (with dtdassemtnt as
the alternative), and (d) to construct them as far as possible
according to the principles of field fortification.
The theory of fortification, on the other hand, was still bound
by the notion of a nucleus, and unable, therefore, for the mo-
ment to employ its stock of ideas and methods to the best ad-
vantage. The practical technique of fortification and siegecraft
was, meantime, progressing in details; reinforced concrete had
come into normal use, armour was improving in quality, the
defence had it in its power no less than the attack to profit by
developments in the design of quick-firing guns and howitzers of
medium calibres. Observation balloons and kites were available,
superior to the old spherical types; wireless telegraphy removed
some of the dangers of investment and made it possible to co-
ordinate the activity of a besieged garrison with that of a relieving
army. The technique of bored mines developed, and trench-
mortars and grenades reappeared. The lessons of Port Arthur
in matters of detail-tactics and design were assimilated in the
various armies. The enormous defensive power of the machine-
gun was realized and to some extent exploited. It remained to
synthesize the application of these elements, old and new, in an
art of fortification that responded to the new demands and con-
ditions of warfare.
This art began to take shape with the introduction of the
" group " principle. Advocated by several theoretical writers in
the period of controversy, it was applied practically, and on a
large scale, by the Germans in the celebrated Feste constructed
on the Moselle and the Rhine in the last ten years before the
1 It was in virtue of this new regulation that Gallieni's Paris
forces were brought under Joffre's command in the battle of the
Marne; and in accordance with the spirit of it that Sarrail acted in
the same crisis, when, although only an army commander, he sent
imperative orders to the governor of Verdun to despatch his mobile
reserves to the battle-field of Revigny. The fact that the governor,
General Coutanceau, though himself under attack, complied with
this requisition instead of standing on his undoubted legal rights,
is itself evidence of the changed outlook of the fortress governor in
modern warfare. In a somewhat different way, the confused story
of the declassement of Lille in Aug. 1914 points the same moral.
SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE
473
.World War. They may be considered from two points of view:
locally, as examples of a type of fortification, and collectively as
a defensive ensemble.
The F este, as its name indicates, is rather a self-contained
fortress on a smaller scale than a fort in the old sense. Although
it forms with other such works, and with forts or batteries, part
of a defensive system which as a whole may be either linear or
circular, it contains within its own wire entanglements each of
the elements of defence artillery for counter-battery, artillery
for flanking the intervals, and infantry works for the protection
of this artillery against a close attack. But it combines them in
a way which differentiates it in principle from the types of fortifi-
cation characteristic of the 1873-1903 epoch.
In that period there were, broadly, two opposed schools of
thought, and a school of compromise. One school, fairly perhaps
designated as the French, favoured an arrangement in which the
" forts " form the close-defence element and intermediate bat-
tery-positions the distant-defence element. The opposite, or
Brialmont school, exemplified in the Liege and Namur works
(see 10.698-9 for plans), relied on a simple ring of powerful self-
contained forts, each including both these elements. Variations
within the respective schools turned chiefly on the use or non-use
of armour, some relying upon it for the protection of all defensive
weapons, others confining it to the close-defence weapons and
yet others excluding it altogether. The compromise school,
favoured by Austrian opinion, sought to modify the characters of
each type so as to combine them. In all cases, it should be added,
the intervals were intended to be garnished in war with an
improvised trench system, with its wire, its dugouts, and its
machine-gun emplacements.
The Feste, on the contrary, attempts to combine the two ele-
ments of defence without modifying either. Full security for
the long-range elements is given in principle by dispersing them,
equally full security for the close-defence armament by concen-
tration within an obstacle. To add positive or negative pro-
tection, armour is introduced wherever necessary, and loose and
" provisional " as the forms may seem to the student of earlier
fortification, it must not be forgotten that, structurally, every
detail of the Feste is a piece of permanent work.
This very warning, however, suggests that it is necessary
more necessary than ever for the student of fortification,
whether practical or theoretical, to find a satisfactory answer
to the question: What is it exactly that we require of " perma-
nent " fortification in the tactical sphere?
The role of permanent fortification, it is suggested, is to give
to the garrison or defence force a greater degree of security, and
to its armament better conditions of employment, than " pro-
visional," i.e. heavy field, fortification can give.
To prevent the enemy's guns from obliterating the defences of
the front attacked, and thus enabling his infantry to make its
way into the defended area, these guns must be counter-battered
and (if possible) destroyed, but in any case neutralized as far as
practicable. This implies a counter-battery armament on the
side of the defence. According as the guns of this armament are
exposed to enemy observation or not, they require, or they can
dispense with, fighting protection. But in both cases, and es-
pecially in the second, they require to be screened against hostile
raids or brusque infantry assaults that may develop during this
counter-battery phase, emerging perhaps from dead ground
close in front.
This protection can be given in the form of an obstacle to the
enemy's passage, so serious that a great and organized effort is
necessary to reduce it. Such an obstacle may be a deep ditch, or
a system of wire entanglements or grilles, or both. Normally,
the former is the better obstacle, but except in country already
intersected with canals, wet ditches, river-channels, the use of a
ditch requires that the armament to be protected shall be grouped
very closely. Unless, therefore, the engineer and his Government
are prepared to face the expense and provide cover of the solidest
kind 1 the ditch as obstacle is usually excluded, so far as concerns
1 As Col. J. C. Matheson has pointed out, the closer the grouping
the denser the material required to protect it.
the protection of what may be called the main armament. The
wire or grille, as compared with the ditch, is greatly inferior as
an obstacle, but much more readily created, more easily destroyed,
but more easily repaired also. Obstacles can be traversed, either
after being broken down by bombardment in advance of the
assault or by means of scaling ladders and bridges accompanying
it. As against destruction by bombardment in advance, the only
remedy of the defence is the counter-battery which entirely or
partially stops the bombarding guns. But even without such
destruction, the obstacle may be overcome by ladders and bridges,
wire cutters, petards and other appropriate means, in the course
of the assault itself, unless the work of placing these devices is
made impossible by the defenders' fire. Hence the obstacle,
whether it be ditch or wire, must be protected by a close-defence
armament, and nowadays it is generally admitted that this
armament must be a specialized organ. But how is this in its
turn to be protected against destruction or neutralization at the
critical moment? Practically by its own defensive arrangements
alone. And thus, in the element designed to guard the obstacle,
we reach the alternate unit of fortification upon which the whole
system depends, that which in the last analysis ensures for the
main armament the power of undisturbed counter-battery (in
the case of a fort d'arret of keeping the forbidden area under
steady fire).
The close-defence organ, then, has two functions to protect
other elements and to protect itself. The former presents no
particular difficulty, and is merely a question of providing the
necessary fire-power. But the latter is the critical problem of
modern fortification.
If the counter-battery guns are concentrated, as in a fort, and
the obstacle is a ditch, then quite apart from the material cover
required for these guns to enable them to fight material cover
is also needed for the close-defence organ, since its position is
practically obligatory. But the cover is obtained relatively
easily since the weapons covered are sunk to the level of the ditch-
floor, and any necessary thickness of protection can be provided
over it both on first construction and later.
But such a concentration of counter-battery methods creates
large intervals between work and work, and access to the defended
area (which with a dispersed main armament is automatically
barred by the obstacles defending this and the fire of the organ
which protects them) must be prevented by organs in the works
so placed as to control the open zone. In some systems reliance
has been placed on the counter-battery guns themselves to do
this, but modern engineer opinion generally may be said to be
opposed to this, since guns which have been engaged in the artil-
lery duel may have been put out of action by the time that they
are wanted for close-defence, and even if intact should be
wholly absorbed in their proper task. The organ providing
ditch defence, by reason of its situation is not as a rule able to
undertake control of the open intervals; and in short the only
alternatives are small cupolas or traditore batteries. The former
are open to many objections. If built into the same work as the
main armament they are almost as much exposed to premature
destruction as the latter is 2 and must be provided with fighting
protection on the same scale. If mobile, they are exceedingly
costly in proportion to the fire-power they develop. For these
reasons modern practice generally favours the traditore battery,
which is a casemated emplacement (sometimes a cupola) at or
near ground level, giving fire only to the flanks and rear of the
work, situated in the rear portion of it and protected against
bombardment to a great extent by the mass of the work itself.
But, from the nature of its duty, the site of the traditore battery
is frequently obligatory, and when it is combined inside the same
obstacle with a concentrated counter-battery armament, the
needs of the latter as to site may conflict with those of the tradi-
tore. In the avoidance of this, perhaps more than in any other
2 The cupolas of this class in the Antwerp forts suffered nearly as
severely as those of the main armament, although they were hardly
called upon to exercise their special functions, since the infantry
attack of the Germans was not pressed into the intervals before the
fire of the forts had been beaten down.
474
SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE
single factor, lies the central idea of group-fortification of the
Feste type. Two dissimilar elements have to be both protected
by the same obstacle and yet spaced some distance apart. But
the obstacle (in such conditions mainly wire or grille) itself re-
quires local close-defence. This " ultimate unit " has thus not
yet been arrived at. Nevertheless, this ultimate unit, in group-
fortification, has only to give short-range protection to the
obstacle, and in practice it is an infantry-manned stronghold,
designed to give fighting protection to its garrison, 1 sometimes
provided for, its own local safety with a deep ditch and sunken
flanking defences, sometimes organized with a fighting parapet
frontally commanding an artificial foreground which is wired,
but always having as its real function the protection of an ob-
stacle external to itself.
In the case of concentrated main armament, therefore, it would
seem that fighting protection for the counter-battery guns, for
the traditore batteries, and for sunk ditch defences is required to
be designed on such a scale as will enable these elements to defy,
actively or passively, the attack guns of the day and the morrow.
The same applies to the shelters in which in the case of group
fortification the garrison of the infantry work is placed in readi-
ness to man the parapets, but not necessarily to these parapets
themselves. Further, in proportion as wire replaces the deep
ditch, as an obstacle, heavy and expensive work in peace-time is
dispensed with.
In the system of deployed main armament, on the other hand,
the proportion of permanent work, it would seem, can safely be
much less. With modern artillery means, the sites for counter-
battery armament are rarely obligatory; observation must be
provided for; but the actual position of the guns, and therefore the
line of liaison between observation post and guns, are to a great
extent at least free from limitations of ground. This being so,
the close-defence element of the fortifications may be disposed
to the best advantage for carrying out its task that of protecting
a system of obstacles suitably placed between the battery zone
and the enemy.
In point of permanent work, then, although parts of the bat-
tery positions themselves may occasionally require concrete or
even armour, concealment of virgin earth, and alternative posi-
tions in the great majority of cases afford all necessary protection.
For the close-defence guns, on the other hand the element which
must be able to endure at all costs the chosen positions are
often (if not in most cases) obligatory, and full-scale fighting
protection must be given. Even so, there being by hypothesis
no necessity to develop frontal fire, and the volume of the re-
quired lateral protective fire being relatively little, a permanent
work which is essentially a traditore battery and nothing else can
be both small and well-covered against frontal fire at an expense
much less than that of a great self-contained fort. Its own local
protection may be either a ditch with sunk defences or an in-
fantry system surrounded by wire, but these auxiliaries, too,
would be withdrawn from the crest facing the enemy to positions
on the reverse slope. The only case in which it would be necessary
for any part of the system to go forward to the crest and front
slope would be that in which the artillery observation and com-
mand post is combined with the traditore in one work or one
enclosed group. In such a case the post in question would un-
doubtedly require special treatment as regards its own close-
defence. But all that in principle is necessary is that the post
and its liaisons should be immune.
On the other hand, the security of the main armament against
a rush of hostile infantry was far greater when an obstacle defended
by fire completely surrounded it, and military engineers were very
loth to impair this security. No doubt, when the obstacle cover-
ing the front of the batteries in the deployed order was fully
organized, the latter might be considered safe enough for practical
purposes so long as the interval-defence remained effectively in
action to protect it. But a danger period was foreseen in which
the obstacle was not yet fit to perform its function with cer-
tainty. The " brusque " or (more accurately) the " abbreviated
1 The term " storm-proof," frequently applied to such infantry
works, hardly seems to connote their real function.
attack," proposed by the Bavarian General von Sauer, had
many supporters; and as the tendency already mentioned, of
modern warfare between " armed nations " is to push the line
of resistance as nearly up to the frontier as possible, the fortifica-
tions of that line were in fact exposed to instant attack. 2 Those
of Verdun and Toul were little more than 20 m., the easternmost
fort of Liege only 13 m., from the German frontier, while the
western Metz forts could be bombarded from French soil. In
former days, this would have mattered less, but the growing
mobility of heavy artillery from about 1890 for the first time
made it possible to employ true siege artillery within a few hours
of the opening of hostilities. The attacker, on the other hand,
naturally had to forego some of the powerof hisattacking means
in attempting a coup. His truly mobile siege artillery was limited,
or supposed to be limited, to the calibre of 21 cm. Heavier pieces
though they no longer took weeks or months to arrive in their
emplacements, at any rate took days to do so, and by a sort of
general agreement (to which however there were exceptions)
the situation was met by placing a part of the main armament of
the defence called the safety armament inside a closed ob-
stacle. Usually it was an existing fort that was adapted to house
the safety armament, but sometimes it was included in the design
of a new work. The fort thus in practice reverted partially to its
old duty of serving as a battery position, while in theory its func-
tion had become entirely that of locally protecting a tradilore or
other interval defence. The distinction between property and
accident was no doubt clear to specialists, but the result was
that the generality of armies and peoples continued to look upon
a fort as their fathers had looked upon it, till the astonishing
events of Aug., Sept. and Oct. 1914 so thoroughly undeceived
them too thoroughly, indeed, for in the revulsion, not merely
safety-armament guns but even interval-flanking guns were
removed from closed works.
In the system of group-fortification, it was naturally much
easier to house a safety armament. No element within the ring
of wire need cramp any other, or be drawn into the fighting
activity of another, or suffer from the shells intended for another. 3
Full fighting protection will be necessary, as is always the case
with safety armaments, but, as has been noted above, with more
room the same safety can be given with less expense.
In sum, therefore, the necessity of compromise on this question
of safety armament has caused the dispersed-elements and the
concentrated-elements schools to agree upon: (a) the group or
Feste principle for interval-flanking elements, obstacles and de-
fence of the same, and safety portion of main armament; (b) the
order principle of deployed artillery, with an obstacle covered
by flanking fire, for the remainder of the main armament. This,
it will be noted, leaves a real liberty for the treatment of particu-
lar cases. The proportion of total armament installed as "safety "
is whatever the designer chooses to make it in each instance,
the Feste being adaptable to any proportioning within reasonable
limits fixed by the contour of the ground. A practical check on
enclosing an unnecessarily high proportion will always be the
expense of giving full fighting protection.
Examples of Croup- Fortification. Types of forts, both main
armament forts and others, being described and illustrated in 10.696,
2 To wire a perimeter or frontage of 30 km. to a depth of eight yd.
only requires three eight-hour shifts of (in round numbers) 6,000
workers each, as well as mechanical, animal or human transport
for about 4,000,000 yd. of barbed wire, weighing 300 tons or so,
and 100,000-130,000 stout posts. Other work to be done includes
the clearance of the field of fire, the digging of trenches, the con-
struction of shelters (if not in existence already), opening of com-
munications and liaisons, etc. Land which is occupied by a fort-
ress garrison in war rarely belongs to the Government in peace.
'This can be demonstrated by the "theory of probabilities."
Assume a main-armament cupola 16 ft. in diameter, under accurate
attack by a gun having a probable error of 60 ft. in range and 3 ft.
in line. Calculation shows that this will probably be hit by 7 % of
the shots fired. Now assume a traditore element having a vulnerable
surface on top of 20 ft. from front to rear and 25 ft. laterally. Placed
with its front edge 120 ft. behind the centre of the cupola, this will
receive 3-62% of the shots aimed at the latter. Placed with the
front edge 240 ft. behind, it will be hit by 0-2 % of the shots. In
other words, at twice the distance it is eighteen times as safe.
SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE
475
it is only necessary here to consider examples of the newer group-
fortification. Three forms may be taken, one of which, the Metz
form, has been applied on a large scale, while the others, though
academic examples, are fully representative of principle.
Common to all, it will be seen, are: (a) a wire obstacle round the
whole group, and behind it an infantry trench-position; (b) very
large area, equalling that of town and fortifications together in
some of the old Vauban fortresses, and six to eight times that of
the typical 1873-1903 fort; (c) batteries, closed and under armour,
for the guns of the main armament (or safety armament) irregu-
larly disposed within the wired area.
So far, all are in agreement. But beyond, there are some impor-
tant differences. Thus, the Metz group, and those proposed by
de Mondesir, both possess powerful infantry works with ditches,
whereas the Austrian type lacks this element. Again, de Mondesir
and the Austrian text-books agree in attaching the greatest impor-
tance to the traditore element, remarkably neglected in the Metz
works at least as originally built. Lastly, the Austrian and Ger-
man engineers tend to place the centre of gravity of the artillery,
and even that of the infantry, defence well forward, while the
French author puts them as far back as possible, with only observa-
tories and frontal trenches in the forepart of the area.
The Austrian design (fig. i) as the simplest, is taken first. On the
height 130 is an armoured battery P B, containing four 6-in. howitz-
ers in cupolas, with an observation post in a small cupola in the
centre. 1 Between the cupolas are magazines for the storage of 800
rounds per gun. A passage runs along the backs of the cupolas and
ammunition rooms, and two barrack rooms are provided at the
ends, with other small rooms as offices, etc., in the centre. In the
actual design the thickness of the concrete is, in places, less than 2
metres, which is considerably below present-day standards.
On the forward slopes at S, S, S, are small works, combining in
each 2 cupolas for quick-firing guns (intended for frontal close-
defence, not main-armament work), with an armoured observation
post between them and a shelter for infantry and machine-guns in
waiting, to man the trench-line against assault. These are built
with a roof of about the same thickness as that of the main-arma-
ment battery. On the rear slopes are two powerful traditore batter-
FIG i. Austrian Type
ies, T T with quick-firing guns (4 to 6 in each, in order to have suffi-
cient for a distributed fire over the interval, in case fog or darkness
makes accurate aim impossible). The inner parts of the concrete
masses are organized as barracks (U) and magazines. The traditore
is in two tiers, the upper commanding the country outside and the
lower sweeping the (wired) bottom of the ditch. Armour is used for
the faces of the gun casemates and nearly 3 metres of concrete form
the roof. Those parts of the wired ditch not swept by the traditores
are flanked by counterscarp casemates (F F) containing machine-
guns or pompoms and protected by 2-8 metres of concrete. Tunnels
connect the various elements of the group. In this design, which is
simple and, owing to the absence of refinements that would not
stand bombardment, strong, there are nevertheless some points of
weakness, which may be discussed here, not by way of criticism but
because they afford convenient illustrations of certain practical
points which the engineer cannot ignore.
The whole of the front wire depends for its intimate flanking
upon the counterscarp casemates, F F. In such cases it is necessary
to protect the backs of the casemates and their communicating
galleries from mine attack, by providing the roots of a counter-
mine system at the outset. This was a form of attack which played
a considerable r&le at Port Arthur. It is perhaps the only way of
1 This is a miniature of the gun cupola, with a telescope placed in
the port. The development of the periscope now makes the pro-
vision of protected command ports much easier than it was at the
time of this design.
dealing with counterscarp casemates, but it is an effective one.
At Fort Vaux (Verdun) the Germans made their way through a
counterscarp casemate into the tunnel system of the fort, and the
terrible gallery fighting of Port Arthur repeated itself. But, unlike
the Japanese, the Germans had no difficulty in gaining access to
the galleries in the first instance, as the French had themselves
blown away the backs of the casemates in order to get convenient
access to some external trenches. It is noteworthy that in the final
stages of refortifying Metz on the group principle, the Germans
were careful to provide the foundations of counter-mine systems.
In the Austrian design here considered, nothing prevents the devel-
opment of mine attack on these casemates except the fire of the
central battery P B and the batteries, S, S, S, all of which are exposed
and liable to neutralization or destruction by counter-battery.
The depth of the ditch containing the main wire varies, and no
walls exist to make it an important obstacle in itself. The integrity
of the obstacle therefore depends purely on the fire of the counter-
scarp casemates, and quite apart from the question of mining
attack on these-^later war experience has shown that there is great
risk of the flanking fire being impeded or intercepted by the debris
produced by intensive bombardment. This weakness is common to
all ditches, and the problem of keeping the field of fire open had not
yet been solved in 1921. But it is evident that the longer the ditch,
the more chance there is of a heap of debris collecting at some point
in it. In any case, it would seem that to attempt ditch protection
for the whole perimeter of a group work involves the expenditure
of money that might more profitably be devoted to other elements
of defence. Another defect seems to be the small number of the
infantry shelters, having regard to the time required for the defend-
ing infantry to come out and man the parapet. This is the more
important, as this design altogether lacks the strong self-contained
infantry work which is the kernel of those now to be described. The
evolution of Metz as a ring-fortress is dealt with at 10-696. Allu-
sion is there made to new works in progress outside the existing
perimeter. These were the famous Feste. They were built in suc-
cession from 1899 to the outbreak of the World War, and were con-
tinued and practically completed in 1915. Their characteristics
were only approximately known at that time, but when Metz was
retroceded to France by the -Treaty of Versailles, not only their
present condition, but their history and cost accounts became
available. (See the French official Revue du Genie of Jan.-Feb. 1921.)
The Feste in fig. 2 (from the Revue du Genie) shows an actual
example. It should be understood that the Germans designed the
earlier works of this class with a minimum of defensive precautions,
notably in respect of external interval flanking, but that, in the
later works constructed in the two or three years prior to the World
War, there was a marked tendency to develop the hitherto inade-
quate external flanking, even at the expense of the main armament,
which on this line of evolution would, in due course, have become a
" safety " armament only. The group-work illustrated is rather of
the earlier than of the later kind, as it is lacking in the traditore
element. But it is one of the greatest advantages of the group-work
over the cramped fort that additions and alterations can be made as
required, and in fact many such works at Metz were provided later
with 57-mm. and 77-mm. traditore batteries.
The Feste forms an irregular quadrilateral, measuring, from outer
edge to outer edge of wire, 1,200 yd. from front to rear and the same
from flank to flank, with an area within the outermost wire of about
1 20 acres. At the front and rear angles there are strong and minutely
organized infantry works, which form the basic units of the system :
their role is to flank the wired perimeter and to look after their own
close-defence as well. At the right and left angles, the perimeter
trench takes the form of redoubts, which contain, in their forward
sides, infantry observation posts, and, in their rear sides, both observa-
tion posts and organs for flanking the rearward wire. In the interior
of the Feste, four armoured batteries for main armament are dis-
posed irregularly and each has a war barracks attached, communi-
cating with it by underground passages. The perimeter trench is
provided at intervals with armoured sentry posts. The artillery
observatories are aligned on the front slope, and have tunnel con-
nexions with their batteries. The fifth battery is a dummy a device
freely used in these Metz works, in which there is plenty of room.
The perimeter wire is sunk to a depth of 2 metres, and the ground
in which it is bedded is sloped up to the infantry line, which has the
lowest command compatible with its functions. This perimeter
wire is carried round the main works (01, 02) also (though partly
unflanked), but the strength of these lies in their inner system.
Behind the perimeter wire and the advanced parapet or covered way
lies a deep ditch (20 ft.), wired at the bottom and provided with a
concrete counterscarp. The floor of this ditch is flanked (in the
case of the forward work 01) by a double counterscarp casemate at
the apex and a small caponniere in the gorge.
About the same time as these Metz works were being evolved in
Germany, Lt.-Col. (afterwards General) Piarron de Mondesir, in
France, advocated another type of group-fortification, which, though
generally of the same class as the Feste, shows some characteristic
differences.
De Mondesir's group is in general outline oval, or rather lens-
shaped, with the curved front towards the enemy and the flattened
front towards the defended region. Like the Feste it bestrides the
476
SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE
natural crest. Immediately beside the main wire is a continuous
infantry parapet, which has at frequent intervals concrete shelters
for machine-guns as well as infantry. On the natural crest, a central
structure of concrete and armour contains the commanding officer's
observation post and two machine-guns in cupolas for the direct
O 1
FIG. 2. Plan of a Metz Feste. References. 01, 02, main infantry
works; 03, 04, flank portions of infantry positions organized as
" redoubts"; bi, b2, etc., armoured batteries (bs, dummy); al, a.2,
etc. war barracks, fi, (2 etc. artillery observatories; hi, h2 etc. coun-
terscarp casemates, caponnieres and the like for flanking perimeter
wire or ditch wire; ki, k2, etc., infantry observatories (armoured);
m, m, parapet sentry posts ; cf , C2 etc. concrete shelters for infantry
on duty; i, entrance blockhouse^
sweeping of the foreground, and towards the flanks two somewhat
'similar structures house each a 75-mm. Q.F. gun, its observation
post, and the observation post of one of the mam armament batter-
ies mentioned below. Just behind the crest are two large battle-
batteries," was destined to survive and multiply in the World War.
The rear defence of the inner system is provided by the rear por-
tion of the perimeter trench, with its concrete machine-gun shelters
and its wire.
The most marked characteristic of this design is the fact that
the interior space of the " group" is organized principally for step-
by-step close-defence, whereas it is utilized in a Feste for battery
sites. The middle foreground is under the fire of two quick-firing
guns in cupolas, but the author of the system evidently does not
trust to these organs overmuch, for he arranges that they shall be
fired into and destroyed by the main-armament guns if captured.
The essential element of the first stage of close-defence is the
machine-gun detachments in the front trench, which are housed
under concrete till the moment of action. The second stage, which
begins when the assault has broken into the front trench, is a com-
bination of counter-attack from the great shelters behind the crest
with machine-gun fire from the central crest cupolas; to facilitate
this counter-attack, the back of the front trench is smoothed to
glacis-form. When all this is lost, the inner system with its " infan-
try batteries " sited well down the reverse slope, has still to be car-
ried before the main-armainent or traditore batteries can be reached,
and the machine-gun cupolas of the keep not only cooperate in this
third stage, but (with the blockhouses attended to earlier) make it
difficult for the enemy to make a lodgment even in the fourth and
last stage. In all stages after the first, the curved fire of the trench-
mortar battery plays a part. In this respect, and in the free use of
machine-guns and local counter-attack, de Mondesir's fortifica-
tion anticipated by ten years or more the trench-warfare methods
that developed in the World War.
The above outline account of applications, practical and theoretical,
of the new " group " principle requires the addition of a few details
as to the principal constituent elements of such works, the counter-
scarp casemate or caponniere for low-flanking of a ditch, the main-
armament or safety-armament battery made up of cupolas (as dis-
tinct from the cupolas themselves), and the traditore battery.
The Austrian counterscarp casemate, illustrated in fig. 4, is con-
structionally a simple example. Under the counterscarp wall, on
the further side of the ditch, facing the salient angle of the work, a
chamber is formed with embrasures for rifle, machine-gun or light-
artillery fire along the two adjacent ditch lengths. In this case
armour is used for the embrasures, each gun-room (K K) having
two very light guns or pompoms. B is a living room for the squads
assigned to the defence, A a latrine, St a stairway leading to P,
a concrete tunnel under the ditch which communicates with the
body of the work.
Fig. 5 shows a counterscarp casemate of more advanced type.
It is amongst the most modern examples of such structures, form-
ing part of a 1914 work at Metz. It fires in one direction only. The
inner portion of its mass is in ordinary, the outer in reinforced con-
crete, and the total thickness is 3 metres. Fire is arranged in two
tiers, for rifles, and for machine-guns, and one embrasure (the
safest) is allotted to a searchlight. The details are worthy of close
attention. The top of the wall is formed as an overhang, under
which the fronts pi the fighting chambers are recessed. This gives
enhanced protection from fire, and also from the risk of grenades
4-42.0
.FiG. 3. Section of infantry work 01 of fig. 2, on line a-b.
shelters in concrete for counter-attack infantry. Then, well back,
comes an inner system forming a still flatter " lens." This contains
the main armament batteries, the traditore element, and the infantry
keep. Its front wire traverses the whole interior of the group, leav-
ing the crest elements and counter-attack shelters outside it, and
resting its flanks on the infantry parapet, the junction being sealed
by blockhouses. Within this wire, which is protected frontally by
several " infantry batteries," i.e. loopholed steel screens or pent-
houses for riflemen, lie, towards the flanks, two batteries of main
armament artillery in cupolas and one or two " Bourges casemates "
genuine traditore batteries which can only fire to the flank and
rear and are heavily protected and masked towards the front. Cen-
trally placed between the artillery positions is the infantry keep, in
this case as in the German the basis unit. It is four-sided and has a
deep wired ditch which is flanked not by counterscarp casemates,
but by two low caponnieres springing from the base of the escarp at
the diagonal angles. In the concrete of this keep are the war bar-
racks of the whole garrison, observation cupolas, and at least two
machine-gun cupolas which are in fact the essential defence of the
keep. Embryonic counter-mine systems are provided at the salients
of the keep. Behind the keep is a battery for small short-range
mortars a novelty which, unlike the present writer's " infantry
being thrown in by an assailant overhead. At the foot of the wall is
a pit which lowers the floor of the ditch so far that the assailant in
the ditch cannot reach the embrasure. This pit also serves to take
debris that might otherwise mask the fire of the lower tier. A gal-
lery formed in the mass of the counterscarp connects the casemates
of the different angles.
An example of the modern counterscarp is shown in fig. 6 from
another Metz work. Here it will be noticed that, for defence and
also for ventilation, the gallery possesses a loophole. Over this is a
grille to prevent the placing of scaling-ladders and the upper part
of the counterscarp wall is formed to a peculiar section which gives a
minimum foothold to an assailant scrambling down, and presents
an unfavourable striking angle to all projectiles.
The Mass for it is a mass rather than a wall is 7 metres thick
for 7 metres of height. The communication tunnel between such a
gallery and the body of the work (fig. 7) gives 2 metres of (ordinary
and reinforced) concrete protection besides that afforded by the
earth of the ditch floor.
Some designers, owing to the risk of the backs of counterscarp
chambers and galleries being breached by mining, or the communi-
cating tunnel destroyed from above or below, prefer to keep the
ditch between the enemy and the flanking organ. In this case a
SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE
477
low caponniere is built out into the ditch from the escarp or from
the mass of the work; in the work 01 of fig. 2 the ends of the two-
story concrete barrack are arranged to act as caponnieres.
(0.00)
(+1.00)
FIG. 4
'< (-12.20)'*
An unusual flanking organ designed for Metz is shown in fig. 8.
Here the difficulty of giving sufficiently thick protection for an organ
flanking wire at or near ground level (e.g. the outer wire of a Feste)
is met by providing a
sort of detached cap-
onniere in the form of
a low, fixed, armour-
structure bedded in
concrete, the guard-
room, etc., being
formed in the mass
of the latter. It is
intended for rifle and
pistol fire through
loopholes, and like all
modern German
flanking organs it has
a small searchlight.
A battery for main
armament is substan-
tially an assemblage
of two to four indi-
vidual gunorhowitzer
cupolas in line within
one mass of concrete,
with the space avail-
able between and be-
hind cupolas formed
into expense-maga-
zines, shell-rooms,
duty men's rooms,
offices, etc. Being as
FIG. 5. Counterscarp Casemates.
a rule dispersed over the open ground comprised in the " group "
they require subterranean communications with each other and with
their observation posts. The latter are sometimes included in the
same concrete mass with the gun cupolas, but it is more usual to
withdraw the battery mass behind the crest and to push the obser-
vatory forward. Batteries are often wired in, and sometimes given
means of local protection against surprise attack. They contain
not only a large stock of ammunition, but also, nowadays, labora-
tories and workshops.
FIG. 6. Counterscarp from Metz.
Traditore batteries, by hypothesis, fire only to the flank and
rear. They are thus always placed, so to say, behind a corner; that
is, protection is accumulated in front of the gun casemates, and this
protection is continued laterally for such a distance that a projectile
from any likely direction will either meet the covering mass or pass
clear of the gun muzzles. The original form is that designed in
France and known as the " Bourges casemate " (fig. 9) from de
Mondesir's Fortification Cuirassee.
FIG. 7. Communication Tunnel to Counterscarp.
A larger traditore of Austrian design is shown in fig. 10. This is
formed in the end of a concrete mass of which the remainder con-
tains the war barracks, storehouses, etc. The lower embrasures
flank the floor of the fort ditch, the upper the real traditore bat-
tery sweep the flanks and rear of the external intervals. (T T are
the gun casemates; B St is the post of the officer controlling the
fire; M M the ammunition room; G S a small flanking element to
control the ditch just under the traditore.) Armour is used to reduce
the thickness of concrete, both vertically and horizontally.
The gun usually employed in traditore batteries is a field gun of
about 75-mm., or a gun of the small naval or tank class, 57-mm.,
being the commonest calibre. Pompoms (i-pdr. Maxims) and even
machine-guns are also found, but as a rule it is the field artillery
type of effect that is required and provided for. Cupolas are some-
times, but rarely, employed, as their characteristic virtue of all-
round fire is not wanted.
Administrative Arrangements. Any work that has to act in
isolation, or semi-isolation, is provided with all the necessary
"services." Store-rooms, hospitals, barrack-rooms, etc., with all
478
SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE
furniture and equipment, must be formed in the interior of the
available concrete masses; water must be laid on, lighting and
heating provided for. Though hitherto it has not been thought
desirable to provide power for working cupolas, etc., it has al-
ready become necessary to include a power-room (dynamos and
Diesel engines) in the equipment of the Feste.
Plan
FIG. 8. Flanking Organ (Metz).
Amongst these auxiliary arrangements, there is one, however,
which during the World War proved to be of predominant im-
portance ventilation. The fall of the forts of Liege and Antwerp
was largely due to the ventilation arrangements proving inade-
quate. Poisonous fumes from the burst shell penetrated the
concrete fissured by its explosion, and filled the underground
galleries of the fort, asphyxiating or disabling a large proportion
of the already overstrained garrison. In the latter part of the
war, the development of gas warfare added a further complica-
tion, as it became unsafe to draw in air from outside. The solu-
tion adopted by the French for the Verdun forts (which, it should
be noted, no longer contained either main-armament or Iraditore
artillery, but had become pure close-defence infantry works) was
to deliver filtered air from a considerable distance, under slight
pressure, to certain rooms in the fort, which were scaled against
local air by air-tight doors or otherwise. All men working else-
where than in these rooms wore gas-masks. Although the group
principle of fortification, by dispersing the elements of defence,
ipso facto dispenses with the subterranean labyrinths of the
Belgian forts, and so reduces the effects of explosion fumes, the
fact remains that the men in the armoured batteries and the
traditore and flanking organs, must be protected from gas entering
either by embrasures, cupolas, seatings or fissures, while pure air
must be supplied and foul air evacuated somehow. It may be,
indeed, that the question of aeration, hitherto subsidiary, will
become one directly affecting the fighting design.
Materials. Earth was always the common property of per-
manent and of field fortification. Before 1914 concrete and ar-
mour were reserved for permanent work, but during the World
War both came into use for heavy field works as well. Further,
as both in permanent and field work care is taken nowadays to
disturb the natural earth as little as possible, and tunnelling freely
employed, relief being kept down to a minimum, there remain
only, as specially characteristic of permanent work, (a) the
heavily armoured, deeply-sunk, mechanically highly finished
gun-mounting, and (b) the great concrete mass. It is not un-
reasonable to consider the necessity, or otherwise, of these ele-
ments in a fortification scheme as a criterion of the necessity of
" permanent fortification," using the words here in the technical
sense for fortification of a kind that can only be carried out at
leisure in peace conditions.
FIG. 9. Tradilore Battery the Bourges Casemate.
The justification of the elaborate gun-mounting under armour
(the cupola, according to present practice) lies in its power to
resist, for an indefinite time, counter-battery by the most power-
ful guns available. That power was tested, during the World War,
above all in the case of the Belgian fortresses and at Verdun.
The gross results of these two trials were diametrically opposite
the Belgian cupolas failed, usually through the failure of their
surroundings but sometimes by their own defect, while the Verdun
cupolas held out magnificently. Influenced by the general dis-
trust of permanent work which the Belgian failures had pro-
duced, the French had ceased to rely upon their forts for the
flanking of the intervals, and the traditores had been actually
disarmed before the attack of Feb. 21 1916. As this was the prin-
cipal r61e allotted to the forts, the action of the few distant-
defence guns in cupolas (safety-armament) could, ex hypothesi,
be only a small part of the total artillery defence. But their
powers of passive resistance were presumably tested as thoroughly
as if they had been the protagonists of the main-armament, and
practically none, save some minor cupolas for observation and
machine-guns, were disabled at the close of the great siege. Yet
they had endured an unexampled bombardment. Fort Vacherau-
ville, for instance, was hit by no less than 2,250 shells, of 28-cm.
and above two such shell for every three square metres of sur-
SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE
479
face. Monlamville received 330 hits by 42-cm. shell. The more
exposed forts, such as Douaumont and Souville, deluged with
medium and field as well as heavy shell, received over 30,000
hits apiece. Thus, cupolas of the thickness and quality of those
of Verdun are capable of all necessary resistance.
FIG. 10. Austrian Traditore.
Even more marked is the discrepancy between the behaviour
of concrete at Liege and Antwerp and its behaviour at Verdun;
as in the case of armoured gun mountings, the Belgian sieges
brought concrete into discredit. Here, however, it is a question
of quality of material and of conscientious painstaking work.
The best concrete has a resistance such that a test bar will break
across the stones rather than the cement; the worst is feebler
than virgin earth, especially rooty earth. The Verdun concrete
had not only been well made, but had also been given an adequate
afety margin of thickness; and it was found that, in spite of the
volcanic bombardment, 3 metres of special concrete or 2 metres of
einforced concrete, or 25 metres of special concrete (or 1-75
tietres reinforced) disposed as an apron overlying an old mason-
vault, with a sand cushion interposed, would steadily resist
alibres up to 42-cm. inclusive. Although the effects of these
aonster mine-shell were felt in the ground to a depth of 14
netres (nearly 47 feet), the fissuring which had ruined the Bel-
gian forts does not seem to have occurred at Verdun.
In the Metz Feste the characteristic disposition is a mass of
ordinary concrete with a thick outer casing of ferro-concrete.
An arrangement which is favoured by some engineers is to dis-
pose reinforced concrete in layers separated by air-spaces; this
had not in 1921 been subjected to the test of siege. The lesson of
Verdun, however, is held to be not so much that it proved 3 me-
tres to be a sufficient thickness, but that it demonstrated the
importance of mass as a material element of resistance and depth
as a moral element. The smaller concrete masses suffered under
bombardment much more severely in proportion than the larger,
and it is considered therefore that organs small in themselves
such as caponnieres should form part of a larger body of concrete,
as in fig. 2, or, or in fig. ro. As regards depth, it was found that
in tunnelled habitations well below the level of the forts the
foundations of which at Verdun are in rock moral remained
unimpaired by the heaviest bombardment. At Antwerp, from
the nature of its site, no such burrowing was practicable, and
the moral of the defenders was subjected to a fresh strain at the
explosion of every monster shell.
In sum, armour and concrete in masses calculated according
to the lower standards of a previous epoch, but given a safety
margin in application, proved capable of meeting the heaviest
strain of bombardment which history records. The problem of
the engineer to-day is to determine what safety margin is re-
quired for new work or reconstruction calculated according to
the standards of Verdun.
A fixed resistance, in situ, of several months, then, is practicable
with the materials and means of permanent fortification. That
it is not so with those of field fortification is shown by the various
trench-warfare offensives of 1916-7. At Verdun the German
attack progressed rapidly till it confronted a close-defence system
which had permanent works as its backbone. At the Somme,
though the Allies' progress was slow, it was sure, and the defense
finally evolved a system of " elastic " or " coilspring " resistance,
which by its very nature implied the giving-up of ground until
an organized counter-attack could be mounted for its recapture.
The success of this type of defence, so long as the moral of the
defending troops, and their skill in group, platoon and company
tactics, remain high, is a matter of history. But it is equally a
matter of history that there are positions which, strategically or
morally, must be defended to the end without yielding ground,
on which the defender must say, with Petain at Verdun, " On
ne passera pas." And it is for these cases, so far as they can be
foreseen in peace, that permanent fortification exists.
The very words of Petain's defiance, however, carry the im-
plication of a linear system. Fournier at Maubeuge, Kusmanek
of Przemysl governors of ring-fortresses could not say that
the enemy " shall not pass," for the enemy could go round. It
was not Verdun the ring-fortress, but Verdun the end-redoubt of
the fortified line Verdun-Toul, that compelled the Germans to
traverse Belgium in August T9i4. In igi6 Falkenhayn hesitated
between Belfort and Verdun as the objectives for his attack.
Both had been ring-fortresses, but both were now key-points in
a long line of battle, and derived their whole strategic importance
from-that fact. At Liege, we find the ring-fortrees splitting itself
into two halves which acted to the best of their ability as suc-
cessive barrier positions. At Antwerp the attacks on the defence
were purely frontal; and indeed, save Przemysl, not one ring-
fortress attacked in the World War was vigorously invested and
attacked by convergent radial efforts. But it is perhaps Metz
which affords the clearest illustration of the modern tendency to
convert the stronghold into the barrier. From 1899 onward the
old ring becomes of less and less importance, and the Feste were
not only disposed on a wider perimeter, but collectively took the
form of a sort pf a parabola instead of that of a circle or ellipse.
Facing westward, the system began with a group of Feste, form-
ing an end-redoubt; and at the same time the pivot of the field
armies that were to swing through Belgium, at Diedenhofen
(Thionville), then ran southward along the Moselle to the
neighbourhood of Metz, where it curved westward, passed round
the S. of the old ring, and E. of the Moselle, took a new direction
north-eastward, till finally it was completed by the " Nied posi-
tion " (created on mobilization) which connected it to the stable
line of battle that would be formed by the middle Saar. The
southern bend of the system is about r4 m., the westward-facing
limb 36 m. and the south-eastward-facing limb about 38 m. in
frontage, the whole differing in scale rather than in principle from
the familiar " Western Front " of the trench-warfare years which
constituted between the Oise and the Moselle a great salient
with the apex at Verdun. Outside this blunted redan. Dieden-
hofen-Metz-^Rehlingen, the Germans were prepared to yield
ground, but on it the defence was meant to be absolutely stable.
The growth of the linear tendency is discernible even in the crea-
tion of the successive parts of the system. Beginning with the
endeavours to increase the perimeter of Metz itself, the Germans
presently bore away at a tangent on each side of the southern
sector. The individual Feste became longer in proportion to
depth, and finally, in the case of the Amanvillers-Horimont works,
of 1912, attained a frontage of nearly 2 m. and consisted sub-
stantially of a great ditch with its flanking-organs.
Correspondingly, a change follows in ideas as to interval organ-
ization. It is evident that, in a ring-fortress of the 1873-1903
type, the individual " forts " occupy only a small proportion
480
SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE
of the perimeter as compared with group-works. The latter,
therefore, allow of an extended perimeter for the same admissible
intervals. Presently, as we have seen in the case of Metz, the
perimeter attains an enormous length, and the ring opens out
on the home side, becoming a gigantic redan or salient which
comprises a whole region. The standard interval between work
and work continues to be honoured at and near the exposed apex,
but the gap increases towards the rear till near the root of the
salient permanent work may give place to field work and simple
utilization of natural obstacles, as in the " Nied position."
In the early igth century, the ring-fortress was practically an
enlarged enceinte-fortress with the curtains omitted. Later,
though perimeters increased (in order to prevent bombardment
of the " nucleus "), the forts still contain the whole of the main
armament and retain responsibility for the defence of the interval
against methodical attack. The interval is organized according
to the needs of minor tactics, so as to prevent the enemy pene-
trating to the nucleus by any method but regular, large-scale
attack. At the next stage (which is the most important in the
evolution of ideas) the main artillery (except the safety-arma-
ment) is taken out of the forts and deployed in the intervals, the
forts becoming " strong points " on a line of battle which has to
protect this artillery. It is this stage which is represented in
fig. ii, taken indirectly from a semi-official Russian work of
1913, by Colonels Golyenkin and Yakovliev (which, incidentally,
marks the acceptance in Russia, after long opposition, of the
principle of armour protection).
FIG. II. Russian Fort, close-defence.
The " fort " is a large and elaborate close-defence work de-
signed specially for the sweeping of the intervals by traditore
batteries, immunity of these being secured by a full equipment
of flanked ditches, quick-firing guns under armour and fighting
shelters. The arc of fire of the Iraditores is sometimes carried
unusually far forward, as it is laid down in principle that special
flanking guns, in or out of the fort, must cover the ground from
1,200 yards in front to 700 yards behind the next fort. No part
of the main-armament is included in the fort.
From fort to fort, the interval, it is laid down, should not ex-
ceed about 4,500 yards. Otherwise, the responsibility placed on
the Iraditores is too heavy (the average interval of Verdun, it
may be remarked, is only about half this), and closed infantry
work (Zw. in the plan) may sometimes be required to command
some part of the interval that is not well covered by the forts.
Frontally, the interval is held by a number of separate trench-
positions formed with glacis foregrounds (V. Gl.) and provided
with concrete fighting shelters (U.) and sometimes barracks
(J.). Some of these positions have their own light quick-firing
guns (Gst.) for flank protection. Four to five hundred yards in
rear of this guarded obstacle are armoured batteries (H.P.B.,
K.P.B.), wired in, which contain the " safety " part of the main-
armament with its ammunition. For the rest of the main-arma-
ment, battery positions (D.W.) with (M.R.) shelters for detach-
ments on duty (A.U.) and protected barracks for those in wait-
ing (A.K.) are prepared 600-800 yd. behind the front line and
connected up as required by trenches. For other batteries, told
off as a mobile reserve, positions are marked out (O.B.). The
main magazines of the sector are shown at M.M. and barracks
for the third relief of artillery at A.K. in rear.
Apart from the batteries of the safety-armament and occasional
foreground-flanking guns not comprised in the forts, peace-time
work on the intervals is limited in this example to the construc-
tion of fighting shelters, barracks, magazines and the walls of
battery positions. But, as soon as permanent work of any sort
appears in the intervals, these begin to lose their blankness, and
it is a short step to the modern conception of position-warfare
the attack and defence of a long, shallow zone which contains in
its forepart the close-defence and in its rear portion the distant-
defence elements. In this zone, permanent work will, we may
predict, be called upon to perform the services which field and
heavy field work cannot perform. It will provide, generally,
those of the essentials which cannot be improvised (such as the
concreted or armoured infantry, machine-gun and flanking-gun
positions, required in the more exposed sites) , and in key sections,
those which will make the local defence as nearly as possible
inexpugnable. And since, as explained earlier, these key sections
can be in many or most cases predetermined, whereas the exact
position of the rest may vary according to the opponent's plan of
campaign, the greater part, if not the whole, of the material
protection obtainable with a given expense will tend to be con-
centrated in them. Thus they may continue to be labelled with
the names of towns or other localities as of old. But, essentially,
they will be planned in relation to things outside and not to
things inside, themselves. They will secure, or deny to the enemy,
the use of certain ground or certain communications, definitely
and completely. Locally, in order that the close-defence com-
ponent may fully secure the operation of the distant-defence
component, the permanently fortified key section may form a
ring, or possess turned-back flanks of considerable length. But
in the ensemble, and in many cases even locally, the tendency will
be to reduce the depth and increase the frontage of permanent
fortifications, so that the works of standard strength which can
be built with the available funds may offer the widest direct and
positive barrier to an enemy.
New Weapons in Siegecraft. The evolution, during the World
War, of weapons essentially unlike those for which the perma-
nent fortification above-outlined was designed to use and to meet,
raises the question what modifications, if any, do these new
weapons impose?
If the conclusion reached above be correct that permanent
fortification has now become, from general causes, the backbone
of position-warfare, instead of being a thing apart it follows
that the new weapons will affect it in any case through their
influence on position-warfare generally. Were it the case, for
instance, that aerial warfare totally superseded land warfare, the
ring-fortress might return in a new form as the means of pro-
tection of flying bases. But such speculations would serve no
useful purpose here, and it is preferable to confine ourselves to
the modifications of detail to be expected in permanent fortifica-
tion as such.
Chemical Warfare is a term covering several very different
weapons. Smoke which " blankets " the defence organization, gas
which disables the defenders, vapour-producers which infect
areas, are all tactically dissimilar. The strength of chemical war-
fare as against fixed defences lies in their fixity, its weakness in the
fact that anti-gas protection is not limited, as it is in field warfare,
to apparatus and devices that can stand rough usage and be car-
ried without inconvenience by the already burdened soldier. One
form of anti-gas defence has been mentioned above the supply of
pure air under slight pressure to rooms sealed from contact with
local air. Improvements on this line of progress would include
more and more of the interior chambers of a work in the protected
space, while other devices made the gun embrasures as gas-tight as
possible. The most important defence against gas is the imperme-
ability of the structure of the work itself, which practically means
its solidity under bombardment. The direct influence of aircraft
on permanent fortification is not easy to estimate. There is no
limit to the power and flexibility of anti-aircraft guns sited in fixed
defences. All fighting elements in the works are fully protected
against the attack of super-heavy artillery, and a fortiori against
that of air-bombs. The attack of traditore or caponniere embrasures
by machine-gun fire from low-flying planes, if practicable, could be
SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE
481
easily countered. Direct attack from the air, therefore, is not likely
to affect design seriously. But observation from the air is another
matter. Local superiority in the air may pass, in the course of the
operations, back and forth several times, and design has to provide
against the unfavourable case. It may be assumed with certainty
that, in prolonged operations (such as by hypothesis the reduction
of a permanently fortified front would entail) every battery posi-
tion of the defence would be photographed, whether inside a group
or fort or placed in the " interval." The defence is thereby com-
pelled either to change position very frequently, or to build in.
In the latter case, either the guns must have full fighting protec-
tion, or must be so buried and camouflaged as to be practically
invisible to eye and to camera at a height of, say 15,000 ft., even
when in action, while at the same time provision must be made for
confusing the enemy's sound-ranging records. Here, then, the
engineer is in the hands of the artillery researcher. Should the lat-
ter not succeed in producing gun-mountings, ammunition, and
sound-camouflage (so to call it), which can defy the air-observer
and the sound-ranging instrument, the engineer will be compelled
to put his main armament again under concrete and armour, and
perhaps to concentrate it somewhat. The alternative of frequent
changes of position has many disadvantages, chief of which perhaps
is the probability of having to traverse areas systematically infected
by mustard gas.
Armoured Vehicles in the World War were of two classes, the
slow-moving cross-country tank and the armoured car. It seems
probable that these will fuse into one class, the fast tank. The tank
was originally designed for traversing and crushing wire entangle-
ments, and it is in this capacity that permanent fortification is
chiefly concerned with it, for the defenders of solid permanent
works are practically immune from its actual attack. The question
for the engineer is will the present types of obstacle-flanking organ
succeed in dealing with the tank, and if not, how must they be modi-
fied? One type of obstacle, the deep ditch with vertical counter-
scarp, is impossible for the unprepared tank, but such ditches are
liable to be bridged at ground level by suitable girders carried by a
"bridging" tank; and the best safeguard of permanent works
against invasion by tanks is the fact that the latter must traverse
a belt of ground which is swept at close range by an organ special-
ized for that duty alone, and invulnerable to the tank's guns. Al-
though the dimensions of tanks will doubtless be taken into account
in planning ditches, the first care of the designer will be to provide
flanking pieces sufficiently powerful to destroy the tank as it crosses
the line of fire, and to provide flanking fire in such a form that a
disabled tank will not mask it. More generally, permanent works
which form a section of a long battle zone will be organized to par-
ticipate in the anti-tank defence of the system, and for this duty the
tmditore batteries are naturally the most appropriate organ.
The armoured car, or fast light tank, owing to its ability to make
an inroad from a great distance at the shortest notice, may prove
very dangerous to a fortified area which is in the crisis of mobiliza-
tion and war armament. Special measures to deal with this risk
could never be omitted; so far as fortification is concerned it would
seem necessary to maintain at all times a clear field of fire for, and
a state of readiness in, the traditore batteries, as well as in such gun
positions of the safety armament as command obligatory or prob-
able points of passage in the foreground.
Field and Heavy Field Fortification. The methods of field forti-
fication in vogue at the outbreak of the World War (see 10.719)
were concerned essentially with light fortification, that is, incidental
fortification on the battlefield. Starting from the conception of an
advance brought to a standstill or a retreating army turning to
fight, the engineer gave the infantry man types of works which
were defensible after an hour's labour and which could be improved
gradually during a more prolonged stay in the position. Lateral
and overhead cover were provided, but only against rifle, machine-
gun and the lightest artillery fire. Great stress was laid upon con-
cealment, obtained by moulding the work as closely as possible to
the ground, turfing exposed soil, keeping relief as low as conditions
of effect allowed, and also upon communications; a system of short
trench lengths was preferred to long continuous lines, which entailed
unnecessary labour and assisted the enemy to locate the defences.
A good field of fire up to 400 yd. from the rifles was considered essen-
tial. Pivotal positions, whether localities, woods or hills, were organ-
ized for all-round defence. These principles, so long as the general
course of the operations retained the foreseen open-warfare char-
acter, substantially justified themselves; perhaps, indeed, they justi-
fied themselves only too well, since it was the great strength of
even lightly fortified fronts which compelled each side, in France,
to extend ever further and further to a flank in the hope of turning
the opponent's frontal defence, and so in the end produced a trench-
line that was continuous from the Swiss frontier to the English Chan-
nel. The deadlock which ensued marked the beginning of a position-
warfare which was locally indistinguishable from siege warfare as
that term was understood in 1914. Nor was it only from the point
of view of local, minor tactics that the analogy of siege operations
held good. The succeeding campaigns were indeed a siege of the
east front of Germany, whose western offensives of 1916-8 have
sometimes been described by the Germans themselves as sorties
from the Festung Frankreich. For the Allies, as against these
xxxn. 16
offensives, the nature of the defence, especially after the middle of
1916, resembled that of an investing cordon attacked by a desperate
sortie, and fighting to gain time for the arrival of forces from other
parts to drive in the prisoners and bolt the door again, though it
is true that the siege was mutual and the " sortie " was at the same
time a penetrating assault.
Regarded from this point of view, the principal factors which,
directly or indirectly, governed revolution were: (a) a theatre of
war richly provided with communications; (6) highly developed
industrial resources at the back of both sides; (c) enormous num-
bers of men and therefore labour power; (d) an initial situation of
tactical deadlock in positions not deliberately selected but repre-
senting only the line on which offensive effort in open warfare
had expired; (e) the haunting idea of a break-through, followed by
exploitation in open-warfare in the old style.
Taking the technical effects of (d) and (e) together, it was inevit-
able that positions naturally unsound should be maintained by an
equilibrium of forces acting in opposite directions. The attacker of
the moment was necessarily attracted by these weak sectors, while
the side which intended to attack in the future had a strong motive
for holding as forward a position as possible. Fortification was
called upon to make these intrinsically unsound positions safe, and
all its resources in design and labour were taxed to the utmost to
meet the call.
Taking (a), (&) and (c) together, we find these factors enabling
each side to produce, to bring up and to apply in situ, technical
stores on a scale hitherto undreamed of in siege warfare.
Taking the factors singly (a), by enabling artillery to be collected
in enormous strength for an attack, compelled field fortification to
develop unimagined powers of passive resistance, and by facilitating
the concentration of great attack masses, induced commanders to
strip non-offensive sectors of every human defender who could be
spared, thereby forcing fortification to adopt forms which required
a minimum garrison. By (b) there were brought into current field
use not only materials hitherto reserved for permanent work, e.g.
concrete, but also novel scientific devices and weapons of war, such
as the air camera, gas, tanks, and, above all, improved methods of
production, which increased the quantities of guns, ammunition
and machine-guns available per unit of living force. By (c) trenches
and obstacle-lines were multiplied to such an extent that there were
eventually 20 to 25 miles of trench-work for every linear mile of
frontage. Through (d), in the first year of trench-warfare, numerous
bitter fights were engaged in on all parts of the battle-front for
minor rectifications of position; in these fights there were devel-
oped new forms of detail tactics, with corresponding demands upon
rear resources for a varied armament for the front-line combatant,
whose equipment finally comprised, besides rifle and bayonet,
grenades (hand and rifle), the light and medium trench mortars,
flame throwers, periscopic sniper-rifles, knives, clubs, helmets and
body-armour, not to mention gas masks. It led, further, to the
retention of waterlogged trenches, and so to the introduction of
pumping apparatus, trench-flooring, and other bulky non-com-
batant stores, into the front line. Through (c) it was demanded of
fortification that it should protect both the masses of men assembled
for attack and exposed to enemy " counter-preparation," and also
the minimized garrisons of other parts of the front. These factors,
operating, singly or together, with different relative intensity at
different times, caused position-warfare to evolve, between 1914
and 1918, through three distinct phases, which may be distinguished
by the titles field-fortification, position-fortification, and zone-
fortification. The first of these characterized the western front from
the end of the battle of the Marne to about the end of 1915, and the
eastern front from the beginning of stabilization (which occurred
at different periods on different parts of the front) to July 1915,
and then again from Oct. 15 1915 to the end of the war on that
front. On the eastern, Salonika, and extra-European fronts, evolu-
tion did not pass beyond this stage, because in these theatres the
more important of the factors above enumerated were more or less
inoperative. The second stage, position-fortification, is that of the
Battles of Verdun, the Somme and the Aisne and the Artois battles
of 1917; also of Asiago and the last six of the Isonzp battles on the
Italian front. The third stage, zone-fortification, is characteristic
of the Flanders battles of the latter half of 1917 and of all the 1918
battles. These indications of date do not of course imply that the
changes specified came into force, formally and simultaneously, at
any specific time. They are landmarks in the evolutionary process,
which in this, as in other things, does not tolerate leaps.
In the first period fortification devotes itself, substantially, to
the improvement and multiplication of the trenches bequeathed by
the expiring offensives of 1914. The trenches are deepened, kept
narrow, provided with more numerous traverses and shelters,
though the protection afforded by the last-named only with diffi-
culty manages to keep up with the increasing volume of fire from
the enemy's medium howitzers. The close ranges at which the 1914
offensives died out have left the opposed front lines separated by a
very narrow " no man's land," which is heavily wired by both
parties. Concealment, as understood before the war, has thus lost
its significance, more especially as all trench systems are regularly
photographed from the air. Detail fighting produces the need of
circulation and supervision trenches and other parallels behind
482
SIENKIEWICZ SIERRA LEONE
" the trenchy," and calls for more numerous communication-
trenches, to which there is no further objection on the score either
of concealment or economy of labour. In plan, the general result
is an irregular skein of trenches, from 50 to 150 yards across, fol-
lowing the contour of the front line, which itself undulates consid-
erably and at certain points forms sharp cusps or salients of local
importance. The closing-in of key positions for all-round defence,
which figures in pre-war fortification, has become more thorough,
and internal subdivision has converted these wired-in areas into the
"Labyrinth" of Neuville-St. Vaast, the " Hohenzollern Redoubt "
of Hulluch and the " Trapeze^ " of the Champagne battlefield. At
the same time the interpretation of what constitutes a " key " posi-
tion is different ; it is chosen in relation to the trench system rather
than in relation to the ground. Mining plays no small part in the
fight for the possession of particular hillocks, or trench lengths, with
a view to improved observation or better defence. But from the
standpoint of evolution, the most important difference between 1915
and 1914 work is the deliberate withdrawal of the infantry firing-
line behind the military crest of the position. This was far from
being universal in practice, but it had become the recognized ideal.
As in permanent fortification, so also in field, the preservation of
the close-defence element from bombardment was the motive of
abandoning the command of the foreground. Stress begins to be
laid, especially, on the local flanking of wire by machine-guns in
covered emplacements. But again as in permanent fortifica-
tion the needs of the artillery observer frequently conflict with
those of the close-defence ; and each local problem, solved according
to the value attached to these conflicting requirements at one time,
has to be re-solved by fighting when the conditions change.
In this phase there are no marked innovations in the materials
employed. The works are cut deeply in the earth and revetted by
the conventional sandbags, hurdling, etc. of the text-books; details
typical of trench-warfare fighting, such as trench blocks, sap-heads,
island traverses, have been added. The " shelter " has become the
" dugout," roofed in by layers of logs, house material, or in excep-
tional cases railway iron, and as a rule, though not always, with-
drawn from the front line into one of the parallels behind. Guns
are casemated, and dugouts provided for their ammunition and per-
sonnel as well as for a variety of command posts, aid posts, signal
offices and the like.
la the second phase, which grew by degrees out of the first, the
technique of fortification is modified owing to new conceptions of
general tactics and to the bringing in of different materials. This is
the phase that will remain forever typical of the western front
campaigns. Its chief tactical characteristic is intense preparation
and concentration of means of all sorts on the attack front, with a
corresponding absence of the surprise element. The first conse-
quences for fortification were: (a) the deepening of forward dug-
outs, and their construction by mining methods which leave the
natural earth undisturbed; (6) the quasi-certainty of losing the
first trench system, at least temporarily, with the certainty of its
being reduced to a tormented ruin in any case ; (c) reliance for close-
defence upon the concealed machine-gun almost to the exclusion of
other weapons; (d) multiplication of systems instead of multipli-
cation of trenches in a system ; (e) more elaborate provision for the
maintenance of supply for forward troops, represented in practice
by the accumulation of stores in forward dumps of all sorts. It
was in positions organized on these lines that the Germans fought
out the battle of the Somme. But their Higher Command did not
at first accept the implications of (6), and paid a heavy penalty for
attempting the impossible task of holding the devastated front
line in strength. Especially heavy was their loss in prisoners, due
to the " deep " dugout, which was so deep that the men could not
get out of it in time to man the trenches. Yet without adequate
protection it was impossible to hold the front line, or any other
line, under bombardment, even after converting it into a line of
machine-gun posts; and the first modification due to the Somme
experience was the introduction of the only alternative to the deep
dugout, viz. concrete. This was a step of great importance, both
tactically and technically. Concrete had already been used, here
and there, to reinforce parts of an earth-system, and was constantjy
employed in various back-area installations. But it was not till
the latter part of 1916 that it became the principal material of
" field " fortification. Instructions for mixing quick-setting con-
crete, and even for making ferro-concrete, on the spot begin to
figure in training manuals, and in the chief belligerent countries a
new industry springs up for the manufacture of standard concrete
elements, which are transported to the scene of operations and built
up as required. The timber, mine-gallery framing hitherto used in
dugouts gives place largely to standard semi-cylinders of corru-
gated iron, also made at home and transported to the front in great
numbers. Thus the ideal dugout for troops becomes a concrete
structure lined with corrugated iron, proof against all field and me-
dium calibres without being buried to any great depth; and the
machine-gun emplacement and its dugout are fused in one concrete
or ferro-concrete structure of the casemate type, famous in 1917
under the name of " pillbox " or " Mebu " (in full Maschinengewehr-
Eisenbeton Unterstand). With this, the trench itself becomes of
secondary importance. Though tradition and its undoubted use-
fulness in all circumstances except those of great-battle days made
the command in all countries exceedingly unwilling to give up the
trench altogether, it is the chain of dugouts and machine-gun case-
mates, which, with the wire, defines the " position " of position-
warfare at its highest development in the spring of 1917.
In the broadest sense, a " position " consists of several distinct,
and more or less parallel, systems, each of which is at such a dis-
tance from the one in front that the enemy's artillery must change
position with all the attendant difficulties and delays of repairing
communications through the battle-devastated area and mount a
new attack. At intervals, a switch-line, designed on the same gen-
eral principles as the parallel lines, is drawn so as to bolt off the area
which may be lost in one battle phase. Between the first and
second systems lies a zone in which a very active infantry resistance
is carried on by means of " strong points," which are no longer
labyrinths of the 1915 type but well protected and wired-in machine-
gun strongholds, resembling in principle the traditore batteries of
permanent fortification. With these as a basis, light trench-work
will be run out in the directions required by the battle-situation
from time to time, e.g. so as to fence off a lost sector; and for this
purpose conveniently situated shell-holes are made defensible so
as to constitute the framework of such lines. Tunnelling is largely
used for short communications, especially where forward slopes
have to be held so as to include artillery observation positions. The
trench system bequeathed by the older methods is now broad
(12 ft.) as well as deep, and is utilized as a covered- way, defensible
in emergencies, rather than as a battle element. From 3-ft. to 5-ft.
thickness of concrete (or ferro-concrete) over corrugated iron covers
the casemated guns and machine-guns. With dugouts of similar
design (the old deep dugouts are now sealed up or filled up by order
of the command) these constitute the new defence system, whether
disposed in lines or belts along the frontal systems or switch-lines,
or scattered in the intermediate areas. Wire is now disposed in
very wide belts, and does not conform to the direction of the trenches
but lies in irregular salients and reentrants, each part under the eye
of some machine-gun or trench-gun casemate. In short, the site of
the " position " is governed by the needs of artillery observation,
and by those of supply, while the organization of the site is based
on the time, labour and material available for the construction of
casemates and dugouts of concrete.
But " trench ' warfare has thereby divorced itself from the ele-
ment which has been its characteristic for ages, the trench, and
from June 1917 to the close of the World War is the period of zone-
fortification. The elements of defence are now dispersed in innum-
erable " nests," containing machine-guns, anti-tank guns, or counter-
attack groups. The " position " attains hitherto unheard-of depth,
and its forepart is held only by outposts, whose function is to police
the ground in quiet times and give warning of assault in battle.
Behind the " outpost zone " lies the " battle zone," in which ma-
chine-gun and anti-tank-gun defence break up the attack, which a
counter-stroke then sweeps back to its starting points. As a pre-
caution, a " rear zone " is organized behind the battle-zone. But
field-fortification has at this stage been completely merged in field
tactics, which it assists, no longer by ingenious tracing of lines of
defence, clearances of foreground, economical disposition of work-
ing parties and materials, but simply by placing, at points indi-
cated by the tactician, standard casemates and personal shelters, bor-
rowed from the practice and made with the materials of permanent
fortification.
Thus, while permanent fortification is concentrating its stock of
ideas and devices upon the task of holding a long front of diminished
depth, without any yielding of ground whatever, against the heaviest
bombardments, field tactics have become fluid and mobile, ground
being lost and won almost as readily as in the days of " manoeuvre "
warfare, though by different methods. It is at the points of junction
between permanent fronts and field fronts, w here particular features
of ground are neither quite indispensable nor yet of negligible im-
portance, that a field-fortification of the future will presumably find
its proper scope. Like the zone-fortification of 19178, but to a
further extent, it will have at its disposal many of the forms and
methods of permanent fortification. (The illustrations to this article
are reproduced by permission of MM. The Librairie Berger-Levrault,
of Paris, from La Revue du Genie Militaire.) (C. F. A.)
SIENKIEWICZ, HENRYK (1846-1916), Polish novelist (see
25.54), died at Vevey, Switzerland, Nov. 14 1916.
SIERRA LEONE (see 25.54). There was a modification of the
S.E. frontier in 1911, when Sierre Leone acquired the Kanre-
Lahun district from Liberia in exchange for a district on the
Morro river. The new boundary was delimited in 1913-4, Col.
Cowie being the chief British commissioner. The total area of
the colony and protectorate is estimated at 31,000 sq. miles.
The census of 1911, partly based on estimates, gave a popula-
tion of 1,402,878, Freetown, capital and chief port, having 34,090
inhabitants. The European population numbered about 1,000,
that of the colony (as distinct from the protectorate) being 702,
including 62 women; the Sierra Leonians some 70,000. There
were also some hundred Syrians, almost all traders.
SIFTON SIGHTS
483
The commerce of Sierra Leone is bound up with the products of
the oil palm, which constitute some 75 % of the exports. Next in
importance is the kola nut, in universal demand among the natives
of West Africa; scarcely any of the nuts reach Europe. Minor
exports are ginger, piassava fibre, gum copal, rice and hides. Rub-
ber and ivory have virtually ceased to be exported; cotton-growing
experiments were abandoned. Native cocoa plantations have been
made since 1910 in the Northern Shebro district, but up to I92ococoa
did not figure in the exports. From 1909 to 1913 (inclusive) there
was a steady expansion of trade, the total value rising from 1,960,-
ooo to 3,481,000, imports and exports being almost equally balanced.
Revenue showed a corresponding expansion, from 361,000 in 1909
to 618,000 in 1913. Expenditure in the years named was 336,000
and 622,010 respectively. During this period, in 1912, an extension
of the railway going north from Boia junction on the Freetown-
Liberian border was begun. In 1916 this northern line reached
Kamabai, 118 m. from Boia and 182 from Freetown. A loan of
1,000,000 raised in 1913-4 was expended as to 308,000 on railway
extension and as to i 10,000 on improvements to Freetown harbour.
As to shipping, British tonnage io 1913 was 2,050,000 out of a total
of 2,931,000 tons, and during and after the World War the propor-
tion of British tonnage increased.
At the beginning of 1914 a fall in the prices paid in Europe for
palm kernels, rubber and other products of the country led to a
decline of trade, and the outbreak of war in August aggravated con-
ditions, as the German market was closed. Some 87% of the palm
kernels had been exported to Hamburg, and the British kernel-crush-
ing machines could not cope with the great quantity of kernels
diverted to the Liverpool market. The erection of new oil mills in
England the oil enters largely into the composition of margarine
met this difficulty, but in 1915 a decrease in the market value of the
kernels led to a smaller return from a larger output than in 1914. By
1917 however the quantity of kernels shipped exceeded that ever
previously exported and also realized a higher price. Of 58,000 tons
exported France took 1,380; the rest went to the United Kingdom.
Thus the readjustment of trade was safely accomplished. As to palm
oil, next to kernels the most important export, the greater part was
always taken by Britain. (Of 828,750 gal. exported in 1919 the
largest quantity exported for io years Great Britain took 819,375
gallons.)
By 1918 the total value of trade was 3,197,000, the United King-
dom taking over 50 % of the exports and furnishing over 80 % of the
imports, the United States providing the bulk of the other imports.
Trade in 1918 surpassed in value that of any year since 1913, and
there was a further marked rise in 1919, when exports were valued
at 2.101,000 and imports at 2,034,000. Excluding Government
imports, exports showed an excess over imports of 12,000, as com-
pared with an excess of imports in 1918 to the value of 163,000.
The high figures both for 1918 and 1919 were, however, due largely
to inflated prices, though there was also an increase in the quantity
of exports. Revenue in 1919 was the highest recorded 748,000,
expenditure being 740,000. The estimate for 1921 put both revenue
and expenditure at over 1,000,000.
The colony and protectorate made progress in spite of the
World War. There was an increased demand for education
among the natives, chiefly met by the missionary societies, but
the Government maintained schools for Moslems, and an agricul-
tural training college for vernacular teachers was established at
Njala, in the protectorate. In 1919 there were 163 elementary
and intermediate schools in the colony and protectorate, with
an average attendance of 6,285. Including secondary and tech-
nical schools there were in all 192 centres of education with over
12,000 pupils on the rolls. Sir L. Probyn, appointed Governor
in 1910, was succeeded (1914) by Sir E. M. Merewether, and
(1916) by Mr. R. J. Wilkinson. The natives showed much loyal-
ty to Great Britain during the World War, and the Sierra Leone
forces played a prominent part in the Cameroon campaign.
Notwithstanding the increase in trade, 1919 witnessed much
distress in the colony and protectorate. Owing to adverse wea-
ther conditions in 1918 and an epidemic of influenza at harvest
time, there was a great shortage of rice and other food crops, and
famine resulted. This led in July 1919 to serious rioting, the
Syrian traders, who were accused of hoarding food-stuffs, being
attacked and driven from their houses and stores. As the bulk of
the kola nut trade was in the hands of the Syrians that industry
suffered severely. The high price of imported goods also caused
much distress. The year was further notable for the prohibition
of the import of " trade spirits," but it was not until 1920 that
total prohibition was enforced.
See H. O. Newland, Sierra Lenne (1916); N. W. Thomas, Anthro-
pological Report on Sierra Le.one (1916) ; H. Michell, An Introduction
to the Gtopraphy of Sierra Leone (1919), and the annual reports issued
by the Colonial Office, London. ' (F. R. C.)
SIFTON, SIR CLIFFORD (1861- ), Canadian politician, of
Irish descent, was born in Middlesex, Ont., May io 1861. His
father, John W. Sifton, was Speaker of the Manitoba Assembly,
and the son, after graduating at Victoria University, Cobourg,
was called to the Manitoba bar in 1882, and six years later en-
tered the Manitoba Legislature as member for North Brandon.
He was Attorney-General and Minister of Education in 1891,
became K.C. in 1905, and joined Sir Wilfrid Laurier's Dominion
Cabinet in 1896 as Minister of the Interior. He represented
Canada at the International Conference on Conservation of Re-
sources at Washington (1909) and was chairman of the Com-
mission for Conserving the National Resources of Canada (1909-
18). From 1910-7 he was Premier of Alberta and president of
its Executive Council. In 1917 he became Minister of Customs
and Inland Revenue in the Dominion Cabinet, exchanging that
portfolio for the Ministry of Public Works in 1919 and becoming
Secretary of State for Canada. In that capacity he represented
Canada at the Peace Conference in Paris and signed the Treaty
of Versailles. He was created K.C.M.G. in 1914 and was sworn
of the Privy Council.
SIGHTS (see 25.60). Although in the years before and during
the World War, the instruments employed in artillery work
were considerably improved and developed, research was in
the main directed rather to auxiliary instruments such as range-
finders than to gun and rifle and machine-gun sights as such. It
may be said, therefore, that the modern artillery sight, as
designed before 1914, stood the test of war; and the task of the
present article is only to review developments. In one respect,
however, those developments were wholly new. The anti-
aircraft sight which was virtually non-existent in 1910, has
already become an elaborate instrument and its evolution is
still in progress. Considerable importance practical rather
than technical attaches also to the new machine-gun panorama
sight and to the application of aperture sights to the military
rifle and light machine-gun.
Gun Sights. The purpose of a sight is to ensure the accurate lay-
ing of the gun both in direction and elevation. The sight must
provide for movement in a vertical plane to register the " angle of
sight," the " tangent angle," and hence the " quadrant angle,"
and thus the range for which the gun is laid ; also for movement in a
horizontal plane, to allow the direction of the gun to be corrected
for deviation due to " drift," wind, want of level and any move-
ment of the target. In order that the operation of laying shall be
unaffected by firing, the sights are in modern equipments fixed to a
non-recoiling part of the carriage ; this may be the cradle, the trun-
nions, or the intermediate carriage, and, in the last-named case, it
must be so connected to the trunnion that the same angular move-
ment is given to it as is given to the gun.
Laying for elevation may be accomplished in the following ways :
(a) By setting the required tangent angle in the sight and directing
the sight-line upon the target, (b) With fixed mountings on level
platforms, the quadrant angle may be registered on an elevation or
range indicator incorporated in the elevating system ; or, with both
field carriage and fixed mountings, the gun may be laid at the
required quadrant angle by means of a clinometer, (c) With fixed
mountings at a definite height above sea-level, by connecting the
sight through a cam with the intermediate carriage in such a man-
ner that for a given quadrant angle the sight is automatically
depressed to the correct angle of sight.
Laying for direction may be either direct or indirect ; direct when
the sight-line is aligned on the target, indirect when a convenient
object or auxiliary aiming-mark is used. It may be accomplished
as follows: (a) By aligning the sight-line upon the target, the
inevitable deviation of the shell from the vertical plane containing
the gun being allowed for automatically, or set on the sight as deflec-
tion, (b) By using a panoramic sight and any convenient aiming-
point; the horizontal angle between aiming-point and target is
determined and set on the sight and the latter aligned on the aiming-
point, (c) With fixed mountings, by obtaining the direction from an
independent source and setting it on the oriented training-arc on
the pedestal.
For laying both in elevation and direction it is essential that the
sight should be truly vertical. This is attainable easily with a fixed
mounting; but with field carriages the wheels or the platform may
be out of level ; in such a case, the elevation registered on the sight
will not be correct, and the gun will shoot towards the lower side.
If, however, the verticality of the pivot be maintained, it is imma-
terial whether the carriage basic structure be level or not. Adjust-
ment for verticality is permitted by the reciprocating principle, in
which the sight can always be made to move in a vertical plane
parallel to that containing the axis of the gun. Thus the sight-line
484
SIGHTS
and gun, when laid, lie in parallel vertical planes, so that neglecting
drift, etc., correct direction is obtained.
_ Means to compensate automatically for drift of the projectile by
giving appropriate deflection to the gun are usually introduced into
the sight. As drift increases with the range, so also does the neces-
sary deflection; but in some instances, a fixed deflection (repre-
senting an average correction) is put on to the sight system. The
correction is effected by arranging the sight, when setting for eleva-
tion, to move in a plane inclined slightly to the vertical and inter-
secting the vertical plane in a line parallel to the axis of the gun;
thus the greater the elevation on the sight, the greater the auto-
matic deflection imparted. This method of compensation allows
of a convenient combination with the reciprocating sight, by mount-
ing a transverse bubble in such a manner as to ensure that, when
central, the body of the sight is tilted to the left at the required
angle ; but the open, telescopic or panoramic sights are mounted on
the rocking portion so as to have true verticality when the bubble
is cross-levelled. Thus the cross-levelling gear neutralizes any want
of level, and permits drift to be corrected for by movement of the
sight in a tilted plane when setting for elevation; but the range-
scale must be graduated to register elevation in a vertical plane.
In the system of independent line of sight in use with certain light
field carriages the two parts of which the quadrant angle is com-
posed the angle of sight and the tangent angle are applied to
the gun independently and by different men. This system necessi-
tates an intermediate component carrying the sight, and two ele-
vating systems, the lower of which elevates the intermediate com-
ponent, sight, cradle and gun for angle of sight, and the upper ele-
vates the cradle and gun for tangent angle. Thus, conjointly, the
two elevating gears give the quadrant angle. A sight clinometer is
fitted to the sight to register the angle of sight for indirect laying,
whilst a range-indicator, operated by the upper elevating gear,
registers the tangent angle. Once the sight has been aligned on the
target, the tangent angle may be altered to correct the range with-
out disturbing the layer for direction. Such a system is useful when
firing at moving targets, the direction and elevation having to be
altered simultaneously, but it has a disadvantage in that it is diffi-
cult to apply the reciprocating principle when the gun has to be
moved independently of the_ sight. Drift is usually corrected for
by inclining the trunnion axis. The latest method of securing this
principle, though not truly " independent," combines the recipro-
cating sight with an automatic drift correction.
The rocking-bar sight is mounted on a pivot which is always
parallel to the gun axis, and thus can be rocked laterally under the
control of cross-levelling gear to maintain verticality, which is indi-
cated by a transverse bubble. An acorn-pillar, or front sight, and
notched leaf, or rear sight, are fixed at the extremities of a sight-bar
which is mounted on a vertical pivot on top of a rocking-bar; the
rocking-bar is pivoted transversely at the front of a sight-carrier at-
tached to a support on the cradle. The sight is set for elevation by
means of a worm and arc-pinion drive in mesh with an arc on the
rocking-bar, the range or tangent-angle being registered on a drum
fixed to the pinion-spindle. The pivot of the rocking-bar is inclined
so as to give an approximate drift correction at all ranges. To give
deflection, the rear of the sight-bar is fixed to a nut mounted on an
endless screw carried at the extremity of the rocking-bar; the nut
traverses across a degree scale fixed to the rocking-bar. Bearings
for a telescope are fixed to the sight-bar.
A sight clinometer is usually fitted to the rocking-bar so that, if
necessary, the sight can be set first for angle of sight and subse-
quently for tangent angle. In effect, the clinometer is an adjust-
able spirit-level. A bubble is mounted in a sliding segment having
worm-teeth cut on a curved base; the segment is moved relatively
to a carrier by a screw mounted in the latter and in mesh with the
teeth. Degrees of elevation or depression are registered on the face,
while the screw is fitted with micrometer head to read minutes.
The employment of muzzle-velocity correctors for use in con-
junction with the range drum is becoming general. The corrector
(not to be confused with the " corrector " employed for varying the
height of burst of time fuzes) also provides means for determining
the muzzle velocity from firing at a known range, allowances being
made for standard conditions; sights so fitted are known as cali-
brating sights. The corrector, which may be attached to the oscil-
lating bracket or to some part of the range-gear in independent-line
sights, fits over the face of the range-drum and is graduated in rang-
ing muzzle velocities; a knife-edge reader, hinged at one end, has
the other end attached to a nut mounted on a screw in the corrector
and engraved with an arrow for reading the muzzle-velocity scale.
The knife-edge reads the yard-scale graduations while fine adjust-
ment along the muzzle- velocity scale is ensured by the nut-and-screw
arrangement. The yard-scale is engraved upon a spiral designed in
conjunction with the muzzle-velocity scale to give the correct tan-
gent angle for the muzzle velocity used.
FIG. 2
With certain carriages it is inconvenient to mount the sight on
either the trunnion or the cradle. In such cases the sight is mounted
upon a pivot on the intermediate carriage, the sight-carrier being
constrained, by means of parallel link-motion gear, to make the
same angular movement as the gun. For the sight to be effective,
the parallelogram must be correct, and adjustments may be required
for the lengths of the link and the arm. In certain designs the inde-
pendent line of sight is obtained without the use of an intermediate
component, and combined independent-line and reciprocating sights
are also in use.
The automatic sight is discussed and an example illustrated at
25.64; here, therefore, it is sufficient to recall its basic principle,
which is, that for a gun mounted on a level platform at a fixed
height above mean sea-level, there is only one angle of depression of
sight and one quadrant angle for any given range. Thus, if the sight
be pivoted transversely to the cradle and made with an arm pro-
jecting downwards from its front end, there is, for a given quadrant
angle, one position only for the lower extremity of this arm; if the
arm be caused to engage with a suitably cut cam fixed to the inter-
mediate carriage, any quadrant angle on the gun will impart the
correct sight-depression to the sight.
A distinctive feature in connexion with all anti-aircraft sights is
the necessity for an automatic reduction in the tangent angle for a
given range as the angle of sight and quadrant angle increase. Con-
sequent on the varying range, height and speed of aerial targets,
large corrections have to be applied to compensate for the vertical
and lateral angular movements of the target ; these corrections inter-
SIGHTS
485
act to complicate further the design of an efficient sighting system.
No description of such a sight, therefore, is possible within the
limits of this article. For reasonable accuracy of fire, the mounting
must be level. Anti-aircraft mountings are generally fitted with
training arcs; in some cases a second set of indicators is fitted to
enable horizontal ranges and quadrant angles to be used. A sight-
ing system which also embodies the principle of the independent
line of sight has been tried in the British service.
The panoramic sight is used witji field ordnance for indirect lay-
ing for direction, from a position out of view of the target. The
layer is enabled to take advantage of any auxiliary aiming-mark
and to lay without exposing himself. The sight may be used also
for direct laying.
A typical panoramic sight is shown in fig. I. It is a prismatic
telescope mounted in a vertical tube having a rotating hood at the
upper, and a horizontal tube at the lower end; the hood is
mounted on a horizontal graduated dial-plate with which it may be
revolved through a complete
circle, by worm-gearing; the
worm-spindle is mounted in an
eccentric to enable the worm to
be thrown out of gear for quick
setting; on the periphery of the
dial-plate are graduations read
by a pointer fixed to the vertical
tube; while the ends of the
worm-spindle are fitted with
micrometer-heads to read smaller
divisions. A prism mounted
within the hood can be rotated
about a horizontal axis by means
of a worm-spindle in mesh with
a toothed arc on the prism
holder; this permits of a wide
selection of aiming-points in the
vertical plane. The optical ar-
rangements are shown in fig. 2.
They consist in a reflecting prism
mounted within a holder in the
hood; in the vertical tube, an
erecting prism controlled by
differential gear to move at half
the rate of the dial-plate and
hood ; a fixed object-glass below
the erecting prism ; and a reflect-
ing prism below the object-glass
to reflect light along the hori-
zontal tube; in the horizontal
tube, a glass diaphragm en-
graved with horizontal and ver-
tical lines, and in rear of this,
eye-lenses to give a magnified
image. The rays of light from
the object enter through a plain
glass window and are reflected
downwards by the prism in the
hood; they pass through the
erecting prism, the purpose of
which is to give an erect image,
whatever the rotation of the
hood, and are focused by the
object-glass; they then pass to
the lower prism and are reflected
along the horizontal tube; the
eye-piece magnifies the image
FIG. 3
which is seen on the cross-lines of the diaphragm, the latter being
illuminated by a plain window let into the horizontal tube.
Other forms of dial sight are, the simple graduated and flexible
dial fitted with an open sighting-bar; and the collimator, which
exists in several forms. In principle an eye-lens and ground-glass
window are mounted at the ends of a tube, an arrow or cross on the
window being at the principal focus of the lens. With one eye applied
near the lens, the cross will be seen, but there is no vision beyond the
cross due to the ground-glass; the other eye sees the aiming-point.
The gun is traversed until the cross appears superimposed on the
aiming-point. Both eyes are used, and are viewing approximately
parallel rays. Unlike ordinary open sights, there are not three points
at varying distances to be brought simultaneously into alignment,
but the eyes view two points under practically the same conditions.
Sights for Rifles and Machine-Guns. The improved ballistics of
rifles generally, on the one hand, and the shortening of the sight
radius due to shortening of the barrel, on the other, have made the
question of better sights a very urgent one. Attempts to retain the
old sight radius by bringing the rear sight closer to the eye resulted
in the discovery that it was impossible effectively to use an open
sight nearer than twelve to fourteen inches from the eye (owing
to the inability to focus on rear sight, front sight, and target at the
same time) and led to the reintroduction of the aperture or peep
sight, in itself an old invention. In this the rear sight is placed close
to the eye, and no attempt is made to focus on the aperture. The
eye looks through the aperture and instinctively centres the front
sight. Any blur around the aperture will not impair the accuracy
as it is equal on all sides of the opening. If the eye is now focused
on the target, the front sight is at sufficient distance to afford very
good definition. Another advantage is that the accuracy of the
sight is not affected by slight changes of light.
_ Aperture sights are of two general types: the disc aperture con-
sisting of a large disc, which shuts off all view of the target except
that seen through a peep hole of from -03 to -06 in. in diameter;
and the Lyman type which has a thin rim with peep hole about -oio
in. in diameter. Disc sights, which are used principally for target
shooting, are unsuitable on account of their limited field for moving-
targets, or where quick aiming is required.
In the Lyman type the entire target and its surroundings may be
seen while aiming; it may be used in poor lights where open sights
cannot be used, and moving objects may be quickly aimed at. The
sights on the British 1914 rifle (U.S. Rifle Model of 1917), and the
Browning automatic rifle are of this type (fig. 3). The aperture (a)
is o- 1 in. in diameter, and is made through a disc of about twice the
diameter of the aperture. The battle-sight 1 is vertical and in use
when the leaf sight is flat and vice versa ; the sizes of aperture and
ring are the same in both. This sight was found very satisfactory
during the World War. It has no lateral adjustment, service expe-
rience having shown that the sights were satisfactory without this
refinement. An aperture o- 1 in. in diameter is thought by many to be
too large, -070 in. to -080 in. being the size most favoured. The U.S.
1903 Rifle (Springfield), and the now abandoned Ross rifle are the
only other military rifles with an aperture sight. In the case of the
Springfield, which has also sight notches of the usual type on the
slide, it is found that, although the aperture is very small (0^05 in.),
and too far from the eye, it is always preferred to the V. for fine
shooting. The superiority of the aperture sight over the open sight
is in fact now generally admitted. It is almost universally used by
rifle experts, and the delay in its general adoption for military use is
due to the impracticability of effectively and cheaply applying it to
rifles now in existence.
Optical rifle fore sights designed for use with aperture rear sights
have recently been placed on the market. These sights consist of a
dioptric convex lens of magnification of about 2j diameters, with a
spot or ring in the centre for use as a bead. The lens when viewed
3 or 4 ft. from the eye gives an upright magnified image of distant
objects. An aperture rear sight, preferably of the disc type, with an
aperture of 0-03 to 0^04 in. diameter, or a lens rear sight should be
used. Better definition as well as magnifying power is claimed for
these sights.
Luminous sights for night use have been experimented with and
used to a limited extent on machine-guns and rifles for military pur-
poses. These sights, as a rule, consist simply of metal sheaths which
slip over the front sight and rear sight and have suitable containers
for the luminous material used. For periscope sights see RIFLES AND
LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS.
Telescope sights are often applied to sporting rifles and military
rifles used for special purposes. These sights consist of a telescope
with a reticule for aiming which takes the place of a front sight.
The magnification is usually from 2-5 to 6 diameters; those from 2-5
to 3 power are considered the best for general purposes as they give a
larger field and can be used in poor light. Adjustments for range
are made either by moving the crosshairs only, as in most German
rifle telescopes, or by means of holding brackets with adjusting
screws which give both vertical and lateral adjustment; the latter
type being more accurate. The advantages claimed for telescopic
rifle sights are that they permit more accurate aim by magnifying
the errors of holding the rifle, also that they allow objects to be seen
more distinctly, particularly in a poor light. The latter is probably
their greatest advantage ; their superiority to a good aperture sight
not being as great as is popularly supposed.
The Vickers and Browning machine-gun sight embodies the prin-
cipal small-arms-sight developments of recent years. The slide, which
is made to travel obliquely in the leaf to compensate for drift, has
a revolving disc with apertures of various sizes which may be used
for different ranges and light conditions. A fine adjustment for ele-
vation and a windage adjustment are provided, also an open battle-
sight. The fore sight is a blade, open or hooded.
The Lewis gun has a simple tangent aperture sight without drift
or windage adjustments, but with a vertical adjusting screw for
fine adjustments in elevation. The sights used for direct fire on
Continental European machine-guns are all of the open type and
are usually without correction for either drift or windage.
Tubular sights, which consist simply of a straight piece of tubing,
are used to some extent on ta_nk machine-guns, as these sights only
require a very small opening in the armour plates for their effective
use. The latest tendency, however, is to provide tank machine-
guns with a telescopic sight of special construction.
Anti-aircraft machine-gun sights, which compensate for the drift
and trajectory of the bullet and offset the speed and direction in
1 A battle-sight is one which requires no adjustment for distance,
or rather is permanently set to a certain range, inside which the
bullet in its flight never rises more than a man's height above the
line of sight.
486
SIGNAL SERVICE, ARMY
which an aeroplane is travelling, were brought into use during the
World War. One of these is illustrated in fig. 4, showing a design
used by the British and U.S. armies. This consists of a slide having
an aperture 0-25 to 0-5 in. in diameter and fitting on the regular
back sight leaf. The aperture (6) is set at a given height for a stand-
ard range. The front sight has two concentric elliptical ovals
which are mounted as a leaf sight to the barrel or casing of the gun.
The shapes of the ellipses are proportional to the actual horizontal
sections of a cone of fire from the gun at a given height and eleva-
tion. The design of the outer oval (a) is based on an assumed angle
of gun elevation of 50, height of target about 1,000 ft., and a speed
of plane of 100 m. per hour; that of the inner oval, on an assumed
angle of gun elevation of 15, a height of 250 ft., and a speed of 120 m.
per hour. The middle figure shows the correct firing position with
the hostile plane central as viewed through the rear and front sights;
that on the right shows a plane at close range flying at an angle
with the gun position and perpendicular to the axis of the bore; and
that on the left shows the target at a greater range and at an angle
with the gun. (H. O.'L.)
FIG 4
The Panoramic Machine-Gun Sight. The use of machine-guns for
indirect fire during the World War was followed by the demand for
instruments for obtaining data and laying the guns. This demand
led to the production of many devices, some of which were well
fitted for their purpose, and some of which were make-shifts. But,
as the war progressed, it became apparent that indirect fire was be-
coming increasingly important, and an attempt was made to produce
one high-grade device that would replace as many instruments as
possible. This effort, in the case of the United States, resulted in the
production by the Ordnance Department of the panoramic machine-
gun sight, described below. At the same time, all Browning machine-
guns were fitted with a bracket on the left side which was designed
to carry the panoramic sight and also to furnish on its upper sur-
face a flat space for applying the clinometer.
The illustration (fig. 5) shows the panoramic sight in place in its
bracket on the Browning machine-gun. The sight consists of a X6
prism telescope capable of movement in elevation and azimuth
(360). The movements of the sight are controlled by means of
graduated knobs. The lower knob is for movement in azimuth (deflec-
tion), and a quick release is furnished to enable large changes to be
made quickly. The upper knob controls the vertical movement of
the sight. This knob has two sets of graduations. One of these is
for ranges, and the second, which is on a ring-sliding friction tight
on the knob, is for vertical angles, above or below the horizontal
(angle of site). The telescope is provided with a spirit-level which
is parallel with the axis of collimation. This instrument is used
on the same principles as the panoramic sight of artillery, to measure
angle of site and to lay the gun on a visible or invisible target. The
telescope has, besides the usual cross-lines, graduations showing
both vertical and horizontal angles, and also a vertical scale resem-
bling an inverted sight leaf, which is employed for the correction of
fire when the strike of the shots can be observed. The sight can also
be used separately from the gun (in combination with a compass and
a tripod of non-magnetic metal) for the same operations as those
performed by our artillery director. (J. S. HA.)
SIGNAL SERVICE, ARMY (see 25.71). In the ten years that
elapsed between the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5 and the
outbreak of the World War in 1914, evolution in military
signalling was rapid, both as regards organization and as regards
instruments employed. The old principle of deliberate crudity
of means, based on the idea that no refined instruments could be
relied upon to survive the rough conditions of war employment,
was giving way to a sense of the great possibilities opened up by
modern science as applied to army signalling, while, in tactics,
the ever-increasing tendency towards articulation of forces and
distribution in depth was forcing the problems of liaison more and
more into the foreground. But such evolution as there was in the
period 1904-14 was naturally slight indeed compared with that
which took place during the World War, in which stabilized
conditions of warfare and the concentration of the scientific
talents of all belligerent countries upon war needs produced
results, both upon the army signal system and its instruments,
that amounted to a revolution in the practice of war and,
moreover, must affect profoundly the methods of intercourse
between civilized nations in peace.
In the following article an account is given of the organization,
working principles, and instruments of the signal service of the
British army in the World War, and of some of the more notable
features of signal practice in other armies.
(1) Definition and Duties. The signal (intercommunication)
service of a modern army is responsible for the maintenance of
efficient intercommunication between all branches, departments,
formations, and units of the army. Intercommunication within
units, other than signal units, is usually provided by means of
regimental signallers, but the officers of the signal service exercise
supervisory control here also. The signal service bears the same
relation to the army of which it forms a part as does the nervous
system to the human body. Its principal duties are:
(a) The transmission of information from the front to unit com-
manders and to the headquarters of formations.
(b) The transmission of orders from commanders to their sub-
ordinates.
(c) The maintenance of efficient liaison l>et\veen infantry and
other arms (such as artillery, air force, tanks, etc.) and between
neighbouring formations.
For the efficient working of an army, means of intercom-
munication must be swift, certain, and, under the circumstances
of modern war, varied. The system must be essentially simple
and standardized to the greatest possible extent, yet capable of
considerable expansion at short notice, and of modification to
meet the most diverse conditions of warfare. Organization and
working schemes must be elastic, and types of signal instruments
must be devised to cope with all special sets of conditions that
have been experienced or can be foreseen.
(2) British Army System. Until the application of electricity
to the long-distance transmission of messages, the intercommu-
nication of armies was carried out mainly by means of visual
appliances or by the use of message carriers. Liaison officers
and orderlies have been used from the very earliest times;
the arrow was frequently employed in mediaeval times for the
transmission of information into and out of besieged towns; the
pigeon was used with success, notably in the wars of the Nether-
lands against Spain; permanent lines of semaphore communica-
tion (masts with movable arms) were employed both by the
French and the British during the Napoleonic Wars. Later, the
invention of the Morse code and the adaptation of the semaphore
principle to field signals led to the general employment of flags,
lamps and, later, of the heliograph. The field telegraph made its
appearance in the middle of the igth century, and in the last
years of the century the field telephone came into use. Lastly,
in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5 wireless telegraphy came
on the scene.
In 1911 the British " Signal Service " was constituted as a
distinct branch of the Royal Engineers. At about the same time,
the adoption of the buzzer telephone as a standard army instru-
ment and the employment of the motor cyclist as a message car-
rier placed two new methods of intercommunication at the
disposal of the signal officer. The outbreak of the World War in
SIGNAL SERVICE, ARMY
487
Aug. 1914 found the Expeditionary Force equipped with a signal
service controlled by a director of signals on the general staff at
G.H.Q. This service included a signal unit at G.H.Q., a lines-of-
comraunication signal company, and a signal company with each
corps and each division. Artillery intercommunication was, how-
ever, entirely a separate matter for which that arm itself was
solely responsible. So also, was intercommunication inside the
infantry unit; and the absence of a chain of command within the
signal service itself (each unit commander being responsible only
to his own general staff) caused a looseness of organization which
soon showed itself to be a grave defect. The means of intercom-
munication employed were those already mentioned, viz., tele-
graph, telephone, flag, lamp and heliograph, with the addition of
wireless telegraphy, which was, however, at this time adopted
only for the special requirements of the far-ranging cavalry divi-
sion, and consisted only of one lorry and a few wagon and pack
stations, all of rotary spark type. (The power of the stations was
3, 1-5, and 0-5 K.W. respectively; the range, when working to
stations of similar type, 100, 80 and 30 miles.)
The signal organization summarized above proved adequate to
deal with the mobile conditions of the first few months of the
war. These early days were specially notable for the triumph of
the motor cyclist. Telegraph and telephone, visual and orderlies,
and mounted liaison officers also played useful parts, and it was
not until position warfare set in in the winter of 1914-5 that fur-
ther changes were found to be required. Then, however, the
desire for, and the possibility of collecting, a greater quantity of
more exact information (especially for artillery observation) led
to a considerable increase in the complexity of the army signal
organization. To the exigencies of position warfare may be attrib-
uted almost all the evolution in signal implements and signal
organization which marked the course of the war. The chief
alteration in signal policy, on the other hand, was brought about
not so much by position warfare as by the resumption of semi-
mobile and mobile warfare which took place to a slight degree in
1916, toa slightly greater extent in 1917, and completely in 1918.
The principal result of " stabilization " was naturally an im-
mense increase in the number and weight of the guns employed.
Both for offensive and defensive purposes massed artillery be-
came the weapon of paramount importance, and this had two
principal effects on the forward signal service. The fire of the
large number of guns employed could not be effectively directed
without a greater measure of intercommunication; while at the
same time, intercommunication in the region subject to heavy
gunfire became more and more precarious.
The extra intercommunication required was supplied by a
rapid increase in the number of telephones in use at observation
posts and at artillery headquarters. The need for intimate liaison
between infantry and guns led to a similar increase at infantry
headquarters.
The magneto telephone came into use for the first time forward
of corps headquarters, and, once the superior convenience and
efficiency of the instrument were recognized, the demands for its
installation increased so rapidly as to tax the signal service to its
uttermost capacity. A new danger at once arose and threatened
to wreck the whole intercommunication service. The tendency
was to concentrate all available energies on the installation of
telephones and the laying and maintenance of telephone lines.
All other means of signalling lost their proper proportion, and an
inefficient telephone service was soon in a fair way to become the
only means of intercommunication throughout the whole army.
Such an undesirable result was only prevented by the incidental
troubles arising from the indiscriminate laying of lines. In effect,
it was the " overhearing " menace, which will be referred to
later, that, together with the prevalence of induction trouble and
the difficulty of making " safe " the forward lines, proved to the
signal service and to the commanders it served that it was unwise
to stake everything upon one method of intercommunication.
The difficulty of maintenance of forward intercommunication
was overcome partly by the adoption first of shallow and subse-
quently of deep buried cable; partly by the evolution of various
new alternative methods of signalling; partly by the perfection
and adaptation of methods which had temporarily fallen into
disrepute under the new conditions.
In 1915, cables were buried 2 or 3 ft. deep and by this means
temporary immunity from shellfire was gained; in 1916, the
general adoption of the 6-ft. bury (while it saddled the signal
service with endless labour problems) successfully solved the
difficulty of the maintenance of an efficient forward telephone and
telegraph system. One inevitable consequence of the adoption
of the " bury " was the concentration of the forward lines into a
few main routes, thus paving the way for the great reform in
policy which was later brought about under the pressure of rather
different circumstances.
The induction which resulted from the collection of 20 to 100
circuits in these main corps and divisional routes was reduced to
a slight extent by the general substitution of the sounder for the
vibrator in forward units 1 and by the elimination of the buzzer
as a general means of intercommunication. It was later almost
entirely overcome by the adoption of metallic circuits of twisted
cable 2 for all forward lines.
Mention should be made of the alternative methods of sig-
nalling which underwent their first main period of evolution in
1915. In 1914, the weight and accuracy of modern artillery fire
had caused visual signalling to fall into disrepute as being too
dangerous. It was soon found, however, that the lines which
were at that time the only general alternative to forward visual
signalling, were also untrustworthy, and that salvation lay in
employing as many alternative means as possible and therefore
in improving all available methods as well as evolving new ones.
Visual was rehabilitated by the invention of the inconspicuous
signalling disc and shutter, by the general adoption of " D.D.
D.D." working (signalling from front to rear without reply) and
by the adoption of the efficient electric signalling lamp in place
of the more conspicuous and noisy Begbie oil lamp which was the
standard equipment at the outbreak of war. At the same time
the use of pigeons as message-carrying agencies was revived, and
wireless telegraphy began to be adapted to forward work. The
former were first used by the Intelligence Corps towards the end
of 1914, when the British were operating in a district noted for
its pigeon fanciers. From this small beginning grew a service
which at the Armistice numbered over 20,000 pigeons, while no
less than 90,000 men of all arms had been trained to handle the
birds. Lofts were kept usually on a line passing about through
divisional- headquarters and pigeons were forwarded by motor
cyclist and taken into the trenches by selected pigeoneers.
Here they remained until required for use or until 48 hours had
elapsed, when they were released with or without messages.
Wireless telegraphy for the forward area was first attempted in
the summer of 1915, when experiments were carried out which
resulted in the standardization of two types of set, the I2o-watt
(Wilson) and the $o-watt (British field) set. The former was
intended for work at divisional and corps headquarters and
consisted of separate transmitting and receiving apparatus. The
spark transmitter received its energy from a 26-volt accumulator
through a small motor-driven interrupter fitted in the set itself;
its original complement was a crystal receiver specially designed
for the short waves (350, 450, and 550 metres) on which the for-
ward sets were obliged to work. The 5o-watt set, on the other
hand, was a combined transmitter and receiver, the transmitting
1 The two telegraph instruments, the sounder and the vibrator,
are worked on entirely different principles. In the former case the
currents used rise to their full value very rapidly and then remain
steady a comparatively long time. On the vibrator system, on the
other hand, the currents used are constantly altering in value and
even changing in direction, the vibrations being at an audible rate
of frequency (several hundred per second). It is these latter rapidly
alternating currents which set up rapidly alternating EMF in the
earth surrounding the conductor and provide the ideal conditions
for overhearing at a considerable distance. A buzzer is a particular
type of instrument using " vibrating " or " alternating " current.
2 In a telegraph circuit consisting of two wires laid side by side,
the electromotive force set up around one conductor will be neu-
tralized by that set up around the other in which the current is
travelling in the opposite direction. The most efficient disposition
of such neutralizing cables is naturally that where the two halves
are most intimately interturned, as in twisted cable.
488
SIGNAL SERVICE, ARMY
portion of which was energized by the current from a lo-volt
accumulator. It was intended for work in posts close to the front
line and at brigade and battalion headquarters and the complete
station with its two i s-foot masts could be carried by a party of
three men. Both types of set fulfilled their original purpose
admirably. They remained the standard wireless sets for forward
infantry command intercommunication purposes throughout the
war, and have only gradually been superseded by the continuous-
wave wireless sets which are now the standard sets for practically
all purposes.
Other wireless sets which were evolved during the war, which
owed their invention to the same necessity for indestructible and
invisible alternative means of forward intercommunication, were
the loop wireless sets. These were sets of short fixed wave-length
(66 and 80 metres respectively) which were arranged in two
complementary installations a " forward " and a " rear " sta-
tion to each set. The forward station was distinguished by the
possession of a rectangular aerial of folding tubing which could
be erected wholly below the surface of the ground in a deep
trench or in a dugout, thus rendering the station invisible and
often invulnerable. The rear station had a short wire aerial,
much of the type used with the standard "British field" (50-
watt) set. It was intended, as its name suggests, for work at
places not in the direct observation of the enemy. These sets
with slight modifications, remain in use at the present day for
intercommunication within the infantry battalion.
At least as important as this evolution of alternative methods
was the consolidation and reorganization of the signal service
which took place during the years of position warfare.
For the understanding of the present organization of an army
signal service some account of the effect of the interaction be-
tween the requirements of the general staff and the unfamiliar
war conditions experienced in the years 1914-7 is essential.
Whereas in the pre-war organization of the signal service the
ruling consideration was mobility, a military situation arose
within six months of the declaration of war, and continued for
three years, in which extended movement was the exception and
not the rule. The effect on the signal service was a multiplication
of the calls for intercommunication made upon it and at the same
time an increase in the unreliability of all means of forward sig-
nalling. Work in the danger zone had usually to be done not
once but many times; duplication of routes forward, first of bri-
gade, and then of divisional headquarters, became essential. At
the same time, the demands of the staffs, of the unit commanders,
and especially of the artillery, increased manifold.
An establishment adequate to the demands of mobile warfare
could not possibly cope with those of position warfare. The small
degree of supervision and absence of coordination, due to the
practical autonomy of the signal service within each formation,
which had been recognized as drawbacks in the manoeuvre war-
fare of 1914, became impossible obstacles to efficiency in 1915.
The first reforms which enabled order to be wrought out of the
chaos into which forward signals were in danger of falling were
(i) the vesting of the control of all forward signals in the hands
of the divisional signal company commander and (2) the assump-
tion by the signal service of responsibility for, and a measure of
control over, artillery signals. By this means it proved possible
towards the end of 1915 to eliminate unnecessary lines and to
insist on the reeling-up of derelict cables. At the same time steps
were taken to supplement the obviously inadequate personnel.
The original signal service units of the British Expeditionary
Force of 1914 had consisted essentially of (a) the personnel to
man one or at most two headquarters offices; (6) sufficient cable
or airline detachments to lay one main route to all subordinate
formations or units then considered to be entitled to telephone or
telegraph; and (c) a few despatch riders, orderlies, and visual
signallers. This establishment only just sufficed for the skeleton
intercommunication system required in a mobile army, and
neither office staff, line-building detachments, nor orderlies, were
sufficient to man the greatly swollen system of position warfare.
Reinforcements were essential, and not only reinforcements but
radical reorganization as well. Much of the personnel required
was for the maintenance of heavily shelled, long divisional and
corps lines through the danger area. If these routes were to be
efficiently maintained and circuits allotted with due regard to
the relative urgency of individual requirements, the men man-
ning them must remain at their posts irrespective of divisional
moves. This meant the formation of pools of area-maintenance
personnel and units at corps or army headquarters and the crea-
tion of these pools was one of the main features of signal reorgan-
ization during the position-warfare period. Individual increases
to the mobile portions of units also took place, corresponding to
changes in signal methods (all in the direction of increased com-
plexity) or alterations in procedure (e.g. the assumption of re-
sponsibility for artillery and machine-gun signals) which applied
equally in position and in mobile warfare.
The increases in the strength of signal units during the war are
indicated by the figures in the annexed table, which gives the
strength of the signal personnel in an army of two corps, each of
three divisions, in 1914 (when the only equivalent of an army signal
company was the G.H.Q. signal company) and in 1918, respectively.
Strength, 1914, at Mobilization.
Each
Total
Unit
Off
Other
Ranks
Off
Other
Ranks
G.H.Q. signal company .
Two! army corps H.Q. com
5
75
5
75
panies ....
4
63
8
126
5 airline sections
i
57
5
285
8 cable sections.
i
35
8
280
6 divisional signal companies
5
157
30
942
Total personnel
,S6
1708
Strength at Armistice, iQi8.
Unit
Each
Total
Off
Other
Ranks
Off
Other
Ranks
One army signal company
IS
340
15
34
2 cable sections .
i
34
2
68
3 airline sections .
i
43
3
129
8 area signal detachments .
i
13
8
104
One signal construction com-
pany
One light railway signal com-
3
"3
3
"3
pany
i
61
i
61
9 army, field artillery bri-
gade sig. sub-sections
i
'9
9
171
17 heavy artillery group sig.
sub-sections
i
28
'7
476
Two corps signal companies .
6
105
12
210
4 airline sections .
I
43
4
172
4 cable sections .
I
34
4
136
Six divisional signal compan-
ies
15
400
90
2400
Total personnel
1 68
4380
While the above description applies principally to the evolu-
tion of organization in the general signal service, some special
mention of the alterations which took place in wireless units is
necessary, particularly since wireless telegraphy will in all prob-
ability play a more dominant part in the intercommunication
service of the army of the future. The few wireless sets which
were in use in the British Expeditionary Force at the outbreak of
war were manned by personnel who were all incorporated in a
single " wireless section " which shortly became a " wireless
company." The first great increase in the value of army wireless
came with its application to intelligence purposes, originally for
the simple interception of enemy wireless messages, and then also
for the location of enemy wireless sets whether in the field, at sea,
or in the air. For this latter use of wireless alone, " position
finding " many special sets were devised and a numerous per-
sonnel collected in special intelligence wireless units.
Next, the invention and perfection of the portable " trench "
wireless sets in 1915 and 1916 created a further demand for wire-
less personnel and increased the already swollen establishment of
the central " wireless company." The result was a measure of
devolution and the formation of an army wireless company in
each army. The commanding officer of this unit acted as staff
officer for wireless to the chief signal officer of the army, and was
SIGNAL SERVICE, ARMY
489
responsible for the organization and practice of wireless within
the limits of the army.
Yet another direction in which wireless personnel found em-
ployment was in the detection and prevention of the indiscre-
tions which, in 1916 particularly, enabled the enemy to glean
important information by listening to the traffic over the British
telephone system. It was in 1915 that this menace first became
important and in the following year " overhearing " became so
serious that the forward telephone service was stultified. Many
important results followed, directly, or incidentally. Of these
may be mentioned:
(1) The general adoption of closed metallic circuits everywhere
within 3,000 yd. of the front line.
(2) Alterations in the system of identification calls.
(3) The replacement of the buzzer telephone by the fullerphone
in the forward area.
(4) The invention of the screening buzzer, a powerful vibrator
used for drowning all sounds carried forward by induction from the
front line.
(5) The invention and perfection of the 3-valve listening sets and
the formation of detachments of the army wireless companies to
work them. 1
(6) The growth of an organization for the interception of speech
on enemy lines and the policing of our own telephone system.
(7) The application of earth induction telegraphy to signalling
which resulted in the invention and evolution of the power buzzer.
(8) The increased employment of alternative methods of sig-
nalling (visual, wireless, etc.) so obviously liable to overhearing or
overseeing that they were used with caution.
It is difficult to decide which of the many results was the most
important, but perhaps the most interesting from the present
point of view was the evolution of the power buzzer. This was a
powerful vibrator worked by the current from a lo-volt accumu-
lator, and connected to inconspicuous earths of insulated wire
which could, if necessary, be buried 6 ft. deep with little labour.
It occupied a place in position-warfare signals for which no other
instrument, except perhaps the loop sets which lately more or
less superseded it, was suitable. Detachments of troops isolated
by the enemy could send out code signals which could be picked
up by listening sets, themselves inconspicuous, at ranges up to
ccc
EE
Earth
Earth Co Va/n Interval Intervatve . Valve to Phone
Transformer Transformer
is
tint I.
FIG. i.
3,000 yd. On several occasions of importance these sets remained
the only means of communication with and from units that had
advanced rapidly in attack, or become isolated in defence.
The diagrams in fig. I show the principles of the power buzzer
amplifier system. The transmitter (a) is a powerful buzzer taking its
current from a lo-volt accumulator. When the Morse key is pressed,
1 The early overhearing experiments were made with ordinary
telephone receivers and results, while they pointed out the danger,
were not very satisfactory. In the German, French and British
armies, it was the discovery of the possibility of using the new
3-electrode valves] for magnifying extremely small changes in
electric potential which at the same time raised the " overhear-
ing " menace to its greatest pitch and caused the development of
large branches of " Intelligence " and Signals to deal with this new
branch of scientific warfare. The valves were used in receiving cir-
cuits both as detectors and amplifiers and revolutionized both tele-
phony and wireless telegraphy.
a current from the lo-volt battery flows through the key to the
upper contact, across to the lower contact, along the armature,
thence along the primary coil, and back to the battery. The cur-
rent magnetizes the coil which attracts the armature, thus break-
ing the contact, and allowing the armature to fly back and remake
contact, etc. Each time the primary current is thus completed and
broken, currents in the opposite direction are induced in the second-
ary coil and are passed to earth through shut lengths of cable and
earthpins. Condensers, as shown, are connected across the break to
reduce the sparking to a minimum.
To obtain the best results in two-way working a three-valve
amplifier (6) is employed. The currents, received on similar earths,
pass through the primary circuit, are induced into the secondary
of the earth-to-valve transformer which is connected to the grid
and, through a single dry cell, to the filament of the first valve.
The amplified signal from the first valve passes through the second
and third valves and, finally, the three-amplified signal passes
through a valve to telephone transformer with ordinary wireless
receivers in series with the primary winding.
With all these developments, and especially with the rapid
increase in the number of listening sets, the wireless service, as a
separate entity, was becoming unwieldy, and its absorption into
the general signal service organization was essential to its most
efficient administration. In 1917 and 1918, therefore, the army
wireless companies were broken up, the section which had com-
posed them being allotted to the divisional, corps, and army sig-
nal companies, according as they were equipped with portable
trench sets, Wilson and listening sets, or the larger and more
powerful Crossley motor sets used for supervisory and tactical
work at army headquarters. In this form wireless organization
survived the war.
The only change of moment in army wireless after this time
was the application of the continuous wave system to army use.
The early experimental sets made their appearance in 1917, but
for some months they proved to be too delicate and untrustwor-
thy for the work under the hard conditions of active service.
Gradually, however, technical difficulties were overcome and more
robust types of instrument devised. Before the end of position
warfare, portable 3o-watt continuous wave sets of about the
size and portability of the so-watt spark sets, but with forward
aerials only 4 ft. high and a normal range of 1 2 m. were doing good
work with heavy artillery observation stations. The Armistice
in Nov. 1918 found continuous wave wireless still chiefly confined
to the artillery, but new and more powerful sets had already been
devised and tested. Since that date, spark wireless has been
entirely ousted from its former position except for the short-
range loop sets the successors of the power buzzer which are
retained for work within the battalion and similar small units
working in the immediate vicinity of the front line. There seems
little doubt that in the future development of army signalling,
continuous wave wireless is likely to play an all-important part.
While the chief characteristic of the earlier position-warfare
period was the evolution of signal implements and the adapta-
tion of signal organization to stationary tactics, it was in the
great battles of 1916 and 1917 that signal policy began to crystal-
lize in very definite shape. The first result of the stabilization of
the situation was the running forward of lines in all directions to
serve the multifarious units which now for the first time made
good their claims to telephone communication. Magneto and
buzzer telephones and magneto, buzzer, and combined exchanges
made their appearance in all formations from brigade rearwards,
and buzzer telephones and exchanges were issued to battalions
and batteries. The lines to serve these telephones and exchanges
had in many cases to be duplicated and even triplicated, and a
festoon of lines, converging from front to rear, or stretched
transversely and at all angles across the front, hampered move-
ment and defied the utmost efforts of the signal personnel whose
business it was to maintain them. The necessity for economiz-
ing signal personnel and for the protection of lines alike tended
to bring about two reforms. On the one hand, control was vested
in the signal officers of superior formations; on the other hand,
by their orders, all circuits were concentrated into a certain
Limited number of well-defined main routes.
The first of these reforms in point both of importance and of
time was the rearward movement of the centre of gravity of the
490
SIGNAL SERVICE, ARMY
command of forward signals from the uncontrolled battalion,
through brigade, division, and corps, to army. Concurrently
with this, the commanders of signal units became staff officers
i.e., representatives of the command itself instead of simple
executants. 1
In the meantime, the idea of the central signal route in each
formation having been launched, it was natural that other means
of signalling should at once tend to concentrate along these
routes, with their protected test-points and signal offices. Econ-
omy and greater trustworthiness at once followed, and in the
battle of the Somme, 1916, when the British army first carried
out a great offensive from prepared positions, the central signal
route, running from front to rear of each divisional sector and
reinforced with all possible means of intercommunication, was
attempted as a definite policy. The line system was carried for-
ward in 6-ft. buries to a cablchead in, or even in advance of, the
front line. Cable detachments were organized and held in readi-
ness to extend the lines. Runners and despatch riders were
organized in relay posts along the cable route. Wireless and
power buzzer sets were also erected in convenient dugouts close
to cablehead and the forward communication centres. By this
concentration of means along one line, and by an all-round train-
ing which made the personnel to some extent interchangeable,
economy of personnel, elasticity of procedure, and a minimum of
casualties were ensured.
In the more extended offensives of 1917, this principle was
carried still further and reinforced by instructions issued by G.H.
Q., which required the headquarters of formations to give the
signal officers concerned early and detailed information as to
projected operations, forbade movements of headquarters with-
out good cause, and laid down other important points of principle.
The culmination of position warfare thus arrived in the spring
of 1918 to find the signal service quite equal to the calls made
upon it. At G.H. Q. and on the lines of communication were ade-
quate office staffs and a sufficient number of permanent line and
airline construction companies and sections. The bases, camps,
depots, and stores concerned with the administration and supply
of a great army were served by army telegraph and telephone
routes. Maintenance. parties at all offices dealt with ordinary
day-to-day repairs; breakdown gangs at central positions were
in readiness to cope with the catastrophic breaks due to bombing
and long range shelling. At G.H.Q. itself powerful wireless
stations formed the initial link of a chain line which reached
right forward to the front line; other stations were engaged in
intercepting the German wireless; and a headquarters wireless
staff coordinated the activities of the Intelligence stations scat-
tered throughout the rear army zone. Here, also, was the nerve
centre of the whole signal service in France the directorate of
signals the staff which formulated the policy of the service,
supervised its organization and working, and allocated the
incoming reinforcements of men and material.
The basis of the signal system of the army was again a telegraph
and telephone network which was built up on a " chessboard " or
" grid " system, that is with front-to-rear routes and routes trans-
verse to the front, spaced at regular intervals and with the main
signal offices and test-points at the junction of the two. Until late
in 1917 the approved theory was to make the line system approxi-
mate as nearly as possible to the perfect " grid " with as few and as
heavy routes as possible. With the increase in the amount of long-
range shelling and bombing which was a marked feature of early
1918, this principle required considerable modification. Two or
three parallel routes usually took the place of the single heavy
route of each corps or army area, and all routes were diverted to a
much greater extent in order to avoid centres likely to be bombed
or shelled.
The constitution and working of the army signal company per-
haps more nearly reflected the conditions of position warfare than
did that of any other. A telegraph construction company, a light
railway signal company, and airline sections were the chief elements
of the construction personnel, though there were also cable sections
for connecting up isolated units at any time, and dealing with emer-
gency connexions in battle. Here, also, were wireless light motor
sections, mainly employed on supervisory duties, but like the G.H.Q.
1 Strictly, this applies only to corps and army headquarters,
though before the war ended, it was the unofficial practice in most
divisions also.
wireless, available to take their place in the chain of intercommunica-
tion in the event of the failure of the lines. Most of the traffic was
dealt with by wheatstone, duplex, and simplex telegraphy, and the
magneto telephone, wireless telegraphy being chiefly utilized to
assist and police the more forward stations. The chief signal officer
of the army had also to coordinate the signal schemes of the forma-
tions in his army, and under his command were the area detach-
ments whose permanent duty was the maintenance of the buried
cable in the army area.
In the area of a corps the forward position of which was liable
to frequent shelling the main routes were still permanent line and
airline and the construction personnel consisted in the main of air-
line detachments. In addition, corps cable sections were available
for emergency cable-laying, for loan to overworked divisions (a fre-
quent case), for artillery signal work, or for running spurs to iso-
lated offices off the main airline routes. The personnel of the corps
cable sections was also often employed to supervise labour parties in
the construction of the buried cable system, though, as above men-
tioned, maintenance personnel was provided through the army area
detachments. The corps wireless section, while principally con-
cerned with store distribution and supervisory and police duties,
was more intimately connected with the tactical employment of
wireless than was that of the army. Particularly in battle periods,
the corps-directing station was frequently obliged to step in and
assist its less powerful subordinates to attract the attention of other
stations or to rebuke stations using undue power or contravening
priority regulations, besides policing procedure and listening for
occasional windfalls from forward German stations.
Lastly, the chief signal officer of the corps had to supervise and
control the signal communications of the heavy artillery. For this
purpose a special section had been added to his company, but this
was altogether inadequate and in practice the whole energy of one
corps cable section was usually devoted to the construction and
maintenance of artillery lines. These corps units were differentiated
in principle from the area detachments by the fact that they pos-
sessed sufficient transport to enable them to move forward while con-
tinuing their work. In all adaptations of the signal units of forma-
tions below army the essential characteristic of mobility was re-
spected. Those elements t>f the service which required to be special-
ized to areas were embodied almost entirely in the army company,
others being organized so as to be able to move as integers.
This principle of mobility naturally applied with still more force
to divisional signal companies. Even when position warfare seemed
to be most definitely established the retention of its horse transport
by the divisional company was insisted upon, in spite of the extra
work entailed by the care of horses upon a personnel fully occupied
with its technical work. This insistence had its reward in the long
run, for mobility regained all its old importance on March 21 1918
and retained it to the end of the war.
The original divisional signal company in 1914 consisted of the
following elements three " brigade sections " (in principle serving
the infantry brigades), each of a telephone detachment and a squad
of signallers, a " headquarters section " consisting of a small office
staff and a few signallers and despatch riders, and a " No. I section "
of three cable detachments, each of which was capable of laying 10 m.
of cable and carrying three offices. By the spring of 1918 the
" headquarters section " had been enlarged in every branch, and
" No. I section " had been increased to four detachments to cater
for the field artillery headquarters; but the " brigade sections,"
though much overworked, had remained practically unchanged.
To these three original elements, however, others had been added.
A small section, similar to a " brigade section," was serving with
every field artillery brigade in the division. The reorganization of
the machine-gun service in Feb. 1918 added another small section
to serve the divisional machine-gun unit. The extension of wireless
telegraphy to the division had invelved the addition of sufficient
personnel to man a " Wilson " and three " 50- watt " sets and a
charging set for accumulators. In addition, men were attached from
brigades to man six power buzzers and their corresponding receivers,
and to eke out the still undermanned visual detachments.
Forward of battalion headquarters, the direct responsibility of
the divisional personnel ceased and, in battalions and batteries,
signal communications were built and maintained by regimental
signallers. Occasions occurred when the requirements of these units
could be accommodated on the central system, but these were
exceptional. Usually their signallers were fully occupied with the
lines and with visual communication between the front line and
their headquarters. The means at their disposal were light cable
lines and enamelled wire with D3 buzzer telephones; heliograph,
lamp, flag, 2 disc, or shutter; pigeon, messenger dog, message-carrying
rocket and runner. In the case of power buzzer, pigeon, and messen-
ger dog, communication was usually roundabout, via brigade, divi-
sion and even corps headquarters; in the case of other appliances,
direct touch from front line to company headquarters and from
company to battalion headquarters was the rule.
The most interesting portion of the evolutionary history of signal
communication in the war finishes with this period, and the story
2 The artillery still used both Morse and semaphore ; infantry
signallers at this stage of the war were trained in Morse only.
SIGNAL SERVICE, ARMY
491
of the remaining months of mobile warfare is that of the reversion
to simple skeleton systems, based on the principle of the central
route studded at suitable intervals with forward communication
centres. No further radical reorganization took effect, the princi-
pal change being the gradual switching over from spark to continu-
ous wave wireless for command intercommunication purposes.
(3) Signals in Theatres of War other than France. While the
greatest measure of evolution and adaptation naturally took
place in the most important field and that nearest to the home
sources of supply, almost every one of the outlying British thea-
tres of war presented its special problems and emphasized the
need of forethought and careful preparations, in respect of
methods, personnel and stores alike, to suit local conditions, for
instance in arranging for intimate cooperation with the inter-
communication service of the navy in such operations as those
of the Dardanelles, and the coastal operations of Sinai and Syria, 1
and in assigning an unusually large part to visual and wireless
communications when a considerable water gap has to be
spanned, as in the Dardanelles campaign. But perhaps the most
significant lesson of experience in these campaigns was the
greatly enhanced importance of wireless telegraphy relatively
to other means of communication. Wireless plays a predominant
part in such operations as those in E., W. and S.W. Africa, or
those of the desert mounted corps in Palestine, which are con-
ducted in vast, ill-developed theatres of war by comparatively
small forces; for these frequently involve far-flung troop move-
ments in the offensive, and tactical isolation of detachments in
the defensive.
The sets in use in the British Expeditionary Forces engaged in
outlying theatres were the 3-K.W. lorry set; the iJ-K.W. set
mounted on a limbered wagon and drawn by teams of horses, bul-
locks, mules, or even men; and the Marconi pack set, a O-5-K.W.
set either carried in a limbered wagon, on pack horses or mules, or
by bearers. The latter proved particularly valuable for work with
flying columns of swiftly moving troops. All three types of set were
spark sets deriving their energy from internal-combustion engines.
In the future, these will doubtless be replaced by the more efficient
continuous wave system of wireless, but they played their part
well in the 1914-8 campaigns over ranges respectively of 120-
100, 80, and 30-50 miles. The extreme case of isolation in the
defensive is of course that of a garrison under prolonged siege, and
as an example both of the utility of wireless telegraphy in this case
and of the actual working output of even a small set, the case of
Kut may be quoted. The only means of signalling possessed by the
defenders of Kut for some weeks was a small wireless set. By means
of this, touch was kept with the relieving forces until the surrender,
6,313 messages consisting of 434,861 words in 144 days being the
final record of the set.
One other lesson learnt in the outlying campaigns may be men-
tioned the special necessity, in the theatres far from home supply
services, for standardization of implements and stores. This had only
been partially carried out when the war ended, but since then a con-
siderable reduction has been effected in the number of types of
instruments in use.
(4) Relation to other Arms. A subject of considerable impor-
tance is the relation between signals and other arms. Before the
World War, the signal service was regarded by the general staff
as an executive servant and by other elements of the army its
existence and potentialities were too often slighted or ignored
altogether. As the war went on, the importance of rapid, trust-
worthy, and copious intercommunication was emphasized more
and more. The effect of this, in the gradual change in the status
of the formation signal officer from the executive to the staff
officer, has already been emphasized as one of the main features
of the evolution of the service during the war period. Similarly,
the relation of " signals " to intelligence, artillery, and even to
infantry, has undergone a distinct change.
The intelligence service of all armies owes no small measure
of its present effectiveness to the means provided by signals for
tapping sources of enemy information. The listening sets; the
position-finding wireless set; the interception wireless set; the
1 It was doubtless owing largely to the experience of these cam-
paigns that steps were taken towards the end of the war to har-
monize the signal procedure of the navy, the army and the post-
office, that is, the form and manner of sending messages, the checks
in accuracy, the ensuring of priority, and suchlike matters of techni-
cal detail that, in fact, are as important to efficiency as the design of
instruments and the principles observed in their employment.
aeroplane wireless compass, are all efficient means of making out
enemy plans and dispositions. So-called " wireless camouflage" 2
and the dissemination of false information by all means of signal-
ling are well-recognized strategems.
The relation between artillery and the signal service is still
more obvious. Efficient artillery fire was never more dependent
on good observation than it was in the position-warfare battles
of 1915-7, and observation is useless without intercommunica-
tion. As has been noted earlier in this article, artillery signal
communication has become one of the definite functions of the
signal service.
With the infantry, the signal service, through the regimental
signal personnel which it supervises, has an equally close con-
nexion, though the personal comradeship which is the basis
of true liaison was made difficult, in the war, by the inevitable
demands made on infantry labour for the burying of cables.
Signal personnel have frequently proved their ability to give a
good account of themselves in infantry fighting, but it cannot be
too strongly emphasized that the employment of signallers as infan-
trymen whether in the battalion, brigade, division, corps, or army,
is a mistake except as a very last resource. The signaller is a valu-
able technical tradesman and he cannot be trained in a few days or
even a few months. More casualties have probably been caused by
lack of signallers, and therefore of the efficient signal communica-
tions essential to the guidance of the battle, than can ever have been
saved by their employment in the fighting line.
No small amount of the attention of signal units, especially in
position warfare, is now devoted to ^ferving the needs of other
technical branches of the army. Tank corps, royal air force, and
survey battalions all made special demands upon the intercom-
munication service.
(5) Means of Intercommunication. Details of the means of
intercommunication employed by the British army signal service
will be found in the official Manual of the Corps of Signals, Parts
I., III., IV., and V. Some of the details of more general interest
are given in the following few paragraphs.
Telephone and Telegraph. The standard instruments in use are
the telephone No. no (magneto ringing), the fullerphone (buzzer
call) and the telephone D Mk. III. (buzzer call). (In addition, a
lineman's telephone is provided for the use of the intercommunica-
tion maintenance personnel which has both magneto ring and buz-
zer call.) Of the telephones, no special description is needed, their
only peculiar characteristic being a robustness of structure and
parts calculated to stand the rough usage of army life.
Line Secondary C" Cs
FIG. 2.
The fullerphone is an instrument of peculiar interest. The chief
cause of the leakage from telegraph and telephone circuits was the
electrical stresses set up within the earth by the rapidly alternating
current used. The fullerphone is a telegraph instrument, the essen-
tial point of which is the changing at the receiving end of a steady
current into an intermittent current of audible frequency, while at
the same time the current in the line remains steady. A typical
fullerphone receiving circuit is shown in fig. 2. The interrupter (X)
may be driven by any means, either electrical or mechanical. In
army patterns it is driven electrically, being operated by means of a
local cell.
If a steady E.M.F. is applied between line and earth and the cir-
cuit is closed at the interrupter, a steady current will pass through
the choke coils (Cl, 2), contact 2 and receiver. If the circuit is
broken at X the current cannot pass through the receiver but will
flow into the condensers (Ki, K2, K3_). When the circuit is again
closed at X the condensers partially discharge through the receiver.
When the interrupter is working we therefore get an intermittent
current in the receiver which can be made audible by adjusting the
interrupter to run at a suitable speed, while the line current alter-
nately runs into the condensers or through the receivers and remains
practically constant and continuous in the line. The dots and
dashes sent by the single current Morse key at the end of the line
2 Manipulating the technicalities and the volume of traffic of
one's own wireless so as to mislead the enemy's interception service.
492
SIGNAL SERVICE, ARMY
are therefore reproduced in the receiver as short or long notes.
Readable signals can be obtained with about half a microampere,
a main battery of one dry cell being sufficient. The employment
of such an extremely small continuous line current eliminates
danger of overhearing, induction being reduced to a minimum.
In the rear areas, simplex, duplex, and wheatstone telegraphy are
all used in the offices of the higher formations, which in the case of
the armies may contain several hundred telegraph instruments and
telephone subscribers. Magneto exchanges are the rule as far for-
ward as brigade headquarters. At brigade headquarters buzzer
exchanges are also installed and at battery and battalion head-
quarters buzzer exchanges are the rule. Circuits are of galvanized
iron or copper wire beyond the limits of frequent shelling. For-
ward of this, main routes are of buried armoured cable (2-, 4-, or
7-pair brass-sheathed or iron-armoured usually) or light field cables
which are standardized in several sizes in both single and twisted
twin circuits. Enamelled wire, that is, wire roughly insulated by a
coating of enamel, was used by forward troops during the war, but
is now obsolescent.
Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony. In all formations down to
infantry battalions continuous wave wireless is now practically the
only means used. There are three standard sets. For use at, or in
rear of, army headquarters, or for long distances in mobile cam-
paigns, a set is provided with a maximum range of 400 miles. The
set has two 7o-foot masts and is fitted to be carried either in a box
car or a limbered wagon. (This is the equivalent of the former
" heavy motor set.")
For distances up to 200 m. a smaller set is provided which has
two 4p-ft. masts and can be carried as above or on pack animals.
For divisional work, the old " Wilson " and " British Field spark "
sets have been replaced by a portable set with a range of 12 miles.
This has two 15-ft. masts*,is worked from accumulators or by a
hand generator, and carried on pack animals or by bearers.
Finally, the loop sets already mentioned earlier are retained for
work within the battalion and battery if required, though they are
likely to be replaced soon by short range and short wave C.VV. sets
of much greater efficiency. The power buzzer and 3-valve amplifier
sets are also available for issue in case of position warfare.
Small portable wireless telephone sets for forward work have been
devised, and similar sets were indeed used in the Air Force during
the last months of the war. The sets are not yet standardized, but
those in use have a range of some 2,000 to 3,000 yards.
Visual Telegraphy. The visual instruments include the helio-
graph as used in pre-war days (see 13.223); the Lucas lamp; the
shutter, and the flag. Of these, the heliograph has a range up to
loo m. or more, but is only of really extended use in a country with a
large proportion of sunlight.
The very efficient and portable Lucas lamp is a powerful electric
lamp with an 8-candle-power bulb set in the back of a cylindrical
lampholder with a powerful reflector at its back. An 8-cell battery
of ever-ready cells provides a current at an E.M.F. of 12 volts.
The lamp has a range in daylight of 2 m. with the naked eye and 3
to 4 m. with the telescope, and at night of 6 m. with the naked eye
and twice that distance with the telescope.
The signalling shutter is also a development of the position-war-
fare phase of the war. It consists of three flaps of American cloth
which are black on one side and white on the other. At the back of
the shutter are metal clips by which the device can be attached to
an ordinary bayonet. The flaps are normally closed with the black
side outermost, but by pulling on the operating cord they are pulled
down and the white exposed. On releasing the cord the flaps spring
back to their original position. When not in use the instrument can
be rolled up and stowed in a canvas case.
Message-carrying Agencies. Of these the most important are
(a) despatch riders, mounted orderlies, or runners; (6) carrier
pigeons; (c) message-carrying rockets; (d) dogs; (e) aircraft.
(a) For use in rear of brigade headquarters the motor cyclist
despatch rider is invaluable. A feature of the modern signal service
is the organized D.R.L.S. which deals with all official correspondence
too urgent for post and not sufficiently urgent for the telegraph.
Within brigades, divisions, and in cavalry units and formations,
mounted orderlies are often used for conveying messages and this is
true of all formations in country impassable to motor cyclists. In
the forward battle zone the runner is the last resource of the for-
ward commander. His use should, however, be restricted to occa-
sions when all other means of signalling have failed or are unreliable,
for casualties amongst runners are many and men suitable for this
duty are not too common.
(5) The pigeon has proved its value for position-warfare condi-
tions during the war. The pigeon service is controlled from corps
headquarters and messages from the trenches will usually reach the
battalion via brigade or divisional headquarters. The employment
of pigeons with tanks and artillery is an important branch of the
pigeon service. New developments are their delivery to isolated or
front-line posts by aeroplane and parachute, and the teaching of
pigeons to fly by night. In the latter case the birds are kept in red
light and are flown to a loft where the trap is illuminated by a pow-
erful arc or acetylene light.
(c) Message-carrying rockets with a range of 2,300 yd. have been
adopted as a standard means of signalling. Their course through
the air is outlined by a trail of smoke and their position at the end
of their flight by a coloured flare automatically lighted at the
moment of impact with the ground.
(d) The use of the messenger dog is likely to be confined to posi-
tion warfare. These dogs have done good service on occasion, but
are likely to find their vocation only in stationary warfare or
during a very methodical deployment for battle.
(e) In certain phases of a battle the aeroplane is the only trust-
worthy or even possible intermediary between troops and com-
mand. Apart from wireless telegraphy, messages can be communi-
cated to the aeroplane by visual signalling, or if of a simple conven-
tional character, by means of the ground panels used for the notifi-
cation of positions, while, from the aeroplane to the ground, the most
secure method yet discovered is to drop a written message, provided
with long streamers, on to selected " dropping grounds " contiguous
to the headquarters concerned.
Notification Signals. Light and smoke signals are made use of
as occasion directs and a plentiful supply will be held in store.
These are used, under prearranged schemes, for such purposes as
calling for barrage or protective fire; notifying positions of forward
troops; answering one-way messages, etc. The manufacture of dis-
tinctive flares, and light signals generally, has been carried to a
very high degree of perfection.
Acoustic signals have not been generally successful with the
exception of the Klaxon horn in aircraft. Special sirens and horns
for calling attention to gas attacks and other general alarms have
been much used, but an attempt made by the French to signal by
means of tuned acoustic horns was not very successful. The noises
of a modern battle are such as to handicap this method of convey-
ing information very greatly.
(6) The French Signal Service. The French intercommunica-
tion service at the outbreak of war differed from the British in
being in two separate compartments a telephone system con-
trolled by the engineers, and a runner and despatch rider service
under entirely separate direction. In addition there existed a
motor service with the maintenance of liaison between units as
its chief duty. The absence of the telegraph in forward forma-
tions threw much extra work on the remaining personnel, and
caused a consequent increase in the proportion of despatch riders,
runners, and orderlies. Construction personnel was in the main
kept in the rear and sent forward only when actually required,
according to exigencies.
The greatest reliance was placed upon the ringing telephone
even in the forward area, and this statement is true even for 1918,
although time and again the forward telephone system had been
swept away in hopeless ruin by the bombardments which pre-
ceded the great position battles. In the rear, the very complete
telephone network with an excellent system of locality exchanges
served all purposes very well, whether in the normal stationary
warfare, in the pressure of traffic before or during an attack from a
trench system, or in the hurry of an advance or retreat on a con-
siderable scale. In the last-named case as the attacking armies
very soon outran the major portion of their heavy artillery, these
well-built lines stood well, and the French system of locality
exchanges served the retreating divisions as well as it had served
the corps and armies for which it had been originally built.
In the forward area the French signal service was faced with a
somewhat different problem from that which confronted the Brit-
ish. Serving a professional staff and a conscript army, far more
accustomed to mass manoeuvres than the British armies, a
relatively far greater proportion of attention could be paid to
getting back information from the front than orders forward to
the front. The absence of the telegraph had also taught the for-
ward staffs to rely more upon the spoken word and to dispense
to a great extent with those written explanations and confirma-
tions of orders which were considered essential to the British
staff procedure.
The British subordinate commander was often able to act upon
his own initiative; his French equivalent was not only able but
expected to do so to a much greater degree. The result was a far
greater use of one-way working, and to this was perhaps due the
fact that the power buzzer essentially a one-way instrument
was first developed in the French army.
A further feature as regards signal policy and practice was a
tendency to confine forward routes to front-to-rear routes only.
All lateral h'aison was by liaison officers, despatch riders, or run-
ners. When a British division was working next the French, the
position always involved responsibility for two lateral routes
SIGNAL SERVICE, ARMY
instead of one. 1 Not only did the French not employ lateral
lines, but it was only under suasion that they would make use of
them when provided.
The front-to-rear forward routes were mainly of buried cable,
though shallow splinter-proof and traffic-proof trenches and narrow
open trenches were also employed. " Comic " airline, that is air-
jine built with improvised poles and other stores, which was an
invention of the British army, was also adopted by the French,
but the latter placed more reliance on fairly heavy routes of poled
cable, especially of 7 or 8 cables slung together on pickets 3 to 4 ft.
high, a method seldom employed in British divisions except when
working in French areas, but which proved very satisfactory when
used by a British corps in the advance from the Marne in July 1918.
A further divergence of practice was the concentration upon
continuous wave wireless to the exclusion of spark wireless for for-
ward command purposes which was the outstanding characteristic
of the forward French wireless service. In 1918, continuous wave
wireless was used for command purposes in armies, corps, and divi-
sions and the wireless system achieved a considerable measure of
success in the final advances of the autumn. This was the logical
outcome of the fact that, on the Allied side, the French were through-
put the pioneers of the development of the 3-electrode valve and
its application to practical war problems. In no army were the
research departments of the signal service keener or better directed.
The chief triumph achieved was the designing of such a valve of a
much more robust type than any previously produced. This valve,
known as the " French " valve, became the standard equipment for
the majority of the forward wireless and listening sets both in the
French and British armies. (R. E. P.)
(7) The German Signal Service. In the German army before
1914 the signal service formed part of the " Communication
Troops " ( Verkehrstrupperi) which had been separated from the
engineers for some years. Six Prussian, one Saxon and two Bava-
rian telegraph battalions existed, and these units, as well as the
regimental signal personnel, were trained principally in the buz-
zer telephone. Wireless telegraphy was provided for by separate
detachments, in principle destined for G.H.Q., army headquar-
ters, cavalry formations, and important fortresses. The only
other means in use by the signal service of the field army of 1914
was the visual apparatus (Blinkgerat), but this was not regarded
as having any value in battle, for which the intention was to
depend on good tactical and technical handling of the telephones.
The strength of the signal service in peace was about 8,500,
increased on mobilization to 26,000, and at its maximum in the
winter of 1917-8 the establishment reached 192,000. This was
nearly an eightfold increase in numbers, but as the number of
formations provided with signal units had itself increased, it is
more instructive to compare the signal personnel of an army of
given strength in 1914 and 1917-8. In the former year, a Ger-
man army of 12 divisions had about 1,900 signal personnel, and
in the latter (nominally) some 9,300. Comparison of these figures
with those given above for a British army of 6 divisions in 1914
and in 1918 shows that the German army was at the outset less
well-provided than the British, as was indeed to be expected from
the long tradition of colonial wars of the latter. At the end of
the World War, however, the German signals were, nominally,
slightly superior in numbers to the British, though in practice, as
the German system assigned to signals certain duties that were
not so assigned in the British organization, the strengths or
rather establishments were about equal for a given force. 2
In the first German operations in the western theatre in 1914,
intercommunication was in principle by the telephones of the signal
service from supreme command to brigade headquarters and by the
telephones of the regimental signalling sections (at first, eight men
per battalion) farther forward. The flag was also in use, but, as in
the British service, it soon disappeared when tested by war. Between
the supreme command and armies and cavalry formations, wireless
telegraphy especially in the later stages of the advance to the
Marne, when the army telephone detachments failed to keep up
with the march was the principal means of communication and
was supplemented by missions of staff officers carried in motor
cars. It is admitted by all German critics that this liaison proved far
too loose, and its defects are considered to have contributed very
largely (some say, principally) to the defeat of the Marne. The for-
1 With British formations amongst themselves the convention
was for each to open and to maintain communication with its left-
hand neighbour.
* Throughout this comparison, regimental signalling personnel
is ignored.
493
ward telephones, on the other hand, in corps signal and in regi-
mental charge, met the demands made on them, to the surprise, it
appears, of the army generally, which at the outset had little faith
in the utility of technical aids on the battlefield and believed the
runner or despatch rider to be the only really trustworthy means of
intercommunication. The reconnoitring cavalry was particularly
well equipped with telephones, and used a light wire, enamelled to
give some degree of insulation to the line in wet weather.
Common to all branches of the intercommunication service was
the principle of building from front to rear. Army detachments
were responsible for making connexion with the supreme command,
corps detachments with army headquarters, and so on. The western
campaign of Aug. and Sept. 1914 demonstrated almost at once that
this principle was unsound, but only after the penalty for imperfect
liaison had been paid.
In the eastern campaigns of 1914-5, and to some extent also in
the Rumanian campaign of 1916, conditions imposed upon the Ger-
mans radical departures from pre-war regulations. Firstly, the sig-
nal units of Hindenburg's armies of 1914 were largely improvised,
like many other services and even combatant troops in the East.
Secondly, the sparseness of communications and the difficulty of
movement compelled the German command from the first to manipu-
late its signal resources in accordance with the operations in hand
or in prospect instead of attempting a schematic layout of lines to
all formations alike. Thirdly, the initial mobile warfare conditions
continued in the East for more than a year of constant campaigning,
and at a later stage, the Rumanian campaign came to prevent the les-
sons of open warfare from being forgotten. Lastly, the operations
began on friendly territory and the policy of the signal service was
to build forward from the home telegraph system. These condi-
tions led to (a) enhanced importance of wireless telegraphy, (6)
economy of cable, and the use of airline close up to the front, (c) the
return to telegraphy for work in rear of corps and even division head-
quarters, and consequently the development of quick-writing tele-
graph instruments, 3 and (d) the principle of concentrating both wire
and wireless communication on a central route connecting a head-
quarters with a forward report centre (Meldekopf, report-head) in
the region of the advanced guard, a principle which, for quite differ-
ent reasons, came into honour later on the western front. The
importance of wireless was again emphasized in the Balkan cam-
paign of 1915 and the Rumanian campaign of the following year, in
which also the visual apparatus rendered good service.
In the position-warfare campaigns of the West, evolution
speaking very generally followed the same course on the German
side as on the British, similar difficulties and problems naturally
suggesting similar remedies. It has already been noted that the
numerical growth of the signal service in relation to other arms was
approximately the same in the two armies. As regards organization,
an important difference was that on the German side the basis of
classification was, to the end, the instrument used and not the
formation served. Although the signal service branches were com-
bined in one corps of Nachrichtentruppen in May 1917, this was sub-
divided at all echelons into telephone units, wireless units, and visual
units. The first-named were responsible for telephones and tele-
graphs (the latter being largely employed from division head-
quarters rearward), the wireless detachments for wireless of all kinds
and power buzzers, and the visual detachments for the Blinkgerat.
Moreover, the listening sets, the pigeons and the dogs, were all
organized administratively as separate sections of the corps. But in
each headquarters, from supreme command to divisions inclusive,
the Nachnchtenkommandeur was a member of the formation staff
and was responsible not only for the command of his own units but
also for communication arrangements and procedure generally
within the formation, including regimental signallers of infantry,
cavalry and artillery, in his capacity as a staff officer. The control
and manning of aircraft wireless stations was also in the hands of the
signal service, as well as wireless police and wireless intelligence,
and (again in his capacity as a staff officer) the divisional signal
commander performed many functions that in a British division
were assigned to the intelligence officer.
The possibility of applying the recently discovered "audion," or
3-electrode valve, to the purpose of overhearing the opponent's tele-
phone conversations was first realized by the Germans, and the
success of this innovation may be said to have revolutionized signal
practice on both sides during the war. It made closed metallic
circuits in the forward lines and strict telephone discipline essen-
tial, and, further, from the listening set there came the " earth tele-
graph " (power buzzer) which played so important a part in the
signalling of all armies in the last two years of the war. But, quite
as important as these applications of the 3-electrode valve was its
effect on wireless telegraphy through the air. It made possible the
change from the spark to the continuous wave system, by providing
(a) an intensifier for small, weak receivers such as those of trench
and aeroplane sets, and (b) the means of very sharp tuning which
allowed of many sets being employed together in a restricted area
without mutual interference. Satisfactory trench wireless apparatus
on the continuous wave system was designed in 1915 and used in
3 The Siemens Schnellfernschreiber is said to be capable of dealing
with 1,000 letters a minute.
494
SILESIA, UPPER
the battle of Verdun in April igie. 1 A further development, made
necessary by the adoption of elastic defence tactics in lieu of hold-
ing denned trench lines, was the so-called " shellhole " set, which
comprised aerial, receiver, transmitter and source of power in a unit
weighing only 40 pounds. In elastic defence the visual apparatus
also played a useful part.
In trench warfare proper, the Germans did not employ buried
cable to the same extent as the British. Their remedy for constant
cutting of lines was to put the cables in open trenches sufficiently
deep to save them from traffic, and to devote the greater part of the
available labour to providing thorough protection for offices, and
especially for repair squads. Cable-throwing mortars and messen-
ger dogs carrying reels of self-unwinding cable were occasionally
employed to lay lines in conditions of special difficulty. An apparatus
known as the " Utel," analogous to the British fullerphone, was
evolved to meet the overhearing danger. The visual Blinkgerdt,
message-carrying projectiles and rockets, and especially pigeons,
were used to supplement the telephone and the wireless communica-
tions, as in the armies of the Entente. Unexpectedly good results
were obtained with messenger dogs, powerful and intelligent wolflike
animals,' specially trained and carefully bred.
For the great offensive battle of March 21 1918, the experiences
both of the eastern and the western fronts were drawn upon.
Between army and corps headquarters, and also between corps and
division, the principle of the central route with a Meldekopf, to
which all forward units made their connexion, was adopted. For the
forward units special arrangements were made for transport and
routes over the shellhole area. The wireless units were reorganized
to permit of great subdivision, and the divisional wireless troop was
equipped with its own transport. Visual apparatus was similarly
made mobile and self-supporting, and a system of light, smoke,
and other recognition signals completed the preparation for battle.
In spite of losses and friction telephonic communication was suc-
cessfully kept up as far forward as regimental headquarters during
the first days of the offensive. Thereafter, however, the telephone
system broke down owing to the inability of the sections to main-
tain their lines against the enemy's shell fire and even more the
ceaseless movement of transport in the ever-deepening battle zone.
Pigeons, even, could finally only be got to the front units by means
of aeroplanes. Earth telegraphy failed for want of range; message-
carrying projectiles and dogs for the same reason were only occa-
sionally useful, and in the later rapid stages of the advance inter-
communication from front to rear depended almost entirely upon
wireless telegraphy and upon simple notification signals (such as
panels shown to aircraft, light and smoke signals of agreed mean-
ing) in the hands of the troops themselves. The wireless system was
based on the divisional central route, which was maintained by two
powerful units, each alternately keeping up communication between
Meldekopf and headquarters and moving forward to a new, more
advanced Meldekopf. The small wireless sets distributed in the
front zone, the other reporting agencies, and the staffs, made their
connexion with the head of this extending route wherever it hap-
pened to be at any moment, while the telephone units, largely rein-
forced by fresh units hitherto reserved at the disposal of the supreme
command and aided by captured material, followed on with airline.
This system served its purpose, and the efforts of the signal service
were rewarded by special mention in the communique of March 26,
but normal signal traffic did not become possible again till the
advance had slowed dc^vn sufficiently to enable the telephone units
to catch it up.
In their rearward signal communications, the Germans made much
use of Pupin coils to bring their iron wire (adopted from motives of
economy) up to the technical efficiency of copper wire, and also to
increase the efficiency of the jatter for long distance telephony.
Direct telephonic communication between the German and the
Turkish supreme commands was opened in 1917. The use of quick-
writing telegraph instruments has already been alluded to.
(C. F. A.)
(8) United States Army. In the United States army, the
signal corps has been a separate organization for many years.
The units into which it was organized in 1917-8, apart from those
serving in the " S.O.S." or lines of communication in France,
were of two main classes, field signal battalions and telegraph
battalions. To an army were assigned two telegraph battalions
and one field signal battalion; to each corps were assigned one
telegraph battalion and one field signal battalion; and to each
division, one field signal battalion. The telegraph battalions
consisted of two companies each, while the field signal battalions
each consisted of three companies, a wire company, a radio com-
pany, and an outpost company, the latter battalions including
470 men. The outpost company was responsible for commu-
1 The experiment was very successful, but the higher authorities
for some time refused to allow the general adoption of trench wire-
less on the ground that it involved a reduction of infantry strength.
But a stronger motive was no doubt the fear of interception.
nication at and in advance of infantry brigade headquarters
working in four regimental sections in position warfare and in
two brigade sections in mobile warfare. The radio company was
equipped for all types of radio communication within the divi-
sional area. The wire company constructed and operated the
normal system of communications between the division head-
quarters and the artillery headquarters between the former and
infantry regimental headquarters. The corps and army signal
units were responsible for maintaining and operating lines for-
ward to the next subordinate headquarters and to certain troops
of their own respective headquarters. 2
A distinct feature of the work of the United States army signal
corps was the tendency for the preponderate use of the telephone
over the telegraph and the very full and wide provision of telephone
facilities. This characteristic is due to the fact that in the United
States, the telephone organization is highly developed and the
" telephone habit " wide-spread amongst all classes. Hence there
would be a wider demand for such facilities, a greater familiarity in
operating under circumstances of heavy traffic, and a greater manu-
facturing capacity for producing telephone equipment, than in the
case of other countries.
The signal corps also included the meteorological, the pigeon and
the radio direction-finding service and, until late in the war, the
aviation service of the United States army.
SILESIA, UPPER. It was provided in 1919 by the Peace of
Versailles (Art. 88) that the inhabitants of Upper Silesia (pop.
in 1919, 2,280,902) should be called upon to decide by a plebis-
cite whether they would belong to Germany or Poland (see
PEACE CONFERENCE). It should be noted that for the purpose of
the plebiscite the purely German districts of Falkenberg (pop.
37,526), Grotthau (pop. 40,610), Neisse (pop. 7,781), part of
Neustadt (pop. 25,000) and Hultschin (pop. 45,552), situated
in the northern and western parts of Upper Silesia and represent-
ing a total population of about 156,469, were excluded. Up to
the day of the plebiscite the supreme authority in the plebisci-
tary area was to be vested in an Inter-Allied Commission, consist-
ing of one representative of France, Great Britain and Italy
respectively. In this commission France was represented by
Gen. Lerond, England by Col. Percival, and Italy by Gen. de
Marini. On Feb. i 1920 Allied troops occupied the plebiscitary
district. The local German officials were then subordinated to
the Inter-Allied authorities. The German police (Sicherheits-
polizei) was replaced by a special polling police (Abstimmungs-
polizei), which was composed half of German-speaking, half of
Polish-speaking, Upper Silesians.
On the whole the collaboration of the Inter-Allied control and
the German officials proved satisfactory; but various differences
arose, such as that which led to a strike of judges in May 1920.
Both the Poles (under Korfanty) and the Germans opened an
active canvassing campaign; and under Polish pressure the Ger-
mans in the southern and eastern districts were subjected to
oppressive treatment. On Aug. 19 1920 the Poles felt strong
enough, indeed, to make an attempt to seize the country by
force. On all sides bands of Poles, chiefly recruited from Con-
gress Poland, usurped authority. A number of Germans were
forcibly carried across the frontier into Poland, and many were
killed. Several weeks elapsed before it was possible to quell this
rising and restore order. In the autumn of 1920 there was an
exchange of notes between Germany and the Entente relating
to the manner in which the plebiscite should be taken. It had
been suggested by the Entente that the non-resident Upper
Silesians of the German Reich should vote outside Upper Silesia,
at Cologne. Germany protested against this, and her protest was
recognized as valid by the Entente. In Jan. 1921 the date of the
plebiscite was fixed for March 20 1921. An immediate revival
took place in the use of terrorism by the Poles, especially in the
districts of Rybnik, Pless, Kattowitz and Beuthen. It reached
its climax in the days preceding the plebiscite. Voters from other
parts of the German Reich were frequently refused admission to
z ln comparing the strength of these organizations with those of
other armies, it must be remembered that the United States army
division was much stronger than the corresponding unit of other
armies. It comprised two infantry brigades each of two 3-battalion
regiments and one artillery brigade of two field and one medium
artillery regiments besides other divisional troops.
SILESIA, UPPER
495
the polls; sometimes they were maltreated and even in some
instances murdered; and houses where outvoters were staying
were set on fire. The day of the plebiscite passed, however, with-
out disturbance except at a few places, such as Rybnik and Pless.
The day after the plebiscite the Polish excesses recommenced,
and from that date onwards continued without interruption;
nor was the Inter-Allied Commission able as a rule to prevent
them. The poll showed 717,122 votes for Germany and 483,514
for Poland. In 664 districts there was a German, in 597 a Polish
majority. Practically all the towns voted for Germany. There
was a Polish majority in the following administrative districts
Rybnik, Pless, Beuthen, Tarnowitz and Gross-Strehlitz. The
decision of the Inter- Allied Commission as to the allocation of the
disputed regions to Germany or to Poland was delayed on ac-
count of differences which arose within the commission itself;
the French representative, Lerond, who had from the first been
accused of tacitly supporting the Poles, wished to allot the whole
of southern and eastern Upper Silesia to them, while the English
and Italian representatives wished to apportion the industrial
region to Germany. Protracted diplomatic negotiations between
Paris, London and Rome did not lead to any result. At the end
of April a report became current that the Council of Ambassa-
dors at Paris had determined to give only the districts of Rybnik
and Pless to Poland. In consequence of this rumour the first
days of May witnessed a new Polish insurrection which assumed
far greater proportions than the former one. Korfanty had
secretly raised a well-organized Polish force which was provided
with arms and munition from across the frontier, and was rein-
forced by large bodies of men from Poland. With these troops he
occupied the whole south-eastern part of Upper Silesia, on a line
extending from the S. of the district of Kreuzburg through Gross-
Strehlitz to the Oder in the south. He nominated himself dicta-
tor of the districts under Polish occupation, took over the admin-
istration, and treated even the Allied officials with such scant
consideration that they were obliged to withdraw to Oppeln and
the regions that were not occupied by the Poles. It was only in
the larger towns, where there was a German majority, that the
Allied troops, supported by the German population were able
to maintain themselves. A further advance on the part of the
Poles was prevented by the German Defence Force (Selbstschutz)
under Gen. Hofer, which was composed of Upper Silesians and
Germans who poured in from other parts of the Reich. There
was severe fighting between the German Defence Force and the
Poles, especially in the districts of Ratibor and Gross-Strehlitz.
Colonel Percival, the British representative, was obliged to
resign owing to ill-health, and was succeeded by Sir Harold
Stuart. Attempts on the part of the Inter-Allied Commission to
put an end to the insurrection by negotiations with Korfanty
were unsuccessful, and the Allies were compelled to despatch
reinforcements of French and British troops, under the command
of Gen. Heneker, to Upper Silesia. After lengthy negotiations
with the German Defence Force, which refused to withdraw
unless guarantees were secured that the Poles would first quit the
field, an agreement was ultimately effected with regard to the
evacuation. By June 20 the British troops had again occupied
the larger towns, while the Poles had the upper hand in the rural
districts. As a result of the difficulties in paying his men and
providing them with food Korfanty now lost control over his
followers. Independent bands were formed which plundered the
villages, ill-treated the Germans, and murdered many of them.
In the industrial districts work in many of the mines and iron
works came to a standstill, because imports of raw material and
exports of coal had become impossible. By the end of June the
loss suffered by the industrial region was estimated at 3 milliard
marks; and there seemed to be no prospect of the restoration of
tranquillity.
The French adhered to their contention that the greater part
of the industrial region should be assigned to Poland. Great
Britain, on the other hand, firmly maintained the view that such
a partition would, as Mr. Lloyd George publicly expressed it, be
" unfair " to Germany on the basis of the Treaty of Versailles
and the result of the plebiscite. There were at one time three
rival proposals for partition: (a) the Korfanty line, the extreme
Polish demand; (b) the Sforza line, a proposal put forward by the
then Italian Foreign Minister; (c) and the British proposal giving
Poland only the south-eastern corner with the towns and dis-
tricts of Pless and Rybnik. France was ultimately left in a
minority of one on the Supreme Council, Italy and Japan having
adhered to the British view. After prolonged debates and open
differences among the principal Allied Powers on the subject of
the partition, it was at last arranged, at a Paris conference in
Aug. 1921, that the solution should be entrusted to a Commission
of the Council of the League of Nations. This commission was
ultimately constituted by the representatives of Japan, Brazil,
China, Spain and Belgium, with the Japanese representative,
Baron lishi, as chairman. (C. K.*)
On Oct. 20 1921, the text was published of the documents
containing the award of the League of Nations on the partition
empen Territory assigned
Vielun to Germany
Territory assigned i. v/ .
to Poland
Boundary of
ttJtjcs. Plebiscite Area -___
Czenstochowa
Eli)(sau
ophanowi
Scale of miles
10 20
Upper Silesia Frontier, 1921
of Upper Silesia. The proposed new frontier line between Ger-
many and Poland was as shown by the appended Map. The
division here made in the industrial area, previously German,
was such that the Council of the League of Nations declared it to
be desirable, however, that measures should be taken to guarantee
the continuity of the economic life of the region during a pro-
visional period of readjustment, and to provide for the protection
of minorities. It was recommended, therefore, that a general
convention for this purpose should be concluded between Ger-
many and Poland, so as to place Upper Silesia under a special
regime during the transitional period, and that an " Upper
Silesian Mixed Commission " should be set up as an advisory
body, composed of an equal number of Germans and Poles, with
a president of some other nationality to be designated by the
Council of the League, together with an arbitral tribunal for
settling private disputes occasioned by the temporary measures.
The provisional or transitional period was to be 15 years, and
certain stipulations were laid down by the League of Nations for
the economic arrangements during that period in the " plebiscite
area." (l) Railway and tramway systems, privately owned or
municipal, were to continue under the terms of their concessions,
and the German State railways were to be put under a joint system
of operation. Railway rates were to be uniform. The State in-
surance of employees in the Silesian railway system was to be
undertaken by that system. A single Accounts Office was to be set
up for the whole system. Expenses of new construction to be
charged to a separate account, and borne by the State in whose
territory it was carried out ; the working capital for operation to be
496
SILVER
lent by the German State, and interest charged to the account of
this system ; profits or deficits to be divided between the two coun-
tries in proportion to the length of line and amount of traffic be-
longing to each. (2) The German mark was to be the only legal
unit of currency, and Poland was to recognize the rights of the
Reichsbank, for a period not exceeding 15 years, but by agreement
the two Governments might modify this arrangement earlier. (3)
While the German monetary system was maintained in the Polish
zone, the postal telegraph and telephone charges should be in
German currency. (4) The customs frontier would coincide with the
political frontier, and the German and Polish customs law would
apply, with certain exceptions. For 6 months, incoming goods from
other countries, on which German or Polish duties had been paid
previously to the partition, should cross the frontier without duty.
For 15 years, natural products originating or coming from one of the
two zones of the plebiscite area and destined for consumption in the
other should cross the frontier free of duty. For six months, raw,
half-manufactured and unfinished products of industrial establish-
ments in one zone, destined for industrial establishments in the
other, should cross free of duty; and this should continue for_ 15
years when the products, as finished, were intended for free im-
portation into the country of origin. Natural or manufactured
products originating in the Polish zone should, on importation into
the German customs territory, be exempt from duty for three
years from the date of the frontier-delineation. As regards export,
the two countries should facilitate for 15 years the export of such
products as were indispensable for industry in either zone. (5) Po-
land was to permit, for 15 years, the exportation to Germany of the
products of the coal mines in the Polish zone, and Germany similarly
to Poland in respect of the mines in the German zone. (6) For the
15 years, any inhabitant regularly domiciled or occupied in the
plebiscite area should receive a " circulation permit " free of pay-
ment, enabling him to cross the frontier without other formalities.
(7) Generally, the two countries should respect private rights.
SILVER (see 25.112). Few subjects of economic importance
present such a phase of the mysterious as silver, and the reason
for this is perhaps not difficult to understand. In the case of the
world's crops, not only are up-to-date and approximately reliable
statistics daily available from the countries of production,
but the countries of consumption see to it that they equally
are in the foreground as to the daily progress of world's crops;
and the manner in which statistics relating to these all-important
subjects are now presented to consuming markets has become
quite an art. For some reason the same attention unfortunately
has not hitherto been and is not even now paid to the produc-
tion of silver. Most excellent statistics are presented annually
by the U.S. Director of the Mint, by the Government of India,
and in pre-war days by the German Mctallgesellschaft, but these
unfortunately are what we may term " post date " figures, and,
whilst of great value in informing the student as to what has been,
they do not tell us what is going on at any given period.
This state of affairs is no doubt due to the great difficulty
which has always been experienced in obtaining definite and
conclusive data as to the production of silver, owing to the fact
that the metal is now chiefly obtained as a by-product and not
from mines worked solely for silver itself. Generally speaking
the most important metals with which silver is associated are
gold, copper, lead and zinc. Gold and silver invariably occur
together. Lead and zinc usually accompany one another, and
the ores carrying these two metals particularly where lead
predominates are frequently fairly rich in silver. Lead and
silver usually form an especially marked combination, whilst
copper is frequently associated with both gold and silver. These
ores are generally described as silver lead, silver lead zinc, silver
zinc and gold silver ores, and the mines producing these ores are
not uncommonly spoken of as silver mines, overlooking the fact
that the ores of the base metal have to be treated by smelting
methods before the silver can be extracted. The quantity
obtained in these ores ranges from about 2 to 50 oz. to the ton.
The production of silver, therefore, may now be said to be
dependent upon that of gold, copper, lead and zinc; and conse-
quently any causes which affect the production of these metals
largely affects the production of silver as a by-product, and the
world's demands for these metals will in a great measure control
the future supplies of silver. Estimates from what are con-
sidered good sources give the percentage of the world's produc-
tion of silver as ranging from 70% from base metal ores and
30 % from precious metal ores.
Table I. World's Production, 1860-1919.
Year
Fine oz.
Year
Fine oz.
i860
29,095,428
1890
126,095,062
1861
35,401,972
1891
137,170,000
1862
35,401,972
1892
153,151,762
1863
35,401,972
1893
165,472,621
1864
35,401,972
1894
164,610,394
1865
35,401,972
1895
167,500,960
1866
43,051,583
1896
157,061,370
1867
43,051,583
1897
160,421,082
1868
43-051,583
1898
169,055,253
1869
43,051,583
1899
168,337,452
1870
43,051,583
1900
173,591,364
1871
63,317,014
1901
173,011,283
1872
63,317,014
1902
162,763,483
1873
63,267,187
1903
167,689,322
1874
55,300,781
1904
164,195,266
1875
62,261,719
1905
172,317,688
1876
67,753,125
1906
165,054,497
1877
62,679,916
1907
184,206,984
1878
73,385,451
1908
203,131,404
1879
74,383,495
1909
212,149,023
1880
74,795,273
1910
221,715,763
1881
79,020,872
1911
226,192,923
1882
86,472,091
1912
224,310,654
1883
89,175,023
1913
223,907,845
1884
81,567,801
1914
168,452,942
1885
91,609,959
1915
184,204,745
1886
93,297,290
1916
168,843,000
1887
96,123,586
1917
174,187,800
1888
108,827,606
1918
198,168,408
1889
120,213,611
1919
174,517,414
In order that an idea may readily be obtained of the centres
from which production is now derived, the figures in Table 2,
from the annual report of the U.S. Director of the Mint (1920),
supplement those given in Table i for production itself.
Table 2. Production of silver (10,000 oz.) by countries.
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
United States
7,246
7,5oo
7,44'
7,174
6,781
5,668
Canada .
2,840
2,660
2,546
2,222
2,128
1,568
Mexico .
2,754
3,950
2,284
3.500
6,252
6,268
Central and
South America .
1,320
i, 660
1,818
I,78l
1,846
i,75l
Europe .
924
1,010
847
651
687
490
Australasia .
1,100
925
1,070
1,000
1,000
743
Asia
554
589
756
970
936
836
Africa
105
118
1 20
118
1 08
127
16,843
18,412
16,882
17,416
19,738
17,451
United States. The production of silver in the United States, the
bulk of which comes from the western states, has always constituted
a high proportion of the world's supply. Generally speaking the
major portion of U.S. silver is obtained from gold, copper, lead and
zinc ores mined in the States and metallurgically treated in that
country. In addition large Quantities of similar ores are imported
from other countries Mexico, Central America, Peru, Bolivia,
Chile and Canada for treatment, and the silver thus resulting goes
to swell the U.S. figures of production of refined silver. The United
States first came into prominence as a large producer in 1859 when
operations on the famous Comstock lode in Nevada began. In 1860
the production was 116,019 oz -, an d m I 9 I 5 the output reached the
high figures of 74,961,075 ounces. The preliminary official estimate
of the production in 1920 was 56,564,504 oz., a reduction of 1 17,941
oz., as compared with that of the preceding year.
On April 23 1918 the Pittman Act became law in America, under
which it is provided that : " The Secretary of the Treasury is hereby
authorized from time to time to melt or break up and sell as bullion
not in excess of 8350,000,000, standard silver dollars now or here-
after held in the Treasury of the United States." This $350,000,000
represented about 270 mill, fine oz., of which the share of India was
reported to have been 200 mill, fine oz., all of which was received
in India between July I 1918 and July 17 1919. The Act also pro-
vided that these sales were to be replaced by purchases of silver
actually mined in the United States at the rate of Si. per oz. pure.
The total purchases by the U.S. Treasury under this Act up to May
17 1921 totalled 54,120,197 oz., thus leaving 145,879,80307., still to
be repurchased.
Mexico. -This country can safely be described as first among silver-
producing countries of the world, in spite of the decreased output of
recent years following upon the outbreak of civil war in 1913. The
silver-bearing ores are widely distributed throughout the country;
the mines and mining districts are exceedingly numerous, and many
of the mines have been in continuous operation for hundreds of
years. In 1911 the mine production of silver was reported as 79,032,-
440 oz. ; in 1914, owing to the civil war, it dropped to 27,546,752
SILVER
oz., but subsequently the output steadily increased up to 1920
As to what the future Mexican production would be time alone couk
prove, but in 1921 good authorities did not hesitate to predict that
given a recognized and stable Government and a reasonable price
it would later exceed that of Mexico's palmiest days.
Canada. The Canadian production of silver hitherto has occu-
pied the third position in the world's list of supplies. The metal is
found chiefly in Ontario, British Columbia, Quebec and Yukon.
The Ontario silver has been almost entirely derived from the silver
ores of Cobalt, which field, however judged from a continually re-
duced output would appear to be working out. The British 'Colum-
bia, Quebec and Yukon supplies are derived mainly from silver, lead
and copper ores. In 1920 reports were coming to hand of discoveries
of further silver-bearing ores which promise important results. In
1900 the total Canadian production was given as 4,468,225 fine oz.,
of which 3,958,175 came from British Columbia; in 1910 the Cana-
dian output had increased to 32,869,264 fine oz., of which Ontario
accounted for 30,366,366, whilst in 1919 the output was reduced to
IS. 6 7S,I34 fine oz., and the 1921 production seemed likely to show a
further reduction.
Central American States. The silver produced in these States
mainly Honduras, Costa Rica and Panama is chiefly derived from
gold-silver ores; the production in 1914 amounted to 2,754,868 fine
oz., and in 1919, according to figures supplied by the director of the
Washington mint, to 2,800,000 fine ounces.
South American States. The countries included under this cate-
gory rank as fourth producers of the metal. In early days the true
silver mines in Peru, Chile and Bolivia ranked amongst the most
important in the world, but as in the case of the older mines of Mexico
they appear to be no longer in operation, and the production is
being chiefly derived from base metal ores copper and tin. In 1917
the production of Peru was reported as 10,865,061 oz., and in 1919 as
9,781,734 ounces. Bolivia in 1902, according to the U.S. mint
reports, gave 12,992,641 fine oz., whilst in 1919 the production had
dropped to 2,435,000 fine ounces. Chile was reported to have
reached 2,349,379 fine oz. in 1900 and 1,900,000 fine oz. in 1919.
Europe. Prior to the World War Germany was looked upon as
the largest producer in Europe, and according to the Metattgesell-
schaft reports, the silver which is chiefly derived from base metal
ores reached a production in 1904 of 5,822,727 fine ounces. The
major portion of the concentrates from which the silver was extracted
came from the Broken Hill mines in Australia.
Spain. Next in Europe to Germany as a producer comes Spain,
whose output of silver is mainly obtained from her important lead
and copper ores. In 1915 her output was given as 4,565,396 fine
oz., whilst in 1919, according to U.S. mint reports, it was stated to
be 2,900,000 fine oz. probably an approximate estimate.
United Kingdom. It is impossible to say what the refinery output
of silver in Great Britain is. It may, however, be stated that it is
practically all obtained from imported ores treated in the country.
The proportion of domestic mined ores is far too small for considera-
tion. The number of refiners engaged in this business is consider-
able, but as they never publish returns, the difficulties experienced
in arriving at anything approaching a reliable figure will be appreci-
ated. According to the ' Census of Production" the total outturn in
the United Kingdom in 1907 was given as about 43,979,000 oz., troy.
Australia. New South Wales stands preeminent as the chief
Australian producer, the silver being mainly obtained from the
wealthy silver lead ores treated at the Broken Hill Works at Port
Pirie. Their output for 1919 has been given as 6,304,818 fine ounces.
Africa. The Transvaal, Cape Colony, and Natal provide the
main output, and the 1919 production has been stated to be 891,304
fine oz., at the same time a not inconsiderable proportion of their
gold-silver ores are shipped to and refined in England.
Asia. The chief countries producing silver are Japan and India.
The production of copper has made great strides in Japan of late
years, and it is chiefly from these ores that her silver is obtained ;
the metal is also obtained from the gold ores mined in Formosa and
Korea. Japan's output of silver in 1917 was reported at 6,844,500
fine ounces.
The Indian output is chiefly derived from the mines in Upper
Burma belonging to the Burma Corp. Ltd., and the production from
Jan. to Oct. 1920 amounted to as much as 2,014,261 oz., and it was
said that 1,000,000 oz., per month would in the future be a very
possible outturn. What India ultimately would be able to produce
must remain problematical, but there is no question whatever about
India's potential mineral wealth, which only requires time to develop.
Consumption of Silver. Although great difficulties are expe-
rienced in obtaining definite data as to production, that prob-
lem is relatively simple in comparison with the consumption
side of the subject. Briefly stated, consumption may be dis-
cussed from four standpoints the respective world nations'
coinages, their arts, and the requirements of India and China,
and it is here that the absence of readily obtainable and reliable
information is felt. In the case of America the admirable figures
annually presented by the U.S. director of the mint, in so far as
America is concerned, supply the following information:
497
American silver coinage.
1918 35,004,450 fine oz.
1919 14,682,079 '
1920 19,763,600 " "
Industrial arts.
Silver consumed Of which new material
1917 27,039,845 fine oz. 15,998,807 fine oz.
1918 36,252,596 ' 26,722,333 " "
1919 32,700,521 ' 26,237,519 " "
As regards the coinage requirements of other nations, a most
remarkable reversal of conditions has arisen. Prior to the World
War the annual requirements for such purposes probably
amounted to 70,000,000 oz. at least. In 1921 that was all changed,
and the spectacle was presented of a great number of countries
demonetizing silver as quickly as possible, and / or reducing the
fineness of their silver coinages. England had reduced hers from
925 to 500, and the Straits Settlements from 900 to 500. The
quantity of silver which had already been placed on the market,
though somewhat problematical, was probably 50,000,000 oz.,
with a fairly safe estimate of as much more to follow.
As regards the world's requirements for arts, it may be safe
to say that the majority of European countries were in 1921 in
far too impecunious a position owing to the war to become real
factors under this heading for many years to come in fact, the
majority had been and still were sellers of silver ware.
Table 3. Silver coin and bullion imported into and exported from
British India, 1887-1919. (British standard ounces.)
Fiscal yr.
ended
March 31.
Imported
Exported
Net Imports
1887-8
37,877,141
5,994,542
32,782,599
1888-9
1889-90
37,844,665
43,940,659
5,408,636
5,296,885
32,436,029
38,643,774
1890-1
56,190,870
4,661,785
51,529,085
1891-2
38,177,580
5,829,142
32,348,438
1892-3
54,180,144
8,656,632
45,523,512
1893-4
1894-5
60,328,296
32,638,069
5,999,323
5,598,047
54,328,973
27,040,022
1895-6
34,082,810
7,064,731
27,018,079
1896-7
37,520,322
11,591,234
25,929,088
1897-8
68,535,612
24,250,995
44,284,617
1898-9
49,226,780
26,061,355
23,165,425
1899-1900
50,663,542
32,017,260
18,646,282
1900-1
64,746,549
I5,3",385
49,435,164
1901-2
66,726,972
27,721,780
39,005,192
1902-3
75,569,185
32,294,876
42,274,309
1903-4
104,324,765
25,142,629
79,182,136
1904-5
98,118,908
23,769,313
74,349,595
1905-6
88,853,079
4,535,314
84,317,765
1906-7
125,878,008
7,679,151
118,198,857
1907-8
106,358,274
8,442,915
97,915,359
1908-9
85,048,761
11,308,630
73,740,131
1909-10
75,501,745
14,486,993
61,0+4,752
1910-1
69,272,319
14,396,030
54,876,289
1911-2
70,378,747
38,149,647
32,229,100
1912-3
107,190,427
16,112,785
91,077,642
I9I3-4
79,834,999
8,727,648
71,107,351
I9I4-5
64,160,128
8,394,005
55,766,123
1915-6
39,833-279
6,900,906
32,932,373
1916-7
116,959,115
24,765,309
92,193,806
1917-8
88,814,458
14,282,960
74,531,498
1918-9
241,747,806
4,7i9,i87
In studying the figures for British India (Table 3) very great
care is necessary to discriminate between what represents
Government and what private imports, as the Government
3gures are for coinage purposes entirely. The need for this will
ae apparent when it is realized that out of the figures given in
Table 3 for the years 1912 to 1919 Government coinage require-
ments were:
Standard oz.
1912-3 56,057,978
'913-4 ; 35,425,057
I9H-5 169,342
1915-6 302,259
1916-7 109,522,499
'917-8 79,404,555
1918-9 237,189,080
As the stock of silver held by the Government of India in their
currency reserve, according to the return dated May 22 1921,
SIMON, SIR J. A.
amounted to Rs. 66,41,00,000 against an average for the five
pre-war years, 1910-4, of Rs. 21,99,00,000 it may safely be
assumed that they were not likely to be purchasers of the metal
for some years to come.
As regards China's consumption, it is an almost hopeless task
to supply anything approaching reliable data. The figures in
Table 4, however, taken from the Chinese Maritime Customs
reports may be taken as approximately correct they are, how-
ever, given in Haikwan taels.
Table 4. China.
Imports
Exports
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
861,167 ta
818,827
19,903,117
13,871,778
1,228,342
51,078,643
50,966,880
els
13,861,917 ta
18,211,040
8,102,268
5-024,575
2,281,659
9,896,429
68,469,360
els
Imports into Hong Kong for the year 1920 were reported to
be the equivalent of 7,049,700 the greater portion of which was
probably dealt with by the mint in Canton. The stocks of silver
held in Shanghai on Dec. 31 of the following years are shown in
Table 5. The increase in stocks in 1920 over 1919 viz, taels
15,460,000, and dollars 18,420,000 represents the equivalent
of an increase of about 31,030,820 ounces.
Table 5. Stock at Shanghai.
Taels
Dollars
Bar SiUcr
1917
1918
1919
1920
21,760,000
18,860,000
19,140,000
34,600,000
14, 040, o<x>
13,470,000
11,260,000
29,680,000
357
4
242
nil
Prices. Table 6 gives the highest, lowest and average price
of bar silver in London per oz., British standard 925 fine
since 1833, from which it will be seen that the highest quotation
recorded since 1833 was 8g|d. in 1920, the next highest being
79id. in 1919, 62fd. in 1859 and 62jd. in 1864. Though the
highest point reached was in 1920, the average quotation for
that year was only 6ii|d. against averages in 1859 of 62 Ad. and
6i|d. in 1864, which would point to more stable conditions
existing in the silver market in the years 1859 and 1864 than in
1920. To the years 1902 and 1903 belong the honour of recording
the lowest prices, viz. 2i}d., whilst the lowest average goes to
1915 with 23d. followed by 1909 with 23fd. When the Pitt-
man Act became law in the United States, good authorities,
not only in America but in England, made bold to assert that the
result of this Act would be to stabilize the world's price of silver
at not less than $i per oz., for many years to come, whilst Senator
Pittman went further and predicted that the world's price would
range between $i and $1.29 the parity of the American silver
dollar for the next 20 years. The spot price in London on June
i 1921, was 33 Jd., and the price in America on the same date for
foreign mined silver was 60 cents nominal.
Table 6. Highest, lowest, and average price of bar silver in
London, per oz. (British standard 0.925) from 1833 to 1920.
Year
Highest
pence
Lowest
pence
Average
pence
1833
59%
5%
59%
1834
60%
59%
599?
1835
60
59%
59%
1836
60 %
59%
60
1837
6oy s
59
59%
1838
60 3^3
59%
1839
60%
60
6oy s
1840
60%
60%
1841
1842
1843
<x> 3 A
60
59%
59%
59%
59
60%
59%
59%
1844
59%
59%
1845
59%
59 %
1846
60%
59
59%
1847
60%
59%
1848
60
58%
59%
1849
60
59%
59%
1850
61%
59%
60%
Table 6. Continued.
Year
Highest
pence
Lowest
pence
Average
pence
1851
6lR
60
61
1852
6l
59^
6oJ^
1853
6l
60%
61 H
1854
6iH
60 %
6iH
1855
6iM
60
6i
1856
62 X
6oy 2
61 K
i857
62 3 A
61
61
1858
(>i%
60%
6lK
1859
62%
61%
6a
i860
62*A
618
61%
1861
6i
6oy 8
6o!?js
1862
62^
61
6i
1863
6ij|
61
6i^g
1864
62 y 2
60%
6iM
1865
61%
(x>y 2
6l
1866
62%
6oy s
61}^
1867
61%
(x>y a
6oM
1868
6ij|
6oy s
60^
1869
61
60
60 J6
1870
60%
60^
60%
1871
61
60%
60^
1872
6iM
59%
6o>(J
1873
59%
57%
59?f
1874
59 1 A
57 1 A
58
1875
1876
57 & A
5y*
55%
46%
56%
52 M
1877
58%
53 1 A
54%
1878
55%
49 %
52%
1879
53
58%
5iM
1880
52%
51*2
52^
1881
52 y*
50%
51%
1882
52 3 A
So
5iH
1883
51%
50%
50%
1884
5iH
49%
5o%
1885
50
46%
48%
1886
47
42
45%
1887
47 1 A
43K
44%
1888
44
418
42^
1889
44%
4
42%
1890
54%
43%
47 3 A
1891
4%
43%
45J16
1892
43%
37%
39
J893
3%
30%
35%
1894
3* 3 A
27
28K
1895
3iN
vjK
29%
1896
31%
29%
30%
1897
29%
23%
27%
1898
2Sy s
25
26%
1899
29
26%
27%
1900
30%
27
28%
1901
29%
24%
27%
1902
26%
21%
24%
1903
28^
21%
24^
1904
28%
24%
26H
1905
30%
25%
27%
1906
33%
29 ,,
30%
1907
32%
24%
30%
1908
27
22
24 M
1909
24%
23%
23M
1910
26%
23 %
24M
1911
26y g
23%
24&
1912
29%
25%
28%
1913
29 3 A
26%
27%
1914
27%
22 %
25 '4
I9'5
27^
22%
23^
1916
37 1 A
26%
3I ^
1917
55
35%
40%
1918
49 1 A
42 %
47 tt
1919
79%
47 3 A
57 A
1920
89^2
a&4
iiii
(W. E. P.)
SIMON, SIR JOHN ALLSEBROOK (1873- ), British poli-
tician and lawyer, the son of a Congregational minister, was edu-
cated at Fettes, and at Wadham College, Oxford, where he was
a scholar and was eventually elected an hon. fellow. He became
pres. of the Union in 1896, and took a first-class in Lit. Hum.
in the same year, being subsequently elected fellow of All Souls.
He went to the bar, became Barstow Law scholar in 1898, and
was called in 1899. His manifest abilities and the persuasive-
ness of his advocacy soon brought him into notice; he was
chosen one of the counsel for the British Government in the
SIMS SINHA
499
arbitration on the Alaska Boundary in 1903; and he rapidly
attained so considerable a practice that he was able to take
silk in 1908. Meanwhile he had gone into politics, and was
elected as an advanced Liberal for Walthamstow at the general
election of 1906. At first, probably owing to his absorption in
his legal work, he did not command nearly so much attention
in Parliament as his Wadham contemporary and fellow-lawyer,
Mr. F. E. Smith (afterwards Lord Birkenhead). But he gradu-
ally made his way, and was appointed by Mr. Asquith solicitor-
general in 1910, and Attorney-General with a seat in the Cabi-
net in 1913. On the outbreak of war in 1914, his resignation,
along with those of Lord Morley and Mr. Burns, was confi-
dently expected; but he finally decided to remain with his chief
and the bulk of his colleagues. When the first war Coalition
Government was formed in May 1915, he was offered the lord
chancellorship, but he declined the greatest prize of his pro-
fession as he preferred a political career in the Commons.
Accordingly he accepted the home secretaryship, and gave up
his legal practice, by means of which he had acquired a comfort-
able fortune. Early, however, in the following year, owing to
his inability to accept the Government bill for compulsory
military service, he resigned his office and led a fruitless opposi-
tion to the measure in the House; and then went out to the front
in France as a major in the R.A.F. He subsequently resumed
practice as a barrister, and immediately regained his posi-
tion in the front rank of his profession. On the break between
Mr. Asquith and Mr. Lloyd George, Sir John Simon adhered to
the former. He lost his seat in Parliament at the general election
in Dec. 1918, subsequently taking an active part in political
work outside the House in the interests of the Independent
Liberals. He was twice married in 1899 to Ethel M. Vena-
bles, who died in 1902, leaving a son and two daughters, and in
1917 to Kathleen Manning.
SIMS, WILLIAM SOWDEN (1858- ), American naval offi-
cer, was born at Port Hope, Ont, Canada, Oct. 15 1858. In
childhood he removed to Pennsylvania and was graduated from
the U.S. Naval Academy in 1880. Then for eight years he
served on board various ships in the N. Atlantic. During 1889-93
he was with the nautical school ship " Saratoga," and then
was transferred to the Pacific Station, and later to the China
Station. From 1897 to 1900 he was naval attache to the Ameri-
can embassy, first at Paris and afterwards at St. Petersburg.
In 1900 he returned to the Pacific Station. Convinced of the
inadequacy of American methods of target practice Lieutenant
Sims wrote numerous letters to the Washington officials urging
changes. Meeting with no response he finally addressed a per-
sonal letter to President Roosevelt, which led to his recall to
Washington. In the end he was enabled to arrange for a gun-
nery test and proved his claims. In 1902 he was assigned to the
Bureau of Navigation, serving for the next seven years as in-
spector of target practice, which was remarkably improved
under his guidance. Meanwhile in 1907 he was made commander
and appointed naval aide to President Roosevelt. With this
rank he was placed in charge of the battleship " Minnesota "
in 1909. The following year, during a visit of the Atlantic
Fleet to England, Commander Sims caused a stir by certain
indiscreet remarks made at a dinner at the Guildhall, London,
where he said: " Speaking for myself, I believe that if the time
ever comes when the British Empire is menaced by an external
enemy, you may count upon every man, every drop of blood,
every ship, and every dollar of your kindred across the sea."
A semi-official protest against this utterance was made at
Washington by the German Government, which took offence
at it, and there was some talk of Sims being dismissed from the
service, but the incident ended in a severe reprimand from the
Secretary of the Navy. In 1911 he was promoted captain and
for two years was a member of the staff of the Naval War
College, Newport, R.I. During 1913-5 he was in command of
the Atlantic Torpedo Flotilla and then returned to Newport as
president of the Naval War College. When America entered
the World War in April 1917 he was chosen to command Ameri-
can naval operations in Europe. In Jan. he had been promoted
rear-admiral, and early in April, when war was imminent but
before its formal declaration, he sailed in disguise to England
in a merchant vessel. In May he was made vice-admiral. In
1916 he had urged construction of battle cruisers, arguing their
supremacy over submarines as shown in the battle of Jutland.
In his book The Victory at Sea (1920, in conjunction with
Burton J. Hendrick) he shows how the convoy system, used
in transporting 2,000,000 American troops, frustrated the sub-
marines. In 1919 he criticised the mannerin which naval honours
had been awarded; in particular, he held that " the commanding
officer of a vessel that is sunk by a submarine should not receive
the same reward as the commanding officer of a vessel which
sinks a submarine." This criticism was obviously directed
against the Secretary of the Navy for having decorated his own
son-in-law, whose boat was sunk. He himself refused the D.S.M.
In 1920 he made a formal report to the U.S. Senate, and charged
the U.S. Naval Board with serious errors in the conduct of
naval operations during the war. His English sympathies and
his admiration for the British navy were openly expressed
too openly for the liking of some of his critics.
SINCLAIR, M AY ( - ), English author, was born at Rock
Ferry, Cheshire, and educated at the Ladies' College, Chelten-
ham. She began her career by writing verse and philosophical
criticism. In 1895 she published her first short story, followed
in 1896 by her first novel Audrey Craven. Mr. and Mrs. Neville
Tyson appeared in 1898 and Two Sides of a Question in 1900.
But it was not until she published The Divine Fire in 1904 that
she became widely known. It was followed by The Helpmate
(1907); Kitty Taitteur (1908); The Creators (1910); The Com-
bined Maze (1913); The Three Sisters (1914); Tasker Jevons
(1916); The Tree of Heaven (1917); Mary Olivier (1919) and The
Romantic (1920), as well as one or two volumes of short stories.
In A Defence of Idealism (1917) Miss Sinclair published acute
criticisms of modern philosophic theories, and in a Journal of
Impressions in Belgium (1915) she gave her experiences in the
autumn of 1914 as a member of an advance field ambulance.
SINHA, SATYENDRA PRASSANO, IST BARON (1864- ),
Indian statesman, was born of an ancient Kayastha family in the
village of Raipur, Birbhum district, Bengal, in June 1864.
Matriculating at 14 he held a scholarship at the Presidency
College, Calcutta, and in 1881 came to London to join Lincoln's
Inn, where he won many prizes and scholarships, and was called
to the bar in June 1886. In practice at Calcutta he rapidly rose
to a leading position, and was appointed standing counsel to the
Government of India in 1903. He was the first Indian to be ap-
pointed advocate-general of Bengal (1908), and the first to be-
come a member of the Government of India. He held the law port-
folio from April 1909 to Nov. 1910, up to the retirement from the
viceroyalty of Lord Minto, who testified to the success of what
some English critics regarded as a dangerous experiment. Sinha
resumed his lucrative practice at the bar, presided at the Indian
National Congress session at Bombay in 1915, and was again ap-
pointed advocate-general of Bengal (1916). He and the Maharaja
of Bikaner were the first Indians to participate in Empire delibera-
tions in London, for in 1917 they jointly assisted the Secretary
of State at the meetings of the Imperial War Cabinet, and were
members of the Imperial War Conference. Sinha joined the
Bengal Executive Council in the same year, but returned to
England in 1918 as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet and
Imperial War Conference. Immediately on getting back to India
he was called to London and Paris as an Indian member of the
Peace Conference. Knighted in 1915, in 1918 he was made K.C.,
a distinction not previously conferred upon a barrister of Indian
birth or practice. When the Coalition Government was recast at
the beginning of 1919 he established further records for an Indian
by being appointed to the Ministry as Under-Secretary for India,
and being raised to the peerage as Baron Sinha of Raipur. He
was the second Indian to be sworn of the Privy Council. He
skilfully conducted the Government of India Act, 1919, through
the House of Lords, and when dyarchy was initiated at the close
of 1920 was appointed governor of Bihar and Orissa, being the
first Indian to preside over a British province.
500
SINN FEIN SMITH
SINN FEIN: see IRELAND: Political History.
SKEAT, WALTER WILLIAM (1835-1912), English author
(see 25.168). died at Cambridge Oct. 6 1912.
SLATIN, SIR RUDOLF CARL VON (1857- ), Anglo-Austrian
soldier and ^administrator in the Sudan (see 25.212). For his cap-
able and gallant services in the Sudan Slatin Pasha had been cre-
ated K.C.M.G. and had received the thanks of both Houses of
Parliament in 1899. In 1906 he was created a baron of the Aus-
trian Empire and was made an Austrian privy councillor in 1904.
The same year he married Baroness Alice von Ramberg of Vienna
(d. 1921). In 1912 he received the G.C.V.O. from H.M. King
George. On the outbreak of the World War, Slatin, who was on
leave in Vienna, was prevented, by the Austrian mobilization, from
returning to his appointment in the Sudan, and in this difficult
position he voluntarily took up work as head of the Austrian Red
Cross, and in charge of prisoners-of-war, and would accept no re-
muneration for his services. In this capacity he did much to amel-
iorate the conditions of imprisonment, and was largely respon-
sible for the humane treatment of the Allied soldiers in Austrian
hands. The German Government (through Bethmann Hollweg)
offered him a high post which he refused. Subsequent to the
signing of the Armistice, he was selected as a member of the
Austrian delegation to discuss the terms of peace in Paris.
SMILLIE, ROBERT (1859- ), British labour politician,
was born in Belfast in 1859 of Scottish parents. He was sent to a
primary school but left at the age of 14 years to work in a ship-
yard at Govan. Two years later he went into the mining indus-
try of Lanarkshire and worked underground for 16 years. From
1878 onwards he was an active trade unionist, although in the
earlier years of this period he was earning only i8s. 6d. a week.
In 1890 he was elected paid organizer for the Larkhall district
and owing to his activity the Lanarkshire Miners' Union soon
reached a membership of 30,000. He took a prominent part in
the formation of the Scottish Coal Trade Conciliation Board and
its satisfactory results were largely attributable to his efforts.
His abilities as a leader caused him to rise steadily from the
chairmanship of the Scottish Trade Union Congress to the first
presidency of the parliamentary committee of the Scottish Trade
Union Congress and in 1894 he became permanent president of
the Scottish Miners' Federation. In 1912 he was elected to the
presidency of the Miners' Federation of Great Britain and the
building up of this body has been the great work of his life.
Politically his success has not been so great as on the industrial
field and although he stood as a candidate for Parliament seven
times he was never elected. His greatest poll was 3,847 in a
three-cornered fight at Mid-Lanark in 1910. In 1885 he was
elected a member of the district school board for Larkhall, a posi-
tion which he filled for 20 years. His work on the Coal Indus-
try Commission from March till June 1919 brought him into
greater prominence, but he became very ill in Nov. 1919. In
March 1920, asliis health was no better, he tendered his resigna-
tion from the presidency of the Miners' Federation, but the
Federation refused to accept it and gave him leave of absence
instead. In March 1921 ill-health compelled him to resign from
the Federation and retire from public life.
SMITH, ALFRED EMANUEL (1873- ), American poli-
tician, was born in New York City, Dec. 30 1873. The son
of humble parents, his father being a truck driver, he was edu-
cated in the St. James parochial school and for several years
was employed in the Fulton Fish Market. He was very popu-
lar with his associates and at the age of 29 was offered the
Democratic nomination for the N.Y. State Assembly by the
Tammany leader of the district in which he lived. He was
elected for 1903 and by reelection served for 12 years. In
1911 he became Democratic leader in the Assembly and was
appointed vice-chairman of the Factory Investigating Commit-
tee which made a searching inquiry into industrial conditions in
the state, resulting in remedial legislation. In 1913 he was
speaker of the Assembly. In 1915 he was chosen a delegate to
the State Constitutional Convention, taking an active part in
its proceedings. He opposed the constitution as finally revised,
one reason being that it contained a provision designed to pre-
vent New York City from having a majority of legislators.
He " stumped " the state against its adoption and it was over-
whelmingly rejected. The same year he was elected sheriff
of New York county, then a lucrative post because of the sys-
tem of fees (later abolished), and in 1917 president of the Board
of Aldermen of New York City. In 1918 he was elected gover-
nor of New York, defeating Charles S. Whitman. As a member
of the Assembly he had been a strong supporter of woman
suffrage, and in June 1919, as governor, called a special session
which ratified the woman suffrage amendment to the Federal
Constitution. In 1920 he was again the Democratic nominee
for governor, but was beaten in the overwhelming Republican
landslide of that year; he lost, however, by only 73,000 votes,
whereas the Democratic candidate for president was at the same
time defeated by a million votes in New York state a remark-
able testimony to his own personal popularity.
SMITH, ALFRED HOLLAND (1863- ), American railway
official, was born in Cleveland, O., April 26 1863. He began work
on the New York Central railway system as a messenger-boy in
1879. After serving as a foreman of construction and in various
capacities in the engineering department, he was in 1890 ap-
pointed superintendent of the Kalamazoo division of the Lake
Shore & Michigan Southern railway. He was successively divi-
sion superintendent, assistant general superintendent and general
superintendent of the Lake Shore road. In 1902 he became
general superintendent of the New York Central railroad; in
1906 vice-president of the New York Central system; and in 1914
president. When the American railways were taken over by the
U.S. Government Dec. 27 r9i7, he was appointed assistant direc-
tor-general and it was he who worked out the form of central and
regional administration under which the railways of the country
were managed during the 26 months of Government operation.
His aim, in which he succeeded, was to keep the management
of the roads with their 2,000,000 employees, nearly all voters, in
the hands of practical railway-men and, above all, out of poli-
tics. He divided the country into two regions and later into seven,
each region being in charge of a railway officer of experience
and reputation, he himself taking charge of the most impor-
tant region, the Eastern. These regional directors had complete
authority and only broad matters of policy and inter-region-
al questions were handled by the central (political) adminis-
tration at Washington. In this way the railways were conducted
throughout the war without great blunders or disorganization.
On the completion of this important national service he was
rcelected president of the New York Central Lines in June 1919.
It was largely due to him that the New York Central Lines were
greatly strengthened in operating efficiency and financial credit.
SMITH, FRANCIS HOPKINSON (1838-1915), American
author, artist and engineer (see 25.260), died in New York City
April 7 1915. His later writings included Kennedy Square
(1911); The Arm-Chair at the Inn (1912); Charcoals of New and
Old New York (1912); In Thackeray's London (1913) and In
Dickens' London (1914).
SMITH, SIR GEORGE ADAM (1856- ), British divine
(see 25.261), was knighted in 1916, and from 1916 to 1917 was
moderator of the general assembly of the United Free Church
of Scotland. His later works include The Early Poetry of Israel
(1912); Atlas of the Historical Geography of the Holy Land (with
J. G. Bartholomew, 1914) and Syria and the Holy Land (1918).
SMITH, THEOBALD (1850- ), American pathologist, was
born at Albany, N.Y., July 31 1859. He was educated at
Cornell (Ph.B. 1881) and at the Albany Medical College (M.D.
1883). In 1884 he was appointed director of the pathological
laboratory of the Bureau of Animal Industry, in Washington,
where for n years he investigated infectious animal diseases.
At the same time he was professor of bacteriology at Columbian,
later known as George Washington, University. From 1895
to 1915 he was director of the pathological laboratory of the
Massachusetts State Board of Health, and after 1896 was pro-
fessor of comparative pathology at Harvard. In 1915 he was
appointed director of the department of animal pathology of
the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York. He
SMITH COLLEGE SMUTS
501
made important contributions to the relation between human
and bovine tuberculosis.
His numerous scientific papers include Investigations into the
Nature, Causation, and Prevention of Texas or Southern Cattle Fever
(1893); Investigations Concerning Bovine Tuberculosis with Special
Reference to Diagnosis and I Prevention (1894); Investigations of
Diseases of Domesticated Animals (1897); The Agglutinative Affini-
ties of Related Bacteria Parasitic in Different Hosts (1903) and Cer-
tain Aspects of Natural and Acquired Resistance to Tuberculosis and
Their Bearing on Preventive Measures (1916).
SMITH COLLEGE (see 25.273). Between 1910 and 1921
Smith College added to its equipment Burton Hall for biology,
and the number of dwelling houses for students increased from
16 to 33. The library in 1920 contained 82,000 volumes and the
Hillyer Art Gallery had increased its endowment to $100,000
and added largely to its collections. The college abandoned the
system of admission by certificate and all students enter by
examination. In 1919-20 there were 181 teachers and 2,001
students, of whom 31 were graduate students, and the endow-
ment was $3,157,000, the total assets being over $6,000,000. A
campaign for increased endowment was carried on in 1920,
with the result that, when the promises were realized, the assets
of the college would be over $9,000,000. The college publishes,
besides its permanent bulletin, the Smith College Studies in
history, modern languages and classics, and contributions of
the department of biology. President Seelye was succeeded in
1910 by Marion LeRoy Burton (b. 1874), a graduate of Carleton
College, Northfield, Minn., and Yale Divinity School, who
resigned in 1917 and was succeeded by William Allan Neilson
(b. 1869), a graduate of Edinburgh and Harvard Universities.
In the World War the Smith College Relief Unit, the pioneer
among American college women's units overseas, worked in 16
villages in the Somme, France, affiliated with the American
Fund for French Wounded, and later with the Red Cross, from
July 1917 until April 1920, with the exception of the period
after the retreat of March 1918 until the following Jan., when
the unit operated clubs and canteens and assisted in the hospitals
at Beauvais and later behind the American front at Chateau-
Thierry, at Nancy, and in the Argonne. A small group of the
Relief Unit worked with the refugees at Orleans in the autumn
of 1918. Three Smith Canteen Units were organized and oper-
ated under the Y.M.C.A. in France. Another small group
worked as a Smith Unit with the Near East Relief in Armenia.
(W. A. N.)
SMITH-DORRIEN, SIR HORACE LOCKWOOD (1858- ),
British general, was born May 26 1858. He joined the army in
1876, took part in the Zulu war and in the Egyptian campaign of
1882 and, attached to the Egyptian army, served at Suakin in
1884 and afterwards on the Nile in 1885-6, for which he was
given the D.S.O. He took part in the Tirah campaign of 1897-8
and, showing conspicuous skill in handling troops, was rewarded
with a brevet lieutenant-colonelcy. Immediately afterwards he
was summoned to the Sudan to take part in the final advance to
Khartum; for this he was promoted brevet colonel. He went out
to the Cape in command of his regiment in 1899 and was shortly
afterwards given a brigade and promoted major-general; he re-
mained in the field in S. Africa, taking part in numerous opera-
tions, until the end of 1901, when he was appointed adjutant-
general in India. From 1903 to 1907 he acted, first as a district,
and afterwards as a divisional commander, being promoted lieu-
tenant-general in 1906. He was then brought home to take up the
command at Aldershot, an appointment which he filled with
marked success until 1912, when he was transferred to the
Southern Command; he was promoted general that year.
On the death of Gen. Grierson in Aug. 1914 while the Expe-
ditionary Force was still assembling in France, Sir H. Smith-
Dorrien (who had been given the G.C.B. in 1913) was appointed
commander of the II. Army Corps. At Mons, and during the sub-
sequent retreat, the brunt of the enemy's onsets fell upon his
troops, and when hard pressed near Le Cateau he found himself
obliged to halt and to give battle; by his resolute action he effec-
tually checked pursuit, although his losses were somewhat heavy.
He subsequently commanded his corps at the battle of the Marne,
on the Aisne, and during the severe fighting in Flanders in Oct.
and Nov. On the splitting up of the Expeditionary Force into
two armies he was appointed to the command of the II., receiving
the G.C.M.G. for his services. This position he occupied until
April 1915, whenhe returned to England and was placed in charge
of one of the Home Defence armies. In the following Nov. he was
chosen to take charge of the operations against German East
Africa, but he fell ill on the voyage out, was unable to take up the
command, and had to return home. He was appointed lieutenant
of the Tower in 1 9 1 7 and in 1 9 1 8 became governor and commander-
in-chief at Gibraltar.
SMOOT, REED (1862- ), American politician, was born
at Salt Lake City, Utah, Jan. 10 1862. He was educated in his
native town and at the Brigham Young Academy, Prove, Utah.
He amassed considerable wealth as a banker and woollen manu-
facturer. In 1895 he was appointed one of the presidency of the
Utah Stake of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints
(Mormon), and in 1900 was made an apostle. He was elected
to the U.S. Senate from Utah in 1902 and reflected in 1908, 1914,
and 1920. In 1903 attempts were made to prevent his entering
the Senate because of his connexion with the Mormon church,
and on the charge that he personally favoured polygamy and
even that he himself was a polygamist. He was allowed to take
his seat; but the matter was placed in the hands of the Senate
Committee on Privileges and Elections for further investigation.
In June 1906 the Committee by a vote of 7 to 5 recommended
that he be unseated; but as the personal charges against him
had not been proved the Senate in Feb. 1907 by a vote of 42 to
23 refused to remove him. In 1919 he was chairman of the
Republican Senatorial Campaign Committee. In 1921 he was
a leading advocate of the adoption of a sales-tax, but failed to
obtain its acceptance by the Senate, though the movement was
widely favoured in business circles.
SMUTS, JAN CHRISTIAN (1870- ), S. African statesman, of
Dutch descent, was born at Cape Town in 1870, the son of J. A.
Smuts, member of the Legislative Assembly for Malmesbury,
Cape Colony. He was educated at the Victoria College, Stellen-
bosch, at the Cape University, and then went to Christ's College,
Cambridge, where he took a " double first " in the Law Tripos
in 1894. In 1895 he returned to Cape Town and practised as an
advocate of the Supreme Court of the Cape till the end of 1896,
when he went to Johannesburg to practise as an advocate there.
The rapidity of his success is shown by his appointment as State
Attorney to the Transvaal Republic in 1898. Thus before he
was 30 his remarkable ability was acknowledged and, though he
was opposed to the policy of President Kruger, his hand is to be
recognized in the State documents of the Transvaal during the
critical period which ended in the sending of the ultimatum to
Great Britain and the outbreak of the S. African War of 1899-
1902. During that war Smuts served throughout with Boer
forces, rising during its latter period to the rank of general, and
to the authority among his own people of one who had shown the
possession of gifts as a leader in the field as brilliant as those
which he was known to possess in the realm of the law. Thus
when the negotiations for peace began Smuts stood out as one
of the recognized Boer leaders.
With Gen. Botha, he threw his influence during the negotia-
tions into the scale for peace, and when, in 1907, responsible
government was granted to the Transvaal, Smuts became the
right-hand of Gen. Botha, the first Prime Minister of the Trans-
vaal, in the Ministry which he then formed. As colonial secre-
tary the bulk of the administrative work of the new Ministry
fell to him, and his success as an administrator was then proved
beyond subsequent doubt. He brought to his task an intellect
of the first calibre keen, quick, penetrating. His industry was
untiring. Already a man of the world, he commanded the
admiring devotion of his subordinates. These gifts would have
secured for Smuts a position of great influence in any Ministry.
They were no more than one of Smuts' many claims to such a
position in the Botha Cabinet. He showed at once that he had
high parliamentary ability. His rapid brain made him a mas-
ter in debate. The complexities of legislation had no diffi-
502
SMYTH, E. SMYTH, H. W.
culties for him. His mind had a natural bent towards compro-
mise on unimportant points, and he showed again and again an
almost uncanny gift for producing at a moment's notice the
form of words that would give body to such compromises.
His loyalty to, and affection for, Gen. Botha strengthened an
influence thus already very strong, and when in 1909 the S.
African National Convention met to draft an instrument for
the union of the four S. African colonies, Smuts went to it as a
delegate from the Transvaal with a reputation for ability and
capacity second to that of no other delegate. High as it was,
this reputation was enhanced by his work at the Convention.
He had gathered round him a staff of experts, had thought out
a scheme of union, had worked out its details, was prepared to
put this framework before the first meeting. Such foresight had
its reward, the more because it was buttressed during the de-
bates of the Convention by the same readiness in debate, the
same clear recognition of essentials, the same natural disposi-
tion towards compromise on details, and the same quickness
in producing verbal formulae, as Smuts had already shown
in the Transvaal Parliament.
When union was accomplished Smuts became for S. Africa
what he had been for the Transvaal the right-hand of Gen.
Botha, the first Prime Minister of the Union. His success,
both administrative and parliamentary, in the Transvaal was
repeated as a minister of the Union. As Minister of the Interior,
of Mines, and of Defence, he bore the lion's share of the early
administrative work of the Union. His Defence Act, passed in
1912, was a model of organization, and the speech in which he
moved its second reading in the Union House of Assembly
established his reputation throughout S. Africa.
Thus on the outbreak of the World War in 1914, when Gen.
Botha declared for the most loyal support of the British Govern-
ment, the bulk of the burden of organizing the military forces of
the Union fell upon Smuts. It was sustained with complete
success. The expedition against German S.W. Africa, and the
crushing of the rebellion in the Union in 1914, both bore testi-
mony to his capacity as an organizer of victory. He took com-
mand of the Union columns inva'ding German S.W. Africa
from the S. and carried through that part of the campaign with
great boldness of strategy and complete success. Then Botha
and Smuts turned to other fields of war. Expeditionary forces
were organized against German E. Africa and to take part with
the Allies in the fighting on the western front in Europe. In
Feb. 1916 Smuts was appointed by the British Government
commander-in-chief of the Imperial forces operating in German
E. Africa. He had been offered the appointment in Nov. 1915,
but had then declined. When he took command, the opera-
tions against German E. Africa had reached a state of stalemate.
He conducted his campaign with great vigour, exacting from
his troops heavy sacrifices of long marching in that trying cli-
mate, and before the end of 1916 he had reduced the German
forces to the position of fugitive bands. Then another duty
called him away from E. Africa. At the end of 1916 Mr. Lloyd
George became Prime Minister of Great Britain and at once
summoned the Imperial War Cabinet. General Smuts went to
it as the representative of S. Africa. So useful did he prove
himself to be in that position that he became the only perma-
nent Dominion member of the Imperial War Cabinet. With
Botha he represented S. Africa at the Peace Conference in Paris,
and returned to S. Africa after peace was signed, only to lose
Botha almost immediately and to find himself, by the sudden
death of his leader and close friend, Prime Minister of the Union
in Sept. 1919.
The political position in S. Africa was menacing. The Nation-
alist agitation, led by Gen. Hertzog, had grown among the
Dutch-speaking people during the war. Resentment at being
involved in the quarrels of Europe had fed it. The old passion
of the Dutch of S. Africa for peaceful isolation had revived in
full strength. Smuts speedily made up his mind that the
sense of the country must be tested by a general election. It
took place in the spring of 1920 and left Smuts and his party
without the semblance of a clear majority in Parliament. Smuts
held office by the grace of the Unionists. He had no doubt as
to the needs of his position. S. Africa required an established
Government; it must be formed by combination between his
followers and one of the other parties. His natural impulse
was for reconciliation with the Nationalists, and he sought
reconciliation with them, but on one clear condition. They
must repudiate their Republican aims; and S. Africa must
remain willingly a state of the British group of nations. This
condition the Nationalists refused. Then Smuts turned to the
Unionists, who throughout the war had supported the Botha
Ministry as the one safeguard of membership for the S. African
state of the British Commonwealth of Nations. With ready
self-sacrifice the Unionists accepted his invitation. The two
parties were joined into one, the Unionists becoming members
of the S. African party, which had been Botha's party and was
now led by Smuts. The general election of March 1921 fol-
lowed, and gave the new party a decisive victory at the polls
and a clear and substantial majority in the Parliament of the
Union. (B. K. L.)
SMYTH, ETHEL (1858- ), English musical composer,
was born in London on April 23 1858, the daughter of Gen. J. H.
Smyth. She began her musical studies at Leipzig in 1877,
becoming a pupil of Heinrich von Herzogenberg, then conductor
of the Bach Verein, whose wife was an intimate friend of
Johannes Brahms. She was thus thrown from the first into a
highly intellectual musical society. Her earliest works, princi-
pally chamber music, were performed at Leipzig; her first orches-
tral works being produced by (Sir) August Manns at the Crystal
Palace concerts and the symphony concerts started in 1886 by
(Sir) George Hcnschel. She also produced a Mass, performed
in 1893 at the Albert Hall. Subsequently she turned her atten-
tion to opera, her first work in this direction being Fantasia,
based upon a book by De Musset (produced at Weimar 1898 and
revived at Karlsruhe 1901). This was followed by Der Wald,
produced at Dresden in 1901 and at Covent Garden, London, in
1902, and New York 1903; and The Wreckers, produced under the
title " Strandrecht " at Leipzig and Prague in 1906, at His
Majesty's theatre, London, in 1909, and at Covent Garden in
1910. Her opera, The Boatswain's Male, written for a German
theatre, but, owing to the war, not produced there, was pro-
duced in London in 1915, and was revived in 1918 and met with
considerable success. She also published in 1907 a series of
songs with instrumental accompaniment, and in 1913 four
orchestral songs. Miss Smyth, who received the degree of
Mus. Doc. from Durham University in 1910, became known
as a leading militant suffragette, and, besides other music writ-
ten for the cause, produced The March of the Women (1911). In
1919 she published two volumes of brightly written autobiogra-
phy and reminiscences under the title Impressions that Remained,
and in 1921 another book, Streaks of Life. On Jan. i 1922 she
was created D.B.E.
SMYTH, HERBERT WEIR (1857- ), American classical
scholar, was born at Wilmington, Del., Aug. 8 1857. He was
educated at Swarthmore (A.B. 1876), Harvard (A.B. 1878),
Leipzig, and Gottingen (Ph.D. 1884). During 1883-5 ne was
instructor in Greek and Sanskrit at Williams College, and then
for two years was reader in Greek at Johns Hopkins. From
1887 to 1901 he was professor of Greek at Bryn Mawr. In the
latter year he was called to Harvard as professor of Greek and in
1902 was appointed Eliot professor of Greek literature, succeed-
ing William Watson Goodwin. During 1890-1900 he was pro-
fessor of the Greek language and literature at the American
Classical School at Athens. From 1889 to 1904 he was secre-
tary of the American Philological Association and editor of its
Transactions and in 1904 was elected president. He became a
fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a member
of the American Philosophical Society and vice-president of the
Egypt Exploration Society.
His works include The Sacred Literature of the Jains (1894, a
translation); The Ionic Dialect (1894); Greek Melic Poets (1900);
Greek Grammar for Schools and Colleges (1915)-; Greek Grammar for
Colleges (1920). He was also author of The Greek Language in its
Relation to the Psychology of the Ancient Greeks (read before the Con-
SNOWDEN SOCIALISM
503
gress of Arts and Sciences at the St. Louis Exposition in 1904) ;
Aspects of Greek Conservatism " (in Harvard Studies in Classical
Philology, 1906); "Greek Conceptions of Immortality from Homer
to Plato " (in Harvard Essays on Classical Subjects, 1912) and
various contributions to philological journals. He was editor of the
Greek Series for Colleges and Schools (20 vols.).
SKOWDEN, PHILLIP (1864- ), British Labour politician,
was born at Cowling, Yorks, July 18 1864. He was educated
partly privately and partly at a board school, and in 1886 entered
the Civil Service. In 1893 he retired, and devoted himself to
journalism and lecturing, becoming well known for his ardent
advocacy of extreme socialistic views. He unsuccessfully con-
tested Blackburn in 1900 and Wakefield in, 1902, and in 1903 he
became chairman of the Independent Labour party. He held
this position until 1906, and in that year was returned as So-
cialist member for Blackburn. He sat on various royal commis-
sions, including those on the Civil Service and Venereal Dis-
eases, and from 1917 to 1919 was again chairman of the Inde-
pendent Labour party. Mr. Snowden made himself extremely
unpopular during the World War owing to his pacifist opinions,
and was one of the Socialist members of Parliament who lost
their seats at the general election of 1918. He had married in
1905 Miss Ethel Annikin, who became well known as a speaker
and writer on social subjects. In 1920 she went to Russia as a
member of one of the various Labour delegations invited to in-
spect Soviet conditions of government. She published on her
return an account of her experiences, under the title of Through
Bolshevik Russia (1920).
SOCIALISM (see 25.301*). Socialism is at once a theory, or
rather a whole body of theories, and a movement, or rather a
number of movements more or less closely connected. The name
has been used during the past century to describe many different
social theories, in all of which a common character has been per-
ceived. In recent times it has come to be used less with reference
to any definite theory than for the purpose of describing the
movements in various countries which have adopted the name
or have declared their adhesion to Socialism. It is thus possible,
in setting out to give a summary account of Socialism, to describe
it either by its connotation, that is to say, in terms of the ideas
for which it stands, or by its denotation, that is, in terms of the
groups and parties which profess allegiance to it. But neither of
these methods of description is by itself satisfactory, nor is it
possible by either, or even by a combination of both, to arrive at
a satisfactory or adequate definition of Socialism. The word is
used, and has been used increasingly in recent years, in a number
of different and frequently overlapping senses. It has changed
its meaning with time: but the changes have not served to clarify
it, but rather to increase the number of different senses in which
the term is used.
It would be well to begin by ruling altogether out from the
scope of this article certain popular uses of the term whieh have
been current especially during the past generation. The well-
known phrase, " We are all Socialists now," and the constant
references to " socialistic legislation," only serve to obscure the
real meanings which attach to the word. When it is said that,
" We are all Socialists now," all that is meant is that everybody
nowadays is prepared to agree that a greater measure of govern-
mental intervention both in industry and in the affairs of society
generally is necessary than was currently regarded as necessary
or even possible 100 years ago.
The phrase " socialistic legislation " again is frequently used
to cover almost any extension of governmental activity in the
sphere either of industry or of provision under the State or under
local government auspices for the needs of the people. The
phrase " socialistic taxation " is used, with a greater approxima-
tion to accuracy, in reference to those forms of taxation which
aim not merely at producing revenue for the public authorities,
but at bringing about an actual readjustment in the distribution
of income in the community, arrived at by the unregulated opera-
tion of capitalist economic forces. Again, almost any extension
in the sphere of local government action, such as the taking over
of a tramway system or the establishment of banking or insur-
ance facilities by a local authority, is frequently referred to as
" municipal socialism," even if the public body which inaugu-
rates this policy does not consist of members who profess any
allegiance to, or have any sympathy with, the doctrines of any
Socialist party or group. All these and similar uses of the word
" Socialism " are here ruled out of consideration.
The word " Socialism " first came into use in the third or fourth
decade of the ipth century in England and France. The first-
known literary reference to it occurs in the " Poor Man's Guar-
dian " in 1833; but it is believed that the word was occasionally
used at an earlier date in both France and England. In Great
Britain it was most frequently used during the first half of the
1 9th century in reference to the doctrines associated with the
name of Robert Owen and his disciples, and to the theories of the
anti-capitalist economists, such as W. Thompson, who were
largely affected by Owenite teaching. In France the name simi-
larly attached itself to the doctrines of thinkers of whom the most
important were followers of St. Simon and Fourier. Its use then
spread much more rapidly on the continent of Europe than in
Great Britain, and it was mainly in connexion with the growth of
continental Socialist movements (Louis Blanc in 1848; the First
International Working Men's Association in the 'sixties and the
Paris Commune of 1871) that it was used by English writers,
until it was reimported into Great Britain as the name applied to
a constructive body of doctrines in the early 'eighties, especially
under the auspices of H. M. Hyndman and the Democratic
Federation (subsequently the Social Democrat Federation).
It is important to realize that in all its modern meanings the
word " Socialism " refers definitely to doctrines and movements
which owe their rise to the growth of large-scale production and
the capitalist system in industry. It is, indeed, sometimes ap-
plied to theories and Utopian speculations, such as those of Sir
Thomas More, which have no direct reference to any particular
stage of social evolution and are merely attempts to outline the
structure of an ideal commonwealth. But, although such Uto-
pias as those of Plato and More may present features of resem-
blance to the doctrines of modern Socialism, there is no real
connexion between these and the theories or attitudes towards
property which are .sometimes comprehended under the terms
" mediaeval Socialism " and " mediaeval Communism." Social-
ism, as a body of doctrine and as a movement applicable to
modern conditions and these are the senses of the term which
matter to the student made its appearance when the changes
in methods of production and transport, which are usually de-
scribed as the " Industrial Revolution," had created the modern
working class or " proletariat," and had caused this class to
make the attempt to organize for common protection against the
the evil effects of new industrial conditions.
Modern Socialism, although it has claimed many adherents
belonging to other classes, is thus essentially a working-class or
" proletarian " movement, in that it is based upon and directly
due to the rise of the " proletariat " as a distinct social class capa-
ble of independent class organization and suffering under a sense
of injustice and inhibition. The Socialism of the Owenite period
serves in certain respects very clearly to reveal this essential
character of the movement. Owen himself has indeed been de-
scribed by subsequent social thinkers by Marx, for example
as a " Utopian" Socialist; but the rise of the Owenite move-
ment is very clearly and directly traceable to the actual eco-
nomic conditions of the early igth century. It was out of his
experience as a factory manager and owner at New Lanark and
elsewhere that Owen developed his Socialist doctrines; and, in
the minds of most of his followers even more than Owen him-
self, these doctrines possessed always a close and definite rela-
tion to the rise of the working class to social consciousness and
to the possibility of social power. Thus, while Owen was ex-
pounding his doctrine of ideal Cooperative or Socialist commu-
nities, and endeavouring to demonstrate by practical experiment
possibilities of achieving Socialism by the foundation of such
communities in the midst of a rapidly developing capitalist en-
vironment, many of those who were most affected by his doc-
trines were engaged either, as economists, in developing their
critique of the current economic theories based on capitalism, or,
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
504
SOCIALISM
as leaders in the new-born working-class movement, in endeav-
ouring to organize the " proletariat " for the winning of control
over industry and over the machinery of Society. The Grand
National Consolidated Trades Union, in which Owenite ideas
played so large a part, was organized by men who were aiming
not merely at the protection of the working class in face of
the adverse conditions created by the new factory system, but
at a definite transformation of the industrial order and the
winning of control over industry for the " productive classes."
This aim was even more clearly defined in the other great
" Owenite " union of the period, the Builder's Union, and its
abortive plan of 1833 for the formation of a Grand National Gild
of Builders. The Chartist movement, which was largely in-
fluenced by Owenite and Socialist ideas, was definitely aiming at
the conquest of political power by the organized working class
with a view to social transformation.
Socialism in Great Britain thus came into existence as: (i)
a challenge to the orthodox economic theories of Ricardo and
other writers; and (2) an attempt to win power in Society for the
organized working class. It was, however, left for later thinkers,
and above all for Karl Marx (1818-83), to take up where they
had been dropped by the original English pioneers both the anti-
capitalist economic teachings and the endeavour to build up the
working-class movement into a constructive force aiming at the
transformation of the social order. The Socialism of Karl Marx
is frequently- contrasted with the Socialism of previous thinkers
as being " scientific," whereas their Socialism was " Utopian."
But, in fact, Marx's Socialism was very largely based upon that
of the earlier thinkers and working-class leaders, although he for
the first time formulated into a definite system the views and the
policy which they had only suggested and sought after.
All modern Socialism, even that of the schools which repudiate
or at least profess no allegiance to Marx, has been profoundly
influenced by him. This applies even to those schools of Anar-
chist Communists and French and Italian Syndicalists who
seem to have least in common with Marxian teaching; for, even
in their case, many Marxian ideas have blended with the ideas
which they have derived from other Socialist and (fttasi-Socialist
thinkers, such as P. J. Proudhon; and, although they have in-
terpreted the Marxian teaching differently, a great deal of it has
found its way into their systems and policies.
Marx's first important contribution to Socialist thinking, The
Communist Manifesto (1847), which was drafted jointly by
him and Friedrich Engels, is generally recognized as the starting
point of the modern Socialist movement. His Das Kapital, of
which the first volume was published in 1867, is the working-out
into a system of the most vital ideas originally presented in The
Communist Manifesto. These works have, of course, been trans-
lated into practically all European languages, and their ideas
have generally passed into the common stock of European Social-
ist thought. This has hitherto been true of Great Britain in a
less degree than of any other important industrial country; but
even English Socialism began in the 'eighties on an essentially
Marxian foundation, and, although Marx fell into disfavour with
British Socialists in the 'nineties and in the earlier years of the
present century, there has recently been an important revival of
the study of his works among the more radical section of the
British working-class movement. In other countries the or-
ganized Socialist movement is in practically all cases definitely
Marxian, and bases its thinking and its propaganda throughout
on Marxian terminology and Marxian ideas. Thus we find
that, as divergent currents have again and again appeared in
European Socialism, the name of Marx and his fundamental
conceptions have been invoked, for the purpose of justifying
widely divergent policies and conceptions. During the past few
years, for example, a great pamphleteering controversy has been
proceeding between Nikolai Lenin on the one side and Karl
Kautsky on the other, representing two very different tendencies
in European Socialism. Each of these writers bases his conten-
tions on an almost theological reverence for the words of Marx,
and seeks to justify his position by copious quotations from
Marx's books and manifestos.
In the criticism which has been directed against Marx by or-
thodox economists in many countries, attention has been paid
mainly to his theory of value, and only in a considerably less
degree to his theory of history. This is unfortunate; for there is
no doubt that the theory of value has played a quite secondary
part to the so-called " materialist conception of history " in the
influence which Marx's teaching has exercised on the modern
working-class movement. The theory of value, as it was pre-
sented by Marx, and his attempt to build a theoretical economic
system on the idea of labour as the source of value and exploi-
tation as consisting in the appropriation by a privileged class,
the owners of the means of production, of the surplus value
created by labour, was mainly a criticism and inversion, to suit
Socialist ends, of the current economics of Marx's own day. Like
Thompson and the earlier English economists to whom he owed
so much, Marx took the Ricardian theory of value and drew
from it conclusions by no means acceptable to orthodox economic
theorists. Undoubtedly his ideas of " surplus value," and ex-
ploitation resulting from the individual appropriation of " sur-
plus value," played an important part in creating the sense of
injustice and oppression among the workers; but by themselves
they would never have sufficed to give Marx his dominant posi-
tion as the theorist of modern Socialism.
This position depends far more on his theory of history, the
effect of which was to give to those members of the working
class who encountered his teaching the sense of possessing a mis-
sion and of having on their side the great world forces of social
transformation. Interpreting historical changes as the result of
the operation of economic forces, Marx insisted that to each stage
in the evolution of the means of production there corresponds an
evolution in the forms of political society and in the class struc-
ture of society. The industrial system of the i9th century, he
claimed, had called into existence a new social class, the property-
less, wage-earning "proletariat"; for, although there had been
capitalists and wage-earners in earlier stages of social evolution,
the economic structure of Society had not before been based
upon the dominance of the capitalists as a class. Nor had the
" proletariat " been called into existence as a class, confronting
the possessing capitalists throughout the industrial system in
all the countries of the world which had reached the capitalist
phase. The next stage in social evolution, according to Marx,
would be the rise to power of the " proletariat," and, just as the
capitalists had risen to power and displaced or absorbed the
privileged classes with which social authority had previously
rested, so the " proletariat " under the system of large-scale indus-
try would improve its organization and increase its strength
until it was able to do battle with, and to overthrow, the capital-
ist class. In expounding this theory of "economic determinism"
or the " materialist conception of history," Marx made a number
of prophecies concerning the actual future of capitalist indus-
trialism which have not thus far been at all completely verified.
The progressive elimination of the small capitalist, the aggrega-
tion of the control of capital into fewer and fewer hands, the
progressive " misery " of the " proletariat," which Marx prophe-
sied, are forecasts in which truth and falsehood are intertwined.
But these prophecies concerning the actual course of events are
in no sense vital to his central idea, which is that of the gradual
rise to power of the " proletariat " or working class, and the con-
quest by it of economic authority, resulting necessarily in the
transformation of the political structure of Society and in the
abolition of social classes.
It is easy to see that this doctrine was bound to exercise a
strong fascination over the minds of those men and women of
the working classes who were brought into contact with it.
Whereas, without some such theory they were conscious only of
the enormous strength of the forces to which they were subject,
and of their manifest weakness as almost property-less wage-
earners, living in constant insecurity, at the mercy of trade
fluctuations which resulted periodically in widespread unemploy-
ment, Marx gave them the sense of fulfilling an historic mission,
and of having on their side a world-force far more powerful than
the huge economic and political strength which seemed to be in
SOCIALISM
505
the possession of the ruling classes of the day. It is this one
thing, and one thing only, that explains the veneration in which
Marx is held throughout practically the whole Socialist move-
ment. It was he, who, more than anyone else, gave the working
class a sense of power, and imported into their efforts towards
organization and concerted resistance to the evils to which they
found themselves subject a conscious purpose not merely of
combating capitalism, but also of replacing it.
In the earlier article some account was given of the rise of
Socialist parties in various European countries. This rise contin-
ued at an increasing pace in later years, a great impetus having
been given to the Socialist forces in almost all parts of Europe by
the circumstances of the World War.
There was in 1921 in every industrialized country at least one
Socialist party, possessing in the majority of cases a consider-
able representation in its national Parliament. Indeed, in many
countries there had come into being more than one Socialist par-
ty ; for the process of unification of Socialist political forces which
had been proceeding steadily up to the outbreak of the war gave
place to a separatist tendency, which resulted in a regrouping of
forces in most of the countries in which the movement was strong.
The first cause of these divisions was the attitude of Socialists
towards the outbreak of the World War. In almost all bellig-
erent countries the Socialist parties became divided over the
issues of the war. In some cases these divisions of opinion re-
sulted in actual cleavages within the various parties; in others
the parties held together, but acute divisions of opinion contin-
ued inside them. These differences were greatly accentuated by the
Russian revolutions of 1917, which inevitably exercised a very
powerful influence on Socialist opinion throughout the world.
Just as, in its earlier days as an organized political movement,
Socialism always tended to look back to the Paris Commune of
1871, it now even more definitely looks back to the Russian
revolutions of 1917, upon which the most acute divisions of
opinion in the world of Socialism to-day are based. Any attempt,
therefore, to analyze the forces at work in the Socialist movement
of the various countries in 192 1 must begin by taking into account
the new alignment of opinion caused by the Russian revolutions.
The first Russian revolution of 1917 was universally acclaimed
by Socialists throughout the world. It meant for them the over-
throw of Tsardom and the destruction of the most powerful and
complete absolutist monarchy left in the world. Moreover, ref-
ugees from Russia had played an important part in the Socialist
movement in almost all countries in which it had become organ-
ized. It was not the first of the Russian revolutions but the
coup of Nov. 1917 that divided acutely the Socialists of the vari-
ous countries. Everywhere the left wing of the Socialists acclaimed
the Bolshevik Revolution, while the right wing was hostile to
what it regarded as the overthrow of the "democratic" institu-
tions which had been introduced under the Kerensky regime.
During the following years, from 1918-21, the differences with-
in the Socialist ranks resulting from the Bolshevik Revolution
were steadily accentuated. Under the auspices of the Russian
Bolsheviks, or Communists as they now call themselves, with
a definite reference back to The Communist Manifesto of 1847, a
new international organization of Socialism, the Third or Mos-
cow International, was inaugurated, and an appeal was made to
the " proletariat " in all countries to rally to this new body, of
which the fundamental ideas were the overthrow of the capitalist
regime by the intensive prosecution of the class war, involving
the use of force, and the assumption by the "proletariat" of
dictatorship over Society during the " transitional period,"
which would be necessary both for the combating of the at-
tempts of the " counter-revolution " to regain power, and for the
laying of the foundations of a Socialist or Communist society
free from class distinctions. During the years after the Bolshevik
Revolution these Communist doctrines gradually spread over
Europe, and resulted in the formation in most countries of
Communist groups and parties of varying degrees of importance.
Sometimes these began by working as groups within the existing
Socialist parties, and sometimes they succeeded in winning over
to their side a majority of the older Socialist parties, which thus
became Communist. In other cases, however, the Communists,
unable to command a majority in the Socialist parties in other
countries, founded new and rival parties of their own.
Thus in 1921 the position of European Socialism was extra-
ordinarily complicated, as a reference to the state of affairs in a
few of the principal countries will readily indicate. In France
the Communists had succeeded in securing a majority in the
ranks of the French Socialist party, and it had thereupon changed
its name to the French Communist party. The minority, which
refused to accept the change in name and policy, thereupon re-
formed the Socialist party as a coalition of right wing and central
elements. In Italy the Socialist party, which was throughout
opposed to Italian participation in the war, at first affiliated to
the Moscow International; but subsequently differences arose as
to the strategy to be adopted, and these led to a split in the
ranks of the party, the extreme Communists, who were in a
minority, seceding and forming a Communist party of their
own, while the right and centre, including many Communists,
held together as the Italian Socialist party. In Germany the
Social Democratic party split during the war. A majority sec-
tion of the party supported the German Government in the
prosecution of the war and voted war credits. Gradually a
minority party formed, and finally the anti-war elements left
the Social Democratic party and formed the Independent Social-
ist party. After the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia two small
Communist parties were also formed in Germany. In 1920 the
majority of the Independent Socialist party resolved upon
adhesion to the Moscow International and united with the
Communist factions to form the German Communist party.
The right wing of the Independent Socialist party continued in
existence under the old name; and there were thus in Germany,
in 1921, three distinct parties, Social Democrats or Majority
Socialists, Independent Socialists, and Communists. In Great
Britain the position was somewhat different; for political action
was taken through the Labour party, a federation of trade unions,
Socialist societies and kindred bodies. Of the Socialist societies,
the British Socialist party, the direct descendant of the Social
Democratic Federation, the earliest Socialist body in Great Brit-
ain, affiliated to the Moscow International and became the nu-
cleus of a Communist party which applied for affiliation to the
Labour party, but was refused. The Independent Labour party,
which, unlike the Labour party as a whole, was hostile to par-
ticipation in the war, nevertheless remained affiliated to the
Labour party. There were thus only two groups undertaking
political action in Great Britain the Labour party, including
the Independent Labour party, on the one hand, and the small,
but militant, Communist party on the other.
These instances, drawn from a very much larger number,
serve to illustrate the general character of the divisions which had
arisen in the world Socialist movement since the Russian Revo-
lutions of 191 7. As the movement has been divided nationally, so
a division has taken place in the international organization of
Socialism. Before the war most of the Socialist parties of the
world were loosely held together by the Congresses of the " Sec-
ond International," of which the first was held in 1889. Out
of the Congresses developed the International Socialist Bureau,
which was formed in 1900. The Bureau was unable to function
effectively during the war, both because communications were to
a large extent interrupted, and because of the differences of
opinion between and among the various national sections.
Various attempts were made to secure united action by all the
national Socialist parties; but, in face of the opposition of the
Governments and of internal differences, these produced little
result, the attempt to call an International Socialist conference
at Stockholm in 1918 breaking down. The Socialist parties of
the Allied countries, however, held a number of conferences, and
drew up a declaration of war aims, which exercised a certain
influence. Immediately on the conclusion of hostilities steps
were taken to convene a full International Socialist conference,
and an attempt was made to reform the pre-war Socialist In-
ternational. The reformed body, however, known as the " Sec-
ond International," never became, in face of acute differences
506
SOCIALISM
of opinion, at all fully representative, and during 1919 and 1920
there were numerous secessions from it, until it came to consist
principally of the British Labour party, the German Social
Democratic party (Majority Socialists), and the Socialist parties
of a number of small countries such as Sweden, Poland, Belgium
and Holland. A number of Socialist parties held aloof both from
the Second and from the Third International, and these bodies
in 1920 formed a provisional International "Working Union,"
of which the aim was the reconstitution at a later stage of a
fully representative and inclusive Socialist International. This
provisional body, sometimes known as the "Vienna Interna-
tional," includes the British Independent Labour party, the Ger-
man Independent Socialist party, the French and Swiss Socialist
parties, and a number of others. The Italian Socialists were in
1921 unconnected with any of the three Internationals.
There can be no doubt that the division of opinion in the
Socialist ranks which is reflected in these divisions in national
and international organization is very profound. With the growth
of parliamentary representation, the political Socialist parties
of the various countries have been becoming steadily more
moderate and constitutional in their outlook. But the Moscow
revolution, accomplished by insurrectionary methods and by
" proletarian " direct action, represented a challenge to the
censtitutional political attitude of the more orthodox Socialist
parties. Those which have rallied to the call of Moscow profess
to be the only true inheritors of the Marxian tradition and the
legitimate successors of the International Working Men's
Association, or " First International," of 1864. It is still im-
possible in 1921 to forecast the result of the conflicts between this
section and the older Socialist parties; but it seems likely that
the divisions which have come into existence will be to a con-
siderable extent permanent, even if the ultimate point of cleav-
age has not yet been discovered.
James Bonar on p. 301 of vol. 25 defines Socialism as "that
policy or theory which aims at securing by the action of the cen-
tral democratic authority a better distribution and, in due subor-
dination thereunto, a better production of wealth than now pre-
vails." It will be clear from what has been said above that this
definition is certainly no longer adequate or correct in 1921,
even if it could be regarded as adequate at the time at which it
was made. It is as true now as then that all schools of Socialism
are united in seeking a better distribution and also a better pro-
duction of wealth; but it cannot be assumed that this is sought
solely or even mainly "through the action of the central dem-
ocratic authority," or that many Socialists would agree that
any such body as a " central democratic body " exists in the com-
munity as it is organized to-day. Any present-day definition of
Socialism would certainly have to emphasize the fact that it seeks
not merely a better distribution and production of wealth, but a
fundamental reorganization in the whole system of organized
Society, political as well as economic. At the time when Bonar
wrote, Socialists, especially in Great Britain, were largely en-
gaged in combating the still prevalent doctrines of laissez-faire
politicians and economists, and in seeking to emphasize the
necessity for a greater measure of collective regulation of the
social and economic life of the' community. In Great Britain,
more than elsewhere, many Socialists came to regard the politi-
cal State, or machinery of government, as the principal instru-
ment of this regulation, and to look forward to the transition to
Socialism mainly through the nationalization, or transference to
State ownership, of all vital industries and services, together
with an extension of municipal ownership in the sphere of local
public-utility services. This idea of the form of the transition to
Socialism fitted in well with the stress which was laid, dur-
ing the 'nineties and the earlier years of the 2oth century,
upon political action. This period witnessed the formation, first
of the Independent Labour party, and then in 190x3 of the Labour
Representation Committee, which subsequently became the
Labour party. It was also the period during which the Fabian
Society, with its propaganda of political permeation, largely
influenced British Socialism, and diverted it from the Marxism
of its earlier development in' the 'eighties.
But from 1910 onwards new currents of opinion were increas-
ingly affecting these accepted dogmas of Socialism, both in
Great Britain and elsewhere. Important, in this connexion, is
the rise of the Syndicalist movement in France, which was at its
zenith in the earlier years of the 2oth century, and of the Social-
ist Labour party and the Industrial Workers of the World in the
United States of America. There were important differences
between the standpoints of French Syndicalism, which was de-
rived largely from the semi-Anarchist doctrines of Proudhon and
his school, and American Industrial Unionism, based by Daniel
De Leon and his followers upon the large-scale and " trustified""
American capitalist system. But they were alike in stressing
rather the economic than the political character of the transi-
tion to a Socialist system, and in demanding more aggressive
action by the workers in the industrial field. In Great Britain
and in other European countries these doctrines, although they
were not accepted in their completeness, exercised a powerful
influence, seen especially in Great Britain in the rise of the
Guild Socialist movement after 1912 (see GUILD SOCIALISM).
Whereas Syndicalism and, in some of its forms, Industrial
Unionism directly challenged the utility of Socialist political
action and demanded an exclusive concentration upon the indus-
trial field, the Guild Socialists never took up this attitude, but
sought, without disparaging political action, to secure an intensi-
fication of industrial activity, and in particular a change in the
attitude of Socialists towards the problem of industrial control.
Their influence in this direction has extended far beyond their
own ranks, and it is not too much to say that the effect of the
various movements possessing largely an industrial character
Syndicalism, Industrial Unionism, Guild Socialism, etc.
has been to bring about a revolution in Socialist thinking on this
question. It is no longer assumed by Socialists that nationaliza-
tion is necessarily desirable, or that the transference of industry
to the State, even if it be accomplished by a political victory of
Socialists, furnishes an adequate solution of the industrial prob-
lem. Most Socialists are agreed in desiring, in a greater or less
degree, as an integral part of any Socialist system, the control of
the administration of industry by the organized workers by hand
and brain who are engaged in it.
Nor has this change in the attitude of Socialists towards the
problem of industry been without its effect in other spheres of
policy. As Socialism passed from its earlier revolutionary into
its middle purely constitutional and political phase, it came
gradually to be assumed that the realization of Socialism would
involve only the capture of political power by the Socialist par-
ties and the use of the existing machinery of Society modified
perhaps in certain particulars, but remaining essentially the
same for socialist instead of for individualist ends. There is
now acute division of opinion on this question; but most Social-
ists are far more ready than in 1910 to agree that the realization
of Socialism would involve not a mere conquest of political power
and the assumption of control over the machinery of government
by the workers, but also a profound transformation in the ma-
chinery of government itself. By Lenin and the Communists
(see Lenin's The State and Revolution for the best statement of
this point of view) the State is regarded as purely a " capitalist
organ," the tool of a dominant class in Society. In the words of
The Communist Manifesto, they regard the State as "an
Executive Committee for administering the affairs of the whole
governing class." Such an instrument, essentially coercive in its
character, will in their view become unnecessary with the reali-
zation of Sociah'sm. During the transitional period of " dictator-
ship " the " proletariat " will indeed require an instrument fully
as coercive as the capitalist State. But the Communist view of
the existing machinery of the State cannot be adapted for this
purpose, but must be destroyed and replaced by a " quasi-State "
based definitely and exclusively upon the power of the workers
themselves. Gradually, as the realization of Socialism comes
nearer, they hold that this " quasi-State " will " wither away " and
give place to a free organization of Society in which "government,"
which they understand to imply a system based on coercion, will
be replaced by " administration." Even among those Socialists
SOCIALISM
507
who do not accept this Communist view, keen criticism has been
directed in recent times upon the structure of the present-day
State and upon the conception of political democracy which was
almost universally accepted in the igth century. Universal
political suffrage is no longer held to furnish any adequate basis,
or even necessarily any basis at all, for truly democratic insti-
tutions; for it is pointed out that, as long as great inequalities of
wealth and power exist in the community, and as long as the
industrial system is based on an acute division of classes, this
" political democracy " is in fact inoperative, since the power
and wealth of the few can be used in order to prevent the will of
the people from finding expression, and, indeed, to prevent the
people from developing any conscious or clearly formulated will
of its own. By the Guild Socialists and by many others of the
newer schools of Socialist thought, stress is laid upon the impor-
tance of securing a system of democratic self-government in the
industrial sphere as the necessary condition of democracy in poli-
tics or in Society as a whole.
These changes in the conception of Socialist aim and method
have resulted in a much closer relationship between Socialist
ideas and the definitely economic forms of working-class organi-
zation, such as Trade Unionism and Cooperation. No longer
basing their hopes of Socialism entirely upon action in the polit-
ical sphere, Socialists are driven more and more to rely on the
development of the organizations created by the working classes
themselves for the protection of their interests and standard of
life, under capitalism. Whereas the earlier Socialists appealed
to Trade Unionists and Cooperators to realize the necessity
for Socialism and to embark upon political action, the newer
schools of Socialism are endeavouring also to influence the policy
of the Trade Unions and of the Cooperative movement in the
direction of Socialism applied to industry that is, of the devel-
opment and expansion of working-class industrial control (see
TRADE UNIONISM and GUILD SOCIALISM).
The organization of the Socialist movement in Great Britain is
often exceedingly bewildering to those who approach it for the
first time. There are a large number of bodies of varying degrees
of importance, and often with names which bear a close resem-
blance one to another. The Labour party, which is by far the
largest political body, may be regarded as definitely Socialist
in the sense in which the majority of continental European
Socialist parties are Socialist. Its annual conference has repeat-
edly pronounced, in general terms, in favour of Socialism, and
its policy on the whole coincides with that of the " right wing "
Socialist parties of Europe. At the same time, its main strength
is drawn from the trade unions. In 1920 it consisted of 126 affil-
iated trade unions with a total affiliated membership of 3 , 5 1 1 ,000.
In addition it included the Independent Labour party and the
Fabian Society and one or two smaller Socialist bodies. Locally
it was organized in several hundred Local Labour parties, which
in their turn consisted mainly of affiliated branches of trade
unions, Socialist societies and kindred bodies. These Local
Labour parties, under the new constitution of 1918, also admit
individual members who accept the aims of the party. There is
a very considerable individual membership enrolled in this way;
but no figures are available. In 1920 the Labour party had 66
members in the House of Commons.
Apart from the Labour party, although in some cases affiliated
to it, are the various Socialist societies, of which the largest
is still the Independent Labour party, which has been mentioned
above. This party had in 1920 35,000 members organized .in
local branches throughout the country. It had returned five
members as Independent Labour party members to the House
of Commons; and these sat as members of the Labour party.
In addition a considerable number of members who were
returned under the auspices of the trade unions, affiliated to
the Labour party, belonged to the Independent Labour party.
Next in point of size stands the Communist party of Great
Britain, formed in 1920 by a fusion of the British Socialist party
with a number of local Communist organizations. This party is
affiliated to the Third or Moscow International. It was gaining
adherents in 1921. Its total membership, however, certainly did
not at that date exceed 10,000. Of minor Socialist parties the
following deserve mention. The Social Democratic Federation,
formerly the National Socialist party, is the result of a split
which took place during the war in the British Socialist party.
A section of the British Socialist party, including H. M. Hynd-
man, the veteran Socialist leader, and many of the older members
of the earlier Social Democratic Federation, resigned from the
British Socialist party as a protest against its anti-war attitude
and formed a separate body of their own. The Social Demo-
cratic Federation (the name was again assumed at the end of 1920)
is affiliated to the Labour party. It is very small, its member-
ship in 1920 being returned as 2,000.
The Fabian Society, founded in 1883-4, nas been principally
associated with certain intellectual leaders of the right wing
of British Socialism, especially Mr. and Mrs. Sidney Webb and
Mr. Bernard Shaw. It had about 2,000 members in 1920 and
was affiliated to the Labour party. Its pamphlets and other
propagandist work exercised a powerful influence on the forma-
tion of Socialist opinion during the period from 1889 to 1910,
but it has since ceased to count as an effective influence; for,
although Mr. and Mrs. Webb and other leaders remained active,
they had transferred their main activities to other bodies, such
as the Labour party itself.
The Socialist Labour party is an offshoot of the American
"De Leonite" Socialist Labour party. It gained considerably
in membership and influence during the war, when its leading
members took a prominent part in the shop-stewards' move-
ment, and in other rank-and-file trade-union and anti-war
movements. Most of its more active members, however, passed
over to the Communist party in 1920; and it then ceased to
exercise any considerable influence. The Socialist party of
Great Britain is a very small and unimportant body of rigid
Marxians of the extreme left wing. The National Guilds
League, the propagandist organization of the Guild Socialists, is
described in the article GUILD SOCIALISM.
It will be seen from the foregoing account that the Socialist
movements of the world were in 1921 in a state of unrest and
transition, due largely to the events of the war and to the revo-
lutions in Russia. It is impossible to forecast what will be the
ultimate result of this ferment of forces and ideas, or in what
manner the Socialist parties and societies of the world will
eventually regroup themselves. Two clearly defined tendencies
can be seen in the movement. The first is a constitutionalist and
parliamentary tendency, expressing itself in the activities of the
Majority Socialist parties of many countries. Its adherents re-
pudiate for the most part recourse to revolutionary methods
save under quite exceptional circumstances. At the other ex-
treme is the tendency represented by Communism and the Com-
munist parties which have arisen in most countries in recent
years. Its adherents favour the use of political as well as indus-
trial action, but regard the transition to Socialism essentially in
terms of force to be generated by the uprising of the " proletariat."
They envisage the transformation of Society by a catastrophic
overthrow of the existing political and economic system, and the
substitution for it of a new system based on the " dictatorship
of the proletariat." Between these two extremes there is no
equally definite central body of opinion extending to a number
of countries; but in almost every country there are "centrist"
groups and tendencies, bearing in some cases a closer resemblance
to the constitutionalist right wing (e.g. the Independent La-
bour party in Great Britain), and in others to the revolutionary
left wing (e.g. the Socialist party in Italy).
The Guild Socialists and, in a less degree, the French Syndica-
listes stand to a considerable extent in a different position, since
in their case the main stress is laid neither on revolution nor on
constitutional political action, but on the extension of the indus-
trial power of the workers towards control over industry.
A marked feature of the more recent developments of the
Socialist movement has been the growing closeness of the rela-
tionship between it and the economic organizations created by
the workers for the defence of their interests and aspirations as
producers and consumers. It has become far more manifest
508
SODEN SOLF
in the later years of the igth and the early years of the aoth
century that Socialism is not solely, or even mainly, a political
movement, but at least equally an industrial movement, aiming
at a fundamental transformation not simply in the ownership,
but also in the control and administration of industry, and in
the motives upon which the industrial system depends. This is,
indeed, to some extent a harking back to earlier conceptions of
Socialism, such as those of Robert Owen in Great Britain and of
Louis Blanc in France. It has resulted in a far closer affiliation
between the Socialists of all schools, " right wing," " left wing "
and "centre" alike, and the trade-union movement; and the
struggles between the rival schools of Socialism now largely re-
produce themselves in the industrial sphere, as the various
Socialist sections seek to influence the policy and to secure the
allegiance of the trade-union organizations. This is true to a
less extent of the cooperative movement; but it is becoming in-
creasingly true in this case also.
Based, as it is, mainly upon the organized working-class move-
ment, Socialism has necessarily, to a large extent, an economic
basis; but it is important to realize that a great deal of its driv-
ing force comes from the fact that it is not only an economic
movement, but also a movement based on certain clear and def-
inite ideas which are largely shared by Socialists of all schools.
The differences between Socialists are. far more differences
as to method than differences as to ideal. Thus all Socialists are
agreed that the carrying-on of industry on a basis of private
profit produces anti-social results, and that the idea that the
interests of the whole are best served by the enlightened pursuit
by each private citizen of his own interests is fundamentally
wrong. Although they differ widely as to the structure which a
Socialist society should assume, and as to the forms of industrial
administration which would best express the new community
spirit, Socialists are agreed in demanding that all important in-
dustries and services should pass over from private hands into
some form of social ownership and control, whether into the hands
of the State or of local authorities, or of self-governing guilds, or
of the cooperative movement, or of other forms of organization
designed to express the communal spirit. They are agreed in be-
lieving the individual ownership of the means of production,
distribution and exchange to be undesirable, and in holding that
both the extent and the character of production should be deter-
mined, not by any anticipation of individual profit, but by con-
siderations of social need. Moreover, all Socialists insist that
with the change from the system of private ownership and con-
trol in industry to social ownership and control must go a change
in the motives which operate in the industrial system. They
hold that, if industries and services are conducted under forms of
organization designed in the interests of the whole community,
the motive of public service, which is at present thwarted and
inhibited by the existence of capitalism, will be brought into
play, with the result that the members of the community will be
more ready to render willing and efficient service. They are
also increasingly of the opinion, first strongly urged by the
Guild Socialists, that in order to bring this motive of social
service into play it will be essential to democratize the indus-
trial as well as the political system, by providing for a large
measure of self-government in industry by the " workers by
hand and brain."
The charge used to be brought against the Socialist parties
and groups of dwelling almost exclusively upon the economic
concerns of Society, and of caring little or nothing for other
questions of social and political policy. This charge can hardly
be made nowadays; for the Socialist and Labour parties of the
world have in almost all cases been led to formulate inclusive
programmes and policies, and to take an active part in further-
ing social reorganization in all spheres of both national and
international policy. Perhaps the best exposition of the national
and international policy of Socialism of the constitutional
type is contained in the pamphlet Labour and the New Social
Order, issued by the British Labour party in 1918. This pam-
phlet has had an important international influence. The Com-
munist wing, more fully preoccupied with questions of revolution
than with plans for reform under the existing system, has not
issued any quite comparable declaration of its aims; but the new
Communist Manifesto of the Third (Moscow) International
furnishes the clearest indication of its aims and policy as an in-
ternational movement.
BOOKS ON SOCIALISM. A., General. There is no really good ac-
count of Socialism as a whole. The handiest text-books in English
are: T. Kirkup, History of Socialism (new ed. revised by Edward
R. Pease, 1913); and Werner Sombart, Socialism and the Social
Movement (translated by M. Epstein (1909); R. C. K. Ensor, Mod-
ern Socialism (1907), is a useful collection of extracts from writings
of Socialists of all countries. Max Beer's History of British Socialism
(2 vols., 1919 and 1920) is indispensable. For the growth of the
movement in various countries see Robert Hunter, Socialists at
Work (1908), and the Labour International Handbook, prepared by
the Labour Research Department (1921). Of books hostile to Social-
ism the best known are 0. D. Skelton, Socialism: a Critical Analysis
(1911), and W. H. Mallock, A Critical Examination of Socialism
(1907); Hartley Withers, Tlie Case for Capitalism (1920), may also
be consulted. Other useful general books include: E. Bernstein,
Evolutionary Socialism (1909); Robert Blatchford, Merrie England
(1895); Fabian Society, Fabian Essays (1889); J. Bruce Glasier,
The Meaning of Socialism (1920); Laurence Gronlund, The Coop-
erative Commonwealth, edited by Bernard Shaw (1891); J. Ramsay
MacDonald, Socialism, Criticaland Constructive (1921) : William Mor-
ris and E. Belfort Bax, Socialism: its Growth and Outcome (1893);
Bertrand Russell, Roads to Freedom (1918); Emile Vandervelde,
Collectivism and Industrial Evolution (1907) ; Le Socialisme centre
I'Etat (1919) ; W. E. Walling, Socialism as it is (1912) ; H. G. Wells,
New Worlds for Old (1908, rev. 1914). See also the innumerable
pamphlets published by the various Socialist bodies.
B., Marxism. Karl Marx's Capital (English translation, 3 vols.
1887-1909) is, of course, the foundation of most modern Socialist
thinking. Of Marx's other works the most important for Socialist
theory are: The Communist Manifesto, written in collaboration with
Friedrich Engels (1847) ; The Critique of Political Economy (English
translation, vol. ii. 1907); The Civil War in France (1871, reissued
1921); Revolution and Counter-Revolution or Germany in 1848
(Eng. 1896); The Poverty of Philosophy (Eng. 1900).- Of the works
of Engels the most important are : Socialism, Utopian and Scientific
(Eng. 1892), and Landmarks of Scientific Socialism (Eng. 1907).
Karl Kautsky, the leading exponent of political Marxism in Germany,
can be best studied in The Erfurt Program (Eng. 1910); The Social
Revolution (Eng. 1902); and in his attack on Bolshevism, Terrorism
and Communism (Eng. 1920). For the Communist exposition of
Marxism see N. Lenin, The Slate and Revolution (Eng. 1919), and
other works. Of books on Marx and Marxism the most important
are: Max Beer, The Life and Teaching of Karl Marx (Eng. 1921);
Achille Loria, Karl Marx (Eng. 1920), and for a hostile criticism:
E. von Bohm-Bawerk, Karl Marx and the Close of his System (Eng.
1898). Georges Sorel's La Decomposition du Marxisme (1908) and
Benedetto Croce's Historic Materialism and the Economics of Karl
Marx (Eng. 1914) are important detached studies. A much fuller
bibliography will be found in What to Read on Social and Economic
Subjects (Fabian Society, new ed. 1020) ; and reference should be
made to the bibliographies at the end of the articles on COMMUNISM,
GUILD SOCIALISM, SYNDICALISM. There is, of course, a very large
literature of the subject in almost every European language.
(G. D. H. C.)
SODEN, HERMANN, FREIHERR VON (1852-1914), German
biblical scholar (see 25.339), died Jan. 15 1914.
SOLDENE, EMILY (1840-1912), English singer and actress,
was born at Islington, London, in 1840. She had made her
debut in 1864 on the concert stage, and in 1871 appeared in
Genevieve de Brabant, her favourite role, and in La Fille de
Madame Angot in 1872. Her successes were mainly in opera-
bouffe, and she retired young from the stage. She published
one novel, Young Mrs. Staples (1896), and My Theatrical and
Musical Recollections (1897). She died in London April 8 1912.
SOLF, WILHELM (1862- ), German colonial politician,
and, at the time of the revolution, Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs, was born Oct. 5 1862 in Berlin. He made a special study
of Sanskrit and Oriental languages, and, after a long sojourn at
Calcutta, returned to Germany in order to study political science.
He then entered the German Colonial Service and, after having
been employed in a judicial post in German East Africa, was
sent to Samoa, first as president of the municipal council (1899)
at Apia under the old " condominium " of Great Britain, Ger-
many and America and afterwards as governor of German Samoa
(1900). In 1911 he was appointed German colonial secretary and
achieved considerable success in the reform of the German
colonial administration. When Prince Max of Baden's Ministry
SOMALILAND
509
of desperation was formed towards the end of the World War,
Self was appointed Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs on Oct.
3 1918. In this capacity it fell to his lot to conduct the negotia-
tions for the Armistice, first with President Wilson and then with
the Allied and Associated Powers. He continued to hold this
office as an " expert " under the revolutionary Socialist Govern-
ment of the Commissioners of the People, and did not resign till
Dec. 17 1918. In 1920 he was appointed German charge d'af-
faires and afterwards ambassador to Tokio. He was the author
of Weltpolitik und Kolonialpolitik (1918) and of Kolonialpoli-
tik, Mein politischcs Vermachtniss (1919).
SOMALILAND (see 25.378). The territorial division of So-
maliland between Abyssinia, Great Britain, France and Italy,
except for a comparatively slight readjustment of the Italo-
Abyssinian frontier, remained unchanged during the period
1910-21 . However, Italy obtained from Great Britain the promise
of the addition to Italian Somaliland of part of the Jubaland
province of British East Africa (Kenya Colony). Italy also
desired to acquire the port of Jibuti (French Somaliland), but
failed to do so (see AFRICA: History).
BRITISH SOMALILAND. From 1910 to 1920 the mullah Ma-
hommed bin Abdullah, popularly known in Britain as the " Mad
Mullah," continued to dominate the interior of the protectorate.
In March 1910 the British troops were withdrawn to the sea-
ports and a policy of " strict coastal concentration " adopted.
Officially arrangements had been made to enable the friendly
tribes to defend themselves from attack by the Mullah; in fact
the " friendlics " were not only systematically raided by the
dervishes, but also quarrelled among themselves. At the end of
191 2 a camel constabulary, 1 50 strong, was raised and under R. C.
Corfield checked inter-tribal fighting. In Aug. 1913 Corfield,
acting against instructions, engaged a raiding party of some 200
dervishes at a place called Dolmadoba, no m. S.E. of Berbera.
In the action Corfield was killed, his little force of 109 men had
over 50 % casualties and was compelled to fall back. G. F. Archer,
the acting commissioner, rode out from Burao (40 m. distant)
with an escort of 20 Indian troops and covered the retreat. The
dervishes proceeded to occupy some of the chief grazing ground
of the "friendlies" and the Mullah built strong forts at Jidballi
and Shimber Berris places in the S.E. part of the British pro-
tectorate, Jidballi being 220 m. S.E. of Berbera. In March 1914
dervish raiders reached the coast and fired into the town of
Berbera. Archer, who in May 1914 became commissioner of the
protectorate 1 in succession to H. A. Byatt, urged that duty
should compel Britain to safeguard the tribes in the protectorate
and further operations were authorized. Sheikh and Burao were
reoccupied and on Nov. 23 Maj. (local Lt.-Col.) T. A. Cubitt
defeated the dervishes at Shimber Berris. Cubitt having returned
to Burao, the dervishes reoccupied Shimber Berris. Here they
were again attacked by Cubitt on Feb. 3-4 1915, and after
severe fighting, partly in caves, were driven out and ail their
forts destroyed. There was no means of following up the Mullah,
nor any belief that his power had been crushed, though for over a
year after the destruction of Shimber Berris he remained quies-
cent. His headquarters were at Tale, towards the Italian fron-
tier, where, under the direction of Arab masons from the Yemen,
his followers built elaborate stone fortifications of great strength.
Subsequently the Mullah again overran the centre and
east of the protectorate, building more forts and making many
raids on the "friendlies." This state of affairs lasted until 1920,
when carefully planned and ably executed operations resulted
in the complete destruction of. the Mullah's forces. The Mullah
had, in Sept. 1919, suddenly moved northward from Tale to
Jidballi with most of his fighting men, establishing his own camp
in the hills at Medishe, 12 m. N.W. of Jidballi. This move, occa-
sioned by the hostility of the Mijertin Somalis, proved advan-
tageous to the British plans. The main attack was made from
the air, the force employed being one flight of DHg aeroplanes
under Group-Capt. R. Gordon. The ground troops were a
King's African Rifles contingent (700 rifles), the Somaliland
Camel Corps (700 rifles) and the ist loist Grenadiers, Indian
1 In Oct. 1919 the title was changed to that of governor.
Army (400 rifles). Lt.-Col. G. H. Summers was in command, the
whole operations being, apart from the initial attacks by the air
force, under the personal direction of Archer. Hostilities began
on Jan. 21 with an aerial attack on the Mullah's camp at Medishe
and ended on Feb. 12 with the flight of the Mullah, his eldest
son, a brother and four or five followers. The rest of his follow-
ers were killed or. captured, together with all his stock and prop-
erty of every kind. The killed included 7 of the Mullah's sons;
the captured, his 5 wives, 6 of his sons, 4 daughters and 2 sisters.
The British casualties were very slight 3 natives killed and 8
wounded. The cost of these operations was about 84,000. Their
success was primarily and mainly due to the Royal Air Force.
The dervishes, good fighting men, were demoralized from the
start by the attacks from the air and offered no serious opposi-
tion. They appeared not to know the character of aeroplanes; 1
when the first attack was made on Medishe the Mullah is reported
to have regarded the appearance of the machines in the air as a
divine manifestation. It is known that on their approach he col-
lected his people around him and awaited their coming under
the white canopy used on state occasions. The first bomb killed
an uncle of the Mullah's, who was standing by his side, and
singed the Mullah's clothing.
When the British captured Tale (Feb. 9) the Mullah was
already in flight, and he succeeded in eluding pursuit with the
small following named. He crossed the Haudh to Galadi. News
was received in the summer of 1921 that the Mullah had died at
Imi in the heart of the Ogaden country the previous Feb., de-
serted and destitute. The Mullah's defeat was regarded in
Somaliland as marking the deliverance of the country from 21
years of dervish oppression. Archer, to whose persistent advo-
cacy this result was due, was created a K.C.M.G.
The World War and the high prices prevailing in 1918-20 had a
marked influence on trade, the Somalis exporting large numbers of
sheep and goats for the Aden Field Force and many thousands of
camels for the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Apart from this the
most valuable export was skins and hides, the Somali skins being of
very high quality. The great majority of the skins, especially the
sheepskins, went eventually to the American market. The chief
imports American grey sheeting, dates, rice, sugar and tea showed
a heavy decline in quantity during the war, but an increase in value.
Trade with Abyssinia continued, but the Zeila route could not com-
pete beyond Harrar with the railway-borne traffic through Jibuti.
In 1910-1 the total value of imports was 267,000 and of exports
247,000. In 1919-20 the figures were: imports 754,000, exports
346,000 (of which 134,000 was the value of hides). External trade
was mainly in the hands of Indians and Arabs.
Revenue was mainly derived from customs and was inadequate
to meet the cost of administration. The figures for 1910-1 were:
revenue 30,000, expenditure 99,000; for 1919-20 revenue 81,000,
expenditure 322,000. Deficits, incurred mainly for military pur-
poses, were met by Imperial grants in aid. There was evidence to
show that, with internal peace and a reasonable development of the
resources of the country, the protectorate would become self-support-
ing. It was known to contain oil-fields, favourably reported upon by
experts as long ago as 1914. A step towards opening the interior was
taken in 1920 when a motor road was made from Berbera (the capital
and chief port) to Lower Sheikh and from Upper Sheikh to Burao.
See R. E. Drake Brockman, British Somaliland (1917); H. F.
Prevost Battersby, Richard Corfield of Somaliland (1914) ; A. H. E.
Mosse, My Somali Book (1913); A. Hamilton, Somaliland (1911);
and the annual Colonial Office reports on the protectorate. The
account of the final overthrow of the Mullah is given in a supple-
ment to the London Gazette of Nov. I 1920.
FRENCH SOMALILAND. Situated on the western shores of the
Bab-el-Mandeb, French Somaliland is important as possessing
the only French port on the Suez Canal route and as being the
main artery of trade with Abyssinia. The pop. in 1917 was
estimated at 206,000. Jibuti, the port and capital, had 13,608
inhabitants, of whom 294 were Europeans (107 French).
The resources of the country, which is largely arid, are limited.
Date palms have been planted in the desert round Jibuti. Cotton-
growing was tried in the same neighbourhood but was abandoned.
On the higher ground there is rich grassland, on which the natives
Somali and Danakil have herds of camels, goats and black-faced
sheep. The Bahr 'Asal has been exploited since 1912 for its immense
deposits of salt; in 1918 the export was 11,500 metric tons. There is
also a considerable fishing industry, and mother-of-pearl figures
among the exports.
Jibuti is regularly visited by French, British and Italian steamers
and has a local service to Aden. In 1917 the steamers entered at
SOMERSET SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
Jibuti numbered 272, with a tonnage of 643,000. About 90% of its
trade is the transit of goods to and from Abyssinia, the railway from
Jibuti to Addis Abbaba being owned by a French company. In 1913,
before the railway had reached Addis Abbaba, the value of the tran-
sit trade was 1,636,000. In 1918, with the railway completed, the
imports destined for Abyssinia were valued at 1,433,000 and the
exports from Abyssinia at 2,622,000. There is also a trade in sup-
plying passing ships with coal, previously imported. Textiles, food-
stuffs and coal are the chief imports; the exports are the characteris-
tic produce of Abyssinia coffee, live stock, hides and skins, ivory,
rubber, beeswax, etc.
The colony is administered by a governor assisted by a council
composed equally of official and non-official members. The budget
for 1919 was balanced at 2,370,000 francs. Relations between the
Somali and Danakil and the French proved satisfactory, the tribes
being very lightly administered. A small military force was main-
tained for the security of Jibuti and the railway. The colony was on
jgood relations with its Italian, British and Abyssinian neighbours,
save for differences with the Abyssinian customs officials, whose
valuation of dutiable goods passing inwards was often arbitrary.
Some anxiety was caused in 1917-8 by the presence of Lij Yasu, the
deposed Emperor of Abyssinia, in the Danakil country, and by his
threats to the railway. His effort to raise the tribes against the
French failed.
See the Cote Franqaise des Somalis (annual reports by the French
Colonial Ministry), and L'Afrique Franfaise (monthly).
ITALIAN SOMALILAND. The efforts of Italy in Somaliland
during 1910-21 were concentrated upon the southern part of
their protectorate. By a royal decree of July 1910 this southern
region, Benadir and its hinterland, was constituted a Crown
colony, administered by a civil governor resident at Mukdishu
(Ilal. Mogadiscio), and divided into four " commissariats."
This region included the fertile valleys of the lower Juba and
Webi Shebeli and the good grazing land on the plateau between
those rivers. Dura was the main crop, but cotton and rice plan-
tations were formed along the Juba and aid given to Italian
colonization companies. The result was not great; the Somalis
preferred a nomadic life, while the agricultural classes, negroes
or semi-negroes, were few in number. This paucity of labour
was the most serious problem confronting the administration.
By the occupation of strategic posts and the building of roads
the Italians secured the safety of Benadir, and with this security
a considerable trade developed with Abyssinia, chiefly via Lugh,
on the Juba. But the absence of any harbours all the ports are
open roadsteads proved a great drawback, and to remedy this
difficulty Italy had obtained facilities at the harbour of Kismayu,
in British East Africa (Kenya), some little distance south of the
mouth of the Juba. That river formed the Anglo-Italian frontier.
On Dec. 24 1915 an agreement was reached for the appointment
of a permanent mixed commission to deal with customs, transit,
conservancy, navigation, irrigation and other purposes in the
Juba region. Italian desires in respect to the Juba were, how-
ever, of a wider character. It was believed that with complete
control of the lower Juba spoken of as a second Nile the
economic future of the colony would be assured, and in the treaty
with the Allies which preceded her entry into the World War
Italy secured inter alia a promise of the rectification of her
Somaliland frontier. Formal negotiations to that end were
entered upon in 1919, when Great Britain agreed to the cession
of Kismayu and of a strip of land which would give Italy both
banks of the Juba.
The northern part of Italian Somaliland remained under the
rule of Somali chiefs, of whom the most important was the Sultan
of the Mijertins, whose territory included the coast facing the
Gulf of Aden. The Mijertins, who number approximately 100,-
ooo, possess large numbers of camels, sheep and cattle, and their
country, as also Obbia and the Nogal territory, abounds in
plants which furnish gum-arabic, myrrh, frankincense, etc. The
Mijertins were near neighbours of Mahommed bin Abdullah, the
" Mad Mullah," who between 1905 and 1909 was settled in the
lower Nogal region. The hostility of the Mijertins finally drove
out the Mullah, who established himself at Tale, in the southeast
cor-ner of British Somaliland. The continued and unwelcome
attentions of the Mijertins induced the Mullah in 1919 to remove
farther into the British protectorate, while in 1920 the Mijertin
Sultan, Osman Mahmoud, assembled his warriors to prevent the
Mullah's reentry into Italian territory.
Italian relations with Abyssinia were satisfactory. Following
the Italo-Abyssinian convention of 1908 the frontier was delimita-
ted in ipu, tribal boundaries rather than physical features
determining the line chosen. In the north, where the frontier
reaches the southern limits of British Somaliland, the Italo-
Abyssinian frontier was fixed at 48 E., instead of 47 E., as
provided in the 1908 agreement. This gave to Abyssinia the
small portion of Ogaden tribal lands which had been in the
Italian protectorate, including Galadi.
The external trade, valued at 174,000 in 1908-9, had risen to
326,000 in 1912-3, and was 800,000 in 1918. Throughout this
period imports greatly exceeded exports, the exports in 1918 for
example being valued at 243,000 only. Imports are chiefly
cotton goods from Italy and food-stuffs. Skins form, in value,
75% of the exports. The expenses of administration exceed
revenue; the Italian grant in aid (119,000 in 1910-1) was
186,000 in 1920-1, when the budget was balanced at 440,000.
Of the expenditure one-fifth was for the military force, some
3,000 strong, sent from Eritrea, the men being Abyssinians.
A 1920 estimate put the total pop. as high as 650,000. Muk-
dishu had 14,000 inhabitants. Besides a few hundred Europeans
there are at the coast towns settlements of Arab and Indian
traders. Mukdishu was, in 1915, connected with Massawa by a
high-power wireless station. Surveys for railways had been made,
but no construction had begun up to 1921. There were in that
year some 1,500 m. of road in southern Somaliland.
See G. de Martino (sometime governor of the colony), La Somalia
Nostra (1913), and Italian Somaliland, a British Foreign Office
handbook, with bibliography (1920). (F. R. C.)
SOMERSET, ISABELLA CAROLINE [LADY HENRY SOMERSET)
(1851-1921), English philanthropist, was born in London Aug.
3 1851, the eldest daughter and co-heiress of the 3rd and last
Earl Somers. She married in 1873 Lord Henry Somerset, son
of the 8th Duke of Beaufort, at one time comptroller of Queen
Victoria's household, from whom she later separated. She
became well known as a temperance reformer and interested
herself deeply in the reclamation of inebriate women, with this
end in view founding the Duxhurst Farm Colony, near Reigate,
the first settlement of the kind in England. In connexion with
it she established a home for destitute children and a " chil-
dren's village " for saving infant life. Lady Henry Somerset
was for many years president of the National British Women's
Temperance Association, and made a reputation as an able
speaker. In 1894 she founded the Woman's Signal in the inter-
ests of women's work, becoming its editor, and she was also the
author of various children's books and many pamphlets and arti-
cles on social work. She died in London March 12 1921.
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE. Under this heading it is proposed
to deal with the principal battles which took place in Picardy
and southern Artois during the World War. The geographical
limits in which these battles took place may be roughly defined
as the Scarpe on the N., the Oise on the S.,the line Cambrai-La
Fere on the E., and the line Amiens-Creil on the W.
The strategic geography of this region is governed by the
course of the Somme between St. Quentin and Amiens; in the '
upper part of this course it runs S.-N., in the lower E.-W.,
and in that general course it continues to the sea. Thus from
Peronne, the point at which the river bends through the right
angle, to Abbeville, a water barrier divides opposed armies that
face N.-S., and separates each into well-defined tactical theatres
if they are operating towards the E. and the W. The upper
(or strictly the middle) Somme (Peronne-Ham) prolonged to the
Oise by the Crozat Canal, on the other hand separates the E.-W.
adversaries and either protects or hampers those operating in
N.-S. direction. Thus the operations which took place in the
region, profoundly influenced by the alignment of the Somme and
its tributaries, are in spite of their dissimilarity, properly desig-
nated " battles of the Somme."
In the first phase of the war, this region was traversed by
the German I. Army, and a number of local combats took place
between it and the forces that Joffre gathered, little by little, to
form his VI. Army and outflank the Germans in their wheel.
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
More severe and continuous fighting took place between the
Oise and the Scarpe during the development of the opposed
northern wings in the " Race to the Sea."
Of this the battles of Lassigny, Roye, and Albert, which led
up to and even into, the battle of Arras (see ARTOIS, BATTLES IN)
formed the first phase.
In each locality or area the effort of each side to hold the
other frontally, while outflanking him to the N., produced an
ever-extending frontal battle that, after see-sawing to and fro,
produced the line of stabilization characteristic of the trench war-
fare period.
In 1915 the line of stabilization between the Oise and the
Scarpe was relatively quiet. And apart from a combat in Jan.
1916, in which the French lost possession of Frise, the line, as it
was left at the close of the " Race to the Sea " in 1914, was the
starting line of the great offensive of July i 1916.
I. BATTLES OF JULY-NOVEMBER 1916
The four months and a half of almost continuous fighting
which began with the great attack of July i 1916 mark a turning-
point in the World War in more than one respect. With July
i 1916 began that period of sustained and systematic Allied
pressure upon the enemy which, though interrupted in the spring
and early summer of 1918 by the desperate German counter-
offensive, in the end wore his resistance down. Before July 1916
the Allied offensives had been relatively brief interludes in a
long period of stalemate; from that date onwards it was the
periods when active operations were in abeyance which formed
the interludes. Further it is clear even from the grudging ad-
missions of the German commanders that this great struggle
materially affected the strategical situation as no earlier Allied
offensive had, that the strain which the maintenance of their
defence imposed on the resources and the moral of the German
armies exercised an important influence on the course of the
struggle. The actual gains of ground made by the Allies between
July i-Nov. 19 1916 were not large, but in making them they
established a moral ascendancy over their enemy and brought
home to the Germans the probability of defeat. And in this
struggle the British army had for the first time to bear the major
part: the French who fought on Sir Douglas Haig's right with
so much gallantry and efficiency played a part of the greatest
importance in the battle, but one as distinctly subordinate to
the efforts of the British as the British attacks in May and Sept.
1915 had been to those of the French.
To speak, as is the common habit, of "the battle of the Somme"
in 1916 is to fall into a natural but serious error. The operations
were a series of great battles, each surpassing all those of pre-
vious wars in magnitude and intensity, parts of a common whole
but still definite and separate operations for distinct purposes.
It is possible to distinguish four main phases in the operations:
first the winning of a position on the southern edge of the main
plateau between the Somme and the Ancre, a matter of three
weeks' hard fighting, embracing two attacks on a large scale
and many lesser intermediate operations; in the second phase,
which lasted till the middle of Sept., nearly two months, the
operation took the shape of a contest for this main ridge and for
the extension of the footing which the Allies had gained upon it
so as to enable them to develop their offensive on both flanks as
well as straight to their front; in the third phase the Allies
pushed forward across the ridge and down its farther side,
only to have their progress arrested by the persistent bad weather
which set in about the beginning of Oct. and prevented any-
thing like a general attack upon the rearward system of defences
which covered Bapaume and Peronne; the fourth phase of the
operations, extending from the beginning of Oct. till Nov. 18,
saw a series of smaller efforts against particular points and strong-
holds, culminating in a bigger attack on Nov. 13 astride the
Ancre which completed the reduction of the main ridge and
captured ground of vital importance on the right bank of the
Ancre. But the main rearward system was not penetrated,
thanks largely to the mud which hampered every movement of
the attackers and made the performance of the normal adminis-
trative services for the troops in the advanced position a task
of the greatest difficulty. The devastating effects of the repeated
bombardments made themselves felt over the whole area: houses
and whole villages were reduced to ruins; woods were represented
by a few shattered stumps and a tangle of broken trunks and
branches; roads were rendered impassable till the battlefield
became a dreary wilderness of mud and water-logged shell
craters. To maintain trenches in defensible condition was all
but impossible, to consolidate a captured position, difficult even
in dry weather, became practically out of the question. The
middle of Nov., therefore, saw active operations broken off and
two months elapsed before anything more than quite minor
operations became possible. The operations during the two
months which preceded the German withdrawal to the Hinden-
burg line, including as they did a systematic advance up both '
banks of the Ancre on Bapaume, were essentially the contin-
uation and completion of those of the last phase of the opera-
tions of the autumn, and it would be not unreasonable to treat
them as yet another stage of " the Somme." They had brought
the British practically within striking^ distance of the last line
which covered Bapaume and Peronne when in the middle of
March the German retreat anticipated its enforced evacuation.
First Phase. The German positions astride the Somme and
Ancre attacked on July i 1916 were strong by nature and had
been made doubly formidable by every device known to the
military engineer. Their line represented the positions taken
up in Oct. 1914 by the German VI. Army in the course of that
" Race to the Sea " which culminated in the desperate fighting of
Oct. and Nov. 1914 for Ypres and the Yser. The line then
established had remained substantially unchanged, for neither
side had since then attempted any operations of importance in
this quarter where the British III. Army had relieved the French
in front of Albert in July 1915- Hence the Germans had had
ample time to develop their defences to the highest degree:
villages and woods had become fortresses; two elaborate trench
systems, each comprising several lines, had been dug, the second
from two to three miles in rear of the first, " switches " com-
munication trenches connected them up and greatly complicated
the task of the attacker who should happen to penetrate any
part of the front. Deep dug-outs, to the construction of which
the chalk country lent itself admirably, gave shelter to the
trench garrisons during bombardments; deep belts of barbed
wire protected the different trenches, and most careful and skill-
ful arrangements had been made for enfilade and supporting fire
from numerous machine-guns; positions of special tactical value
had been secured by formidable redoubts, while a well-placed
and ample artillery was ready to support the defenders. More-
over, the advantage of the ground lay with the Germans, whose
facilities for observation were excellent.
The frontage selected for the attack extended from just N. of
Lihons on the extreme right to the Somme at Curlu, a distance
of about nine miles, crossed the Somme and ran as before from
N. and S. to Maricourt, another 3,000 yards. Here the French
front ended, and the line turned sharply and ran W. for 7,000
yards. Here it turned N. again, making a sharp salient at the
village of Fricourt. Thence to the Ancre, approximately 10,000
yards, the line ran over several spurs which jut S.W. from the
ridge which formed the backbone of the German position. This
ridge runs roughly N.W. from Peronne, dividing the valley of
the Somme from the basins of the Scarpe and Scheldt. After
crossing the Ancre the German line continued in a generally N.
direction in front of Beaumont-Hamel and Serre, this last village
forming the N. end of the front to be attacked, though a couple
of miles farther N. a subsidiary attack was to be made against
the pronounced salient at Gommecourt. The total frontage was
over 25 miles, exclusive of the Gommecourt operations.
Against this frontage the British had available the five army
corps of Sir Henry Rawlinson's IV. Army, which put into the
front line eleven divisions keeping another nine in reserve, while
two divisions of the III. Army (Sir E. Allenby) were to be em-
ployed against Gommecourt. On the German side some six
divisions were holding the line to be attacked by the British.
512
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
Opposite the French, where they do not appear to have been
expecting an attack, they were proportionately weaker, having
three divisions in the line on a front of eleven miles.
Relatively to the numbers engaged in the Loos offensive
the British army was not employing in its first attack any
greatly increased force of infantry. Where its preparations had
altogether outstripped those of Sept. 1915 was in artillery, and
it was on this arm that its chief hopes rested. For the six days'
preliminary bombardment the heavy guns available were so
numerous that it was difficult to find good positions for them all.
Indeed the artillery personnel engaged in the first attack came
to nearly half that of the infantry, and in weight as well as in
number of guns the Allied artillery were able to establish a pre-
dominance over the enemy. This was largely due to the success
with which the Royal Flying Corps was at the time contending
against the enemy's aircraft; the mastery of the air which it had
established ensured to the Allies when weather conditions per-
mitted observation of artillery fire and denied to the enemy
this important advantage and the opportunity of gaining in-
formation of movements behind the lines. Ammunition, too,
if not as unlimited as it was to be in 1918, was plentiful. The
careful economy which had been a painful necessity during the
winter and spring had allowed the accumulation of large reserves,
and although the great development of munition-making in
England, undertaken in the summer of 1915, was only just begin-
ning to produce its effects, its influence was already apparent in
the effective bombardment to which the German positions were
subjected for the week preceding the attack.
In one way the bombardment was almost too effective. The
destruction was in some places so complete that it proved far
more difficult to consolidate captured positions and to hold them
against counter-attacks than to carry them. But to a large
extent the German defences proved capable of withstanding
even the tremendous shelling to which they had been subjected.
Many nests of machine-guns had escaped intact, in places there
wei still stretches of uncut wire and the German artillery were
able to make a most effective reply. North of the Ancre in
particular German counter-battery work had much to do with
the failure of the 3ist Div. (VIII. Corps), the left of the main
attack, to capture Serre. On its right the 4th Div. penetrated
some way into the German position N. of Beaumont-Hamel, but
found its flanks exposed by the check to the jist Div. and by the
failure of the 2gth Div. against Beaumont-Hamel itself, one of
the very strongest parts of the German line. It was counter-
attacked and driven out after a stubborn resistance.
Immediately S. of the Ancre the X. Corps fared little better
than the VIII. Its left division, the 36th (Ulster) began well
and pressed forward N. of Thiepval. But Thi6pval itself, another
formidable fortress, defied the attacks of the 40 th and 3 2nd Divs.,
with the result that the very success of the 36th contributed to
its undoing. Its advanced detachments were cut off and over-
whelmed, and in the end it was forced to evacuate its captures.
South of Thiepval, however, at the angle known as the Leipzig
Salient a slender foothold was gained and maintained despite
the vigour of the German counter-attacks. On the right of the
X. Corps, the 8th and 34th Divs. of the III. Corps had two very
difficult places to attack in the strongly fortified villages of
Ovillers and La Boisselle. Neither of these was captured, but
the III. Corps managed to penetrate the German lines on either
side of them, very slightly N. of Ovillers, rather more deeply
between that and La Boisselle, and very much deeper S. of La
Boisselle. Here also the 2ist Div. of the XV. Corps, flanked on
its right by a brigade of the iyth Div., made substantial progress
N. of Fricourt, which village was in danger of being cut off, as
E. of it the yth Div., also of the XV. Corps, was most successful,
storming the German front lines and penetrating as far as the
village of Mametz. To the right again the XIII. Corps (i8th
and 3oth Divs.) made great progress, reaching all its objectives
from Montauban, W. to Mametz and E. to the Briqueterie.
Thus, despite the failure of the British left and the limited suc-
cess of the centre, the right had made a promising opening.
The reverse on the left may be in part explained by the excep-
tional strength of the German defences N. of the Ancre, and by
the concentration of the German artillery in that quarter where
they both expected and especially feared an attack. Had
Beaumont-Hamel and Thiepval gone the German position on the
main ridge would have been more seriously endangered than
it was by the British success between Fricourt and Montauban.
But if the Germans were less well prepared for an attack on this
frontage, opposite the French they were certainly neither expect-
ing one nor ready for it; and this, together with the ample ar-
tillery support available and the superior experience of the
French gunners, contributed to the complete success of General
Foch's attack. On both banks of the Somme his infantry mas-
tered the German front system and made their way deep into their
positions, reaching the outskirts of Hardecourt and Curlu N.
of the river, while S. of it they progressed even farther, taking
Dompierre and Foy. Exploiting their victory, the French pressed
on, and by July 4 not only penetrated into the second system of
German defences, but captured it over a length of six miles from
Estrees N. to the Somme at Buscourt. Some 6,000 prisoners
fell into their hands, with many guns, and as S. of the river they
were well forward of the line reached on the right bank they
were able to enfilade the German positions from across the river.
While General Foch's troops were exploiting and increasing
their gains the British IV. Army was similarly employed, though
on a frontage shorter than that originally attacked. Recognizing
the futility of renewing the attempt on the formidable positions
astride the Ancre, Sir Douglas Haig decided to concentrate his
efforts on pushing home the success of his right. Divisions which
had lost particularly heavily, like the 8th and 36th, were with-
drawn and replaced by others from the reserves. Four days of
hard and Continuous fighting substantially extended the lodg-
ment gained on July i. The yth and iyth Divs. joined hands
behind Fricourt, cutting off that village; then, supported by the
23rd, they pressed forward against Contalmaison while the
igth Div. on their left reduced La Boisselle and made headway
towards Ovillers. Advancing from Montauban after repulsing
several strong counter-attacks the XIII. Corps captured Cater-
pillar and Bernafay Woods. With this the hostile front system
over a front of six miles was secured and consolidated, but before
a footing could be gained on the main ridge it was necessary
to cross the valley which runs N.E. from Fricourt, to gain more
ground towards Contalmaison, and to reduce Ovillers.
On July 7 therefore a second stage of the first battle started,
the 1 2th and 25th Divs. assailing Ovillers while the troops who
had cleared Fricourt and La Boisselle pushed on against Con-
talmaison and the 38th (Welsh) Div. attacked Mametz Wood.
This last proved difficult to reduce but was finally cleared by the
zist Division. By July 13 Contalmaison also had been taken,
and after some desperate fighting by the gth, i8th, and 3oth
Divs. important gains had been made on the British right, Trones
Wood (which changed hands repeatedly) being the scene of the
fiercest contests. Meanwhile the French had cleared Hardecourt
and advanced their line S. of the Somme to Biaches.
During all this fighting the German resistance had been stiffen-
ing. The stubborn fights which had been put up for Ovillers and
Contalmaison and Trones Wood had given time for the arrival
of strong reinforcements and the reorganization of the defence.
The divisions on whom had fallen the brunt of the bombardment
and of the first attack had been relieved by fresher troops; artillery
had been shifted to meet the requirements of the new situation.
Moreover, as the Allies advanced over the area devastated by
the bombardment their administrative difficulties increased at
each step; the advance of the guns to new positions meant new
arrangements for ammunition supply, roads had to be repaired
or improvised, and the feeding and watering of the advanced
troops were laborious and troublesome. All these circumstances
added to the difficulties of the next step, the assault upon the
enemy's second system of defences on the S. crest of the main
ridge. This system, though hardly as strong as that stormed on
July i, was formidable enough, and, like it, was supported by the
:ortified villages Longueval, Bazentin le Grand, and Bazentin
.e Petit and by several woods. To get within assaulting distance
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
the troops had to advance under cover of darkness for about
1,000 to 1,400 yards in order to line up below the crest. This
operation was a severe test for the troops; most of them had no
experience of anything but trench warfare, but they acquitted
themselves most creditably and the attack, launched just before
dawn on July 14, met with great success. The i8th Div. finally
cleared Trones Wood. Longueval and the two Bazentins were
carried, the former by the gth Div., the others by the 3rd and
7th Divs., while farther W. the 2ist Div. cleared Bazentin le
Petit Wood, and more ground was gained on that flank by the ist
and 34th Divs., though here the success was less complete.
For a time indeed even more substantial, almost decisive,
results seemed within reach, for, after some counter-attacks on
the British centre had been repulsed, it proved possible to push
the yth Div. forward to the top of the ridge to occupy High Wood.
But the divisions on the flanks could not get up level with this,
and though all the next day the detachment in High Wood held
its ground, the position was untenable and had to be evacuated
on the evening of July 15. The Germans, indeed, realizing the
critical nature of the situation, spared no efforts to stop the
further progress of the British and developed a series of counter-
attacks against which the captured positions were only main-
tained with the greatest difficulty. Thus, though the attack had
given the British the Bazentin Ridge on a front of 6,000 yards,
and had incidentally led to the complete isolation and surrender
(July 17) of Ovillers, which allowed a substantial advance to
be made toward Pozieres, it was followed by a phase of the
battle in which the Allied progress was disappointingly small
and seemingly out of all proportion to the efforts made and to
the casualties incurred.
Second Phase. The battles of July 1-12 and July 14-17
had left the Allies in a tactical situation not altogether ad-
vantageous. The check to the British left centre had left the
Germans in possession of Thiepval which with Pozieres about
two miles S.E. of it presented serious obstacles to any progress
towards the Ancre and threatened to enfilade any further ad-
vance straight to the front. Pozieres must be mastered before
the British centre could get forward. Even more important was
it to improve the position round Longueval, where the advance
of July 14 had created a sharp salient with its apex at Delville
Wood, N.E. of the village. From this point the British line ran
almost due S. to join the French at Maltzhorn Farm S.E. of
Trones Wood, being continued thence S.W. of Maurepas to the
Somme at Ham. It was imperative that the British right and
the French troops N. of the Somme should make a substantial
advance in order to reduce the sharpness of the salient at Delville
Wood, a point which was extremely difficult to maintain, being
subjected to a concentric artillery fire from the N. and E. as
well as repeatedly counter-attacked. The wood had been cap-
tured on July 15 by the S. African Brigade of the 9th Div., but
had been promptly counter-attacked by the loth Bavarian Div.
and then by the 7th and Sth Divs., picked troops all of them, and
its possession continued in dispute for weeks. Longueval in like
manner changed hands several times, the 2nd, 3rd, sth and i8th
Divs. in addition to the gth being at one time and another en-
gaged in the struggle for these key positions, the scenes of fight-
ing as desperate as any in the long struggle of " the Somme."
And when at last Delville Wood had been cleared the task
of debouching from its ruins presented great difficulties. In
Ginchy and Guillemont, E. and S.E. of it, the enemy had positions
of great strength, the fortifications of which formed a formidable
support to their second system of trenches which ran S.E. by
Maurepas towards the Somme. Maurepas proved a similar
stumbling-block to the French; they reached it on July 30,
but not till Aug. 24 was it completely in their hands, and they
had to pay heavily for it. And behind Maurepas lay Le Forest
with Rancourt and Fregicourt yet farther back.
The last week of July and all Aug. passed without any ad-
vance like that of July 14. The Germans fought stubbornly and
counter-attacked persistently and resolutely, while, as over-
addiction to the use of the bomb had sadly reduced the standard
of musketry of the British infantry, their counter-attacks escaped
xxxii. 17
the punishment they would have received in 1914. It was a time
of constant and desperate fighting, of small advances, of many
repulses and disappointments. Guillemont in particular was
attacked on July 23 and July 30, on August 8 and August 16,
but without more success than the capture and retention of the
railway station on the outskirts of the village. But despite all
these checks the line crept forward: to a considerable extent on
the French front where, during Aug., it got within assaulting
distance of Combles, Le Forest and Clery, and nearly 3,000
prisoners were taken; to a smaller extent on the British right;
to a rather larger extent in the British centre, where the 33rd
Div. won a foothold in High Wood and the sth and 7th gained
ground between that point and Longueval, while W. of High
Wood a series of minor operations gradually advanced the
British line up the crest. Farther to the left again, there was hard
fighting by the troops of the Reserve or V. Army. This had been
formed after July i by putting Sir Hubert Gough in command of
the left wing of the IV. Army, in order to allow Sir Henry Rawlin-
son to concentrate his attention on the attack to the E. of the
Albert-Bapaume road. The capture of Pozieres was urgent as
an indispensable preliminary to any advance over the watershed,
and when this was accomplished (July 25) by the ist Australian
Div., flanked by the 48th, an important gain had been secured.
But the German resistance in this quarter was very determined,
and though some progress was made towards Thi6pval from the
Leipzig salient on the S. and from Pozieres, Mouquet Farm
E. of Thiepval proved a stumbling-block. Bad weather, too,
with much rain and frequent cloud which impeded aerial observa-
tion of artillery fire, hampered the attackers, and the Germans,
now thoroughly alive to the importance of holding up this advance,
brought up fresh divisions with great rapidity. By the end of
August five times as many German divisions as had been in the
line on July i had been located on the British front. However,
by Ludendorff's own admission, the strain on the Germans was
tremendous; the need for constantly relieving exhausted divisions
taxed their resources in men, artillery was so short that batteries
were constantly kept in the line when their relief was due, the
ammunition supply was beginning to cause anxiety, and worst
of all, the resistance of the German infantry was weakening
under the pressure of the Allied infantry attacks and of the
Allied superiority in artillery and aircraft. The supersession of
General von Falkenhayn as chief of the general staff by Field-
Marshall von Hindenburg, with Ludendorff as his chief assistant
(" First Quartermaster-General "), which took place on Aug. 27,
may be in part attributed to the effects of the Somme, and was
promptly followed by " the momentous order for the cessation of
the offensive at Verdun." Pressed as they were on the Somme
the Germans could no longer continue attacking elsewhere.
If the immediate Allied gains on the Somme seemed small their
offensive there had already relieved Verdun.
With September the second phase of the struggle was reaching
its final stage. This took the shape of a general attack, extending
almost as far as that on July i, even N. of the Ancre, where the
V. Army once again assaulted Beaumont-Hamel. Most success
fell to the French, who not only attacked and took Le Forest and
Clery but attempted more S. of the Somme than on any occasion
since the middle of July. Besides pressing on against the Berny-
Vermandovillers line which they had then reached they extended
their attack as far S. as Chaulnes, storming the old German front
line on a front of three miles. Their success here, which brought
over 7,000 prisoners with many guns, did not as immediately
affect the fortunes of the main struggle as did the capture of
Le Forest and Clery, which was a considerable help to the British
right as well as threatening Combles and the Peronne-Bapaume
line, where the Germans were already busy on a rearward system
of defences; still, it increased the area on which the Germans had
to keep on the alert, and it was a great encouragement to the
French, so lately strained to the utmost to retain Verdun, to be
recovering more territory from the German grip.
To the British, Sept. 3 was a day of more qualified success.
Once again the Beaumont-Hamel position proved impregnable,
the efforts of the 49th Div. against Thiepval met with no success,
514
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
and though in the British centre between High Wood and Delville
Wood ground was gained, German counter-attacks recovered
most of it. But the right fared better. The 2oth (Light) Div.,
assisted by a brigade of the i6th (Irish) Div., at last mastered
Guillemont, the obstacle which had held up so many attacks and
cost so many casualties. The 7th Div. reached Ginchy, but
after desperate fighting was thrust out of it again, while on the
extreme right three days of hard fighting gave the 5th Div.
Falfemont Farm and brought it to Leuze Wood. Here, there-
fore, the original German second system, which had so long
held back the British right, was at last pierced and when on Sept.
9 this success was followed up by the capture and retention of
Ginchy by the i6th Div. and the advance of the 56th (London)
Div. up to Bouleaux Wood, the great stumbling-block to the
advance of the British centre was at last so far removed that it
could now push forward without putting itself at a grave dis-
advantage from enfilade and reverse fire. Thus the battles for
Guillemont and Ginchy (Sept. 3 and 9) mark a very definite
stage in the Allied progress. The forward crest of the main ridge
was in their hands over a front of five miles and more. It was
now possible to plan a general advance against the villages on the
northern slopes of the watershed. Such an attack, if successful,
would bring the British up against the rearmost of the enemy's
original systems of defence, and would make the position of the
Germans on their old front line S. of the Ancre and immediately
N. of it a pronounced salient.
Third Phase. The next attack, therefore, opened a new phase
in the offensive. Special preparations were made for it, and a
week's pause after the taking of Ginchy allowed of many reliefs.
Thus the ten divisions of the IV. Army employed in the attack
of Sept. 15 included several which had not yet taken part in the
operations, among them the Guards, the 6th, one of the original
units of the 1914 " B.E.F." and the New Zealand. Similarly
in the V. Army the Canadian Corps had replaced the Austra-
lians, who had since their capture of Pozieres made considerable
gains N. of the Albert-Bapaume road. In addition to these
fresh troops it had been decided to employ in this attack a new
weapon from which much was expected. Despite the great
increase in the available artillery and ammunition and the great
improvements in the methods for directing, controlling and
observing artillery fire, barbed wire and machine-guns were still
the chief assets of the defence and had held up attack after
attack. The evolution of the " tank " had been a long process.
The idea of an armoured motor-car capable of defying both
machine-guns and barbed wire had occurred to many people
from the earliest days of the deadlock set up by the extension of
the trench line from Switzerland to the North Sea. To translate
this idea into practical shape, to produce a machine capable of
accomplishing what was wanted, had been the work of months
of ingenuity, experiment, devotion and skill. Not the least re-
markable feature had been the success with which secrecy had
been maintained. The tanks at their first venture hardly fulfilled
their designers' hopes and expectations it would have been
extraordinary if they had but they did quite well enough to
encourage the Allies and to shake the moral of the German
infantry, to whom they came as an effective surprise.
The frontage included in the British attack stretched from
just S. of Courcelette to just W. of Combles. That strongly
fortified position itself was not to be attacked, as the capture of
the high ground on either side of the valley would determine its
fate, and S.E. of the valley the French, who had already on Sept.
12-13 attacked and taken Bouchavesnes with 2,000 prisoners,
were ready to cooperate.
The attack proved a great if not a complete success. On the
left the Canadians not only captured their objectives S. of
Courcelette but exploited their success so well that the village
itself, not part of the original objective, was carried and con-
solidated. To their right the isth (Scottish) Div. captured
Martinpuich, High Wood was at last completely cleared by the
47th Div. and farther to the right again the New Zealand and
4ist Div., with some assistance from tanks, captured Flers
and pushed some way beyond it. On the right the success was
less pronounced. A strong work between Ginchy and Morval
known as the Quadrilateral held up the 6th Division. The tanks
detailed to attack this point broke down and the gallant efforts
of the infantry were unavailing. This check prevented the
Guards Div. reaching their final objective, Lesboeufs, though
they stormed their first and second objectives on the ridge S.W.
of that village and maintained their position against counter-
attacks. But with Lesboeufs and Morval, the objective of the
6th Div., still in German hands, the centre of the attack could
not push forward without creating the same sort of situation as
had prevailed on the right after the attack of July 14, and any
further exploitation of the success was out of the question.
Still, a big success had been achieved, a strong position had been
broken into on a six-mile front, 4,000 prisoners had been taken,
and the troops had the encouragement of having crossed the
ridge and being able to see what lay on the farther side of the
crest it had cost so much to gain.
The days that followed had to be occupied in reducing the
Quadrilateral and in straightening out the line between Martin-
puich and Flers. The 6th Div., not to be denied, pressed hard
upon the Quadrilateral and after another unsuccessful attempt
captured it on Sept. 18. But it is significant of the intensity and
costliness of this fighting that the Quadrilateral had cost the
6th Division over 3,500 casualties. Its capture, however, allowed
the line to be pushed forward within 1,000 yards of Morval and
Lesboeufs, against which a new attack was in preparation.
Bad weather, however, delayed the delivery of this attack
until Sept. 25. On this day the frontage attacked started at the
Albert-Bapaume road but reached as far as the Somme. The
French had, since capturing Bouchavesnes, improved their
position S. of the Somme considerably by completing the re-
duction of Vermandovillcrs, Berny and Deniecourt, and they
had on Sept. 20 successfully repulsed a strongly pressed counter-
attack, N. of the Somme. Their objectives on this occasion
included Rancourt and Fregicourt, Combles being dealt with
indirectly by the capture of the heights on either side of it.
The " battle of Morval " the official title for the attack of
Sept. 25 was one of the most successful of the separate incidents
of the Somme offensive. Except in the British centre at Guede-
court all the objectives were reached and carried before night-
fall. On the left the soth, ist, New Zealand and 55th Divs.
carried the line forward down the slopes N. of Flers and Martin-
puich clearing two lines of trenches; on the right the Guards and
6th Divs. carried Lesboeufs and the 5th Div. took Morval,
while Guedecourt also was captured next day (Sept. 26) by the
zist Div. assisted by a tank. The French were equally success-
ful, and early on Sept. 26 British and French met in Combles,
which was found full of stores and of German dead and wounded,
the garrison having withdrawn just in time. Over 1,500 prisoners
were captured by the British and nearly as many by the French,
while signs were not wanting that the Germans were no longer
putting up the stout resistance they had offered in the long
struggles round Delville Wood and Guillemont. At several
points large numbers of Germans surrendered or evacuated their
positions almost without fighting. The strain of the continual
bombardments and of the steady advance of the Allies was
beginning to make itself felt.
The substantial success of Sept. 25 on the Allied right and
centre was promptly followed up by victory in another quarter.
Since July i there had been only one serious effort to renew the
direct attack on the British left and the attempt of Sept. 3
had been a failure. Thiepval and all N. of it remained untaken.
What progress had been made in this quarter had been from
the S. and E. and it had not been rapid. The first real gain had
not been made till the last half of Aug. when the scanty foothold
already secured in the Leipzig salient directly S. of Thiepval had
been enlarged by the 48th Div. This had been followed up by
the capture (Aug. 24) by the 25th Div. of a trench known as the
" Hindenburg trench." A violent counter-attack by a Prussian
Guard Div. was successfully beaten off and minor gains had
followed. Finally, on Sept. 14, a formidable redoubt known
as the " Wonderwork," and situated just S. of Thiepval, was
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
515
stormed by the nth Division. Meanwhile the progress of the
Australians beyond and W. of Pozieres had greatly increased
the prospects of success in attacking Thiepval.
From Thiepval a trench ran E. towards Courcelette known
as the Zollern trench, halfway along which and N. of Mouquet
Farm was the Zollern redoubt. North of Thiepval was the
strongly fortified Schwaben redoubt from which the Stuff trench
ran E. to the Stuff redoubt S. of Grandcourt, being continued
beyond the Stuff redoubt as Regina trench. The capture of this
second line would allow the British to overlook the Ancre valley
and would make the position of the Germans N. of the Ancre
most precarious. It was natural, therefore, that the Germans
should cling with great pertinacity to the Thiepval position,
but despite a stubborn resistance the V. Army's attack (Sept.
26) achieved a conspicuous success. The Canadian Corps on
the right carried their objectives and brought their line within
striking distance of Regina trench. The nth Div. stormed the
Zollern redoubt, the i8th on the left had the satisfaction of
capturing Thiepval itself with over 1,000 prisoners from a Wiirt-
temberg regiment, which had held that stronghold for nearly
two years and believed it impregnable. These successes were
promptly exploited and the capture of the Stuff redoubt by the
nth Div. and of part of the Schwaben redoubt by the i8th
(Sept. 27-28) left the Germans with only a scanty foothold on
the main ridge.
Simultaneously with the success at Thiepval, lesser but useful
gains had been made by the IV. Army, including the capture of
Destremont Farm, S. of Le Sars (Sept. 29). This was followed
up by the taking after a stubborn fight of Eaucourt 1'Abbaye
(Oct. 3), though a gallant effort by the Canadians against Regina
trench (Oct. i) proved unsuccessful.
Fourth Phase. It was at this moment, when the enemy's
fourth system of defences had been reached and the Allies seemed
about to accomplish a break-through (for the new lines on which
he was at work still farther to the rear were not to be compared
in strength or completeness with those already overcome),
that a long spell of bad weather set in. Nothing could have been
more unlucky for the Allies. As has been said, the German
infantry were no longer righting with their old resolution, their
counter-attacks were not pressed with the old devotion and
determination. But the constant rain and the cloudy days, which
formed almost the only intervals in the rain, prevented adequate
observation of artillery fire and turned the already damaged
battle area into an impassable quagmire. The troops already
engaged in the Somme offensive had had ample experience of
hardships and difficulties; those encountered in Oct. and Nov.
altogether surpassed what had gone before. The state of the
ground was appalling: it had become a sea of mud, through which
even lightly equipped runners found movement almost impossible,
much more men laden with rifle, equipment and ammunition.
In these conditions an ordinary trench relief was an achievement,
to attack across such ground a hopeless undertaking. It is easy
now to argue that the attempt to continue the attack in such
adverse circumstances was a mistake, and could achieve nothing
commensurate with the casualties and sufferings which it en-
tailed. But it must not be forgotten that to suspend the offensive
meant relaxing the pressure on the Germans, on whom the
strain of fighting under these conditions was scarcely less severe
and meant also giving them time to convert their incomplete
new lines into defences scarcely less formidable than those the
Allies had so painfully slowly pierced. At the beginning of Oct.
the Germans had been pressed back to their last really strong
positions, and behind the line that ran from Sailly-Saillisel
past Le Transloy and in front of Bapaume they had not had time
to develop anything elaborate or formidable. The anxiety of the
higher command to pierce the Le Transloy line without delay
was natural enough.
The situation after the capture of Thiepval was that on the
British left the Germans retained a precarious footing on the
heights above St. Pierre Divion and Grandcourt, but that any
substantial advance by the British centre, now almost down into
the Ancre valley N. of Martinpuich and Guedecourt, would
turn the German positions lower down the Ancre. As before,
however, the centre could not push on far with safety unless the
right came forward level with it, and it was in front of the right
that the German positions were most formidable. Their Sailly-
Saillisel-Le Transloy line, itself strong, was covered by a long
spur running in a N.W. direction and separating Lesboeufs and
Guedecourt from Le Transloy and Beaulencourt. To capture
this spur was indispensable before the Le Transloy line could
be attacked. But a successful attack on the Le Transloy line
was needed to open to the Allies the opportunity for an advance
on a wide front in a N. and N. E. direction. Such a stroke
would not merely outflank the Beaumont-Hamel position but
the whole German position from Arras to the Ancre would be
taken in rear. A dry Oct. might well have seen this hope realized
and in Oct. 1916 there was no " Hindenburg Line " to bring an
Allied advance to a standstill.
But with the weather as it was Oct. was a month of disap-
pointment and scanty progress. The fighting was constant and
costly. Trenches were difficult to take but much more difficult
to consolidate or defend. The operations may be divided into
three groups; on the right the French attacked and took Sailly-
Saillisel but could make little progress N. and E. of it. In this
quarter the repeated British efforts against the spur in front of
Le Transloy resulted in the establishment of their line on its
crest of the spur. In the centre, after the capture of Eaucourt
L'Abbaye (Oct. 3) the chief gain was that the 23rd Div. secured
Le Sars on Oct. 7. But to the N.E. of Le Sars the Allied prog-
ress was arrested by the gentle rise on which stands the mound
known as the Butte de Warlencourt. This position was not
particularly formidable in itself and in dry weather would not
have held up the advance for long, but between the difficulty of
accurately observing the fire of the supporting artillery and that
of moving up the muddy slope on which the Butte stood attack
after attack failed. The 47th Div. on Oct. 7, the pth and i3th
on Oct. 12, the $oth on Oct. 25 all found the Butte impregnable,
though between Oct. 18 and 20 the gth Div. did secure an ad-
vanced position in Snag trench, halfway up the slope, after a
savage struggle.
The failure to take the Butte de Warlencourt or to make any
substantial progress farther to the E. was to some degree com-
pensated for on the left. Despite more than one repulse the line
of Regina trench from the Courcelette-Pys road W. was stormed
on Oct. 21 by the isth, i8th, 39th and 4th Canadian Divs., and
on Nov. 10 the Canadians extended their success by capturing
the E. part of the trench on a front of half a mile.
By this time a sufficient improvement had taken place in the
weather to allow of an operation on a larger scale than anything
attempted since the battles of Morval and Thiepval. The more
ambitious schemes for an advance across the Upper Ancre could
not be put into force, but the German hold on the Beaumont-
Hamel position had been weakened by the capture of Thi6pval
and it was decided to renew the attack in this quarter, the only
portion of the frontage originally attacked which was still in
German hands.
After a bombardment covering two days, the attack was
delivered about an hour before daybreak on Nov. 13. South
of the Ancre the igth Div. cleared the German trenches N. of
the Schwaben and Stuff redoubts and the 39th Div. took its
farthest objective at St. Pierre Divion with remarkable ease
and rapidity. North of the river the 63rd (Royal Naval) Div.
fought its way forward to Beaucourt sur Ancre and held on
tenaciously though in advance of the troops on its left. These,
the sist (Highland) Div., had been stoutly opposed at Beaumont-
Hamel but had finally mastered the village, N. of which the
2nd Div. had carried the right portion of its objective. On the
left, however, where the ground was specially heavy, the 3rd
and 3ist Divs. had been less successful; Serre had once again
proved impregnable. But on the following day the success was
exploited, Beaucourt was captured and the sist and and Divs.
pushing forward along the spur N. and E. of Beaumont-Hamel
established themselves on a line which secured Beaucourt on
the N. and W. With this important gain of ground over 7,000
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
prisoners were taken, and to the Germans the quite unexpected
loss of the long impregnable Beaumont-Hamel " was a particu-
larly heavy blow " (Ludendorff). Advantage was taken of this
victory to deliver a successful attack on a front of three miles
against the German trenches on the slopes above Pys and
Grandcourt (Nov. 18), but then the return of bad weather
finally stopped the prosecution of active operations.
General Aspects. The Allied offensive on the Somme had
not yielded all the results that had been hoped for or that had
at times seemed within reach. It was only natural that in some
quarters the heavy cost at which the watershed between the
Somme and Ancre had been mastered should be looked upon as
altogether disproportionate to the gains, and that those who
had not studied war sufficiently to realize that decisive victory
is not to be had without a heavy price, and that it is not in
achieving but in exploiting victory that the more tangible and
spectacular gains are reaped, should be so disappointed as to
overlook the substantial results which had been achieved. The
Allies had begun the offensive with three main objects: to relieve
the pressure on Verdun, to pin the enemy's main forces down to
the western front, and, lastly, to wear down his powers of re-
sistance. All these had been achieved, and of the three, the last,
if the least tangible, was far from the least important. The
40,000 prisoners taken by the British and the 30,000 taken by
the French might seem trifling in comparison with the vast
captures made by both sides on the eastern front, but in
quality the Germans taken on the Somme were very different
from the half-armed Russians and the unenthusiastic mixture
of nationalities who formed the Austro-Hungarian armies; and
the decline of the German moral, admitted as it is by Ludendorff,
outweighed in importance their losses in prisoners or material,
considerable as these latter were. An eye-witness of the battle
of Malplaquet wrote of that action, " the enemy was so advan-
tageously posted that when the battle was over we wondered
how we had surmounted the difficulties." Those who had been
through the Somme might well have echoed his words, and
despite the punishment they had received and the hardships
they had endured the British and French had ample reason to be
encouraged by their achievements. If the flower of the " new
armies " of Great Britain and her Dominions overseas had been
expended on the Somme, the Allies ended the year 1916 with a
moral ascendancy over their enemies and with well justified
hopes. It is only necessary to compare the strategical situation
of Dec. 1916 with that of July i to see what a change had come
over the war. On July i the Germans were certainly not con-
templating attempting to negotiate a peace through the good
offices of a neutral. And where had the change been brought
about? Not on the eastern front, where Rumania had collapsed
and the Russian offensive come to a standstill; not in Macedonia,
where the capture of Monastir had been powerless to assist
Rumania; not in the more distant theatres of war, where Kut
was still in Turkish hands and the British had not yet reached
the eastern frontier of Egypt; not in Italy, where the Austro-
Hungarians were still holding up the Italian offensive across
the Isonzo. Bad weather had prevented the immediate exploita-
tion of the success earned in the struggles of July, Aug. and
Sept.; changes of command and of plan were to throw away
much of what the Allies had in their grasp early in 1917, but
the change in the situation was the work of the Allied forces on
the Somme. (C. T. A.)
II. GERMAN OFFENSIVE OF MARCH- APRIL 1918
As soon as the general military situation towards the end
of 1917 seemed to offer the Germans a- possibility of conducting
the war in the western theatre by means of attack, preparations
for this were set on foot by the Supreme Command. The first
German move was to fetch up all the troops from elsewhere that
could be spared and establish at least temporarily, until the
strong American reinforcements were added to the Allies a
balance of forces in the western theatre of war, or, if possible, a
preponderance on the German side. This would obtain the neces-
sary time for rest and training. To this end German division
after division, and battery after battery, had been rolling up
since the end of 1917 from Italy and the East into France. A
number of heavy Austro-Hungarian batteries were also brought
up. Finally 62 divisions and 1,706 batteries were made avail-
able for the main attack. For a second simultaneous attack in
a different place these forces were not enough.
Systematic training for the attack was begun simultaneously
behind the whole German front. Side by side with following
out the instructions issued by the Supreme Command, the
whole body of men had to be brought to exchange the defensive
idea with which they had been living for the idea of the attack.
The troops had to be taught the full use of machine-gun fire,
guns and minenwerfer, and the support which airmen could give
to infantry. They had to be trained to the utmost mobility
and uplifted morally. The idea of surprise, which offered the
only chance of the successful execution of a break-through oper-
ation, had also to be worked out in tactics.
Hand in hand with the equipping of the division chosen for
the attack with horses and utensils of every kind went the col-
lecting of munitions, supplies, building and sanitary materials,
as well as the erection of railways, roads and battery positions.
Only a limited number of divisions could be equipped for the
attack owing to the shortage of draft and horses. The building
preparations were extended along the whole of the W. front so
as to veil tactical purposes as long as possible.
At the end of Dec. 1917 the German Supreme Command had
arranged for the mounting of quite a number of attacks. Al-
though it was admitted that, for want of forces, the whole
Allied front could not be attacked at once in order to find the
suitable point for a break-through according to the Schlicffen
idea, it was intended to keep the enemy as long as possible in
ignorance of the German Supreme Command's actual intentions.
The decision as to which attack should actually be carried out
was arrived at from a tactical point of view, strategical consider-
ations being put aside. " Tactics had to be considered before
purely strategical objects," writes Ludendorff, " which it is
futile to pursue unless tactical success is possible. A strategical
plan which ignores the tactical factor is fore-doomed to failure."
Starting from this point of view Ludendorff decided to carry
out the so-called " Michael " attack against the projecting
southern sector of the British front. The attack was aimed at
the British only, because they were still exhausted from the
fighting of 1917 and it was desirable on general grounds to beat
them first. It was to be executed at an early date independently
of weather conditions. The sector to be attacked was thinly
held and insufficiently fortified. It therefore seemed probable
that the attack would succeed and that strategical use could be
made of the break-through. It was unavoidable that the attack
should take its course over the ground destroyed in the " Sieg-
fried " retreat and the battle of the Somme.
The plans for the great attack were issued by the Supreme
Command on Jan. 24 1918. The following individual attacks
were to be prepafed: "Mars" (left wing) and "Michael I.,"
towards the N.E. past Bapaume, by the XVII. Army; " Michael
II.," to the N. of the Omignon brook, by the II. Army; " Michael
III.," on both sides of St. Quentin, by the XVIII. Army;
" Archangel," south of the Oise, by the VII. Army. The
" Michael " attack was proposed for March 20. The " Mars "
and " Archangel " attacks were to follow a few days later,
after the regrouping of the " Michael " artillery. The main
attack was to break through the enemy front, and then,
in conjunction with " Mars " left wing, to push on through
Peronne-Arras. The XVIII. Army was to reach the line La
Fere-Peronne. The "Archangel" attack was conceived merely
as a diversion. The preparation of the attacks on Ypres-La
Bassee (George I. and II.) was to be continued, the Hector-
Achilles operations in the Argonne and Champagne were to be
kept simmering. In case the Michael attack stopped short
there was to be an attack by the III. Army. Instructions for
demonstration actions were kept in reserve.
Rupprecht's group of armies, which, according to this plan,
were to carry out the main assault with the XVII. and II.
'.'< 'olii i
J '
En
-
-" "1*
,/
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE (Peronne)
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
Armies, were instructed to aim first and foremost at cutting off
the British in the Cambrai bend. The armies were to advance
with strong inner wings, the XVII. on Ypres and the II. on
Equancourt. Subsequently the XVII. army was to deliver an
assault in the direction of Arras-Albert and gradually roll up
the adjacent British front, the II. Army to push forward in a
westerly direction with the left wing on the Somme.
In the German Crown Prince's group of armies the XVIII.
Army had to conquer the Somme and the Crozat Canal and
eventually to extend to Peronne. If the II. Army should en-
counter any considerable resistance the XVIII. Army was to
advance strong forces through Beauvois-Tertry to cut off the
opponent in front of the II. Army. The Mars attack S. of the
Scarpe was to follow the Michael attack as soon as possible and
amplify the Michael operation. Farther N. preparations were
also made to profit by it (Mars, N. Walkxirenritt).
The forces provided for the break-through were 15 attack
divisions and 2 position divisions for the XVII. Army, 15
attack divisions and 3 of position for the II. Army, and 19
attack divisions and 5 of position for the XVIII. Army. Be-
sides these, 3 divisions were retained by the Supreme Command
for disposal, first at Bouchain, then at Denain. As regards
artillery, 950 field batteries, 701 heavy and 55 heaviest batteries
were called up. Added to these were a few Austro-Hungarian
heavy batteries, inadequately supplied with munitions.
In the prolonged preparations now carefully made, the attack
front was kept as lifeless as possible, with the troops unchanged
and the day-traffic kept down. Detrainments went on a long
way to the rear on a wide front, and all movements of impor-
tance were held over until night time.
In March, each of the four groups oi armies executed a first
attack. In the Crown Prince Rupprecht's group the prepar-
ations were so elaborate in the region of Ypres and Armentieres
that even the troops themselves and their leaders were con-
vinced that a great attack was really imminent. The German
Crown Prince's group made a show of preparing an attack in
the neighbourhood of Reims. From the i4th onwards reconnais-
sance attacks, bombardment of the enemy headquarters, bomb-
ing by airmen and the bringing up of reinforcements, set in.
The increased artillery activity continued until March 24.
Gallwitz's group of armies carried out a great attack on Verdun
systematically up to the stage when the infantry should have
come in, with several days of artillery preparation, a gas attack,
and the bombardment of railway stations behind the lines.
Duke Albrecht's group feigned an attack on the Lorraine front,
and carried out a heavy artillery battle from March 20 to 24.
The result of these German operations was to intensify the
opponents' suspense to the utmost. The British put themselves
in a position of defence against a great attack between Armen-
tieres and La Bassee and between Arras and St. Quentin, and
shifted forces from Flanders to the south. The French evidently
expected an attack at Reims. New defensive works arose every-
where in the chief opponents' lines. They reinforced their bat-
teries and sought by increased activity on the part of the air-
men and patrols, to penetrate the obscurity which enveloped
the German mode of procedure.
In the front of the actual attack the Germans counted upon
having, in front of the XVII. Army, 15 strong British divisions
of the III. Army (General Byng), and in front of both armies 23
divisions of the V. Army (General Gough). The Germans as-
sumed, further, that the leader of the combined operations of
the Entente, General Foch, would have in readiness strong re-
serves, mainly French, somewhere in the region of Meaux
behind the centre of the enemy front. The majority of the Brit-
ish reserves were supposed to be behind the centre of the British
front. No signs of withdrawing were seen on the enemy's part.
A restricted foreground was counted upon.
The actual forming up for deployment of the attacking armies
began on March 10 with the munitioning. The artillery deploy-
ment followed, and the attack divisions next moved into their
positions at the front. Everything passed off smoothly and with-
out any great counter-measures being taken by the 'defence.
All the difficulties due to compressing within a narrow space
great masses of human beings and piles of utensils and contriv-
ances were easily overcome. The divisions were organized in
groups, usually three lines deep, the first line being made the
strongest in order to ensure rapid results at the beginning. The
first line advanced close up to the front trenches on March
20, the second standing at a distance of 3-5 km. and the third
7-10 km. behind. The hindermost lines were looked upon as
reserves for the higher command. They were not simply to follow
up the others but to be fetched up according to the needs of the
tactical situation.
The Supreme Command held in readiness, besides the above
mentioned three divisions at Denain, other reserves behind the
remaining army fronts, and reserved to itself the right of with-
drawing forces from the front line when necessary.
On March 20 the attack divisions, protected by aircraft, were
drawn up behind the position from which the assault was to be
made. The deployment of the artillery and minenwerfer was
complete and the munitions in readiness. Only the order to
advance had still to come. But here the weather threatened to
upset all plans, for the direction of the wind was such as would
spoil the effect of the artillery's gas, and the fog would make the
attack movement difficult for the infantry. By 12 at midday
the weather conditions had so far improved, however, that it
was decided to carry out the attack on March 21. On that day,
accordingly, at 3 :3O A.M., the gassing of the Allied batteries began.
Tftis was followed by a 3-hours' preliminary bombardment of
the British positions by the German artillery and minenwerfer.
At 9:40 A.M. the German infantry dashed forward to the attack.
The mass of artillery then made a barrage, which, creeping
gradually forward, was to pave a way for the infantry into the
depths of the opposing trench system.
The attack itself turned out very differently at different
points. In the XVII. Army, commanded by Otto von Below,
the cooperation of infantry and artillery was not without its
hitches. The barrage " ran away from the storming infantry,"
who only reached the opponent's first position and found itself
in the evening before the strongly occupied second position.
At Vaulx Vrancourt and to the N. of it, as also at Doignies, the
British put up strong counter-attacks, to repel which several
2nd line German divisions had to be put in. The British de-
fended themselves here with great stubbornness against the
obvious danger of being shut off on the Cambrai bend.
The II. Army, commanded by von der Marwitz, pushed through
to the line Gonzeaucourt-E. of Epehy-Templeux le Guerard-Le
Verguier. Their main battle raged around the high-perched
village of Epehy, which the XXIII. Reserve Corps failed to take
in spite of heroic efforts. With this army only a small portion of
the second line divisions needed to be brought up. There were
no serious counter-attacks.
The greatest success was achieved by the XVIII. Army, com-
manded by von Hutier. Its right wing pushed through the
second British position and took the Holnon Wood. The centre
got through beyond Savy, Dallon, Fontaine les Clercs, and the
left wing took Urvillers, Essigny le Grand and Beney, and forced
the Oise crossing. The XVIII. Army also took the most booty.
On the whole a great initial success had been achieved. Every-
thing depended upon whether it could be successfully developed.
The German Supreme Command was determined to order the
continuation of the attack according to the results of the first
day's fighting. It allotted the first reinforcements brought up
to the XVIII. Army and the left wing of the II. Army, direct-
ing the XVIII. to ease the advance of the II. by pushing for-
ward on Tertry. The II. Army was likewise to put its weight
upon the left wing. On the second day the fighting was heavy,
the chief burden falling on the infantry. A systematic prelim-
inary bombardment was impracticable on account of the progress
made on the first day, and it was a difficult matter to pull the
batteries through the obstacles and shelled areas. The heaviest
and most thankless task was once more allotted to the XVII.
Army. Its infantry penetrated the second British positions time
after time, only to be forced back just as often by strong count-
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
er-attacks assisted by tanks. Not until the afternoon did they
succeed, with considerable losses, in taking Croiselles, Vaulx
Vrancourt and Morchies, and entering Hermies. To do this
they had to be assisted by large portions of the third line. In
the evening the army found itself once more up against another
strongly held British position on the line Behagnies, Beugnatre-
Beugny.
. The II. Army had also had more hard battles to win. It took
Epehy and pushed forward as far as Fins-Longavesnes-Mar-
quaix-Coulaincourt, capturing considerable booty. It was not
able to interfere with the British evacuation of the Cambrai
bend, owing to the slow progress made by the XVII. Army.
- The XVIII. Army made a good advance encountering only
slight resistance. It stormed Feuquieres and forced a crossing
over the Crozat Canal between Jussy and Tergnier. For March
23 General Ludendorff ordered an attack by the XVII. Army
in the direction of Bapaume, to supplement the success of the
II. Army, and an advance on both sides of the Somme by the II.
and XVIII. Armies.
This day at last brought the reward of their heavy labour.
The XVII. Army met with sharp opposition even now from
newly put in divisions, but was able to take Monchy, Drien-
court, St. Leger, Beaumetz, Lebucquiere and Havrincourt.
The II. Army encountered heavy resistance on the right wing
only, and was able to reach the line Neuville-Etricourt-E. of
Bouchavesnes-E. of Peronne-the Somme at Brie, with only
slight opposition. The XVIII. Army took the Somme crossing
at Bethencourt by fighting, stormed Ham and crossed the
Crozat Canal. Its left wing corps (the IV. Reserve) repelled the
counter-attacks of 3 French divisions that were being hurried
up as reinforcements in a bloody battle.
For the next two days the scene remained unchanged. The
XVII. and II. Armies advanced towards the Ancre, fighting
violently, the II. being more and more hindered by the shelled
area of the Somme battle. But gradually a new front arose
on the Ancre in front of these armies, stretching southward to
the Somme. In the region of Albert the British executed one
counter-attack after another, though with heavy losses.
The centre and right wing of the II. Army had, by March 26,
reached Thiepval, Beaumont-Hamel, Mametz, Cornoy, Albert
and Braye sur Somme. Certain portions veering in from the
N. opened a way of advance for the lagging left wing, which was
thus able to come up with the rest of the army on March 27 on
arriving at Ville sur Ancre-Sailly. Meanwhile the resistance was
visibly growing, and it was possible to calculate the point at
which it would be equal to the decreasing pressure of the
attacking forces.
The XVII. Army had been steadily fighting its way forwards
through village after village. In proportion as the opponent's
fighting power waned new forces were put in. He seemed de-
termined that there should be no question of rolling up or break-
ing through his front at Arras under any circumstances. In
spite of this the army managed to take Bapaume on March 24,
Behzgnies, Sapignies, Grevillers and Irles on the 2Sth, and to
reach Boiry, Becquerelle, Hamelincourt, Achiet le Grand and
Achiet le Petit on the 26th. The attacking power of the army
was now exhausted. On the 27th it did no more than capture
the village of Ablainzeville and repel the counter-attacks of
new British forces with powerful artillery.
. The II. Army progressed in much the same way. The XVIII.
Army maintained its almost unbroken advance throughout the
days from March 23 to 27. By the evening of the 2Sth it
had reached Nyencourt, Curchy, Nesle, Hattencourt-Beaulieu-
Bussy, and on the 27th was in possession of Pierrepont, Mont-
didier, Boulogne la Grosse and Lassigny.
. At this point the great battle came temporarily to a close.
General Ludendorff had, on the evening of March 26, shaped
his plans with the view of dividing the British and French by a
gradual left-wheel advance of the II. and XVIII. Armies against
the French. To this end the Somme at Amiens, and the Avre
had to be reached, and the operation continued towards the
S.W. The original plans had thus undergone a complete change
in the course of its execution. It would now very soon be shown
whether the tactical break-through could still be brought off in
spite of the waning of the Germans' strength and the increase
of the Allied resistance.
The course of events on March 27 did not come up to Luden-
dorff's arrogant expectations. It was impossible for the attack-
ing force to know that in the direction of Amiens the decisive
point the Allies had only very weak forces at their disposal on
that day. In this case, as in every break-through, the difficulty
of accurately estimating the exact effect presented itself. The
difficulties of provisioning, too, made themselves increasingly
felt in the shelled area of the Somme battlefield. The supply of
munitions ceased, and the establishment of rearward communi-
cations had not kept pace with the advance of the attack. From
certain signs it was evident that the German troops were not
everywhere at their highest level of achievement and endurance.
The losses, particularly those of the XVII. Army, exceeded
what under the circumstances was the legitimate number.
Ludendorff therefore changed his intention once more on
March 27; The XVII. Army was ordered to close down the
attack. The XVIII. and the left wing of the II. were to renew
their attack on the now isolated French on March 30 between
the Somme and the Oise. This attack resulted in the filling out
of the German line where it curved in S. of the Somme, and the
taking of the localities Aubercourt, Demuin, Moreuil, Sauvillers,
Hargicourt, Contigny, Anainvillers, and Rollot the so-called
bridgehead of the Avre. But while the break-through at Amiens
failed, the Germans were able to repulse the violent, though dis-
connected, French counter-attacks in every case. By April 4
the right wing of the XVIII. Army had still been able to take
the heights W. of Moreuil. The II. Army reached the western
border of Hamel and pushed forward almost to Villers Breton-
neux and Hangard. The battle then ceased.
Later repetitions of the attack in the direction of Amiens had
no better results. An assault on April 24 by the II. Army in the
neighbourhood of Villers Bretonneux, in which tanks were used,
made good progress at first but could not hold the ground gained.
The battle ended therefore without any clear decision. Cer-
tainly the Germans had achieved an initial success such as had
been denied to the Entente during the preceding 3^ years of
hard struggle in spite of the masses of men and material put in;
they had more than made good the ground lost in 1916, and
had captured apart from enormous booty 90,000 prisoners
and 1,200 guns. The British army was heavily shaken; 20
French divisions had been drawn into the battle; but the war
had not been won, and neither the transition to a war of move-
ment, nor the separation of the French and British had been
achieved. In the course of the battle 90 German divisions
almost half of the western army had suffered more or less
heavy losses. New and great efforts would be required for the
fulfilment of Ludendorff's great aim.
Battles of Arras and the Oise. An attempt was next made
to extend the front of the attack on both sides. To this end
Rupprecht's group of armies had been preparing since March 22
to carry out the Mars N. attack at an early date, and had
allotted to the XVII. Army three divisions standing behind the
VI. Army in view of this. To replace them four divisions of the
IV. Army were sent to the VI. The group of armies hoped at
last to break the British lines by delivering two attacks on their
front this one and the Walkiirenritt by the VI. Army while
the II. and XVIII. Armies profited by their early success on
the British right wing. But this plan had for the moment to be
pushed aside as the Supreme Command placed all the pressure
on the left wing of the Michael operation. Not until March 25
did Ludendorff revert to the extension of the attack on the
British. He settled that the Mars attack should take place
between the Loretto height and the Scarpe on March 28, to-
gether with a secondary attack south of that stream. The
Walkiirenritt attack on the Loretto height was to follow closely.
For this attack 7 German divisions were placed N. of the
Scarpe, under the general command of the I. Bavarian Reserve
Corps, and 4 S. of it under the general command of the III.
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
Bavarian and IX. Reserve Corps. But no success was obtained,
although the divisions were mainly fresh ones. The work of
attacking was hampered by the indistinct nature of the country
and the endless maze of trenches. The British opposed the
attack with fresh forces, and, particularly by 'the skillful use
of their machine-guns, impeded the advance of the attacking
force. North of the Scarpe the ist line divisions, after some
insignificant successes at the start, met with strong British
counter-attacks, which threw back the attackers for the most
part to their starting positions. Only the two localities, Gravelle
and Roeux, remained in German hands. The Command did
not put in any reserves.
South of the stream the localities of Neuville and Ayette
yielded to the bold assaults of the German divisions fighting
in that quarter, but no decisive success was attained. The
taking of several thousand prisoners, and heavy losses on the
Allied side, were the only positive results of the Mars attack,
which had failed for two reasons it was obviously on too narrow
a front and had not been launched as a surprise.
The Supreme Command now gave up the VI. Army attack
on the Loretto height, and ordered the XVII. Army, including
its right wing, to stand on the defensive.
The extension of the attack S. of the Oise had no such wide
operative aims. It was designed in the first place to protect the
projecting left flank of the XVIII. Army and the road running
behind it through La Fere-Chauny-Nayn, which was indispen-
sable for bringing up drafts. To ensure this the Ailette line,
which cut off the reentering angle between the XVIII. and VII.
Armies, had to be won. The task was entrusted to the general
commands of the VIII. Army Corps and the VIII. Reserve
Corps under the leading of the 7th Higher Army Command.
The attack was led from the N.E. in view of the difficult Oise
crossing. The attacking force, on April 6, took the French
who were apparently in no great strength obviously by sur-
prise, and pushed through South Chauny and Amigny to
Marizelle and Barisis railway station. On April 7, after a short
preliminary bombardment, the attack was continued, and
Pierremande and the Coucy Wood were reached with only slight
opposition. On the 8th the VIII. Army Corps advanced to the
Ailette, S. of Le Bac d'Arblincourt, and stormed Champs. The
VIII. Reserve Corps captured Coucy le Chateau, and reached
the road Coucy-Landricourt-Arizy at nightfall. Finally on the
9th the two corps won the Oise-Aisne Canal along the whole front.
In a 4-days' struggle the problem had been smoothly solved.
The victors held 2,300 prisoners. The front had been consider-
ably shortened, and the possibility of successful attacks even
against French defenders had been established. (W. M.-Lo.)
III. THE BATTLE OF AMIENS, AUG. 8-22 1918
At the beginning of the fourth week in July, the German
offensive on the Marne and in Champagne, which had been
intended by their Higher Command as decisive, had been bril-
liantly repulsed by an Allied counter-blow, which had not only
thrown back the enemy over the Marne but was forcing him
back to the Vesle. Gen. Foch was resolved to follow up the ad-
vantage thus gained and assume the offensive on all his front as
soon as possible ; but it was essential before so doing to clear the
main railway lines running laterally behind his front, several of
which were menaced or blocked by the enemy. The most
important of these was the Paris-Amiens line, and it was there-
fore decided that the first measure should be the freeing of this
railway by a joint Franco-British attack on a wide front E. of
Amiens. This operation was discussed first at a council of the
four Allied commanders-in-chief, held at Bombon, near Melun,
on July 24 1918 and further in a conference between Gen. Foch
and Sir D. Haig on the 26th, and was finally embodied in a
directive issued by the Allied Generalissimo on the 28th. It
was therein laid down that the offensive should be conducted
by the IV. British and I. French Armies, under the command of
Field-Marshal Haig; that covered by the Somme, it should be
pushed as far as possible in the direction of Roye, and that the
road from Amiens to that place should be the dividing line
519
between the two armies. The date fixed, at first Aug. 10, was
later advanced to Aug. 8.
Preparation for the British Attack. An operation similar to
that ordered had for some time been contemplated by the IV.
Army, and preparations for it were therefore pressed on from
July 26 onwards. At this date the army, under Gen. Rawlinson's
command consisted of the Australian (Monash) and III. Corps
(Butler), (8 infantry divisions and one cavalry division), on the
front Albert- Villers-Bretonneux. By the date of the attack it
had been reinforced by the Canadian Corps (Currie) (4 in-
fantry divs., another Australian infantry div., and 2 cavalry
divs.), while the artillery was brought up to a total of over
2,000 guns, the aircraft to 28 squadrons and the tanks to 456
machines, 96 being whippets. The difficulties of effecting the
concentration of these masses of troops and material, while
keeping it secret from the enemy, were successfully, overcome
by means of elaborate precautions surpassing even those taken
by the Germans before their spring and summer offensives.
The cavalry, whippet tanks and part of the artillery were moved
into the IV. Army area by road, the remainder (far the larger
proportion) of the troops and material, being brought up in
the period Aug. 1-8 in some 300 special trains. It was re-
garded as of the utmost importance to keep secret the arrival of
the Canadians; in order to deceive the enemy, the troops them-
selves were deceived; Canadian units were sent from Arras into
the trenches in Flanders, and the corps was actually brought
into line, only a few hours before the attack, relieving the right
of the Australian Corps, which had by Aug. i taken over the
front from the French as far as the Amiens-Roye road. The
precautionary measures taken were entirely successful in their
object of ensuring that no warning of the attack should reach
the enemy.
The front of the IV. Army attack extended from the Ancre S.
of Albert to the Amiens-Roye road, a frontage of some 13 m.;
three successive objectives were assigned, at distances, respec-
tively of about 2-2, 3-5, and 6-8 m. from the original starting
line, which would bring the army eventually on the line of the
" Amiens outer defences," on the front Le Quesnel-Harbon-
nieres-Morcourt. The country, open rolling downland, was
favourable for the operations of all arms; the enemy's defences
were not formidable. The hostile forces believed to be available
to oppose the British, consisted of the LI., XI. and XIV. German
Corps (seven divisions in first line and eight in support and
reserve) belonging to Gen. v. der Marwitz's II. German Army.
By the morning of Aug. 8 all preparations for the battle had
been successfully completed and the British forces were, all
unsuspected by the enemy, about to enter on the first stage of
their march to the Rhine.
The British Offensive on Aug. 8. Punctually at 4:20 A.M. on
the morning of Aug. 8 the British infantry and tanks, under
cover of a powerful barrage, debouched to the assault. Thick
ground-mist veiled their advance from the eyes of the Germans,
who were completely surprised and in an instant overwhelmed
with little resistance. The Canadian Corps sector extended from
the Amiens-Roye road to the Amiens-Chaulnes railway; 156
tanks cooperated in the attack of this corps. Opposed to them
k was the ngth German Div., which was in process of being
relieved by the nyth Division. The 3rd Canadian Div. on the
right of the line, making light of the difficult task of debouching
from a narrow bridgehead on the S. bank of the Luce river, set
foot on the plateau between that stream and the Avre, captured
Hangard and Demuin, and by noon had carried its front forward
to the second objective, between Cayeux and Mezieres. Thence-
forward the 3rd Cavalry Div. took up the advance, followed by
the 4th Canadian Div.; the cavalry, after taking Beaucourt,
were held up by machine-gun fire, and though the infantry
when they arrived succeeded in pushing forward, it was not
found possible to reach Le Quesnel, the final objective, which
at fall of night was still strongly held by the enemy. The
centre and left Canadian Div., and the ist and 2nd, attacked
each on a front of one brigade, employing a separate brigade for
each successive objective; the ist Div. met with little serious
520
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
opposition as far as the first objective, which it reached at 6 -.20
A.M. but the 2nd Div. only attained it an hour and a half later,
having had heavy fighting at Marcelcave. At 8:20 A.M. the
advance was resumed, and again the ist Div. had the easier
task, the German machine gunners putting up considerable
resistance against the 2nd Division. Two brigades of the ist
Cavalry Div. now passed through to the front, and drove far
into the hostile territory, capturing Caix, and attaining the
final objective, in conjunction with the Canadian infantry,
which moved behind them clearing up the ground already passed
over by the cavalry. By 5:35 P.M. the Canadian Corps had,
with the exception already noted on its extreme right, carried
out its appointed task; it had penetrated the enemy's defences
to a depth of over 8 m., capturing 1 2 villages, over 6,000 prisoners
and 1 60 guns.
The Australian Corps advanced between the Amiens-Chaulnes
railway and the Somme against the 4ist, ijth and parts of the
io8th and 43rd German Divs. The Australians had their 2nd
and 3rd Divs. in first line and their 5th and 4th in support,
the ist Div. being in reserve N. of the Somme; 168 tanks were
attached to the corps. The corps was drawn up by its com-
mander in such a manner as to necessitate a double " leap frog-
ging " of its divisions, while equalizing the exertions demanded
of them and the distances to be traversed by them; and this
complicated manoeuvre was carried out with entire success.
The 2nd and 3rd Divs., assisted effectively by the tanks, carried
Warfusee and Cerisy, and then relinquished the attack to the
5th and 4th Divs. which pushed forward beyond Baronvillers
and Morcourt, despite heavy flanking fire from the German
artillery on the N. bank of the Somme. On the second objective
being reached at 10:30 A.M. a brigade of the ist Cavalry Div.,
with 1 6 whippet tanks, passed forward to Harbonnieres, and
an armoured car battalion raced forward down the Amiens-Brie
road, scattering death and destruction far to the E. in the enemy's
back areas. Behind them the Australians, throwing back their
left to face the enemy on the N. bank of the Somme, pushed
forward their centre and right to the final objective, just W. of
the line Vauvillers-Proyart, where they found the cavalry held
up. In the space of under six hours, between this opening of
their attack at 6:20 A.M. and the attainment of the above line
about midday, the Australian Corps had occupied seven villages,
and taken over 8,000 prisoners, 173 guns and much other booty
too numerous to mention.
On the N. of the Somme the operations of the III. Corps had
not, however, met with the expected measure of success. It had
been intended to advance with the s8th, i8th and i2th Divs.
to a river from the line W. of Etinehem to W. of Morlancourt,
thus securing the left flank of the main attack S. of the Somme;
34 tanks were detailed off to assist this attack. The programme
of attack was disarranged by a partial advance of the enemy on
Aug. 6 which forced back the i8th Div., and from the first mo-
ment difficulties were met with. Sailly Laurette was carried after
stiff fighting by the s8th Div. and eventually the first objective
was reached along the whole corps front. The further advance of
the s8th Div. broke down against the resistance of the enemy
holding the Chipilly spur and the i8th Div., which succeeded for
a time in gaining ground farther to the N., were counter-attacked
and forced to fall back. The enemy on the III. Corps front was
not surprised, and fought well, and the attacking infantry were
unable to find much support from the tanks, for which the
ground was unsuitable in many places; 2,400 prisoners were
taken by the III. Corps, together with 40 guns.
, The results of what had undoubtedly been the most successful
day's battle waged hitherto by the British army in the World
War, and one of the finest British victories of all time, were the
complete defeat of n German by n British divs., a gain of
ground to an average depth of 6 to 7 m. on a front of 8, and the
capture of close on 17,000 prisoners, 373 guns, several thousand
machine-guns, and quantities of ammunition and stores. Most
important of all, the battle revealed to the enemy Higher Com-
mand weaknesses hitherto unsuspected in their army, and
destroyed the last hope of German victory. " It was," says
Ludendorff, " the black day of the German army in the war.
It was the worst experience I had to go through. It marked the
decline of our fighting strength and destroyed our hopes of a
strategic improvement. To continue would be a gamble. The
war would have to be ended."
Operations of I. French Army around Montdidier (Aug. 8-n).
The plan of Gen. Fayolle, commanding the French reserve
group of armies, involved not only the participation of Gen.
Debeney's I. French Army in the British operations N. of
Montdidier but a subsequent extension of the attack to the S.
of that town by the right wing of that army and eventually as
far as the Oise by the French III. Army (Gen. Humbert).
Gen. Foch sanctioned this scheme on Aug. 3, and it was decided
that the attack S. of Montdidier should take place on the pth
and that of Humbert's army on the loth.
The French I. Army at this time held a line from the British
right flank near Domart to Castel on the Avre and thence along
the W. bank of that stream to Courcelles, S.E. of Montdidier,
whence the French III. Army continued the line to the Oise.
Debeney had under his command the XXXV., X., IX. and
XXXI. Corps (in line in that order from right to left) and the
II. Cavalry Corps in reserve, in all 12 infantry and 3 cavalry
divisions. In face of him stood the 2 left divisions of the
German LI. Corps, of von der Marwitz's II. Army, as far as
Moreuil, and 7 divisions in line with 2 in reserve, belonging to
Von Hutier's XVIII. Army, from Moreuil southwards. The
enemy on this front had recently withdrawn his line behind the
Avre as a result of several small French operations on the W.
bank and was therefore well on the alert.
Debeney's plan for the forthcoming operations consisted
first of an advance by his two left corps in the angle between the
Luce and the Avre in conjunction with the British right, fol-
lowed by the passage of the Avre and the Trois Doms and a
rapid advance to the plateau around Hangest on both sides of
Montdidier by his centre and right, and the capture of that
place. The whole army was then to push forward astride the
Avre in the direction of Roye.
This programme was carried out without a hitch. The French
bombardment commenced at 4:20 A.M. on the 8th, the hour of
the British attack, and the infantry and tanks of the XXXI.
Corps debouched between the Luce and Moreuil at 5:5 A.M.
The German LI. Corps on this part of the front, was, contrary
to expectation, taken unawares and put up little resistance;
many prisoners were captured while engaged in cutting corn in
the fields. Moreuil was taken and the way cleared for the IX.
Corps farther S., which about 9 A.M. began to cross the Avre on
foot-bridges thrown under cover of darkness early that morning.
Here there was stiff fighting, and it .was not till late in the day
that the tanks were got across the river and cleared the way for
the infantry, which at nightfall had reached the line Fresnoy-
Plessier. Behind the IX. Corps, the X. was passing the Avre,
and preparing for its S.E. advance on the morrow to encircle
Montdidier from the N., while the XXXV. Corps was about to
execute a similar manoeuvre from the south.
The second stage of the operations commenced early next
morning, the pth. In order to secure the left of the X. Corps in
its advance on Montdidier the XXXI. Corps attacked Hangest
and occupied it about 1 1 A. M. The X. Corps, passing the Avre
and the Trois Doms in its turn, took over the IX. Corps,
and, assisted by the latter's artillery as well as its own, pushed
forward to the E., meeting with considerable resistance, while
the XXXV. Corps, debouching against Assainvillers at 4 P.M.,
took the enemy by surprise and advancing some 3 m., reached
and cut the Montdidier-Roye road near Faverolles. The gar-
rison of Montdidier, their retreat threatened from two sides,
fell back hastily under cover of darkness by the road to Guer-
bigny, leaving behind a rearguard which fell into the hands of
the French X. Corps on their entry into the town on the morn-
ing of the toth.
Debeney, urged by Foch in a personal letter " to push for-
ward towards Roye and there join hands with the French III.
Army " (which was due to open its attack between Courcelles
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
521
and the Oise on the loth), decided, now his army was success-
fully reunited astride the Avre, to press his advantage in con-
junction with the British on his left. The disaster to the German
II. Army in the N. had rendered the position of the XVIII.
Army, which was facing Debeney, so difficult that it had to
throw back its right flank to W. of Roye a movement which
was carried out on the night of the gth. By the evening of the
loth the I. Army following up the retiring enemy had reached
the line Andechy-Bus, and on the next day a further slight
advance was made on either wing of the enemy, Lechelle and
Tilloloy being taken by the XXXI. and XXXV. Corps.
By now the German XVIII. Army, although its attention
was distracted by the advance of the French III. Army against
its centre and left, was reconstituting a solid line in the old
French zone of 1916. Von Hutier, whose forces had been
increased from 15 to 18 divisions by the nth, established them
in depth on two successive lines of trenches, with a strong belt
of wire in front, all lines of approach being swept by direct and
indirect machine-gun fire. A continuation of the rapid advance
of the French I. Army was under these circumstances out of the
question, and it was necessary to resort to slower and more
thorough measures for overcoming the German resistance which
was day by day hardening in proportion as further fresh rein-
forcements arrived.
Continuation of British Advance (Aug. 9-11). It was decided
by Gen. Rawlinson that the IV. Army should on the gth con-
tinue its advance to the line Roye-Chaulnes-Bray-Dernancourt.
The main attack was entrusted to the Canadian Corps which
was to push S.E. to the line Roye-Hallu, while the Australian
Corps was to secure its left between the latter place and Meri-
court, and the III. Corps to advance to Etinehem and form a
strong defensive flank on the N. bank of the Somme.
The Canadian attack, on the pth, failed to attain all its objec-
tives. Assisted by the 2nd Cavalry Div., it none the less effected
a deep advance of some 4 to 6 m., secured eight more villages,
and halted for the night on the line Arvillers-Rosieres. To its
left the Australians advanced their front between the Chaulnes
railway and the Amiens-Brie road as far as Lihons hill, W. of
Lihons village, and Framerville, after stubborn fighting. The
III. Corps, reinforced by an American detachment, carried all its
objectives for the day, clearing the Chipilly spur and taking
Morlancourt. The German II. Army, still much disorganized,
had been reinforced by six additional divisions from the XVIII.
and IX. Armies, sent up by train and lorry and thrown straight
into battle, often without their artillery, and its resistance
had noticeably stiffened.
The British advance was continued on the loth. The Cana-
dians, now opposed by fresh troops from the XVIII. German
Army, succeeded in attaining with its left the front assigned to
it at Hallu and Fouquescourt but failed to get its right forward
to Roye, the western suburbs of which were stoutly held. The
Australian Corps which had now extended its left astride the
Somme, in order to secure effective coordination of the opera-
tions on both its banks, had severe fighting on Lihons hill and
was held up by determined German counter-attacks. Operations
were undertaken on both banks N. of the Somme under cover
of darkness, the plan being to encircle the hostile positions in the
Etinehem and Mericourt bends by drawing a cordon across the
bases of these bends. Etinehem and all its garrisons were easily
taken, but the attack on Mericourt was broken up by hostile
bombing planes and had to be completed on the nth.
The IV. Army orders for this day's operations were that
the Canadians and Australians should continue their advance
to the line of the Somme and secure the crossings from Offoy
(E. of Ham) to Bray. During the loth and nth, however, 8 more
German divisions had come into line and delivered a series of
vigorous counter-attacks which had the effect of putting a stop
to any real British advance. The Canadian attacks were can-
celled and the Corps had hard work to hold its ground. The
Australians captured and held Lihons but could get no farther.
In fact, it was now clear that to push the offensive further
would lead to disproportionate loss with little corresponding
gain. The German II. Army had reformed its front, shattered
on the 8th, with fresh troops drawn from the XVIII. and IX.
Armies and from Prince Rupprecht's group in Flanders, and
settled itself on the edge of the area devastated in the Somme
battles of 1916, where a maze of old trenches, wire, and shell
holes rendered defence easy and rapid advance impracticable.
The British IV. Army had engaged all its 13 divisions, and its
units were tired and in need of a breathing space. Gen. Rawlinson
therefore decided on the nth to allow his troops a few days' rest,
while preparing for a renewal of the attack on the 15th. The
units in the line were relieved and the tired infantry together with
the cavalry were withdrawn into reserve.
French I. Army's Operations (Aug. 12-22). On Debeney 's
front also during this period, minor activity took place, resulting
in merely local advantages to the French. On the left of the
I. Army, the line was drawn closer to Roye on the N.W. and W.,
while on the right the XXXV. Corps took Reuvraignes on the
zoth. In this area, however, the German XVIII. Army had put
into line no less than 10 divisions, while on the whole front
between Roye and Lassigny a total of over 20 divisions were
engaged between Aug. 9 and 22 against the French I. Army.
Thanks to the employment of these strong forces, and to the
increasing facilities for defence afforded by the shattered and
intersected country into which the battle line had now been
carried, the German XVIII. Army was enabled to maintain its
ground to the W. and S. of Roye until the pressure of events else-
where compelled its withdrawal in conformity with the armies
on either flank at the end of August.
The operations of the French I. Army since Aug. 9 had resulted
in the reconquest of an area of ground to a depth of 10-15 m -
and the capture of some 12,000 prisoners and over 100 guns,
besides much other material and stores.
British Operations (Aug. 12-22). The IV. Army offensive
planned for the isth did not take place and only partial actions
were carried out on its front during the period from the I2th
to the 22nd. British attacks alternated with German counter-
attacks with no great. change resulting in the situation. Thus
on the 1 2th the Australians took Proyart, while on the isth the
Canadians secured Damery and Parvillers. On the lyth Sir D.
Haig decided that the next large-scale attack by the British
should take place on the I. and III. Army fronts; the Canadian
Corps left the IV. Army, the French taking over its sector as
far as S. of Lihons and the remainder of the IV. Army line,
which on Aug. 22 ran from Damery by Lihons and Proyart to
Dernancourt, was left to the 12 divisions of the Australian and
III. Corps. Facing them the German II. Army had available 26
divisions, of which, however, only 16 were in good fighting trim.
During the period from Aug. 8 to Aug. 22 the IV. Army had
forced back the Germans to a depth of 12 m., had defeated or
engaged with its own 13 divisions no less than 27 of the enemy's,
had taken from him 23,000 prisoners and 400 guns and had
killed and wounded more than an equivalent number of his men
at a cost to itself of some 27,000 total casualties.
Offensive of French III. Army (Aug. 10-22). In accordance
with the scheme of Gen. Fayolle, already mentioned, the attack
of the French III. Army was launched on the early morning of
the loth. The XXXIV. and XV. Corps (7 divs.), on a front of.
14 m., from Courcelles to the Oise, were opposed by 7 German
divisions in line and one in reserve, forming the centre and left
of the German XVIII. Army. The objective of the French
offensive was assigned as the line Lassigny-Noyon. The nature
of the ground in front of Humbert's right, a tangled and broken
mass of wooded hills, known as the " Petite Suisse," forbade any
rapid advance in that quarter, and recourse was had therefore
to an enveloping movement by the left (XXXIV.) Corps of
the III. Army, which was directed to turn the highland by the
north. At 4:20 A.M. on the loth the attack commenced without
artillery preparation; little resistance was met with at first, and
before noon a penetration of some 3 to 4 m. had been effected, the
infantry reaching the front Onvillers-Macqueglise. The advance
was continued during the afternoon against the high ridge of
Boulogne, while French aeroplanes carried out a bombing raid
522
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
on Lassigny, and by nightfall the XXXIV. Corps was on the line
Onvillers-Boulogne-La Neuville.
On the nth the XV. Corps on the right of the army was put
into the attack directly against the front of the " Petite Suisse,"
while the XXXIV. continued to progress to the N. of it. The
resistance of the XVIII. German Army, reinforced by an extra
division, stiffened appreciably during the day, and all along the
line there was hard fighting. Hostile machine gunners ensconced
in the broken country made the advance slow and painful; every
foot of ground had to be fought for and the French could only
advance step by step. After a week's fighting, the " Petite
Suisse " still remained partly in German hands, while the French
left wing was not yet in possession of Lassigny. The German
XVIII. Army which, as already mentioned, had brought back
its right flank to Roye on the evening of the pth and was now
also withdrawing its left along the Oise, fought stubbornly to
secure time for the evacuation of its artillery and material
Nevertheless the French III. Army made daily headway.
It was not, however, till the offensive by the French X. Army
on the E. of the Oise threatened by its rapid progress to imperil
the retreat of the Germans in the " Petite Suisse " that Hum-
bert's troops could finally force them from their stronghold.
On the morning of the 2ist the German XVIII. Army fell back
all along the line; the French infantry occupied Lassigny and
cleared the wooded highland and by the 22nd had reached the
line of the Divette, where they were halted to regroup and pre-
pare for a renewed advance.
In the thirteen days' fighting Humbert's 7 divisions had driven
from their strong vantage ground 8 enemy divisions and had
taken from them 5,000 prisoners and 100 guns.
General Results of the Battle of Amiens. The course and results
of the fortnight's fighting between Aug. 8 and 22 may be summed
up as follows: The three Allied armies engaged (IV. British,
I. and III. French), with 32 divisions, had attacked and defeated
the II. and XVIII. German Armies, in all 42 divisions. Of these
42 divisions 30 were originally in line or reserve at the moment
of the attacks, and 12 were put in from other parts of the front,
being drawn from seven different German armies, belonging to
three different army groups. The Allies advanced to a depth of
between 6 and 14 m. on a front of 47, taking a total of 40,000
prisoners, 600 guns, thousands of machine-guns, quantities of
ammunition, materiel and stores of all kinds. A wide breach
had been made in the German front, susceptible, as events
showed, of being rapidly widened to either flank by further
Allied attacks. A shattering blow had been dealt to the moral of
the German army and the German Higher Command, from the
effects of which neither was destined to recover. The Battle of
Amiens was the first page in the story of the Allied victory of
1918. (X.)
IV. BATTLE OF BAPAUME-PERONNE, AUG. 2I-SEPT. 2
The first conception of the battle of Bapaume-Peronne was
laid down in a directive from Marshal Foch to Field-Marshal
Haig, written on Aug. 10 that is at the moment when the
battle of Amiens had just been crowned with a brilliant success,
and the enemy was retiring E. along the whole front from the
Ancre to the Oise under the pressure of the British IV. and
French I. and III. Armies. In this directive it was enjoined that
" enterprises of the British III. Army in the general direction of
Bapaume and Peronne should be prepared as soon as possible,"
while " the action of the British IV. Army should be pushed in
the direction of Ham." Further instructions for the enlarge-
ment of the battle towards the N. to take place simultaneously
with its extension to the S. by the advance of the X. French Army
between the Oise and the Aisne (timed for Aug. 20), were sent
to Haig on the 12 and it was finally decided that the advance
of the III. Army should commence on the 2ist and be followed by
a general offensive on the front of that Army and the IV.
Army two days later.
The general scheme of the operations between the Somme and
the Scarpe was based, according to Lord Haig, on the following
Considerations:
" The enemy did not seem prepared to meet an attack in this direc-
tion and owing to the sucess of the IV. Army, he occupied a salient,
the left flank of which was already threatened from the south. A
further reason for my decision was that the ground N. of the Ancre
river was not greatly damaged by shell fire and was suitable for the
use of tanks. A successful attack between Albert and Arras in a
S.E. direction would turn the line of the Sqmme S. of Pe"ronne and
gave every promise of producing far-reaching results. It would be
a step forward towards the strategic objective St. Quentin-Cambrai.
This attack moreover would be rendered easier by the fact that we
now held the commanding plateau S. ol Arras about Bucquoy and
Ablainzeville, which in^he days of the old Somme fighting had lain
well behind the enemy's lines. In consequence we were here either
astride of or to the E. of the intricate systems of trench lines which
in 1916, we had no choice but to attack frontally, and enjoyed
advantages of observation which at that date had been denied us.
It was arranged that on the morning of Aug. 21 a limited attack
should be launched N. of the Ancre to gain the general line of the
Arras-Albert railway, on which it was correctly assumed that the
enemy's main line of resistance was sited. The day of Aug. 22 would
then be used to get troops and guns into position on this front and
to bring forward the left of the IV. Army between the Somme and
the Ancre. The principal attack would then be delivered on Aug. 23
by the III. Army and the divisions of the IV. Army N. of the Somme,
the remainder of the IV. Army assisting by pushing forward S. of
the river to cover the flank of the main operation. Thereafter if
success attended our efforts, the whole of both armies were to press
forward with the greatest vigour and exploit to the full any advan-
tage we might have gained.
The line of the British IV. Army at the date of the opening of
the new battle on Aug. 21 ran from Fransart by Chilly, Proyart
and Dernancourt to Albert. The right of this line as far as the
Bray-Corbie road was held by the Australian Corps (Monash)
with five divisions (from the right, 4th Canadian, 4th Australian,
32nd, sth Australian and 3rd Australian) in line and three
(ist Canadian, ist Australian and 2nd Australian) in reserve.
To the left of this the III. Corps (47th, i2th and i8th Divs. in
line and s8th in reserve) continued the line to the army boundary
northward of Albert on a front running along the W. bank of the
Ancre as far as Beaucourt and thence W. of Puisieux, Bucquoy
and Moyenneville to the Cojeul. The III. Army held the line
in order from the S. with the V. Corps (Shute) with the 38th
and 2 ist Divs. in line and the 1 7th in reserve, from N. of Albert to
Beaucourt; the IV. Corps (Harper) with the 42nd, New Zealand
and 37th Div. in line and the sth and 63rd in support, extending
as far as opposite Ablainzeville; and the VI. Corps (Haldane)
(2nd Guards, 56th and 52nd Divs. in front line, with the 3rd in
rear), as far as the army boundary.
Facing these troops the German II. Army (v. Marwitz) held
the front opposite the IV. British Army, from N. of Roye to N.
of Albert. This army, after its battering on Aug. 8 and succeeding
days, held its front with 16 divisions, retaining 7, mostly ex-
hausted and reduced in numbers, in reserve. The XVII. Army
(Otto v. Below) was on the right of the II. extending as far as
Avion, S. of Lens. On the eve of the attack this army had n
divisions in first line and 2 in reserve. Both of these armies,
together with the IX., to the left of the II., belonged to the
newly-formed Army Group of von Boehm, whose area of com-
mand thus extended from N. of the Scarpe to the Aisne.
First Stage of III. Army's Advance (Aug. 21-26). The main
attack on the front of the British III. and IV. Armies was timed
for Aug. 23 and the two previous days were to be in some sense
only a prelude. The operation to be undertaken on Aug. 21
consisted of an advance by the IV. and VI. Corps on a front of
9 m. from opposite Miraumont to Moyenneville, while the left
division of the V. Corps secured the right flank of the attack
along the Ancre. The general objective was to be the line of the
Arras-Albert railway, the attainment of which involved a
penetration of the hostile front to a depth of 2 to 3 miles.
The attacking infantry, supported by tanks and covered by a
strong barrage, moved forward at 4:55 A.M. The enemy was
fully aware of the probability of an offensive on his XVII. Army
sector and had adopted his well-tried system of defence in depth,
the positions forward of the railway being lightly held by weak
forces. These were rapidly driven in along the whole front of
attack, their task being rendered difficult both by thick mist and
smoke thrown out to cover the advance of the assaulting infantry.
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
523
While the 2ist Div. of the V. Corps pushed forward along the
right bank of the Ancre as far as Beaucourt and set to work to
prepare a passage over the flooded and marshy stream at St.
Pierre Divion, the 42nd, New Zealand, and 37th Divs. of the
IV. Corps carried their first objective, the high ground E. of
Bucquoy and Ablainzeville, and then gave place to the 5th and
63rd Divs., which carried the line up to the final objective W. of
the railway. Further to the N. the 2nd and Guards Divs. of the
VII. Corps, assisted by the 3rd Div., which was leap-frogged
over the 2nd for the last stage of the advance, also carried out
their allotted task, and though the fog, which had at first fa-
voured the attacking troops caused some little confusion and loss
of direction, succeeded not only in reaching but in crossing the
railway E. of Courcelles and Moyenneville. Over 2,000 prisoners
were captured along the front of attack, of which 1,400 fell to the
lot of the IV. Corps.
The German XVII. Army, in view of the loss of its forward
positions, requested permission to retake them by a counter-
offensive, which was delivered in force on the 22nd, and drove in
parts of the new line both in the IV. and VI. Corps sector. It
failed however to gain any decided advantage, as the Germans
themselves admit, and meanwhile the preparations for the gen-
eral advance on the whole of the IV. and III. Army fronts on the
23rd were being rapidly completed. At the point of junction of the
armies the 38th Div. of the V. Corps, in cooperation with the
III. Corps, carried out a series of operations which had as their
result the occupation of Albert, and the seizure of points of
passage which rendered it possible to throw strong forces to the
E. bank of the Ancre in preparation for the morrow.
The main phase of the III. Army's operations began in the
morning of Aug. 23, the various formations attacking at different
hours along the whole front of 16 m. from Albert to the Cojeul.
The enemy resisted with determination, but considerable prog-
ress was made all along the line. On the right the V. Corps, still
acting in close conjunction with the III. Corps to the S. of i(^
pushed out its right, the 38th Div., E. and N.E. from Albert and
completed its occupation of the hills overlooking the town.
By the end of the day this division held a line from just W. of
La Boisselle to Aveluy, while its left brigade had thrown parties
across the marshes E. of Hamel, where they held on all night in
face of repeated German attacks. On the front of the 2istDiv.,
on the left of the V. Corps, only small attacks took place, but
the IV. Corps to the N. of the Ancre, commencing its advance
at ii A.M., with the 42nd, New Zealand, 5th and 37th Divs.,
carried the railway, the enemy's main position, from N. of
Miraumont to Achiet le Grand, and pushing forward further on
the left, reached a line from Bihucourt to Loupart Wood, whence
the front at the end of the day ran sharply westwards N. of
Irles and N. and W. of Miraumont. On the VI. Corps the attack-
ing divisions, from right to left were the 2nd, 3rd, Guards, 56th
and 52nd. The 3rd Div. opened the advance at 4 A.M. with a
successful attack on Gomiecourt, after which at n A.M. the
znd Div. passed through on either side of the village to continue
the advance, its objective being the line of the Arras-Bapaume
road between Sapignies and Ervillers. The right of the attack
made little progress, but on the left Ervillers was taken early
in the afternoon. Farther N. the Guards, after seizing Hamelin-
court, had also established themselves across the main road,
and Boyelles and Boiry Becqucrelle also fell into the hands of the
VI. Corps before the end of the day, which resulted in the cap-
ture of 5,000 prisoners and a number of guns.
In view of the success gained during the day, it was decided
to renew the advance at i A.M. on the morning of the 24th, the
noon being then at the full. This decision was fully justified by
he excellent results achieved all along the line. On the V. Corps
ont, it was projected to carry the strong position on the Thiepval
plateau by means of a converging attack from S. and W. by the
two wings of the 38th Div. While the right brigade stormed the
high ground of La Boisselle and Ovillers, the left brigade, wading
across the Ancre at Hamel under cover of its detachments thrown
over the previous day, pushed forward as far as Pozieres, thus
turning the defences of Thiepval from the north. In the after-
noon and evening the V. Corps, of which the central and left
Divs., the i7thand 2ist, had pushed forward through Grandcourt,
by dint of heavy fighting, attained the general line W. of Con-
talmaison-Martinpuich-Courcelette. The IV. Corps had also
been highly successful; the 42nd Div. pushed its front by way of
Miraumont, where the enemy resisted with unusual stubbornness,
to Pys, while the 5th, New Zealand, and 37th Divs., farther N.,
advanced to the line Grevillers-Avesnes-W. of Behagnies-
Mory. The VI. Corps on the left of the army occupied St. Leger
and Henin-sur-Cojeul but were held up by a determined defence
in front of Croisilles and in St. Martin-sur-Cojeul.
The attack was vigorously pushed on the 25th despite the fact
that the troops were becoming weary and the enemy's line
heavily reinforced, showed signs of stiffening. The main advance
was in the centre; the V. Corps on the right advancing over the
old battlefields of 1916 where the ground afforded good facilities
for the defence could get on but slowly, and the enemy's prepared
fortifications gave him every advantage in the VI. Corps area,
where little progress could be achieved. In the centre however, N.
of Bapaume, the IV. Corps cleared up the hostile resistance at
Sapignies and Behagnies and pushed on in the evening to the line
Favreuil-Mory, thus seriously menacing the line of retreat of
the defenders of Bapaume.
In fact, at this moment the situation on the front of the XVII.
German Army was regarded as " extremely critical." It was
believed that the offensive against it was bound to continue and
the difficulty of getting up reserves and supplies was enhanced
by the lack of communications across the desolated area of the
old Somme battlefields. The Army Group of von Boehm was
accordingly instructed to retire the line of the XVII. Army to a
position already reconnoitred and partly prepared running from
Queant E. of Bapaume and Combles. The withdrawal took
place at once in accordance with orders, and was completed by
the morning of the 27th under cover of strong rearguards which,
fiercely contested the advance of the British III. Army.
Conclusion of III. Army's Advance (Aug. 26-Sept. i). Dur-
ing the 26th the V. Corps gained the fruit of its hard struggles
of the previous days in a deep advance over the Somme battle-
ground, which carried it forward to the western outskirts of what
had once been the villages of Longueval, Flers, and Le Sars.
The IV. Corps continued to swing round to the N.E. of Bapaume,:
occupying Bcugnatre, but the garrison of the town still held out.
The next few days were taken up with bitter and strenuous
fighting along all the front of the army, which grew stiffer as the
advancing British drew nearer to the new prepared positions of
the enemy. A new British Corps, the XVII. (Ferguson), took
over the three left divisions (s6th, 52nd and 57th) of the VI.
Corps on the evening of Aug. 25, and undertook the hard task,
of overcoming the German resistance around Croisilles and in;
the Hindenburg line to the E. Croisilles was not finally secured',
until the 28th when the enemy garrison, finding its retreat menaced^
from both flanks, abandoned it early in the morning and from
that date for four successive days the XVII. Corps was engaged
in to-and-fro fighting in the maze of trenches and dugouts around;
Bullecourt and Hendecourt which were finally secured by the
52nd and 57th Divs., respectively, on the morning of Sept. i.
The line was established E. of Riencourt by the evening. The
part of the XVII. Corps in the brilliant operations of the I. Army i
against the Drocourt-Queant line on Sept. 2 does not come
within the scope of this narrative.
Further to the S. by the evening of Aug. 29 the Germans,
though still holding their ground stubbornly before the VT.
Corps, had left Bapaume to the New Zealand Div. of the IV.
Corps, and retired before the V. Corps to the eastern edge of
the devastated area on the general line Morval-Beaulencourt.
Following up their advantage the IV. Corps pressed their ad-
vance on Aug. 30 and 31 to beyond Riencourt, Bancourt and
Fremicourt, thus rendering it possible for their neighbours on
the right and left to resume their progress which had for the
moment ceased. While the V. Corps on Sept. i drove the enemy
from Beaulencourt, Morval and Sailly-Saillisel and on the 2nd
from Le Transloy, Rocquigny and Barastre, the VI. Corps finally
524
SOMME, BATTLES OF THE
made itself master of the bitterly contested villages of Ecoust
and Vaux Vrancourt and pushed forward to Noreuil. The IV.
Corps in the centre, keeping pace with its comrades reached the
front Villers au Flos-Beugny on the evening of Sept. 2.
During the 13 days' fighting the 14 divisions of the III. Army
had engaged 23 hostile divisions, taken from them 11,000 prison-
ers, many guns and much material of war, and had driven them
back to a depth of from 8 to 13 m. on a front of 20, besides in-
flicting on them heavy losses in killed and wounded.
IV. Army's Advance to Upper Somme (Aug. 22-30). It has
already been stated that the left of the IV. Army N. of the Somme
had successfully cooperated in the main advance being carried
out by the III. Army on its left during all the period under re-
view from Aug. 22 onward. At the same time, other offensive
operations were also carried out by the centre and right of Gen.
Rawlinson's line astride and S. of the river, which had the effect
towards the end of Aug. of forcing the Germans to retire to the
line of the Somme above Peronne.
The attack of the III. Corps, delivered on the morning of
Aug. 22, had for its objective the capture of Albert and the
crests E. and S.E. of it in order to afford a crossing-place for the
V. Corps (the right corps of the III. Army) over the Ancre
valley. The i8th, 47th and I2th Divs., as also the 3rd Australian
Div., were entrusted with the operation, which involved an
advance of some 2,000 to 3,000 yd.; the s8th Div. was held in
reserve. Despite the fact that all the precautions taken failed
to ensure secrecy and that hostile counter preparations began
at 4 A.M., 45 minutes before the attack was timed to commence,
considerable progress was made on the whole front. The i8th
Div. cleared Albert and joined hands E. of Meaulte with the left
of the 1 2th Div., which together with the 47th on its right, had
reached practically all its objectives before noon. The 3rd
Australian Div. on the extreme right of the attack had also
fulfilled their allotted task as early as 8:30 A.M. But in the
afternoon a heavy German counter-attack, put in against the
centre of the new British line, recovered much of the lost ground
in that quarter, and inflicted such severe losses on the 47th Div.
that it had to be relieved during the course of the next day by
the s8th Div. from reserve.
This untoward incident somewhat disarranged the army plan
for the 23rd, which had originally involved an advance on the
whole front from Albert to Chaulnes. It was now decided that
only the i8th Div. on the extreme left of the III. Corps should
attack in conjunction with the Australians S. of the Somme.
Accordingly, on the morning of the 23rd, the i8th Div., acting
together with the V. Corps of the III. Army on its left, completed
its operations of the previous day by the capture of the ridge
immediately E. of Albert. The Australian attack to the S. was
more ambitious and equally successful. It was carried out on a
front of 4 m. by the 32nd Div. on the right and the ist Australian
on the left and involved an advance of some 2,000 yd. in depth,
right up to the edge of the area laid waste in 1916, on the ap-
proximate line Herleville-Chuignes-Cappy. The divisions de-
bouched at 4:45 A.M., assisted by 45 tanks and covered by an
excellent barrage. The 32nd Div. early seized Herleville and
the ist Australian Div. also successfully carried out the first two
stages of its advance, but met with unexpected difficulties in
the last phase, which were only overcome after severe and gallant
fighting. As a result of the day, 3,000 prisoners and 23 guns
remained in the Australian Corps' hands.
Gen. Rawlinson decided, as a result of the day's operations,
to go on with the attack N. of the river, and by way of variation
to the usual methods an advance was carried out just after
midnight of the 23rd by the whole of the III. Corps (47th, I2th
and i8th Divs.) and the 3rd Australian Division. With the aid
of the brilliant moonlight, good progress was made by all these
formations, and despite violent hostile reaction, the ground lost
on the 22nd was entirely recovered and La Boiselle, Becordel
and Bray all taken and held. The same good success attended
the continuance of the advance next day, Fricourt and Mametz
being both seized.
It had by now become evident, in fact, that the German re-
sistance on the IV. Army front, partly owing to the vigorous
pressure exercised throughout the last four days, partly owing
to the successes of the III. Army farther N., was beginning to
weaken, and that only strong rearguards were being encountered
fighting to gain time for the retirement of the main body behind
the line of the Somme above Peronne. The German Higher
Command, as already mentioned, on the 25th, ordered von Boehm
(who had about the middle of Aug. been appointed to the com-
mand of a new Army Group consisting of the II., XVIII. and XI.
Armies, between the Ancre and the Aisne) to fall back to the line
of the river Somme-Ham-N.E. of Noyon, and the movement was
carried out on the 26th and 27th. During these days the progress
of the IV. Army was rapid, being opposed mainly by long range
artillery fire and strong machine-gun detachments. By the
evening of the 2;th the Australian Corps, which had handed
over part of its line, as far N. as beyond Lihons, to the French I.
Army on the night of the 24th, had reached the front Vernian-
dovillers-Fontaine-Vaux, while the III. Corps which had been
severely tested by the resistance of three fresh enemy divisions
newly put into line on its front had cleared Trones Wood and
Longueval. The German II. Army had now reached its chosen
positions of defence between Morval and Pargny but had appar-
ently, at the desire of the Army Group which considered it im-
portant to retain the possibility of flanking movement from in
front of Peronne against any eventual British advance in the
open country to the N., decided to retain its hold on the W. bank
of the river in that quarter. Accordingly, the resistance in that
area, where the left of the Australian Corps was operating, grew
stiffer during the 28th and 29th; while the 32nd Div. on the right
of the corps reached the W. bank of the Somme astride the
Amiens-Brie road without severe fighting early on the 29th,
the sth and 2nd Australian Divs. only established themselves on
the river line after heavy fighting and thanks largely to the
cooperation of the 3rd Australian Div. on the N. of the Somme.
By the evening of the 3oth the Australian line ran along the W.
bank from Cizancourt in the S. to Biaches and thence over the
river to Clery and was continued by the III. Corps along the
western edge of Marrieres Wood to Pricz Farm and E. of Combles.
The Germans in this latter area had also fought stubbornly
during the past two days and it became evident that they were
here standing on a chosen line of defence. In view, however, of
the small prospect of success afforded by any attempt to force
the strongly held Somme line above Peronne, the IV. Army
Command decided that the next operation must be a strong ad-
vance by the centre and left in order to turn that line to the N.
and orders to this effect were issued on the evening of the 3oth.
Forcing of the Somme Line by IV. Army (Aug. jo-Sept. 2).
The plan for the IV. Army's further operations involved the
turning of the Somme line, to which the German II. Army had
retired, by means of an advance N. of Peronne to the high ground
around Nurlu. The III. Corps was to carry out the frontal attack
from the W. against the German line northwards from Peronne,
while the Australian Corps covered the southern flank of the
attack and cooperated in the main operation by pushing for-
ward against Nurlu from the S.W. Before this could be done,
however, it was necessary to occupy Peronne and the key to it,
the commanding height of Mont St. Quentin. This in itself was
a most formidable task, for the position, strong both by nature
and by art, dominated all the country to N. and W., and all
the river passages by which it could be approached. The German
High Command fully realized its importance, and had com-
mitted its defence to the picked troops of the 2nd Guard Div.
with orders to hold it at all costs.
Sir John Monash, the Australian Corps commander, had
already on the 29th formulated his plans for the attack of this
stronghold. On this date the line of the corps was held from S.
to N. by the 32nd, sth, 2nd and 3rd" Divs., the last-named being
N. of the Somme. The idea was to bring over the 5th and 2nd
Divs. to the N. bank, for the attack of Peronne and Mont St.
Quentin respectively. The seizure of a bridgehead on the N.
bank S.E. of Clery, an essential preliminary, was carried out by
the 2nd Australian Div. during the course of the 3oth, and the
SONNINO SOROLLA Y BASTIDA
525
bridge at Ommiecourt was ready for use by before dawn on the
morrow. On this same night the 32nd Div. on the corps, right
extended its front to the N., relieving part of the 5th Div. which
in turn took over part of the front of the 2nd Div., thus liberating
the necessary forces for the assault.
This was opened at 5 A.M. on the 3ist by the 5th Bde., of the
and Div. which moved off under cover of a strong barrage and
making good progress had attained by 7 A.M. both Feuillaucourt
and Mont St. Quentin villages; the right of the brigade however
was held up in front of Anvil Wood. To the left of the brigade
also the attack of the 3rd Australian Div. had failed to keep pace
and a heavy German counter-attack, flung in against the front
and left of the troops holding Mont St. Quentin village, com-
pelled them to relinquish it. They rallied again, however, on the
western edge and there held their ground till nightfall. Feuillau-
court had also to be abandoned later in the day. Meanwhile
the 6th Bde. (also of the 2nd Div.) crossed the river behind the
5th and part of it pushing forward on the right of its comrades,
seized Halle and established itself on a line beyond. The re-
mainder halted S.E. of Clery. The i4th Bde. of the sth Div.,
also effected a crossing at that place and collected E. of that
village, pending the moment when the further advance of the
2nd Div. should allow it to advance against its assigned objective
Peronne. By nightfall the 1,200 fighting men of the 5th Bde. had
already broken the back of their task. Despite the difficulties
which faced them, they had penetrated the formidable hostile
positions to a depth of some 2,000 yd., and though reduced in
numbers to some 600 rifles had held out on a wide front of 4,000
yd. against reiterated and desperate counter-blows by a foe in
every way worthy of their steel. Their single feat of arms was
rightly judged one of the finest in the war, and was to receive
full fruition on the morrow.
The 6th Bde. of the 2nd Div., assembled S.E. of Clery, was
assigned to complete the capture of Mont St. Quentin, passing
through the sorely tried 5th Bde., its units already in the front
line S.E. of Halle being relieved by the i4th Bde. of the 5th Div.,
which now undertook the attack on Peronne. While this last-
named brigade swept forward through Anvil Wood and Ste.
Radegonde, forced its way into Peronne and got possession before
noon of practically all the town with the exception of the north-
eastern suburbs, the 6th Bde., despite strong opposition from
parties of the enemy still at large behind the 5th Bde. front on the
Peronne-Bapaume high road, reached the line of that road and
after a short preparation by artillery stormed Mont St. Quentin
village and wood and established itself on a line from there N. to
near Allaines and S. to the E. edge of Peronne. The night of
Sept. i thus saw the Australian Corps, the 3rd Div. of which
on the extreme left had taken possession of the ridges S. of
Bouchavesnes, in possession of all its objectives, after completely
defeating the enemy opposed to it.
Further to the N. the III. Corps also had done most creditable,
if less spectacular work, during these two days of battle. The
$8th Div. on the right had cleared Marrieres Wood on the 3ist,
while the 47th Div. made progress towards Rancourt, repulsing a
hostile counter-attack. On the morrow these successes were
continued and completed by the capture of Rancourt and
Bouchavesnes, while the i8th Div. on the left of the corps in a
brilliant series of attacks seized in turn Priez farm, Fregicourt
and Saillisel, inflicting serious losses on the enemy, who afforded
a stubborn resistance.
Sept. 2 saw the completion of the successful operations of the
IV. Army in the battle of Peronne, the Australian Corps occupy-
ing Allaines and the III. Corps St. Pierre Vaast and Vaux woods.
The results of the battle were imposing enough even in mere
figures. In the period between Aug. 22 and Sept. 2 the IV.
Army's 9 divs. had engaged and defeated 23 hostile divs. and
taken from them over 23,000 prisoners, many guns and vast
quantities of material. The strong line of the Somme had been
turned and rendered untenable by sheer hard fighting in which
the attacking troops had shown themselves capable of meeting
and defeating the best of the German divisions which, thrown in
piecemeal and in the utmost haste and confusion as they arrived
MUlVi VtV.1'
pieceme
on the field, had been unable to hold for long even the strongest
natural and artificial defences.
General Results of the Battle of Bapaume- Peronne. In the
battle described above the British III. and IV. Armies, consisting
of five corps (23 divs.) in all, had fought and defeated the German
XVII. and II. Armies, consisting of five corps (46 divs.), had
forced them to fall back to a depth of from 6 to 13 m. on a front
of 28, and had captured from them a total of 34,250 prisoners
and 270 guns, without reckoning other material of war too various
to recapitulate. The whole area of the Somme battlefields, which
had cost the British five months' bitter fighting in 1916, had been
conquered in less than a fortnight; more than half the area
gained by the great German advance of the spring had been
recovered; the only good natural line of defence available for
the enemy to the W. of the Hindenburg system had been broken
asunder; and the moral and material superiority of the British
over the German fighting machine had become patent to the
world. (X.)
SONNINO, SIDNEY, BARON (1847- ), Italian statesman
(see 25^6). During the debates on Giolitti's Steamship Subsi-
dies bill in the spring of 1909 it was Baron Sonnino who con-
ducted the most vigorous attacks against the Government,
exposing the radical defects of the measure, and when Giolitti
resigned on Dec. 2 it was Sonnino who was called upon to form
a ministry, for the second time. But he did not enjoy the favour
of the still Giolittian Chamber, and his Cabinet was defeated
over the new shipping bill. On March 21 1910 he resigned,
again after roo days of office. He continued to take an active
part in the debates in the Chamber, and was a stern but just
critic of Giolittian political methods, although during the Libyan
war he generally abstained from opposition for patriotic motives.
In the autumn of 1914, after the death of the Marquis di San
Giuliano, the Premier Salandra assumed the Foreign Office for
a short time, but when he reconstituted his Cabinet on Nov.
5 he offered that portfolio to Sonnino, who accepted it. His
conduct of the Foreign Office was characterized by sincerity of
purpose, high principles, unswerving patriotism and a wide
knowledge of international poh'tics. He had not, moreover,
a free hand. He was still Foreign Minister, under Orlando's
premiership, during the Peace Conference, which he attended
as second Italian delegate from Jan. 18 to June ig 1919. On
the fall, however, of the Orlando Cabinet (June 19 1919)
Sonnino retired into private life. The irritation of the whole of
Italy against the policy of the Allies towards Italy at the
Peace Conference reacted to some extent against the nation's
representatives at Paris, and Sonnino himself came in for a
large share of unpopularity, although the more intelligent and
better informed part of public opinion realized the great diffi- >
culty of his task and the insufficient support afforded him by
Orlando, as well as the value of his actual achievements. He
did not stand for Parliament at the elections in Nov. 1919,
but was subsequently made a senator. In spite of what was
regarded as his failure to overcome the obstacles of the Peace
Conference, he enjoyed the reputation of being the greatest
Minister for Foreign Affairs that Italy had had since Cavour,
with the possible exception of Crispi, while as a financier he :
ranked very high. He was also a man of wide reading and cul-
ture, and a distinguished Dante scholar and bibliophile.
SOROLLA Y BASTIDA, JOAQUIN (1863- ), Spanish
painter (see 25.434), was engaged for practically the whole of
the decade 1910-20 on work for the Hispanic Society of America.
It includes a series of portraits of Spanish writers, and a " Pano-
rama of the Forty-nine Provinces of Spain " consisting of forty-
nine immense compositions, each representing views, costumes
and customs of a different province. This great undertaking
was completed before paralysis brought the artist's painting to
an end. Important exhibitions of his work were held at the
Graf ton Galleries, London, 1908; in New York, 1909; in Chicago,
1913; and he was represented by two typical works in the 1920-1
Exhibition of Spanish Paintings at Burlington House.
See Hispanic Society of America, Eight Essays on Joaquin Sofolla
y Bastida, 1909; A. de Beruete y Moret, Sorotta y Bastida, 1920.
526
SOUND
SOUND (see 25.437). The increase in our knowledge of the
subject of acoustics (the science of Sound) during recent years
has been largely associated with the war conditions which pre-
vailed from 1914 to 1918. As a consequence of the war the
development of this science has been abnormal, 1 and research
has been directed towards the rapid realization of practical
acoustic devices and methods for immediate use in warfare,
both on land and sea. A general survey of the work done shows
that the advances consist of applications of well-established
principles, rather than the discovery of new phenomena. Gener-
ally, the observations made have proved to be in accordance
with previous theoretical investigations, mainly due to the late
Lord Rayleigh. 2 This war work falls naturally under two
headings, viz. (i) the detection and perception of direction
of sounds in air, and (2) the detection and perception of
direction of sounds in water. Theoretically, these two prob-
lems have much in common, but, practically, there are im-
portant differences which make it desirable to treat them in
separate sections. A special section (3) is devoted to the
important advances recently made in auditorium acoustics, and
the remaining section (4) deals briefly with miscellaneous out-
standing features of modern work on sound, not essentially mili-
tary in character.
i. DETECTION AND PERCEPTION OF DIRECTION OF
SOUNDS IN AIR*
Detection. The human ear itself is a remarkably sensitive
detector of the air vibrations which constitute sound. It is
still much superior in this respect to any mechanical device
which has yet been produced for recording the vibrations
visually. Thus the perception of feeble sounds of necessity
depends upon the limitations of audibility, either indirect
listening, or with the ear aided by the intervention of an electri-
cal device such as a microphone. The audibility of a feeble
sound can be very largely augmented by making use of the
principle of resonance, provided that the sound itself approxi-
mates to a pure tone. This can be secured, for example, by
the use of a Helmholtz resonator applied to the ear in the case
of direct listening, and in addition, by tuning the diaphragm
receiver when microphonic listening is adopted. It has hap-
pened fortuitously that one of the chief sounds in air which it
is important to be able to detect, viz. those emitted by air-
craft, do contain predominant notes which enable the applica-
tion of resonance, as above indicated, to increase largely the
range of audibility. Typical predominant frequencies (appar-
ently due to engine exhaust) are given in the following table,
which relates to the engine running at the usual speed:
Aeroplane engine
Frequency (vibrations per
second)
S. E. 5
130
R. E. 8
90
F. E. 26
70
Avro
90
Gotha
80
1 Owing to the abnormality of the conditions, it is impossible to
follow the usual practices in writing the present article. Experi-
ments on sound, with military ends in view, have been carried out
in nearly all the belligerent countries. Comparatively few of the
results have found their way into the recognized scientific journals,
largely by reason of the secrecy which is still frequently enforced by
the various Governments, under whose control most of the work was
done. In the circumstances it is not safe to attempt to assign credit
to particular investigators, nor is it possible to give adequate refer-
ences. The present article has been drawn up, therefore, upon
broad general lines which, since they fulfil censorship conditions,
form necessarily a by no means complete survey; and names have
been avoided as far as possible.
" Lord Rayleigh's work is contained in his Collected Papers (No.
6, 1920). His contributions were numerous between 1911 and 1919,
when he died.
1 The information contained in this section is largely drawn
from a manual entitled Development of Sounds, kindly placed at
the writer's disposal by the British Munitions Inventions Dept.
The following frequencies have been detected in the sounds from
the Maybach engines of a Zeppelin airship:
Slow speed 27, 54, 108, 135, 243.
High speed 57, 114, 171, 228.
The operation of the Doppler e/ect, arising from the relative
motion between the aircraft and the observer, prevents the
possibility of the identification of the machine by means of the
observed frequency, this being liable to change by as much as
20%, according to the speed and direction of flight. An inter-
esting observation which has been constantly made is that the
notes of low pitch continue to be heard at ranges where those of
high pitch have ceased to be audible. This is in accordance
with the theoretical expectation that damping increases with
frequency.
The determination of the direction whence a sound arrives is
theoretically possible by a variety of methods dealt with below,
several of which have been tried in aircraft localization.
(a) Binaural Listening,* Lord Rayleigh's experiments (Collected
Papers, vol. 5, p. 347) have shown that low-pitched sounds are
determined in direction by the observation of the phase difference
between the vibrations arriving at the two ears. This principle has
been applied in direction-finding, and the effect has been exaggerated
by increasing the distance between the two points of reception.
The sound is received by two equal trumpets or horns rigidly con-
nected together and capable of rotation about an axis perpendicu-
lar to the line joining them. Separate and exactly equal tubes lead
from the trumpets to the two ears, respectively, and the apparatus
is rotated until the sound under observation appears to come from
directly in front. The line joining the sound receivers is then per-
pendicular to the incident sound stream. An alternative method
which dispenses with the necessity of rotating the apparatus is
to use a compensator or phase-measurer, which consists of tubes,
adjustable in length, inserted between the sound receivers and the
appropriate ears, so as to provide a path difference equal to that
between the distant source of sound and the two receivers. Adjust-
ment of the tube lengths is made until the impression received is
that the sound is neither to the right nor to the left, and the deter-
mination of direction is then a matter of simple geometry. In prac-
tice the compensator is graduated to give direct angular readings.
The practice of binaural listening has verified theoretical conclu-
sions in several important respects. It has been found that it is
easier to perceive the direction of a mixed sound, or noise, than a
pure note. Apparently it is necessary that the wave train should
contain more or less isolated special characteristics whereby the
phase difference can be readily appreciated. In the regular sine
wave corresponding to a pure tone each vibration is exactly like
those which immediately precede and follow it, and the ears are
unable to identify corresponding displacements. It is apparently
also necessary for successful binaural listening that the two por-
tions of the incident wave which enter the two receivers should be
free from subsequent distortion ; in particular, that the sound
receivers should be as nearly as possible non-resonant for the vibra-
tions in question. Any amplification of the sound which depends
upon resonance, therefore, such as the use of Helmholtz resonators
already referred to, is incompatible with efficient direction-finding
by observations of phase difference.
The construction and arrangement of the receivers used has varied
very much in practice. As a typical system, that commonly used in
the British army may be quoted, namely, circular cones, 2 to 4 ft.
long and of semi-angle 20, as receivers, placed about 7 ft. apart
a distance which proved to be sufficient for attaining nearly the
maximum practical accuracy of setting.
The method is subject to many errors, chiefly those arising from
the motion of the sound source, refraction due to temperature ine-
qualities in the air, and the effect of winds. The necessary correc-
tions are tabulated for use in practice.
(b) Sound Mirrors. Some success has been attained in direction-
finding by means of concave sound reflectors. The chief limita-
tions have arisen from the question of size, and, consequently, of
4 This method of perception of direction has been largely used
also in a connexion which scarcely justifies treatment in a separate
section. The ffophone is an instrument for direction-finding of
sounds proceeding through the earth, and its particular use during
the war was for localizing the sounds of picks, etc. used in tunnelling
and land mining. It consists of two hollow boxes connected by equal
tubes to a stethoscope arranged so that the sounds proceed from the
two boxes to separate ears. The boxes are laid upon the ground a
few feet apart, and moved about until the sounds of the pick appear
to come from straight ahead. It is then known that the sound
source is on a line perpendicular to that joining the two geophone
receivers, since the sounds arrive through the earth in synchronism.
By combining several pairs of geophones separated by considerable
distances, the actual position of the pick can be estimated, for it
lies at the intersection of the several perpendiculars above specified.
SOUND
527
portability. In optics the size of mirrors commonly in use is very
great in comparison with the wave-lengths of the light ; in the cor-
responding problem in acoustics it is almost impossible to make
them so; and yet this is a necessary condition for the geometrical
laws of reflection to apply with accuracy. In the largest sound mir-
rors perhaps 20 ft. in diameter the size is at most only a few
wave-lengths for the aircraft sounds under investigation, with the
result that the image of a distant sound obtained at the focus proves
to be an area much larger than that corresponding to optical calcu-
lations. There is therefore no advantage secured by making the mir-
ror parabolqidal instead of spherical, and considerable roughness of
the surface is not detrimental. The mirrors were usually made of
concrete, and listening was effected either by means of a small horn
receiver placed in the focal plane and connected by a tube to the
ears, or by means of a microphone placed in a similar position. If, as
was more usual, the mirror was fixed, the direction of the sound
source could be found by determining the position of maximum inten-
sity in the focal plane. It may be noted that in this method of direction-
finding amplification is obtained on account of the area of the
mirror, and that further augmentation is attainable by using resona-
tors, to which the same objections do not apply as in binaural listen-
ing. The accuracy of the determinations vary very much with fre-
quency, being much greater for notes of high pitch than for low, as
would be anticipated from considerations of wave-length.
(c) Interference and Diffraction Methods. There have been many
attempts to apply the principle of interference as a substitute for
binaural listening, i.e., by ultimately mixing the sounds entering the
two receivers, instead of leading them to different ears, and adjust-
ing the compensator until the total sound heard is as loud as possible.
Theoretically this will occur when there has been provided in the
compensator a difference of path equal to the path difference out-
side the receivers. The method has not proved very successful, for a
variety of reasons, some of which are obscure. We shall not elab-
orate them here.
On the other hand, remarkable results have been obtained by the
application to sound waves of a phenomenon well known in the
diffraction of light. A small distant source of light gives in the mid-
dle of the shadow of a small circular obstacle a luminous region,
called the " white spot," arising from the diffraction of light round
the edges of the obstacle. The same phenomenon is observable in
sound under suitable conditions. Thus a large horizontal disc, at
least 20 ft. in diameter, and made of material which either reflects
or absorbs sound, will give below itself a sound shadow of a sound
source, such as an aeroplane, above it. Near the centre of the shadow,
in a position depending on that of the source, there is a region where
the sound heard is comparatively loud in many cases much louder
than it would be if the disc were absent. The relation between the
direction of incidence of the sound and the position of maximum
intensity has been calculated, and the method provides, perhaps,
the most reliable means of perceiving the direction of air-borne
sounds.
(d) Sound Ranging. This special military aspect of the localiza-
tion of sound sources, viz. those arising from gun-fire and shell
bursts, is dealt with in the article RANGE-FINDERS.
2. DETECTION AND PERCEPTION or DIRECTION OF
SOUNDS IN WATER'
Of all the methods practised for the detection of submarines
that depending on the sounds which they emit has been of the
widest application. The question of. detection has been, of
course, of nearly equal importance in the opposite sense, viz.
the hearing of surface ships by the crew of a submerged subma-
rine. The sounds created in the sea by a screw-propelled ship
are of a very complicated character, arising partly from the
interaction between the propeller and the water, and partly from
the vibrations of the machinery which are transmitted through
the walls of the ship into the sea. They vary greatly from ship
to ship, even of the same class; and, in the later stages of the war,
submarines had been constructed which, when cruising sub-
merged at certain slow speeds, emitted practically no noise at all.
In many ways the detection of submarines in the sea is more
difficult than that of aircraft in air. Normally, listening in air
takes place at stations which are fixed; in submarine listening
he stations were most frequently ships, which for tactical reas-
ns connected with their safety, had to be constantly on the
nove. Their own machinery noise and the acoustic disturb-
nces arising from their motion through the water were very
l The following publications should be consulted, although, for
"asons already given, they form by no means adequate references :
. C. Hayes, Engineer (1920), p. 491 ; C. V. Drysdale (Kelvin Lee-
re), Journ, I.E.E. (1920); W. H. Bragg, Submarine Acous-
cs," Nature, July 1919; F. L. Hopwood,
Mature, Aug. 1919.
1 Submarine Acoustics,"
apt to drown the noises proceeding from more distant sources.
The noise of the sea, too, even in weather not at all stormy,
interfered greatly, and the range at which a submarine could
be heard varied much from day to day. A serious additional
limitation was that recourse could not normally be had to the
reflection of ordinary sounds (as is possible in air) chiefly by
reason of the great size of the necessary reflectors. For the
speed of sound in sea water is more than four times that in air,
so that the wave-lengths are larger in the same ratio. This
necessitates a corresponding increase in the linear dimensions of
the sound mirror, if equal efficiency is to be obtained.
Hydrophones. Hydrophones, or under-water sound detectors,
were already in use before the war for signalling purposes, being car-
ried by ships for listening to submarine bells operated by Trinity
House as warnings in foggy weather. They consisted of small, metal,
water-tight cases of which one face was a metallic diaphragm oper-
ating an enclosed microphone. The electrical disturbances of the
microphone caused by any vibration of the diaphragm arising from
sound pressure waves in the sea, were conveyed to telephone receiv-
ers on the ship, where listening took place. It was usual to suspend
the hydrophones in water-filled tanks attached inboard to the outer
shell of the ship, which, owing to the fact that steel in water trans-
mits sound almost completely, does not diminish appreciably the
intensity. Normally the hydrophone diaphragm was tuned so that
its natural frequency in water 2 approximated to that of the sig-
nalling bell, and so that increased range could be secured by depend-
ing on resonance.
The earlier hydrophones used for naval purposes were of much
the same type, although the resonant diaphragm proved to be by
no means an unmixed advantage. All sounds containing a com-
ponent corresponding to the diaphragm frequency were distorted in
reproduction, and what was gained in sensitivity was liable to be
lost in the difficulty of recognition, or, in other words, failure in
discrimination between genuine noises due to a submarine and other
noises inevitably present in the sea. Appeal to resonance is only
really advantageous when the sound under observation has a pre-
dominant note, as in the case of an aeroplane; and submarines do
not display this characteristic. Ultimately hydrophones of a non-
resonant character came to be preferred, and were frequently used
in practice. These consisted most usually of enclosures made of
rubber, sufficiently thick to withstand the pressure of the sea at
the usual depth (about 15 ft.), and having natural frequencies below
the limit of audition.
An alternative type of hydrophone consisted merely of a hollow
enclosure without a microphone, sometimes with a metallic dia-
phragm, and sometimes simply a rubber tube, filled with air and
connected by long tubes to stethoscopes applied to the ears. These
are operated by the transference of the pressure vibrations from the
sea to the air cavity and thence to the ears. Electrical hydrophones
have the advantage over non-electrical ones that their sensitivity
can be readily augmented by various means, e.g., bv the use of
thermionic amplifiers (see WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY).
In cases where the hydrophones had to be used by ships in motion,
they were sometimes fitted into the hull of the ship; or themselves
consisted of fish-shaped bodies towed at a considerable distance
behind the ship. The former precaution, i.e. making the shape
stream-like, aimed at diminishing the vibrations created by the
passage of the hydrophone through the water; the latter had in
view the partial elimination of the disturbances arising from noises
in the towing ship. Even so, it frequently became necessary to stop
the engines temporarily, and listen with the towed hydrophones
while the momentum of the ship continued to carry it forward.
This proved to be only feasible at comparatively slow speeds.
Directional Hydrophones. All the hydrophones so far described
are of a non-directional character, i.e. the intensity of the sound
heard in them is practically independent of the orientation of the
sensitive receiving diaphragm with respect to the position of the
source of sound. The limitations of dimensions necessitated by coa-
siderations of portability, etc., are such as to render the instruments
much too small to give an effective " sound shadow." The reason
for this has already been mentioned, viz. the great wave-lengths
corresponding to audible sounds. At a frequency of 500 per second,
for example, the wave-length in water is nearly ten feet.
Differential Hydrophones. Curiously enough, however, one type
of directional hydrophone, called here for distinguishing purposes a
differential hydrophone, did, in fact, depend upon the small differ-
ences of pressure operating upon its two sides; and it met with con-
siderable success. It was made in various forms, the simplest of
which consisted of a circular metal diaphragm, bearing at its centre
a water-tight box containing a microphone, and clamped round its
rim to a heavy metal ring. When placed in the sea so that the plane
of the diaphragm passed through the position of the sound source,
the pressure variations on the two sides are the same both in ampli-
tude and phase, with the result that the diaphragm and therefore
2 This is considerably lower than the natural frequency in air, on
account of the additional loading by the water.
528
SOUND
the microphone, has no motion imparted to it, and the sound heard
is a minimum. If, however, the diaphragm faces the sound source,
there are, apparently, differences in the pressures on the two sides
(probably in both amplitude and phase), and a small differential
vibration takes place, with consequent sound in the receiving tele-
phones. Actually, as the hydrophone is rotated through 360 about
a vertical axis, two maxima and two minima of sound intensity are
observed. In this form, therefore, the instrument is what is called
bi-directional, i.e. it is unable to distinguish between sources in front
and behind. The desirability of obtaining a uni-directional instru-
ment led to the introduction of the so-called baffle-plate, the behaviour
of which has not yet been explained satisfactorily in terms of ortho-
dox theory. The essential characteristics of a baffle appear to be
that it should be made of non-resonant material and have air cavi-
ties within it. Such a plate, fixed at a small distance (which has to
be determined by trial) from one face of a bi-directional hydro-
phone, transforms it into a uni-directional instrument. A single
sound maximum is now obtained upon rotation, occurring when the
sound source and the baffle plate are on opposite sides of the dia-
phragm; and a single minimum, this when the baffle lies between
the sound source and the diaphragm. The " edge-on " minima,
observed when the baffle is absent, now disappear.
Binaural Listening. The principles underlying this method of
direction-finding have been described already. In the present case
the main difference is that the sound receivers have to be submerged
hydrophones. It has been found to be equally necessary for success
that these should be as completely as possible non-resonant. The
simplest arrangement used in practice was two rubber cavities
placed several feet apart horizontally, and joined by separate equal
tubes to the two ears. The device could be rotated about a vertical
axis, usually passing through the hull of the operating ship. As in
the case of air listening, compensators were often used in order to
avoid the necessity of rotating heavy apparatus. An arrangement
much preferred was to tow two or more fish-shaped hydrophones
in known positions (about 12 ft. apart) behind the ship. Here elec-
trical transference of the acoustic disturbances had to be adopted,
and this necessitated great care in the choice of the microphones and
telephone receivers so as to avoid selective resonance. (The behav-
iour of microphones in this respect was often unsatisfactory, and
telephone earpieces, or magnetophones, were frequently substituted
for them. This results in diminished sensitivity, but the binaural
effects are much improved.) The telephone receivers delivered the
sound into the compensator, and the phase difference was measured
in the usual way ; allowing, of course, for the difference of speed of
sound in the sea and in the air channels of the compensator. In
using a compensator with two sound-receiving units only, there
remains an ambiguity of estimated direction, i.e. one cannot dis-
tinguish between the angles 6 and r+6. The introduction of a
third unit, so that the three form a triangle of known dimensions,
the units being capable of use in pairs with the compensator
ensures the correct choice between the alternative angles.
Other Methods of Direction-finding. Several other methods of per-
ception of direction, not easy to classify, have found application in
practice. One of these consisted in fitting in the shell of a ship, on
opposite sides, two diaphragms with microphones attached, arranged
so that the hydrophones thus formed were of as nearly as possible
equal sensitivity. These were listened to alternately by means of a
reversing switch. The ship, on account of its considerable size, was
capable of giving a marked sound shadow. Thus the starboard hy-
drophone would give greater response than that on the port side if
the sound source were to starboard, and vice versa. By steering the
ship so that the responses were equal, it could be inferred that the
course was directed towards the cause of the sound. The limita-
tions of the method were mainly those arising from local noises; and
the speed had to be small while listening took place.
In other cases large numbers of sound receivers, usually simple
diaphragms whose function was to transfer the vibrations from the
sea to the air inside, were inserted in the ship's hull. Good results
were obtained by an arrangement of this kind, called the Walser
gear, in which the sound receivers were disposed at regular inter-
vals on a large bulge, in the shape of a spherical segment, incor-
porated in the hull on either side towards the bows. The system
acted as a sound lens, a sound focus occurring at a point where the
" sound paths " by alternative routes were equal. Application of
the laws of geometrical optics enabled the relation between the posi-
tion of the focus and the direction of incidence of the sound wave
on the ship's side to be determined.
Sea Sound- Ranging. The methods hitherto mentioned for per-
ceiving sound direction would all fail when the sounds are abrupt in
character, because they all require an appreciable time for carry-
ing out the necessary tests. To determine the position of art explod-
ing submarine mine or torpedo we require, therefore, a different
device. A suitable method is one identical in principle with that
practised on land. The main variations in applying the device to
the sea are that the microphones must be in submerged hydro-
phones, and that a correct knowledge of the velocity of sound in
sea water must form the basis of the calculations. Ordinary non-
directional hydrophones of the type first mentioned have proved
to be quite sufficiently sensitive. Indeed, the greatness of the dis-
tances at which explosions in the sea have given unmistakable im-
pressions on the recording film has been surprising. Small detona-
tors serve at distances of several miles, while the explosion of 40 Ib.
of gun-cotton is operative more than 100 m. from the receiving
hydrophones. Many experiments have been carried out by the Brit-
ish Admiralty with hydrophones disposed in suitable positions on
the East coast of Britain, and the installations promise to be useful,
not only for locating mine and torpedo explosions in circumstances
of war, but also for navigational and surveying purposes. A ship in
fog, for example, could ascertain its position by exploding (with
due notification by wireless to the sound-ranging station) a small
charge near itself in the sea; the station could within a few minutes
inform the ship again by wireless of its position.
Sea sound-ranging has necessitated the accurate redetermina-
tion of the velocity of sound in sea water. This has been accomplished
by the inverse of the process just mentioned, viz. by exploding
charges in the sea, and measuring by the recording string galva-
nometer the time intervals between the reception of the first shock by
hydrophones submerged in accurately known positions. The ob-
served velocity depends on several factors, including tidal flow,
temperature, and salinity, which vary from place to place. The
following table gives some of the results obtained, corrected to a
standard salinity corresponding to a specific gravity of 1-026 and a
temperature of IOC. :
Date
Place
Corrected Velocity
in ft. per sec.
16- 5- 18-
Dover
4,882
6- . n- 18-
"
4,921
18- 7- 18-
"
4,924
26- 7- 17-
Culver (I. of W.)
4,962
The effect of tide, apparently, has not been allowed for. It would
amount, at most, to a few feet per second.
3. AUDITORIUM ACOUSTICS
The acoustics of public buildings have recently been put on
what approximates to an exact scientific basis, largely as a re-
sult of the work of W. C. Sabine (Frank. Inst. J., 179, p. i, 1915).
For good hearing three conditions are necessary and sufficient.
The sound heard must be loud enough; the simultaneous constitu-
ents of a mixed sound must preserve their relative intensities;
and the successive sounds must remain distinct and in the correct
order, and be free from extraneous noises. The extent to which
these conditions are fulfilled depends on the construction of the
auditorium, its shape, its dimensions, and the materials of which
it is composed. In already finished buildings radical alterations
of the first two are not often feasible, but great improvements
can be secured solely by suitable changes in the internal features.
The main difficulty arises from what has been called reverbera-
tion, due to the multiple reflection of sound at different parts
of the room. If the reverberation is prolonged, it means that the
rate of absorption of the sound is slow. Thus, in a lecture room
at Harvard, where these experiments were commenced, the rate
of absorption was so small that a single spoken word continued to
be audible for 55 seconds. Successive syllables thus had to be
heard and appreciated through a loud mixed sound due to the
reverberation of many previous syllables, and the conditions
of hearing were intolerable. Great reduction of the multiple
echoes constituting reverberation can be made by increasing
the rate of absorption of sound. It is apparent that, in the
space of several seconds, the sounds travelling at 1,100 ft. per sec.
will have suffered many successive reflections, and will, there-
fore, have penetrated to practically all parts of the room. The
sound will have become diffuse radiation, and absorbing material
introduced almost anywhere will be equally effective in reduc-
ing reverberation. An open window proves to be a complete
absorber, in the sense that it permits the egress of the maximum
possible quantity of sound radiation (cf. the properties of a
small aperture in an isothermal enclosure in heat radiation).
The introduction of cushions, carpets, wall hangings and people
also largely diminishes reverberation, because of their consider-
able absorbing powers. Sabine has made a systematic study of
the coefficients of sound absorption of various materials by the
inverse method of measuring their effect in reducing the dura-
tion of reverberation. Typical results are given in the following
table. These apply to the frequency an octave above middle C.
SOUTH AFRICA
529
Material
Coefficient of
Absorption
Open window
I-OOO
Linoleum, loose on floor . . .
0-12
Oriental rugs
0-29
Plaster on wood lath
0-034
Glass, single thickness ....
0-027
Plain ash chairs
0-008
Upholstered chairs
0-30
Hair felt, 2-5 cm. thick, 8 cm. from wall.
0-78
Other measurements indicated that an audience gave an absorp-
tion equal to 44% of that due to an equal area of complete
absorber, thus accounting for the improved hearing conditions
known to exist in well-filled buildings.
The absorption of sound can thus be adjusted with precision,
but it must not be carried too far, otherwise the sound intensity
is too much diminished. The ear is able to disregard, or even
to take advantage of, reverberation which is not too prolonged,
and the extent of absorption has to be adjusted to the appro-
priate amount. Too many apertures such as open windows or
doors must be avoided.
Sabine has also made examination of the exact manner in which
sound is reflected in an auditorium by constructing scale models of
the latter, and photographing the sound waves at various instants
after creation, using the beautiful method due to Toepler (Annalen
der Physik, 127, p. 556) and elaborated by R. W. Wood (Physical
Optics, 2 ed., 1911, p. 94). By this means the positions of the sound
waves, both incident and reflected, are capable of observation at
all instants and at all points in the model room, and they provide
data upon which can be based correct architectural construction
from the acoustic point of view.
4. MISCELLANEOUS ADVANCES
Absolute Measurement of Sound. A. G. Webster (Nat. Acad.
Sci. Proc.. 5, p. 173, 1919) has advanced to a considerable extent
the methods of absolute measurement. For this purpose it is
impossible to rely upon audition, handicapped as it is by the
vagaries of the ear. What is required is a reliable mechanical
device, the performance of which is constant, to record the
sound vibrations with sufficient magnification. Webster has
made an exhaustive study of the properties of various materials,
and has constructed from those most suitable for the purpose
two instruments which he has called the phone and phonometer
respectively. The phone provides a means of creating a simple
tone of intensity and frequency which are under control and
capable of exact measurement. The phonometer is an instru-
ment for measuring absolutely the vibrations received by it. It
consists of the combination of a diaphragm and a resonator, both
of which are adjustable in frequency. The motion of the dia-
phragm is observed by making it a reflector and part of a Michel-
son interferometer, so that the amplitude is measured in terms
of the wave-length of suitable monochromatic light. In prac-
tice the interference fringes are photographed on a moving film
upon which they appear as wavy lines. Against this instrument,
which is regarded as a standard, other portable phonometers can
be calibrated, these depending on the simpler process of the
deflection of a beam of light set into angular oscillation by the
receiving diaphragm. With such instruments, and also with
D. C. Miller's phonodeik (referred to later) L. V. King has
carried out an elaborate investigation on the propagation of
sound in air and fog-signal efficiency (Phil. Trans.. 218, p. 211,
1919) in the region near Father Point, Quebec. King, in this
paper; also describes a modification of the siren called the
diaphone, used as a standard source of sound in his research.
Analysis of Sound. Webster's phonometer described above
is a resonant instrument, and, therefore, unsuitable for the anal-
ysis of mixed sounds. Much progress has been made, however,
in the analysis of such sounds, using non-resonant recorders, for
example, D. C. Miller's phonodeik. This instrument, which de-
pends on the motion imparted to a tiny mirror by the opera-
tion of a vibrating diaphragm, is described in Miller's Science
of Musical Sounds (1916), where also will be found the results
of the analysis of various sounds. Similar work has been carried
out by C. V. Raman, in relation to the vibrations of bowed
strings and instruments of the violin family (Indian Assoc. for
Cultivation of Science, Bull. No. 15, 1918). In these cases the
sound record is of the ordinary type and consists of the trace
on a moving photographic film of a spot of light vibrating at
right angles to the motion of the film, thus forming a transverse
wave. Records of a different type have recently been obtained
(A. O. Rankine, Proc. Phys. Soc. Land., 32, p. 78, 1919) in which
the sounds are caused to vary the intensity of a narrow beam
of light, which gives on a moving film a line image perpendicular
to the motion. The record thus consists of a negative film of
varying transparency along its length. It is not so suitable as
transverse records for direct analysis of the component fre-
quencies, but it has the advantage that it admits of reproduction
of the sound by means of a selenium cell, such as is used in photo-
telephony. This arrangement constitutes a novel type of phono-
graph operated by light, first invented by Ernst Ruhmer in 1900,
but hitherto little known. (A. O. R.)
SOUTH AFRICA (see 25.463). On the conquest of German
S.W. Africa by the Union forces in 1915 the whole of S. Africa,
except for the Portuguese possessions S. of the Zambezi came
under British administration. Excluding the Portuguese terri-
tory (for which see DELAGOA BAY and PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA),
S. Africa was in 1921 divided politically as follows:
1. The Union of S. Africa, a self-governing dominion of the
British Empire formed in 1910 and consisting of the former colonies
of the Cape, Natal, Orange River (Free State) and TransvaaJ.
2. The S.W. Protectorate (ex-German S.W. Africa), administered
under mandate as an integral part of the Union.
3. The native protectorates of Basutoland, Bechuanaland and
Swaziland, administered by the British Colonial Office.
4. Rhodesia, consisting of two separate administrations, S.
Rhodesia and N. Rhodesia; both under the rule of the British S.A.
Company.
Area and Population. Including both Rhodesias the area of S.
Africa is approximately 1,650,000 sq.m., of which some 125,000
sq.m. are Portuguese. The total pop. in 1921 was little over 11,000,-
ooo, of whom some 700,000 lived m Portuguese territory. _,
The following table shows the white population in the Union and
in Rhodesia at the censuses of 191 1, 1918 and 1921 :
1911
1918
1921
Union of S. Africa
S. Rhodesia ....
N. Rhodesia ....
1,276,242
23,606
1.497
1,421,781
1-521,635
33,621
3,585
Total
1,301,345
1,421,781
1,558,841
The increase per cent, in the Union in the period 1911-21 was
19-23, masculinity (the number of males to 100 females) decreased
from 115-92 to 106-14.
The next table gives particulars of area and pop. of British South
Africa at the 1911 census:
Area
Sq. m.
Pop.
1911
White
Native
and
Coloured
Total
Union of S. Africa:
Cape Province
Transvaal Province .
Natal Province (in-
cludes Zululand)
Orange Free State
Province .
Total Union .
Territories:
S. Rhodesia .
N. Rhodesia
Total Rhodesia
Protectorates:
Bechuanaland
Basutoland .
Swaziland
Total Protectorates
Total British S. A. .
276,995
111,196
35-371
50,392
582,377
420,562
98,"4
175.189
1,982,588
1,265,650
1.095,929
352,985
2,564,965
1,686,212
1,194,043
528,174
473,954
1,276,242
4.697,152
5,973,394
H8,575
290,000
23,606
1,497
747,471
821,102
771,077
822,599
438,575
25.103
1,568,573
1,593,676
275,000
10,293
6,536
1,692
1,411
1,083
123,658
402,434
98,876
125,350
403.845
99.959
291,829
4,186
624,968
629,154
1,204,358
1,305,531
6,890,693
8,196,224
530
SOUTH AFRICA
Compared with the census of 1904 the increase in the white pop.
was 172,390. Of this increase 123,285 was in the Transvaal. In
Rhodesia the white pop. had nearly doubled in the seven years. The
increase in the native and coloured pop. was 885,660. With respect
to the coloured pop. two important factors must be remembered,
(l) The Cape province total of native and coloured includes 391,000
persons with a marked strain of white blood, officially classed as
' mixed "; the total " mixed " pop. being 435,000. (2) The Natal
province total of native and coloured includes 133,000 Indians.
There were also 10,048 Indians in the Transvaal, the total Asiatic
pop. being 152,000.
The following table gives particulars of the white pop. of the
Union by provinces at the censuses of 1911, 1918 and 1921 :
1911
1918
1921
Males
Fe-
males
Males
Fe-
males
Males
Fe-
males
Cape
Province .
Natal .
Transvaal
O. F. S.
301,268
52,495
236,913
94,488
281,109
45.619
183.649
80,701
311,312
62,745
260,840
93.969
307,513
59,186
238-507
87,709
329,934
70,624
284,952
97,971
321,620
66,834
258,529
91,171
Total, Union
685,164
59i.07
728,866
692,915
783.481
738,154
The coloured pop. of the Union in 1921 was in round figures
6,000,000, that of S. Rhodesia 744,000 and of N. Rhodesia about
1,000,000, that of the native protectorates 750,000, that of S.W.
Africa 240,000, or a total of about 8,750,000.
There were in 1918 five towns with a white pop. of over 20,000
and eight towns with a white pop. between 10,000 and 20,000. The
following list of the five chief towns gives the total pop. at the 1911
census with the white pop. in 1918 in brackets: Johannesburg
237,104 (137,166), Cape Town 161,759 (99,683), Durban 89,998
(48,413), Pretoria 57,674 (41,690), Port Elizabeth 37,063 (23,339).
Outside the Union the only considerable towns in S. Africa were
Bulawayo and Salisbury in Rhodesia, Swakopmund and Windhuk
in the S.W. Protectorate and Lourengo Marques (Delagoa Bay)
and Beira in Portuguese territory.
THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA
The Union of S. Africa came into being on May 31 1910.
Minor amendments were made in the constitution during the
next 10 years, but its main features (see 25.467) remained un-
altered. In accordance with the electoral provisions the basis
of representation being the number of European male adults as
ascertained by census taken every fifth year the Transvaal
province obtained nine additional seats in 1915, and four more
seats were added in 1920. The seats allotted in 1920 were Cape
51, Transvaal 49, Natal and Orange Free State 17 each.
No alteration was made in the franchise laws. In the Cape
province in 1919 out of a total of 186,000 voters, 33,000 were
" other than European." In Natal the voters numbered 32,000,
of whom 348 were " other than European." In the Transvaal
(140,000 voters) and Orange Free State (47,000 voters), " Euro-
peans " only, possess the franchise.
Agriculture. The progress made in agriculture (including pas-
toral occupations) was in many respects the most encouraging
feature in the economic development of S. Africa between 1910-21.
The establishment in the Transvaal during the period of Crown
Colony Government, of an agricultural department on scientific
lines had given an impetus to the adoption of modern methods by
the farmers, and the fusion, at the Union, of the agricultural depart-
ments of the four former colonies led to greater improvements. By
withdrawing the control of agriculture from the provinces the Union
Government was able to coordinate the work and to disregard
artificial boundaries. Much of the progress was due to Gen. Botha
" who with his instinct for things that really mattered " had held
the portfolio of agriculture together with the premiership of the
Transvaal, and in the Union was also for a considerable period
minister of Agriculture as well as prime minister. General Botha
gave full encouragement to the technical and scientific staff.
Schools of agriculture there were five in 1921 and experimental
stations were established on large farms situated on mam railway
lines. A two years' course of instruction was provided as well as
shorter courses and up to 1920 some 5,000 students had passed
through the schools. Of the 300 experts in the department in 1921,
over one-third were ex-students. Up to that year 1,000,000 had
been spent on buildings and equipment.
The veterinary service did invaluable work in investigating the
diseases of stock, discovering the causes of Estst Coast fever, and
other diseases, some of which were eradicated. Its work rendered
possible the keeping of animals in many districts where it had not
previously been possible, and made profitable the importation of
high-class live stock. In 1920 it was estimated that the value of the
live stock in the country, chiefly cattle and sheep, was over 100,-
000,000. The entomological and botanical divisions were also active,
one notable achievement being the ridding at least temporarily
the country from locust plagues. This was done by tracking the
locusts to their breeding places and as soon as the young were
hatched (when they crawl, but do not fly) sprinkling them, and the
surrounding veld, with a mixture of arsenic and molasses, a plan
devised by a Natal farmer. This method proved so effective that in
1918-20 no swarms of locusts were reported in the Union.
New crops and plants were introduced, among them teg grass from
Abyssinia, very valuable for hay, which in 1920 was grown on 234,000
acres. The general result of the Agricultural Department's work,
backed by the rise in prices during the World War, was to make
S. Africa almost self-supporting as regards food-stuffs, while in 1919
agricultural and pastoral exports were valued at 33,000,000, and
in 1920, a year of depression especially in the ostrich feathers trade
at 27,000,000. In the back-veld farming had been " transformed
from what was little more than nomadic grazing to an organized
industry and throughout had been placed on a higher plane." 1
Of pastoral industries the breeding of woolled sheep is the oldest
and most important. The number of woolled sheep in the Union
was 21,842,000 in 1911, 26,490,000 in 1916 and 23,548,000 in 1919.
The number of other sheep, 8,814,000 in 191 1 had, however, declined
to 4,943,000 in 1919. These figures did not include sheep in native
locations, which in 1919 numbered about 2,250,000. The wool
exported from the Union reached 176,971,000 Ib. in 1913 and was
115,634,000 Ib. in 1918. The World War sent up prices, the average
price per Ib. in 1913-4 being 7'95d. and in 1917-8 2O-78d. In 1918-9
when the average price was 2O-o8d. the value of the wool exported
was 14,648,000. Wool worth 5,678,000 went to the United
Kingdom, 5,209,000 to the United States and 2,786,000 to Japan.
France and Canada were the next largest customers. There is also
a considerable trade in sheepskins; the value of the skins exported
was 594,000 in 1911 and 1,329,000 in 1918.
South Africa produces more than half the world's supply of mohair.
The Angora goats in the Union in 1918 numbered 5,278,000, mohair
exported that year was 19,645,000 Ib., valued at 1,641,000. The
trade in mohair is subject to wide variations, and the limit of pro-
duction in S. Africa is that of successful competition with Turkey
for the supply of the Bradford market. In 1920 the value of mohair
exported fell below 500,000, chiefly owing to lessened demand for
yarn from Bradford by Poland and Germany.
The number of cattle in the Union rose from 5,796,000 in 1911 to
7.255. 000 in I 9 I 9- The steady progress of the cattle industry is seen
in the figures of imports and exports of meat. 2 Up to and including
1913 imports greatly exceeded exports. Thus in 1913 the quantity of
meat imported was over 1 1,000,000 Ib., and that exported but 1,387,-
ooo Ib. In 1917 the imports had fallen to 23,000 Ib., while the
exports had leapt to 47,250,000 Ib. (valued at 1,043,000). This
was an exceptional war-time condition, but in 1919 while there were
no imports the exports reached 44,408,000 Ib. In 1916, for the first
time, sufficient butter and cheese were made in the Union for all
local requirements and something left over for export. The total
export of butter in 1918 was 1,316,000 Ib., of cheese 424,000 Ib. In
1919 butter exports fell to 452,000 Ib., but that of cheese increased
to 1,546,000 pounds.
Large areas of S. Africa are well adapted to horse-breeding; in
general, horses do well wherever conditions are best suited for sheep.
The numbers of horses in the Union in 1919 was 695,000, of mules
81,000, of asses 498,000. These figures do not include horses, etc.,
in native locations.
Ostrich-farming suffered severely through the World War. In
1913 the industry had attained unprecedented success, when
feathers weighing 1,023,000 Ib. valued at 2,953,000 (an average
value of 2 173. gd. per Ib.) were exported. In that year there were
776,000 ostriches in the Union (757,000 of them in the Cape prov-
ince). Over-production and the effects of the war in five years
brought about an almost total collapse of the feather trade; the
export fell by three-fourths and prices to 153. a Ib. Many breeders
took up other branches of farming and by 1920 few persons were
wholly dependent on ostriches for their living. The stock of birds
was greatly reduced (it was 314,000 in 1918), only those of finest
plumage being retained.
The pig and bacon industry is a development wholly post-Union.
Pedigree animals were imported but the industry had barely got
beyond infancy in 1920. The total production of bacon in the
Union in 19178 was slightly over 7,000,000 pounds.
Among cereals the most important crop is maize. The maize
belt covers a large area in the eastern portion of the Union, chiefly
in the Transvaal and Orange Free State. There is an expanding
home market for maize and an assured overseas market. The
quantity of maize exported was 356,000,000 Ib. in 1910 valued at
693,000 and 509,000,000 Ib. in 1918, valued at 1,600,000. Kaffir
corn, grown chiefly by natives, specially valuable for fodder in
1 Consult a paper on S.A. Agriculture by F. B. Smith, sometime
secretary of the S.A. Agricultural Department, read at a meeting of
the Colonial Institute, May 31 1921.
2 The figures relate to beef and mutton but the quantity of mut-
ton exported is small, 62,000 Ib. in 1910 and 46,000 Ib. in 1919.
SOUTH AFRICA
regions too dry for maize, was also an increasingly valuable crop.
The area under wheat is mainly in the western part of Cape prov-
ince; the production, 362,000,000 Ib. in 1911, rose to 608,000,000
in 1917-8, but fell the next year to 478,000,000 Ib. Of oats 48,454,000
Ib. were exported in 1919.
Sugar plantations are confined to Natal and Zululand. The area
under sugar in 1916-7 was 163,000 ac., the production that year
being 114,000 tons and the value 3,134,000. In 1919-20 the output
was approximately 180,000 tons, of which over 30,000 tons were
exported. The cultivation of tea declined, sugar yielding greater
profits; the yield for 1916-7 was 1,747,000 Ib., compared with
2,681,000 in 1903, the year of highest production. Tobacco produc-
tion did not show great variation in quantity during 1910-20, the
yield being 15,000,000 to 17,000,000 Ib. yearly, but there was con-
siderable alteration in the class of tobacco grown, due to the increased
demand for light and medium varieties. Cigarettes from locally
grown Turkish tobacco became very popular.
Fruits of many varieties are produced for which there is a very
large home demand, especially in the mining areas. The export trade,
in fresh, bottled, canned and dried fruit and in jams showed a fair
amount of extension and in 1919 was valued at 125,000.
Plantations of black wattle for the production of tan-bark cover
about 250,000 ac., of which 160,000 are in Natal. Before the World
War the bark was taken by Germany; factories for the production
of the extract were erected in Natal in 1919 and the extract sent to
Great Britain. The value of the exports increased from 269,000 in
1916 to 412,000 in 1918.
Irrigation. Considerable progress was made in local irrigation
schemes, but no great project had been undertaken by the Union
Government up to 1922. The opposition of vested interests stood in
the way of an adequate water law for the whole country, but in
1912 an Irrigation and Conservation of Waters Act was passed and
an Irrigation Department created. Provision was made for irrigation
loans to private persons and to irrigation boards, and for hydro-
graphic surveys, etc. The government expenditure on irrigation
increased from 276,000 in 1912-3 to 573,000 in 1917-8. By 1920
schemes involving an expenditure of 2,500,000 had been approved.
The Sunday river, Cape province, irrigation works were the largest
then under construction and were designed to bring 42,000 ac. under
cultivation.
Mining. Despite appearances the most valuable mineral in S.
Africa is coal. The position was put succinctly in 1920 by Mr. U. P.
Swinburne, Chief Inspector of Mines, when he wrote in the Official
Year Book of the Union " S. Africa has made its name through the
production of gold and diamonds, but it is mainly due to the existence
of cheap coal that the large output of gold and diamonds has been
made possible. On the Witwatersrand proper only a few mines would
be working at the present time if a plentiful supply of cheap steam
coal was not available." Opinions of experts on the life of the gold
mines on the Rand differ; the report of the Union Economic Com-
mission, presented early in 1914, estimated that 550,000,000 tons of
payable ore remained in the mines then working. This figure was
very much less than had been expected. Since that year new mines
on the Far Eastern Rand have been developed. Mr. P. A. Wagner,
in his presidential address in 1918 to the S.A. Association for the
Advancement of Science, hazarded the conjecture that 1,200,000,000
worth of gold remained to be extracted and that 50 years ahead some
of the mines might still be profitably worked. But gold production
on the Rand is so costly that a slight rise in costs has on many mines
a disastrous effect.
With regard to diamonds their abundance is unquestioned, and a
policy of limiting supplies to keep up prices is adopted. Even so
most of the diamond mines were shut down in 1920-1, a striking
example of the economic depression prevailing, S.A. being the only
considerable source of the supply of diamonds in the world. De-
pression in prices led also in 1918 to the closing of the copper mines
in Namaqualand, Cape province.
Since 1912 the gold industry has become increasingly dependent
on the development of the Far East Rand. Thus in 1918 the divi-
dends paid from the Far East Rand mines amounted to 3,344,000,
compared with 1,929,000 from all other Rand mines. The value in
sterling of the gold output from the Transvaal mines rose from
3 I .973i o in I9 IQ to 39,489,000 in 1916. This was considered the
high water mark. 1 The value in 1917 was 38,306,000, in 1918
35,758,000, in 1919 35,389,000 and in 1920 34,652,000 (for the
first half of 1921 the output was 16,671,000).
The statistics of the output of diamonds reflect the purchasing
power of the public. The market is strictly controlled by the pro-
ducers and the only diamond field of importance which was outside
the Union that of ex-German S.W. Africa as a result of the
World War came into line with the other S.A. mines. In 1914,
shortly before the war began, a conference of representatives of the
diamond industry was held in London with the object of regulating
the output from each mine. Though no binding agreement was then
made such an arrangement is virtually in force. The value of the
1 The total value of gold mined in British S.Africa in 1916 was
43,416,047: of this total 3,859,111 came from Rhodesian mines,
31,726 from the Tati goldfields, 1,336 from Natal and 132 from
Cape province. The Natal mines in 1915 had yielded over 10,000.
diamonds extracted in 1910 was 8,746,000, in 1913, the last full
year before the war, 11,389,000. In 1915 diamond mining almost
ceased, the total output that year being valued at 399,000. The
mines restarted in 1916, when the value of the output was 5,728,000.
In 1918 the figure was 7,114,000 and in 1919 had risen to 11,734,-
ooo, thus exceeding the record of 1913. The year 1920 began well
and ended badly; the market was overstocked and purchasers few.
The overstocking of the market was attributed by the De Beers Co.
to the sale of diamonds by the Russians by the Soviet Government
to obtain goods and by private individuals who had lost other
means of subsistence. The Rhodesian output of diamonds is very
small ; the De Beers Co. has the right to dispose of all diamonds
found in the territory. In the Premier mine, Transvaal, the system
of open working still prevailed in 1921. In Sept. 1917 a fine stone
of 442 carats was found in the Dutoitspan mine, Kimberley.
A very marked development of coal mining took place between
1910 and 1921. The mines of the Cape province, which yield only
poor quality coal, were nearly all abandoned as the richer deposits
in Natal and the Transvaal were opened up. The output from the
Cape exceeded 100,000 tons for the last time in 1909, in which year
the Natal fields first yielded over 200,000 tons. The total output
from the Union rose from 7,112,000 tons valued at 1,869,000 in
1910 to 10,382,000 tons valued at 3,275,000 in 1917 and was 10,266,-
ooo tons in 1919. Besides supplying cheap fuel for the gold and
diamond mines and other purposes, the coal is in great demand for
bunkering ships and for export to India, E. Africa and S.A. ports.
In 1919 Union coal bunkered was 1,427,000 tons; coal exported
1,092,000 tons (half of these exports going via Delagoa Bay).
The output of tin, mined almost entirely in the Waterberg and
Olifants river districts, Transvaal (3,672 tons in 1913 valued at
436,000), had dropped in 1918 to 1,900 tons valued at 277,000.
Copper output increased with the opening of the railway in 1913
to the Messina mines on the Limpopo. These with the Namaqualand
mines represented the copper output of the Union, which in 1916
with 22,800 tons reached a value of 1,137,000. In 1919 the output
sunk to 4,900 tons valued at 208,000.
Trade and Shipping. The following table gives the total of
imports and exports to and from the Union for 1911, the first com-
plete year after the Union had been established, for 1915, the year of
the greatest restrictions of trade owing to war conditions, and for
1919. The exports include diamonds and gold, the imports govern-
ment stores and specie:
Year
Imports
Exports
Total Trade
1911
1915
1919
38,035,000
33,833,000
50,791,000
57,308,000
35,012,000
104,561,000
95,343.000
68,845,000
155,352,000
Trade in 1920 was conditioned by the world depression, which did
not become marked till the second half of the year. Imports in the
first six months showed a large increase, being 48,000,000 against
28,000,000 in the corresponding period of 1919, and for the whole
year exceeded 90,000,000. Exports for the first six months of 1920
showed a comparatively small decline, being 51,000,000 as against
58,000,000 for Jan.-June 1919, but for the whole of 1920 the total
was only 72,000,000.
The distribution of trade by countries was as follows in 1910 and
1919: Imports (1910) United Kingdom 59%, (1919) 46%; other
British lands (1910) II %, (1919) 17%; United States (1910) 8%
(1919) 24%; other countries (1910) 22%, (1919) 13%. Exports
(excluding gold) United Kingdom (1910) 80%, (1919) 61 %; other
British lands (1910) I % (1919) 8%; United States (1910) 17%
(1919) 24%; other countries (1910) 17%, (1919) 15 %
Nearly all the external trade of the Union passed through Durban,
Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and East London. The only non-
British port which had a share in the trade of the Union was Delagoa
Bay. In 1913 Delagoa Bay had 12 % of the trade, in 1918 only 8%
(see DELAGOA BAY). Of neighbouring countries the chief trade was
with Rhodesia, Portuguese E. Africa and the Belgian Congo. The
exports to British E. Africa (Kenya Colony) increased from 19,000
in 1913 to 396,000 in 1918; in the same period the imports from
British E. Africa rose from 16,000 to 139,000. Of foreign coun-
tries outside Africa and excluding the British Empire and the United
States, France and the Argentine were the chief traders with the
the American 9-43 %.
The value of the preferential treatment accorded certain articles of
merchandise imported into the Union from the United Kingdom,
Canada, Australia and New Zealand is shown by the following
figures: In 1913 on imports valued at 22,498,000 the amount
rebated was 628,000; in 1918 on merchandise worth 25,158,000 the
rebate was 698,000.
The number and tonnage of vessels entered at Union ports (includ-
ing the coastwise trade) was as follows in the years named. The
figures represent the gross number of vessels using the Union ports,
i.e. the same vessel, if it called and cleared at Cape Town, Port
Elizabeth and Durban, would be entered three times. The tonnage
I
532
SOUTH AFRICA
of vessels cleared is not given, it corresponds closely to the figures
of tonnage entered. ,
Year
No. of vessels
entered
Net tonnage
British
Net tonnage
Total
1913
1915
1917 .
1919
4.349
3.322
3,888
3,060
10,586,000
7,298,000
7,682,000
6,642,000
12,939,000
7,937,000
9,252,000
7,608,000
The number of German ships entering Union ports in 1913 was 230,
of 723,000 net tonnage.
Communications. Nearly all the railways in the Union are state
owned. Railways and harbours are under the control of a Board,
whose finances are independent of the other revenue departments.
The mileage of railways open in 1910 was 7,586, of which privately
owned lines had a mileage of 545. In 1919 the mileage open was
10,049, of which government lines had 9,542 mileage. It will be seen
that development was rather slow, an average of 246 m. a year in a
period of 10 years. The total expenditure on new lines in these 10
years was 9,113,000. The principal new line, that from Prieska to
Kalkfontein connecting the Cape and S.W. Protectorate systems,
was built for military purposes. The extension in 1913 of the railway
from Krugersdorp via Zeerust to Mafeking brought Johannesburg
and Bulawayo within 680 m. of one another (instead of 975 m. via
Fourteen Streams) and made Mafeking the business centre for the
western Transvaal. The opening, also in 1903, of the Messina rail-
way, afforded the opportunity, by the building of a connecting line to
W. Nicholson in S. Rhodesia of putting Bulawayo in direct com-
munication with Delagoa Bay. But, up to 1921, the needed link had
not been built (see RHODESIA). In the Cape province the completion
of the Mossel-Bay-George-Oudtshoorn line gave a much more direct
connexion between Cape Town and Port Elizabeth reducing the
distance from 910 m. (via de Aar) to 684 m. (the distance by sea
between the two ports is 436 nautical miles). The adoption of elec-
tricity on a number of lines, including the main line from Durban to
Glencoe was recommended in 1920 by the government's consulting
engineer. The scheme was adopted by the ministry for the Cape
Town-Simon's Bay line and for the Natal main line trom Durban as
far as Maritzburg. With the electrification of the Durban-Maritz-
burg line a new alignment was undertaken as part of a scheme for
rebuilding the whole line from Durban to the Rand.
The Railways and Harbour Board after the World War took over
control of the railways in the S.W. Protectorate. The total railway
mileage in the Union and Protectorate at the beginning of 1920 was
II ,334- .Up to March 31 1920 the capital expenditure on Govern-
ment railways was 96,408,000. The gross earnings in 1919-20 were
19,169,000 and working expenses 78-9% of the gross earnings.
The use of motor vehicles greatly increased from 1913 onwards
(when over 4,000 cars were imported), farmers having by then
learned their value. In 1919 over 16,000 vehicles were licensed.
Nearly all the cars came from America (United States and Canada),
but heavy motor lorries were imported from England. Notwith-
standing this development of motor traction the trek ox was still
employed though in decreased numbers.
The extension of the telegraph system kept fair pace with the
needs of the community, and wireless stations were erected at
Durban, Cape Town and (in 1921) at Port Elizabeth. These were
not of high power, the guaranteed range (at night only) not exceed-
ing 1,500 miles. Wireless telephonic stations were added in 1921.
With respect to the mail service to England no improvement in
speed was made. A contract to run for 10 years from Oct. I 1912
was entered into with the Union Castle Co. for a weekly service to
and from Southampton, the duration of the voyage to be 16 days
15 hours. The subsidy paid was 171,000 yearly, of which 21,000
was in consideration of the mail steamers beginning and ending
their voyages at Durban instead of Cape Town. The contracting
parties were on the one hand the steamship company and on the
other hand Great Britain, the Union, Southern Rhodesia and the
Bechuanaland Protectorate. Postal communication with Australia,
India and the Far East was maintained by private ships as oppor-
tunity offered. A steamship service between Holland and S. Africa,
subsidized by the Netherlands Government, was established in 1920,
and in 1921 a direct service between S. Africa and Vancouver was
started by the Canadian Government. While some 10,000,000 or
more a year was spent on harbour works except at Durban (see
DURBAN) the facilities for shipping were not greatly extended, and
Cape Town suffered from lack of adequate dock accommodation.
Air travel developed slowly. The first aeroplane flight was made
in 1910 in a Voisin biplane. Little progress was made in civil avia-
tion until after the World War, when, in 1919, aerodromes were
laid out at Wynberg, Bloemfontein, Johannesburg and other places
as stages on the cross-Africa route. The first flight from Cairo to
Cape Town was made in 1920 by two S.A. military pilots. In the
same year an Aero Club for S.A. was formed at Cape Town.
Education. "Education, other than higher education," which
definition in practice was held to include all education other than
university, is controlled by the provincial councils. The standards
and methods differ in each of the four provinces but in general
provision is made for a sound training of white and coloured (as
distinct from native) children. A matter which aroused acute
dissensions before and in the two years immediately following the
establishment of the Union was the question of the medium of
instruction. By law the English and Dutch languages were in a
position of equality. An attempt to favour Dutch was made in the
Transvaal schools, while in the Free State the education authorities
tried to enforce bi-lingualism, insisting that English-speaking children
should be taught in the medium of Dutch. Eventually all four
provinces adopted the principle recommended by the Union Parlia-
ment in 1911, namely that the medium of instruction up to standard
IV. should be in the " home " language of the scholar, and that above
that standard freedom of choice should be left to the parents. The
compromise worked and in June 1912 the private schools which had
been opened by the English speaking residents in the Free State in
1910 as a protest against compulsory bi-lingualism were handed over
to the provincial administration. The subject of religious instruction
presented little difficulty. The practice in each province in all public
schools is for school to be opened with prayer and a reading from the
Bible. Scripture teaching, subject to a conscience clause, is generally
provided; sectarian teaching under certain conditions is allowed in
the Cape province by an ordinance passed in 1913. The number of
schools in the Union for white children increased from 3,873 in
1910 to 4,846 in 1918; in the same period the schools for coloured
children increased from 1,999 to 2,877. The number of white
scholars in 1910 was 163,200, in 1918 the number was 283,100. The
coloured scholars had increased in the same period from 136,000 to
220,100. The teachers had increased from 10,912 to 18,301, and the
expenditure from government funds had grown from 1,597,000 to
3,631,000. Private schools were not numerous: there were 270 in
the Union in 1918, of which 96, the oldest dating from 1880, were in
the Cape province. There were then in the Union 135 private schools
founded since 1910.
State and state-aided schools for natives are provided in all the
provinces, and in Natal and the Transvaal there are special schools
for Indians. The expenditure on native schools rose from 81,000
in 1911 to 137,000 in 1918. In Natal in 1918 the government estab-
lished an institution for training the sons of chiefs and indunas in
the special duties they are called upon to perform. The education of
the natives remained, however, very largely in the hands of mis-
sionary societies, though there was a growing inclination, among
the natives, particularly in the Transkeian territories, to secularize
education and to obtain a larger direct share in its management. Of
the 23 principal institutions which in 1919 provided higher educa-
tion for natives literary, commercial, industrial, agricultural and
training for the ministry 12 were in Cape province, the largest and
most comprehensive being the famous Lovedale College. The most
important step in regard to higher education of natives was the
establishment in 1914 of the S.A. Native College on a site at Fort
Hare, Cape province, given by the United Free Church of Scotland.
To this college the natives and the missionary societies, Presbyterian,
Anglican and Wesleyan, contributed; the Union Government gives
an annual grant. The college aims at providing education of uni-
versity standard and is open to coloured and Indian students.
The system of higher education was reorganized in 1918, after
much heated controversy (see below History). Under the new
scheme the university of S. Africa, with headquarters at Pretoria,
which replaced the university of the Cape of Good Hope, is an ex-
amjning body, having the following constituent colleges: Grey
University College, Bloemfontein, Huguenot College (for women),
Wellington, Natal University College, Pietermaritzburg, Rhodes
University College, Grahamstown, South African School of Mines,
Johannesburg, and Transvaal University College, Pretoria. The
new university of Cape Town provides for the residence as well as
the teaching of students ^men and women). A special feature of the
new Stellenbosch University is its agricultural faculty (the Transvaal
University College has also an agricultural faculty). The number
of university students in the Union increased from 1,171 in 1910 to
2,069 in 1918. In the last-named year the expenditure on higher
education in the Union was 240,000.
Finance. The unitary system of government adopted in 1910 was
strongly marked in the financial provisions made. All public
revenues were payable to the Union Government, and the funds
needed to carry on the administration of the provinces were provided
by grants from the Union Exchequer. By the Financial Relations
Act which came into force in April 1913 the Union Parliament
assigned the revenue derived from transfer duties, liquor licenses and
native pass fees in Transvaal labour districts to the provinces, but
gave the provinces no power of legislation in regard to such revenue.
Other sources of revenue, such as education fees, trading and pro-
fessional licenses were assigned to the provinces with power of legis-
lation in regard thereto. A subsidy from Union funds of one half
the ordinary expenditure of the provinces was also made, plus addi-
tional subsidies to Natal and the Orange Free State whose funds
were shown to be inadequate to meet the necessary expenditure.
The provinces are not allowed to borrow from any other source
than the Union Treasury.
All trust moneys, (e.g. post office savings bank moneys) are handed
over for investment to the Public Debt Commissioners. Any yearly
surplus of revenue over ordinary expenditure is paid to the Com-
missioners and by them applied to the redemption of debt.
SOUTH AFRICA
533
Revenue and expenditure of the Union is divided into two distinct
iunds, the ordinary or general, and the railway and harbours.
The following table shows the ordinary revenue and expenditure,
for three typical financial years:
I9I3-4
1916-7
1920-1
Revenue
Expendi-
ture .
15,980,000
14,289,000
18,617,000
15,490,000
28,381,000
28,890,000
The chief sources of revenue for the year 1919-20, were as follows:
customs, 5,010,000; interest, 4,277,000; income, super, and
dividend taxes, 4,050,000; posts, telegraphs and telephones,
2,031,000; excise, 1,228,000, and mining revenue, 1,023,000. The
native poll and hut taxes produced altogether, 830,000. Among
the main items of expenditure for the same period were: public
debt, 6,940,000; provincial administrations, 3,520,000; justice,
3,209,000; postal, etc., services, 2,144,000; defence, 1,575,000;
pensions, 1,200,000; interior, 1,019,000; agriculture, 861,000, and
public works, 614,000.
Railway and harbour finance is controlled by a board presided over
by a cabinet minister. The management of harbours and railways is
required to be upon business principles. The following table shows
receipts and expenditure for these services in the years named :
1913
1916
1918-9
Harbours (receipts) .
(expenditure)
Railways (receipts) .
" (expenditure)
1,039,000
900,000
12,388,000
8,964,000
1,031,000
656,000
13,257,000
8,891,000
939,000
479,866
11,680,000
15,282,000
The war expenditure of the Union was met out of loan funds,
the total charge on such funds amounting on March 31 1920 to
29,736,000. At the same date the public debt of the Union was
1/3.905,000.
THE SOUTH-WEST PROTECTORATE
After the surrender, in July 1915, of the German forces in
S.W. Africa Gen. P. S. Beves was appointed military governor of
the protectorate. 1 None of the German inhabitants was then
repatriated and while the regular troops were placed in intern-
ment camps the civilians were allowed to return to their homes
and continue their ordinary business. Mr. (afterwards Sir)
E. H. L. Gorges, Secretary of the Interior in the Union, who had
at Gen. Botha's request already drawn up a scheme for the
future administration of the protectorate was made chief civil
secretary. On Oct. 30 1915, on Gen. Beves's departure the two
offices named were abolished and the functions of both taken
over by Mr. Gorges with the title of Administrator. This post
he retained until nearly the close of the military occupation
period, which lasted till the end of 1920. Martial law remained in
force but in a mild form and the administration was on civilian
lines. At the beginning of 1917 it was found necessary to send
an expedition to Ovamboland, the northern and most populous
part of the protectorate, where German authority had been very
slight. A chief named Mandume proved recalcitrant and two
battalions, the first and the fourth of the S.A. Mounted Rifle-
men, together with a composite regiment of military constabulary
were sent against him, Col. de Jager being in command. The
expedition, despite fever, flood and dense forest, as well as the
opposition of the natives, was successful. Excellent relations
were afterwards established with the Ovambo.
In the rest of the protectorate S.A. rule was from the first
welcomed by the natives, and the Germans gave no serious
trouble. Until nearly the close of the World War they believed
that the British occupation was temporary, being confident in
the ultimate victory of Germany. This was evidenced by the
fact that the German banks and traders maintained a rate of
exchange of 24 marks to the sterling until Nov. 1918 the
month of the Armistice. Instances were known of farmers selling
their stock for sterling and converting it into paper marks. Where
the artificial rate of exchange broke down serious losses followed.
The Germans, however, continued to entertain false hopes, and
after the Armistice they wrote to President Wilson asking his
help on " self-determination " lines. They desired, they said,
to become an autonomous republic leagued to the German re-
public, and this solution, they gratuitously added, would, they
believed, meet the wishes of the natives. In 1919 the German
1 For earlier events see GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA.
soldiers about 5,800 in all together with some 600 " un-
desirables" were repatriated. This still left, according to official
figures, over 9,000 Germans in the protectorate. These Ger-
man settlers continued hostile to Union rule, and obnoxious
to authority. Lord Buxton, then governor-general of the Union,
who visited Windhuk, the capital, in Oct. 1919, took occasion to
inform them that the severance from Germany was irrevocable,
and that the protectorate would in future form an integral part of
the Union. Gen. Smuts when on an official visit to the territory
in Sept. 1920 used similar language. The Germans had informed
him that the country should be administered as " an independent
province," and that the German civil code should continue,
arguing that the introduction of the Roman-Dutch law would be
" a retrogression of centuries." They also asked for the recogni-
tion of German as an official language, and the maintenance by
the State of the German schools, but were refused.
By the treaty of Versailles Germany had renounced sovereignty
over the protectorate, and in accordance with its provisions the
Supreme Council in May 1919 assigned the mandate for the
territory to the Union of S. Africa. An Act was passed by the
Union Parliament in Sept. 1919 to give effect to the mandatory
powers; finally the mandate was confirmed by the Council of the
League of Nations on Dec. 17 1920. On Jan. 3 1921, martial law
was withdrawn and Mr. Gysbert Hofmeyer, who had succeeded
Sir Howard Gorges as Administrator in Oct. 1920, was given a
nominated advisory council of six members. This council met
for the first time on Feb. 2 1921.
Settlers and Industries. In general the laws in force in, and the
economic policy of, the Union was applied to the protectorate from
the early days of Sir Howard Gorges's rule. Walfish Bay, the only
good harbour on the S.W. coast, had languished. It had formed a
small British enclave in what was German territory, and without
hinterland, served only the purpose from which it got its name a
whaling station. Swakopmund was an artificial and poor port. The
Union authorities built a line (22 m. long) from Walfish Bay to
Swakopmund, and thus gave the protectorate its natural sea outlet.
The whole length of the line from Walfish Bay to Windhuk was
relaid on the standard S.A. gauge of 3 ft. 6 inches. In 1921 the
Railways and Harbour Board undertook the construction of a line
(132 m. long) eastward from Windhuk to Gobabis.
While no crown lands were alienated up to 1921 temporary licenses
were granted and many members of the army of occupation on
demobilization settled in the country with their families. A fairly
large British-Dutch population soon grew up, evidenced sufficiently
by the fact that in 1920 there were 975 children attending Govern-
ment schools. 2 The new settlers were chiefly engaged in stock raising
and farming; the copper, tin, and diamond mines were already in
beneficial occupation, largely with British capital. The Otavi mines
in the years 1916-8 produced 100,000 tons of copper ore, valued at
600,000. The expectation that the Liideritzbucht (Luderitz Bay)
diamond fields would be thrown open to all comers was not realized.
At the end of 1915 some of the companies on the diamond field were
allowed to resume work; between Oct. 1915 and Jan. 1919 diamonds
valued at 1,900,000 were obtained. Later the whole diamond field
came under the control of one company, which entered into a work-
ing arrangement with De Beers and other diamond mining com-
panies in the Union. The depression in trade led, in 1921, to the
temporary closing of the mines. Depending upon diamonds for pros-
perity, was, declared Mr. Hofmeyer, like building on sand.
Trade and Revenue. During the war external trade was all over-
land with the Union, trade being facilitated by the line built in 1915
from Prieska to Kalkfontein to connect the two railway systems.
Customs duties were those in force in the Union, with free trade
between the Union and the protectorate. During 1918 the value of
imports was 1,031,000, about one half being S.A. produce. Of the
total imports 409,000 represented the value of food and drink, and
181,000 cotton goods. The value of exports in 1918 was 817,000.
The chief items were, diamonds 652,000, copper ore 55,000, cattle
and small stock 57,000, horns, hides and skins 35,000.
The revenue of the protectorate in the financial year 19178 was
295,000; and in 1918-9 377,000, of which 275,000 was from the
tax on diamonds. The expenditure for the two years named was
650,000 and 744,000 ; as to more than three-fourths the expendi-
ture was on the upkeep of the garrison.
Native Affairs. Nowhere else had German methods of dealing
with the natives been more ruthless than in S.W. Africa. The result
of an examination of German judicial and administrative methods
and documents was made public in 1918. It showed that not only
2 The German settlers had separate schools. Efforts were made in
1921 to induce them to abandon these schools. They were offered
" mother-tongue " instruction up to standard VI., coupled with the
compulsory learning of either English or Dutch.
534
SOUTH AFRICA
during the Herero and Hottentot wars but in peace time the natives
were systematically subjected to brutalities and robberies, by the
Government as well as by the settler. One consequence was that,
apart from Ovamboland, where the Germans had little authority,
the native population had decreased from some 130,000 in 1904 to
37,000 in 1911. In 1920 it was estimated at 80,000. To reconstruct,
as far as practicable, tribal organization, Sir Howard Gorges estab-
lished native reserves (over 4,000,000 ac. in all) controlled by heredi-
tary chiefs, when such survived, or by an elected or nominated
headman. To these men small salaries were given. Rules to pro-
tect natives in the railway and other public departments and in
European private service were enforced.
THE NATIVE PROTECTORATES
No change was made in the political status of the native
protectorates Basutoland, the Bechuanaland protectorate and
Swaziland in the period 1910-21. They remained under the
control of the Colonial Office, represented by the High Com-
missioner for S.A. and were administered by resident com-
missioners. They form in whole, or in greater part, native
reserves, and the Basuto and Bechuana showed marked disin-
clination to incorporation in the Union of S. Africa. All three
protectorates prospered.
Basutoland. At the 1921 census the people numbered 500,544
(of whom 1,615 were whites and 155 Asiatics) compared with
403,845 in 1911 and 348,848 in 1904; of the total pop. in 1921 males
numbered 224,435 an d females 276,109. Maseru, the capital and
largest town had (1920) approximately 900 native and 500 white
inhabitants. Outside Maseru, the white residents are nearly all
officials or missionaries. Ownership of land by whites is forbidden.
Some 20,000 male Basutos are normally employed outside the coun-
try mostly on the Rand gold mines. Agriculture and stock raising
are the chief occupation of the people.
Education is in the hands of the missionary societies, except for
four small Government schools. In 1919 there were in all 344 schools
with 28,500 scholars, most of the schools being maintained by the
French Protestant Mission (the Paris Evangelical Society). Grants
in aid are made by the administration (25,000 in 1920-1). Serious
crime is rare and the drinking habits of the people, which once
threatened their destruction, have been very largely abandoned
under missionary influence. About one-fourth of the Basutos prefers
Christianity. Trade is almost exclusively with the Cape and Free
State provinces; the Basuto export grain, cattle, wool and mohair,
and horses; and import mainly clothing, ploughs, saddlery, iron and
tin ware, and groceries. The value of imports increased from 239,000
in 1908 to 1,137,000 in 1919. In the same period the value of exports
rose from 193,000 to 1,380,000 in part due to inflated prices
obtained for wool and mohair.
Financially Basutoland is self-supporting. Revenue is obtained
from customs, licenses and, principally, from the poll tax on natives.
This tax was substituted in ion for the hut tax previously enforced.
A tax of i per annum on adult males was then put in force, but if
a Basuto had more than one wife, he paid i per annum for each
wife, up to a maximum of 3 for himself and his wives. This tax
yielded 92,000 in 1913 ana 106,000 in 1918-9. Total revenue
increased from 145,000 in 1910-1 to 199,000 in 1919-20; the corre-
sponding figures for expenditure were 134,000 and 202,000.
The system of government which under a resident commissioner
allows a measure of home rule to the Basutos continued to work
well. The pitso or national council meets yearly, 95 out of its 100
members being nominated by the chiefs and the other five by the
administration. It has advisory powers only, but its advice is often
taken. Sir H. C. Sloley who had been resident commissioner since
1901, and who earned the full confidence of the people, was in Dec.
1917 succeeded by Lt.-Col. E. C. F. Garraway. Letsie II., who had
been paramount chief since 1905, died in Jan. 1913. He was a great
grandson of Moshesh, the founder of the Basuto nation and dynasty,
and was succeeded by his brother Griffith. When the World War
began Griffith and his people offered to raise regiments for com-
batant service. The offer was declined, to the grief of the Basutos,
to whom service with the labour contingent did not appeal. How-
ever, 1,400 Basutos served with the S. A. Native Labour Contingent
in France, and many were employed in S.W. and E. Africa. The
Basuto also contributed 50,000 to war funds. In 1921 the new
High Commissioner, Prince Arthur of Connaught, visited Maseru,
and the presence of a member of the royal house was made the occa-
sion for a national tribute by the " Sons of Moshesh " as the
Basutos call themselves to their loyalty to the British throne and
their wish to remain directly under imperial control.
Bechuanaland. The Bechuanaland protectorate is a much poorer
country than Basutoland and the Bechuana are a less virile race
than the Basuto. Bathoen, paramount chief of the Bangwaketse,
died in July 1910 and Sebele, paramount chief of the Bakwena, died
in Jan. 1911. Montsioa, chief of the Baralong, died in April 1911.
All these chiefs were noted men in the early struggles between the
Boers and British for the possession of Bechuanaland, Sebele being
a son of the chief Sechele, the friend of David Livingstone. Khama,
the chief of the Bamangwato, and a Christian from his youth, still
survived in 1921 and had then ruled over his people with undisputed
authority for some 50 years.
The Bamangwato are the largest tribe, numbering about 40,000.
The people grow maize, kaffir corn and other crops but their chief
wealth is in cattle, and cattle hides and skins are the chief exports.
Firewood and timber for mining props are also exported. In 1917-8
exports to the Union included 23,600 horned cattle and 36,000 sheep
and goats. The chief markets are Kimberley, Mafeking and Johan-
nesburg. For customs purposes the protectorate is dealt with as
part of the Union and no statistics as to value of imports and exports
are kept. Revenue, 52,000 in 1910-1, first exceeded expenditure
in 1915-6, when the figures were revenue 70,000, expenditure
68,000. In 1919-20 revenue was 81,500, expenditure 91,600.
Deficits were made good by grants from the Imperial Exchequer.
The seat of the administration is Mafeking, in the Cape province.
Mr. I. C. Macgregor became resident commissioner in 1917. Khama's
headquarters are at Serowe (pop., 1920, about 25,000).
Swaziland. At the 1921 census the inhabitants numbered 113,772,
of whom 2,203 were whites. Of the total pop. 54,702 were males
and 59,070 females. The state of chaos into which Swaziland had
fallen owing to the indiscriminate grant of concessions (see 26.181)
was ended by 1914. The partition of rights between the European
concessionnaires and the Swazis was completed in IQII, and those
natives who were required to move from properties held by whites
by July 1914, did so voluntarily such as did move, for many natives
made terms with the concessionnaires and remained on their farms.
Out of a total area of 4,274,000 ac. 1,635,000 ac. were set aside as
Swazj reserves; in addition the Swazis bought 77,000 acres. The
Swazis raise maize and other crops and own large stocks of cattle
while 7,000 to 10,000 Swazis are usually at work on the Rand mines.
The whites engage in agriculture, including fruit farming and cot-
ton and tobacco growing and in mining. The gold mines, which pro-
duced 6,497 oz. in 1915-6, were closed down as unprofitable in 1917.
Tin of a total value of 346,000 was produced in the years 1915-20.
The large coal deposits in the protectorate had not been exploited
up to 1921. No separate statistics of Swaziland trade are kept.
Revenue which in 1910-1 was 58,000 had risen to 91,800 in 1919-
20. Expenditure in the same period rose from 62,000 to 87,000.
The settlement of the concessions' questions cost 182,000.
The administration is under the charge of a resident commissioner,
with headquarters at Mbabane, a small, picturesquely situated hill
village (altitude 4,000 ft.) overlooking the middle veld. The para-
mount chief and other chiefs exercise jurisdiction in all civil cases in
which natives only are concerned. Naba Tsibeni, the " queen
regent," a well-known figure in Swazi history acted for many years
as paramount chief, until the coming of age of her grandson Sobhuza
(born about 1900). Education is mainly in the hands of missionaries;
Sobhuza was educated at a Government school established at Naba
Tsibenis Kraal. Mr. De S. M. G. Honey who had served in Swazi-
land since 1904 became in 1917 resident commissioner.
HISTORY
The 12 years (1910-21) following the establishment of the
Union of S.A. were marked by political, racial and industrial
crises which profoundly affected the future of the country.
The most urgent issue was raised by a powerful section of the
Dutch community, which revived a narrow Nationalism and
developed a demand for the separation of the Union from the
British Empire. Coupled with this conception went strong
opposition to action against Germany, or any share in the World
War. But this Nationalist section, whose greatest figure was
ex-President Steyn and whose mouthpiece was Gen. Hertzog,
was unable to control events. The policy of Gens. Botha and
Smuts of " building up a new State on non-racial lines " and
as an equal member of the British Commonwealth prevailed.
Besides this main issue the growth of an organized Labour
party, which found its chief stronghold on the Rand and put
forward an advanced socialistic programme, presented perplexing
problems to a community new to such manifestations. The
position of Indians in the Union, and the resolve of the white
races to prevent further immigration of Asiatics was another
problem which caused acute controversy, only partially silenced
by the ultimate assent of the Government of India to the policy
of exclusion. And behind all these questions was the ever-
present problem of the relation between the white and native
races. Signs multiplied that the Bantu peoples, gaining in
knowledge and an increasing factor in industry, had acquired a
sense of race solidarity and would not rest satisfied with their
existing economic, social and political status.
While these racial and political questions held the field they
were accompanied by a steady development of the material
SOUTH AFRICA
535
resources of the country and of trade. The progress in agriculture
and in mining was marked; a beginning was made in manufac-
tures. The benefit of unification in this respect was apparent.
That benefit was even more apparent in the relations of S.A.
with the outside world; she spoke with one voice and as a power-
ful unit. The new position which S.A. had acquired, in common
with the other British Dominions, was seen when as a separate
entity she was represented at the Peace Conference in Paris and
her delegates signed the Treaty of Versailles.
Outside the Union the period under review was chiefly notice-
able for two things: the disappearance of German sovereignty
accompanied by the transfer of the administration of ex-German
S.W. Africa to the Union, and the decision to terminate the
government of Rhodesia by the Chartered Company, in response
to the demand of Rhodesians for self-government.
The Union had been brought about by the recognition by
the leaders of the Dutch and British communities that S.A.
was one country, not several, and that in every part
rs ^ ^ t ^ le ' nterests f the two race s were so intermixed
Ministry. tnat they could not be separated without harm to
both. Lord Gladstone, the first governor-general of
the Union, had called upon Gen. Botha, the Prime Minister of
the Transvaal, to form the first Ministry under the Union. 1
This Gen. Botha had done and this Ministry came into existence
on May 31 1910, the day on which the Union was proclaimed
(being the eighth anniversary of the close of the Anglo-Boer War).
General Botha's Ministry was formed from members of the
expiring Cabinets of the various colonies, but while it included
Natal ministers and strong Boer partisans it was not a coalition
ministry. The first general election, held on Sept. 15 1910, was
fought on party lines and was hotly contested. It resulted in a
majority for the " South African " party, that led by Gen. Botha,
of 13 over all other parties, though Gen. Botha himself was
defeated at Pretoria East by Sir Percy Fitzpatrick and a seat
had to be found for him by means of a by-election. In the first
session of the Union Parliament (opened by the Duke of Con-
naught on Nov. 4) Gen. Botha had the support not only of his
own party, but of that of the four Labour members elected by
Rand constituencies and of several of the Natal members of
whom 13 out of 17 had been returned as Independents. The
opposition, known as the Unionist party (and mainly British)
was led by Dr. Jameson, who was created a baronet in Jan. 1911.
Owing to ill health Jameson resigned the leadership in April 1912,
and was succeeded by Sir Thomas Smartt, an ex-Cape minister
and, like Jameson, a medical man. In Oct. 1912 Jameson resigned
his seat for Albany (Graham's Town) and retired from Parliament.
General Botha's Cabinet was of a rather heterogeneous char-
acter. Among its members were Gen. Smuts, Mr. H. C. Hull,
Mr. Jacobus Wilhelmus Sauer, Mr. Henry Burton, Mr. Abraham
Fischer and Gen. Hertzog. They were divided on personal and
provincial as well as progressive and retrogressive lines. General
Smuts, Minister of the Interior, did not at first figure very
prominently, but was the Prime Minister's right-hand man.
Mr. Hull (b. 1860), after being in the Cape civil service, had
practised at the bar, served in the war of 1899-1902 and was
afterwards Treasurer of the Transvaal, and he entered the Union
Cabinet as Minister of Finance. Mr. Sauer had been 30 years
a member of the Cape House of Assembly and had frequently
held office. In Gen. Botha's Cabinet he was Minister of Railways
and Harbours and chairman of the Railways and Harbours
1 Mr. J. X. Merriman, as Prime Minister of the Cape, the oldest
colony in S.A., had some claim to be called upon to form the first
Union Ministry, but his claims were passed over. He declined to
serve under Gen. Botha. It appears, however, from the biog-
raphies of Jan Hofmeyr and of ex-President Steyn that both Botha
and Merriman were prepared to serve under Steyn. Steyn was an
invalid, and his doctors forbade him to entertain the idea of taking
office. The ex-President was against a coalition Ministry, among
other reasons because he feared that had Dr. Jameson been in the
Cabinet he would have pressed for the inclusion of Rhodesia in the
Union. While Steyn had favoured the Union movement he was not
prepared even in 1910 to accept its full consequences. See J. H.
Hofmeyr's Onze Jan. (1913) and Van der Merwe's " Life "' of
Steyn (in Dutch 1921).
Board, and thus head of the largest revenue producing depart-
ment of State. Mr. Fischer and Gen. Hertzog represented the
extreme element among the Boers. They were both from the
Orange Free State, of which (as the Orange River Colony)
Mr. Fischer had been Prime Minister. In the Union Cabinet he
became Minister of Lands and Gen. Hertzog Minister of Justice.
The first session of Parliament was devoted mainly to putting
the Union machinery into working order. It was not until to-
wards the close of 1912 that Gen. Hertzog publicly Education
abandoned the principles on which the Union had Contro-
been established, though there was no doubt of his versles -
belief that the Dutch community had a prescriptive right to
dominance in S. Africa. The most controversial issue considered
in the 1911-2 session arose out of the Education Acts of the
former Orange River Colony (see 20.160), where, during its
brief period of self-government, Gen. Hertzog as Minister of
Education had enforced bi-lingualism in the state schools. By
the Act establishing the Union education " other than higher
education " had been left in the control of the provincial councils
for a period of five years, after which Parliament was free to take
what action it pleased. In the meantime it could only advise.
A select committee on which the S.A. and Unionist parties
were equally represented considered the subject and on April 17
presented a majority report recommending that instruction up
to Standard IV. should be given in and through the " home
language," with the optional use, on the demand of parents, of
the other language, and that above Standard. IV. freedom of
choice in the medium of instruction should be left to the parents;
also that teachers should be free to qualify in either language
(English or Dutch). This was a reversal of Gen. Hertzog's
policy, but though he disliked this compromise it was accepted
by the Union Parliament (April 24). During 1911-2 the pro-
vincial councils of the Transvaal, Free State and the Cape passed
ordinances adopting the compromise, though with some modi-
fications in favour of Dutch. This virtually ended the language
controversy as far as schools were concerned, and the provin-
cial councils taking a liberal view of their duties, their control
over elementary and secondary education was continued
even after the lapse of the five years provided in the Union Act.
But Gen. Hertzog's position was much shaken during the con-
troversy over the medium of instruction. The success of an
action for slander (Aug. 1911) brought against him by Mr. Wm.
Fraser Free State inspector of schools whom Hertzog had
dismissed in 1909 caused much scandal, which was intensified
by the success (Nov. 1911) of another slander action brought
against Jiim, the second plaintiff being Dr. Ward, president of
the O.F.S. medical council. The situation was rendered piquant
by the fact that Hertzog was Minister of Justice. He tendered
his resignation, but Gen. Botha, not wishing to alienate the Boer
extremists, refused to accept it.
Having brought about a settlement of the language question
in elementary schools the Union Parliament was called upon to
deal with higher education. The only university in S.A. at the
time of the Union was that of the Cape of Good Hope, founded
in 1873, with its seat at Cape Town. It was an examining body,
with affiliated colleges. Demands for teaching universities had
grown up and the Union Government had to deal with an offer
of 500,000, half of this sum being a bequest by Sir Julius Wern-
her, the other half being given by Messrs. Alfred and Otto Beit.
This money it was desired should go to establish a national
university on the Groote Schuur estate, near Cape Town. A
bill to give effect to this proposal was introduced into Parliament
in the session of 1913. It met with much criticism and was with-
drawn, a strong University Commission being appointed in
Nov. 1913 to enquire into the subject. Its report, issued in 1914,
is a valuable document, dealing fully with the lines of possible
development, though the Commission was fain to acknowledge
that the many vested interests constituted an " almost in-
solvable " problem. It recommended two universities one at
Cape Town and one at Pretoria, to one or other of which the
existing university colleges would be attached. This recommen-
dation provoked almost as much criticism as had the bill of 1913.
536
SOUTH AFRICA
Defence.
The Dutch community strongly opposed the proposal that
Victoria College, Stellenbosch, founded in 1866 as the Stellen-
bosch Gymnasium and mainly attended by Dutch students,
should be incorporated in the Cape university. A solution of the
difficulty was reached in 1916 when Parliament passed Acts
establishing three universities: the university of South Africa,
the university of Cape Town, and the university of Stellenbosch.
The two last were to be teaching universities and the seat of the
Cape Town University was to be at Groote Schuur. It was formed
by incorporating the South African College (founded at Cape
Town in 1829) and to it the 500,000 of the Wernher-Beit be-
quests accrued.
The university of South Africa took the place of and was the
legal successor of the university of the Cape of Good Hope,
headquarters being removed from Cape Town to Pretoria. The
new university, like its predecessor, was a federal organization
with examining functions. Its first chancellor was the Duke of
Connaught. The changes became effective on April 2 1918.
In the 1911-2 session of Parliament an attempt was made to
grapple with the relations of the white and Kaffir races, the
position of Asiatics in the Union and with national
and imperial defence. General Botha with two of his
colleagues (Sir David de Villiers Graaff and Mr. F. S. Malan) had
attended the Imperial Conference held in London in May and
June 1911, when the Asiatic question and defence had been con-
sidered. The Union Government decided that S. A. should pro-
vide for its own internal defence, and a Defence Act was passed
in June 1912, creating a citizen force at a cost of about 500,000
a year; this is in addition to a permanent force of five regiments. 1
The Act provided for the military training of 50% of the young
men between 18 and 21; the other 50% being compelled to join
rifle clubs and similar associations. The 50% for training are
obtained in the first place by voluntary enlistment, but if sufficient
numbers are not forthcoming by this method, then by ballot.
(Recourse to the ballot had not been necessary up to 1922.)
Members of the Citizen Force with the colours are paid. Pro-
vision was made for artillery, cavalry, infantry, engineer and
transport units, uniformity with the units of the other overseas'
dominions being aimed at. General C. F. Beyers, one of the
Transvaal commandants in the Anglo-Boer War, was appointed
commandant-general, while the Council of Defence created by
the Act consisted of Gen. Schalk Burger (Transvaal), Col.
(afterwards Sir) Charles Crewe (Cape), Gen. de Wet (Orange
Free State), and Col. Sir Duncan Mackenzie (Natal).
Objections to the Act came chiefly from the " back-veld "
Boers who entertained strong dislike to compulsory- service.
The force being established, the reduction of the strength of the
British imperial forces in S.A. from 11,500 to about 7,000 was
announced in Nov. 1912. With regard to naval policy practically
no progress was made. General Botha was fully alive to its im-
portance and sought to educate his followers on the subject in
several speeches. But in 1920 the situation remained as it was
in 1910. The British Admiralty continued to use Simon's Town
as headquarters of the Cape and East Coast Squadron. In 1921,
however, the Government adopted the principle of the formation
of a S.A. navy for home defence.
The policy to be adopted with respect to Asiatics had two
aspects: (i) the treatment of Asiatics already in the Union and
(2) whether or not to permit further immigration.
On the second question there was a determination on
Question, the part of the great majority of white S. Africans to
prohibit the further entry of Asiatics alike on racial
and economic grounds. They had the black man ever with them
and they were determined as far as in them lay not to add another
racial and disturbing factor. But there were already 150,000
Asiatics in the Union, and except for some 2,000 Chinese they
were all British Indians. Of these fully four-fifths lived in Natal.
They had gone thither at the invitation of that colony, where
the sugar and tea plantations depended upon coolie labour.
Indeed almost the only dissidents in the Union from the exclusion
1 Only persons of European descent were allowed to become mem-
bers of the Defence Force.
policy were the Natal planters. On the question of immigration
the Government of India, however, took a step which eased th&
situation. It was a vigilant champion of the rights of Indians-
settled in other parts of the Empire and it had been for years dis-
satisfied with the treatment of the coolies in Natal. In 1908-
it had decided to prohibit the further importation of indentured
Indians into Natal and it was at the request of the Natal au-
thorities that it permitted the system to continue until July 191 1,
when it finaly ceased. This left untouched the question of vol-
untary immigration, which among the coolie class was never
great. The position in the various provinces of the Union differed.
In the Orange Free State as a result of a rigid exclusion policy
constantly enforced there was no Indian question; in the Cape
province Indians enjoyed equal rights with whites political and
municipal, not only in theory but in practice. But comparatively
few Indians were attracted to the Cape and in that province
the question was not acute. The Cape Immigration Acts of
1902 and 1906 sufficiently guarded the province from the influx
of undesirable elements. In Natal the matter was much more-
pressing. There the Indians considerably outnumbered the
whites and besides the coolie class included many Bombay
Mohammedans (often misnamed "Arabs" in S.A), keen and
enterprising traders. Measures restrictive of Indian enterprise
had been passed by Natal and in that province they had no
political rights. They however possessed the municipal fran-
chise and, as in the Cape province, had unrestricted rights to
own and occupy land. In the Transvaal the Indians had neither
political nor municipal rights nor were they allowed to own land,
save in specially assigned locations. The Indians in that province
were mainly Moslem traders, who had found a favourable field
for their activities in the development of the country which
followed the discovery of the Rand gold mines. For years the
Indians in the Transvaal had been subjected to many restric-
tions; it was in this province that feeling against them was most
bitter and the agitation against them most strong. The position
held by white S. Africans was plainly stated by Gen. Smuts at
the Imperial Conference of 1917. What he then said was strictly
applicable to the situation in 1911 when the Union Parliament
first took up the subject.
In S.A. there has been this fundamental trouble [he said], that
the white community has been afraid of opening the door too wide
to Indian immigration. We are not a homogeneous population. We
are a white minority on a black continent, and the settlers in S.A.
have for many years been actuated by the fear that to open the door
to another non-white race would make the position of the few whites
in S.A. very dangerous indeed. It is because of that fear . . . that
they have adopted an attitude which sometimes has assumed the
outward form, although not the reality, of intolerance.
Save that among many of the whites in the Transvaal the
outward form of intolerance was also its reality, this was a fair
statement of the position of white S. Africans. They feared, or
a considerable proportion of them feared, being swamped by
Asiatics, and, especially in the Transvaal, they greatly feared
Indian competition in trade. On its part the Government, of
India, when the Union began legislating on the subject was
ready to acquiesce in an exclusion policy, but sought in return
to secure fair treatment for the Indians already in the Union.
And by " fair treatment " the Government of India meant in the
long run political and municipal rights weapons by which the
Indians would have effective means of self-protection. In 1911
and again in 1912 Immigration Restriction bills were introduced
into the Union Parliament, but the bills were dropped, a wider
measure being announced for 1913. In Oct. 1912 Mr. G. K.
Gokhale, one of the most influential of Indian politicians, visited
S.A. on " a mission of peace " and in Nov. went to Pretoria as
the guest of the Union Government to confer with them on the
forthcoming legislation. Mr. Gokhale's object was primarily to
secure concessions for the Indians already in S. Africa. This
was also the main object of Mr. M. K. Gandhi, who had first
gone to S.A. in 1893 to conduct a law suit, but had stayed there
and become the leader of the Indians in Natal and the Transvaal.
In June 1913 the Union Parliament passed an Immigrants
Regulation Act, the chief purpose of which was to prevent the
SOUTH AFRICA
537
iurther entry of Asiatics into the Union. This was done not
40 nomine but by ministerial certificate. Wives and young
children of domiciled residents were allowed to enter, and also
registered Indians who might be temporarily absent from S.
Africa. The Act further restricted Asiatics to the province in
which they were resident. This restriction of movement, and
the poll tax of 3 levied on all ex-indentured Indians in Natal
a tax unequal and uncertain in its incidence caused great dis-
.satisfaction among the Indian community. Under Mr. Gandhi's
leadership (Mr. Gokhale had returned to India) they adopted an
attitude of passive resistance, but this was succeeded by strikes
.at Durban and at the collieries and plantations. Then, to assert
the right of Indians to move from one province to another,
Mr. Gandhi put himself at the head of some 2,700 Indians who
started to march past Majuba to Johannesburg. About 500
were stopped at the Natal border, the rest got some distance
into the Transvaal before they were turned back. Mr. Gandhi
was arrested and convicted on several charges, e.g. he was
sentenced to nine months' imprisonment for abetting a strike
of coal miners. But the situation could not be met simply by
repressive measures. An Indian Inquiry Commission was ap-
pointed and, on its recommendation, the Natal poll tax was
.abandoned and certain concessions made as affecting the recogni-
tion of Indian marriages. These changes were made operative
,by the Indian Relief Act, 1914. More important was the so-
called Smuts-Gandhi agreement of the same year. General
Smuts as Minister of the Interior was in charge of the legislation
.affecting Indians, and, seeking a statesmanlike solution of the dif-
ficulty, he approached Mr. Gandhi. The negotiations succeeded
.and the arrangement reached was set forth in letters exchanged
between Mr. Gorges (then secretary to the Ministry of the In-
terior) on behalf of Gen. Smuts, and Mr. Gandhi and dated
June 30 1914. The essence of the agreement was the assurance
by Gen. Smuts that existing laws would be administered " in
.a just manner and with due regard to vested rights." This was
at the time interpreted by the Indians, by the Government of
India and by many of the whites in S.A. to mean that the rights
which Indians were entitled to exercise under the laws as existing
in 1914 could not be restricted by fresh legislation. Mr. Gandhi,
conceiving his mission in Africa ended, returned shortly after-
wards to India.
It is convenient here to summarize later developments of the
Indian question before turning to the main stream of S.A.
history. Mr. Gandhi in a farewell letter, published in the Rand
Daily Mail of July 20 1914, had assured the Indians that the
settlement then reached did not preclude them from fresh agita-
tion for the removal of other disabilities: for their part a large
section of the whites agitated for further restrictions upon In-
dian activity. Friction inevitably arose, but during the World
War untoward incidents were avoided. A definite settlement of
the immigration question was reached at the Imperial Conference
of 1918 when a reciprocity resolution was accepted which de-
clared it to be " an inherent function of the governments of the
several communities of the British Commonwealth, including
India, that each should enjoy complete control of the composition
of its own population by means of restriction on immigration from
any of the other communities." In accepting this resolution on
behalf of the Union Mr. Burton declared, justly, that S. Africans
had found the Indians " good, law-abiding, quiet citizens "
and that it was the duty of the Government to see that they
were treated " as human beings, with feelings like our own, and
in a proper manner."
What was the " proper manner " was still a point of conten-
tion. After the Smuts-Gandhi agreement Indians applied for and
obtained new licences to trade, and in the Transvaal formed
private companies with limited liability for the purpose of ac-
quiring land and fixed property the Transvaal law of 1885
which prohibited individual Indians from acquiring land not
applying to corporate bodies. This action by the Indians was
denounced by the white community in the Transvaal as a fla-
grant violation of the Smuts-Gandhi compact, to which the
Indians replied that it was one of their vested rights and that
such companies had been formed before the agreement was made.
There were in fact three such companies in 1913; by March 1919
the number registered had grown to 370, with a total capital
of 479,000. Early in 1919 the Krugersdorp municipal council
brought the matter to an issue, nominally on the trading question,
by obtaining an interdict from the Supreme Court at Pretoria,
prohibiting Indians from occupying a certain trading " stand "
in the town. This led to the appointment of a parliamentary
select committee. As the result of its investigations an Act
(No. 37 of 1919) was passed by the Union Parliament which,
while confirming the right of Indians to the occupation of land
for trading purposes which they then held, prevented the further
acquisition of land by Indians through private companies.
The Act of 1919 pleased neither party. It was noteworthy
that in the Transvaal, where numerically the Indians were few,
feeling against them was much stronger than in Natal, with its
large Indian population. The explanation was to be found in the
fact that whereas in the Transvaal nearly all the Indians were
traders many of them merchants owning large businesses
and formidable competitors with white traders in Natal the
great bulk of the Indians were Madrassi of the agricultural and
labouring classes, and save in fruit and vegetables did not enter
largely into trade. Moreover, large numbers of the Indians in
Natal were S.A. born and could hardly speak any Indian lan-
guage. The agitation in the Transvaal against the " Asiatic
menace " led in Feb. 1920 to the appointment of the Asiatic
Inquiry Commission specifically charged to consider the question
of trading rights and land ownership by Indians. The sittings
of the Commission were held in public, the Government of India
being represented throughout by Sir Benjamin Robertson, a
man with unrivalled knowledge of the history and facts relating
to Indians in S. Africa. The Commission issued an interim
report in May 1920 recommending that steps be taken to aid
the repatriation of as many Indians as desired to leave the
country, and some few thousands did return to India. The final
report of the Commission was issued in March 1921. The chair-
man was Sir J. H. Lange, a judge of the Supreme Court, and all
the commissioners were men of experience, animated with the
wish to do justice. Their inquiry had the merit of bringing out
the facts and dispelling the belief that the Transvaal was men-
aced, numerically, by an Asiatic invasion. They also made clear
the fatuity of the proposals put before them for the compulsory
expropriation of the whole Indian population, or of " squeezing
them out " by multiplying restrictions on their activities. Their
recommendations were however significant of the strength of
white feeling on the subject. They proposed alterations in the
law which would secure Indians from being refused trading
licences arbitrarily or on the ground of race; they opposed com-
pulsory segregation, but advocated a system of voluntary separa-
tion by " attraction " to desirable residential and trading areas.
They opposed the repeal of the Act of 1919 and went further by
proposing that in Natal the right of Asiatics " to own land for
farming or agricultural purposes should be confined to the coast
belt, say 20 to 30 m. inland." On this last point Mr. Duncan
Baxter, one of the four commissioners, dissented, describing
it as retrograde and a breach of the conditions of recruitment.
The Government of India also at once lodged a protest against
this recommendation, holding that it was not only a breach of
the conditions under which Indians were recruited but also a
breach of the Smuts-Gandhi agreement. The Union Govern-
ment took no action on the Commission's report in the 1921
session of Parliament, but Mr. Patrick Duncan, who had become
Minister of the Interior, indicated his sympathy with a proposal
to allocate separate and distinct areas for occupation by the
Indians of Natal.
The Government of India, while still seeking the removal of
particular grievances, adhered to its wider view that only by the
grant of equal rights could Indians in the Dominions be fully
protected. At the Imperial Conference held in June-Aug. 1921
the Indian delegates pressed for the recognition of this principle
and it was accepted by the representatives of Canada, Australia
and New Zealand. But the S.A. delegates, of whom the chief
SOUTH AFRICA
were Gen. Smuts and Sir Thos. Smartt, declined to subscribe
to the resolution which declared that it was desirable that " the
rights to citizenship " of Indians lawfully domiciled in other
parts of the Empire " should be recognized." They regretted
" their inability to accept this resolution in view of the excep-
tional circumstances of the greater part of the Union." Direct
negotiations between the Governments of India and of S.A.
to reach a more satisfactory position were not precluded. That
the Union delegates rightly interpreted the feeling of most
white South Africans was shown by an ordinance passed at
this time by the Natal provincial council to prevent any Indians
in the province acquiring in future the municipal franchise.
This ordinance was disallowed by the Union Government. At
the Cape at the same time an Indian, Dr. Abdurrahman, a well-
known member of the Cape Town municipality, was also a
member of the provincial council.
The first step taken by the Union Government in regard to
the relations between the white and native races was the de-
cision that the control of all regulations made by
The Na- local authorities affecting natives should be exercised
Ih^White not by the provincial councils but by the Govern-
Races. ment through the Native Affairs Department, a de-
cision tending towards a much-needed uniformity of
policy. While the Government were considering what principles
should guide their action public attention in 1911-2 was chiefly
focussed on one aspect of the question, assaults by Kaffirs on white
women. On the Rand in the first half of 1911 three Kaffirs were
shot by white women whom they had attempted to assault. This
shooting followed the commutation, in Jan. 1911, by the High
Commissioner (Lord Gladstone) of a death sentence on a Rho-
desian native convicted of an attempt to assault a white woman.
This action roused much indignation against the High Commis-
sioner who, however, met his critics fairly and won their respect.
But feeling was intensified by the acquittal in Aug. 1911, by a
Rhodesian jury, of a white man who had shot dead a Kaffir. (This
led to the making of a special jury list for the trial of such cases,
the ordinary jury not being trusted to administer impartial
justice.) In all during the year ending March 31 1912, there was
in the Union alone (i.e. Rhodesia excluded) 85 cases of outrages
upon Europeans by natives, as compared with 69 during 1910.
On the Rand the evil was attributed in part to illicit liquor selling
and in part to the fact that the mine labourers were without their
women-folk, and a petition signed by 52,000 Rand residents
(presented to Parliament May 1912) asked inter alia for the
provision of compounds in which natives should be permitted to
keep their wives, as well as for facilities for training native female
servants and for the importation of European domestics.
A commission, appointed in June 1912 on the motion of Sir
Thomas Smartt, enquired into the prevalence of sexual assaults,
and the extent to which they were attributable to economic and
social factors. This commission was presided over by Mr. Melius
de Villiers, ex-chief justice of the Free State and included four
ladies, one from each province. On its report remedial measures
were taken, such as provision for wives in the compounds. It
was shown that one cause of the evil was the undue familiarity
with which many white women treated male natives employed
by them as domestic servants. The measures taken had a good
effect, and assaults of the character stated became fewer.
On the larger question as to the place which the Bantu should
hold in the community there was much heart searching. There
was on the part of the whites agreement on one point only
the dependence of agriculture and industry on the manual
labour of the native. The situation was complicated by the
fact that the whites had not only the native to deal with but
a very large number of coloured persons with a greater or less
proportion of white blood the well-known " Cape Boys."
These people not only competed with the whites in skilled labour,
but a good many of them had entered the professions as lawyers,
doctors, journalists, land surveyors, etc. The pure African was
following their example, and both the coloured and native
peoples were learning the power of cooperation. They had their
own newspapers, their own political and trade organizations,
and were quick to learn from the methods of the whites. Es-
pecially powerful was the influence of education and Christian
missions. Many natives made great sacrifices to obtain educa-
tion. For educational facilities they had to rely chiefly upon
the missionary societies. The provincial councils were not
generous in their expenditure in this respect though the total
expended on native education rose from 81,000 in 1913 to
137,000 in 1918. More than half the total sum was spent by
the Cape province. In regard to higher education the Union
Government took a somewhat more liberal attitude and gave its
support to the South African Native College at Fort Hare.
The desire of the natives, or the more vocal section of the
natives, to escape from European tutelage was seen in a growing
inclination, particularly in the Transkeian territories, to secular-
ize education and to obtain a larger share in its management.
This desire for " self-determination " was also seen in the setting
up of many churches independent of European control, a move-
ment fostered by intercourse with the negro churches of the
United States. Of these native separatist churches perhaps
the most influential was the " Ethiopian Church of South'
Africa." Their leaders joined in the demands of the " Native
National Congress," an organization claiming to represent the
Bantu peoples of S.A., in demanding redress of grievances and
in especial the removal of the colour bar which existed in all the
provinces except the Cape. A deputation from this body came
to England in-igig " not to demand independence, but admission
into British citizenship."
Such were the aspirations of educated men among the coloured
and native races; the more extreme, among whom communist
doctrines had gained a hold, raised the cry of " Africa for the
Africans." The loyalty of the natives and the valuable services
they rendered during the World War went to show that the
extremists were not an immediate danger. But the natives also
during the war got a new idea of their power. Bantus in Rho-
desia, the " Cape Boys " from the Union served as combatants
in the E.A. campaign and they saw that the heaviest fighting
there fell to black troops. A new situation had arisen, one of the
most noteworthy being the development of a race, as distinct
from tribal, consciousness.
The problem as it presented itself to the Union Government
was how best to secure the future for the white race in S.A.,
surrounded as it was by a black population five or six times
its numbers. The Government would have had to face the
bitterest hostility of the Dutch community, and of a considerable
section of the British in Natal and the Transvaal had they
attempted to remove the colour-bar in those provinces or in the
Free State; had the Boers had their way the colour-bar would
have been set up in the Cape province. Gen. Botha did not
subscribe to the principle of Cecil Rhodes " equal rights for
all civilized men." Yet he and his colleagues acknowledged that
it was the duty of the State to help forward the native on the
path of efficiency and civilization, in opposition to the standpoint
of the extreme Dutch Nationalists that there was no room for
the advancement of the native save at the expense of the white
man. The point of view of the Government was that the natives
should be aided in such a manner that they should not come
into competition with the whites. The proposal which attracted
most support was to keep blacks and whites in separate areas,
while still employing natives for labour on white enterprises.
The plan was feasible; it was for example being worked in Basuto-
land under the Colonial Office. In that territory white settle-
ment was forbidden, but thousands of Basutos went on contract
to the gold-mines or to farms in the Free State. And there were
already native areas in the Cape, such as the Transkei, where,
under white officials, the natives possessed some share in the
administration. It was in this direction Gen. Botha looked for a
solution of the problem. In a speech in Parliament (May 9 1912)
he stated that " the time was coming when the native question
would have to be considered most seriously in the direction
of keeping whites and natives apart and preventing their inter-
mingling. They would have to fix attention closely on the
question of segregation, while treating everyone with absolute
SOUTH AFRICA
539
justice." The segregation plan received the support, among
many others, of Sir Matthew Nathan, an ex-governor of Natal,
and Gen. Hertzog. But it was opposed by those who, like Mr.
P. W. Schreiner and Mr. Patrick Duncan (a leading member of
the Unionist party) , regarded it as both wrong and impolitic to
put hindrances in the way of the advancement of the natives in
civilization and industrial efficiency. Mr. Duncan in a striking
pamphlet published in Oct. 1912 (" Suggestions for a Native
Policy ") admitted the dangers foreseen by the segregationists,
but believed the remedy to be in European immigration on a
large scale. " Nothing else," he declared, " will save S.A. for the
European race." But to immigration on a large scale the Dutch
community was definitely opposed, and it was not till 1920 that
the Government made any strenuous effort to attract white
settlers to the country.
A motion brought forward at the Unionist Congress in Johan-
nesburg (Nov. 21 1912) to commit the party to the policy of
segregation was defeated, the previous question being carried by
91 votes to 7. Opinion being so divided the Union Government
found great difficulty in shaping its native policy. As a tempo-
rary measure a Native Land Act was passed in 1913 which pro-
hibited the further acquisition of land by natives or from natives
an Act which led to vehement protests from native associa-
tions and leaders of native thought, while a legal decision was
obtained that the provision of the Act did not apply to the Cape
province. The Act had set up a commission, under the chair-
manship of Sir William Beaumont, which had for its object the
ascertainment of what land areas should be allocated to natives
and those from which they should be excluded. The commission
reported in 1916 and a Native Affairs Administration bill was
introduced in 1917, chiefly as a means of ascertaining public
opinion, native as well as white. It embodied the principle of
separate areas in rural districts. After exhaustive consideration
Parliament in 1920 passed a Native Affairs Act which was in
effect a half-way segregation measure. The Act, for which Gen.
Smuts was largely responsible, was based on the principle
that the white man is the permanent and predominant factor
in the civilization and government of S. Africa. But it was not
repressive to the black man. It set aside areas for the exclusive
occupation of the natives in which they would have greater
opportunities than before for obtaining local self-government,
it opened the way to a system of representative native congresses
which would express authoritatively native opinion on intended
legislation, and it held out the prospect of the development of
native institutions parallel to but separate from those of the
whites. In short Gen. Smuts, the great advocate for the union
of the two European races in S.A., was equally earnest in his
efforts to keep the streams of white and (nascent) black civiliza-
tion apart. A feature of the Act of 1920 was the establishment of
a permanent Native Affairs Commission to deal with the position
of natives in urban areas, education and the Pass Law system,
in all of which matters it was admitted that the natives had not
received fair treatment. The Act was regarded by the white
community Dutch extremists apart as a piece of constructive
statesmanship, and its policy received the approval of the most
responsible leaders of the natives. But danger lay in the in-
flammable language and actions of less responsible, and less
educated agitators, working on the mass of their fellows, scarcely
emerged from barbarism, and in the equally pernicious utterances
of the white extremists. Events in 1920-1 showed the peril
attendant on any mishandling of the native question.
The promotion of trade and agriculture occupied much of
the energies of the people and Government. A prolonged
. drought lasting from Oct. 1911 to Nov. 1912 the
Trade and * . , . ,-, v . . , ' . j
Tariffs. most severe experienced in S.A. since 1862, affected
chiefly Natal, the Transvaal and the Transkei. The
severe losses sustained forced attention to the need of more
scientific farming and to irrigation works, upon which the Govern-
ment expended 500,000 in 1912. In 1919 there was another very
serious drought involving the country in an expenditure of
16,000,000. This led to the appointment of a commission in
1920 to enquire into drought, soil erosion and other allied prob-
lems. One result was to emphasize the need of water storage in
connexion with irrigation. In Oct. 1912 a State Land and Agri-
cultural Bank began operations in the Union, and a similar
institution was established in Rhodesia.
Much diversity of view existed as to the tariff policy of the
Union. Early in 1912 a commission, of which Sir T. M. Cullinan
was chairman, appointed to enquire into the conditions of trade
and industries reported in favour of increased duties on wheat,
flour, sugar, tea, clothing and furniture, declaring that it was
" not only necessary that a policy of protection should be
adopted, but that there should be continuity of policy." Two
influential members presented minority reports in favour of the
"open-door." Rhodesian feeling was in favour of a lower tariff,
and it was suggested that Rhodesia might withdraw from the
Customs Union rather than bear greater fiscal burdens. At
Johannesburg on Nov. 19 1912 Sir Thomas Smartt declared that
a plank in the Unionist party's platform was a tariff primarily
for revenue purposes, combined with a policy for the encourage-
ment of industries for the general benefit and the extension of the
existing imperial preference. This was, in the main, the solution
adopted. Tariffs and rebates were fixed by various Acts of
Parliament passed between 1914 and 1919, designed to afford
relief to home manufactures, the majority newly established.
An Industries Advisory Board was set up in Oct. 1916, consisting
for the most part of business men, and early in 1917 a Scientific
and Technical Committee was instituted. There followed in
1921 the creation of a Board of Trade and Industries, and a
definite policy of industrial development was undertaken by the
Government. But Mr. F. S. Malan, Minister of Mines (and
then acting Prime Minister) addressing the convention of the
Federated Chamber of Industries at Port Elizabeth (July 25
1921) declared that the Government had no intention of "go-
ing in for an out-and-out protective policy." And Col. Reitz
(Minister of Lands) told the sugar planters of Zululand that
" the consumer must be protected. Higher tariffs would mean
dearer prices."
One great department of state, the Railways and Harbour
Board, was required by the Act of Union to be run with due
regard to agricultural and industrial development and not as
a producer of revenue for extraneous purposes. The Board built
needed railway lines and undertook harbour works, though
nothing material was done to enlarge the docks at Table Bay, a
matter which provoked strong protests from the citizens of Cape
Town. Mr. Sauer, the minister in charge of the department
whose budget was separate from that of the general budget of the
Union took an independent view of his duties and as early as
July 1911 differences arose between him and his colleagues,
especially with Mr. Hull, the Finance Minister. Mr. Hull had
also to meet the attacks of Mr. Merriman, the most accomplished
parliamentarian and ablest financier in the House of Assembly
and a very candid friend of the Ministry. Mr. Merriman de-
nounced the Government's financial proposals as predatory and
extravagant, while Mr. Hull alleged that railway expenditure
was incurred without Treasury sanction that there had been a
tendency to regard the railway and harbour administration as
something for which the Government had no collective responsi-
bility. General Botha admitted that the Cabinet had not been
sufficiently consulted in railway matters and on May 18 1912
Mr. Hull resigned. A reconstruction of the Ministry was post-
poned until after the close of the parliamentary session (June 24),
when the chief changes made were the appointment of Mr. Henry
Burton (an ex-Cape minister), to the Ministry of Railway and
Harbours, while Mr. Sauer became Minister of Agriculture, an
office which Gen. Botha had combined with the premiership.
The differences between Mr. Hull and Mr. Sauer were shortly
afterwards forgotten in consequence of the attitude taken up by
Gen. Hertzog, who now began publicly to assail
the principles upon which the Union had been estab- J^ a ^
lished. To what extent Hertzog was supported or policy.
restrained by ex-President Steyn is uncertain; but
Steyn, whose opinion would have been decisive with a large
section of the Dutch community, did nothing publicly to counter-
54
SOUTH AFRICA
act the rekindling of the fires of racial bitterness. The by-election
campaign at Albany, caused by the resignation of Sir Starr
Jameson, brought about a crisis. General Botha, and with him
Gen. Smuts and the majority of the Dutch members of the
Cabinet, had definitely accepted the British connexion, and the
position of S.A. as a self-governing member of an Imperial
Commonwealth, with corresponding responsibilities, and, know-
ing that peace between the two white races was essential to the
prosperity of the country, he was an ardent advocate of the
closest cooperation between them. On both these points Hertzog
was violently opposed to his colleagues. His motto " South
Africa first " meant in fact Dutch supremacy. In a speech at
Nylstroom (Oct. 1912) he characterized Sir Thomas Smartt
(who had succeeded Jameson as leader of the Unionist party)
and other prominent members of the Opposition as " undesirable
political foreign adventurers," and at Rustenburg, on Dec. 8,
he declared that imperialism appealed to him only when it was
useful to S. Africa. He had a short time previously pronounced
in favour of the Dutch and British in S.A. remaining " two
nationalities flowing each in a separate channel." General Botha
though he publicly dissented from Gen. Hertzog's views was
desirous if possible to avoid an open breach, but after the Rusten-
burg speech action was unavoidable. On Dec. 1 2 Col. Leuchers,
Minister of Public Works and a Natal member of Parliament,
resigned as a protest against Hertzog's " anti-British and anti-
imperial sentiments." Botha then intimated to Hertzog that
his resignation would be acceptable, but Hertzog refused to move.
Botha met this difficulty by tendering his own resignation,
Dec. 15, and was at once asked by the governor-general (Lord
Gladstone) to form a new Ministry. This he had accomplished
by Dec. 20, the new Cabinet being composed of the same mem-
bers as the old except for the omission of Gen. Hertzog and Col.
Leuchers (the latter replaced by Sir Thos. Watt, another Natal
member). The death of two ministers Mr. Sauer and Mr.
Fischer during 1913 necessitated a further remodelling of the
Cabinet. Mr. N. J. de Wet became Minister of Justice and Mr.
H. C. Van Heerden Minister of Agriculture. 1
The cleavage in the ranks of the ministerialists (the S.A.
party) became complete in 1913. It was soon apparent that the
appeal to Dutch racialism had considerable support, notably
in the O.F.S., and some 10 or 12 members of the House of
Assembly elected as supporters of Gen. Botha turned to Hertzog
as their leader. At the party conference opened at Cape Town
on Nov. 30 Gen. de Wet nominated ex-President Steyn as
" leader of the party outside Parliament, with power to nominate
the Prime Minister." On this proposal being defeated the mal-
contents left the conference in a body and in Jan. 1914 a new
party under Hertzog's leadership was formed. It took the title
of the Nationalist party.
The year 1913 and the opening months of 1914 were, however,
as notable for labour unrest as for political differences. The
disturbances in Natal due to the opposition of the
ta"fr Indians to the Asiatic legislation of the Union have
Riot*. already been recorded. They caused no such trouble
as attended disturbances on the Rand, which began
with a strike of the white miners at the New Kleinfontein mine
in May 1913. The strike was nominally on the question of hours,
but it was symptomatic of a determination of Labour to gain
greater control over industrial conditions. There was, too, a
revolutionary wing to the movement, and the extremists seemed
likely to carry with them the mass of the men. 2 The two antag-
onistic views were afterwards sharply put by Gen. Smuts and
Mr. Creswell, the latter the leader of the parliamentary Labour
The year 1913 witnessed the death of other prominent S. Afri-
cans : Sir Gordon Sprigg, four times Prime M inister of Cape Colony,
Sir Richard Solomon, High Commissioner in London of the Union,
and Dinizulu, the son of Cetywayo. Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson,
formerly Governor of Natal and of Cape Colony, also died in 1913.
Sir R. Solomon was succeeded as High Commissioner by Mr. W. P.
Schreiner, who died in 1919. Sir Edgar Walton was appointed
High Commissioner in 1921.
1 The white employees in the mines were almost equally divided
between those born in S.A. and those born in the United Kingdom.
The foreign born were scarcely 5%.
party. Smuts declared the movement to have been " a con-
spiracy against constituted order." Mr. Creswell declared that
there was " a conspiracy (of the Govt.) with capitalists to run
the country in their own interests." Neither view gave a satis-
factory explanation of the facts. The strike extended, negotia-
tions for a settlement failed, feeling ran high and by the end of
June the Government had drafted 2,000 troops into the Benoni
district, the centre of unrest, and some 20 m. E. of Johannes-
burg. The leaders of the strike had chosen a time when the
Union was without a regular armed force of its own. The citizen
army provided by the Act of 1912 was not yet formed, while
the militia and volunteers had been disbanded as from July i,
and the permanent force the S.A. Mounted Riflemen pro-
vided for in the Act of 1912, had only begun training in April
(1913). British regulars were therefore drafted into Johannes-
burg, where serious rioting followed a demonstration by the
men in Market Sq. (July 4). The strikers seized the electric
power station, and during a night of terror burned down the
Park railway station and the offices of the Star newspaper.
Several persons were killed and many injured in conflicts with
the police and military. The next morning Gens. Botha and
Smuts intervened and opened negotiations with the strikers.
While these were going on dynamite explosions occurred and
the mob attacked the Rand club. The negotiators succeeded in
reaching agreement and at night the strike was declared "off",
one condition being the reinstatement of the men at the New
Kleinfontein mine. But it was difficult to appease the mob and
there was further rioting on July 6. In all some 20 persons were
killed and 250 injured. A grave element of danger was the excited
condition of the native labourers on the Rand mines and it was-
in part consideration of what they might do if the riots continued
that drew the authorities and the strike leaders together. The
situation continued anxious, as extremists were calling for a new
and general strike. But on July 31 the executive of the Federa-
tion of Trades decided by 65 votes against 18 not to call a general
strike. An official inquiry into labour conditions was then
instituted, but in Jan. 1914 new trouble arose. A policy of re-
trenchment on the railways was resented by the men and a
general strike proclaimed for Jan. 14. It was, according to the
official view, an attempt by the Trades' Federation to control
the railway administration. The Government acted promptly
(Gen. Smuts was at the time both Minister of Defence and Minis-
ter of the Interior). Martial law was proclaimed and 20,000-
troops mobilized and concentrated on the Rand. Ten prominent
Labour leaders not including Mr. Creswell were arrested and
secretly deported, illegal action for which the Government sub-
sequently obtained an Act of indemnity. In Parliament Gen.
Smuts justified his action on the ground stated, namely that the
leaders of the men were engaged in a revolutionary conspiracy.
The action of the Government had, in any case, prevented a
renewal of the rioting of 1913 though a large number of outrages-
occurred. Ameliorative measures were then tried and during
1914 an Industrial Disputes Act was passed. It set up machinery
intended to render easier the settlement of disputes and this Act
was followed in subsequent years by other measures such as the
Factory Act of 1918 -designed to improve labour conditions.
In 1914 Lord Gladstone's term of office as Governor-General
and High Commissioner expired and he returned to England
shortly before the outbreak of the World War. His successor
was Mr. Sydney Buxton, who on his appointment was created
a viscount. Lord Buxton assumed office in Sept. 1914.
The outbreak of the World War tested S.A. in a manner in
which no other British Dominion was tested. Twelve years-
only had passed since the Boers had been in arms
against Great Britain, they had long and bitter mem-
cries and all the ties of kinship, affection, a common war.
tongue and a common heritage which powerfully influ-
enced the British in S.A. were in them lacking. The spirit of
racialism had revived, and a large number of the Dutch were led
to believe that the war was no concern of theirs and that S.A.
should remain neutral. A smaller section actively sympathized
with Germany and a few prominent Boers had entered into rela-
f
SOUTH AFRICA
54i
tions with the Germans in S.W. Africa. The German Government
counted with some confidence that S.A. would stand aloof from
the contest. It was misled. The attitude of Gen. Botha and of
his colleagues was never in doubt. Botha, Smuts and the other
Dutch members of the Government represented all those Boers
who were not only faithful to the new allegiance they had solemn-
ly recognized in 1902, but who were sincerely convinced that by
the subsequent grant of responsible government to the ex-Dutch
republics and the establishment of the Union, S. Africa's interest,
as a self-governing dominion, was to stand side by side with the
other members of the British Commonwealth.
The test as to the part S.A. would play in the World War
soon came. On Aug. 7 1914, the Imperial Government tele-
graphed to the Union Government that " if they desired and
felt themselves able " to do so, the seizure of such parts of
German S.W. Africa as would give them the command of
Liideritzbucht, Swakopmund and the wireless stations there,
would be " a great and urgent imperial service." And two days
later the British Cabinet suggested that another expedition
might be sent later to Windhuk, where there was a long-distance
wireless station. On Aug. 10 Gen. Botha replied that he and his
colleagues cordially agreed to cooperate with the Imperial
Government and that the military operations indicated would
be undertaken by the Union Government. General Botha had
already intimated on the day that war was declared that the
country would undertake its own defence, thus setting free for
duty elsewhere the imperial garrison in S. Africa. It was not how-
ever until Sept. that Gen. Botha publicly announced the inten-
tion of the Government to send an expedition against German
S.W. Africa, though this intention was communicated to Gen.
Beyers on Aug. 13 and discussed at a meeting of the principal
officers of the defence force held on Aug. 21. On that occasion
Beyers expressed approval of the measures proposed. While
their intentions in regard to S.W. Africa were meanwhile
regarded as confidential, the fact that the Government had
ranged itself on the side of Britain had been known from the first
day of the war and had greatly excited the Dutch Nationalists.
Some of them saw in it the opportunity they had eagerly awaited
of regaining the independence of the Boer republics; some were
already aiding the Germans in S.W. Africa. The decision of the
Government to take the offensive against the Germans precip-
itated, but was not the originating cause of, the rebellion.
German secret agents, too, had been busy, but their intrigues at
most only served to fan smouldering fires of revolt. Botha sub-
mitted the resolution authorizing an expedition to German S.W.
Africa at a session of Parliament on Sept. 9. It was bitterly
denounced by Hertzog and his followers, who declared that the
Union should remain neutral, but it passed the House
of Assembly by a large majority on Sept. 10 and by
the I4th had received the approval of the Senate.
On Sept. 15 Gen. Beyers made clear his true attitude. He re-
signed his post of commandant-general of the Union Forces,
affirming that " by far the great majority of the Dutch-speaking
people of the Union " disapproved the expedition against German
S.W. Africa. Botha's reply was that he himself would take com-
mand of the Union forces and personally command the operations
against the Germans. On Oct. 9 Lt.-Col. Solomon G. Maritz,
the commander of the Union forces about 1,600 men on the
German frontier, was in open rebellion; on Oct. 23 de Wet was
in rebellion in the Free State, the next day Beyers and Maj.
J. Kemp were in rebellion in the Transvaal. The movement was
concerted, though the plans for concerted action failed. Of the
four rebel leaders named, Maritz was the least important and
the only one proved to have been in treasonable relations with
the Germans before the World War began. The evidence against
Beyers of collusion with the Germans through Maritz after the
war had started was conclusive, but there is no evidence that he
rose in revolt out of sympathy with them. As one of their ablest
leaders in the Anglo-Boer War he enjoyed a great reputation with
the Transvaal Boers. Kemp also was known to them as an
^fficient soldier who had been one of De La Key's chief lieutenants
in the Anglo-Boer War. Kemp was now an officer of the Defence
Rebellion
of 1914.
Force. De Wet was the most famous fighting general of the
Free State Boers. All the men named desired to translate into
action the policy which Hertzog advocated, and which they be-
lieved Steyn approved. In the opinion of a judicial commission 1
which later enquired into the rebellion (whose report was issued
in Dec. 1916) Gen. De La Rey plotted a rising as soon as the war
broke out. The chief aim was to restore the Dutch republics
if not to establish a completely independent S.A. Republic.
At the time it looked as if De La Rey was being dragged into
rebellion by Beyers and Kemp. It is certain that they depended
upon De La Rey to give the word to the Transvaal burghers to
rise. Whether or not through infirmity of purpose when De La
Rey was brought to Treurfontein (Aug. 15) to address a meeting
of burghers which had been called, in his name, with the inten-
tion of immediately starting a revolt instead of the expected
words he advised his hearers to remain calm and wait events.
De La Rey two days previously had been called to Pretoria by
Botha and there had had a prolonged interview with Botha and
Smuts who had exhorted him to use his unrivalled influence in
the western Transvaal in the interest of peace. 2 And without
question the burghers, though mystified, obeyed De La Rey
and dispersed quietly to their homes. Then came the public
announcement of the expedition against German S.W. Africa and
De La Rey went to Cape Town to attend the session of Parlia-
ment, of which he was a senator. Meanwhile the Citizen Force
of the western Transvaal was gathered at Potchefstroom and
Beyers and Kemp arranged with De La Rey that he should
return N. and address the burghers in camp on Sept. 15. On the
evening of that day, at Pretoria, Beyers announced his resigna-
tion. In the morning of the same day he had received a messen-
ger from Maritz who brought word that "all was ready" on the
border. De La Rey had reached Johannesburg from the Cape;
Maritz's messenger was sent by Beyers to bring him to Pretoria
and late in the evening the three set out to go by motor to
Potchefstroom. The revolt was to be started the next morning.
The way led through Johannesburg and the car was ordered to
stop by armed police, who were looking out for a gang of crimi-
nals who had escaped in a motor. Beyer's driver disregarded the
summons to stop and drove on. The police patrol fired and De La
Rey was shot dead. The dramatic death of DeLa Rey disorgan-
ized the conspirators' plans. It deprived them of the one man
who could have raised the whole of the western Transvaal
against Botha and the one man whose military talents might
have matched those of Botha and Smuts. It accounted for the
delay in the rebellion, for the interim protestations of loyalty
made by Beyers and de Wet's declaration that he wanted to act
constitutionally. In de Wet's case there was no evidence that he
had been mixed up with Maritz's intrigues with the Germans
until after the World War had begun; his was pure discontent
with the existing regime.
An illuminating light on the mentality of the rebels was the
profound belief that many of them entertained for the " visions "
of a certain Nicholas Van Rensburg, a farmer of Lichtenburg,
who had served in the Anglo-Boer War under De La Rey, at
which time his reputation as a seer was established. Van Rens-
burg's sincerity was doubted by few and he seldom professed
to understand his own visions, which were of a true Delphic
character. One of them was held to foretell the struggle in
Europe and to indicate the victory of Germany " the grey bull "
which defeated a red bull (England) in bloody combat. Another
concerned Gen. De La Rey and with this vision was associated
the number 15, which Van Rensburg beheld on a dark cloud from
which issued blood. This man's visions and the faith they
1 Composed of three judges of the Supreme Court, namely J. H.
Lange (chairman), M. W. Searle, and F. A. Hutton.
2 From Gen. Botha's account of the conversation De La Rey
appears to have been in a distracted frame of mind. That he wished
S. A. to break away from the British Empire and proclaim its
independence is beyond question, and he saw in the World War an
opportunity to achieve this object. He was very much under the
influence of the " prophet " Van Rensburg (see later). By several
observers of his conduct at this time De La Rey was believed to be
mentally deranged.
542
SOUTH AFRICA
inspired among the burghers and in none more strongly than in
De La Rey himself were cleverly worked upon by the con-
spirators it was because of the visions that the Aug. and Sept.
meetings were called for the isth of the month. But the rebellion
rested on more solid foundations than visions. As has been stated
the moving cause was the desire of the Boers to regain inde-
pendence, while support for the rebellion was largely gained by
the assertions of Beyers and others that there-would be no fight-
ing and that Botha was secretly on their side.
News of Maritz's open revolt reached Beyers and Kemp
on Oct. 12; two days later de Wet was in conference with Beyers
at Pretoria and final plans prepared. But Maritz
Th ait"' was crusne< i before the others could take effective
P Mr. steyn. action. General Smuts, as Minister of Defence, had
taken over the full direction of affairs from headquar-
ters. Colonel Coen Brits was sent to deal with the traitor and did
so effectively; in an engagement at Kakamas on Oct. 24 Maritz's
force was broken into small and fugitive bands and he himself com-
pelled to take refuge over the German border. Meanwhile both
Botha and Smuts were urgent in their efforts to prevent bloodshed
in the Free State and the Transvaal. They turned to ex-President
Steyn as the one man whose word could deter the rebels from
executing their purpose. On Oct. 1 1 Botha telegraphed to Steyn
who, in poor health, was living at his farm Onze Rust, near
Bloemfontein informing him of the treason of Maritz, and
saying " A word from you will go far." Steyn refused to speak
the word. Not that he approved the action of Maritz, but be-
cause " I shall have to tell the people that I most strongly dis-
approve of the policy of the Government respecting an attack
upon German W. Africa . . . that as far back as three years
ago I warned you against such a policy and that on the outbreak
of the European war I had again repeated that warning to
Gen. Smuts. . . . As a result of that policy a number of officers
and men, who as far as I know were loyal, have become rebels."
To this Botha replied that the Government's policy was " not
only supported but demanded by the vast majority of the popula-
tion of the Union," and that, moreover, he possessed proofs that
Maritz's plot was formed long before the Government's decision
was made. He ended with a moving appeal to Steyn to speak
a word " to warn our people against treason, against the ever-
lasting stain that anything of the kind would be upon our -national
honour, and against the incalculably fatal consequences." No
sign in reply came from Onze Rust. On Oct. 22 Botha again
wrote to Steyn, informing him of the imminent revolt of de Wet,
Beyers and Kemp. In this letter Botha referred feelingly to the
outcome of an insurrection " headed by men who in the past
have been our honoured leaders " and once more appealed
to Steyn to turn those men " from the path of destruction where
they now stand." Botha suggested that Steyn should summon
de Wet, Beyers and Kemp to a conference at Onze Rust, and
now at length Steyn acted. From Oct. 23 onward, and after
hostilities had begun he used his efforts to bring the rebel leaders
to reason. But only after he had been beaten did Beyers go to
Onze Rust, nor was it until he, too, had been defeated that de Wet
showed any desire to visit Steyn. The ex-President himself
publicly uttered no word. It may here be added that two years
later Steyn died and the restraining hand which he had laid
upon the extreme manifestations of Dutch racialism was removed.
Hertzog, who had not joined the rebels, and had indeed given
Steyn some help in trying to induce de Wet and Beyers not to
proceed to hostilities, was then free to develop his demand for
separation from the Empire.
General Botha delayed operations against Beyers and de Wet
as long as there was any possibility of avoiding bloodshed, indeed
the Government was sharply criticized for allowing
captured, de Wet undisturbed to overrun the northern part of
the Free State on pretext of carrying on private
negotiations. Rebel activity in the Transvaal at length com-
pelled action and Gen. Botha himself took the field against his
old colleagues. If that action finally destroyed his influence
with part of the Boers, it won the support of many others and
it was one of the disappointments of the rebels that so many
men of their own blood sided with the Government. On Oct. 27
Botha dispersed a rebel commando led by Beyers at Commissie
Drift, S. of Rustenburg. Even after this encounter in which
the casualties were two or three men wounded efforts were
made to avoid further fighting, but unavailingly. Beyers crossed
into the Free State and on Nov. 7 a fight took place at Gruis
Drift, on the Vet river, in which some 400 rebels were taken
prisoners. It was after this defeat that Beyers, under a safe
conduct, sought a belated conference with Steyn, a conference
which led to no result. Meanwhile de Wet had been active in
the Free State, his burghers freely pillaging all whom they pleased.
At Vrede on Oct. 29 he denounced " the ungodly policy of
General Botha," the " miserable pestilent English " and de-
scribed the S.W. expedition as " a dastardly act of robbery."
On Nov. 9 he seized Winburg; he had refused to go to Onze Rust
to see Steyn. Smuts rightly gauged the mentality of de Wet in
stating that unless he were " convinced by force " he would not
listen to reason. On Nov. 12 Botha defeated de Wet's main
commando, some 2,000 strong, at Mushroom Valley, 18 m. S.E.
of Winburg. After this de Wet was willing to go and see Steyn,
but the Government was convinced that the time had gone by
for the rebels to " extort peace terms " and on Nov. 17 Smuts
informed Steyn that now unconditional surrender was required, .
on the basis of very lenient terms already announced. Pressed
by the Government troops de Wet doubled and redoubled and
finally, with some 50 followers, turned due W. hoping to make
German territory. But he was overtaken about 100 m. W.
of Mafeking his tired horses being no match for the fleet
armoured cars chasing him and surrendered, Dec. i (1914) to
Col. Brits. A few days later the end came for Beyers. After
his visit to Steyn he had rejoined his commando, and after an
engagement at Bultfontein on Nov. 16 made N. intending to re-
enter the Transvaal. On Dec. 8, in the Hoopstad district, he
was once again defeated. With some 25 burghers Beyers reached
the Vaal river near Zand Spruit closely pressed by a party under
Field-Cornet P. H. de Necker. While the rebels put up a delaying
fight, Beyers and one companion tried to cross the river on
horseback. When fired upon they dismounted. Their horses
managed to gain the further bank, but Beyers and his comrade,
though they escaped the bullets, were carried away by the
current and drowned. A week later (Dec. 16) the last of the rebel
commanders, Fourie, was defeated and he surrendered. The re-
bellion was over. 1
Altogether about 10,000 men had been in armed rebellion, while
the number of their sympathizers was very considerable. In
their ranks were three members of Parliament. The casualties
on the Government side were 132 killed and 277 wounded. Of
the rebels over 5,700 were either captured or surrendered their
casualties are not known, and many returned home during
hostilities under assurances that by so doing they would not be
prosecuted. Only one man, Fourie, an officer of the Citizen
Force who appears to have deserted while on active service,
suffered the last penalty. He was tried by court-martial and
shot on Dec. 20. The rest of the rebels were leniently treated.
De Wet, in June 1915, was sentenced to six years' imprisonment
and a fine of 2,000; Kemp was sentenced to seven years' im-
prisonment and a fine of 1,000. Others received lesser sentences
and few, if any, served their full term; de Wet, for instance, and
118 others were released in Dec. 1915 in time to spend their
Christmas at home.
During the insurrection Hertzog's name had been freely cou-
pled with that of the rebels, and in the parliamentary session of
1915 he made himself their advocate. He was no rebel, neither,
1 Major Kemp had been sent, on Nov. 2, by Beyers on a mission to
get arms and ammunition from Maritz. Kemp, who had with him
some 800 men, appeared at Kuruman on Nov. 8 where he obtained
supplies from the townsfolk. Followed up by loyal forces he made
his way to German territory and joined Maritz at the end of Novem-
ber. In Jan. 1915, in company with Maritz, he reappeared, attacked
Upington and was defeated. At the same place on Feb. 3, with over
500 men he surrendered to Col. (later Maj.-Gen. Sir) J. L. Van
Deventer, while 100 of Maritz's men surrendered at Kakamas.
Maritz and his immediate following withdrew to German S.-Wes
Africa. Not wanted there Maritz went to Angola and to Lisbon.
SOUTH AFRICA
543
he maintained, were de Wet, Beyers and their following. Their
action was only " an armed protest " against the invasion of
German S. West Africa. 1 Nor did Hertzog and his parliamen-
tary supporters modify their attitude; they sought to gain at
the polls what the rebels had tried to gain arms in hand. But
Gen. Botha had no difficulty in enrolling thousands of Boer
volunteers for the campaign in German S. West Africa; the
force raised for that purpose was composed almost equally
of Dutch and British S. Africans. The campaign ended in the
surrender of the Germans on July 9 1915, and on his return home
Botha received a triumphal welcome from Boer and Briton alike.
Popular feeling against Germany had become intense with the
sinking of the " Lusitania," which led to serious riots; in Johannes-
burg alone damage to German property estimated at 500,000
was done.
After the conquest of German S. W. Africa Nationalist hostil-
ity was aroused by the beginning of recruitment for service in
Europe. The response to the appeal for volunteers,
Forces considering the hostility of the Nationalists, was
r . alse .t excellent. First to last the Union (apart from forces
lor War
Service. used in suppressing the rebellion) raised 146,515
men for service in the World War, and of these over
30,000 served in Europe and 43,000 in E. Africa. These fig-
ures refer only to whites. Including the native labour contin-
gents and the coloured combatant corps from the Cape provi-
inces the total personnel of the S.A. forces on war service was
231,591. The casualties numbered 18,642, including 6,606 dead.
None knew better than Gens. Botha and Smuts how deeply
they were distrusted by a large section of the Dutch community.
The general election held on Oct. 20 1915, fought
on t ' le * ssucs ra i se< i by the rebellion, gave a very
Kis. fair indication of the strength of the Dutch irrecon-
cilables. Botha had appealed to the electors to sink
their differences and " see the war through." Out of a total of
130 seats in the House of Assembly the S.A. (Botha's) party
gained 54, the Nationalists (Hertzogites) 27 and the Unionist
(mainly British) party 40. Labour, out of favour after the in-
dustrial upheaval, gained only three seats and there were six
Independents (all anti-Hertzogites). Most of the Nationalist
members were returned for constituencies situated in the dis-
tricts where the rebellion had been. The luck of the ballot was
with Botha and the Unionists for the figures of the poll showed
the Nationalist strength to be greater than the number of seats
secured. The figures were: South African party 93,374 votes,
Nationalists 78,301, Unionists 48,484, Labour 25,305, Indepen-
dents 12,029. Some 75% of the electors voted.
As a result of the election Botha was dependent for continuance
in office on the support of the Unionists, and this was ungrudging-
ly given. There was some talk of Sir Thomas Smartt and other
leaders of the Unionists joining the Ministry, but this was not
done. The cordial support given by the Unionists to Gen. Botha
was the more valuable as the Nationalists continued their agita-
tion and increased their demands. Hertzog's efforts were power-
less to affect the policy of the Cabinet but they led to increased
bitterness in S. Africa. The Government had, nevertheless,
no difficulty in securing volunteers for service in German E.
Africa. The appointment of Gen. Smuts as commander of the
British forces there entailed his absence from the Cape, an ab-
sence prolonged by his selection early in 1917 as a member of the
Imperial War Cabinet in London. This was a serious loss to
Botha in the conduct of home policy.
After Steyn's death (in Nov. 1916) Hertzog became more openly
hostile than ever to the imperial connexion. At Stellenbosch
in May 1917 he declared that S. Africa's autonomy
Propa- fcan (zelfstandigheid) entitled her to remain neutral in the
xauda. war and that no real self-government could exist
without independence of all other countries, including
Great Britain. "The only bond that binds us together," he
said, "is our common King but under him we each stand separately
and independent of each other." But even " the common bond "
1 In a proclamation issued by Beyers and de Wet on Oct. 29^1914,
they signed themselves " generals of the protesting burghers."
was irksome, and the logical outcome of Hertzog's policy was
seen in the adoption by the Nationalist party of republicanism
as a plank in their programme, to be achieved " by steady con-
stitutional pressure." The opposite policy was seen that year in
operation in London. General Smuts was sitting in the Cabinet
with equality of status with that of the ministers of the United
Kingdom, and the Imperial War Conference of that year (1917)
declared the Dominions to be " autonomous nations of an
Imperial Commonwealth with an adequate voice in foreign
policy." The adoption of republicanism in the Nationalist
.platform was strongly resented in the Union and on the motion
of Mr. Merriman who voiced very accurately the feelings of
most of the Cape province Dutchmen a motion condemning
republican propaganda was carried (June 18 1917) by 72 votes
to 21. The propaganda, however, grew in virulence. There was,
said Gen. Botha in 1918, an agitation on foot to establish a re-
public by violent means.
It will be seen that throughout the World War S.A. had been
divided by bitter racial strife. It was not, however, the traditional
clash betweed Briton and Boer, but a combination of Boer and
Briton against a section of the Boer community, and this marked
an advance on old conditions. Nor were all those who gave
Hertzog their votes really prepared to follow him to all lengths.
But the defeat of Germany brought no respite in the Nationalist
agitation it rather increased, nor did it require much astuteness
for Hertzog to fix upon President Wilson's declarations in favour
of self-determination as a weapon. The last half of 1918 was,
however, noteworthy in S.A. for other than political happenings.
In the influenza epidemic which swept over the world S.A.
suffered very severely. Influenza attacked both the white and
coloured population and was most severe in the Cape peninsula.
A total of 54,899 deaths were registered in Aug.-Dec. 1918. Of
these, 11,510 were among whites and of these 6,094 occurred in
the Cape province. (There was a recurrence of the epidemic in
1919, but in a milder form.)
As soon as the World War ended Gen. Botha was summoned
to London 2 where he joined Gen. Smuts. They represented S.A.
throughout the peace negotiations and both were
signatories of the Treaty of Versailles, under which S. Natloaal-
A. and the other British Dominions became original sj//-d"<er-
members of the League of Nations. The counter- mlnatloa.
measures of the Nationalists failed. No sooner had
hostilities ceased than the central committee of their organization
sent a note to President Wilson expressing their desire to lay
before him their aspiration that the principle of self-determina-
tion should be applied as much to the S.A. people as to " other
small nations." Mr. Wilson declined to interfere. General
Hertzog was at heart most concerned to regain independence
for the ex-Dutch republics. Thus in a debate initiated by Sir
Thomas Smartt on the republican propaganda in the House of
Assembly in Feb. 1919 he maintained the right of the Free State
to break away from the Union. At the opening of the session
in Jan. one of his henchmen, Mr. Tielman Roos, in the debate on
the resolution congratulating King George on the victory of the
Allies, had moved an amendment declaring that peace could
only be maintained by the " complete application " of the prin-
ciple of self-determination enunciated by the Allied and Associated
Powers. This amendment had been defeated by 73 votes to 20.
Hoping to get some advantage out of the struggle going on
around the Peace Conference table in Paris Gen. Hertzog and
certain of his colleagues determined to visit Europe. Hertzog
held that the question of the Union as a whole becoming a re-
public was a matter in which Great Britain had no voice, but
meanwhile Great Britain might " redress the wrong done to the
ex-Dutch republics by restoring to them their freedom." He
and his colleagues would lay their case before the Prime Minister,
Mr. Lloyd George. When it was announced that a Nationalist
di-putation would leave for England, trouble arose. The crews
of the mail steamers intimated that they would not put to sea
if Gen. Hertzog and his colleagues were passengers. This difficulty
was met by the offer to bring them over to England in a British
2 In Botha's absence Mr. F. S. Malan was acting Prime Minister. -
544
SOUTH AFRICA
man-of-war. Hertzog, however, realized that that would render
him ridiculous; eventually he and his friends sailed in a Dutch
vessel to New York, whence they took passage to Europe. They
saw Mr. Lloyd George, they visited Paris, and they returned to
S.A. unsatisfied. Mr. Lloyd George pointed out to them, among
other things, that the restoration of the Dutch republics was not
a matter to bring before the Imperial Government; the Union
of S.A. was a self-governing state and could speak only through
its own constitutionally chosen Ministry.
The Treaty of Versailles having been signed (June 28 1919)
Gens. Botha and Smuts returned to S. Africa. A few weeks
later Gen. Botha, whose health had been indifferent
Botha's for some time, died (Aug. 27) after a very brief illness.
Death: j n jjj m g.A. lost one of her greatest sons, and the
Prime Empire a man who, whether as friend or foe, had
Minister, been large minded, sincere and whole-hearted. With
regard to Botha's successor Lord Buxton, the gover-
nor-general, had no hesitation. Gen. Smuts was the inevitable
choice. In Sept. at a special session of Parliament, the peace
treaty with Germany was debated, and a resolution passed ask-
ing King George to ratify it on behalf of the Union. In this de-
bate and on many other occasions Gen. Smuts dwelt on the en-
hanced position S.A. had acquired as a result of the World War;
she had not only become an equal member of the British Com-
monwealth, with a voice in the direction of its foreign affairs, but
a separate entity in the comity of nations. Greater freedom it
could not possess; it was mistress of its own destinies, but, so he
argued, it was not open to the Union to break away from the
British connexion.
The war had ended, economically S.A. had suffered from it
less than might have been anticipated, and a period of trade
expansion had set in. Smuts, both in generalship and in diplo-
macy, had been the greatest figure which the British Dominions
had thrown up during the conflict. He was presently called
upon to get the verdict of his own people on his policy and actions,
for by the constitution, another general election was due. It
was held in March 1920 in circumstances somewhat unfavourable
for the Ministry. Though on imperial questions the Unionist
party and the S.A. party held the same views, there were many
points on purely domestic issues on which they did not agree and
they opposed one another at the polls, often too when a National-
ist was contesting the same seat. There were several triangular
and even some quadrilateral contests caused by Labour candi-
datures. And the election showed that the Nationalists, deter-
minedly narrow in their outlook for many back-veld Boers the
world outside S.A. counted as nothing had gained strength.
There were 134 seats to be filled as against 130 in 1915. The
Nationalists came out the strongest single party with 4$ seats;
the S.A. party held 40, the Unionists 25, while Labour gained
the remarkable number of 21 seats. Three Independents com-
pleted the list. The Nationalists were jubilant and with the
help of the Labour members hoped for great things. Gen.
Smuts was in a difficult position but he resolved to meet Parlia-
ment and carry on the Government. This could only be done
with the help of the Unionists and that help was given to
Smuts as freely as it had been given to Botha. Even so, the
margin of votes was exceedingly small and would have disap-
peared had not several of the Labour members on the main
issues also supported the Ministry. As it was Smuts went
through the session with remarkable skill and succeeded in
passing more than one important measure among others the
Native Administration Act (see above).
The evidence that the election had afforded of the strength
of the Nationalists could not however be ignored, nor was it
possible that in the existing state of parties Parliament
JogEfforis. cou ld continue to do its work efficiently or the country
be at peace. Some way out must be found. Consider-
ing his race, it is not a matter for wonder that Smuts tried first
to see if an accommodation could be reached with the National-
ists. A reunited party which would have the support of the
whole Dutch community was a tempting prospect. Negotiations
went on for some time; finally in Sept. 1920 a hereeniging (re-
union) conference was held at Bloemfontein. It failed, and its
failure might have been foreseen. On various points the Nation-
alists or the S.A. party were prepared for compromise, but when
the test came it was seen that there was no bridging the gulf
which separated them on essentials. Gen. Smuts and his party
held firm to the principles of the unity of the Union and the
preservation of the ties which linked the Union to the Empire.
The Nationalists, on their side, refused to abandon the republican
plank in their platform.
Gen. Smuts consequently turned for support elsewhere. In a
manifesto issued on Sept. 29 and addressed to " all right minded
S. Africans, irrespective of race or party " he asked them " to
join a new party which shall be strong enough to safeguard the
permanent interests of the Union against the disruptive and
destructive policy of the Nationalists." This was an open bid
to the Unionists, nor were they indisposed to respond. Their
fundamental principles were those of Gen. Smuts and his follow-
ers. But when at the conference of the S.A. party, held on Oct.
27, a resolution was adopted directing the head committee of
the organization to take the necessary steps not for the creation
of a new party, but for " an expansion of the S.A. party,"
some difficulty was created. The Unionists, who represented
the bulk of the British section of the community,
had, though with natural regret, been prepared to
make a new combination, but they disliked the
idea of simple absorption into a predominantly Dutch organ-
ization. These feelings were expressed at the Unionist party
conference at Bloemfontein early in November. Counsels of
patriotism prevailed and at a meeting between the Unionist
executive and Gen. Smuts at Johannesburg on Nov. 27, a com-
plete agreement was reached. The Unionists joined the S.A.
party, which retained its name. Nor was it an unfitting title,
though it would become meaningless if the fusion of the two
races came about, and the old distinction between Boer and
Briton obliterated. This possibility was precisely what the
Nationalists (and also a few British extremists) most dreaded
while it was the goal to which Smuts looked forward. Speaking in
London on May 22 1917, he had declared " we want to create
a blend out of various nationalities. We want to create a new
nation and that is the South African nation. ... I am hopeful
that ... we shall in the end succeed and create under our
South African sun a new type in the world."
Having drawn together the supporters of "national unity of
the European races and the economic development of S.A. along
peaceful lines " Gen. Smuts made a new appeal to the country,
backed by the whole strength of what had been the Unionist
party. Smuts fought the election on the republican issue. With
the alternative thus nakedly put the Nationalists took alarm.
They knew that success for them on such an issue was impossible
and therefore they tried to confuse the people, and snatch a vic-
tory on other grounds. Severance from the British Empire, the
turning of the Union into a republic, was not, they declared,
their immediate object, rather was it an ideal which they hoped
to attain in a remote future. This manoeuvre deceived no one.
Even if the Nationalists did not ardently desire a complete
rupture with Great Britain they did want to secure at once com-
plete ascendency in the ex-Boer Republics. During the election
campaign Hertzog was induced to put the case baldly. Heckled
at a meeting at Roodebank in the Standerton district he said
that " even today (1921) he would accept a republic in the
Transvaal and Free State and those Englishmen who objected
might retain their British citizenship. If they had any grievances
they would be represented by a British diplomatic agent."
He admitted that if his wish were granted and difficulties arose
the country would be in exactly the same position as before the
Boer War.
The election was held in Feb. 1921 and resulted in a notable
triumph for Gen. Smuts and the enlarged S.A. party. But it was
significant that the Nationalist vote increased and that on balance
of losses and gains they held two more seats in the new than they
had held in the old Parliament. The distribution of parties was
as follows: South African 76, Nationalist 47, Labour 10, In-
SOUTH AFRICA
545
dependent i. 1 The 76 seats held by the S.A. party compared
with 40 in the old S.A. party and 25 in the old Unionist party.
The gains of the enlarged party had been at the expense of the
Labour candidates. But an analysis of the poll showed that
Smuts had rallied to his side many doubtful voters besides those
transferred from Labour. Nor could the Nationalists claim that
those who voted for Labour candidates favoured their propa-
ganda; there were in the Transvaal bitter contests between
Nationalist and Labour candidates. In considering the figures
of the votes cast it should be remembered that nine S.A. party
candidates were returned unopposed, whereas only one National-
ist (Gen. Hertzog himself) was not opposed. It is also note-
worthy that the Nationalists' successes we're almost entirely
in rural and remote constituencies, decisive evidence that their
strength lay in the back- veld Boers. The figures were: S.A.
party 138,942 (an increase of 19,455 compared with 1920),
Nationalists 104,692 (an increase of over 8,000 ), Labour 28,983
(a decrease of over 12,000).
Following upon the election there was a reorganization of the
Cabinet in which Sir Thos. Smartt became Minister for Agricul-
ture, Mr. Patrick Buncan Minister for the Interior, and Mr. J. W.
Jagger Minister for Railways and Harbours. Another leader of
the late Unionist party, Sir Edgar Walton, was appointed High
Commissioner in London. In June 1921 Gen. Smuts, Sir T.
Smartt and Col. H. Mentz (Minister of Defence) came to London
to attend the Imperial Conference. In regard to matters affect-
ing the internal affairs of S.A. the most delicate question dis-
cussed by the conference was the status of British Indians (see
above). While the ministers were still in London the question
of the future of Rhodesia advanced a stage. A deputation had
been invited to discuss with the Colonial Office a plan for as-
certaining whether Rhodesia was prepared to take a referendum
upon a definite scheme of self-government (see RHODESIA).
Largely however as the result of the general election in the
Union in Feb. 1921 the party in Rhodesia which preferred to
join the Union had again grown in strength. The Rhodesian
deputation saw Gen. Smuts early in Sept., immediately after
his return to Cape Town, when it was made clear that though
the admission of Rhodesia as a province of the Union would be
welcomed, it was a matter for the Rhodcsians to decide.
In the 1921 election campaign the Nationalists sought to evade
the main issue partly by assailing the policy of the Government
on native affairs. That policy has already been out-
lined; by Nationalist orators addressing the back-veld
Boer the conciliatory measures adopted were de-
nounced as "cooperating with niggers"; by Nationalist orators
addressing audiences in the Cape province where the native
had the vote the segregation clauses of the Act of 1920 were
denounced as evidence of the bias of the Government against
the Kaffirs. This method of electioneering had elements of danger,
for discontent among considerable sections of the natives was
pronounced. The chief ground of complaint was in regard to
their economic position. The natives had been quick to learn
the lesson of the strikes of white labour on the Rand and in 1917
and subsequent years there had been strikes and native dis-
turbances at Johannesburg and other cities. There were also
many evidences of political and religious ferment. Serious
disturbances at the Lovedale missionary institute in April i92o, 2
were followed on Oct. 23 of the same year by a disastrous collision
at Port Elizabeth. In the last-named case the native labourers
had struck for higher wages and their leader, Masabalala,
president of the Native Workers Union, had been arrested and
refused bail. An angry crowd gathered before the court house
and fire was opened upon it by the Europeans who feared an
'These figures include the results of recounts and of two by-
elections in the Transvaal, necessitated by ties in the voting at the
general election. At two by-elections for Cape Town constituencies
in Sept. 1921 Labour candidates won, bringing the Labour members
of Parliament to 12 and reducing the S.A. Party to 74.
* The students attempted to burn down the college buildings
and murder the professors. The rioting began with complaints as
to the quality of the bread served, which was the same for whites
and blacks.
xxxn. 18
Native
Unrest.
attack. Rioting and incendiarism ensued and for a time it looked
as if Port Elizabeth would be at the mercy of the natives. In all
over 20 persons (including one European) were killed and 40
injured. The action of the natives was condemned by many of
their leaders, such as Dr. Rubusana, an ex-member of the Cape
provincial council and by Mr. Jabavu, 3 a graduate of London
University, who, while calling for the remedy of grievances,
denounced the " Bolshevist propaganda " permeating the native
mind. An investigation made by a commission appointed by the
Government tended to show that the authorities at Port Eliza-
beth had mishandled the affair, and that bloodshed might have
been avoided had Masabalala been granted bail. It was a cause
for angry recriminations later when Nationalist candidates for
Parliament appeared on the same platform as Masabalala.
A greater tragedy followed at Bulhoek, near Queenstown on
May 24 1921. For months several hundreds of natives known
as Israelites, proselytes of one Enoch Ngijima, who gave himself
out as the prophet Enoch, had been allowed to remain at Bulhoek
and they had become a menace to the community. Whether or
not earlier action might have averted the calamity is not certain;
in this case the Government acted with great forbearance. But
at length it became imperative that the Israelites should be
compelled to return to their homes, and forces were moved to
Bulhoek to be in readiness for eventualities. Enoch proved
intractable and his followers proved themselves possessed of all
the fanaticism of dervishes. On May 24, when preparations
were being made for their removal, large numbers of them, though
destitute of firearms, charged the troops, and some 400 were killed
or wounded before their ranks wavered and broke. On this
occasion the soldiers had no option but to fire; the Israelites,
though their reckless charge exhibited only fanaticism, had also
shown military skill and had dug trenches and prepared am-
bushes for the troops. Their dispersal was a necessity. Neither
did fesponsible native leaders approve Enoch's teachings.
The Bulhoek tragedy was, however, regarded by the leaders
of the natives as the outcome of unjust economic laws. The
case against the Government was put by Mr. Selby Maimang,
the president of the Industrial Commercial Workers Union a
union which embraced nearly all the native and coloured trade
organizations in South Africa at its meeting at Cape Town in
July 1921. Mr. Maimang said that the land laws of the country
were to blame for the catastrophe. Enoch's following had fallen
victims to bad influences brought about by bad administration.
Coloured workers were smarting under irritating disabilities in
every walk of life. Mr. Maimang, a representative of moderate
opinion among the natives, reprobated the useless stirring up
of passions, declaring it to be the duty of the Union to educate
all non-European workers to guard their own interests. Organ-
ization was essential; they could only ward themselves against
exploitation by a distinct band of comradeship. As to that many
European employers were already convinced that combination
among the natives engaged in industries was a factor which they
could not ignore.
The decline in trade which became noticeable in the middle of
1920, and was acute in the first half of 1921, added to the dif-
ficulties of the industrial problem. It affected both white and
coloured labour severely and caused renewed agitation on the
Rand, while diamond mining came almost to a standstill.
Lord Buxton's tenure of the office of governor-general and
high commissioner came to an end in 1920. In very difficult cir-
cumstances he had carried out his duties with firmness and in a
manner which won the esteem of all classes, including the Nation-
alists. He identified himself with the interests of S. Africa. On
giving up office he was granted an earldom (Oct. 21 1920), and
on his return home served as chairman of the committee ap-
pointed to inquire into the future government of Rhodesia. Prince
Arthur of Connaught was chosen as the new governor-general
and high commissioner. He reached the Cape on Nov. 17 ten
years after his father, the Duke of Connaught, had opened the
first session of the Union Parliament.
8 Son of Tengo Jabavu (d. 1921), editor of Imvo (zi Bantu), an
influential native newspaper, which he had founded in 1884.
546
SOUTH AFRICA
AUTHORITIES: (a) Official. The Official Year Book of the Union,
prepared by the Union census and statistics department is a valuable
record and contains sections relating to state archives and official
publications and a classified bibliography. The Colonial Office,
London, publishes annual reports on the native protectorates, and
the Colonial Office List (yearly) gives lists of all parliamentary papers.
The Government of India issues reports concerning Indians in S.A.
(see especially Statement made by Sir B. Robertson before the Asiatic
Enquiry Commission (1921), a survey of the whole question).
(6) Geography, Natural History, etc.. Sir C. P. Lucas, Historical
Geography; South Africa (Part II., revised by A. B. Keith, 1915) ; R.
Marlot Flora of South Africa (4 yols. 1913-5); F. W. Fitzsimmons,
The Natural History of South Africa (1919) ; J. D. F. Gilchrist, South
African Zoology (1911);}. W. Bews, Grasses and Grasslands of South
Africa (1918); E. H. L. Schwartz, The Kalahari, or Thirstland Re-
demption (1920).
(c) Philology, Native questions, etc.. Sir H. H. Johnston, A Com-
parative Study of the Bantu and Semi-Bantu Languages (1919);
Alice Werner, Introductory Sketch of the Bantu Languages (1919);
W. A. Crabtree, "Bantu Speech," Jnl. African Soc. (1918-9);
C. Pettman, Africanderisms (1913); S. T. Plaatje, Native Life in
South Africa (1916); Jabavu, The Black Problem (1920); L. Perin-
guey, Stone Age of South Africa (1911) ; Sir H. Sloley, " Recent De-
velopments in Basutqland," Jnl. African Soc. (Jan. 1917).
(d) Political, Descriptive and Social. Violet Markham, The South
African Scene (1913); M. Nathan, The South African Common-
wealth (1919, with useful bibliography); O. Letcher, The Bonds of
Africa (1914); A. J. Macdonald, Trade, Politics and Christianity in
Africa and the East (1916); F. C. Cornell, The Glamour of Prospect-
ing (1920) ; Lady Duff Gordon, Letters from the Cape (ed. by J. Purvis,
1921), the first separate, publication of these striking letters, written
in 1861.)
() History. G. McCall Theal, History and Ethnography of South
Africa[to 1884] (final ed. xi vols. 1919) ;G. E.Cory, Rise of South Af-
rica [to 1857] (iii. vols. 1910-9) ; W. C. Scully, A History of South
Africa to the Union (1915); Sir E. Walton, Inner History of the
National Convention (1912); A. B. Worsfold, The Union of South
Africa (1912); The Times History of the War, Vol. iii, chap. 64,
the South African Rebellion (1915); Report on the outbreak of the
Rebellion (an official publication, 1915); and the Report of the
Judicial Commission of Inquiry into the causes of the Rebellion (1916).
See also The South and East African Year Book and Guide, edited
annually by A. S. and G. G. Brown, an increasingly useful work;
The South African Journal of Science; the Trans. Geological Soc.
South Africa; and the Jnl. African Society of London. For economics
see the lists given in the Official Year Book. (F. R. C.)
DEFENCE AND MILITARY INSTITUTIONS
The establishment of union in S. Africa in the year 1910 in-
volved a fusion of the different military systems then obtaining
in the four colonies which became original Constituent Provinces
in the new amalgamation. These systems were as follows.
The Cape Colony maintained a permanent force (the Cape
Mounted Riflemen) together with a volunteer force and a cadet
organization. The forces of Natal consisted of a military force,
of much the same strength (3,000-4,000 men) and character as
the volunteer force of the Cape and a reserve organized in rifle
clubs, and included cadets again on much the same lines as those
of the kindred organization in the Cape Colony. The two forces
contained regiments of long standing and high reputation gained
in many local campaigns and embraced all arms. These regi-
ments retained their identity in the new forces. A volunteer
force on modern lines, confined to the towns, except for two
mounted regiments recruited from country districts, was the
form of military organization which had been adopted by the
Transvaal. This force, however, had only been in existence
for seven or eight years at the date of union. In the same period
an efficient cadet system had been instituted. In each of these
three colonies a small permanent staff was maintained. The
Orange Free State relied upon the burgher system based on
universal male liability for service in time of war, a principle
accepted indeed by ah 1 the four colonies, and reaffirmed in the
present S. Africa Defence Act.
It was not until June 14 1912 that it was found possible to
pass a law embodying the recommendations which had been
made and the conclusions which had been arrived at after in-
vestigation, but upon this date the S. Africa Defence Act, 1912,
was placed on the statute book. Field-Marshal Lord Methuen,
then commander-in-chief of the British forces in S. Africa,
evinced great interest in the matter of South African defence
and assisted the local military authorities in the conferences and
deliberations which preceded the passing of the Act. By this
Act every citizen between 17 and 60 (both included) is liable
to render personal service in time of war in defence of the Union
" in any part of South Africa." A permanent force is provided
for, but in May 1921 an amending bill was before the House of
Assembly, which if accepted would materially alter the com-
position and functions of this force.
Every citizen is liable to undergo, beginning in his twenty-first
year, four years " peace training " in the Active Citizen Force,
which constitutes the first line of defence. It is however permissible
for any citizen to enter voluntarily for his " peace training " in any
year between his i/th and 2lst years (both included). The number
of citizens to be trained in the Active Citizen Force is placed in the
Act at 50 % of the total number liable, but Parliament has power to
increase this number. If the number required for training in any
district is greater than that of its voluntary entries, a ballot may be
taken to make good the shortage. After four years' " peace training "
in the Active Citizen Force the citizen goes to Class A of the Citizen
Force Reserve where he remains until his 45th year. A Coast Garri-
son Force is established, and service may be undertaken in that
force as equivalent to Active Citizen Force " peace training." A
similar concession is allowed to citizens who may elect to serve in the
Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve which is part of the Royal Naval
Reserve constituted under the Naval Forces Act 1903 (Great
Britain and Irejand) and may be placed at the disposal of the Royal
Naval authorities. Any citizen who at 21 has not been entered for
service in the Active Citizen Force (or one of its equivalents) js
compelled to serve for four years in a Rifle Association where he is
taught to be " familiar with the use of military weapons of pre-
cision," after which he is included in Class B. of the Citizen Force
Reserve until his 45th year. Cadet service is compulsory, but a
request from a parent or guardian that a boy " be exempt from cadet
training " secures a certificate of exemption. Several special reserves
are provided for in the Act, and one of these, the Veteran Reserve,
was largely used in establishments within the Union during the
period 19148. The National Reserve consists of all citizens who,
liable to render personal service in time of war, do not belong to any
other portion of the forces. The full establishments of the Active
Citizen Force in 1914 represented a force of approximately 30,000
men. The periods of " peace training " are not more than 30 days
in the first year and 21 days in each subsequent year with a maximum
of continuous training (in camp) of 22 and 15 days respectively.
The response to the first year's (1913) call for entries was striking,
and 44,193 citizens entered voluntarily for training, producing a
strength of 14,000 in excess of requirements. The following year
saw the outbreak of the World War, and the annual registration in
Jan. of all citizens who reach the age of 17 in the year has been in
abeyance since Jan. 1914.
Immediately after the passage of the Defence Act in 1912 steps
were taken to establish the military system for which it provided.
The permanent force at its inception consisted of two portions. The
staff was employed partly at defence headquarters and partly dis-
tributed in the 15 military districts of the Union. The South African
Mounted Riflemen (five regiments and three batteries of field
artillery) was, with the exception of the artillery, employed solely
on police work, and divided into very small detachments on posts.
The whole of the police force had in May 1921 been placed under the
command of the commissioner of police, and the new military
arrangements proposed in 1921 contemplated a reduced permanent
force employed on military duties alone. 1
The complications introduced by the rebellion made it im-
possible to call out the whole of the citizen forces in the forma-
tions in which they strictly belonged, and, though a considerable
number of units of the Active Citizen Force were called out by
proclamation in the regular way, most of the Dutch members
of the forces many of whom were beyond the age of those in
the Active Citizen Force were specially embodied under the
old commando system to which they had been formerly ac-
customed. Thus the whole of the Dutch-speaking units serving
under Gen. Botha in the rebellion and German S. W. Africa
were organized on a commando basis, the English speaking units
being those of the Active Citizen Force. In the rebellion 30,000
troops (of whom 20,000 were of Dutch descent) were employed
at a cost of 5,100,000 to the Union Government, and casualties
to the extent of 132 killed and 242 wounded were sustained by
the loyal troops. In German S.W. Africa 67,237 Union troops
were engaged at an approximate cost of 15,000,000 and 127
lives were lost, the wounded amounting to 272.
1 The S. African Mounted Riflemen, as a brigade, served in the
rebellion of 1914, and at the close of the campaign in German S.W.
Africa, but thereafter were retained in the Union, though many
individual members of the force served with credit and distinction on
many battle fronts.
SOUTH CAROLINA
547
At the conclusion of the campaign in German S.W. Africa the
Union Government turned its attention to other fields in which
assistance was needed. These were oversea, and the liability of S.
African citizens to military service did not extend to such distant
spheres of activity. It was thus necessary to devise special
measures to furnish troops composed of S. Africans who were
prepared of their free will to serve beyond the limits of S. Africa.
In July 1915 the Imperial Government accepted the offer
of the Union Government to furnish personnel for units for
service beyond S. Africa. A director of war recruiting was ap-
pointed and recruiting was maintained until the Armistice in
1918. The following are the numbers of all the forces which were
raised in the Union for the different campaigns in which South
African troops took part:
The rebellion 30,000
German S.W. Africa 67,237
Overseas (France) 30,880
German E. & Central Africa 47,521
For service in the Union . . 5,180
The achievements of the S. Africans in France and their
fortitude under hardship in the East African campaign are
matters of history.
The coloured community in the Cape province had early
expressed a strong desire to furnish a representative body of
troops, and an. infantry battalion of the Cape Corps was formed,
and later a second battalion was recruited. The regiment after
gaining valuable experience in E. and Central Africa was sent
as one battalion to Egypt and Palestine, where it served with
credit. The natives of the Union, who throughout the war
maintained an attitude of complete self-control and loyalty,
furnished for non-combatant duties 35,000 men for German S.W.
Africa, 10,600 for France and 18,000 for E. and Central Africa.
Some hundreds of natives lost their lives in the transport
" Mendi " which was sunk in the English Channel.
While, as a consequence of the large number of men who,
especially at the outset of the war, joined the British forces
as individuals, a full statement of the casualties sustained by
S. Africa in the World War is not available, the following figures
give some idea of the incidence of losses. In the S. African In-
fantry Brigade in France nearly 1 5,000 casualties were sustained,
of which some 5,000 were killed. In the Cape Corps which served
in E. Africa, Egypt and Palestine, the casualties in dead and
wounded totalled 701. Disease and privation took heavy toll
in East Africa and hundreds of men returned to the Union from
the campaign in that country shattered in health. The Royal
Naval Volunteer Reserve supplied and maintained a strong
detachment for service in the Grand Fleet and naval establish-
ments. Hospitals, camps, supply, and ordnance depots, and
veterinary hospitals were formed in S. Africa under Union
control, and heavy purchases were made and vast amounts of
supplies were forwarded to E. Africa under Union military
supervision on behalf of the Imperial Government.
As regards the future military arrangements of the Union the main
provisions of the Act of 1912 have been accepted as sound, though
methods will doubtless be reformed to a considerable extent. An
amending defence bill in May 1921, in addition to important changes
in the constitution and functions of the permanent force, provided
for a resumption of registration, with retrospective effect as regards
citizens who should have been registered in and since 1918; also for
the working of the normal training system in 1922, and for a sub-
stantial increase in the period of continuous " peace training," as
well as for increasing cadet efficiency, by additional expenditure of
public funds and by extending the age for cadet service. The bill
was, however, dropped in June 1921. (J. J. C.)
SOUTH CAROLINA (see 25.499*). The pop. of the state in 19 20
was 1,683,724, an increase of 11-1% over the previous decade,
as compared with 13-1% and 16-4% during the two preceding
decades. During the decade 1910-20 negroes increased from
679,161 to 818,538, or from 44-8% of the total pop. to 48-6%.
The density was 55-2 per sq. mile. The urban, pop. was
!7 - 5% of the whole, as compared with 14-8% in 1910. The
pop. of Charleston was 67,957 an d the decennial increase 15-5%,
the white increase being 28-3% and the negro 4%. The white
pop., increased by war industries, was 52-4% of the whole, con-
stituting a majority for the first time in about 200 years. The
pop. and decennial increase for the other leading cities were as
follows:
1920
1910
Increase
per cent
Columbia
Greenville
37,524
23,127
26,319
15,741
42-6
46-9
Florence . . .
Anderson
Sumter
10,968
J0.579
9,508
1 7'5 1 7
7,057
9,654
8,109
29-2
55-7
9-5
17-3
Manufactures. Textile mills paid very large dividends during
1917-20, and in addition doubled or trebled their capital. Wages
rose greatly, but were cut 30 to 50% in the depression of 1920-1.
The number of spindles in 1918 was 4,914,524; of operatives in 1919,
50.898, a decrease of about 4,000 since 1916; the bales of cotton
consumed diminished from 972,000 in 1916 to 779,000 in 1918-9;
capitalization that year was $201,237,320. Almost half the motive
power in 1920 was hydro-electric. Unionization has not proceeded
far among textile workers, though skilled trades in larger places are
generally organized. The State Board of Conciliation, created in
1916, arbitrates labour disputes on invitation or investigates them
on its own motion or the order of the governor. Women are forbidden
to work in stores after 10 P.M. or over 12 hours in one day.
Agriculture. The coincidence of the World War and a large cotton
crop in 1914 demoralized farming. A law was passed forbidding the
planting of more than a third of a farm's acreage in cotton, but was
repealed before the next planting season. An enormous inflation of
values soon followed and in turn was succeeded by a decline of prices
from about $0.40 to $0.10 or $o.n in six months (1920-1), entailing
great hardship. Legislation (1912) sought to stabilize agricultural
prices by a system of state warehouses for holding products for a
favourable market. Private capital has been extensively invested to
the same end. The boll weevil became a serious menace in 1920 in
the south-western counties. A packing plant with a daily capacity of
400 hogs was established in Orangeburg. Butter-making in coopera-
tive creameries has made some progress. Under the law of 1920
extensive drainage projects were undertaken. Agricultural methods
have improved; farm-houses are better; banks, which have increased
in number and capital, finance the farmer directly at greatly lower
cost than formerly charged by " lien merchants. South Carolina
led all the states in 1917 in crop value per acre with an average of
$63. The value in 1918 was $75. According to state Government
estimate cotton covered in 1920 45% of the cultivated acreage and
represented 50% of the value of the 13 leading crops. One million
five hundred and thirty thousand bales were raised, the state's
acreage being fourth and its production second in the Union. Corn,
second in value, amounted to 42,370,000 bushels. Other crops were:
tobacco 66,950,000 Ib. ; rice 120,000 bus.; sorghum 1,500,000 gal.;
peanuts 1,620,000 bushels. The average value of ploughed lands
was $61 per acre as against $91 for the United States. Average
monthly wages for adult male farm labour without board were
$41.80, next to the lowest for any state. During 1910-20 the
number of farms increased from 176,434 to 192,693; improved land
from 6,097,999 ac. to 6,184,159 ac. ; average value per farm from
$2,223 to $4,946 ; average value per acre from $29.02 to $76.70.
Education. School legislation since 1910 included an Act for
compulsory school attendance in 1919 throughout the state, increased
state additions to local funds, calculated to ensure after 1920 a
seven-months' term in the poorest districts; night schools for adults;
consolidation and grading of rural schools, with transportation for
children; an increased number of high schools; special teachers and
inspectors in rural and textile districts; greatly improved school
buildings; enlarged facilities for agricultural, vocational and home
economics training; state standard certification of teachers and
enforcement of payment for tuition at state colleges by those able to
pay. The most significant principle underlying the forward move-
ment in education has been the recognition of the necessity of greater
assistance from state funds and greater power in the state authorities
as distinguished from the local divisions. Difficulties have been the
lack of competent teachers to carry out the enlarged programme
and maintain the higher standards, the shortness of the rural school
term, and excessive local authority to do or neglect to do what it
pleases. The expenditure on common schools in 1918-9 exceeded
$8,000,000. Attendance in common schools in 1919-20 for whites
was 226,065 ; f. r negroes, 251,980; total 478,045. There were in that
year enrolled in the 36 colleges in the state 12,000 students, of
whom a third were negroes.
The three most numerous religious denominations, the Baptist,
Methodist and Presbyterian, have added materially during 1910-20
to their extensive work in higher education. All but 1 1 of the 36 in-
stitutions for higher education in the statewerein ig2ounder church
control, and these institutions contained a thousand more students
than all state and other non-sectarian institutions combined.
Social Legislation. Every attempt of forces of reaction to'
abandon a step in the large number of forward moves in social
legislation since 1910 has been defeated, usually overwhelmingly.,
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
548
SOUTH DAKOTA
In 1912 race gambling was forbidden. In 1913 the penitentiary
hosiery mill was abolished as harmful to the health of the prisoners.
The State Board of Charities and Corrections, created in I9J5.
was reorganized in 1920 as the State Board of Public Welfare. The
state hospital for the insane was entirely remade, materially and ad-
ministratively, during 1915-9. A school for the feeble-minded was es-
tablished in 1918. The placing of orphans and homeless children was
taken over by the state in 1920. In 1918 the Industrial School for
Girls, a reformatory institution for white girls, was established and
the reformatory for negro boys was reorganized. The probate judge
in each county is constituted a juvenile court, and several cities have
undertaken remedial work for juvenile delinquents and dependents.
Penal and charitable institutions (including church and private
charitable institutions) have been since 1915 under state inspection.
Since 1918 diseased women prisoners of all classes are held until
cured. The age of consent was raised in 1921 to 16 years. No city
has acted upon the permission in 1915 to segregate whites and
negroes by city blocks. Marriage licences were required by law in
1911 and registration of births and deaths in 1914. Medical inspec-
tion of school children was made state-wide in 1920.
Finance. The budget system, concentrating responsibility on the
governor and the chairmen of the two legislative finance com-
mittees, adopted in 1919, has tended to economy and system, though
the Legislature may disregard without any limitation the recom-
mendations. The State Tax Commission, created in 1915, has
improved the administration of the tax laws. The assessed taxable
value of all property in 1920 was $448,222,786, being from a fourth
to a third of the market value. For the state government there was
raised a revenue of approximately $6,000,000; for county govern-
ments $12,000,000; for common schools (local tax) $8,000,000; and
for municipal government between $5,000,000 and $6,000,000.
Political History. The class feeling that has always been
strong in South Carolina politics found violent manifestation
during the governorship of Coleman L. Blease, who served two
terms from 1911 to 1915. Bleasc's political tactics were calcu-
lated to appeal to the lower and less literate elements of
the state; he quarrelled with the state Supreme Court,
with the General Assembly, with other state officers and with
the U.S. authorities. The Legislature was at all times con-
trolled by his opponents, and probably more measures were
passed over his veto than had been so passed in the case of all
former governors combined. He startled a congress of gover-
nors at Richmond, Va., in 1912 by an open advocacy of lynching,
and while governor he pardoned or paroled more than 1,500
criminals. At the time of his resignation (a few days before
his term expired in 1915) he had freed all but 150 convicts, the
number then said to be remaining in the institutions of the state.
Almost his last official act was an order disbanding the state
militia; this was promptly countermanded by his successor.
Resigning without giving any explanation, he was succeeded
for five days by Lt.-Gov. C. A. Smith. In 1918 Mr. Blease
made a campaign for election to the U.S. Senate, taking ex-
treme ground against the country's entering the war. He
was overwhelmingly defeated. A progressive period began with
the election of Gov. Richard I. Manning in 1914. A significant
feature of the campaign was the support given to Prof. John G.
Clinkscales in his advocacy of compulsory education. Gov.
Manning's two administrations were marked by constructive
legislation and effective cooperation with the national Govern-
ment. Gov. Robert A. Cooper was elected in 1918 on a plat-
form that made education its chief plank and frankly announced
that as the result of progressive legislation taxes would be higher.
He was reelected without opposition in 1920. His chief meas-
ures were the strengthening of the public schools, the creation
of a budget system and the consolidation of management of
charitable and correctional institutions. The Australian ballot
was put in force (1921) in primaries, though not in the general
election, the latter being merely a formal ratification of the
former as the Democratic nomination is equivalent to election.
Thz World War. Of the total of 78 Congressional Medals of
Honour awarded, South Carolina received six. The total num-
ber of men sent by South Carolina into the war was 54,254, not
including those who had enlisted before the Unites States de-
clared war. The amount of Liberty and Victory loans and other
Government securities bought was $94,211,244, and $3,027,740
was contributed to Red Cross and similar appeals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Snowden (editor), History of South Carolina
(5 vols. 1920) ; Reports of S.C. Superintendent of Education, Treas-
urer, Comptroller-General and Commissioner of Agriculture, Com-
merce and Industries; S.C. Statutes at large. (D. D. W.)
SOUTH DAKOTA (see 25.506). The pop. of the state in 1920
was 636,547, as compared with 583,888 in 1910, an increase of
52,659, or a little more than 9%. The average density in 1920
was 8-3 per sq. mile. The rural pop. was 84 % of the whole in
1920, against 86-8% in 1910, an increase of 27,460, or 5-4%.
The urban pop. (cities with 2,500 inhabitants and over) was
101,872 in 1920 against 76,673 in 1910, an increase of 25,199,
or nearly 33%. The pop. of Sioux Falls increased 79-7% to
25,176 in 1920. Its rapid growth is due largely to the opening
of extensive packing plants, stock yards and factories. Aber-
deen in 1920 had 14,537 inhabitants; Watertown, 9,400; Mitch-
ell, 8,478; Huron, 8,302; Rapid City, 5,777; Yankton, 5,024;
Lead, 5,013; and Pierre, the state capital, 3,209. The foreign-
born white pop. in 1920 was 82,372, of which 16,807 were Nor-
wegians, 8,569 Swedes, 5,983 Danes, 15,670 Germans, 11,191
Russians, 4,453 Canadians, 2,943 British.
Communications. A panoramic picture of the surface of the state
in 1921 would present many changes from one in 1910, but both
pictures would nave the appearance of a chess-board, of which the
country roads, running a mile apart from E. to W. and from S. to N.,
would mark the squares. In the hills, near river beds, in the bad
lands, and in uncultivated and thinly populated portions, the roads
are not uniformly maintained. The law provides that they be 66 ft.
in width. Each square mile of land is called a section and contains,
including one-half of the roads on the four sides, 640 ac. of land.
The roads are still for the most part dirt roads. During the decade
1910-20 they were considerably improved by grading and elevating
the centre. All of the 64 counties either have been actually engaged
in the building of hard-surfaced roads or have started preparations
for doing so. Advantage is taken of the Federal appropriations for
highway purpose of which South Dakota's share was $4,458,545.
State and county have made heavy assessments. Over $6,000,000
has been spent in building hard-surfaced roads. The state Legisla-
ture appropriated $2,000,000 for the construction, in 1921, at Rapid
City, of a cement plant with a daily capacity of 2,000 barrels. A
system of state trunk highways is supposed to connect all county
seats and all towns having a pop. of 750 and more. A law provides
that every county must employ a county engineer whose occupation
is the planning of better highways. The automobile, the truck and
the tractor have become more common than horsed vehicles, and
have awakened the farmers to the advantage of good roads ; 1 17,320
automobiles, enough to carry comfortably all the inhabitants of the
state at one time were licensed in 1920. In connexion with the
improvement of the roads, mention should be made of the bridge
which was being built in 1921, at a cost of $1,500,000 across the Mis-
souri river at Yankton, and which supplies the last connecting link
of the Meridian Highway which crosses the state and extends from
Winnipeg, Canada, to the Gulf of Mexico. Only about 300 m. of
railway were built during the 10 years, 1910-20.
Agriculture. There were 74,637 farmers in 1920, of whom 47,815
were owners, 26,041 renters and 781 managers. Many owners of the
rented farms either lived on their farms or in the neighbouring towns,
having rented to their prospective heirs. Though there were 74,637
farmers to 76,868 sq. m. of land, it is not the case that the great
majority of the farmers occupied on an average a sq. m. of land each.
All of the land area was not under cultivation ; and among those who
occupy the 34,636,491 ac. of agricultural lands outside of the cor-
porate limits, the great majority of the farmers have each much less
than the average, which is 454 acres. A minority, mostly west of the
Missouri river, operate the large farms.
The farmers prospered during the 10 years, 191020. Their
prosperity was evident in many other respects than the improvement
of the highways and the large number of automobiles, trucks and
tractors. Farm life underwent a rapid change. Electricity, tele-
phones, rural mail delivery and consolidated school-houses added to
the comforts and education of the people. Farm machinery was
improved and bodily labour decreased. Many of the counties employ
county agents, who are supposed to be highly trained agricultural
experts. Because of the introduction of scientific methods, farm
crops have become more varied and rotation of crops has become
possible. The corn acreage in 1920 surpassed the wheat acreage, and
the production of other grains and grasses increased. The introduc-
tion of alfalfa was especially noteworthy. Alfalfa was harvested
three and four times a year. As a result, and also because of the
targe use of the silo, much more stock has been raised and more dairy
products and eggs sent to market. The breeds of cattle, horses, hogs
and poultry have been improved and many farmers raise only pure-
blooded stock. A much greater number of farmers, as well as of city
people, were in 1921 raising their own vegetables and fruits. Or-
chards and groves have increased in number and area. Because of
many clusters of trees the unbroken prairie-like appearance of the
farms has been modified. Farm values have more than doubled and
the use of improved farm equipment has become much more exten-
SPA SPAIN
549
sive. There were not only many more farmers in 1921 than in 1910,
but the investment per acre was much greater. The homes, barns,
stables and granaries more recently erected are usually well built,
are much larger than those of the past and have modern conven-
iences. Practically all of the towns with a population of 2,500 have
their own electric light plants. The Homestake Mining Co.- has a
power plant costing about 82,000,000. The 1919 Legislature pro-
vided for an hydro-electric commission and appropriated $50,000 for
the purpose of surveying the Missouri river to find water power.
The engineers found three sites Mobridge, Mulehead, and Medi-
cine Butte to be advantageous, in the order named. The com-
mission presented a report to the 1921 Legislature and recommended
that the Mobridge site be developed. It estimated that the dam and
plant would cost $9,400,000 and the transmission system $7,833,000.
Under the economic conditions existing in 1921 the Legislature
hesitated to act favourably and the question was to be submitted to
the people in the election of Nov. 1922. The following table shows
the increase of farm products :
Acreage
Production
Value
Corn.
1919
2,756,234
69,060,782 bus.
$89,779,016
u
1909
2,037,658
55,558,737 '
26,395,985
Wheat
1919
3,891,468
31,086,995
69,323,996
a
1909
3,217,255
47,054,590 '
42,878,223
Oats.
1919
1,839,089
51,091,904 '
38,318,937
U
1909
1,558,643
43,565,676
16,044,785
Barley
1919
754,929
12,815,768 '
15,378,922
u
1909
I,"4,53l
22,396,130 '
10,873,522
Rye .
1919
463,132
4," I ,543 '
5,96l,74i
B
1909
13,778
194,672 '
115,126
Flaxseed
1919
159,234
1,109,303 '
4,880,931
u
1909
518,566*
4,759,794 *
7,001,717
Potatoes
1919
58,180
2,863,186 "
7,157.983
U
1909
50,052
3,441,692 "
1,967,550
Hay and forage
1919
5,071,747
4,996,846 tons
71,988,845
u. u u
1909
3,435,90?
3,651,706 "
15,247.570
In 1919 receipts for the sale of dairy products were $12,222,562;
of chickens, $1,477,500. The total value of domestic animals on
farms was $232,364,625.
Minerals. The value of the minerals produced in the state in
1919 was $5,500,000. Prof. Freeman Ward, state geologist, has
computed the mineral products in yearly averages for the five-year
periods, 1905-9 and 1915-9, as follows:
1905-9
1915-9
Bentonite
Coal
Copper
Gold
$4,000
2,200
$5,480
23-500
3,000
6,600,000
10,000
45,000
Lythia
1,000
38,680
50,000
10,400
Natural gas
18,120
07.000
19,000
126,000
Stone
Crushed
Limestone
Sandstone
Structural materials ....
23,480
15,000
140,000
371,800
80,000
31-140
100,000
310,400
Manufactures. The following table indicates the growth of
manufactures:
1919
1909
Number of establishments
Proprietors and firm members
Salaried employees ....
Wage earners (average) .
Capital
Salaries
1,414
1,410
1,242
6,382
$30,933,030
2.O76. IQQ
I,O2O
942
682
3,602
$13,017,932
615,621
Wages
7.0OS.4.26
2.2Q7.5I2
Cost of materials ....
Value of products ....
Value added by manufacture
42,985,870
62,170,782
19,184,912
",476,350
17,870,135
6,393,785
The principal industries in 1919 were flour-mill and grist-mill prod-
ucts, bread and other bakery products, printing and publishing,
automobile repairing, cars and general shop construction and
repairs by steam railway companies, lumber and timber products.
Doane Robinson, secretary of the state History Department,
estimates the value of the total production of all commodities as
$581,119,000 in 1918; $481,624,000 in 1919; and $316,305,000 in
1920. He gives the produce sold outside of the state as $270,536,000
m 1918; $376,720,000 in 1919; and 324,667,000 in 1920.
Finances. The bank deposits were $206,496,073 in 1918; $235,-
617,276 in 1919; and $251,804,649 in 1920. They were protected by
a depositors' guarantee fund amounting to $1,247,397 in 1920. The
total assessed valuation of all taxable property was $1,598,544,562 in
1918, $2,095,154,178 in 1919, and $2,257,853,656 in 1920. The
assessed valuation was usually not above half the real value, but
even so amounted to $3,547 per capita in 1920. The tax levied was
$17,781,439 in 1918, $21,470,598 in 1919, and $27,550,312 in 1920.
The expenditure for the state Government, education, charitable
and penal institutions was $1,255,593 in 1910, $9,711,964 in 1920.
The state's debt in 1910 was 81,073,575 which was reduced until in
1919 the funds in excess of the debt amounted to $35,785. In
addition there were in 1920 outstanding bonds, covering rural credit,
highway and land settlements, amounting to $33,800,000.
Since 1917 South Dakota has had a noteworthy state rural credit
system. Up to 1921, 13,575 applications had been made for loans
amounting to 861,243,000. The rural credit board conservatively
allowed only 7,915 loans, amounting to $31,083,450. This is more
than four times the business done in the state by the Federal Farm
Loan Board. The state can borrow money several per cent below
the rate paid by individuals, and gives the farmers this advantage.
The rural credit system having proved a success, the voters at the
election of 1920 empowered the Government to make similar pro-
visions for people in the towns. A law was consequently passed by
the Legislature to create a municipal credit board and to make state
loans to individuals for the purchase of homes. The state insures
crops against hail at a low rate per acre. The Government adminis-
trative departments have been enlarged and a number of new com-
missions or departments have been created, including the following:
insurance, railways, free circulating library, marketing, highway,
rural credit, industrial, immigration, pure food and drug, state
engineer, budget, tax, agriculture, charities and corrections, bank,
depositors' guarantee fund, securities, health, pharmacy, live stock
(sanitary), game and fish, coal mines, land settlement.
History. South Dakota remained strongly Republican
throughout the decade 1910-20. Of the political questions
before the people the primary election law received the greatest
attention. Successive Legislatures failing to deal with the mat-
ter by statute, an appeal to the initiative was successfully made
at the election of Nov. 1912. Several months later, the Legisla-
ture of 1913 passed an Act of its own, and submitted it to the
people at the 1914 election. It failed and the 1912 law remained
in force. Thereupon the 1915 Legislature repealed the 1912
law and enacted one of its own, only to have the 1912 law in a
somewhat revised form carried in the 1918 election. There has
been much progressive legislation. The Non- Partisan League is
a strong and active organization, but since a number of its
policies have been adopted and carried out in legislation by the
older parties it has not gained control of the Government. The
code was revised and published in 1919. The number of men
supplied by the state in the World War was 35,000, 10,000 being
volunteers. There was purchased, in the state, of the Liberty
and Victory bond issues $109,627,200. A bonus was voted for
those who served in the World War and the sum of $6,000,000
appropriated for this purpose. Ex-service men engaged in farm-
ing are also given a state loan for " purchase of land, improve-
ments and live stock to be placed on the land." The loan may
be as high as 70 and even 90% of the value, and is payable on the
instalment plan over a period of 30 years.
The governors since 1910, all Republicans, were Robert S.
Vessey, 1909-13; Frank M. Byrne, 1913-7; Peter Norbeck,
1917-21; William M. McMaster, 1921- . (C. C.*)
SPA (see 25.525). Pop. (1909) 8,293. The Germans occu-
pied the town, which was undefended, on Aug. 4 1914, and it
became first a hospital base and, later, a place of convalescence
for their sick and wounded. The German Great G.H.Q. was
transferred here from Kreuznach in March 1918 and the Kaiser
fled from the Chateau du Neubois, 2\ m. E. of the town, into
Holland on Nov. 8 1918. His concrete dugout at the chateau is
preserved intact and shown to visitors. A conference of the
Supreme Council of the Allies was held at Spa in July 1920.
SPAIN (see 25.527). At the census of 1910, the total pop.
(including the Balearic and Canary Is., as well as the territories
of Northern Africa, but not those of the Guinea Colony) was
20,364,392, giving a density of 34-49 per sq. kilometre. The max-
imum density corresponds to the province of Biscay (161-59
per sq. km.) the minimum to that of Lerida (23-45). Figures
above 100 per sq. km. are given by the province of Barcelona
(148-46); Guipuzcoa (120-28); Pontevedra (112-80), and Madrid
(109-80). There are only eight towns of more than 100,000 inhab-
itants, namely, Madrid (599,807), Barcelona (587,411), Valencia
(233.384), Seville (158,287), Malaga (136,365), Murcia (125,057),
550
SPAIN
Saragossa (111,704), Cartagena (102,542). The birth-rate varied
between 2-83 and 3-08 per 100 inhabitants for the period 1914-9,
0-16 per zoo inhabitants being illegitimate. The marriage-rate
fluctuated between 0-65 and 0-67 per 100 inhabitants during
the war years, and made a sharp rise to 0-81 in 1919. In the
same period the death-rate varied between 2-13 and 2-31 per
100 inhabitants, with an exceptional rise to 3-31 in 1918. Infant
mortality is very high, being 20-20% of the total of deaths for
infants of less than one year, and 16-73 between one and four.
Education. There were in 1910 59-35% people who could not
read (figure including and referring to all ages). In 1919, 51,815
youths (of which 3,730 were females) were studying in secondary
schools. In the same year 23,660 students were inscribed in the II
universities of the country. This figure does not include numerous
special and technical colleges, catering for certain professions such as
architecture, engineering, veterinary science, etc., or the numerous
agricultural, and arts and crafts, schools financed by the Govern-
ment, municipalities and provincial councils.
Agriculture. Some progress is shown in area and production.
Wheat crops oscillate near an average of 3,265,000 tons and reached
their maximum at 4, 145,75 1 in 19 1 6. The wheat area averages 3,809,-
464 hectares. Barley shows greater fluctuations with an average of
1-5 million tons. Maize keeps close to its average of 0-6 million
tons, while oats remain at 0-4 million tons. Vineyards suffer from
parasitic trouble, and the area planted diminished gradually from
1905 (1-4 million hectares) to 1914 (1-2) then began to grow again,
but without reaching its previous value. Yet the maximum crop
corresponds to 1917 with over i million tons, of which 3-8 million
were transformed into wine and produced 23-7 million hectolitres.
The olive area grows steadily, and reached 1-6 million hectares in
1918. The maximum crop corresponds to 1911 with 2-2 million tons
of olives, of which 2-1 were transformed into oil (0-4 million tons).
The average figures are about half. Sugar, both cane and beetroot,
is cultivated, but while cane decreases, beetroot shows an irregular
increase in area (36,741 hect. in 191 1, 66,000 in 1918). This increase
does not, however, correspond to a similar increase in production.
The best year was 1913, with 1-3 million tons, and the worst 1918,
with 0-672 million tons. While the average value of the annual
agricultural production of the country in 1903-7 was estimated at
3,824,394,425 pesetas (152,975,777), it was valued at 7,975,623,025
pesetas (319,024,921) in 1916. A growing tendency is manifest
towards the use of mechanical implements, of which there are
several manufacturers in the country. More important machinery is
imported, mostly from America.
Mining Mining was much stimulated by the war, the high price
of coal having allowed the working of deposits which would not have
been economically workable in normal conditions. Some Spanish
products played an important role in the war; thus, pyrites were in
high demand. The total value of the production of Spanish mines
passed from 453 million pesetas in 1910 to 1,323 millions in 1917.
Railways. There are 14,902 km. of railway lines, of which
11,378 are normal and 3,524 narrow gauge. In 1918, the number
of persons conveyed rose to 75,480,648, or an average of 206,796
daily. In the same period the transport of goods rose to 35,244,-
659 tons. Gross receipts amounted to 557,931,445 pesetas, or 37,060
per kilometre.
Pre-war and after-war traffic figures are as follows :
Persons
Goods
(tons)
Pre-war average ....
50,350,000
29,090,22 }
1920
84,300,000
35.351.920
Increase
33,950,000
6,261,697
When war broke out, the Spanish railways were going through a
crisis of growth, the traffic of the country having developed in
excess of the railway plant, while the companies found themselves
too near the date when they had by statute to revert their lines to
the State, to be able to borrow money on good terms. The war aggra-
vated this situation by all but stopping coast-shipping. Since then, a
great increase in salaries and wages, as well as the rise in the price of
coal and materials, has completely upset railway finance. An increase
of 15 /o in rates was allowed after much opposition, and another is
proposed which public opinion refuses to countenance. Several
schemes are afoot to cope with the difficulty, all of them including a
greater or lesser measure of State interference.
An electric railway line is proposed to link Dax with Madrid and
Algeciras, by means of a French-gauge line, to be linked up in the
luture with Moroccan lines. This scheme is subordinate to a general
scheme for the harnessing of water-power in the whole peninsula,
through the construction of hydro-electric stations and a polygonal
distribution line. A further advantage of the scheme would be that
.the numerous deposits of second-rate fuel existing in the peninsula
would then be economically exploited in the production of electricity.
Merchant Marine. Despite heavy war losses, the merchant fleet
was in 1920 slightly larger than in 1914. The figures for 1920 were :
Ships
Tons
Sail
more than
38
c-i 006
500 tons
less than
500 tons
516
60,639
Steam ....
more than
500 tons
379
840,007
less than
500 tons
259
52,640
Total ....
1192
1,007,192
This represents an excess of 318 sailing vessels with 81,575 tons and
10 steam vessels with 48,325 tons over 1914.
Industry and Commerce the war gave great stimulus to Spanish
industries. Though many enterprises born out of the artificial condi-
tions created by an exceptional Allied demand died out with the
peace, progress is to be observed, particularly in Catalonia, Biscay
and Astunas. Thus, while in 1905 there were in Spain 775 business
corporations with an aggregate capital of 5,633 million pesetas, there
were in 1916 no less than 2,435 of such corporations with a capital
of 945 6 million pesetas. The average value of foreign trade for the
pre-war period was about 2,250 million pesetas, or 112.90 pesetas
per head. The war radically altered the regime. The commercial
balance was against Spain in 1911. An excess of imports over
exports, which had reached 150-5 million pesetas in 1900, fell to v6
in 1904, exceeded 100 millions in 1905 and 1906, fell to 2 millions in
1907, and varied between 16 and 75 millions in the following years
while in 1912 there was a 10-6 million excess of exports. 1913 and
1914 saw high excess of imports again (229 and 170 millions), but
after the war regime began in 1915 Spain registered in 1918 her
maximum favourable balance, amounting to 338 million pesetas.
Considerable imports of gold and silver tended to 'neutralize this
figure in the total commercial statistics. The value of the peseta rose
accordingly (see EXCHANGE, FOREIGN).
Banking. The Bank of Spain increased its gold reserves con-
siderably. From 576 million pesetas in 1914, they grew to 2,415
million pesetas in 1919. Banks developed in all parts of the country,
and, with the end of the war, a general invasion of foreign banks was
also to be observed. English banking, which till then had not
seemed to be interested in the peninsula, appeared in Spain, and now
forms an important feature in Spanish business, not only in Madrid,
but in Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, etc.
Finance. The Budget shows an increasing deficit due mostly to
two causes: on the expense side, an increase in numbers and salaries
of the bureaucracy; on the receipt side, a failure to reorganize taxa-
tion on a sound basis of direct taxes. If 1909 be taken as a unit (100),
expenditure grew steadily up to 168 in 1918, while receipts grew to
134, including Treasury bills. The actual figures in pesetas for 1920-
21 were: Expenditure, 2,403,730,313.69; receipts, 1, 842,720,570. -52:
the deficit being 561,009,743.37. The Public Debt, which had dimin-
ished by 2,000 million pesetas in 1910, had reached its previous
amount again in 1918, and in 1920 was 11,926,295,232 pesetas.
HISTORY. The closing months of 1910 were occupied by
important legislation carried on by the Canalejas Government.
The " padlock " bill, forbidding the settlement of
further religious communities in Spain until the
negotiations with the Vatican were completed was
carried in the Senate (Nov. 4) and a compulsory service bill
introduced while the Chamber discussed a Municipal Taxation
Reform Bill with a view to the suppression of the unpopular octroi.
Meanwhile, Senor Garcia Prieto, after laborious negotiations,
brought to a head the Spanish-Moroccan Agreement, which was
signed in Nov. (see MOROCCO). The Agreement was well re-
ceived by all political parties except the extreme Left. A
bill was introduced and passed, regulating work in the mines; a
moderate measure but a step in the right direction. An impor-
tant political event, the breaking up of the Republican-Socialist
block which had been created under the Maura-Cierva reaction-
ary administration, was brought about unexpectedly by a debate
on the Barcelona water supply. Senores Azcarate, for the Re-
publicans, and Iglesias, for the Socialists, having expressed their
disapproval of the action taken in the matter by Senor Lerroux
and his radical followers, who controlled the municipality of
Barcelona, a rupture ensued. Thus began the gradual weaken-
ing of the anti-dynastic Left, which continued in later years.
The " padlock " bill was passed by the Chamber of Depu-
ties on Dec. 22.
Senor Canalejas' Cabinet ended the year greatly strengthened
by its vigorous legislative policy. Yet, on the last day of the
year, the prime minister being desirous of reconstituting his
ministry handed in his resignation, and the King having renewed
SPAIN
55i
him his confidence, the new Cabinet was sworn in slightly
reconstituted. The crisis thus settled, the King visited Melilla
(Jan. 7-13) amidst scenes of great enthusiasm, France being
represented by Gen. Toutee and by the warship " Du Chayla."
Rumours of a Spanish intervention in Portugal began to circulate
then but were promptly met by a strong denial from Senor
Canalejas himself. This second Ministry lasted till April 3.
Its main efforts were spent in securing unanimity for the nego-
tiations with the Vatican, the most important
aoa^'siu. P oint of wnicn was tne drafting of a new Associa-
tions Bill to apply to religious as well as to ordinary
communities or societies, the Vatican refusing to renew nego-
tiations unless the Spanish Government agreed to submit its bill
to the approval of the Holy See. Senor Canalejas naturally
resisted such a condition.
The Government was somewhat weakened by the attacks of
Senor Urzaiz and Senor Azcarate on its financial policy partic-
ularly on their bills for the reform of the Public Debt
Case. " T an( l f r certain alterations in the working of the
Bank of Spain. But the end came from another
quarter. A debate on the Ferrer case (see 25.568) gave rise to
an extremely grave crisis. An outspoken speech by Don Mel-
quiades Alvarez was answered by Senor Canalejas in a half-
hearted way, which did not sufficiently conceal the fact that
the prime minister was not far from agreeing with the op-
ponents of the military court which had sentenced Ferrer. A
deep discontent was soon manifest in the ranks of the officers
of Madrid, and the War Secretary, Gen. Aznar, intimated that
in his opinion the debate should be closed at once. Senor
Canalejas submitted the resignation of the Cabinet to the
King, who renewed his confidence to his prime minister. The
new Cabinet appeared before the Cortes, and the debate on
Ferrer's case was proceeded with in a somewhat cooler atmos-
phere. The incident was, however, typical as a forerunner of
much that was to come in future years.
The attention of Parliament was soon diverted towards
Moroccan affairs. The French were preparing their advance on
Fez, a fact which forced Spain to an active policy
o/s/s? * n or der to maintain her much diminished rights in
Morocco. The first signs of this policy were re-
ceived with ill humour by the French press, and a press duel
began then between the two nations which was to last to the
very eve of the World War. Meanwhile the Government had
introduced its long expected Associations Bill (May 8), which
provoked a protest from all the archbishops and bishops headed
by the primate. The Government were successful in passing
the bill for the suppression of the octroi (May 22). This suc-
cess initiated a campaign of active opposition from the Con-
servatives, the aim of which was to defeat the bill in the Senate,
but the plan failed, for the bill was passed by the Senate by 178
to 63 (June 3). The fact was significant of the amount of determi-
nation exercised by the Crown, for if it had not used its influ-
ence over the non-elective part of the Senate the Government
would have been defeated by the Conservative vote.
The Government, meanwhile, in the teeth of popular opposition,
rendered more dangerous by several strikes, was sending troops
to Morocco and preparing for events. On June 9, Spanish
troops landed at Laraish, thus putting France before a fait
accompli which was not much to the taste of the Quai d'Orsay.
France, however, was prevented from taking any strong action
by the sudden arrival of the " Panther " at Agadir, but a certain
tension prevailed between France and Spain all through the
summer. At the same time, popular opposition to the war,
not only to that which was going on in Morocco but to that which
it was feared was going to break out in Europe as well, was
spreading, and tended to encourage the extreme parties. Meet-
ings took place in Barcelona and Madrid, this last one being
stimulated by the presence of two French " comrades "; and a
Republican rising plotted by the lower deck of the cruiser
"Numancia," though unsuccessful, startled public opinion. The
movement seems to have been connected with political efforts
to overturn the monarchy, which were being prepared on land.
The greatest danger, however, was to come from a campaign
of strikes which began early in the year. In Sept., nearly all
these strikes still dragged on, and their effect was
further aggravated by the feeling that the Govern-
ment was attempting a big operation in Morocco
behind the backs of the people. Grave disorders occurred
in the Bilbao district, where 20,000 steel smelters went on
strike, and the situation developed soon into a general strike,
which spread to the coalfields of Asturias. The Government,
which at first seemed inclined to favour the workers for the sake
of national conciliation in view of the international situation,
gradually veered round. They began by suspending the con-
stitutional guarantees in Biscay (Sept. 12); then, on receipt of
grave news from Asturias, in the whole of Spain (Sept. 19).
By this time, the movement had spread to nearly the whole penin-
sula, and grave disorders had occurred in Catalonia and Valen-
cia, notably in Cullera, where a magistrate was mobbed to death.
The Government met the situation with coolness and resolution,
and by Sept. 22 the strike fever had abated upon the settle-
ment of the Bilbao strike.
General Luque himself, though then a War Secretary, was
sent to Morocco to preside over the operation, which began
successfully on Dec. 6, but collapsed a few days later
after a gallant attempt to force the passage of the Morocco:
River Kert. The Spanish press voiced a belief, then ^ l ^ loa
current in the Spanish army, that the Moorish tribes France.
were provided with French arms and ammunition,
and the imprisonment by the French Gen. Toutee of several
French officials in Ujda gave some colour to this view, much
resented though it was by the French press. General Luque,
though in a veiled manner, suggested in an interview to the
press that his failure had been due to lack of French coopera-
tion. Under such unfavourable conditions began the nego-
tiations for a Franco-Spanish agreement following upon the
Franco-German Treaty on Morocco. The Spanish troops were
soon attacked on the River Kert, and rumour attributed the
move to French initiative. The matter had to be smoothed
over by the Foreign Secretary, Senor Garcia Prieto (Dec. 28).
During the first days of the new year the case of the Cullera
riots came before the military supreme court. The court pro-
nounced seven death sentences, and a press cam-
paign started at once for the reprieve of the seven Cullera
condemned men. Senor Canalejas seized the oppor- ^epriererf.
tunity to make the King benefit by the popularity
which always follows acts of clemency. He brought his Cabinet
unanimously to agree that six out of the seven men should be
reprieved, but that the seventh, the head of the riot, known a3
El Chato de Cuqueta, could on no account be recommended for
mercy. He then allowed King Alphonso to be besieged by
petitioners, including the old mother of the doomed man, who
was granted a special audience, so that the King might be pro-
vided with an excuse for reopening the affair. Thereupon, Senor
Canalejas agreed to reprieve El Chato, but resigned. Though
the resignation was purely formal, the King took for himself all
the merit of the act of clemency, and a wave of popular grati-
tude was his reward. Thus by a mixture of mercy and ability,
Senor Canalejas reversed in 1912 the position which Senor
Maura had created by his uncompromising policy of 1909, and
this incident did much to harden Senor Maura in his attitude of
" implacable hostUidad " to the Liberal party.
Much of the parliamentary session was spent in the usual
recriminations wherewith the Conservative party endeavoured
to weaken Senor Canalejas' position, and on March n
Senor Canalejas had to sacrifice several of his col- Cana/e/as
leagues, notably his Minister of Public Works, Senor g*^!'
Gasset. The King renewed his confidence to Senor stmcted.
Canalejas, and the new Cabinet was reshuffled.
The inclusion (as Minister of Education) of Senor Alba, known
to be a personal follower of Senor Moret, was considered as a
token of reconciliation between Senor Canalejas and his former
chief. Senor Canalejas seized the opportunity afforded him by
this crisis to adjourn Parliament until May i.
I
552
SPAIN
The salient feature of this interval was the launching of the
Reformist party by Don Melquiades Alvarez, a moderate
Republican working in close touch with Sefior Azcar-
ate and Sefior Perez Galdos. In a first speech deliv-
ered on April 7, Senor Alvarez announced the forma-
tion of a Reformist party which would reconcile the moderate
elements of the middle classes with Republican ideas. This
was but the beginning of an evolution which was destined to
bring a certain important portion of Republican opinion into
the fold of the monarchy. On May i the Cortes was reopened
and an agitated parliamentary session began, in which the main
question in debate was the bill called " De Mancomunidades."
This bill was a sop given by Senor Canalejas to Catalan opinion,
for it allowed Diputaciones (elected provincial councils) to unite
into groups for purposes of common administration,
Local a measure which, though in appearance of a general
ment'euu. character, was meant to enable the four Catalonian
provincial councils to unite into a kind of local par-
liament. The bill caused a deep cleavage in the ranks of the
Liberal party. General Weyler, Senor Montero Rios (presi-
dent of the Senate), Senor Moret, and Count Romanones
(president of the Chamber) were all emphatically against it.
Senor Canalejas' difficulties were increased by the fact that,
though the measure formed a part of a more ambitious Local
Government Bill devised by Senor Maura during his last term of
office, Senor Maura opposed it on the ground of its having been
as it were taken from its context. Yet Senor Canalejas piloted
his bill successfully through a hostile Chamber, and when, on
July 5, he had the Cortes adjourned, the bill had been virtually
passed. He, however, avoided a final vote, knowjng that, on
the bill appearing before the Senate, Senor Montero Rios would
resign. His triumph was therefore more apparent than real.
With the summer a period of strikes set in. Saragossa,
Malaga and the mining and steel-smelting district of La Fel-
guera (Asturias), became restive with social strife
Period of (August). Reus, Madrid and Murcia also suffered
Strikes. from partial strikes. But all these conflicts were
soon overshadowed by a grave railway strike which
affected nearly the whole country. Senor Canalejas met it by
applying Art. 221 of the Recruiting Law, which in cases of
danger or abnormal circumstances allows the drafting into
military service of all men of military age working in industries
of public importance; and this measure, combined with a really
conciliatory policy, caused the collapse of the strike on Oct. 5.
On Oct. 14 the autumn session of the Cortes began, and three
days later the bill " De Mancomunidades " was passed in the
Chamber, but the work of the session was suddenly brought to
a close by the murder of Senor Canalejas on Nov. 12. The
prime minister was shot dead in the Puerta del Sol
CaoaJeias. (Madrid) in broad daylight, while he was inspecting
the books at a book-shop window. The emotion
aroused by the crime was enormous. The King, with his usual
impulsiveness, hurried to the Home Office, where the body had
been laid, in the first carriage which he found at his disposal;
then, on the day of the funeral, he walked in person at the head
of the mourners, through the streets of Madrid. This brought
him great popularity. Meanwhile, Count Romanones had
replaced Senor Canalejas at the head of the Government, with
the definite task of passing the budget and of com-
Tnaty pleting the treaty with France. On Dec. 27 this
treaty was signed, after laborious negotiations which
had begun on Dec. 6 1911. The discussion of the
treaty occupied the remainder of the session, which Count
Romanones closed at Christmas.
Having thus fulfilled the programme for which he had been
entrusted with the seals of office, Count Romanones gave the
King an opportunity to alter his policy by tendering
Romano- the resignation of the Cabinet. The King, without
consulting any of his statesmen, gave Count Roman-
ones a new lease of power. This decision finally
settled the question of Senor Canalejas' successorship to the
direction of the Liberal party in favour of Count Romanones.
with
France.
nes Qov-
ernment.
Yet, his rival, Senor Garcia Prieto, though bowing for the mo-
ment to the royal pleasure, signified his intention to stand for the
leadership in the future by abstaining from a seat in the Cabinet,
though cooperating with Count Romanones from outside. The
Liberal solution of the crisis contributed further to increase the
popularity of the King. The sensational withdrawal from
public life which Senor Maura announced on Jan. i 1913
worked in the same direction. In a lengthy note addressed to
his followers he animadverted on the action of the King in hav-
ing lent himself to a policy of cooperation between the Liberal
opposition and the antidynastic Left. Senor Maura resigned
his seat in the Chamber, followed by Senor La Cierva, and as
these two names had symbolized reaction to the Spanish people
since 1909, their withdrawal, in direct conflict with the King,
enhanced the prestige of the Crown. Senor Maura's retirement
was of short duration. On the 4th he saw the King; on the loth
he answered a message from his followers by accepting once
more the leadership of the party.
Senor Alvarez, who meditated a rapprochement with the mon-
archy, made on this occasion a sensational speech, in which he
had the courage to bestow great praise on the King at a public
Republican meeting. Encouraged by the success of this first
attempt, he spoke in the same strain in Murcia (Jan. 12) and
obtained from his Republican audience an enthusiastic ovation
for the King's policy. Nor did King Alphonso sleep on his
laurels. On Jan. 14 he summoned to the palace for consultation
the three most eminent men of Republican Spain, Senor Azcar-
ate, head of the Republican-Socialist Coalition, and a respected
specialist in labour questions, Prof. Cossio, a well-known ped-
agogist and art critic, and Senor Ram6n y Cajal, the famous
biologist. The significance of these interviews escaped no one,
and least of all the Conservative Reactionaries. On Feb. n,
these interviews were the main subject of speeches delivered by
Senor Azcarate and Senor Alvarez at a Reformist banquet in
Madrid, the net result of which was the public recognition by
these gentlemen of the fact that, whatever obstacles there were
to the democratization of Spain, they did not come from the
Crown. The meeting, a further step towards the monarchy
taken by the middle-class and intellectual section of the Repub-
lican party, served to outline a scheme of conditions and con-
stitutional guarantees which the Reformist party would require
in order to cooperate with the Crown.
Count Romanones took a good share of whatever merit there
was in this policy. The death of Senor Moret (Jan. 28) removed
his most serious rival in the Liberal party. Count Romanones
then endeavoured to persuade Senor Azcarate to accept the
presidency of the Chamber, a clever move likely to reflect fa-
vourably on the prime minister, while avoiding the elevation of
any would-be rival to the post considered in Spanish politics
as the stepping stone to the premiership. Senor Azcarate
refused, and Senor Villanueva was at last selected. The King's
official visit to Paris, on completion of the Franco-Spanish
treaty, had proved a success (May 6-9), and Count Romanones,
having replaced Senor Villanueva by Senor Gasset as Minister
of Public Works, felt strong enough to face the Cortes. But
no sooner had he appeared before Parliament (May 26) than a
speech by Senor Maura (28th) forced him to hand in his resig-
nation. Senor Maura had merely re-stated his position of
" implacable hostilidad " to a policy of cooperation with the
parties of the antidynastic Left, and Count Romanones thought
that no Liberal party could govern without a properly con-
stituted Opposition, willing to take office on the fall of the
Government. The crisis was again solved by the Crown in
favour of the Liberal party. The King ratified the policy which
Senor Maura had refused to countenance, and Count Romano-
nes came back at the head of the same Government. But the
discussion of the bill " De Mancomunidades, " which at last
had to come before the Senate, produced a still graver crisis, for
it precipitated the division of the Liberal party, latent since the
death of Canalejas. The group headed by Senor Montero Rios
(president of the Senate), and his son-in-law, Senor Garcfa
Prieto, dissented from that of Count Romanones on the prin-
SPAIN
553
ciple of this bill, Count Romanones having accepted it as part
of Canalejas' political testament. This difference of opinion
brought about the resignation of the Cabinet (June n). Despite
insistent efforts from the King, no solution could be found to
bridge over the difficulty; and on June 13, Count Romanones
having failed to conciliate the non-conformists of his party,
formed a Cabinet of personal followers, which aggravated the
division. Parliament was indefinitely adjourned. The division
in the party materialized in the formation of a Garcia Prieto
faction, and it was generally realized that the solution given
to the crisis was a mere stop-gap, necessitated by the coming
visit of M. Poincare to Madrid.
The Government weathered several strike difficulties and
had to face a troubled period of unrest in Morocco, where Gen.
Franco- Marina succeeded Gen. Alfau as High Commissioner.
Spanish A Franco-Spanish rapprochement was then initiated,
Rapproche- with a visit of Gen. Lyautey to Madrid and of
M. Barthou, the French prime minister, to San
Sebastian, where he saw the King. All these movements prepared
the ground for the official visit of M. Poincare, then President
of the French Republic, who arrived in Madrid Oct. 7. The
President left Spain by way of Cartagena, where he embarked
on the battleship " Diderot," Spain being represented by the
battleship " Espana " and England by H.M.S. "Inflexible."
Both the King and the President emphasized the fact that it was
in Cartagena that six years earlier Spain, France and England
had agreed on a common policy in the Mediterranean.
As soon as the summer holidays were over and M. Poincare
had left Spanish soil, the latent crisis which divided the Liberal
Senor party broke out again. The prime minister had to
Dato provoke it himself in the Senate. He was beaten
Prime (Oct. 25) and he resigned. The King then considered
ter ' that the Liberal policy which he had consistently
followed since Seiior Maura's fall in 1909 was at an end. But
he was not ready to follow Senor Maura in his uncompromising
attitude, and he selected Senor Dato as a solution more accept-
able to the democratic wing of the country. Senor Dato was
unable to consult his chief on the King's offer, for Senor Maura
had left Madrid for an unknown destination. He therefore
accepted office (Oct. 27), being averse to leaving the Crown
without the services of one of the two great historical parties.
From this date, the Conservative party began to show open
signs of division, and thus the second of the two great rotating
parties, which Canovas and Sagasta had created, began also to
disintegrate. The first act of the new Government was to grant
a decree giving validity of law to the bill " De Mancomunidades,"
a move directed to enlisting the sympathies of Conservative
opinion of Catalonia. On the last day of the year, Senor Dato
obtained from the King a decree dissolving the Cortes.
The first half of 1914 saw the consolidation of the Dato
faction of the Conservative party. The general election, which
took place in the spring, yielded a sufficient majority,
both in the Senate and in the Chamber. Moroccan
Kind's affairs were the main subject of discussion in Parlia-
ment an ^ press, and the King lost a good deal of the
popularity which he had won under the Liberals on
account of several incidents which, rightly or wrongly, were
interpreted as acts of personal power and interference with the
discretion of the Government in military matters. This opinion
was strengthened by an uncalled-for decree, countersigned by
Gen. Echagiie as War Minister, establishing the King's right to
correspond directly with his army officers of all ranks. Yet the
Reformist movement, which had gathered great momentum at
a demonstration on Oct. 23 I9r3, when Don Melquiades Alvarez
had defined its aims and limits, gained ground, ably helped by an
intellectual group headed by Prof. Ortega y Gasset.
The international situation of Spain at the outbreak of war
was defined by two sets of circumstances: official, and national
or popular. The official situation was ruled by the Cartagena
Agreement of 1907, confirmed by the conversations held in the
same place in 1913 between M. Poincare and Count Romanones.
These agreements and conversations stipulated that " should
new circumstances arise tending to alter the territorial status
quo " in the Mediterranean or in the European and African
coasts of the Atlantic, the three powers concerned (Spain, France
and England) would " enter into communication " in order to
take any measures that might be necessary. The war was
obviously a " circumstance " falling within the limits of the
above definition. Yet Spain did not " enter into communica-
tion " with France and England. But, contrary to what was
generally believed at the time, her abstention was due to the
fact that the two powers most interested in the matter, France
and England, made no sign to set in motion the Cartagena
Agreements. Faced with this situation, Senor Dato promptly
declared for an absolute neutrality. This decision was based on
a sound reading of the situation from its national and popular
point of view. The violation of Belgium had given to the war an
almost sacred character which the Allies emphasized to the full.
Yet the fact did not escape Spanish public opinion that, though
the defence of Belgium and the interest of the Allies were two
coincident aims, they were not essentially one and the same
" cause." Thus, while the generosity of England in rushing
to the rescue of Belgium (and for that matter of France) was
not denied, it was also realized that England had a strong
national interest at stake which powerfully helped her to make
up her mind. Now, such a strong national interest was entirely
lacking in the case of Spain. Spain was in fact the only European
nation which had no stake in the war. Add to this that the na-
tion was divided as to its feelings. The working classes, the more
numerous part of the intellectuals and most of the trading
communities, were pro-Ally. The clergy, most of the army and
of the bureaucracy and the " idle rich," were pro-German.
The Moroccan negotiations had by no means improved the
feelings of the Spanish people towards France. For the well-
informed politician and publicist, France was the nation which
treated with Germany and with England as if Spain did not
exist, and turned round afterwards to make Spain pay what
she had had to pay in Berlin or in London. For the clergy,
France was the atheistic republic, the scarlet woman of the
West. For the army, France was the ever-watchful rival in
Morocco. For all of them, England was a nation whose dominat-
ing principle in foreign affairs was the increase of British power.
Thus, the country was split into a reactionary and conservative
pro-German wing and a democratic or " advanced " pro-Ally
wing, and, as this division was real, and not fictitious as were
the party groups, it cut across the parties. So-called Conserva-
tives such as Senor Sanchez de Toca, so-called Liberals such as
Count Romanones, sided with Reformists and Republicans on
the pro-Ally side, while Liberals such as Senor Villanueva and
Conservatives like Senor Besada led the pro-Germans.
On one definite point everybody agreed. Spain was to keep
out of the war. There were only two exceptions, more apparent
than real. Senor Lerroux, the leader of the Catalan
Radicals, advocated participation in the war on the jvea<ra#fc-
side of the Allies. But he spoke without responsibility,
as a man who knows that he can make capital out of an opinion
which he is perfectly sure he will never be in a position to carry
into practice from office. The other case was more serious. On
Aug. 10 El Diario Universal, a paper known to reflect the
opinions of Count Romanones, published an article under the
title of " Deadly Neutralities," which in a veiled manner advo-
cated participation in the war on the side of the Allies. It
created a great sensation, for it was attributed to Count
Romanones himself, and it is certain that, if not written by
him, the article was concocted under his direct inspiration.
As events were to show, it was only meant as a ballon d'essai,
and, after a short period of press agitation, was forgotten.
The Government concentrated their activity on the organi-
zation of the country for the new situation created by "the war.
A " Committee of Initiative " was created for the War
study and coordination of national and private i.exisia-
efforts to deal with war problems, and this Committee a< "*'
was put under the chairmanship of Seiior La Cierva -a move to
attract this important political figure to the Datist side of the
554
SPAIN
Conservative party. Parliament resumed its sittings on Oct.
30 and unanimously endorsed the foreign policy of the Govern-
ment. The country was meanwhile recovering from the first
shock of the war, getting used to abnormal conditions, and even
beginning to realize that there might be some material profit
to be made out of it. The pro-German press raised frequent
protests against the enormous increase in exports to France
which the Customs reported. Metals, raw and manufactured,
clothes and boots, all kinds of foodstuffs, horses and mules,
poured into France, under the " neutral " eye of the Govern-
ment. Before adjourning the Cortes, however, the Govern-
ment introduced and passed a bill which gave them special
powers to deal with such matters as customs tariffs, railway
rates, State purchases of food, shipping and expropriation of
foodstuffs. A navy bill was also passed, authorizing the
building or purchase of 4 fast cruisers, 6 destroyers, 28 sub-
marines, 3 gun-boats, 18 mine-laying and auxiliary ships, mines
and submarine defences, aircraft, and several important naval
land works in Ferrol, Cadiz and Cartagena. The Foodstuffs Act
did not prevent a period of serious unrest in the spring, due to
the scarcity artificially created, partly by excessive exports,
partly by speculative holding up of stocks. Special Juntas,
composed of the civil governor, the financial delegate and the
mayor of the provincial capital, were set up in each province to
administer all available stocks of food, and a policy of prohibi-
tion of exports was even initiated in March (1915). Yet the
great increase in exports had contributed perhaps more than
any other cause to the rise in the value of the peseta, a rise
which gave the Government an opportunity to repatriate the
Public Debt, i.e. enacting that all Spanish Government stock
held by foreigners which was payable in francs or sterling should
become payable in pesetas in the Spanish market.
Though the Cortes was closed, great political activity was
displayed, by all parties, with a view to a consolidation of the
loose political forces of the day into that symmetric
German form of two rotating parties the need of which seemed
gand'a. to be felt as a habit by all concerned. This activity,
which the Government had driven towards the press
and public meetings by closing Parliament, was stimulated by an
active German propaganda, soon to be imitated by similar
endeavours on the part of the Allies. The mouthpiece of extreme
pro-German views was Senor Vazquez de Mella, an eloquent and
versatile Carlist professor and M.P., who on May 31 pronounced
a strong pro-German speech in the Zarzuela theatre (Madrid),
before a house full of Germans, Carlists and Maurists, and
adorned by the presence of a cluster of aristocratic ladies, many
of whom belonged to the Queen's household. But though the
excitement produced by this and similar outbursts of partisan
feeling did not go very deep, and though the mass of the people
were not swayed out of the attitude which they had sponta-
neously assumed, the Government thought there might be some
danger in liberty, and they decided to deny all permits for meet-
ings on neutrality and the war. Despite many complaints, for
the measure was obviously illegal, the Government held fast
to their decision.
It is worth noting that while this protest from all political
groups, including the two sections of the Liberal party headed
by Count Romanones and Senor Garcia Prieto,
failed to shake the power of the Government, a crisis
was precipitated on the refusal of the business com-
munity to cooperate with the Government in the launching of a
loan. The Finance Minister, Senor Bugallal, prepared an issue
which was expected to yield 750 million pesetas (30,000,000),
283 of which were already covered by exchange for an equivalent
sum in short-term bonds. The new money to be found did not
therefore exceed 467 million pesetas, or a little over 19 millions
sterling. Now, of this sum, no more than 52 million pesetas
(just above 2 millions sterling) was subscribed, and it was no-
ticed that small subscriptions far exceeded the sums sub-
scribed by big owners of capital. Several explanations were
put forward, but the main cause of the failure seems to have been
a reluctance of business circles to subscribe under conditions
which were not considered generous enough for the subscriber.
The resignation of the Government (June 22) as a result of this
failure was quickly followed by a reinstatement of the same
Cabinet, despite the insistent desire for retirement manifested
by the Minister responsible, Count Bugallal. The situation of
the Treasury was by no means flourishing. The estimates for
1915 had been set at 1,465 million pesetas against 1,281 million
pesetas revenue. But as months went by, both sides of the
account showed signs of moving in the wrong sense. The
liquidation at the end of the year was to show that revenue
would remain at 1,202 million while expenses, not including
Government purchases of foodstuffs, were to rise up to 1,556
million. The Government had to fall back on Treasury Bonds
negotiated through the Bank of Spain.
The difficulties were of course of a purely administrative
order, for the work of the country was in full swing under the
stimulus of war orders. As one sign of this growing
industrial cooperation between Spain and the Allies, pjjj"^^^
the shipowners announced to the Government (Aug.
1915) that the premiums granted them by the Shipping Acts
as a measure of protection were no longer necessary and
would not be cashed. This was, of course, but a euphemistic way
of hinting that such premiums were no longer worth the sacrifice
which they entailed of the shipowner's liberty to trade as he
pleased between foreign ports. Great shipping profits ensued,
and torpedoings followed. On Aug. 17 the s.s. " Isidoro " of
Bilbao was sunk by a German submarine. On Aug. 20 the s.s.
" Pena Castillo " of Santander sank in obscure circumstances.
Public opinion was divided as to the right attitude to take in
these circumstances, and while it was generally recognized that
some sort of protest should be made, the free hand claimed and
obtained by shipowners for the carrying on of their highly
profitable industry was a serious handicap to their case.
Though the war absorbed most of the political interest of the
day, several efforts were made to reunite the Liberal groups into
one party again, and these efforts having failed,
owing mainly to the unwillingness of either leader to Fall of the
surrender his claims to the leadership of the whole, e ramen^'
Count Romanones, the more active of the two, pre-
pared a plan of campaign against Senor Date's Govern-
ment on the Military Reform Bills then being prepared by
the War Secretary, Gen. Echagiie. General Echague intro-
duced his bills, and Senor Dato declared that the Chamber
would have to pass them before discussing the budget. Count
Romanones was adamant against this condition imposed by a
Government which had kept Parliament closed for the best part
of the year, and the Government fell on Dec. 6.
This crisis is worth recalling for it marked a further step in the
approximation of Don Melquiades Alvarez to the monarchy.
King Alphonso having expressed a wish to hear Senor
Alvarez' opinion along with that of the leaders, the Romano-
chief of the Reformist party called at the royal ^to^Re-
palace for the first time. The crisis ended in the forma- united
tion of a united Liberal ministry (the two groups hav- Liberals.
ing melted into one as they came nearer the warmth of
office). Count Romanones took the premiership, and, in order to
counterbalance the effect of his well-known pro-Ally views, as-
signed the Foreign Office to Senor Villanueva, a notorious pro-Ger-
man. Senor Barroso (Justice) and Senor Burell (Education) repre-
sented the Garcia Prieto faction. Senor Urzaiz, an independent
and outspoken Liberal, went to the Exchequer, probably at the
suggestion of the King, who also caused Admiral Miranda,
though a Conservative, to remain at the Navy Office. General
Luque came back to the War Office, and Senator Salvador was
appointed Minister of Public Works.
The programme of the Government was very much the same
as that of its predecessor: neutrality, military bills, financial and
economic reforms, and the budget. In a sense, the inclusion of
Senor Urzaiz, who, though a Liberal, was a party unto himself,
and of Adml. Miranda, a Conservative, initiated the period of
mixed ministries, which was about to open as a logical conse-
quence of the gradual weakening of the -old parties, and in its
SPAIN
555
turn would accelerate the process of their disintegration. The
experiment, so far as Senor Urzaiz was concerned, proved a failure.
A man with a strong will and little adaptability, he came into
conflict with his chief and was dismissed before he had time to
resign (Feb. 25). The union of the two branches of the party
which this Cabinet consecrated was apparent. Apart from the
underlying cleavage between the Garcia Prieto and the Ro-
manones groups, the party showed further signs of division
owing to the rising ambitions of Senor Alba, who by a clever use
of the opportunities of his new office, made for himself an envi-
able reputation of a bold democratic tax-legislator. His bill
on war profits aroused the opposition of all the minorities except
the socialist. Yet Count Romanones, with a fine political flair,
backed his Finance Minister. The matter, however, was purely
political, for the bill had not been passed when the Cortes
was closed, a general railway strike having suddenly upset all
Government plans on July 13. Count Romanones faced the
conflict with an unusual luxury of precautions, constitutional
guarantees were suspended in the whole peninsula, and martial
law declared in Madrid. But the strike was over one week
later, and the autumn session was too deeply occupied in the
discussion of Senor Alba's ambitious budget schemes to think
of the War Profits Bill. The discussion of these schemes
dragged on till Dec. 19, when it was resolved to validate
the old budget for the coming year, while the new one was
i further discussed. The Government reappeared before the
House on Jan. 19, but in the meantime Count Romanones
had resigned and accepted office again with the same minis-
try. This curious crisis (Jan. 9) was probably devised by the
prime minister as a means to recover from the King the moral
authority which some thought he had lost at the hands of the
pro-German press, which accused him of drawing great profits
as a business man from his foreign policy as a prime minister.
Count Romanones wore his neutrality with a difference, and,
though the inheritor of Senor Date's policy, he did little to con-
ceal his pro-Ally views. The natural development
Res/srna- o f the war made every day more urgent the need of
J?ma- defining a policy which would be something more
nones. than a mere passive attitude. By Sept. 1916, Spain had
lost more than 30,000 tons of shipping by torpedoing,
and more than 50,000 in circumstances which were, to say the least,
obscure. The shipping interests asked for Government help.
A period of Government activity set in, during which Count
Romanones was loyally seconded by Senor Gimeno, a pro-Ally
Foreign Secretary, but the pro-German press countered by a
fierce personal campaign against the weakest flank of the Govern-
ment, the prime minister's industrial interests. On Jan. 31
Germany sent in a note establishing an " absolute blockade " of
the Allied coasts. Count Romanones was committed to a
policy which implied a firm answer to such a note. He gave
it, for, though somewhat watered down by his pro-German col-
leagues, the Spanish note of Feb. 6 signed by Senor Gimeno
was a well-worded protest against German methods with
neutral rights. But the prime minister was too shrewd a politi-
cian not to realize that this firmness meant nothing unless backed
with the will to fight if necessary, and that public opinion would
not follow him so far. He therefore resolved to leave the Govern-
ment there and then, at the top of the wave of his own policy.
Other considerations of home policy were perhaps not altogether
without effect on his decision. A dangerous social-political
upheaval was taking place under his eyes. In March
PoHf 1 /" an< ^ AprU> a serious strike situation developed in
Upheaval. Madrid and Valladolid, which necessitated this
second town being declared in a state of siege. In
Barcelona, a military conflict, which was fundamentally to
alter Spanish politics for years to come, was beginning to make
itself felt. When on April 20 Count Romanones resigned, he
took the easiest path. His fall, however, cost him the leader-
ship of his party, the majority of which, somewhat frightened
at his bold foreign policy, turned towards Senor Garcia Prieto,
while Senor Alba consolidated a separate group. The new
Ministry, under the premiership of Senor Garcia Prieto, was
Bl!
frankly neutralist, and Germany rightly interpreting the position
felt freer to intensify its submarine campaign. But the Govern-
ment had to concentrate on a far graver problem, the situation
created by the so-called Committees of Defence. The artillery
and engineer officers had been organized for years past into a
Committee of Defence, the main object of which had been
the maintenance of certain standards of professional honour
and of certain rules of comradeship as to promotions, etc. The
infantry officers had no such organization, their esprit de corps
being less developed. But towards the middle of 1916, a system
of infantry Committees of Defence had appeared, which soon
evinced a tendency to claim authority over the army, and to
interfere with the Government in such a manner that towards
the end of the year, Count Romanones, then in office, insisted
on their dissolution. Despite the reassuring reports of Gen.
Alfau, Capt.-General of Barcelona, the headquarters of the
organization, the system continued, a situation which was not
altogether unconnected with Count Romanones' eagerness to
resign in April 1917. General Aguilera, the War Secretary in
Senor Garcia Prieto's administration which then took office,
was frankly averse to the Committees, and ordered the leaders
to be arrested. A reserve Junta had been prepared, which
stepped into the shoes of the arrested officers, and the conflict
was only aggravated. General Alfau was dismissed and General
Marina sent in his stead. But meanwhile, probably owing to
royal hints, a less disciplinarian line of action was taken, and
the arrested men were released. It was known later that an
ultimatum had been placed in the hands of Gen. Marina, with
a time-limit of 12 hours (June i). Not unnaturally, the Govern-
ment resigned. Count Romanones having refused to support
any Liberal situation which would recognize the Com-
mittees, Senor Dato was called to office, and on June DatoAxala
9 the Liberal party ended a short spell of office dur- Master.
ing which its disintegration had rapidly advanced.
Senor Date's Government capitulated before the Juntas and
accepted their regulations in full.
This victory of a movement which, in its essence, was revolu-
tionary, had an immense effect on immediate events as well as
on the political evolution of the country. The revolutionary
ferment was stimulated. A state of excitement and hope due
to the plausible, high-spirited language of the Juntas spread
over the revolutionary Left. The more responsible elements
of advanced politics thought it necessary to give a lead to this
popular spirit. Political manifestos asking for a renovation in
Government and Constitution followed each other (Socialists
June 12, Catalanists June 16, Left-Coalition June 16). All
but three of the deputies and senators for Catalonia met on
July 5 at Barcelona, and passed a resolution asking for an
immediate meeting of the Cortes, and declaring that, should
the Government refuse to comply with this request, a meeting
of all the deputies and senators composing the Cortes would be
called at Barcelona on July 19. The Government refused to
recognize the right of the Catalan representatives to dictate
its policy, and made it known that should the Assembly meet
on the 1 9th it would be considered as rebellious and treated as
such. The Assembly met, 13 senators and 55 deputies attending,
including all the Socialist Republican and Reformist members
of the Cortes, and, before the Civil Governor dissolved it by
(formally) arresting one by one all its members, it voted con-
clusions asking for a reform of the Constitution, and set up
three commissions to prepare reports on reforms to be submitted
to a second meeting to take place later. At one moment, it
looked as if these 68 men would take the lead of the revolution-
ary spirit which the bold action of the army officers had stirred
in the country. But the mass of the Assembly was too dull, and
no real leader manifested himself in it. Thus two attempts, one
military, one middle-class, both directed against the evils of the
old rtgime, failed through lack of coordination and mutual under-
standing. A third attempt, and a third failure, was still to come.
On Aug. 2 the railwaymen of the Northern railway announced
a strike. Though at first the men appeared desirous of a settle-
ment, neither the Government nor the company succeeded in
556
SPAIN
avoiding the strike, which began on the roth. On the izth, a
general strike was suddenly launched in the whole country. It
was clearly revolutionary, and aimed at the overthrow of the
monarchical system and its replacement by a more
Genera/ or ^ ess soc i a li st i c republic. The country was de-
sfr/Aef clared in a state of war. Riots of a grave character
took place in nearly every important town and in-
dustrial district of the country, and the military, which
had been entrusted with the situation, crushed the rebellion
with a ruthless hand. This revolutionary onslaught was some-
what aimless and impulsive, yet the period of street fighting
lasted a whole week. By Aug. 9 the situation was well in
hand. The net result was to prove that the only real force in
the country was the Army Committee system.
On Aug. 10, the Council of Ministers passed a special credit
for military expenses, implying an extension and renovation of
several important services. The Juntas, conscious
Power of o f their strength, encroached further and further
mlttee' upon the administration of the War Office, and even
asserted themselves in the field of civil politics.
Their first victim was Marshal Primo de Rivera, whom they
practically forced to leave the War Office. Then the scandal
became public, on the Government having lifted the censor-
ship. The Committees attempted to deliver a message into
the hands of the King, and a period of intense political excite-
ment ended in the fall of Sefior Dato, who had to resign on a
" perfectly constitutional " hint by the King. In point of fact
Senor Dato was expelled by the Army Committees. The crisis
was long and laborious, and in the midst of it, the Parliamentary
Assembly met in Madrid (Oct. 30) in order to hear the reports
prepared by the three commissions appointed in its first sitting.
Speeches were pronounced by Senor Camb6 and Senor Alvarez,
which were addressed rather to the King, then in consultation
with political leaders, than to the Assembly. Both leaders
declared that they would not accept office in a Government
which would not be ready to adopt the conclusions of the Assem-
bly, involving some democratic changes in the Constitution. But
while Senor Alvarez held fast by this declaration, Sefior Camb6
allowed two of his followers to enter the Cabinet
Garcia which was at last formed by Senor Garcia Prieto.
r ' e ' ; This Cabinet was a Coalition ministry in which, in
Govern- order to give satisfaction to the new demand for an
meat, impartial general election, a non-political judge was
given the post of 'Home Secretary. It was composed
of Maurists, Liberals and Catalanists. Senor La Cierva, who
took the War Office, was the real head of the Cabinet. His policy
consisted in ingratiating himself with the Committees of De-
fence, so as to become their leader and representative.
An incident which occurred early in the year (Jan. 3) showed
the extent to which the revolutionary action of the Juntas had
affected the army. The N.C.O.'s, it was suddenly found out,
had formed a Committee of Defence and were threatening to
take action unless their claims were satisfied. Senor La Cierva
had no difficulty in applying to them, with the blessing of the
Officers' Committees, those drastic measures which the Officers'
Committees had themselves deserved. Nor was the system of
Committees of Defence limited to the army. Juntas were soon
formed by the civil servants of nearly all Government depart-
ments, and on Jan. 12 1918, on the occasion of a difference be-
tween the Postmaster-General and his subordinates, an agita-
tion began which was ultimately to cause the downfall of the
Government. On Feb. 21 the telegraph officers went on strike
by meticulously carrying out official regulations.
On Feb. 24 the general election took place in these abnormal
conditions. For the first time a Coalition Government pre-
sided over an election, and great hopes were enter-
SenorLa tained as to the result. The new Chamber, however,
ffte'com"'' was ^ ut an avera 8 e f t* 16 preceding ones, different
mittees. only in that no party in it had a clear majority. Sefior
La Cierva began then to act as the self-appointed
leader of the Committees. He first provoked a crisis (Feb. 27)
so as to get rid of his Catalanist colleagues, Senores Ventosa and
Rodes, who would have been obstacles to his plans, and hav-
ing accepted their replacement by two second-rank men he faced
the Government with a demand that a programme of extensive
military reform be enacted by Royal Decree, without submitting
it to Parliament. This provoked a second crisis, Senor Gimeno,
Count Romanones' representative in the Cabinet, having stood
firm against such an insult to Parliament. The crisis, however,
was settled on the secret understanding that the decree would
be granted while Senor La Cierva would negotiate the self-
dissolution of the Juntas. Then the conflict was suddenly aggra-
vated on its civil side, the Government having decided to be as
firm with the civil Juntas as it had been weak with the military
ones. At the instigation of Senor La Cierva, the telegraphs
were put under War Office authority and all civil Juntas were
declared officially dissolved (March 14), while Senor La Cierva
obtained from the military officers an apparent submission under
the form of a reduction of their own Juntas to the status of
" Committees of Technical Studies." On Feb. 17 the postal
services declared a strike. Senor La Cierva's efforts to cope
with this by means of military improvisations ended in utter
failure, and at the very first sitting of the Cortes (March 18)
the Government fell. All possible combinations were tried and
failed, until on March 21 at midnight, at a meeting
of ex-prime ministers called by the King in his study, Mltt /stry
after, it is said, having threatened his abdication, King ra/en<s.'"*
Alphonso succeeded in forming a " ministry of all the
talents," composed as follows: Maura (Premier), Dato (Foreign
Office), Besada (Finances), Camb6 (Public Works), Alba (Edu-
cation), Marina (War), Pidal (Navy). The solution given to
the crisis produced an outburst of popular enthusiasm due
mostly to the downfall of Senor La Cierva. This Government
had agreed on a concrete programme: reform of the standing
rules of the Cortes, amnesty, military reforms, budget. The
Government carried them all but the fourth, Senor Alba having
left the Cabinet on their refusal to pass his education plans
(Oct. 8), which ultimately brought the Cabinet to its end on
Nov. 6.
The new Government had to be formed amid the sensation
caused by the arrival in Madrid of the news of the Kaiser's
flight, and great changes were expected as the result of
this. The Reformists having refused to cooperate on Liberal
the conditions offered them, the changes were limited Govern-
to the appointment of a Liberal Ministry, on Nov. 9, oare/a
with Senor Garcfa Prieto as prime minister. The Prieto.
world being full of the idea that the triumph of the
Allies meant that of democracy, the Government published an
" advanced " manifesto. Other signs of the Zeitgeist were a bold
Land Bill, introduced by Senor Alba, a series of telegrams of
congratulations sent by King Alphonso to all the Allied chiefs
of state, a meeting of the Conservative party, where a reform of
the Constitution was seriously mooted, the waiving by the
Government of their right to appoint the Mayor of Madrid, and
a revival of the Catalanist question as manifested in a message
to the Government addressed by the Mancomunidod. This last
message produced a split in the Cabinet, Count Romanones, its
Foreign Secretary, being in favour of Home Rule. The
ministry thus fell on Dec. 3 1918, and it was de- Kama-
cided that Count Romanones would form a stop-gap Ministry.
cabinet so as to pass the budget and leave the King
free for a change of policy. The first important act of Count
Romanones was his visit to President Wilson, then in Paris.
It is clear that from the middle of 1917 on, home problems
occupied the Spanish mind more than the war. The incidents
of the submarine campaign had to be handled by Govern-
ments which knew the country to be resolved not to fight, di-
vided as to its sympathies, and rent by revolutionary and con-
stitutional crises. It is to the credit of the successive Govern-
ments which ruled Spain during this period that they succeeded
in steering clear of all obstacles, home and foreign, overburdened
as they were with home problems and foreign advice not always
disinterested. On June 29 1917 a German submarine, " UC52,"
arrived in Cadiz for repairs. Senor Dato allowed its arrival and
SPAIN
557
departure within 24 hours, and thereupon had a Royal Decree
signed forbidding submarine navigation in Spanish waters. The
next incidentof the kind was the escape of " Us3," which had been
interned in Cadiz under the above Royal Decree. The escape
appears to have been due to an excessive amount of trust in the
German commander on the part of the Spanish naval authori-
ties, whom the Government promptly deprived of their com-
mands. On the initiative of the Romanones administration a
treaty had been negotiated in London between the Marques de
Cortina and the English Government. This agreement was
signed on Dec. 6. Its importance consisted in that it legalized,
in the eyes of the pro-Germans, all trade with England, which
received food and ore in exchange for coal. Torpedoings con-
tinued all the same, and the Spanish Government sent strongly
worded notes on the sinking of the s.s. " Giralda " and the s.s."Du-
que de Genova " (1918). The s.s. " Larrinaga " was torpedoed
while conveying petrol from New York to Santander, on a
Government charter (July 25 1918), and thereupon the Spanish
Government, alarmed at the heavy losses sustained by the mer-
chant marine, decided to apply to Germany the claim of ton'
for ton. This was the high-water mark of anti-submarine
methods adopted by the Spanish Government. Germany had
agreed to the ton-for-ton indemnity when the end of the war
came. The Spanish merchant marine had lost 65 ships repre-
senting 140,000 tons.
From the material point of view, the neutral attitude adopted
by Spain contributed " to accelerate the progress which was
observable in her economics in the pre-war years.
industrial Th; s period of exceptional activity comprises two
Effects of . . j r\ ..-c. i
the War. coincident movements. One is a somewhat artificial
"inflation " of Spanish industries, due to the de-
mand of the Allies. The other one is the mere continuation of a
development already noticeable before the war. Thus certain
industries, really national, such as that of olive oil, succeeded at
last in establishing themselves in foreign markets. The effect
of the war on the country was therefore neither altogether bad
nor altogether good. While it served to stimulate a progress
which had already set in, it also created artificial conditions
which contributed much to social unrest by flooding the country
with money too easily earned.
Count Romanones did not precisely find in Paris in 1919 the
diplomatic triumph which he had expected, but neither did he
return wholly disappointed. He brought back a seat in the
Council of the League of Nations for Spain. He found the
country astir with a mixture of two political currents, one a
democratic, constitutional agitation, born of the Allied victory,
another one a revolutionary agitation which could be traced to
the unwholesome effect of the Juntas' pronunciamientos. The
main effect of these two movements was felt in Barcelona, and
was represented by Catalanist propaganda, a military under-
current of opposition to it, and lastly a syndicalist
Barcelona? a gitation which made the two former forget their
mutual enmity and unite against it. Two sets of
events suddenly revealed the power of the syndicalist agitation:
a general strike which paralysed the whole life of the town, and
a series of murders of employers. The Government played with
two policies. It militarized the strikers, then tried to conciliate
them by sending to Barcelona three liberal-minded civil authori-
ties Sefior Morote, Senor Montanes (Civil Governor) and Senor
Doval (Chief of Police). A violent conflict arose between the
military and the civil authorities, and when the strike had been
settled by the latter, the Government suddenly resigned. It
was known afterwards that this resignation was due
Fall of to the military having expelled the civil authorities
nones" * rom l ^ e town - Senor Maura took office on April
Govern- iS> asked for a decree dissolving the Cortes, and to
meat. the consternation of all parties, obtained it. This
amounted almost to a coup d'etat on the part of the
King. After a general election held under a strict censorship, un-
der the protest of all the Left parties (including the Monarchical
Liberals), and with the use of electioneering methods which had
fortunately been long forgotten in Spain, Senor Maura failed to
five Cabi-
net under
Sanchez
de I oca.
bring to the new Cortes more than about one-eighth of its total
membership under his banner. His Government fell scandalously
under a discussion of his electioneering methods (July 15), and
Senor Sanchez de Toca (Senor Dato being ill), formed a Conser-
vative Cabinet, which had to deal with a grave situation in
Barcelona, where syndicalist trouble was again brew-
ing. But a new outburst of the Juntas forced the Gov- Coaserva-
ernment to resign, and Senor Allendesalazar (a
follower of Senor Maura) took office with a Coalition
Cabinet. The change of policy which the change of
Cabinet implied determined an aggravation of the
conflict. Murders continued. A mutiny organized by syndicalist
soldiers took place in a barracks in Saragossa. Disorders broke
out in Valencia and Santander. Another militaristic outburst,
the publication of secret letters by Gen. Milans del Bosch
(Capt. -General of Catalonia) and the subsequent dismissal of
that officer by the Government, which in its turn caused the res-
ignation of Senor Gimeno, imposed by the military, ended the
life of the Cabinet, which, having passed the Budget, left office
on March 4 1920. Two schools of thought manifested themselves
then: one favourable to occasional coalitions, taking office in
order to carry out definite programmes, another one favouring
the reconstruction of the old system of two rotating parties.
The King favoured this second school, represented by Senor
Dato and Senor Garcia Prieto, and the former was
called to power. But the general election which he
called forth at the end of 1920 showed that the main-
spring of that old system i.e. the docility of the electorate
to any kind of government could no longer be counted
upon. Senor Dato failed to obtain a working majority, his sup-
porters numbering 177 members out of 405. All his efforts
were accordingly bent towards the reconciliation of the several
factions within the Conservative party. While engaged in this
task he was assassinated by anarchists on March 8 1921.
SPANISH LITERATURE
The dominant feature of Spanish contemporary literature in
1910-21 may be found in an effort to achieve the fusion of the
critical with the creative element in the race (see S. de Madariaga,
" Introduction to Spanish Contemporary Literature," London
Mercury, Sept. 1920). With the death of Galdos, the sceptre of
Spanish literature falls on Miguel de Unamuno (b. Bilboa, 1864),
a professor of Greek in the university of Salamanca, a voracious
reader, familiar with all European, American and classical litera-
ture, and an indefatigable writer. Unamuno represents the
modern version of the Spanish mystic writer. His main concern
is the relation of man to creation. It is the subject of his master-
piece El Sentimiento Trdgico de la Vida, a book of passionate
meditation, and, at any rate as an attitude of mind, it dominates
his criticism (En torno al Casticismo, Ensayos), his novels (Abel
Sdnchez, Tres Nowlas y un Pr6logo) and his plays (Fedra) . In
these works Unamuno appears as the apostle of an ideal of life
more closely connected with spiritual Easternism than with the
intellectual and social tenets of the West. He thus fulfils in
Spain much the same function which Dostoievsky held in Russia,
for Spain, like Russia, stands as a transition between East and
West. His ideal is in intensity rather than in extension, in indi-
vidual achievement, the saving of one's soul, rather than in
social work and collective material progress. His style corre-
sponds to his beliefs. It reminds one of Carlyle's in that it is
written with the whole man's being, body and soul, but it is
never eloquent and rhetorical; rather does it tend to conversa-
tional familiarity and evinces now and then a proclivity towards
being led to new thoughts by the mere shuffling of words.
Should we care to complete the parallel with Russia by finding
a Spanish westerner to oppose to Unamuno, as Turgueniev stands
to Dostoievsky, a younger man than the Basque master, Jos6
Ortega y Gasset (b. 1883), would have to be mentioned. A
professor of Philosophy at the university of Madrid, Senor
Ortega y Gasset is a refined humanist, strongly influenced by
German contemporary neo-Kantian schools of thought. His
style is naturally polished and his mind penetrating and acute.
558
SPECTROSCOPY
His main work is in the field of criticism and psychology (Medi-
taciones del Quijote, El Espectador). To this same school may
be ascribed Jose Martinez Ruiz (b. 1876), better known under
his literary name as " Azorin." His art has all the finish and
exquisiteness, all the smallness also, of miniature-painting. He
has had the rare merit of applying it to the interpretation of
national scenes and places (Castilla, Los Pueblos), and has thus
contributed in no small measure to the movement for national
self-knowledge which is noticeable in contemporary Spain.
In fiction, though belonging to an older generation, Vicente
Blasco Ibanez (b. 1866) must be mentioned, since he continued
to wield a never-idle pen. His creative vigour was unabated.
His war novel, Los Cuatro Jinetes del Apocalipsis, made him
famous with the English-speaking public. Older novels have
been translated, such as Sangre y Arena (as The Matador) and
La Barraca (as The Cabin). Blasco Ibanez represents a kind
of art which is Spanish only in its subject, but not in its spirit,
manner or style. He is more closely related to the French
naturaliste school than to any Spanish literary tradition. Of a
younger generation, Pio Baroja (b. 1872) is perhaps the most
widely read. A Basque, with all the acuity of mind of his race
and not a little of its rustic independence and antagonism to
civilization, Baroja writes abundantly and carelessly, with more
spirit than art. He is more capable of rendering with remark-
able accuracy separate aspects of truth than of weaving them
into an organic unity endowed with life. His best work is
perhaps Idilios Vascos, where he has rendered the quaint charm
of his own country. Ram6n Perez de Ayala (b. 1881), a critic of
great talent, has written several novels, the best of which are
Novelas Poemdticas and Belarmino y Apolonio.
Jacinto Benavente (b. 1866) is still the dominating figure of
the Spanish theatre. His most famous play, Los Intereses
Creados (1907), is not representative, for it illustrates but one
phase of the talent of this many-sided author. A more powerful
tragedy, La Noche del Sdbado, is of the same period. In more
recent times he has given an intense drama of love in La Mal-
querida. There is, however, a type of play in which Benavente
must yield the prize to the brothers Alvarez Quintero (Serafin,
b. 1871; Joaquin,b. 1873). As authors of ComediasdeCostumbres
these two writers, who always work together, are unsurpassed.
The list of their comedies is long (Las de Cain, Puebla de las
Mujeres). Other playwrights of note are Linares Rivas (b. 1866),
remarkable for his skill in the handling o,f dialogue; Martinez
Sierra (b. 1881), a delicate psychologist; and Pinillos (" Par-
meno," b. 1875), a vigorous painter of social conflicts. But
drama and comedy are but one, and not the more important,
aspect of the Spanish theatre. Still more typical of the nation
is what is modestly known in Spain as genera chico (small genre) ,
a full growth of theatrical production, generally short and
accompanied with music, and ranging from variety pieces
akin to operettas to little masterpieces of musical drama. Its
best-known exponents are the brothers Quintero and Carlos
Arniches (b. Alicante, 1866).
The two main currents which influenced Spanish poetry
towards the close of the ipth century, i.e. the national tradition
and the symbolist school of France, more or less interpreted by
South American poets, such as Ruben Dario (b. 1867), remained
still observable up to 1920, though the first was more vigorous
and conscious, the second widened so as to include all influences,
from those of d'Annunzio to those of Maeterlinck and even
Rabindranath Tagore. As more typically national, we shall
mention Miguel de Unamuno (Rosario de Sonetos Liricos, El
Cristo de Velazquez), strong and somewhat unharmonious, but
true and austere; Antonio Machado (b. 1875) (Soledades, Campos
de Castilla), whose pessimistic serenity is in keeping with the
landscape of central Spain which inspires his poems; and Salva-
dor de Madariaga (b. 1886), whose Romances de Ciego restate,
in a new spirit, the old Spanish theme of Jorge Manrique. Other
poets appear under more complex influences. Thus Manuel
Machado (b. 1874), whose main inspiration is popular and south-
ern, has, however, written excellent verse in which the influence
of French elegant sensibility is discernible. Juan Ramon Jimenez
(b. 1881), more remarkable for his exquisite sensibility than
for his power (Arias Tristes, Elegias), is led by his melancholy
moods towards fluid rhythms which, though more subtle, remind
one of Maeterlinck and, through him, of Rossetti. Ramon del
Valle Inclan (b. 1870), perhaps the most skilful musician amongst
modern Spanish poets, has given in La Marquesa Rosalinda
an admirable example of the adaptability of the Spanish language
to the most refined rhythms. Ram6n Perez de Ayala (b. 1881),
in El Sendero Innumerable, succeeds in effecting a happy wedding
of thought with harmonious poetry, in a work not wholly unin-
fluenced by Francis Jammes, d'Annunzio and Walt Whitman.
Among historians of literature the work of Marcelino Menen-
dez y Pelayo is continued by D. Ramon Menendez Pidal (b.
1869), whose works on the Poem of Myo Cid and on the Spanish
chronicles have thrown great light on the origins of Spanish epic
poetry. Francisco Rodriguez Marin (b. 1855), the editor of
Don Quixote, a specialist in Spanish folklore, has succeeded the
master as head of the National Library. In the younger genera-
tion, Federico de Onis (b. 1885) has edited Fr. Luis de Leon,
and Americo Castro (b. 1885) has worked on Lope de Vega.
Journalism, always a great art in Spain, where the paper is
infinitely more read than the book, is cultivated by all writers,
and every one of the names quoted above might be quoted here
again as a journalist. Mention must be made, however, of two
eminent contemporary writers whose work is almost exclusively
journalistic Ramiro de Maeztu (b. 1874), a versatile mind
whose educating influence on the Spanish reading public has
been incalculable; and Luis Araquistain, a powerful dialectician
and a master of the polemic style. (S. DE M.)
SPECTROSCOPY (see 25.619). As developed in more recent
years (1910-21) the science of spectroscopy has for one of its
chief purposes the analysis of spectra, and the deduction there-
from of the nature of the atoms and molecules which generate
the spectra. The progress which has been made in this connexion
has depended upon improved determinations of the wave-lengths
of spectral lines, the further investigation of the varying spectrum
of the same substance when excited to luminosity in different
ways, the more complete analysis of certain spectra into regular
series systems, and, finally, on theoretical investigations. In
another direction, important advances have been made in the
interpretation of the spectra of the various classes of celestial
bodies, which may be regarded physically as experiments on
large masses of matter at various high temperatures.
Standards of Wave-Length. Extensive interferometer determina-
tions of wave-lengths in the arc spectrum of iron, based upon
6438-4696 " international " angstroms for the red cadmium line,
have been made by K. Burns ' and others, which provide valuable
standards for the general determination of wave-lengths by inter-
polation. It has been found, however, that the wave-lengths of
many lines differ considerably in different parts of the arc, so that
special precautions are necessary in order to obtain comparison
spectra in agreement with the tabulated standards. Probably the
most accurate set of standards are those given by St. John and
Babcock, 2 who used a small central zone of a " Pfund ' iron arc
operated between no and 250 volts, with five amperes or less, at a
length of 12 mm. This list contains 1026 lines, from X337O to
X&75O, and for most of them the wave-lengths are believed to be
accurate to o-ooi angstrom.
Flame, Arc and Spark Spectra. The range of spectroscopic re-
search has been almost indefinitely extended by the discovery
that in nearly all cases the same substance yields different spectra
when stimulated in different ways. Such differences are of little
importance from the point of view of chemical analysis, but they
have become of great significance to the physicist, and have also
greatly aided in the interpretation of the spectra of celestial bodies.
The three typical methods of producing luminosity for the
observation of the spectra of metallic elements or their salts are the
flame, the electric arc and the electric spark. As a general rule, the
three sources exhibit important differences. In the flame the lines
are comparatively few in number; in the arc the flame lines remain
prominent, but many more lines, including some which are as strong
as the flame lines, make their appearance. In the spark, there is a
tendency for many of the typical arc lines to disappear, whilst other
lines may be much intensified, and entirely new lines may also be
present. The important class of lines which are intensified, or which
only appear, under the violent action of the condensed spark were
1 Lick Obs. Bull., No. 247 (1913) ; Zeit. f. Wiss. Phot, xii., 209.
1 Astrophys. Jour, liii., 260 (1920).
SPECTROSCOPY
559
designated enhanced lines by Sir Norman Lockyer, and this name
has been generally adopted. The different classes of lines are thus
commonly known as name, arc, and spark (or enhanced) lines,
according to their relative prominence in these three sources. This
classification, however, is in some respects imperfect, and more
definite designations will doubtless eventually be based upon the
theoretical considerations to which reference will be made later.
There are many possible variations of these experimental methods
of producing spectra, but it would seem that the equivalent of one
or other of the three typical sources, or of some intermediate stage,
is almost invariably obtained. A more detailed temperature classi-
fication of the lines has been based upon experiments with the elec-
tric furnace by King, 1 but the terms flame, arc and spark lines suffice
for most purposes of description.
Similar variations have also been observed in the spectra of gases
when submitted to the action of discharges of varying intensity,
and the different classes of lines are sometimes distinguished by
analogy as arc and spark lines, although with few exceptions the
arc is not actually employed. Independent justification for these
names, however, is found in the fact that the arc spectra of some
gases can be directly observed. The primary and secondary spec-
tra of hydrogen, for example, have both been observed in the arc, 2
and some of the principal series lines of oxygen have also been
observed in the spectra of metallic arcs in ordinary air. 3 The actual
spectrum given by a gas depends upon its pressure as well as upon
the intensity of the discharge by which it is made luminous. Gen-
erally speaking, the greater the pressure of the gas, the greater will
be the strength of the discharge required to produce the " spark "
lines.
One important aim of modern spectroscopic research has been to
search for an explanation of these phenomena, for it cannot be
doubted that the causes of the variations in the spectra are intimately
connected with atomic structure. In this connexion it will be instruc-
tive to refer first to the spectra of known compounds. There are
many compounds which can be excited to luminosity without total
decomposition, 4 and it has been found that each compound gives a
characteristic spectrum by which it can be identified as such. These
spectra invariably consist of bands, and different sets of bands char-
acterize, for example, the oxides, chlorides and fluorides of the alka-
line earth elements.
It is sufficiently obvious that if a compound be stimulated so
strongly that it becomes dissociated, the spectrum will change from
one consisting of bands representative of the compound to one con-
taining the lines of the constituent elements. It is not only com-
pounds, however, that show changes of this character. Experi-
ments on nitrogen, for instance, show a range of spectra from one
consisting wholly of bands to one in which lines occur alone. Even
hydrogen has two spectra: (i) the highly complex, so-called sec-
ondary spectrum, which doubtless represents a banded spectrum of
rather coarse structure 5 ; and (2) the familiar line spectrum, con-
stituting the Balmer series. Similar results have been obtained for
many other elements, and from analogy with the spectra of com-
pounds the natural conclusion is that the band spectra of the ele-
ments arise from molecules, while the line spectra are produced by
the atoms which are set free when the molecules are dissociated.
If this be a true view, the change in the structure of the atom, or
in its mode of vibration, which accompanies the successive modifica-
tions of the line spectrum becomes a question of paramount interest.
Lockyer 6 did not hesitate to believe that while the arc lines of an
element were to be attributed to ordinary atoms, the enhanced
lines could only be produced by the splitting-up of the atoms them-
selves, and he called these simpler forms of matter the proto-ele-
ments. Proto-calcium, for instance, denoted calcium which had
been broken up into sub-atoms by the application of a sufficient
stimulus. A somewhat similar, but more probable, explanation has
been based upon an application of the quantum theory by Bohr to
Rutherford's nucleus theory of the atom. This theory is founded
largely on the analysis of spectra into regular series.
Range of Observations. For the complete determination of the
laws of spectra it is necessary to extend the observations far beyond
the limits of the visible spectrum. Conspicuous success in the direct
photography of the near infra-red spectrum has been achieved by
Meggers and others, by the use of ordinary plates stained with
dicyanin. 7 By this method excellent photographs of the arc spectra
of a large number of elements, extending to Xio.ooo, have been
obtained with a concave grating, and the positions of the lines have
been measured with a high degree of accuracy. For the present,
1 Several papers in the A strophys. Jour.
2 Fowler and Shaw, Proc. Roy. Soc. A Ixxxvi., 128 (1912).
' Meggers and Kiess, Sc. Pub. Washington Bur. of Standards,
No. 324, p. 644 (1918). .
* Stimulation by " active nitrogen, according to the methods ot
R. J. Strutt (now Lord Rayleigh), is particularly effective for the
spectra of many compounds. Proc. Roy. Soc. Ixxxvi., 105 (1912).
6 An excellent photographic map of this spectrum has been given
by T. R. Merton, Proc. Roy. Soc. A xcvi., 382 (1920).
6 Lockyer, Inorganic Evolution (1900).
7 Scientific Papers, Bureau of Standards, No. 312 (1918), and sub-
sequent papers.
the extreme infra-red can only be investigated by thermal effects,
involving the use of the thermopile, bolometer, or radio-micrometer,
as in the researches of Paschen, Lehmann, and Randall.
Spectroscopic observations in the direction of the ultra-violet,
beyond the limit about XiSso set by the absorption of quartz, 'and
beyond about Xiyoo set by the absorption of air, which were
first made by Victor Schumann, have been greatly extended by the
use of concave gratings, and wave-lengths of considerable accuracy
have been determined. Lyman has recorded lines as far as \soo
angstroms, and in similar work at Toronto, McLennan has observed
a line attributed to carbon at X584. A still greater extension has
been made at Chicago by Millikan 8 and his colleagues, who have
observed lines of nickel as far as X2O2. Several improvements in
technique were necessary to this success. It was achieved, in the
first place, by using gratings specially adapted for the purpose;
secondly, by working in an essentially perfect vacuum, through the
use of powerful pumps; and finally, since no ordinary spark could
pass in a vacuum, by the use of a specially strong sparking apparatus
which was capable of forcing a discharge across a very small space
between the electrodes. Such a spark was found to produce the
extremely short X-rays in the case of carbon, so that the gap which
had previously existed between ordinary light waves and X-rays
was for the first time bridged.
Spectroscopic data thus cover a very wide range, and offer many
interesting problems to the investigator. Their solution depends on
his ability to make a true analysis of spectra, and to deduce there-
from the corresponding atomic or molecular conditions.
Analysis of Spectra. Considerable progress has been made in the
analysis of spectra into series. One of the most important advances
in this direction is the increased knowledge of the primary spectrum
of hydrogen, which is now known to contain, not only the Balmer
series, but also two similar series, one in the infra-red and the other
in the far ultra-violet. The former was discovered by Paschen, and
the latter, previously predicted by theory, was found by Lyman with
his vacuum spectrograph. Each of these series is well represented
by a mathematical formula, which is simplified if the lines are
expressed by their " wave-numbers " (v) instead of their wave-
lengths. The wave-number is the number of waves per centimetre
in vacua, and is proportional to the frequency of the vibration. In
practice, it is obtained by dividing the wave-length (in angstrom
units), connected to a vacuum, into IO 8 . In these terms, the for-
mulae for the hydrogen series are as follows :
Lyman series:
Balmer series:
Paschen series :
N N .
v = ~* (m
2, 3,
N N ,
v = ^2~^z (" I= 3i4.
'N N ,
v= ^~ 2 ~~2 (>=4i5.
Thus, a general formula for the primary hydrogen spectrum, which
N N
might include other undiscovered series, would be v = .
N is a constant, whose value 9 is 109678-3. OT is a constant integer
for any one series; and m z has a different integral value for each
line of a series. R. W. Wood 10 has recently extended the Balmer
series to m = 22, i.e. to 20 lines, by experiments with long vacuum
tubes. In the spectrum of the sun's chromosphere, 34 lines of the
series have been recorded.
There is only one other known spectrum which has the same sim-
plicity as that of hydrogen namely, the enhanced spectrum of
helium. This includes the series first found by Pickering in the
star f Puppis, and the line X4686 and others calculated by Ryd-
berg, by whom both series were attributed to hydrogen. These
lines were produced in the laboratory by Fowler, 11 and additional
lines of the Pickering series, first indicated by Bohr's theory, were
afterwards observed by Evans 12 and by Paschen. 13 It was, in fact,
the theoretical work of Bohr which first suggested that the lines in
question originated in helium and not in hydrogen.
The enhanced series of helium can be represented by a formula
similar to that for hydrogen, with the difference that the series
constant has rather more than four times the value for hydrogen.
Thus, the series which includes X4686 is given by c=4N'(-j-^
when N' is 109723. The complete Pickering series is given by sub-
stituting I/4 2 for I/3 2 in this formula, and a further series calculated
by the use of 1/2 2 has been partially observed by Lyman. It should
be noted that alternate lines of the Pickering series are nearly coin-
cident with the Balmer series of hydrogen.
"Astrophys. Jour. Hi., I (1920).
9 W. E. Curtis, Proc. Roy. Soc. A xcvi., 147 (1919).
10 Proc. Roy. Soc. A xcvii., 455 (1920).
11 Monthly Notices R. A . S. Ixxiii. , 62 (1912); Phil. Trans. Accxiv.,
254 (1914)-
; , . " Phil. Mag. xxix., 284 (1915).
13 Ann..d, Phys. I, (1916)-
56o
SPECTROSCOPY
Other spectra exhibit several series superposed. The three types
of series early recognized as occurring in the same spectrum were
denoted by Schuster as the " Trunk," " Main Branch," and " Side
Branch " series, but these names are now entirely superseded by
the'titles: " Principal," " Sharp," and " Diffuse," originally assigned
by Rydberg. A fourth type of series, called the " Fundamental "
or " Bergmann " series, has since been recognized. The four chief
types are closely interrelated, but apparently have a certain measure
of independence. Each series may consist of singlets, doublets, or
triplets.
In each series the lines converge to a definite limit, and their
wave-numbers are obtained by subtracting a sequence of " terms "
from the wave-number of the limit. The formulae for series in gen-
eral, however, are not known with the same accuracy as for hydro-
gen and enhanced helium. In some spectra, notably the arc spectra
of the alkali metals, a close approximation to a series is given by
such a formula as that of Hicks, 1 namely, y = A N/(m+/*+a/i) z
where N has nearly the same value as for hydrogen, while M and a
are constants and A is the limit of the series; as before m takes suc-
cessive integral values. In some series, however, such a formula by
no means gives an accurate representation of the observed lines.
All that the theoretical investigator can accept with confidence at
present is that the general term formula is N/[f(m)] 2 , where f(m)
is a function of m whose form is known only for hydrogen and
enhanced helium.
The four main sequences of terms are denoted, for brevity, by
the symbols mP, mS, mD, mF, where different integral values of m
correspond to the different terms in each sequence. The limit of
each of the four series is the first term of one of the others, so that
in the abbreviated notation, we have:
Principal series =lS mP
Sharp series = I P mS
Diffuse series =lP mD
Fundamental series =2D mF
The term iP has one, two, or three values, according as the series
consists of singlets, doublets, or triplets; and, similarly, the term
2D has two or three values, in doubjet and triplet series respectively,
when satellites are present in the diffuse series.
It was first shown by Ritz, and expressed in his " combination
principle," that lines often occur in positions corresponding to other
differences of terms besides those giving the four main series. Thus,
there may be a series zS mP, iP mP, and so on. Many lines not
previously included have in this way been proved to form part of
general series systems.
The recognition of the importance of " terms " is a definite step
towards the simplification of spectra, since the number of terms is
less than the number of lines included in the series and combina-
tions. Moreover, theoretical investigations indicate that the terms
have a more immediate physical significance than the lines them-
selves. On this account, it is of great interest to construct a " term-
spectrum," in which the terms, instead of the lines, are plotted
along a horizontal scale. Such a term-spectrum for the element
lithium is shown in the appended diagram. For economy of space,
the terms are represented horizontally by their logarithms instead
of their actual values.
IITHIUM
t
*
i
to
>
J.
J
\
M
1
-
1
1
f
PRINCIPAL- IS -P DIFFUSE -IP-.D
SHARP -1P-S FUNDAMENTAL - 2 D F
COMBINATIONS: IP-i-P. 2P-mDi 2S-2P; IP-3F,c
_ In the term-spectrum diagram, the four main sequences are dis-
tinguished by the varying heights of the strokes by which their
terms are represented. The highest principal term (iP) minus the
sets of sharp and diffuse terms, gives the sharp and diffuse series of
lines respectively, while the highest sharp term (iS) minus the set
of principal terms, and the highest diffuse term (zD) minus the set
of fundamental terms, give the principal and fundamental series.
These four series are generally well developed, but, as already
remarked, other combinations often arise. It appears, however,
that all the combinations which are mathematically possible do not
occur with the same frequency.
Origin of Spectra. The theory of Bohr, 2 which has already been
mentioned, offers a remarkably accurate explanation of the spectra
of hydrogen and enhanced helium, and gives a physical meaning to
the terms which has proved very fruitful in suggesting new direc-
1 Phil. Trans. A vols. ccx., ccxii., ccxiii., ccxvii., ccxx.
*Phil. Mag., vol. xxvi., pp. 1-25; 476-502; 857-875 (1913);
vol. xxvii., pp. 506-524 (1913) ; vol. xxix., pp. 332-335 (1915).
tions of research. According to this theory, the atom of an element
consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by an appro-
priate system of electrons, such that the total negative charge of the
electrons is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus. Nearly the
whole of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, which
is very small in comparison with the distances separating it from the
electrons. When an electron is removed from its normal position
by the application of an external stimulus, it may traverse tempo-
rarily one or another of certain orbits determined by quantum con-
siderations. In each of these orbits it has a certain amount of energy,
which is assumed to remain constant while the electron revolves in
the orbit. The terms of the spectrum are then taken to be propor-
tional to the respective amounts of energy. When the electron
returns to its normal position, it comes to an orbit in which, for
equilibrium, it must possess less energy than it had in the temporary
orbit. The difference of energy, which is proportional to the
difference of the corresponding terms, is emitted as a homogeneous
radiation, and gives rise to a definite spectral line, while, if the elec-
tron occupies successively different orbits on its return, several
lines will be produced in succession. The actual spectrum at any
moment is the summation of the different lines yielded by atoms in
different states. The term spectrum can thus be regarded as a dia-
gram of the atom, in which the nucleus is at the zero of the scale
(to the right in the diagram), and the strokes are parts of the pos-
sible orbits. A spectrum line appears when an electron passes from
one orbit to another on its return towards its normal position in the
innermost orbit.
The differences between the arc and enhanced spectra receive a
simple explanation on the Bohr theory. The lines of an arc spectrum
are supposed to be generated by the disturbance of a single electron
and its subsequent interaction with the nucleus and remaining elec-
trons. When two electrons are removed from their normal posi-
tions, and one remains at a great distance, the return of the second
electron generates an entirely different spectrum consisting of the
enhanced lines. An atom which has lost one or more electrons is
said to be " ionized."
Assuming the hydrogen atom to consist of a nucleus and a single
electron, the energies of the possible orbits can be calculated, and
are found to be proportional to the observed terms N/w 2 . Helium,
the next lightest element to hydrogen, is believed to have two elec-
trons, and the mathematical problem of determining their motion
has not yet been solved. If one of the electrons is removed, how-
ever, the atom is similar to that of hydrogen, except that the nucleus
has a double positive charge and a greater mass. The resulting
enhanced terms are therefore calculable. They again have the form
N/fft *, but N has now a much larger value than it has for hydrogen.
T . , . . 2ire*E 2 mM
It is represented in both cases by the expression rj 4-M'
where e, m, and E, M, are respectively the charge and mass of the
electron and nucleus, h Planck's constant and c is the velocity of
light. In the case of hydrogen E = e, and when the experimental
values of the various quantities are substituted in the formula, the
series constant is reproduced with remarkable accuracy. The
second factor increases with M, so that it will be slightly greater
for helium than for hydrogen. Also, the double nuclear charge
makes the first factor in the expression for N four times as great for
enhanced helium as it is for hydrogen. These theoretical require-
ments have been completely verified by experiment. Fowler, calcu-
lating N for hydrogen and helium from the observed lines, used the
theoretical expressions to calculate the value of M/m, i.e. the
ratio of the masses of the hydrogen atom and the electron and
obtained a result in very close agreement with that arrived at by
direct measurement. Moreover, he has shown 3 that in the more
complicated spectra of the alkaline earths, the enhanced line terms
are also represented by formula? in which N has four times its value
for arc spectra.
It has not yet been possible to calculate the theoretical terms of
other spectra, on account of the mathematical difficulties con-
nected with the interaction of more than two bodies. The same
principles, however, are believed to apply to atoms containing many
electrons, and the physical conceptions of the theory have led to
valuable information regarding the order of excitation of the lines
under gradually increasing stimulus.
Further developments of the theory, taking into account the
variation of the mass of the electron with velocity required by the
theory of relativity, have indicated that the lines of the hydrogen
and enhanced helium series are complex, and under high resolution
should appear to consist of several components. This has been veri-
fied by Paschen, 4 who found results for helium in remarkable agree-
ment with the predictions of Sommerfeld. The intensities of the
several components also are in the ratio calculated by Sommer-
feld by a special hypothesis.
Resonance and Ionizing Potentials. Strong support for the Bohr
theory is given by experiments in which atoms are bombarded by
electrons, with a view to temporary disintegration. If an electron,
of charge e falls through a potential difference, v, it acquires a
1 Phil. Trans. A ccxiv., 254 (1914).
4 Ann. d. Phys., vol. 1., pp. 901-940 (1916).
SPECTROSCOPY
56i
Spectrum
GROUP
VIII. orO
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Arc ....
Enhanced .
Not com-
pletely ana-
lyzed
(?)
Doublets
Not com-
pletely ana-
lyzed
Triplets and
singlets
Doublets
Doublets
Triplets and
singlets
Triplets?
Doublets?
Doublets?
Triplets?
Triplets
Doublets?
(?)
Triplets?
quantity of energy, ev, expressed in appropriate units. If such an
electron bombards a neutral atom, it is found that no change takes
place until v reaches a certain value, when there is a sudden radia-
tion of energy corresponding to a particular line usually a strong
flame line in the spectrum of the bombarded atom. According to
Bohr's theory, the energy in this particular radiation is equal to
hv, where v is the wave-number of the line, and h is Planck's
constant. Experiments with several elements show that this critical
value of v is determined by the relation ev = hv. This means that
the energy of bombardment has been just sufficient to remove the
electron in the atom from its normal position to the next orbit, and,
on its return, the electron restores the energy in the form of mono-
chromatic radiation of the appropriate frequency. If v is expressed
in volts, the wave-number of the emitted line is numerically equal
to VX8IO2. The value of v when emission first takes place is
known as the " resonance " or " radiation " potential. Further,
by increasing v, it is possible to remove an electron from the atom
altogether. If the energy, ev, in this case is equated to hv, the
resulting value of v is found to be equal to the largest term in the
spectrum usually the term IS, the limit of the principal series.
This term would correspond to the innermost orbit of the electron,
and the result suggests that the energy which must be applied to
remove an electron from the atom is just equal to the energy pos-
sessed by the electron when revolving in its normal position. The
potential required to remove an electron from the atom is known as
the "ionizing potential." It has been determined experimentally
for a number of elements and has been found to be in complete
agreement with the orbital energy as calculated from the largest
term in the spectrum. The Bohr theory thus presents a simple
picture of the processes taking place in experiments of this type.
The Stark Effect. The resolution of spectral lines under the
influence of intense magnetic fields usually known as the Zeeman
effect has been extensively studied for a large number of elements.
Somewhat similar effects, but much greater in magnitude, pro-
duced by an electric field, have been brought to light by Stark, 1
and examined in considerable detail by a number of workers.
Nicholson and Merton * have shown that the Stark effect may oper-
ate to an appreciable extent in an ordinary vacuum-tube discharge,
causing a broadening of the lines. Both the Zeeman and Stark
effects have been treated on the basis of the Bohr theory, 3 with
some success.
Spectra and the Periodic Table. Attention is being drawn more
and more to the relation of the spectrum to the periodic table of
the elements. While it cannot be said that the relation is known
with any approach to completeness, a number of important facts
have been noted which may ultimately prove of great service in the
interpretation of the table. It has long been known that, when
doublets or triplets occur in the spectra, the wave-number separa-
tions of their components (which are constant in the sharp and
diffuse series) are approximately proportional to the squares of the
atomic weights of the elements producing the spectra so long as
those elements belong to the same family group. The Zeeman effect
also is generally the same for lines of corresponding series in the
spectra of elements belonging to the same group But perhaps the
most comprehensive connexion of spectra with the periodic table is
established by the " displacement law " of Kossel and Sommerfeld. 4
It has been observed that the " complexity " of the lines of a series
i.e. their character as singlets, doublets or triplets is constant
throughout a group, but varies from one group to another. The
displacement law states that, when an element is ionized, the
enhanced series take on the same type of complexity as the arc
series produced by the element to the left (i.e. in the preceding
group) in the periodic table. It is assumed that electrons arrange
themselves round the nucleus in rings, and that spectrum phenomena
are produced by electrons in the outer ring. If the outer ring con-
tains an odd number of electrons, the spectrum will consist of doub-
lets, while, if the number is even, the spectrum will show triplets
and singlets. In the periodic table each element contains one outer
electron more than its neighbour in the preceding group, while a
group consists of elements having the same number of electrons in
the outer ring. It follows that the removal of an electron from an
1 Ann. d. Phys., vol. xliii., p. 965 (1914), etc.
J Phil. Trans. A. vol. ccxvi., p. 459 (1916).
'Bohr, Danish Acad. Sc. iv., I, part ii., pp. i-ioo (1918); H. A.
Kramers, Memoires Acad. Sc., Copenhagen, 8th ser., hi., No. 3, pp.
287-384 (1919) ; Epstein, Ann. d. Phys., vol. 1, pp., 489-520, 815-840
(1916).
4 Verh. Deut. Phys. Gesell. (1919).
element will make the outer ring similar to that of the immediate
forerunner of the element in the table, and so make the enhanced
lines of the first element of the same type of complexity as the arc
lines of the second. Removal of a second electron would restore the
arc type of complexity, for the number of outer electrons would
again become odd or even, as the case might be. A second ioniza-
tion is difficult to bring about in most cases, but with silicon it is
probable that one, two, and even three electrons have been removed,
step by step, thus making possible four distinct spectra. These
appear to show the alternation of complexity required by the dis-
placement law. The table above gives the types of series pro-
duced by the neutral and ionized elements of the various groups, so
far as they are known at present.
The spectra of the higher groups are much more complex than those
of the lower ones. Their series, if they possess any, are possibly of
a different type from those with which we are familiar. The dis-
placement law, however, suggests that, by repeated ionizations,
series and therefore terms might be detected in such spectra,
of the same kind as those of the groups of elements on the left.
But since, with each successive ionization, the term constant, N,
is multiplied in the ratio I 4:9:16 etc., the chief series lines might
tend rapidly to approach the far ultra-violet and become difficult
to observe.
Band Spectra. Several band spectra have been studied in further
detail, but it does not appear that any very fundamental advance in
our knowledge of the structure of these spectra has been made.
The discovery of a band spectrum of helium, 6 however, is probably
of considerable importance. It has been shown by Fowler 6 that,
while the individual bands follow the ordinary laws of band spectra,
the heads of some of them are arranged in accordance with the laws
of line series. In this respect the helium bands appear to be quite
unique. Unlike the lines of helium, the bands have not yet been
traced in any celestial source.
The Solar Spectrum. A striking feature of continued work on the
solar spectrum is the identification of a large number of faint lines
with lines composing the bands of certain compounds, in addition
to the band lines of carbon and cyanogen previously recognized by
Rowland and Lockyer. The peculiarities of the region about the
G group of Fraunhofer have been shown by Newall 7 to be due to
the absorption of the well-known hydro-carbon band X43I5, and
the group P has been found by Fowler and Gregory 8 to include
the strong ultra-violet band of ammonia having its maximum near
X33&O. In addition, the band of luminous water vapour beginning
at X3O64 has been found by Fowler 9 to be present in the solar
spectrum. A large number of previously unknown solar lines have
thus been accounted for, and it is not improbable that the thousands
of faint lines which remain unidentified may eventually be traced
to other band spectra.
An interesting application of modern theories of spectra to solar
problems has been made by M. N. Saha. 10 On the reasonable assump-
tion that the composition of the sun is essentially the same as that
of the earth, it remains to account for the absence of spectral indica-
tions of many of the elements. Dr. Saha urges that the varying
representation of different elements arises from the varying response
of these elements to the solar stimulus, depending upon the struc-
ture of their atoms, and the consequent difference in their ionizing
potentials. Caesium, for example, has a low ionizing potential
and is considered to be completely ionized in the sun, so that the
familiar lines do not appear, while the chief lines of the ionized ele-
ment are out of range. In contrast, sodium has a higher ionizing
potential and is only partially ionized in the sun, so that the lines
of the neutral atoms appear strongly. Other elements, such as neon
and argon, have very high ionization potentials, and are not excited
at all. Dr. Saha finds support for his views in calculations of the
percentage ionizations of various elements at different temperatures
and pressures, and it is possible that the peculiarities of the solar
spectrum may be satisfactorily explained by these considerations.
Stellar Spectroscopy. Our detailed knowledge of the spectra of
the stars has been greatly advanced by the use of the large tele-
scopes which have been erected, and considerable progress has also
S W. E. Curtis, Proc. Roy. Soc., Ixxxix., 146 (1913); E. Goldstein,
Verh. Deut. Phys. Ges., xv., 10 (1913).
Proc. Roy. Soc., xci., 209 (1915).
''Monthly Notices R. A. S., Ixxvi., 640 (1916).
'Phil. Trans. A ccxviii., 351 (1918).
'Proc. Roy. Soc. A. xciv., 472 (1918).
10 Phil. Mag. xl., 809 (1920).
562
SPEE SPITSBERGEN
been made in the interpretation of the stellar lines through experi-
ments in the laboratory. In particular, the use of stronger dis-
charges than had previously been employed has led to the discovery
of new lines of several elements, which have been identified with the
lines occurring in the hotter stars. Certain lines of the Wolf-Rayet
stars, for example, have thus been traced to carbon by Merton, 1
and others to oxygen by Fowler and Brooksbank. 2 The general
outcome of the experimental reproduction of stellar lines is to sup-
port the view that the order in which the different classes of stars
had been arranged is a true temperature sequence. This order, pre-
viously indicated by Secchi and Vogel, is now generally expressed
by the classification introduced at Harvard by E. C. Pickering, in
which the most important classes, passing from the white to the
redder stars, are designated by the letters B, A, F, G, K, M. s On
passing from the relatively cool M stars to the hot B stars, it is
necessary, in accordance with the work of Lockyer, to employ a
gradually increasing stimulus in order to excite the spectra which
appear at successive stages of the stellar sequence.
There are certain peculiarities of the successive stellar spectra
which call for explanation, if it be assumed that all stars are of essen-
tially the same composition. Thus, at every stage of the stellar
sequence there are many elements which are not represented at all,
and different selections of the elements appear at the various stages.
The earlier attempts to deal with such questions are incompatible
with modern views as to the origin of spectra. The new theory of
spectra, however, supplemented by a theory of the temperature
radiation of gases, has been shown by Dr. M. N. Saha * to provide a
very probable explanation of most of the phenomena. According to
this theory, a gas or vapour may emit radiations, or become ionized,
by subjecting it to appropriate thermal stimulus, depending in part
upon the density, and the emissions produced mechanically by the
spark may thus also be generated by the action of a sufficiently high
temperature. Dr. Saha concludes that, under the temperature stimu-
lus prevailing in the atmosphere of any particular star, certain ele-
ments are excited to radiation of their characteristic lines, in accord-
ance with their resonance and' ionization potentials, while other
elements are either ionized, or the stimulus is too weak to excite
the lines by which their presence could be recognized. When an ele-
ment is completely ionized in this way, it will often happen that the
most characteristic lines of the modified atoms will he far in the
ultra-violet, outside the range of possible observation, so that the
element will escape detection. Again, under the action of the highest
temperatures, a second step in ionization may set in, producing still
more refrangible chief lines as a rule, so that even the elements which
yield enhanced lines in the ordinary range of spectrum at some stages
will eventually cease to be represented. The simplification of_the
spectra of the hotter stars thus receives an acceptable explanation ;
the surviving elements represented in the spectra are those for which
the maximum amount of energy is required to produce the succes-
sive ionizations, or those for which these conditions yield lines of
sufficient intensity within the range of spectrum which is open to
observation. Preliminary calculations of the probable temperatures
at which such changes of spiectrum would occur are in substantial
agreement with the temperatures of the various classes of stars
deduced from spectro-photometric observations^ by Wilsing and
Scheiner. It therefore seems probable that temperature is the con-
trolling factor in determining the character of the spectrum given
by a star, and, as Dr. Saha remarks: " The stellar spectra may be
regarded as unfolding to us, in an unbroken sequence, the physical
processes succeeding each other as the temperature is continually
varied from 3000 to 40,000."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. To the works mentioned in the earlier article
the following should be added: Eder and Valenta, Atlas typischer
Spektren (1911); P. 'Zeeman, Researches in Magneto-Optics (1913);
J. Stark, Die Atomionen chemischer Elemente und ihre Kanalstrahlen-
spectren (1913) ; T. Lyman, The Spectroscopy of the Extreme Ultra-
violet (1914); A. Sommerfeld, Atombau und Spektrallinien (1921);
L. Silberstein, Report on the Quantum Theory of Spectra (1920);
A. L. Hughes, " Report on Photo-Electricity, including Ionising
and Radiating Potentials and Related Effects," Bull, of National
Research Council, Washington (1921); A. Fowler, Series in Line
Spectra, Phys. Soc., London (1921). (A. F.)
SPEE, COUNT MAXIMILIAN VON (1861-1914), German
admiral, was born June 23 1861 at Copenhagen. He was first
officer of the battleship " Brandenburg " when it was sent to
East Asia in 1899 during the Chinese boxer disturbances. In
1 Proc. Roy. Soc., A, xci., 498 (1915).
1 Monthly Notices, R.A.S., Ixxvii., 511 (1917).
1 The work of H. N. Russell, in general agreement with that of
Lockyer, renders it probable that the true sequence is from M
to B with increasing temperature, and thence from B to M with
decreasing temperature, the density increasing throughout. Stars
of rising temperature, on account of their great volume, have been
called " giants," those of falling temperature " dwarfs." Differences
between the spectra of giants and dwarfs of the same spectral class
have been found by Adams (see Monthly Notices, R.A.S., Ixxxi., 334).
4 Proc. Roy. Soc., A, xcix., 135 (1921).
1908 he was chief of the staff of the North Sea command, and in
1913 he was appointed chief in command of the Cruiser Squadron.
When the World War broke out he was on a voyage with this
squadron from Tsing-tau to the South Sea Islands. He was hard
pressed by British and Japanese naval forces, but was at an
advantage when he was engaged on Nov. i 1914 off Coronel on
the Chilean coast by Adml. Cradock with a British squadron
which was inferior to his own in numbers and speed, as well as in
range and weight of fire. Adml. Cradock went down with his
ship, the " Cape of Good Hope," and the " Monmouth " was
also sunk. On the following Dec. 8 Count Spec's squadron was
drawn into action off the Falkland Is. by the powerful cruiser
squadron of Adml. Sturdee which had been sent out to look for
him. Count Spec's own ship, the " Scharnhorst, " was sunk, he
himself and his two sons going down with all hands. The
" Gneisenau " was also sunk, as were the " Leipzig " and the
" Nurnberg." The light cruiser " Dresden " escaped, but was
afterwards sunk off Juan Fernandez in the Pacific.
SPIELHAGEN, FRIEDRICH VON (1829-1911), German novel-
ist (see 25.667), published during his later years Freigeboren
(1900); Die schonen Amerikanerinnen (1902); Ultimo (1903);
and Am Wege (1903). He died at Charlottenburg, Berlin, Feb.
25 1911.
SPIERS, RICHARD PHENE (1838-1916), English architect
and author. Phene Spiers occupied a unique position amongst
the English architects of the latter half of the igth century, his
long mastership of the architectural school at the Royal Academy
having given him the opportunity of moulding and shaping the
minds of more than a generation of students. He was educated
in the engineering department of King's College, London, and
proceeded thence to the atelier Questel of the Ecole dcs Beaux-
Arts, Paris, for upwards of three years, a method of study rare
for an architectural student in those days. On his return he won
the gold medal and travelling scholarship of the Royal Academy,
and in 1865 the Soane medal of the R.I.B.A. In 1871, after he
had worked in the offices of Sir Digby Wyatt and William Bur-
ges, he gained second premium with a spirited design (showing a
good deal of the Neo-Grec feeling consequent on his French train-
ing) for the new Criterion building, London. His work of about
this period included Lord Monkswell's house, Chelsea. Pheng
Spiers travelled in France, Spain, Egypt, Syria and the East, and
besides his record of more purely architectural data, he made
many water-colour sketches showing much talent and facility.
He was a frequent exhibitor at various galleries, and a good
specimen of his art the loggia at Hampton Court is in the
Victoria and Albert museum. His works and publications were
many, and covered a wide ground. Amongst them are his new
edition of James Fergusson's History of Architecture and the
further volumes on Indian and Eastern art; Architectural Draw-
ing; The Architecture of Greece and Rome (conjointly with the late
W. J. Anderson) ; The Mosque at Damascus; and the articles on
Persian and Roman Architecture in Dr. Russell Sturgis's Dic-
tionary of Architecture, besides an edition of Pugin's Normandy.
For the E.B. Spiers wrote most of the articles dealing with ar-
chitecture. The position to which his erudition and ability en-
titled him was fully recognized in other countries as well as his
own,"as is shown by his election to membership of many foreign
societies in France, Spain and America. He died in London
Oct. 3 1916.
SPIRITUALISM: see PSYCHICAL RESEARCH.
SPITSBERGEN (see 25.708). The highest peaks in Spits-
bergen are believed to be Mount Newton, 5,676 ft., and Mount
Poincare, 5,446 ft., both in the eastern part known as New
Friesland. Mount Eidsvoll in King James Land is 4,770 ft. and
Mount Monaco on Prince Charles Foreland is 3,543 ft.
Geology. Considerable exploration has not greatly modified the
main conception of the geological structure. The old rocks of the
W., generally described as the Hekla Hook series, seem to be o
Silurian age to which may also be ascribed the so-called Archaean
rocks of the N.W. There are no Permo-Carboniferous rocks in King
lames Land'and the strips of rocks on the N.E. side of Prince Charle
Foreland and the opposite shores of the mainland, formerly attrib-
SPORTS AND GAMES
563
uted to that age, are now known to be Tertiary. Certain of the coal
measures in Advent Bay prove to be of Cretaceous and not Tertiary
age and these Cretaceous beds probably appear also below the
Tertiary beds in Lowe Sound.
An extinct volcano and several hot springs with a temperature of
75 to 82 F. were discovered in Bock Bay, off Wood Bay, in 1910.
The volcano seems to date from a later period than any other
volcanic manifestation found in Spitsbergen. Research has proved
that dislocation has played a great part in determining the main
features of the fiord system, especially in Ice Fjord where the
course of the fjord has been decided by great faults.
Climate. From the meteorological data now available, including
eight years' records from Green Harbour, the following means may
be given: Cape Thordsen, Jan. 0-3 F., July 39-9 F. ; Green Har-
bour, Jan. 6-7, July 39-7; Axel I. (Lowe Sound), Jan. 1-6, July
40-3; S.E. of Edge I., Jan. 1-5, Aug. 37-4; Bear I., Feb. 10-4,
Aug. 40-1. The mean annual precipitation at Green Harbour is
1 1 -6 in.; Prince Charles Foreland has more and the interior of
Spitsbergen less.
Exploration. There is little doubt that the land called Sval-
bard ("cool coast") in the Icelandic annals, discovered by
Norsemen in 1194, was really Spitsbergen. If Spitsbergen was
forgotten by the Norsemen it was possibly rediscovered by
Russian hunters from the White Sea in the i5th or i6th cen-
turies or at least previous to Barents' rediscovery in 1596.
Recent exploration in Spitsbergen has been devoted mainly
to geological work, largely with economic ends in view, and
detailed cartographical survey. A German expedition under Lt.
Schroeder-Stranz in 1912 came to grief on the N. coast, after the
loss of the leader. Half the staff were lost and the survivors
were rescued by Norwegians under A. Staxrud.
The principal survey work has been done by Norwegians working
in small parties every summer since 1906, assisted by grants from the
Norwegian State. These parties have been successively com-
manded by G. Isachsen, A. Staxrud and A. Hoel, and have mapped
in detail the western side of the mainland from the N. coast to the
South Cape. The work is expedited by the use of photogrammetric
methods to assist triangulation. The detailed survey of Prince
Charles Foreland has been completed by Dr. W. S. Bruce and
assistants who have also mapped the area between Klaas Billen and
Sassen bays. Swedish surveyors have mapped the land round Lowe
Sound and Braganza Bay. The Prince of Monaco has shown con-
tinued interest in Spitsbergen exploration by giving assistance to
several explorers, including the Swiss H. Stoll who in 1913 crossed the
unknown country between Lowe Sound and Agardh Bay on Stor
Fjord. Lt. W. Filchner in 1910 surveyed the glaciated region
between Temple Bay and Mohn Bay. In 1920 J. M. Wordie scaled
several of the highest peaks on theW. coast, including Mounts
Monaco, Rudmose and Barents. Hydrographic surveys have been
carried out by G. Isachsen and others on the W. coast and in Green
Harbour, by W. S. Bruce in Foreland Sound, Klaas Billen and
Sassen bays and Stor Fjord. Swedish Government surveyors have
been at work in Lowe Sound. Oceanographical work has been done in
Spitsbergen waters by Dr. F. Nansen. The Norwegian Government
has maintained a wireless telegraph station and meteorological
observatory in Green Harbour since 1911. A German meteorological
station was founded in Eleltoft Haven, Cross Bay, in 1910 as the
outcome of a visit by Prince Henry of Prussia and Count Zeppelin
when experiments with dirigible balloons were conducted. This
station was abandoned in Sept. 1914. In 1920 Norway opened a
new meteorological and geophysical station for aerological and geo-
magnetic research. Besides the Norwegian state wireless station
at Green Harbour, there were in 1921 seven others (4 Norwegian,
2 English and one Swedish). In Aug. 1921 a Norwegian Church
was consecrated at Longyear City.
Mining. The development of the coal-fields has proceeded
rapidly, greatly stimulated during the war by the scarcity and
high price of coal in Scandinavia. The coal-mine in Longyear
Valley, Advent Bay, which had been under American owner-
ship since 1905, was sold in 1916 to Norwegians who have been
assiduous in their export. Several other Norwegian mines have
started, notably in Kings Bay, Green Harbour and Hjorth
Haven in Advent Bay. Swedish mines were opened in Lowe
Sound (Braganza Bay) in 1917. There are Russian mines in
Green Harbour and Dutch mines at Cape Boheman. British
enterprise, hampered by war conditions, revived in 1919 in the
coal-bearing areas in Klaas Billen Bay and Lowe Sound. By
1920 practically all the coal-bearing areas were annexed by one
or other company and at least five mines had reached the export
stage. The total amount of coal exported in 1919 was 90,000
tons, all of which went to Norwegian ports, including some to
Narvik for the Swedish railways. The coal exported so far is of
Tertiary and Cretaceous age and proves to be good steam coal.
Bituminous coal of Carboniferous age will soon be available for
export. Jurassic coal occurs but is of poor quality and no longer
worked. Mining continues throughout the year but the export
season at present is from June to Sept. The largest mining camp
is Longyear City in Advent Bay, housing some 400 men in sum-
mer and 300 in winter. No other minerals besides coal are as
yet exploited commercially, but large deposits of iron ore (36%
iron) and gypsum are known, as well as smaller deposits of zinc
and asbestos. Signs of oil have been reported. A Norwegian
company is exporting coal from Bear Island. The approximate
area (in sq. m.) of estates owned by various nationals in Spits-
bergen is as follows: British 6,500, Norwegian 900, Swedish 400,
Russian 60 and Dutch 10. Whaling was revived in Spitsbergen
waters in 1905, abandoned in 1912 and restarted during the
World War. The only station is now in Green Harbour. Winter
fur-hunting is pursued by a few Norwegians.
Political History. The question of political control had been
discussed since about 1870, mainly by Norway, Sweden and
Russia, without any solution being found. Spitsbergen there-
fore occupied the curious position of being terra nullius. In 1907,
however, Norway again opened negotiations for an interna-
tional conference to decide the question of sovereignty, and one
was held at Christiania in July-Aug. 1910, followed by another
in 1912, without definite result. In July 1914 a conference
which included also representatives of Britain, France, Belgium,
the United States, Holland and Germany tried to devise a form
of administration consistent with the country remaining a
terra nullius, but the outbreak of the World War put an end to
the discussions. In 1919 the Supreme Council conferred the
sovereignty of Spitsbergen, including Bear I., on Norway. The
signatories of the treaty were Great Britain and the British
Dominions, France, Italy, the United States, Japan, Holland,
Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The rights and territories of
nationals other than those of Norway are safeguarded, and
Norway is not allowed to show preferential treatment to Nor-
wegian mining companies or to levy taxes except for expendi-
ture on the administration. Disputed claims to estates were to
be decided by a neutral commission presided over by a Dane.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. -The literature is in the main scattered in period-
ical publications: specially useful are Ymer (Stockholm), Viden-
skapsselskapets skrifter (Christiania), Naturen (Bergen), Scottish Geo-
graphical Magazine and Resultats des Campagnes Scientifiques, par
Albert I., Prince de Monaco, vol. xl., xli., and xlv. Two modern
works giving recent history and economic developments are Spits-
bergen: its exploration, hunting and mineral riches, by R. N. Rudmose
Brown (1920), and Spitsbergen* Natur og Historic, by G. Holmsen
(1911). " Fra Ishavet " by G. Isachsen in Del Norske Geografiske
Selskabs Aarbok (1916-19) gives much information about Norwegian
hunters. The Dutch Discovery and Mapping of Spitsbergen 1596-
1829, by F. C. Wieder (Amsterdam, 1919), has many reproductions
of early maps. The meteorological observations at Green Harbour
are published annually in Jahrbuch des Norwegischen Meteorologischen
Instituts (Christiania). Mil Zeppelin nach Spitzbergen, by A. Miethe
and H. Hergesell (Berlin 1911), is noteworthy for the excellence of its
illustrations, including colour plates. Some of the results of the
Norwegian surveys are collected in Expedition Isachsen au Spitsberg
1909-10. Resultats scientifiques (Christiania 1916). The geomorphol-
ogy of Spitsbergen is explained by G. de Geer, " On the physiographi-
cal evolution of Spitsbergen " in Geog.Annaler, I. (Stockholm 1919).
(R. N. R. B.)
SPORTS AND GAMES. The tendency towards "internation-
alism " in competitive sports and games had been rapidly grow-
ing in intensity, partly as a result of the establishment of the
Olympic Games, from 1896 onwards; but it was rudely inter-
rupted by the World War, and conditions were still unfavourable
up to 1921 for more than a limited renewal. The decade from
1911 to 1921 offers no proper material, therefore, for a consistent
history in this field, by way of supplement to the separate
articles in the earlier volumes of this Encyclopaedia; nor, indeed,
in the case of most sports and games, as carried on in 1910-21,
had there been more than minor changes, either in equipment,
methods or rules. So far as British and American interests,
however, are concerned, the chief statistics, as regards the main
events in the more important sports and games, are recorded
in the following sections.
564
SPORTS AND GAMES
Athletics, Track and Field. The Olympic Games were held at
Stockholm in July 1912, the highest number of points being scored
by the United States, and again at Antwerp in 1920, the 7th Olym-
piad being projected for Paris in 1924.
While the United States won the track and field events of the
1920 Olympic games in Antwerp by a considerable margin in the
point score, and set new records in the pole vault, the high jump,
and the 400- metre hurdles, the Americans totalled only 9 first places,
the same as the team of 24 men from Finland. The "stars" of the
American team were C. W. Paddock in the 100 metres, Allan Wood-
ring in the 200 metres, Frank Loomis in the 4OO-metre hurdles,
Richard Landon in the high jump, Frank Foss in the pole vault,
Pat Ryan in the hammer, Pat McDonald in the 56-lb. weight, and
H. H. Brown, the individual winner in the 3OOO-metre team race, the
only American to win a distance event. In swimming the Americans
were supreme, with Duke Kahanamoku and Kealoha, both of
Hawaii, Norman Ross, Ethelda Bleibtrey, Aileen Riggin and
Charlotte Boyle. The winners at the American eastern college
meetings were: 1911, Cornell; 1912, Pennsylvania; 1913, Pennsyl-
vania; .1914, Cornell; 1915, Cornell; 1916, Cornell; 1918, Cornell;
1919, Cornell; 1920, Pennsylvania; 1921, California. Princeton won
against Oxford (July 8 1920) at Queen's Club, London, by 6 events
to 4. At the Pennsylvania Relay Games (April 3o-May I 1920) the
Oxford-Cambridge 2-m. team, Tatham, Stallard, Milligan and
Rudd, set a new world's record of 7 min. 50 f sec.
Cricket. Before the war English cricket was in a flourishing
condition. The visit of a South African team to Australia in 1910-1,
in which the South Africans did hardly as well as had been expected,
served as a prelude to the so-called Triangular Tournament of 1912 ;
and in the meantime an English team under the management of the
Marylebone Cricket Club carried through a successful tour in
1911-2. Of 18 eleven-a-side matches the M.C.C. team lost only
the first test match; four were drawn, and 1 8, including four test
matches, were won by the Englishmen. At the end of 1910 a team
sent to South Africa by the M.C.C. won two and lost three test
matches. In 1912 the interest in county cricket was largely eclipsed
by the Triangular Tournament between England, Australia and
South Africa, in which nine test matches were played. England
proved victorious, winning four matches (three against South Africa
and one against Australia) and drawing twice with Australia, owing
to bad weather. The Australians beat the South Africans twice.
Of the 102 matches played up to 1920 between England and Aus-
tralia, England won 46 and Australia 35. Of those played in England
the home team won 17 and Australia 8, and 17 were drawn. In
those played in Australia England won 30 and Australia 27, three
being drawn. In 1921, however, in their visit to England, the
Australians won an easy victory.
A new method of deciding the English county championship was
inaugurated in 1911. With the idea of discouraging the players
from aiming at drawn matches, five points were given for a win, and
three points (with one point to the losing side) for a first-innings
victory. The championship was won by Warwickshire in 1911, by
Yorkshire in 1912 and by Kent in 1913. In 1914 the championship
was not decided owing to the outbreak of war, but the M.C.C.
Committee adjudged Surrey the winners. It was resumed in 1919,
when a new system was adopted, by which only wins counted, the
winners being the county with the highest proportion of wins to
matches played. Yorkshire was at the head of the list in 1919, and
Middlesex in 1920 and 1921.
The Oxford and Cambridge match was not played between 1915
and 1918. In 1911, 1914 and 1919 Oxford won, and in 1912, 1913
and 1921 Cambridge were the winners, the match in 1920 being
drawn. From 1911 to 1921, with the exception of the years 1915 to
1918, when the match was not played, Eton won against Harrow.
English Football. (i) Rugby. In 1911 a French team for the first
time was victorious in an international match, beating Scotland in
Paris. In the same season Wales beat England, Ireland, Scotland
and France; Ireland beat England, Scotland and France; England at
Twickenham beat Scotland and France. In 1912 all the interna-
tional matches that took place in the United Kingdom were won by
the fifteen playing in its own country. England defeated Wales and
Ireland, but narrowly lost to Scotland. Ireland beat Scotland and
Wales, and Wales beat Scotland. In no match was France vic-
torious. A strong South African team began a tour in Great Britain
in the autumn of 1912. After gaining several decisive victories over
counties, the South Africans lost to Newport, were with great
difficulty victorious over Llanelly, the United Services and London,
beat Oxford and Cambridge Universities, were narrowly beaten at
Twickenham by another London fifteen, and easily beat Scotland at
Edinburgh. They next gained their most decisive victory at Dublin,
securing 36 points against Ireland, and beat Wales by a try at
Cardiff, but lost to Swansea by the same margin. In the inter-
national matches in 1913 England defeated Scotland, Wales, Ireland
and France; Wales beat Scotland, Ireland and France; Scotland
beat Ireland and France; and Ireland beat France. In 1914 England
beat Scotland, Wales, Ireland and France; Wales beat Scotland,
Ireland and France; and Ireland beat Scotland and France. From
1915 to 1919 the matches were not played. In 1920 England beat
Scotland, Ireland and France; Wales beat England, Ireland and
France; Scotland beat Wales, Ireland and France; and France beat
Ireland. The University match went in favour of Oxford in 1910,
1911, and 1913. Cambridge won in 1912, 1914, 1915 and 1920.
(2) Association. In 1910 a tour was undertaken in Brazil by the
Corinthian Football Club, and another in North America in 1911-2.
From 1907 to 1914 amateur international football was affected by a
dissension among English clubs. In consequence of the Football
Association insisting upon the admission of professional clubs
(so-called) to the district associations, a large number of amateur
clubs, including the University, College and Public Schools Club,
seceded to form the Amateur Football Association. The officers of
the army, while sympathizing with the seceders, considered it
advisable for the sake of regimental football to retain their con-
nexion with the Football Association. But in 1911-2 they used
their influence to promote a reconciliation. A conference was held
at which the delegates of the two associations only failed to arrive
at an agreement because the older body would not accept an arrange-
ment by which the younger could receive the adherence of newly
formed amateur clubs. In 1914, however, the Football Association
and the Amateur Football Association sank their differences. The
Amateur elevens of the Football Association won matches with
Wales, Belgium, France and Holland in 1910-1, but lost to Ireland.
In 1911-2, besides victories at the Olympic Games, they defeated
Ireland, Wales, Denmark, Holland and Belgium. The Amateur
Football Association teams beat Wales and France in both seasons.
The full representative eleven of the Football Association defeated
Ireland and Wales in 1911 and drew with Scotland. Ireland lost to
Wales and Scotland, and Scotland drew with Wales. In 1912
England and Scotland again played an indecisive match, but both
beat Wales and Ireland; Wales lost three matches. In 1913 England
beat Scotland and Wales; Wales beat Ireland and drew with Scot-
land; Scotland beat Ireland; and Ireland beat England. In 1914
England beat Wales; Scotland beat England; Ireland beat England
andi Wales and drew with Scotland ; and Wales drew with Scotland.
In 1920 England beat Scotland and Ireland ; Wales beat England and
drew with Ireland and Scotland; and Scotland beat Ireland. The
Football Association Cup was won in 1911 by Bradford City, in
1912 by Barnsley, in 1913 by Aston Villa, in 1914 by Burnley, in
I 9 I 5 by Sheffield United, and in 1920 by Aston Villa. The champion-
ship of the Football League was carried off by Manchester United in
1911, by Blackburn Rovers in 1912, by Sunderland in 1913, by
Blackburn Rovers in 1914, by Everton in 1915, and by West Brom-
wich Albion in 1920. The principal trophy of the Amateur Football
Association was won in 1911 by the Old Malvernians, in 1912 by
Oxford City, in 1913 by the New Crusaders, in 1914 by Baling, and
in 1920 by Dulwich Hamlet. The Arthur Dunn cup for public school
clubs fell to the Old Reptonians in 1911, to the Old Malvernians in
1912, to the Old Brightonians in 1913, to the Old Reptonians in
1914, to the Old Wykehamists in 1920, and to the Old Carthusians
in 1921. Oxford won the University match in 1911 and Cambridge
won in 1912, 1913, 1915; in 1914 and 1920 the match was drawn.
American Football. -OS all amateur sports in America, college
football (the American Rugby game) drew the largest crowds and
aroused the greatest enthusiasm. Occasional professional teams
drew big gate receipts, especially in Ohio and Michigan, where the
professional game was popular, but in general it was not encouraged.
After 1908 a number of colleges abandoned football because of the
deaths and injuries that resulted from the old-style mass playing.
In the following years, especially in 1910 and 1912, radical revisions
of the old rules were made ; the new rules were designed to foster a
more open style of play and to make the game more interesting to
spectators. The periods of play, formerly two halves of 35 min.
each, were altered to four periods of 15 min. each, with an inter-
mission of one minute between the first and second, and third and
fourth periods, and 15 min. between the second and third periods.
The playing field, from goal line to goal line, was shortened from
1 10 to 100 yd. and each side was given four trials in which to make
the required 10 yd. The removal of the restrictions on the forward
pass was one of the most conspicuous changes; this with other new
rules, had the effect of encouraging an open, running game, in
which the advantage lay rather in quick thinking and skillful play-
ing than in mere weight or strength. The full possibilities of the
new rules were not realized for some time, but, as familiarity with
them increased, the play became more spectacular, and there was
no question that the game had been improved from the standpoint
of both spectator and player. Ordinarily the schedule of football
games was not designed to determine the champion team among
eastern colleges; therefore in reviewing the football games of the
decade 1910-20 the choice of the strongest teams is to some extent a
matter of opinion. From 1910 to 1915, inclusive, Harvard Uni-
versity had a succession of strong teams, which in nearly every year
gained what appeared to be a clear title to the championship. The
succession was interrupted in 1911, however, when Princeton
defeated both Harvard and Yale. In the next year the honours went
to the smaller colleges especially the university of Pittsburgh and
Colgate University and this was interpreted as due in part to the
fact that the new rules had removed certain handicaps from the less
powerful teams. Football probably had never been so popular as in
1916; it was estimated that in that year 35,000 games were played
throughout the United States, with an attendance of 6,500,000.
Owing to the* entrance of the United States into the war, the
SPORTS AND GAMES
565
major teams practically cancelled their schedules during the two
following years, but in the army and navy every unit had its team.
A full schedule was played by the A.E.F., the winners being the
8gth Div. team, captained and coached by Captain Gerhardt of
West Point. The resumption of college games in the east in 1919
showed that college football had lost none of its popularity. One of
the strongest teams of 1919 was that of Pennsylvania State College,
though Harvard went through the season without experiencing
defeat. Despite a tie with Harvard, Princeton was generally con-
ceded to have had the best team turned out in the east in 1920, the
first really normal year of play after the war. The tendency among
colleges was more and more towards open play, with much kicking
and forward passing. The east, however, continued to play a far
more conservative game than was popular in the west and south.
Among the colleges of the middle west the strongest teams were
Michigan (1910), Minnesota and Michigan (1911), Wisconsin
(1912), Chicago (1913), Illinois (1914), Illinois and Minnesota
(1915), Ohio State (1916-7), Illinois (1918-9), Ohio State (1920).
Ohio State, champions of the middle-west group in 1920, played an
intersectional match at Pasadena at the Festival of Roses in that
year with the university of California, and was badly defeated. The
large attendance at football matches led to the construction of
immense stadiums of concrete and steel to accommodate the crowds.
Two of these stadiums, those at Harvard and at Syracuse University,
had been constructed before 1910; after that year there were built a
number of others, among which the most noteworthy were, perhaps,
those at the university of Chicago, Yale (the " Yale Bowl "), the
university of Michigan, Princeton (the Palmer Memorial stadium),
the university of Pennsylvania and the college of the City of New
York. The greatest of these structures, the Yale Bowl, has exterior
dimensions of 940 by 744 ft. and a permanent seating capacity of
61,000. This huge amphitheatre cost more than $500,000 and is
considerably larger than the Roman Colosseum, which had a seating
capacity of about 45,000. The Palmer stadium at Princeton pro-
vides seats for 41,000 and cost $350,000.
The Association game made remarkable gains in popularity not
only among American colleges and the country clubs, but among
the big industries as well. Each year the United States Football
Assn. conducted a national cup competition, the final round of which
was won in 1920 by the Ben Miller Athletic Club of St. Louis from
the Fall River Club of Quincy, Mass. Previous winners include the
Bethlehem Steel Co., the Fall River Rovers, and the Brooklyn
Field Club.
Baseball, the universal American sport, occupied the attention of
the public in the United States chiefly as a professional game in
which the leading cities were represented by baseball teams com-
prising two major leagues the American and the National. At the
end of each year the winning teams of the two leagues played what
was known as the world series for the championship. During
1910-20 these contests were by far the most popular of all annual
sporting events. This is indicated by the attendance and gate
receipts, which in 1920 were 174,414 and $564,800, respectively, and
in 1919, 236,928 and $722,414, as against an attendance of 125,222
and receipts of $173,980 in 1910. In the following list of world-
series contests since 1910, the name of the winning team is given
first, that of the losing team second, and the score in games third:
1910, Philadelphia (American League) vs. Chicago (National
League), 41 ; 1911, Philadelphia (A.L.) vs. New York (N.L.), 42;
1912, Boston (A.L.) vs. New York (N.L.), 4 3, one game tied;
1913, Philadelphia (A.L.) vs. New York (N.L.), 41; 1914, Boston
(N.L.) vs. Philadelphia (A.L.), 4 o; 1915, Boston (A.L.) vs. Phila-
delphia (N.L.), 41 ; 1916, Boston (A.L.) vs. Brooklyn (N.L.), 41 ;
1917, Chicago (A.L.) vs. New York (N.L.), 42; 1918, Boston
(A.L.) vs. Chicago (N.L.), 4 2; 1919 Cincinnati (N.L.) vs. Chicago
(A.L.), 53; 1920, Cleveland (A.L.) vs. Brooklyn (N.L.), 52. In
1914 an attempt was made to organize athird major league, known
as the Federal, but this was unsuccessful, and at the end of the
following season it was amalgamated with the two older leagues.
After 1919 baseball was for a time under a cloud, owing to charges
that certain members of the Chicago American League team had
been bribed by outside persons to lose the 1919 world series. The
accused players were expelled from organized baseball, and there
was a general overhauling, with the result that final authority over
the game was given to Kenesaw Mountain Landis, a Federal judge
known for his proficiency in the law and his knowledge of baseball.
During the World War American soldiers carried the game to
England and France, where it was a favorite diversion in the camps
of Canadian and U.S. soldiers. The professional game enjoyed an
extraordinary revival after the war, the crowds breaking all records,
especially since Sunday playing was more generally permitted by
law than before. Colleges generally resumed the game, though
interest in college baseball was slight in comparison with interest
in college football.
Lawn Tennis. American players, during 1910-21, were in the
forefront, but an increasingly high standard of play was being
shown among other nationalities besides the British and American,
notably the French and Japanese. The International Davis Cup was
won by Australia in 1911 and 1914, by the British Isles in 1912, and
by the United States in 1913 and 1920. In 1911 the United States
team (Lamed, McLoughlin, Little and Bundy), were beaten by
Australia (Brookes, Dunlop and Heath) after beating Great Britain
(Dixon, Lowe and Beamish). In 1912 Great Britain (Dixon, Parke
and Beamish) defeated Australia (Brookes, Heath and Dunlop).
In 1913 the United States (Hackett, McLoughlin, Little and
Williams) beat Great Britain (Parker, Dixon, and Roper-Barrett).
In 1914 Australia (Brookes, Wilding, Dunlop and Doust) beat the
United States (McLoughlin, Williams, Behr and Bundy); Mc-
Loughlin defeated Brookes in a memorable match (14-16, 63, 63),
and Wilding by 62, 63, 2-6 and 6-2, but McLoughlin and Bundy
lost the doubles to Brookes and Wilding. In 1920 the United States
(Hardy, Johnston, Tilden, Williams and Garland) defeated Great
Britain, France and Australia.
In the English singles (world's) championships A. F. Wilding
won in 1911, 1912 and 1913; N. E. Brookes in 1914; G. L. Patterson
in 1919; and W. T. Tilden in 1920 and 1921. Mrs. Lambert Cham-
bers won the English ladies' singles in 1911, 1913 and 1914; Mrs.
Larcombe in 1912; and Mile. S. Lenglen in 1919, 1920 and 1921.
In the English covered court championship A. H. Gobert won the
singles in 1911, 1912, 1920 and 1921; Gobert and M. J. G. Ritchie
won the doubles in 1911, Wilding and S. N. Doust won the doubles
in 1912 and 1913. P. M. Davson won the English singles in 1913
and 1919. In 1914 Ritchie won the English singles and in 1914 and
1921 T. M. Mavrogordato and Davson won the doubles. In 1919
the English doubles were won by R. Lycett and R. W. Heath, and
in 1920 by Gobert and Lycett.
In the United States, William A. Larned won the championship
for the seventh time in 1911, his experience proving too much for
the challenger, Maurice F. McLoughlin; the doubles went to Ray-
mond D. Little and Gustave Touchard, while Miss Hazel Hotchkiss
won the women's title for the third time. In 1912 McLoughlin won
the American championship, Larned not being in the tournament;
McLoughlin and Thomas Bundy won the doubles from Little and
Touchard, and Mary Browne won the women's championship. The
outbreak of war in 1914 robbed the Newport tournament of interest.
The German team was interned in England on the way home.
Meantime Williams won the national title, and McLoughlin and
Bundy the doubles. In 1915 much attention was paid to building
up the junior tournaments. There was no international competition.
William M. Johnston, of California won the championship. With
Clarence J. Griffin, another Californian, he also won the doubles.
Miss Molla Bjurstedt (later Mrs. Mallory), won the women's
championship. In 1916 the United States was the world's lawn-
tennis centre. The season was marked by the appearance of two
Japanese players, Kumagae and Mikami, in the principal tourna-
ments. Williams won the national singles title, Johnston and
Griffin the doubles. Miss Bjurstedt took every title she contested.
In 1917, with the United States in the war, tennis was transferred
to the army and navy, all the ranking 10 players being in the services.
The " patriotic " singles, in lieu of a national championship, was won
by R. L. Murray, a Californian settled in the east. In 1918 R. L.
Murray won the title in straight sets from William T. Tilden.
Tilden and Vincent Richards won the doubles title. In 1919 Johns-
ton won the singles title from Tilden, while Brookes and Gerald
Patterson, from Australia, took the doubles. Brookes, Patterson,
Lycett and Thomas, of Australia, invaded the United States, but
were beaten at Forest Hills, 4 matches to o, by Johnston and
Williams, and in the doubles by Tilden and Johnston. In 1920 Tilden
won back the singles titles from Johnston, while Johnston and
Griffin won the doubles.
Polo. The United States retained the cup against England at
Meadowbrook in 1911, winning by 2 to o, the American team
consisting of the famous " big four," Lawrence Waterbury and J. M.
Waterbury (forwards), Harry Payne Whitney (No. 3), and Devereux
Milburn (back) ; in 1913 the same team won again by 2 matches to p.
In 1914 Lord Wimborne's team took the trophy to Great Britain
winning 2 straight matches from an American team consisting of
Milburn, who played both 3 and back, the two Waterburys, and
Rene La Montagne. In 1921 an American invasion of Hurlingham
was led by Devereux Milburn, whose team, consisting of himself at
back, J. Watson Webb at No. 3, Thomas Hitchcock, Jr., at No. 2,
and Louis E. Stoddard at No. I, brought the cup back to the United
States winning 2 straight matches by 1 1 to 4 and 10 to 6.
Yachting. Just before the outbreak of the war Sir Thomas Lipton
renewed his challenge for the America's Cup, there having been no
races since 1903. " Shamrock IV.," a much-criticized boat, was sent
to a drydock in Brooklyn, while " Resolute " and " Vanitie "
reappeared and contested the right to sail as defender. The thir-
teenth series of races for this trophy was not sailed until July 15-27
1920, off Sandy Hook. The challenger was designed by C. E.
Nicholson and was sailed by Capt. William P. Burton, an amateur
skipper. Capt. Andrew Jackson Applegate, an American familiar
with conditions on this course, acted as professional pilot. The
defender was " Resolute," winner of 7 out of 13 races against
" Vanitie," 4 being won by the latter and 2 called off. " Resolute "
was built by a syndicate of New York yachtsmen, composed of
J. P. Morgan, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Arthur Curtiss James, George F.
Baker and others. The skipper was the well-known amateur,
Charles Francis Adams of Boston. The sailing-master was Capt.
Chris Christensen, he and the mates being of Scandinavian birth,
but American citizens. The defender was designed by Nat. Herres-
566
SPORTS AND GAMES
hoff, of the Herreshoff family of Bristol, R.I. The first 2 races were
won by " Shamrock," the last 3 and the cup by " Resolute." Twice
the yachts failed to finish within the 6-hour time limit. Once the
wind was deemed too strong to permit a start. It was feared that
with lee decks awash there was risk of losing a man overboard. In
all but one race " Resolute " was allowed 6 min. 40 sec. handicap,
due largely to the challenger's great sail area with Marconi mast
and extreme hoist. In the same year was held the first race for the
championship of the North Atlantic fishing fleet off Halifax.
" Esperanto," United States, defeated " Delawanna," Canadian,
in two straight races over a 40-01. course, for $4,000 and a cup.
Golf. In Great Britain, H. Vardon was the champion in 1911 and
1914, E. Ray in 1912, J. H. Taylor in 1913, G. Duncan in 1920, and
jock Hutchison in 1921. In the amateur championships H. H.
Hilton won in 1911 and 1913, John Ball in 1912, J. L. C. Jenkins in
1914, C. J. H. Tolley in 1920 and VV. I. Hunter in 1921. The ladies'
open championship fell to Miss D. Campbell in 1911, to Miss G.
Ravenscroft in 1912, to Miss Muriel Dodd in 1913, and in 1914, 1919,
1920 and 1921 to Miss C. Leitch.
In the United States the amateur championship was won by
H. Hilton in 1911 and by Jerome Travers in 1912. J. J. McDermott
won the open tournament both in 1911 and 1912. Travers defeated
Anderson for the amateur title in 1913, and Francis Ouimet won
the open title, after a tie with Harry Vardon and Ted Ray of Eng-
land. No amateur before had won this title, and Ouimet was only
20 years old. Miss Gladys Ravenscroft, of England, won the
American ladies' championship in 1913. In 1914 Ouimet defeated
W. C. Fownes for the amateur title, and Walter Hagen won the
open from a field of English, French and Scotch prof essionals ; the
women's title went to Miss Georgiana Bishop. The amateur title
for 1915 went to Robert M. Gardner; and Jerome Travers won the
open, the second triumph of an amateur. In 1916 " Chick " Evans
took the amateur title from Gardner, and the open from the pro-
fessional Jock Hutchison. With the United States at war in the
following year golf was abandoned save as exhibitions were given in
aid of the Red Cross. The first revival came in 1918 with a match in
Canada between American and Canadian amateurs, which was won
by the Canadians, 23 to 19. A complete revival followed in 1919;
S. Dayisson Herron won the amateur title, though four former
champions, Travers, Gardner, Ouimet and Evans, were entered.
" Bobby " Jones was the runner-up. The open was won by Walter
Hagen, while Miss Alexa Stirling easily took the women's title.
Gardner went to England in 1920 for the amateur championship, and
was only beaten in the final, after an extra hole, by Cyril J. Tolley,
the Oxonian. Ray and Vardon made this year a remarkable invasion
of the United States, Ted Ray winning the open championship. The
amateur title went to Evans. The U.S. team easily won the Devon-
shire Cup from Canada. In 1921 an American invasion of England
by the strongest of professional and amateur teams resulted in the
winning of a team match by the Americans, and of the open cham-
pionship by Jock Hutchison, of St. Andrews, a naturalized American.
Horse Racing. The following is a list of the winners of the Derby
in England from 1911 to 1921 :
Winner
1911 Sunstar
1912 Tagalie
1913'Aboyeur
1914 Durbar II.
igiS'Ppmmern
l9l6 2 Fifinella
191 7 "Gay
Crusader
!9l8 2 Gains-
borough
1919 Grand
Parade
1920 Spion Kop
1921 Humorist
Owner
Mr. J. B. Joel
Mr. Raphael
Mr. Cunliffe
Mr. H. B.
Duryea
Mr. S. B. Joel
Mr. E. Hulton
Mr. Fairie
Lady James
Douglas
Trainer
C. Morton
D. Waugh
Lewis
(trained in
France)
C. Peck
R. C. Dawson
A. Taylor
A. Taylor
Lord Glanely Barling
Major G. Loder Gilpin
Mr. J. B. Joel Morton
1 Craganour, who came in first, was disqualified.
1 " New Derby " run at Newmarket.
Other "classic" races resulted as follows:
Jockey
G. Stern
I. Reiff
Piper
MacGee
S. Donoghue
J. Childs
S. Donoghue
J. Childs
F. Templeman
F. O'Neill
Donoghue
Oaks
Cherimoya
Mirska
Jest
Princess
Dorrie
'Snow
Marten
1916 'Fifinella
1917 'Sunny Jane
1918 ' My Dear
1919 Bayuda
1920 Charlebelle
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
Doncaster
St. Leger
Prince Palatine
Tracery
Night Hawk
Black Jester
Not run
Not run
2,ooo-gumeas
Newmarket
Sunstar
Sweeper II.
Louvois
Kennymore
Pommern
l,ooc-gumeas
Newmarket
Atmah
Tagalie
I 6 ? 1
Princess
Dorrie
Silver Tag
1921 Love in Idleness
'Run at Newmarket.
Keysoe
Caligula
Clarissimus
Gay Crusader
Gainsborough
The Panther
Tetratema
Craig an Enan
Canyon
Diadem
Ferry
Rose way
Cinna
Bettina
In 1914, before the season was half over, came the war. During
most of August racing was suspended, partly because of difficulties
of transit and also because some courses were occupied by the
military. Owing largely to the King's desire that the interests of
the many people employed in racing establishments should not
be endangered, the remaining fixtures were carried out, so far as
regarded the more important ones. For the first time since 1865
the Derby was won by a horse bred and trained in France, Durbar II.
On May 1 6 1915 the Jockey Club issued a notice suspending
all racing under their jurisdiction, except the Newmarket fixtures,
until further notice. Substitute races for the Derby, Oaks and St.
Leger were arranged at Newmarket.
In the United States, too, horse-racing was interrupted by the
war, but there was a prompt revival afterwards. In 1920 Man-O'-
War, a chestnut colt by Fair Play-Mahubah, from the Glen Riddle
Farm, and trained by Louis Feustel, started in 21 races, winning 20
and taking one second. Its total winnings amounted to $244,465.
Man-O'-War held the American running records for i m. (i min.
35 H sec.), i J m., if m. and if m. The climax of the 1920 season
was a match race between Man-O'-War, owned by Samuel Riddle,
and Sir Barton, owned by Commodore Ross of Canada, at a mile
and a quarter, at the Kenilworth track, Windsor, Ont. The race was
for a purse of $75,000 and a $5,000 cup offered by A. M. Orpen.
Man-O'-War won by seven lengths in 2 min., 3 sec., three seconds
slower than the record made by Whisk Broom II. in 1913.
Rowing. For the professional championship of the world, the
following contests took place:
1910 R. Arnst beat E. Barry on Zambesi.
1911 R. Arnst beat H. Pearce on Parramatta.
1912 E. Barry beat R. Arnst on Thames.
1912 E. Barry beat E. Durnan on Thames.
1913 E. Barry beat H. Pearce on Thames.
1914 E. Barry beat J. Paddon on Thames.
1919 A. D. Felton beat E. Barry on Thames.
1920 E. Barry beat A. D. Felton on Parramatta.
In England the winners in the Oxford and Cambridge boat races
for 1911-21 were:
191 1 Oxford 1915-9 Not rowed
1912 Oxford 1920 Cambridge
1913 Oxford 1921 Cambridge
1914 Cambridge
In the 1912 races, as originally rowed, both boats became water-
logged and Cambridge sank. But the race was rowed again the
following Monday, Oxford winning.
American rowing, interrupted by the war, was promptly revived,
and assumed an international character when in 1920 the veteran
crew of the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis defeated a picked
English eight over the canal course at Brussels for the Olympic
championship. In 1921 the Annapolis crew, with two new men in
the boat, was defeated by Princeton University in a race on Carnegie
Lake, over a course of a mile and three-quarters. The same Annap-
olis crew in the same year won the revival of the Poughkeepsie
Regatta over three miles, easily defeating California, Cornell,
Pennsylvania, Syracuse and Columbia, the last named up to that
time an unbeaten combination. Yale defeated Harvard in 1921, on
the Thames river at New London, Conn., at four miles, using English
rigging and boat, and being coached in the last two weeks by James
Corderry, an English sculler, who had succeeded Guy Nickalls at
the eleventh hour as coach at New Haven. In 1920 Harvard beat
Yale, but the previous year Yale won under the coaching of Prof.
Mather Abbott, an Englishman who had taught rowing for many
years at St. Paul's School, Concord. Syracuse in 1916 won the
Poughkeepsie Regatta under the coaching of James A. Ten Eyck.
In 1920 Charles E. Courtney, Cornell's rowing coach, the foremost
of American coaches, died. The winners of the American Inter-
collegiate regatta after 1909 were Cornell (1910, 1911 and 1912),
Syracuse (1913), Columbia (1914), Cornell (1915), Syracuse (1916
and 1920), Annapolis (1921). The Yale-Harvard races were won as
follows: Harvard (1910, 1911, 1912, 1913), Yale (1914 and 1915),
Harvard (1916), Yale (1919), Harvard (1920), Yale (1921).
Boxing. The official maximum boxing weights (Great Britain and
the United States) are as follows: Flyweight, 8 st. (112 lb.);
Bantamweight, 8 st. 6 lb. (118 lb.); Featherweight, 9 st. (126 lb.);
Lightweight, 9 st. 6 lb. (132 lb.); Welterweight, 10 st. 7 lb. (147 lb.);
Middleweight, II st. 6 lb. (160 lb.); Light-Heavyweight, 12 st. 7 lb.
(175 lb.); Heavyweight, no maximum.
In 1920 the official list of the world's champions was: Flyweight,
Jimmy Wilde (Gt. Britain); Bantamweight, Peter Hermann
(U.S.A.); Featherweight, Johnny Kilbane (U.S.A.); Lightweight,
Benny. Leonard (U.S.A.); Welterweight, Jack Britton (U.S.A.);
Middle, MikeO'Dowd (U.S.A.); Heavy, Jack Dempsey (U.S.A.).
The results of the Amateur Boxing Association Championships in
England were as follows in 1911-4:
Bantamweight Featherweight Lightweight
1911 W. W. Allen H. Bavers A. Spenceley
1912 W. W. Allen G. R. Baker R. Marriott
1913 A. Wye G. R. Baker F. Grace
1914 W. W. Allen G. R. Baker R. Marriott
SPORTS AND GAMES
567
Middleweight
1911 W. Child
1912 E. V. Chandler
1913 W. Bradley
1914 H. Brown
Heavyweight
W. Hazell
R. Smith
R. Smith
(walked over)
E. V. Chandler
In professional contests the bantamweight championship of
England was won by Digger Stanley against Alec Lafferty in 1912,
by B. Beynon in 1913 (vs. Digger Stanley) and by Curly Walker in
1914 (vs. C. Ledoux). Fred Welsh was the lightweight champion of
England in 1912 (vs. Matt Wells), 1913 (vs. H. Mehegan) and 1914
(vs. W. Ritchie). Johnny Summers was the welterweight champion
of England in 1912 (vs. Arthur Evernden) and 1913 (vs. S. Burns).
Jack Harrison was the middleweight champion of England in 1912
(vs. Private McEnroy). In 1913 (vs. Packy Mahoney) and 1914
(vs. Colin Bell) Bombardier Wells was the heavyweight champion of
England, and in 1913 (vs. Alec Lambert) Kid Lewis was the feather-
weight champion of England. In 1912 Jim Driscoll (Cardiff) won
the featherweight championship of the world against Jean Poesy
(France); Jack Johnson (America) (heavyweight champion of the
world) beat Jim Flynn (America) ; Georges Carpentier (France)
beat Jim Sullivan (England) ; Frank Klaus (America) beat Car-
pentier; Billy Papke (America) beat Carpentier.
In 1913, in the middleweight championship of the world, F. Klaus
beat Billy Papke; in lightweight championship of the world F.
Welsh beat H. Mehegan; in featherweight championship of the
world, J. Driscoll and Owen Moran drew; and in heavweight cham-
pionship of Europe, Carpentier beat Bombardier Wells.
In 1914, in lightweight championship of the world, F. Welsh beat
W. Ritchie; and in heavyweight championship of Europe, Carpentier
beat Gunboat Smith.
In 1915, at Havana, Jess Willard defeated Jack Johnson in the
25th round for the world's championship.
In 1919, at Toledo, U.S.A., Jack Dempsey beat Jess Willard
(holder) for the world's championship in the 3rd round.
On Dec. 4 1919, at the Holborn Stadium, London, Carpentier
beat Joe Beckett in a fight for the heavyweight championship of
Europe. Beckett was knocked out in the first round after the fight
had lasted one minute fourteen seconds. In 1921 Carpentier was
beaten at Jersey City, U.S.A., by Dempsey, in the 4th round, in a
contest for the heavyweight championship of the world, the greatest
interest having been excited by this fight.
Swimming. American swimmers in 1920 held a majority of the
world's records. A large number of these records were held by three
men Duke Kahanamoku of Hawaii, Perry McGilvray of Chicago
and Norman Ross of San Francisco. Kahanamoku won the loo-
metre race at the Olympic games of 1920, establishing a new world's
record of I min. % sec. Ross was winner in two events (400 metres
and 1 ,500 metres) ; Warren Kealoha of Honolulu was victorious in the
loo-metre backstroke race, and the American team carried off the
honours in the 8po-metre relay. Two races were lost to Swedish
swimmers. American women also proved themselves good swim-
mers, one of their triumphs was the defeat in 1919 of two Australians,
Miss Fanny Durack and Miss Wylie, who visited the United States
in that year. The victorious Americans were Miss Ethelda Bleibtrey
and Miss Charlotte Boyle, both of Brooklyn. Miss Bleibtrey won a
number of races at the Olympic games in 1920, where she established
a record of 4 min. 34 sec. for 300 metres open water.
English Billiards. Since the prohibition of consecutive spot
hazards and the push stroke, English professionals have relied
chiefly upon the top-of-the-table game. An innovation, however,
was introduced in 1911 by the Australian, George Gray, who
repeatedly made huge breaks by means of a series of losing hazards
from the red ball. In all, he scored 24 breaks of four figures, of
which the highest was 2,196. Gray invariably declined to play
matches with ivory balls, and these breaks were not made under
Billiard Association rules. H. W. Stevenson, though not at his
best in 1911, beat M. Inman twice for the championship of the
Billiards Control Club. In Jan. 1912 George Gray met Stevenson
and defeated him in two games out of three of 18,000 up. M. Inman
beat T. Reece for the Billiard Control championship in 1912, 1913
and 1914. In 1919 Inman beat Stevenson in the Billiard Association
championship by 6,532 points in 16,000. In 1920 W. Smith beat
C. Falkiner in the Billiard Association championship by 1,500
points in 16,000. In 1921 Newman beat Reece in the professional
championship by 5,256 points in 16,000.
In 1911 H. A. O. Lonsdale did not defend his title of amateur
champion, and the cup reverted to H. C. Virr. An alteration was
made in the arrangements, the champions of England, Ireland,
Scotland and Wales meeting in competition in the finals. Virr beat
Major Fleming by only seven points in 3,000 for the amateur cham-
pionship in 1912. The influence of Gray's example was plainly
perceptible in this competition in the use made of the losing hazard.
In 1913 Virr beat J. Nugent by 1,044 points in 3,000 and in 1914 by
1,962 in 3,000. In 1914 the Scottish championship was won by
A. Croneen, and the Welsh championship by A. Paton. In 1915
the Welsh champion was A. Cable. In 1915 the United Kingdom
Amateur Championship was won by A. W. T. Good (England)
by 3,000 points to 2,716. la 1918 it was won by Graham Symes
by 2,000 points to 1,721. In 1919 S. H. Fry won the Amateur
championship by 2,000 points to 1,729, but in the Billiard Control
Club s Amateur Championship Tournament was beaten by Major
Fleming by 2,000 points to 1,903. In 1920 Fry again won the
Amateur Championship, by 3,000 points to 2,488.
A break of 1,016 was made by Stevenson in 1912 against W. Cook,
without a series of spot strokes, anchor cannons or long successions
of losing hazards. Stevenson made a break of 919 in 1913, and in
the same year M. Inman made one of 894. In 1903 the amateur
S. H. Fry made a break of 236.
Archery. The opportunity may be taken here to correct the ear-
lier article on ARCHERY in some particulars. The bow now used by
men is from 6 ft. I in. to 6 ft. 4 in. in length ; a lady's bow ranges from
5 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. 8 in., measured between the nocks; these lengths
according in the one case with an arrow of 27 in. to 28 in. and in
the other with an arrow of 25 in. to 26 in. Exceptionally long
arms may render necessary an arrow an inch longer and a corre-
sponding addition of one or two inches to the bow. The "weight "
of a bow is the number of pounds required, when appended to
the string, to draw to the head an arrow of 28 in. for a man's bow
or 25 in. for a lady's. The weight of men's bows varies from 36
Ib. to 58 lb., of ladies' from 18 Ib. to 30 lb., the lighter weights
being sufficient for beginners. Bows are styled " self " or " backed "
according as they are made of one wood or of two or more glued
together. " Self bows," if of yew, are usually made of two pieces
joined by a double fish splice at the handle : as it is difficult
to find a piece of this wood (incomparably the best) of sufficient
length while free from knots. If made of lance- they are invariably of
a single piece. " Backed bows " may be of yew, backed either with
the same wood or with hickory; or alternatively of washaba or of
ruby, lance, or other woods backed with hickory ; the back being the
flat side of the bow, and the " belly " the rounded side. Three
woods are sometimes employed, a thin strip of fustic being inter-
posed between a belly of yew and a back of hickory. There should be
an inflexible centre of about 21 inches, whence the bow should taper
gradually towards each end. It should be straight, the back true, and,
when strung, the string should appear to cut the belly into two equal
parts. Self yew bows are the best. They are light in the hand, the
sweetest to pull, and have the best cast; but they require careful
handling. They are also expensive, costing from 5 to 15, and they
are liable to " crysals," or tiny cracks, which gradually spread until
the bow breaks. A yew backed yew, which is next in merit, can be
bought for 5 and is somewhat less liable to crysals. Between the
others there is little to choose, provided that they are properly made,
and not " reflexed," as they are said to be when the ends bend out-
ward; for these jar the hand. Their price varies from 255. to 3
guineas. The string for a man's bow should be from 6 in. to 6f in.
from the back of the bow when strung; for a lady's from 5} in. to
6 in., according to the length of the bow. The nock of arrows it is
never called the " notch " should not be " cut square " but
rounded. The feathers must be wing and not body feathers, which
are quite useless. They should be from the same wing, i.e. right or
left, about 15 in. long and tapering to the front from a depth of j in.
at the nock. If balloon-shaped, their greatest depth should be at
one-third of their length from the nock-end.
With regard to target scoring and handicapping it should be noted
that a St. George's Round has never been shot at a public meeting,
or, indeed, at any meeting held within the last 60 years. Handi-
capping by the loss of rings has been obsolete for more than 35 years,
nor is there any system which can rightly be called handicapping by
points. Handicapping is now carried out either by dividing the
archers into classes according to their powers, or by deducting
percentages from their scores for previous successes.
As regards the history of archery, some corrections may also be
made. The bow was used in war at a later date than 1860, viz. by
the Japanese against the English at Surni Nosake, September 5
1864. Nor did the Armada year see the last appearance of the
English archer. A company of archers was raised for the expedition
to the island of Rhe in 1627. There were archers among the Russian
troops in the Crimea. Again, the relation of Finsbury Archers, the
Hon. Artillery Company and the Royal Toxophilite Society requires
restatement. In July 1676, William Wood, Marshal of the Finsbury
Archers, was sent round with a paper, signed by Sir E. Hungerford
and others, setting forth that the " officers and others of the Society
of Archers, within the cities of London and Westminster " have
determined " that the bearer shall have a silver badge and bear the
same as Marshall to the Queen's Majesty's Regiment of Archers."
The names of the subscribers were appended (Guildhall MSS. 193).
Consequently this badge or shield had no connexion with Oxford.
The Finsbury Archers became extinct about 1761, but the Royal
Toxophilite Society was not founded until 1781, when Mr. P.
Constable, the last captain of the Finsbury Archers, joined it and
landed to it the shield and other valuables. There was, therefore,
no combination of the two clubs in 1841. It is incorrect to assert
:hat the Finsbury Archers were not connected with the Hon.
Artillery Company. They were connected, and under their powers
shot over the Finsbury Fields up to 1657. The Archers' Division of
:he Hon. Artillery Company was formed by members of the Royal
Toxophilite Society in 1784. (X.)
568
SPRING-RICESTAFF, MILITARY
SPRING-RICE, SIR CECIL ARTHUR (1859-1918), English
diplomatist, was born in London Feb. 27 1859, the second son of
the Hon. Charles Spring- Rice (1819-1870), sometime assistant
under-secretary for foreign affairs, and grandson of the ist
Baron Monteagle. He was educated at Eton and Balliol College,
Oxford, and entered the Foreign Office in 1882, becoming private
secretary to Lord Granville in 1884 and precis writer to Lord
Rosebery in 1885. He went to Washington as third secretary in
1886, and after various brief appointments went in 1895 to
Berlin. In 1898 he became secretary at Teheran, and from there
went in 1901 to Cairo as British commissioner on the Caisse de la
Dette. In 1903 he went to St. Petersburg, first as secretary and
later as councillor of embassy, remaining in Russia during the war
with Japan of 1904-5 and the revolution of 1905. In 1906 he was
sent to Persia as minister, having lately been created K.C.M.G.,
and his stay there coincided with the period of the delicate
negotiations which preceded the signing of the Anglo-Russian
agreement of 1007. In 1908 he was created G.C.V.O. and went
to Sweden as minister, and in 1912 was appointed ambassador
to the United States. Ill-health, however, prevented his un-
doubtedly brilliant capacity from making his work at all prominent
during his tenure of this position. He died at Ottawa on his way
home to England Feb. 14 1918. He married in 1904 Florence,
daughter of Sir Frank Lascelles, and left two children.
SQUIRES, RICHARD ANDERSON (1880- ), Newfoundland
politician, was born at Harbour Grace, Newfoundland, Jan. 18
1880. He was educated at the Methodist College, St. John's, and
Dalhousie University, Halifax. In 1902 he was admitted a
solicitor, and in 1911 was called to the bar (K.C. 1914). In 1909
he entered the Legislature as Liberal member for the Trinity
district, for which he sat until 1913. In 1914 he became Minister
of Justice and Attorney-General, fromi9i4toi9i7 was a member
of the Legislative Council, and from 1917 to 1918 Colonial
Secretary. He was nominated leader of the Liberal party in Aug.
1919, and the same year became Prime Minister.
STAFF, MILITARY (see 25.752). One result of the unqualified
success which Prussian arms achieved in the wars of 1866 and
1870-1 was that the general staff principle, which had so largely
contributed to give victory to the hosts controlled by von Moltke
in those contests, was adopted by almost every military power
during the last quarter of the igth century. The exact nature of
the arrangements necessarily varied in different countries, but
the ideals sought after were the same. Thus in the different staff
organizations as they were constituted in peace-time, work in
connexion with devising plans for offensive operations and for
ensuring territorial defence, duties dealing with the collection of
military information, the superintendence of the education of
officers, the conduct of manceuvres and the training of troops,
were kept as far as possible distinct from administration
" adjutantur," as the Germans call it. Before the year 1900 most
armies possessed a general staff which was more or less in close
touch with its Government on the one hand and, thanks to its
ramifications, with the troops on the other.
Only two of the more important nations the United Kingdom
and the United States adhered for all practical purposes to
previously existing systems, under which preparation for war was
relegated to the background in staff duties. It is true that in
either state certain improvements were effected by the military
authorities, tending towards ensuring that at least some of the
functions properly performed by a general staff should be allo-
cated to special branches of the staff; but, such as they were, they
did not go very far. Then came the S. African War of 1899-1902.
The difficulties and disappointments encountered by British
military forces in that protracted struggle, coupled with the
unsatisfactory working of the staff in the field (especially in its
higher grades) during the progress of the operations, made plain
the need of reform, and the War Office was considering the ques-
tion of far-reaching modifications of the system in force when, in
1904, the Government suddenly set up a " War Office Reconsti-
tution Committee " charged with the duty of reorganizing the cen-
tral administration of the army. The committee recommended
a number of drastic alterations, but by far the most im-
portant of its proposals was that a General Staff Department,
which was to constitute the foremost branch of the professional
side of the War Office, should be created forthwith out of certain
existing sections, with entirely new sections superposed. The
committee further urged that a general staff organization, acting
under the aegis of, and in close touch with, the general staff in
Whitehall, should be introduced into military districts and
commands. The recommendations of the committee were ac--
cepted by the Government, and so it came about that a British
general staff was established ten years before the outbreak of the
World War. During those ten years remarkable progress was
made, and when the nation was confronted by the tremendous
emergency of Aug. 1914 it had at its disposition a body of well-
trained general staff officers, sufficient for the comparatively
small army that was available to take the field at the opening of
hostilities, although totally insufficient to meet the requirements
of the vast forces which had to be improvised after war had
broken out. The Government of the United States was still later
than that of the United Kingdom in establishing a general staff of
the kind that Scharnhorst had thought of a century before. This
was only set on foot in 1911, six years before the entry of the
Republic into the great conflict which was to upset so many
preconceived ideas on the subject of conducting war, but which
was to prove even more conclusively than had the Franco-
German War and the Japanese triumphs of 1904-5 how im-
perative it is under modern conditions for a state which embarks
upon a serious struggle with a foreign foe to have an efficient and
suitably organized military staff at its command. Owing to the
very small number of trained general staff officers that were
available when the country became committed to hostilities on
a vast scale, the U.S. forces were even worse equipped in this
respect when they took the field in Europe than were those of the
United Kingdom in their greatly expanded form.
The remarkable progress that has taken place in science of
recent years has tended to impose some entirely new duties upon
military staffs, brought about their expansion in certain direc-
tions, and even necessitated the creation of some entirely new
branches as part of their organization. There is, for instance, in
the first place that development in railway communications
which has occurred in most civilized countries and in many possi-
ble and actual theatres of war, as also the contriving of number-
less devices by which the construction of new lines of rail is
facilitated during operations in the field. Then again there
is the question of electric communications, which to-day
play so conspicuous a part in war. Improvements in small arms
and in ordnance have brought it about that the volume of ammu-
nition needed for the weapons in the hands of troops has come
to be out of all proportion to the amount which experience had
proved to be ample in campaigns of the past. Developments in
mechanical traction are giving this an ever-increasing military
importance, not merely from the point of view of the supplying
of armies but also from that of their tactical employment. The
appearance of the tank on the battlefield is another feature of
very recent date which tends to increase staff work. Finally,
there is the establishment of air power which has introduced a
factor of incalculable importance as affecting the control of
belligerent armies; whether the combatant aeronautical service
of a nation form part of its military organization or be independ-
ent, its operations in time of war impose duties upon military
staffs such as had not to be performed by them in any contest
previous to the World War. In some cases it is mainly the gen-
eral staff that finds its labours increased by these modern de-
velopments, in other cases the new work falls rather upon the
administrative staff. But in all cases both subdivisions of the
staff are, at least to some extent, affected.
One most important duty which devolves upon the general
staff in a State compelled by its geographical position and by
political and international problems to maintain fighting forces
both by sea and by land is the establishing and the maintenance
of intimate relations with the naval authorities. Such conditions
prevail in the case of most maritime nations, and, where this is
so, it is imperative that the two services shall be capable of
STAFF, MILITARY
569
effective cooperation in the event of war. Effective cooperation
when an emergency ariss can only be ensured if the military
staff has been in close touch with the corresponding naval staff
in time of peace. Much attention had fortunately been paid to
this question in the United Kingdom during the period that
intervened between the creation of the British general staff and
the outbreak of the World War. Permanent contact existed
between the thinking branches of the Admiralty and of the War
Office. Problems which might possibly arise in the future had
been examined by them in conference, principles of action had
been laid down, details had been worked out, and to this is to be
attributed the secrecy and the smoothness with which the Brit-
ish Expeditionary Force was transported across the Channel to
France during the fortnight succeeding the declaration of war in
1914. Moreover, thanks to their being brought into contact at
staff rides with naval officers and to the happy relations which
existed between these two services, British general staff officers
as a body had studied and were acquainted with naval doctrine
and naval procedure, a great advantage when, as was the case at
the Dardanelles, operations partook of an amphibious character.
General staffs on the Continent did not, on the other hand,
prove to be equally well-infornied as to maritime conditions;
this was made apparent during discussions such as often took
place between military authorities representing the different
Allies, concerning the policy which ought to be pursued in the
Near East and other problems in which sea-power was necessarily
involved. It is only natural, however, that a military staff which
is representative of a sea-faring people should devote more at-
tention to such subjects than will that of a non-maritime nation
or of a nation possessing small maritime interests and limited
maritime resources.
When a country elects to make of its air service a department
of State distinct from the army, as has happened in the United
Kingdom, it necessarily falls to the lot of the military general
staff to maintain those intimate relations with the aerial general
staff by which alone mutual cooperation can be secured in time
of war. Under such circumstances the military general staff
stands towards the air service as it does to the navy.
" War," said Clausewitz, " is only a continuation of State
policy by other means,!' and elsewhere that " none of the princi-
pal plans which are required for a war can be made without an
insight into the political relations." It was a recognition of this
truth on the part of her Government that led to the triumphs of
Prussia, first over Austria and then over France, in the days of
von Moltke, the foremost professional interpreter of Clausewitz'
doctrines. The executive in Berlin had during the middle de-
cades of the igth century been working hand in hand with the
general staff. Sadowa and Sedan were the outcome. The history
of the short-lived German Empire indicates that in later years a
tendency made itself felt for the general staff to attempt to direct,
and even partially to succeed in directing, the policy of the
Government. A system of genuine militarism in its worst form
began to creep in, which in due course brought untold disasters
on the German people; but the passages quoted above from the
great Prussian military writer do not inculcate anything of that
kind. What they do inculcate is that there should be at all
times an intimate understanding between what has been called
the " brain of the army " and the civilian executive at the head
of the State. The truth is that any Government which under-
stands its business will always, when any question of a delicate
nature arises between it and the rulers of some foreign Power,
keep itself fully acquainted with the resources at command for
enforcing its wishes should a quarrel supervene. If, moreover,
the most is to be made of such fighting force as a country will
dispose of in the event of finding itself in a state of belligerency
with some neighbour, it is indispensable that the military as
also naval authorities shall have made beforehand a study of
the strategical situation that will, as far as can be foreseen, arise
when hostilities break out. It is also indispensable that those
authorities shall have been made aware in advance of the likeli-
hood of the struggle's taking place. It is on the central directing
branch of the general staff, i.e. on the General Staff Department
at the War Office in the case of the United Kingdom, as it was on
the " Great General Staff " of the days of von Moltke and the
German Empire, that devolves the duty of maintaining relations
with the Government and of advising it regarding the military
aspect of problems created by the international situation. That
central directing branch of the general staff is entitled to expect
that the Government shall keep it fully au courant with the
political conditions of the day.
The merits of the doctrine preached by Clausewitz seem to be
self-evident, but leaders of opinion in the United Kingdom were
slow to realize its importance. There existed an almost un-
accountable inability to perceive the dangers to which a State
unprepared for emergencies is exposed. When a Royal Com-
mission presided over by Lord Hartington virtually recommended
the setting up of a general staff in 1889, one of its members, a
prominent politician who at a later date came to be Prime Min-
ister, actually in one of the most fatuous documents ever written
by a public man objected to the proposal on the grounds that,
owing to its peculiar position, Great Britain had no need to
study possibilities of conflict in advance. With such ineptitude
in influential quarters, the bitter experiences of the S. African
War were required to awaken British statesmen to a realization
of their responsibilities. The lessons of that contest were to some
extent learnt. By the setting up of the Committee of Imperial
Defence, in which professional opinion was given a powerful
voice, some preliminary steps had been taken in the right direction
even before the creation of the general staff in 1904, and, subse-
quent to that date, the general staff at the War Office has been
constantly consulted by the British Government and has been
kept well-informed on all points of importance connected with
the international situation.
How, as a matter of administration, the relations between the
general staff and the executive are to be governed, and by what
process communications between them are to be carried out,
necessarily depends upon the political system in vogue in the
state concerned. In any country possessing representative
institutions the general staff can only be acting in a consultative
capacity, at all events in peace-time. In the United Kingdom in
the years preceding the World War the Chief of the Imperial
General Staff and the Director of Military Operations were ex-
officio members of the Committee of Imperial Defence. When
strategical or administrative questions in which military force
was or might be concerned were to be discussed by the committee,
documents setting out the general staff view on the subject were
laid before it by the general staff representatives. The decision
of the committee on the points under discussion was taken and
recorded, and executive action sometimes followed if it was
involved by the decision. But although the more prominent
members of the Government were included in it, the committee
itself was merely a consultative body, and no executive action
involving expenditure could follow on one of its decisions without
the obtaining of at least nominal Cabinet sanction. Such recom-
mendations were liable to be vetoed on account of the expense by
the committee without reference to the Cabinet. Moreover, it
did not necessarily follow that the view of the general staff would
be accepted by the committee even on academical questions.
An interesting example of the working of the system is pro-
vided by the story of the Dardanelles. The expediency of an attack
upon the Straits in the event of a war with Turkey was gone into
by the committee as an academical question in 1906. The general
staff were opposed to such a venture and the Admiralty repre-
sentatives in the main agreed with them, the committee decided
that the undertaking would in the event of a contest be inadvis-
able, and the result was that study of the subject on the part of
the general staff virtually ceased. When early in the World War
the project was brought up afresh by the First Lord of the Admi-
ralty, the decision which the Committee of Imperial Defence had
arrived at eight years before was ignored, and when the opera-
tions were undertaken their progress was hampered by lack of
information, owing to the general staff's having acted on that
decision and having to some extent abandoned research with
regard to the topography, the resources and so forth of this
570
STAFF, MILITARY
potential theatre of war. But experience proved that the general
staff had been right.
When hostilities arise some instrument a good deal more
effective than a consultative committee is needed to control
conduct of the war, and, from Aug. 1914 to the date of the
Armistice, the operations were, in the case of the United King-
dom, for the first two and a half years of the struggle under
supreme charge of various forms of war council directly repre-
sentative of the Cabinet and given a free hand by that body.
They were later under supreme charge of the specially estab-
lished War Cabinet. The general staff was practically always
represented at the meetings of the war councils and of the War
Cabinet, but purely in an advisory position without voting power.
They were responsible to the council or the Cabinet for the advice
they gave, but the council or the Cabinet was responsible to the
country for accepting or rejecting that advice. It is true that
as a result of somewhat peculiar conditions that held good in
the early days of the struggle, attributable partly to the unique
personality of Lord Kitchener and partly to the weakening of the
general staff at the War Office when its cream was skimmed off
and dispatched to the Continent, the influence of the brain of the
army was not for a time exerted very effectually in the councils
of the Government. But that was only a passing phase. At a
later stage the general staff was always at least allowed to ex-
press its views, even if its opinion was not necessarily accepted.
As a matter of fact its opinion was occasionally ignored in
questions of considerable importance. This was no doubt partly
due to some want of confidence in its judgment felt in Govern-
ment circles owing to the slow progress made towards victory, and
partly due to the personality and the temperament of certain
members of the Government itself. The general staff also must
have been sometimes at fault on occasions when its advice was
rejected, although, should the full facts ever be made known
impartially, posterity will probably pronounce it usually to have
been right. Still, a general staff, however well-organized it may
be and however gifted and informed its personnel, is not in-
fallible. That this is so was demonstrated in the protraction for
years of the World War, whereas the British general staff had at
the outset confidently reckoned on its only lasting some months.
The German general staff, again, looked with contempt upon
the huge forces that Lord Kitchener was known to be im-
provising, until the value of the British "New Armies" was
proved up to the hilt in the field; and at a later stage of the
struggle it totally miscalculated and underestimated the mili-
tary potentialities of the United States. Moreover, all the
European general staffs alike, in their forecasts made in time
of peace, underrated the wastage in personnel and the expend-
iture in ammunition in a modern campaign on a great scale.
It has been said that a general staff must " think politically."
If this maxim is merely to be taken as meaning that a general
staff should appreciate political habits of thought, watch political
tendencies, and keep itself acquainted with the political aspects
of every question influencing military action alike in peace and
in war, its truth is indisputable. But one of the most important
duties falling to the lot of a general staff, especially in times of
emergency, will often be to strive to prevent mere policy from
adversely influencing the conduct of operations of war or affect-
ing Government decisions in connexion with military subjects.
History provides some striking examples of political considera-
tions gravely prejudicing the prospects of armies in the field.
MacMahon's fatal march to Sedan was a case in point. The
retention of Gen. Penn Symons' advanced force at Glencoe
in the opening days of the Natal campaign of 1899 furnishes
another instance. Had the question at issue been regarded
solely from the soldier's point of view, it is more than doubtful
whether Gen. Townshend would ever have been launched on his
ill-omened effort to reach Bagdad in Nov. 1915. When problems
of this kind present themselves, a general staff will often have a
difficult and delicate r61e to play. But the golden rule to govern
its conduct on such occasions would seem to be that it ought to
regard and present the problem from the fighting point of view
alone. The politicians can look after the political side.
It cannot be too clearly understood that neither in the United
Kingdom nor in any other military itate does the staff of an
army in reality consist of a general staff alone. There must
always be what, for lack of a more distinctive nomenclature, is
called in the British service its " administrative " side although
in point of fact many of the duties of a general staff are neces-
sarily of an administrative character. It is indeed the case that,
at least in peace-time, the administrative staff of an army is in a
sense the more important of the two. The army has to be re-
cruited and fed and clothed and equipped, and its discipline has
to be maintained, otherwise there will be no troops for the general
staff to dispose of and there will be no raison d'etre for the general
staff. Whereas the general staff will often in peace-time be
engaged on work which in the event may prove of little profit,
the administrative staff is constantly busy disposing of questions
which if not dealt with will cause a collapse. Calling the admin-
istrative staff " adjutantur " may alter its status and may lower
its dignity, but does not alter the fact that it is a staff and that it
performs staff duties. The organization as affecting the adminis-
trative staff that was introduced into the War Office in the
United Kingdom in 1904, and in due course extended throughout
the army (the details of which have been touched upon in earlier
paragraphs), worked extremely well both at headquarters and
with the troops during the pre-war period, and it also gave good
results when subjected to trial at manoeuvres between 1909 and
1914. The same staff organization was extended to India shortly
after it came into force in the United Kingdom. Nor, when it
came to be put to the test in warfare on a gigantic scale in many
parts of the world, was it found wanting. Although the problems
engaging the attention of the quartermaster-general's staffs and
the inspector-general of communications' staffs were in many
respects fundamentally the same in the Gallipoli Peninsula, in
Mesopotamia, and in France and Flanders, the wide differences
in the geographical and topographical conditions as between the
three theatres of war obliged the problems to be solved on sepa-
rate lines in each case. In France and Flanders several railways
connected the troops at the front with the secure and well-
equipped ports that acted as bases. In the Gallipoli Peninsula
open beaches under fire served for bases, and the communications
were to all intents and purposes maritime. For most of the time
in Mesopotamia it was a case of an army dependent on one
single line of river communication, hundreds of miles long,
although the river was gradually to some extent supplemented
by specially constructed sections of railway. And yet the
organization of the administrative staff as it had been designed
in peace-time met requirements under these diverse sets of cir-
cumstances. Where failures occurred, they were due to errors
in execution or else to lack of essential resources. Such altera-
tions as have recently been carried out as a result of the teach-
ings of the World War have been in detail and not in principle.
The British plan subordinates the administrative staff to the
general staff less than is the common practice. This is perhaps
due to the nature of British campaigns of the 1874-1902 era,
campaigns fought in regions often destitute of communications
and always poor in resources. Almost everything hinged on
supply and transport in these contests, and the transport gener-
ally had to be improvised on entirely new methods for each
particular case. Losses in action were as a rule trifling as com-
pared to losses from disease. For one thought that the comman-
der or his chief advisers gave to the enemy, ten thoughts were
given to communications. Instead of looking to the front they
were generally looking to the rear. Duties such as are now ap-
portioned to the administrative staff greatly outweighed in im-
portance duties such as are now apportioned to the general staff.
There was little difficulty in beating the enemy if only supplies
could be got up to permit a fight. But, to whatever cause it may
be attributable, the fact remains that the chief of the general
staff of a British army nowadays is merely in the position of
primus inter pares relatively to the adjutant-general and the
quartermaster-general and it is the same at the War Office.
In almost all other armies, on the other hand, including that of
the United States, the chief of the general staff is definitely chief
STAMBOLIISKI STANMORE
57i
of the staff. And he also is usually called chief of the staff, the
heads of different branches of the administrative staff being
absolutely subjected to him. The "chief of the staff" plan was
moreover adopted in the case of several British campaigns of
modern date, e.g. that of 1882 in Egypt and Lord Wolseley's
and Lord Kitchener's expeditions up the Nile in 1884-5 and 1898.
A chief of the staff was appointed to Sir R. Buller at t^e outset
of the S. African War (although owing to unforeseen events he
never took up the post), and at a later date Lord Kitchener went
out as chief of the staff to Lord Roberts.
If the existing British staff organization comes to be compared
with those where the chief of the general staff is also chief of the
staff, it will be found that there is something to be said on both
sides. That part of the British system under which a command
or a district is in peace-time supplied with a superior officer
in charge of administration, to whom wide responsibilities are
allowed and who is generally in practice senior to the principal
general staff officer, permits the general in command to devote
nearly the whole of his attention to preparing his troops for war.
But that arrangement would be unworkable in the field. There
the progress of operations is so dependent on the work of the
administrative staff that the commander cannot transfer his
authority in connexion with the latter to somebody else as is
recognized in the British staff organization in time of war by the
heads >f the adjutant-general and the quartermaster-general
staffs, as well as the inspector of communications, then dealing
direct with the commander. Still, the fact that a peace arrange-
ment does not fit in with the requirements of war is not a con-
clusive argument against that arrangement's holding good in
peace-time, which after all represents the normal condition of
things; and the British plan of a chief of administration is only a
special feature in a larger question. Objections do undoubtedly
exist in peace-time to the supremacy of the chief of the general
staff. That automatically makes him responsible for the work of
the administrative staff, and as all manner of administrative
problems unimportant problems, perhaps, but problems which
have to be solved are constantly arising in peace-time, most of
the chief of the general staff's time may come to be occupied
with matters that are not general staff matters at all, and mili-
tary policy, manoeuvres, training of troops, higher instruction,
defence schemes, and so forth, may suffer. But, if peace repre-
sents the normal state of affairs, armies none the less exist for
purposes of war, and in time of war the case for the British
system is not so strong.
In face of the enemy, operations planning them, deciding
whether the plan is feasible, and taking the necessary steps for
their execution are of paramount importance, but cannot be
said actually to govern administration, for unless the army's
establishments are maintained and unless it has its food, its
ammunition, etc., it cannot carry out the operations. The
success of the plan may in the main depend on strategical and
tactical factors; but in framing the plan the duties which the
administrative staff will have to perform in connexion with its
execution must have been considered with meticulous care. It
is for the administrative staff to say whether the plan is feasible
from the point of view of supply, transport, depots, hospital
service, and so forth. There may be great administrative diffi-
culties in the way, which will as a matter of course be represented.
It is, however, for the general staff to weigh the administrative as
against the strategical aspects of the case and then lay the whole
subject before the commander for a final decision. The British
Field Service Regulations clearly admit by implication that the
chief of the general staff is the superior of the adjutant-general,
the quartermaster-general and the chief of communications,
without their being actually under him. That, under conditions
such as develop on active service, is apt to prove a somewhat
clumsy arrangement and to give rise to friction. It is neither one
thing nor the other. Granted that the " chief of the staff "
system means centralization, granted that it demands from the
chief of the general staff a somewhat closer acquaintance with
purely administrative questions than would be necessary if the
heads of the chief branches of the administrative staff were
virtually his equals, even granted that under it less of his time
will be available for the consideration of the strategical and
tactical situation than would otherwise be the case, the system
does seem a more satisfactory arrangement for purposes of
operations in the field than that which found favour in the
British army after the setting up of the Army Council. Nor
would it seem to follow as a matter of course that the " chief
of the staff" system must not be adopted in war-time, simply
because it does not obtain during peace. (C. E. C.)
STAMBOLIISKI, ALEXANDER (1879- ), Bulgarian states-
man, was born at Slavovitsa in Bulgaria Sept. i 1879. He was of
peasant origin, but obtained a good education at Sofia and then
at Halle in Germany. In 1902 he became editor of the newspaper
of the Agrarian League and later entered the Sobranje. He soon
acquired great influence among the peasants, and from the first
took up an attitude of fearless opposition to King Ferdinand's
policy. In 1908 Stamboliiski headed the Agrarian protest
against the Declaration of Independence, as being in the interest
of the dynasty rather than of the people. In 1911 he made a
violent speech in the Grand Sobranje, opposing the amendment
to the constitution by which the King was given the right to make
secret treaties, and in 1913 he openly accused the King of hav-
ing brought about the calamitous war with Serbia. On Sept.
17 1915 Stamboliiski accompanied the other leaders of the
Opposition to the palace, and, in a forcible speech and later in
personal conversation, he warned the King with characteristic
brusquerie that if he again plunged the country into war it would
end in disaster and that he would lose his throne, if not his head.
Stamboliiski was then condemned to imprisonment for life, and
was kept in strict and painful confinement from Sept. 30 1915
for three years; he was, however, allowed access to books and
spent much of his time in study and writing. On Sept. 25 1918,
when imminent catastrophe compelled Bulgaria to seek an armis-
tice, he was released, and, after a stormy interview with the King,
went to the front, where a revolutionary movement among the
troops was developing. He returned with the insurrectionary
troops to Sofia, and order was restored only after much loss of
life; Stamboliiski was obliged to go into hiding, even after the
King's abdication. The Government, however, soon realized
that his help was essential in the critical state of the country, and
he became Minister of Public Works in Todorov's Cabinet.
Although the Agrarians had not an actual majority after the
election of Aug. 1919, Stamboliiski became President of the
Council and Minister for Foreign Affairs; on Nov. 27 he had the
courage to sign the Treaty of Neuilly on behalf of his country.
In April 1920 the Cabinet was reconstructed, Stamboliiski re-
maining as Premier, Minister for War and of Foreign Affairs in
a Cabinet composed entirely of his own followers.
STANFORD, SIR CHARLES VILLIERS (1852- ), Irish
musical composer (see 25.773), published in 1911 Musical
Compositions; three years later appeared Pages from an Unwrit-
ten Diary and in 1916 A History of Music, written in conjunc-
tion with his former pupil, Cecil Forsyth. In later years his
music included the operatic piece The Critic (op. 144), produced
by Beecham in 1916, and The Travelling Companion (op. 146),
which won a Carnegie award in 1917, but had not yet been
produced in 1921. In 1919 his symphony L' Allegro ed II Pen-
sieroso also won a Carnegie award, and in 1921 his setting of a
poem by Mr. Justice Darling entitled At the Abbey Gate the
point being the burial of the Unknown Warrior in the Abbey
was produced by the Royal Choral Society in the Albert Hall.
Stanford's Songs of the Fleet, originally produced in 1910, gained
great popularity, and he also composed much chamber music.
STANMORE, ARTHUR HAMILTON HAMILTON-GORDON,
IST BARON (1820-1912), British administrator, was born Nov. 26
1829, the youngest son of the 4th Earl of Aberdeen. He was
ducated at Cambridge and afterwards entered politics, becom-
ing private secretary to the Prime Minister, Lord Derby, from
1852 to 1855, and sitting as member for Beverley from 1854 to
1857. He was successively governor of Trinidad (1866-70),
Mauritius (1871-4), Fiji (1875-80), New Zealand (1880-2) and
Ceylon (1883-90). He was raised to the peerage in 1895, and
572
STEAD STINNES
died in London Jan. 30 1912. He was succeeded by his son,
George Arthur Maurice Hamilton-Gordon, born Jan. 3 1871,
who in 1916 was appointed lord-in-waiting to King George V.
STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849-1912), English journalist
(see 25.817), was drowned on the " Titanic " April 15 1912.
STEED, HENRY WICKHAM (1871- ), English journalist,
was born at Long Melford, Suffolk, Oct. 10 1871, the son of
a local solicitor, and was educated at Sudbury grammar school
and the universities of Jena, Berlin and Paris. From 1896 to
1913 he acted continuously as foreign correspondent to The
Times, beginning in Berlin, passing on to Rome, where he re-
mained five years (1897-1902), and thence to Vienna (1902-13).
His Hapsburg Monarchy (1913; 4th ed. 1918) is recognized as
the most illuminating work that has been written on Austria-
Hungary. In 1914 he became foreign editor (in London) of
The Times, and in Feb. 1919 was appointed to succeed Mr.
Geoffrey Dawson as editor. During the World War he was a
prominent supporter of the Yugoslav movement. In 1918 under
Lord Northcliffe he was engaged on propagandist work in the
enemy countries, and he headed a special mission to Italy in
March and April of that year. His other publications include
The Socialist and Labour Movement in England, Germany &
France (1894); L' ' Angleterre el la Guerre (1915); L' E/ort Anglais
(1916); La Democratic Britannique (1918).
STEER, P. WILSON (1860- ), English painter (see 25.868),
exhibited after 1886 practically the whole of his work at the
New English Art Club, in whose formation he took a leading
part and of which he was at one time president. His earlier work,
such as the " Boulogne Sands" showed the influence of impres-
sionism in its feeling for light and its handling of colour; but
after 1895 he adopted a more sober palette, at times using strong
black shadows with silvery lights, and gave increased attention
to design. After 1900 he returned to the use of a full range of
pigment, and produced some of his finest work, such as " Rich-
mond after Storm " (1903) and " The Isle of Purbeck " (1909).
In later years he only used the impressionist colour analysis to
a very limited extent, and generally worked within a chosen
and limited colour scheme. His feeling for colour harmony and
power of rendering subtle variations in tone relate him to
Gainsborough (a likeness well exemplified in " The Beaver Hat "),
and give his work its characteristic quality. Most typical
perhaps are his landscapes, mainly wide stretches of country
with broken skies, full of light, atmosphere and a sense of space;
but he also produced many portraits and figure compositions,
his paintings of the nude being marked by great appreciation
of the character and quality of flesh. His later work includes
"A Summer Evening" (1914), " Painswick Beacon" (1916),
" The Vale of Gloucester " (1917), " Chirk Castle " (1917), and
a considerable group of water-colours, very delicately and
directly handled. A self portrait is in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence,
and he is represented in the Tate Gallery, the Municipal Gallery,
Dublin, and the Johannesburg Gallery.
STEFANSSON, VILHJALMUR (1870- ), Canadian explorer,
was born at Arnes, Manitoba, Nov. 3 1879, of Icelandic parent-
age. He was educated at the universities of North Dakota and
Iowa, and afterwards at Harvard. He became a newspaper re-
porter, but later was appointed to an instructorship of anthro-
pology at Harvard, and became deeply interested in the prob-
lems of the Arctic regions. He made a private expedition to
Iceland in 1904, and the following year returned with a Harvard
archaeological expedition. He visited the Eskimo of northern
Alaska (1906-7), and in 1908 started on a four years' expedition
to the Arctic shores of Canada under the auspices of the Geolog-
. ical Survey of Canada and the American Museum of Natural
History, with interesting results. In 1913 Stefansson was ap-
pointed commander of the Canadian Arctic expedition which
sailed from Victoria, B.C., in June of that year to explore the
northern shores of Canada and Alaska. In 1914, with two com-
panions, he crossed Beaufort Sea on the moving ice from Martin
Point, Alaska, to the north-western corner of Banks I. ; in 191 5 he
visited the sea west of Prince Patrick I. and discovered more
land to the north; and in 1916 discovered land west of Axel
Heiberg Island. The following year he travelled, again over
moving ice, as far as lat. 8o3o'N. and long. ir2W. The
expedition returned to Canada in 1918 (see ARCTIC REGIONS).
Stefansson published My Life with the Eskimo (1913), The
Friendly Arctic (1921) and an anthropological report on the ex-
pedition of 1908-12, besides many articles in scientific journals.
He receded many honours from learned societies.
STEIN, SIR (MARK) AUREL (1862- ), British archaeolo-
gist, was born at Budapest Nov. 26 1862. Educated in the'
public schools of Budapest and Dresden and afterwards at
the universities of Vienna and Tubingen, where he studied
Oriental languages and antiquities, he went to England for
further study and then to India, where he became principal of the
Oriental College, Lahore, and registrar of the Punjab University
in 1888. Eleven years later he was appointed to the Indian
Education Service, and for the next two years carried out
archaeological explorations for the Indian Government in
Chinese Turkestan. In 1906-8 he made further explorations
(see 27.425) in central Asia and western China, receiving the
gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society. From 1909 he
was superintendent of the Indian Archaeological Survey, and
in 1913-6 carried out explorations in Persia and central Asia,
described by him in the Geographical Journal (1916). He was
created K.C.I.E. in 1912. His other publications include
Chronicle of Kings of Kashmir (1900); Ancient Kholan,(igof)
and Ruins of Desert Cathay (1912).
STEVENSON, ADLAI EWING (1835-1914), American political
leader (see 25.907), died at Chicago June 13 1914.
STEWART, JULIUS L. (1855-1919), American painter (see
25.914), died in Paris Jan. 4 1919.
STEYN, MARTINUS THEUNIS (1857-1916), Dutch S. African
politician (see 25.915). After the prominent share which he
took in the work of the S. African National Convention in 1909-10
ex-President Steyn retired into private life at his farm, Onze
Rust (Our Rest), near Bloemfontein. From this retirement he
never emerged till his death Nov. 28 1916, except to address
occasional meetings of the Dutch people of S. Africa on topics
of national interest. Yet this almost complete retirement from
public activities did nothing to lessen his influence with his own
people. It cannot be said that this influence was exercised to
promote racial peace in S. Africa. When the dissension between
Gen. Botha, the first Prime Minister of the Union of S. Africa,
and Gen. Hertzog began to shake the frame of the Ministry,
ex-President Steyn might have had a decisive influence in com-
posing that difference, which was ultimately to break Gen.
Botha's Cabinet and to lead to long dissension among the Dutch-
speaking people of S. Africa. His weight, however, was thrown
without reserve on the Hertzog side. The ideas of ex-President
Steyn were the ideas of Kruger. He held with tenacity the creed
of the Boer who regarded himself as the holder of S. Africa by a
species of divine right, who resented the intrusion of the British
element, and was determined to treat that element as intruders
and " foreign adventurers." Beyond doubt they were sincere, if
narrow. He held, as Kruger had held, and as Gen. Hertzog held,
that the intrusion of the British element involved a descent into
the muddy waters of commercialism, the strife of contending
ideas and embroilment in the tangles of world-politics.
STINNES, HUGO (1870- ), German industrialist and
financier, was born at Miilheim on Feb. 12 1870. He was the
son of Hugo Stinnes, and grandson of Matthias Stinnes, who
was the founder of a firm in no great way of business at Miil-
heim in the Ruhr district. After passing his leaving examina-
tion from a Realschule, young Stinnes was placed in an office at
Coblentz where he speedily picked up the elements of a business
training. In order to get a practical knowledge of mining
he worked for a few months as a miner at the Wiethe colliery.
He then, in 1889, attended a course of instruction at the Academy
of Mining in Berlin. In the following year he entered the firm
which his grandfather had founded. He remained there only
two years and then established a firm of his own, Hugo Stinnes,
Ltd. The whole original share capital was 50,000 marks (pre-
war=2,5oo). Gradually, from dealing in coal, he became
STOCK EXCHANGE
573
himself the owner of several mines and extended his business
to the manufacture of different kinds of fuel such as briquettes.
He also began to purchase sea-going vessels as well as river
steamers and barges, the latter, especially on the Rhine, on a
constantly increasing scale. He next organized an extensive
international business in coal, and had 13 steamers trading to
and from North Sea, Baltic, Mediterranean and Black Sea ports.
They carried coal, wood and grain, also iron-ore, Stinnes having
begun to manufacture iron and steel. He also imported great
quantities of English coal and had an agency at Newcastle as
well as an interest in some English mines. This led to his estab-
lishing branches of his business at Hamburg and at Rotterdam.
Before the World War he was the possessor of a fortune which
was vaguely estimated at several millions of pounds. He was
a director of many of the greatest industrial and mining com-
panies of Westphalia, the Rhineland and Luxemburg. Business
interests of this magnitude were constantly expanding, and he
became interested in numerous subsidiary enterprises, such as
tramways and the supply of electric power and light. He was
always engaged in founding new concerns or amalgamating
existing ones. Stinnes managed to maintain an extensive and
even a detailed knowledge of the working of all the concerns
in which he was engaged, and in all of them to exact zealous
and conscientious work from his business subordinates. The
secret of his success was essential unity of direction and co-
ordination of aims in all branches of his enterprises.
When the World War broke out he secured an enormous
share in the war profits which flowed into the coffers of the
great industrialists. In enemy countries, it is true, his enter-
prises were sequestrated, and his firm at Rotterdam placed on
the Allies' " black list." But he was richly compensated,
apart from the regular indemnification paid by the German
Government, when he was called in by Ludendorff as the most
competent expert to give advice, to organize the coal and the
industrial production of occupied Belgium and to help to set in
motion the gigantic production of war material which the Ger-
man G.H.Q. demanded from the homeland. His connexion
with Ludendorff led to his becoming an influence behind the
scenes in German politics, and, after the revolution, to his enter-
ing the Reichstag, as well as to his debut as a newspaper pro-
prietor on a grand scale. During the war he had extended
his activities in Hamburg and had bought up in 1916 the Woer-
mann and the E. African lines. In these fresh undertakings
he became associated with the two greatest German shipping
concerns, the Hamburg-American line and the North German
Lloyd. His Hamburg interests continued from that date on-
wards to multiply in something Eke geometrical progression.
Half a dozen landed estates were purchased in Saxony to supply
timber for pit props. At Flensburg in Schleswig he secured
control of the largest Baltic shipping concern, and proceeded
to build a new fleet of ships, christening one of them the " Hin-
denburg." In the elections of June 1920 he secured a seat in
the Reichstag as a member of the Deutsche Volkspartei, the
new electioneering name of the former National Liberal party.
He had about the same time begun to buy up leading German
newspapers, one of his main objects being to organize a solid
and powerful bloc of opinion in Germany in support.of law and
order and the promotion of the highest industrial and com-
mercial efficiency. His newspaper purchases included the
Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung in Berlin, formerly the organ of
Bismarck and then of all succeeding German Governments,
the Miinchener Neueste Nachrichten and the Miinchen-Augs-
burger Zeitung, the last-named being one of the oldest news-
papers in Germany. Both of the South German journals were
previously exponents of a very much more democratic trend of
opinion than that which came to characterize them under
the new proprietorship. Ancillary to these acquisitions large
interests were secured by Stinnes in paper-works in order to
make his newspapers independent of the paper market.
In the autumn of 1921 he was reported to be contemplating
some still vaster venture in the nature of a super trust to control
every industry in Germany, so that the whole might ultimately
be coordinated like one gigantic concern regulating production,
transport and the supply of the German markets and those of
the whole world. It might thus be possible to avoid waste,
sudden crises, ruinous competition and foreign commercial dic-
tation. He was reported to have already expended the equiv-
alent of about 250,000,000 on these aims and to be continuing
to sink further millions in them. The Social Democrats were
believed not to be averse from Stinnes' vaster scheme, as it
corresponded in certain aspects with their own plans, when they
were in power, for 'coordinating all German industries, pending
the possibility of socializing them. An instrument for super-
intending this coordination in the social and economic aspects
was ready to hand in the Economic Council of the German Reich,
set up by the new Republican constitution of 1919.
The only public check which Stinnes was known to have
received in the course of his career was at the Spa Conference
in 1920, when he attempted to address that assembly in per-
emptory language concerning the impossibility of the coal deliv-
eries demanded by the Allies and was summarily silenced by
the president.
STOCK EXCHANGE (see 25.930). Before the outbreak of
the World War in Aug. 1914 the London Stock Exchange
had for several years experienced two remarkable periods of
activity, both being the outcome of industrial development
which caused a rapid intensifying of the demand for two com-
modities namely, oil and rubber. This was the sequel to the
discovery of the internal-combustion engine, and its increasing
adoption in mechanical road transport.
Pre-war Rubber and Oil Booms. The rubber boom came
first. It began in 1909, and lasted until about 1912. The demand
for rubber applied a great stimulus to the rubber plantation
industry in the Malay States, the Dutch East Indies, Ceylon
and India. The price of rubber rose at one time to over 123.
per lb., and an enormous number of new companies were formed,
mostly with capitals of moderate size. In order to popularize
rubber as an investment the resourceful company promoter
introduced shares of the denomination of as. each. The innova-
tion was extraordinarily successful, and a very large number
of companies were floated with capital divided into 2s. shares,
while others formed prior to the boom sub-divided their shares
into the smaller and more popular denomination. Prices of
shares rose to extraordinary heights. Premiums of thousands
per cent were common, the shares of the Patalung and Selangor
companies, two of the earliest plantation companies, rising to
premiums in excess of 3,000 per cent. In Stock Exchange par-
lance the public " got the bit between its teeth," and the boom
persisted for a long time. Large fortunes were made by people
who participated in the boom in the early period. A reaction
in the price of rubber, which ultimately fell below is. per lb. in
1921, had already put an end to the boom before the war began.
Although the extravagant prices paid during the boom were at
no time justified, the companies paid very satisfactory dividends
for years; and it was not until the post-war depression, which
was unparalleled in its severity, swept over the commodity
markets in the latter part of 1920 and the first part of 1921 that
the industry was faced with real difficulties: The tremendous
stimulus applied to planting in 1910, 1911 and 1912 led to the
inevitable overproduction, and in 1919 and 1921 schemes for
limiting output were put into force.
The oil boom began shortly after the activity in rubber had
been well spread. It persisted for a longer period, for the reason
that the price of oil rose steadily from the introduction of the
motor-car. It eventually reached its maximum height in 1920,
but a reaction began in 1921, and this produced a corresponding
movement in the share market. There was an enormous demand
for petroleum spirit in the war period, and the price rose steeply.
After the cessation of hostilities the price rose further, a circum-
stance which was partly due to the conversion of locomotives
and ships' engines from coal to oil, partly to the great extension
of mechanical transport on the road and in the air, and partly
to the fact that the refinement and distribution of oil was in the
hands chiefly of two vast organizations. The boom was accom-
574
STOCK EXCHANGE
panied by the flotation of a number of companies, particularly
in Russia, where the Maikop field for a time attracted much
attention. But in comparison with rubber, oil did not provide
the same opportunities for the company promoter, and the
flotation of companies for the exploitation of oil-fields, known
and unknown, was comparatively limited. The oil boom lasted
approximately 10 years, when a reaction set in. But meanwhile
huge fortunes were made. Bonus shares were issued in great
numbers by the principal oil companies, and this, together with
high dividends, kept public interest at a high level.
With the exception of the oil market, stock markets were in
a depressed condition for some time before the outbreak of war.
The War Period. Early in July 1914, rumours of war began
to affect the Continental bourses. On July 13 the Vienna market
was demoralized by fear of hostilities, but it was not until July
24, when the terms of the Austrian ultimatum to Serbia were
made known, that the London market became seriously per-
turbed. From that date until Friday July 31, when the London
Stock Exchange Committee for General Purposes decided to
close the House for an indefinite period, markets were inundated
with a vast flood of selling orders from home and abroad, and
excitement was intense. The European bourses virtually ceased
to function, and this diverted an enormous stream of foreign
selling orders to London. Inter-bourse securities naturally suf-
fered a very heavy decline. On Monday July 27 many Lon-
don jobbers ceased to " make prices." This was " general carry
over " day, and the difficulties to be met by speculators were
formidable. The settlement, however, was completed on Wednes-
day July 29, without any very serious disaster, though 9 fail-
ures, involving 20 members, were announced. Dealing, however,
had become a matter of negotiation entirely, and on Thursday
July 30 1914 the House opened for the last time that
year. During the first two hours no attempt was made to do
business, and the next morning the committee decided not to
reopen the House until further notice. On Monday July 27
four consecutive transactions in consols were officially recorded
at prices showing a movement of i between each bargain,
a circumstance without precedent in modern London Stock
Exchange history. During the closed period, business, despite
official discouragement, was not entirely suspended. A certain
amount of dealing, on a strictly cash basis, was found to be
possible. On Sept. 14 the committee fixed minimum prices for
trustee stocks, based on the quotations ruling on July 30, the
object being to prevent disastrous depreciation. The New York
Stock Exchange similarly made minimum prices for American
shares, and these values were adopted by the London committee.
The maintenance of these prices was insisted upon by the banks,
which had undertaken to continue their loans against securities
without asking for any additional margin.
Meanwhile the question of dealing with the uncompleted
mid-August account was taken in hand on the London Stock
Exchange and completed on Nov. 19, a special set of rules
governing its arrangement. The gist of these rules was that
bulls of stock carried over on July 27 should put up a 5 % margin
on high-class securities, and 10% on others, and pay interest
fortnightly, or alternatively pay a higher rate of interest in lieu
of margin. The " taker in " was put under the obligation of
continuing to " take in " stock at July 27 prices until 12 months
after the war, or the expiring of the Courts (Emergency Powers)
Act, 1914, whichever event was the sooner. The declaration of
a moratorium, which was continued until Nov. 4 1914, made it
impossible to reopen the Stock Exchange for some months.
About 90,000,000 had been borrowed against securities before
the war began, and it was not until the moratorium came to
an end that the mid-August settlement was carried through.
The affairs of a small number of members were in this operation
wound up under the liquidation rule, but the amount of stock
carried over under the temporary regulations was smaller than
had been feared. As stocks rose to the mean price of July 27 they
had to be taken up or sold. On Dec. 23 1914 the conditions
governing the reopening of the London Stock Exchange were
promulgated4 The minimum price list was then extended to
include inter-bourse securities. Minimum prices were gradually
abolished as liquidation ceased and prices settled down to the
new level of investment values. On July 3 1916 the last of the
minimum prices were removed.
The London Stock Exchange was reopened for the first time
after the outbreak of war on Jan. 4 1915. Severe restrictions
were placed upon the transaction of business, in accordance
with arrangements made in Dec. 1914, between the Committee
for General Purposes and the Treasury. These arrangements
were embodied in Temporary Regulations which were substituted
for the old regulations governing Stock Exchange practice. All
bargains had to be done on a cash basis. The suspension of
virtually all speculative business was the most important inno-
vation introduced by the Temporary Regulations. Normally,
speculation forms the great bulk of business effected on the
Stock Exchange, and its temporary abolition deprived many
members of their occupation. The volume of business which it
was possible to do was further restricted by two other features
of the Regulations namely, the " physical possession " rule,
which prohibited dealings in stock that had not been in physical
possession in the United Kingdom since Sept. 1914, and the
fixing of minimum prices for trustee and other securities, which
were in nearly every case the mean prices on July 27. Both of
these rules were relaxed to some extent during 1915; the former
to facilitate sales of American securities held in Allied and
neutral states, and to allow sales of colonially held stock.
When they were established, minimum prices undoubtedly
served a very valuable purpose, but when the issue of high-yield-
ing war loans completely altered the standard of investment, as
regards the yield in interest, no useful purpose was served by
them. The retention of minimum prices fixed on a pre-war basis
of credit made it impossible to deal in the securities affected, and
that was the reason for their removal. But the absence of specu-
lation naturally caused a considerable reduction in membership.
On the day of reopening the number of transactions was less
than 1,000. On subsequent occasions the number rose to well
over 3,000 per day, but in 1915 the daily average was nearer
2,000 than 3,000. A heavy loss of revenue was sustained by
the company owning the Stock Exchange, and in 1915 it failed
to distribute an interim dividend.
The arrangement by which all stocks carried over at the
outbreak of war were continued until after the end of the war,
unless the " end of July 1914 " prices were reached, worked
well in practice, thanks largely to the American demand for
securities; and the " open " position on the London Stock
Exchange, which in Aug. 1914 was about 90 millions sterling,
had been reduced by the end of 1915 to about 20 millions.
With the reopening of the London Stock Exchange an im-
portant reform was introduced which was continued after the
cessation of hostilities. The Temporary Regulations provided
that every bargain should be recorded. This practice was much
preferred by the public to the pre-war custom of marking only
occasional bargains. The absence of buying and selling prices,
dealers being prohibited from offering stock in the market, was
one of the reasons for the compulsory marking of all bargains.
This reform led to the issue of a supplementary list of bargains
in securities not quoted in the daily " official " list. Thus, from
Jan. 4 1915 onwards, a complete record of business done was
furnished by the two lists, on the authority of the committee.
Another innovation was the retention in the lists of prices of
previous bargains, which added to their value to the public.
The course of prices in 1915 and subsequent war years was
generally downward. In June-July 1915 the flotation of the
unlimited 4^% British Government War Loan made a lowering
of investment values inevitable. This for a time checked business
in the stocks protected by minima, and caused a heavy fall in
other fixed interest -bearing securities. In March 1915 minimum
prices were reduced to a small extent. The minimum for Consols
was reduced from 685 to 665 prior to the issue of the 4|% War
Loan, and it was removed later when the great bulk of the stock
had been converted into the 4^ % stock. The market for American
securities was very active and strong throughout 1915, and
STOCK EXCHANGE
575
prices showed a substantial advance on the year. The war-time
prosperity in the United States caused a great demand for
American securities held in the United Kingdom and France.
European holders were encouraged to sell by the appreciation
of the dollar in terms of sterling, which enabled a profit on ex-
change to be made. In the second half of the year the British
Government bought large quantities of American securities held
in the United Kingdom and sold them in the United States
in order to provide itself with means of making payment for
munitions, etc. (see DOLLAR SECURITIES MOBILIZATION). It
is estimated that in this year about 150 millions sterling of
American securities were transferred to the United States.
Towards the end of 1915 the Government ceased operations in
the market, and invited holders either to sell or loan approved
securities to it. Thus came into force what was subsequently
known as the Dollar Securities Mobilization Scheme. The terms
of purchase were approximately the parity of the New York
price, and for loan a bonus of 5 % per annum in addition to the
interest or dividend on the loaned security, plus a premium of
2 J % in the event of the Government exercising its right to sell
the stock loaned to it. The Temporary Regulations were made
I more stringent as the war continued, but 1917 witnessed a check
1 to the depreciation of fixed interest-bearing securities for the
' first time since the S. African War of 1899-1902, and also a sus-
tained upward movement in industrial securities.
The following table, compiled from figures published by the
Bankers' Magazine, shows the course at different important
dates of investment values since the calculations were first
made. The values relate to 387 representative securities:
Jan. 1907 3,843,000,000
"July 20 1914 3,371,000,000
fNov. 1918 2,822,000,000
Dec. 1919 2,634,784,000
Dec. 1920 " . . . 2,319,777,000,
*Pre-war. fMonth of Armistice.
The general depreciation was due not only to the exceptionally
heavy demand for money to carry on the war, but also to the
growing burden of direct taxation in the United Kingdom. For
a time the British investor showed a marked preference for
industrial securities, on which high dividends were paid together
with, in many cases, bonuses either in the form of cash or scrip.
Bonus shares were created and issued by a large number of con-
cerns. The scarcity of capital caused a steady rise in the rate of
interest, and first-class companies found it necessary to pay 8 %
and even more on new debentures and preference capital. The
Treasury scheme for buying and borrowing dollar securities in
1916 was followed in 1917 by a scheme for requisitioning those
which had been neither lent nor sold. This put the finishing
touch to the process which had begun in 1915, of extinguishing
the American market in London.
Throughout the war period the London Stock Exchange Co.
had a very lean revenue. Receipts, which in 1914-5 amounted
to 296,757, dwindled to 130,304 in 1917-8; and the dividend
dropped to i per share.
A feature of the year 1918 was the advance in foreign Govern-
ment securities, especially those of neutral nations. Bonds of
the neutral countries were bought for exchange purposes, and
they changed hands up to extraordinarily high figures in the
first half of the year. Spanish 4's touched 135 at one time,
owing to the rise in the sterling value of the peseta, and Swedish
3l% stock rose to 115, through appreciation in kroner.
Calculations made by the Bankers' Magazine show that the
values of 387 representative securities fell during 1919 from
2,801,089,000 to 2,634,784,000, a decrease of 166,605,000,
equal to 5-9 per cent. (As on July 20 1914, the total was 3,371,-
000,000, the decline in the five and a half years to Dec. 1919 was
no less than 736,216,000, or nearly 22 per cent.) At one time
during the war the values touched 2,572,000,000. This was on
April 20 1918 at the height of the Germans' last great offensive
effort. It is interesting to note that in Jan. 1907, when the valua-
tions began, the total was 3,843,000,000. The valuation at the
end of 1919 showed a net shrinkage of 1,208,000,000, or 313%, of
which 736,216,000 was due to conditions brought about by the
war. The war-time depreciation in fixed interest-bearing securi-
ties was greater than this. Taking the values of 108 fixed
interest-bearing securities we find that the total on July 20 1914
was 1,989,000,000, at the close of 1918 1,575,000,000, and at
the end of 1919 1,378,906,000. On the other hand, the value
of 279 speculative investments, i.e. the dividends on which fluc-
tuate according to profits, was 1,382,000,000 on July 20 1914,
at the close of 1918 1,226,000,000, and at the end of 1919
f. 1 , 255,578,000. Thus there was a net depreciation in fixed
interest-bearing securities of 610,094,000, or 30% in the whole
war period, of which 196,094,000 occurred in 1919; while
speculative investments showed an increase of 29,578,000 in
value during 1919, or 2.4 %, but a net depreciation of 126,422,000
on the whole period, or 9 per cent.
After the War. In spite of marked activity in speculative
investments, the year 1919 witnessed a generally downward
tendency in prices of securities, with the result that a large part
of the appreciation which took place in the closing months of
1918, following the collapse of Germany's war effort, was lost.
The reaction was due in a large measure to heavy Government
expenditure, bringing with it the pressure of high taxation, and
an adverse American exchange, the former involving a continu-
ance of heavy borrowing, and the latter a rise in the Bank of
England rate from 5 to 6% at the beginning of Nov. 1919. The
failure of the British Government's Funding Loan operation
in the summer had an adverse effect on the market for gilt-edged
investments, and the City of London received something like a
shock on learning that national expenditure in the second half
of the year was scarcely distinguishable in amount from that of
a large part of the war period. Markets, however, presented a
generally animated appearance. This was in part due to the
return of warrior members. Attention was mainly concentrated
on speculative securities, notably oil, brewery, insurance, shipping,
S. African gold, and commercial and industrial securities.
Fixed interest-bearing securities were persistently neglected,
owing to the higher value of money and the competition of numer-
ous new issues offering yields as high as 9 per cent. In the sum-
mer of 1919, various war-time restrictions were removed from the
London Stock Exchange with the approval of the Treasury. The
removal of the embargo on exports of capital enabled foreign-held
stocks to be realized in the London market; but arbitrage trans-
actions continued to be prohibited. Some of the declarations
which had to accompany each transaction were abolished, but
the temporary regulation prohibiting any but cash transactions
was retained.
Gold-mining shares made a substantial advance in the closing
months of 1919 owing to the high premium received on gold
under an arrangement come to in July for restoring free condi-
tions to the market for gold newly produced. This enabled the
companies to declare larger dividends in Dec., and rescued a
large number of low-grade mines from imminent bankruptcy.
Towards the close of 1919 Rand Mines shares were introduced
on the New York market, this being the first time that S.
African gold shares were listed in Wall Street. The diamond
companies enjoyed a wonderful prosperity during the year, the
De Beers Co.'s revenue amounting to as much as one whole day's
war expenditure at the maximum level. Record dividends were
paid, and share quotations reached unprecedented figures.
The year 1920 was the most remarkable of the early post-war
period. At the beginning markets in London were extraordinarily
active, owing to the boom in trade. The oil market was in a state
of ceaseless activity, and other speculative markets felt some
of the reflected glory of inflated oil profits. Nomination for
membership of the London Stock Exchange rose in price to 650,
hut was almost unsaleable at the end of the year. There was a
jreat congestion of work in brokers' offices in the early months,
and they were kept open until late at night for several weeks.
But the introduction of a British budget of 1,200 millions, with
!ts unpleasant reminder of the burden of taxation, administered
a check to the reckless buoyancy of markets. The collapse of
the exchanges of all the countries except the United States
576
STOCK EXCHANGE
Sweden, Switzerland and Holland, caused a steady stream of
liquidation in London from the Continent, which grew in volume
when, later in the year, a heavy fall occurred in wholesale com-
modity prices. The fall in commodities forced traders to realize
securities. The pressure to obtain money to finance production
and distribution and pay taxes caused persistent liquidation in
the gilt-edged market, and British Government securities fell
to a level giving a return of well over 6 % per annum. In Dec.
1920 the leading stocks, in some cases, touched the lowest points
on record. The 5 % War Loan fell to 81 &, Victory Bonds to 70^,
Funding Loan to 65 A, and Consols to 43 f. The Bankers' Maga-
zine calculations of the prices of 381 representative securities
in Dec. 1920 showed a fall in values of no less than 315,000,000,
the largest loss ever recorded in one year. British and Indian
funds fell in value in 1920 by 11-9%, foreign Government stocks
by 18-8%, home railway stocks by 17-3%, foreign Government
stocks by 23-5 per cent. The decline in commercial and in-
dustrial securities was much greater, the percentage being 40-9.
The severity of this reaction was, of course, due to the sudden
collapse of the six-year-old boom in trade. Iron and steel shares
suffered a depreciation of 33-7%, shipping securities of 21-7%,
and S. African mining shares of 39-2 per cent. The losses of the
investor were so severe that he lost all interest in speculative
stocks and turned his attention to gilt-edged stocks. This
brought about a steady recovery in the latter in the first half of
1921. The issue of foreign Government loans in London, which
was suspended on the outbreak of war, was renewed in 1921,
when a loan to the Sao Paulo Government was issued, followed
by an issue of Norwegian Government bonds.
American and Foreign Stock Exchanges. The shock of the
World War caused stock markets all over the world to shiver
and collapse more or less. By custom London was a market to
which every bourse abroad turned for help when there was any
pressure, and for a period of at least a fortnight after the middle
of July 1914 the London market was called upon to absorb a
flood of selling orders from every mart in Europe where securities
were dealt in. While the European bourses had to all intents
and purposes suspended business by the beginning of the week
ended Aug. i, there was a fairly free market for securities in
London in the great majority of international securities down
to the middle of the week. The news of the coming war affected
the European bourses early in July. On the I3th of that month
the Vienna market was described as having become quite de-
moralized by the fear of war. The Berlin bourse reflected this
nervousness because Germany was Austro-Hungary's chief
lender, Government and municipal loans of the Habsburg Empire
being held in Germany to the extent, it was estimated, of over
200,000,000. On Monday July 27, the day before the declara-
tion of war by Austria, the panic in Vienna was such that the
bourse was ordered to be closed for three days. Subsequent events
showed it was destined to be closed for an indefinite period.
The Brussels market followed the lead of Vienna, ceasing business
on July 27, and the Paris coulisse, or outside unofficial market,
.also suspended operations on that day. On Tuesday July 28,
before the declaration of war by Austria had become known,
dealings became very difficult. On July 29 all account dealings
in Berlin were suspended, transactions being confined to cash
bargains. The Amsterdam and St. Petersburg bourses were
entirely closed that day, while on Thursday all markets suspended
business except London, Berlin, Paris and New York, but the
settlement in Paris fixed for July 31 was postponed. Business
on the Berlin bourse was ordered to be suspended on the following
day (July 31), though the bourse was kept open. The Paris
market remained open throughout that day, July 31, but only
six quotations were available out of some sixty stocks and
shares usually quoted in reports from that centre. The Paris
bourse was the only stock-market to keep open its doors after
Thursday July 30. But this bourse is under the direct control
of the Government, and the authority of the Goverment was
no doubt responsible for the bourse being kept open. Down to
Sept. 2 a few quotations were forthcoming from Paris, but on
that day the bourse was shut until further notice owing to the
approach of the Germans to the French capital. The New York
Stock Exchange was open on Tuesday July 28, when the news
of the declaration of war by Austria first became known, and it
was called upon to withstand the first shock of that announce-
ment. By the end of the day's session it was found that trans-
actions for the first time that year (1914) had exceeded one
million shares. On Tuesday July 28 the Toronto Stock Exchange
was closed, after being open for 10 minutes, and business on the
Montreal market ceased in the afternoon. On July 30 violent
breaks in prices occurred on the New York Exchange, but there
was at all times a market. The next day, however, the committee
decided to follow the lead of London and to close the Exchange.
New York. In the latter part of 1912 there was a serious
decline in American securities, owing to selling from Europe
brought about by the Balkan War, but as soon as this unloading
ceased the market was much unsettled by the decision of the
Supreme Court of the United States ordering the dissolution
of the Union Pacific-Southern Pacific merger. Down to the
beginning of the World War New York had shown a tendency
to develop more and more as a market for international securities,
though very little was actually done to encourage foreign securi-
ties to seek a market there. In the short and frantic period in
the last few days of July 1914 bankers saw ordinary standards
of value scattered to the winds and loans aggregating $2,000,000,-
ooo imperilled almost in a night. When the House was closed
special committees were set up to undertake the stupendous
task of straightening out the apparently hopeless tangle of con-
tracts outstanding when operations were suspended.
The New York Stock Exchange tentatively opened its doors
again on Nov. 28 1914, for trading in bonds only. As the ex-
perience was encouraging, the committee decided to reopen the
House for regular trading on Dec. 13. Minimum prices had
been fixed by the committee on Oct. 13, and trading in unlisted
securities was resumed on the following day. The minimum
prices were revised from time to time and abolished on March
31 1915, owing to a rise in quotations having rendered minima
no longer necessary. Then began the most remarkable era in
the history of the Exchange. In point of feverish activity and
wild fluctuations in prices, the year 1915 was then without
precedent. Million-share days, sensational advances, and equally
sensational declines, were common occurrences. Price move-
ments were very erratic. The most conspicuous feature of the
enormous volume of trading was the participation by the
outside public seldom if ever before witnessed on the New York
Exchange. Under clique and pool manipulation, prices were
whirled upward with startling rapidity. Stocks which led the
advances were those of companies which, it was supposed, would
benefit most largely from war orders. Throughout the year
there was heavy buying of both stocks and bonds by investors
and financial interests of the first rank. Many securities reacted
from their highest levels before the close of the year, but others,
on good business prospects, retained the greater part of their
phenomenal rise. Even more remarkable was 1916. Activity
was intense, and prices rose to exceptionally high figures. Every
dollar security offered from Europe was eagerly snapped up.
The following year witnessed a reaction. The depreciation
in the market value of American railway securities was estimated
at $3,000,000,000 about one billion in bonds and two billions
in shares. The principal causes of this great shrinkage in the
market value of railway securities, in which about one-twelfth
of the wealth of the United States was invested, were reported
to be as follows:
(1) Enormous destruction of capital in the war, with un-
precedented Government loans at rising rates of interest.
(2) The liquidation by Europe of about $1,700,000,000 of
American railroad securities in payment for munitions of war.
(3) A rapid advance in the cost of railroad materials and
labour, with no compensating advance in railroad rates, and
fear on the part of investors that the Government would not
promptly raise rates to maintain railroad property and credit.
When the U.S. Government declared war, the composure and
strength of the Stock Exchange was an impressively favour-
STOCK EXCHANGE
577
able omen. This composure did not continue throughout the
year. Prices of outstanding bonds declined steadily; and in
Sept. and Oct. an extremely violent movement of liquidation
swept over the Stock Exchange, carrying prices of the best
investment stocks down to a level lower than that of the panic
of 1907. This extreme demoralization of the Stock Exchange
did not result from money tension lending rates were compara-
tively low throughout the year nor was it primarily a conse-
quence of decreased earnings or of a weakened economic position
on the part of the investing public. It was due to war taxation
, legislation, and the drawing up of estimates as to how much
would have to be raised by taxes and by loans. In 1918 there
was a recovery, with prices generally higher on the whole.
In 1919 there was a boom in stock markets which will rank
in American finance as one of its greatest historical episodes.
The pegging of sterling exchange at $4.76! was removed on
March 20 1919, and the other Allied exchanges were released a
few days later. But the depreciation of European currencies
which followed did not stop European purchases. These increased
in volume, and the demand acted as a powerful stimulant on the
stock market. There began a speculation in stocks of an un-
precedented description. Thousands of industrial corporations
were endowed by the war with enormous reserves of cash which
war taxation had barely skimmed. The atmosphere of Wall
Street was charged with the wildest rumours of " melon splitting,"
increased dividends, and Liberty Bond distributions. Prices
advanced by 10 and 12 points in a day, and on some days 20- and
3o-point rises were not uncommon. Amidst this furious activity
the million-share day ceased to be exceptional. In May the Stock
Exchange was obliged to close on Saturdays in order to give the
staffs an opportunity of overtaking arrears of work. When, in
the latter part of June 1919, the first reaction occurred, there
had been 46 consecutive million-share days. The rise in the
value of money was said to be the chief factor which brought
the boom to an end. By the middle of Oct. the Federal Reserve
Bank of New York found its proportion of reserve to liabilities
reduced below the minimum prescribed by law. Call money
rose to 30% in Nov., the highest figure since 1907. A coal strike,
the heavy fall in the exchanges, and the failure of the Senate to
ratify the Peace Treaty, were depressing factors.
Stocks reached the peak of the rise in Nov. 1919. On that
occasion the figure was only fractionally below the high -water
mark of the war period, viz. 101-51, which marked the culmina-
tion of what was described in the picturesque language of Wall
Street as the " war-brides " boom of 1916. Then followed the
bursting of the distended balloon. In about three weeks the
average price of 50 stocks dropped more than 15 points to 85.
The collapse remained in the minds of members for a long time
afterwards. Despite occasional rallies, prices dropped steadily,
and it was manifest that the World War boom was definitely
over. November 1920 was also a month of devastating declines,
which produced conditions resembling a panic. The index
figure of the 50 stocks fell to 68-85, against 94-07 in April.
In the first n months of 1920 transactions in stocks on
the New York Stock Exchange snowed a considerable reduction
in volume from those of the corresponding period in 1919
210,220,428 shares, against 296,822,497. The par value of the
shares dealt in was $17,983,885,575, or about nine billions of
dollars less than the year before. Bond transactions, on the
other hand, were much larger, increasing from $2,473,588,050
to 82,495,821,750 for Government bonds, from $258,442,500 to
$310,567,400 for state and municipals, and from $522,315,000
to $693,527,000 for those of private corporations.
Arbitrage dealings were restored between New York and
London at the beginning of Dec., but there was little business
of this character. The depreciated paper pound killed the market
for American securities in London. Throughout 1920 a growing
interest in foreign securities was shown by American investors,
and a comparatively large number of foreign Government and
municipal obligations were sold in the American security markets.
Competition of domestic issues, however, was fierce, and no
lit lie difficulty was experienced in inducing the American public
xxxu. 19
to take up foreign bonds. This had a serious restricting influence
on America's export trade, and owing to the inability of Europe
to pay for her purchases by exports she had to depend largely on
credit given by the United States. In 1921 the depression in
trade became very marked, but later a recovery set in.
Paris. Down to 1911 Paris had been a powerful and per-
sistent supporter of the world's money markets, because of the
saving habits of the French people, but in the three years prior
to the outbreak of war a change had developed. This was par-
ticularly noticeable after the Balkan War of 1912 had disturbed
the European bourses. France had begun early in 1914 to bring
money home to meet her own needs. Excessive issues of short-
term notes, the disturbances in Mexico, and the collapse of the
St. Louis & San Francisco railway in 1913, caused a feeling of
revulsion as regards American securities, and Paris, in the year
prior to the outbreak of war, was steadily selling them. On the
other hand, Germany was increasing her creditor position in the
world's markets. The Paris bourse witnessed the end in 1911 of a
bull campaign which had lasted for several years, and 1912 saw a
persistent depression in gilt-edged stocks. The price of French
3% Rentes, which touched 105 in 1898, when Mr. Cochery
dreamed of conversion, fell to 875 in 1912, and with the outbreak
of the Balkan War there was a panic.
The bourse was reopened after the events of Sept. 1914, on
Dec. 7, and thereafter there was a steady rise in prices. After 15
months of war the first war loan was raised. As a necessary pre-
liminary the settlement of the long-deferred end of July 1914
bourse account was begun on Sept. 30 1915, and was carried
through with comparative ease. The open account had been
very largely reduced by gradual sales, and the Bank of France
came to the rescue of both Parquet and Coulisse, lending the
former about 150 and the latter 35 million francs. The plan of
settlement adopted differed considerably from the London Stock
Exchange scheme 5% interest was charged from July 1914, to
Sept. 1915; holders were asked to pay their differences in full, or
were given the option of paying 10% of their differences at the
first settlement, and 10% on each subsequent monthly settlement
until the balance was wiped off; 6% was fixed as the rate on all
unpaid differences; from the make-up prices of the end-Sept,
account differences had to be settled at each settlement as be-
fore the war. After the first post-bellum settlement contangoes
averaged about 45 per cent. All new business was for cash, deal-
ing on account being confined to clearing up accounts which
existed before Aug. i 1914.
Berlin. Before the war the Berlin bourse was subject to
frequent attacks of nerves. On Sept. 4 1911 the bourse had what
was described as its worst day of the year. It was alarmed by the
foreign political situation. Nevertheless business was very active
in that year, and the stamp duty on bourse transactions produced
75,000 more than in 1910. In 1912 the bourse was again much
disturbed by political fears, and rumours of war caused heavy
selling from time to time. Excessive speculation in the earlier
months of 1912 caused the Government Commissary of the
bourse to issue a public warning. On Oct. i of that year came
news of the Balkan mobilization, and a panic seized the market.
Settlement stocks in one day lost, on an average, 20 points. The
total loss in values in that year was estimated at about 150,000,-
ooo. On the outbreak of war, Germany imposed more stringent
conditions upon the Stock Exchange business than any other
country. The open market for stocks and shares was abolished,
and the publication of prices was strictly forbidden. Towards
the end of 1915, cautious efforts were made, with some success, to
liquidate bourse transactions which had remained in suspense
since the outbreak of war. In 1916 there was much speculation
on the German bourses, and this was given as a sufficient reason
for continuing the veto upon the publication of quotations. But
at the end of that year, lists of prices were issued for the first
time since July 1914, for the purpose of taxation assessments.
The quotations showed many large gains in industrial securities,
due, of course, to the enormous profits made by German compa-
nies. In 1916 the dividends of 10 explosives manufacturing con-
cerns averaged 22 %, a group of metal companies paid out 20%
578
STOKER STONE
on a capital of 9,00x3,000, and a group of leather companies paid
19% on an average. All the German war loans were, however,
listed by special instruction at the price of issue. In 1917 there
was again considerable speculation on the bourses, with generally
rising prices, but the intervention of the United States in the war
caused a set-back. At the end of 1917 the listing of prices was
resumed, but publication of prices was strictly prohibited. Ger-
man 3 % stock rose 7 to 8 points, and there was a strong demand
for industrials. Between Sept. and Dec. 1918 the quotations of
German securities on the German markets fell so heavily that
German financial writers estimated the decrease in capital value
at about 50 per cent. Meanwhile Germany witnessed her foreign
credit such as it was go to pieces. This was proved not only
by the price of the mark, but by an almost universal desire in
neutral countries to withdraw outstanding credits to Germany.
The index figures prepared by the Frankfurter Zeitung showed
the following (a. representing values of 24 of the principal
shipping, mining and dyeing concerns; b. of 10 important muni-
tions, metal, petroleum and potash concerns. The table shows
the effect of speculation before the German collapse, then a heavy
fall, followed by a slight recovery at the end of 1918):
July 28
1914
Dec. 31
1917
Aug. 31
1918
Dec. 5
1918
Dec. 31
1918
a.
b.
185
232
278
445
272
442
151
177
164
197*
Amsterdam. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, which was
closed on the outbreak of war in 1914, was reopened on Feb. 9
1915. Business at first was not very extensive, except in shipping
and home industrial shares. Foreign stocks were very weak in
1915 owing to persistent selling from Germany. The year 1916
was a record of remarkable fluctuations, and at the close all kinds
of shares showed enormous gains. The largest improvement took
place in the securities of home industrial concerns, which made
huge profits, as the result of the elimination of German competi-
tion. The Dutch Indian plantation companies made enormous
profits, especially the sugar plantations, which sold a great part
of their output to the British Government at high prices. Rubber
and tobacco shares also improved in value. Royal Dutch shares
were introduced for the first time on the American market in
1916. In 1917 the stock markets were rather quiet. Russian
stocks fell enormously in the last months in consequence of the
stoppage of interest payments, and the announcement that the
Bolshevist Government would cancel the national debt. This
latter step could only mean a serious financial disaster for Hol-
land, where Russian stocks had found a ready market as being
thoroughly sound investments. The total Dutch ownership of
Russian stocks of State as well as private railways was estimated
at 1,500,000,000 to 2,000,000,000 florins. New shipping shares
amounting to 27,500,000 florins in face value were added to the
market in 191 7. In the following year the tendency was irregular,
and sometimes weak, directly owing to the German collapse, but
towards the end of the year prices rose again. Large new issues
were made by shipping, plantation, and trading companies.
Vienna and Budapest. In the early years of the war there
was extravagant speculation on the Vienna and Budapest bourses,
and prices rose to extraordinary heights on the enormous profits
on paper made by all the industries of the country. But a heavy
collapse succeeded the military breakdown in 1918, and the
subsequent break-up of the old Empire.
Switzerland. Following the example of the chief foreign
bourses, the Basle and Zurich Stock Exchanges suspended opera-
tions towards the end of July 1914. The Geneva and Lausanne
bourses, however, remained open even during August. On Jan. 7
1915 the Basle Stock Exchange resumed the publication of its
daily price list. A further step forward was taken on Dec. i 1915,
and on April 25 1916 the bond market was reopened in its
entirety. On June 26 transactions were extended to the full
pre-war list. The Zurich bourse restarted official business on
May 15 1916. (C. J. M.)
STOKER, BRAM (1847-1912), Irish author, was born in
Dublin Nov. 8 1847 and was educated at a private school there
and at Trinity College. He entered the Irish civil service, to
which his father also belonged, and wrote critical articles for
various newspapers. He was called to the English bar, but in
1878 he joined Sir Henry Irving at the Lyceum theatre and was
for many years his secretary and finally his biographer. He wrote
a number of novels, of which Dracula (1897) was the best
known, as well as Personal Reminiscences of Sir Henry Irving
(1906). He died in London April 20 1912.
STOLYPIN, PETER ARCADEVICH (1863-1911), Russian
statesman, was born in 1863, the son of Admiral Stolypin by his
wife, a princess of the house of Gorchakov. He was educated at
the university of St. Petersburg, and in 1884 entered the Govern-
ment service. In 1902 he was appointed governor of Grodno,
and in 1905 was transferred to Saratov, where he became known
as a firm administrator. In 1906 he was recalled to take up the
position of Minister of Internal Affairs, and in July of the same
year succeeded Goremykin as Minister President. His career as
Premier is described in the article RUSSIA. His firm and re-
pressive policy toward all kinds of sedition caused him to be
regarded as a deadly enemy by the revolutionary party, and many
attempts upon his life were made. In Aug. 1906 a bomb was
exploded at his summer residence, which seriously injured one of
his daughters, but all efforts to kill him proved vain until IQII,
when he was shot in a theatre at Kiev on Sept. 14, before the
eyes of the Imperial family, by a Jew named Mordka Bogrov.
The minister died of his wounds Sept. 18 1911.
STONE, MARCUS (1840-1921), English painter (see 25.957),
died in London March 24 1921.
STONE, MELVILLE ELIJAH (1848- ), American journal-
ist, was born at Hudson, 111., Aug. 22 1848. His father was a
Methodist minister, of New York birth, who had moved to
Illinois in early life and combined his activities as a circuit-
preacher with the running of various small businesses, includ-
ing book-selling and printing. He had English, Scottish and
Irish blood in his veins, the Stone family having settled in New
England in the i7th century. In 1860, when Melville was 12,
his father was made pastor of a Methodist church in Chicago,
and it was there that he got his schooling. In 1864 he began work
as a newspaper reporter, but after sundry journalistic experi-
ences he was set up in business in 1868 as proprietor of an iron-
foundry and machine-shop, which incidentally made a specialty
of the supply of folding theatre-chairs, etc. In the great Chicago
fire of 1871 this was destroyed, and Stone was then for some
time occupied in the administrative work of municipal relief
and reconstruction after the fire. But in 1872 he again took up
journalism, as one of the editors of the Chicago Republican
(subsequently Inter-Ocean), and later of the Post and Mail,
becoming for several years a political correspondent at Washing-
ton. At the end of 1875, having returned to Chicago, he and a
colleague started a new Chicago paper, the evening Daily News
(seeiQ-STi), and, after he had obtained the help of a new partner
in Victor F. Lawson as its manager, their venture soon became
increasingly prosperous. In 1878 he and Lawson bought out the
Post and Mail, and in 1881 they established the Morning News
(later Record and Record-Herald). In 1888 Stone's interest
was bought out by Lawson, and he retired, taking a prolonged
holiday in Europe. Returning to Chicago in 1891, he took to
banking by the foundation of the Globe National Bank, of
which he became president, and he kept up this connexion for
about ten years; but meanwhile pressure was put on him to take
part in the reorganization of the Associated Press, then already
a well-known news-agency, and in 1893 he accepted the posi-
tion of general manager. In this capacity Melville Stone became
even more prominent and powerful in the journalistic world
than he had been as a Chicago editor and newspaper proprietor.
At that time the Associated Press was still struggling (see
19.547) with its competitor, the United Press, but its enterprise
now received a new stimulus, and by 1897, under Stone's
management, and as subsequently reorganized in 1901, its service
knew no rival. Stone had intimate relations with all the leading
men of his time and played an important part in the publicity
given to events and movements. He held this position until
STOREY STRAIGHT
579
the close of 1918, when he retired. During that period of 25
years the budget of the Associated Press had grown from $500,-
ooo to $6,000,000 and it had come to furnish more than half the
news printed in American newspapers.
See the Autobiography: Fifty Years a Journalist (1921).
STOREY, GEORGE ADOLPHUS (1834-1919), English painter,
was born in London Jan. 7 1834. He was partly educated in
Paris, but in 1850 returned to England and commenced studying
in London at J. M. Leigh's school, subsequently entering the
Royal Academy schools. His first picture was hung in 1852.
He was in early life a follower* of the Pre-Raphaelite school, but
gradually changed his style, becoming well known both as a
subject painter and for his excellent portraits. He was elected
A.R.A. in 1876 and R.A. in 1914. He became teacher of per-
spective at the Royal Academy in 1900. Among his best-
known pictures are "The Old Soldier" (1869); "Christmas
Visitors " (1874); " Mischief " (1897) and " The Love-Letter "
(1901). Storey published several books, the most important
being Meissonier (1886) and Theory and Practice of Perspective
(1910). He died at Hampstead July 29 1919.
STORY-MASKELYNE, MERVYN HERBERT NEVIL (1823-
1911), English mineralogist, was born hear Wroughton, Wilts,
Sept. 3 1823; he was descended on the mother's side from Ncvil
Maskelyne, the Astronomer Royal. He was educated at Bruton
grammar school and Wadham College, Oxford, and studied
for the bar, but in 1850 was invited to deliver lectures at
Oxford on minerals, where he stipulated for a chemical laboratory,
then a complete novelty in the university. He was prominent
in the struggle over the proposal to erect a museum of science
and in 1856 became professor of mineralogy with a laboratory in
the new museum; but from 1857 he combined the work with the
keepership of the minerals at the British Museum and resided in
London. In 1880 he resigned this post, but retained his Oxford
professorship until 1895. He had inherited a Wiltshire estate
from his father, and in 1880 he entered Parliament as Liberal
member for Cricklade. In 1885 he was reelected for N. Wilts
as a Liberal Unionist and sat until 1892. He studied especially
crystallography, meteorites and gem-stones, and was the author
of many scientific papers, and of a book On the Morphology of
Crystals. He also possessed a valuable collection of antique
gems. He died at Bass Down, near Swindon, May 20 1911.
STOUT, SIR ROBERT (1844- ), New Zealand judge and
statesman, was born on Sept. 28 1844 at Lerwick, Shetland Isles,
where he was educated at the parish school and became a pupil
teacher. He arrived in New Zealand in 1863, and became second
master in the Dunedin grammar school and afterwards in the
Duncdin district high school. On July 4 1871 he was admitted as a
barrister and solicitor of the Supreme Court of New Zealand, and
he then matriculated at Otago University which opened in that
month. In 1873 he took first-class honours in mental and moral
science and political economy, and from 1874 to 1876 he was Law
lecturer at Otago University. Elected a member of the Otago
Provincial Council in 1872, he became provincial solicitor in 1873,
and he held that position until the abolition of the provinces in
1876. In 1873 he was elected to Parliament as Liberal member for
Caversham and in Feb. 1878 he became Attorney-General and
Minister of Lands and Minister of Immigration in Sir George
Grey's Ministry. But in the following year he resigned owing to
the serious illness of his partner, and he did not return to public
life till 1884 when he entered Parliament again as member (M.H.
R.) for Dunedin East. On the defeat of Sir Harry Atkinson's
Government he joined with Sir Jules Vogel in forming a Ministry,
which lasted less than a fortnight (Aug. 16-28 1884), but after
another Atkinson Government had held office for a few days
(Aug. 28-Sept 3) a second Stout-Vogel Government was formed
which lasted three years. In both the Stout-Vogel Governments
Sir Robert Stout was Premier and Attorney-General. At the gen-
eral election in 1887 the Government was defeated and he lost
his seat by a narrow margin.
Refusing the offer of other seats, Sir Robert Stout remained out
of politics till after the beginning of the long Liberal-Labour re-
gime in 1891. Both by Ballance and by Seddon he was offered a
portfolio but he declined both offers. In June 1893, however, he
was elected at a by-election for Inangahua as an Independent
Liberal, and at the general elections of 1893 and 1896 he was
elected for Wellington City, to which he transferred his residence
and his legal practice. In 1898 Sir Robert Stout resigned his seat,
and in June 1899 he became Chief Justice.
In politics Sir Robert Stout was a strong Liberal of the indi-
vidualistic school, devoting special attention to the land and
labour questions and to educational and temperance reform.
Among his principal measures were the Land Act of 1877, the
first Land Tax Act, which he drafted in cooperation with Ballance
and which became law in 1878, and the Civil Service Reform Act
of 1886, which threw the doors of the service open to women and
made examination and competition (the latter being added by the
Legislative Council) the tests of all appointments except those of
experts. As a member of a Royal Commission appointed in 1881
he helped the late Mr. Allen Holmes in forming the Code of
Civil Procedure, which was enacted in the following year and made
the Supreme Court Procedure of New Zealand one of the simplest
in the world. A life-long abstainer, Sir Robert Stout was always a
keen advocate of temperance reform. The local option bills which
he introduced in 1876 and 1893 did not get further than their
second reading, but the second of these measures forced the hand
of the Seddon Government and led to the establishment of local
option by a less liberal measure in the same session.
He became a meihber of the New Zealand University Senate in
1884, and also of the Victoria University College Council, Welling-
ton. In 1903 he was elected chancellor of the university. He was
made a K.C.M.G. in 1886. Besides writing many essays and
lectures on social, literary and legal subjects, he was the author,
jointly with his son, J. Logan Stout, of New Zealand in the Cam-
bridge University Manuals of Literature and Science, and of
the article on New Zealand in the Oxford University Survey of
the British Empire, fie married in 1876 Anna Penrhyn, daughter
of Mr. J. Logan, official clerk to the Superintendent of the Prov-
ince of Otago. He had four sons of whom two served in the war
as medical men and one obtained the D.S.O. and two daughters.
STRACHAN-DAVIDSON, JAMES LEIGH (1843-1916), British
classical scholar, was born at Byfleet, Surrey, Oct. 22 1843, and
educated at Leamington College and Balliol College, Oxford.
He graduated first class in literae humaniores in 1866, and was
elected to a fellowship of his college the same year. This he
held until 1907 when, on the resignation of Edward Caird, he
was elected to the mastership of the college. His whole life was
devoted to university teaching and administration, as classical
tutor, examiner, delegate of non-collegiate students, pro-vice-
chancellor, etc., and to the study of Roman history. Amongst
his published works were Cicero and the Fall of the Roman
Republic (1894), Problems of the Roman Criminal Law (1912), as
well as articles on the Roman Constitution in Smith's Dictionary
of Antiquities. He died at Oxford March 28 1916.
STRACHEY, JOHN ST. LOE (1860- ), English journalist,
was born at Sutton Court, Som., Feb. 9 1860, the second son of
Sir Edward Strachey, 3rd Bart., and Mary Isabella, daughter of
John Addington Symonds. He was educated at Balliol College,
Oxford, graduating with a first-class in modern history, and was
subsequently called to the bar; but he adopted journalism as his
profession from the age of twenty-four. In 1886 he became
assistant editor of the Spectator, and after the death of R. H.
Hutton (1897) and the retirement of Meredith Townsend (1898)
he became proprietor of the paper, which under his editorship
not only maintained but increased the high reputation it had
gained (see 19.562) for sober political criticism and well-informed
appreciation of art and literature, so that he exercised great in-
fluence upon English opinion. St. Loe Strachey also edited
(1896-7) the Cornhill Magazine. He was specially interested in
problems of rural housing, pauperism and local government
generally. Amongst his publications are: The Manufacture of
Paupers (1907); Problems and Perils of Socialism (1908); The
Practical Wisdom of the Bible (1908) ; A New Way of Life (1909).
STRAIGHT, SIR DOUGLAS (1844-1914), English lawyer and
Journalist, was born in London Oct. 22 1844 and was educated
58o
STRAITS STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
at Harrow. Up to 1865 he engaged in journalism, but was then
called to the bar and soon worked up an extensive practice,
especially at the Central Criminal Court, London. He sat in the
House of Commons as Conservative member for Shrewsbury
from 1870 to 1874, and from 1879 to 1892 he was a judge of the
High Court of judicature at Allahabad. He was knighted on
retirement, and four years later he returned to journalism as
editor of the Pall Mall Gazette. He retired in 1909, and died in
London June 4 1914.
STRAITS (DARDANELLES AND BOSPORUS.) The waterway
formed by the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora and the Bosporus,
which connects the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, has pos-
sessed marked political importance from the earliest times. This
importance, however, grew with increasing rapidity during the
zoth century. The increase of population, the growth of com-
merce, the construction of railways, and the rise of nations in
the basin of the Black Sea, enormously added to the political
and military significance of the Straits. And while these factors
gained in weight yearly, the Ottoman Empire, which held the
guardianship of the Straits, declined yearly in vigour and strength.
Correspondingly, it became more and more the object of national
intrigue and ambition on the part of foreign Powers, whose
designs would benefit were they in a position to control the
Straits themselves.
These matters received forcible illustration during the World
War. Problems having their origin in the existence of the
Straits became then of supreme importance, even to the extent
of prolonging or shortening the period 'of war. At the Peace
Conference, too, questions of the Straits became acute. The
seaborne commerce of the 100 million inhabitants occupying
the basin of the Black Sea must perforce pass through the
Straits. By railway communication with central Asia this re-
gion, too, is concerned with control of the Straits. The tradi-
tional Russian ambition for a warm water port looked to
Constantinople and the Straits for fulfilment; and in 1915 the
Powers in alliance with Russia accepted the Russian claim to the
great position. Apart from Russia and Turkey, three states
Georgia, Rumania and Bulgaria had a coast-line confined to the
Black Sea, and therefore depend upon the Straits as the one route
for their maritime trade with the outer seas. To Germany, con-
trol of the Straits in war by her ally Turkey meant the isolation
and strangling of her enemies, Russia and Rumania. In fact the
closing of the Straits at this time had much to do with the col-
lapse of Russia, the outbreak of the revolution, and the prolonga-
tion of the war. With such possibilities and interests hanging
upon them, the Peace Conference dealt comprehensively with the
Straits in the Treaty of Sevres. Under this treaty they were
thrown open to all navigation in peace and war, without distinc-
tion of flag, and blockade of these waters was prohibited. An
International " Commission of the Straits " was established to
control the waterway. And still further to ensure that military
interruption should not take place, a demilitarized " Zone of the
Straits " was created, embracing all adjoining coastal territory.
Within this area all military works and fortifications were to be
razed, and the construction of similar works was forbidden.
(W. J. C .*)
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS AND DEPENDENCIES (see 25.980*).
The resident pop. of the Straits Settlements proper, according
to the census of 1911, was 705,405, divided as follows: Singapore,
303,321; Penang, 141,559; Province Wellesley, 128,978; Malacca,
124,081; the Bindings, 7,466. Males outnumbered females nearly
as 2 to i. Included also in the Government of the Straits Settle-
ments are Labuan (pop. in 1911, 6,546), Christmas Island (1,369)
and the Cocos Islands (749).
In Labuan and Cocos Islands males did not greatly outnumber fe-
males, but in Christmas Island, with an almost wholly labouring pop.,
males were 1,328 and females 41.
In 1919 the pop. of the whole colony was estimated at 827,719.
That of Christmas I. was 514 on Jan. I and 617 on Dec. 31.
In the colony the birth-rate in 1919 was 30-3 per thousand. The
death-rate, which was 46-4^5 per thousand in 1911, fell to 29-15 in
1915, rose, with an epidemic of influenza, to 43-85 in 1918, and was
33-04 in 1919. The principal causes of death in the last year were
infant diseases (5,848) and malaria (4,623), and the other most
serious maladies as returned were tuberculosis, beri-beri, pneumonia, \
and dysentery, but probably many deaths were due primarily to (
influenza. The epidemic of this disease resulted in the revival, after
30 years, of the native wang-kang ceremony at Malacca, in which a
model boat is constructed in a temporary temple, and is subsequently i
burnt as a sacrifice to some supposedly neglected god.
Principal nationalities and religions were shown by the census as
follows:
Nationalities
Chinese
Malay
Indian
Europ.
and
Amer.
Straits Setts, proper
Labuan ....
Christmas I. ...
Cocos Is.
366,765
i,799
1,252
235,762
4-434
44
668
81,928
7,276
34
19
39
Religions
Chinese 1
Mahom-
medan
Hindu
Chris-
tian
Straits Setts, proper
Labuan ....
Christmas I.
Cores Is
359,760
261,154
4,43
46
669
52,579
24474
116
32
50
1 Other than Mahommedan and Christian.
Chinese immigrants in 1919 numbered 70,912 21-4% more
than in 1918, and 73-6% less than in the " record " year, 1911.
Adult males were 62-4% and females 19-5%. 101,433 immigrants
arrived at Penang from southern India, and 46,767 Indians quitted
the colony. There were 2,439 labourers from Netherlands India.
The Chinese community was on the whole prosperous during the
World War; the increased cost of living and the high rate of exchange
with China bore hardly upon the poorer classes, but the increase of
wages in great measure counterbalanced these disadvantages. The
Chinese freely supported patriotic and charitable funds, and after
some demur, before its purpose was fully understood, recognized
without further difficulty the war-tax ordinance of 1917. The war,
however, produced its problems for the community. It was neces-
sary to establish a censorship of Chinese newspapers, and in June
1919 an anti-Japanese boycott resulted in rioting in Singapore and
Penang, while a Chinese patriotic league and an anarchical body, the
so-called Truth Society, gave some trouble.
Finance. Revenue in 1911 amounted to $11,409,220, in 1919 to
$34,108,465; expenditure in 1911 to $9,085,389, in 1919 to $34,901,-
2 33 (Si =2S. 4d.). A noteworthy financial measure was the introduc-
tion of an income tax, which, in spite of controversy, raised 400,-
ooo sterling in 1917 without friction.
The colony had at the end of 1919 a debt of 6,913,352 sterling
in respect of the loan raised by the issue of 3^% Straits Settlements
inscribed stock, 1907. About four-fifths of this loan was expended on
account of the Singapore Harbour Board, and the rest on account
of the Penang Harbour Board, the municipal commissioners of
Singapore and Penang, and on Government harbour works, and
interest charges are borne by these bodies.
Among Government monopolies that of opium is by far the most
productive; the sales of chandu in the colony in 1919 yielded $17,-
511,229, in addition to which there were sales to the Federated and
Non-Federated Malay States and Brunei. But prices were raised and
other measures were taken in that year with a view to the gradual
reduction of the amount of opium consumed.
Economic conditions: Agriculture, etc. In many respects the
colony actually benefited from the World War: there was, for
instance, an increase in the gross value of trade from 63,600,000 in
1914 to 148,200,000 sterling in 1917. The more serious economic
problems were not all results of the war. For example, it was about
1909-10 that a remarkable development of agricultural activity set
in, especially in Malacca and Province Wellesley. This took the
direction mainly of rubber planting, which led to the neglect of fruit
cultivation and other forms of native agriculture; and this tendency
has persisted. It has been asserted, indeed, that the rubber industry
has been overexploited here: the people ceased in great measure to
cultivate their own food crops and raise their own live stock, and
became dependent on imported food stuffs. In 1917 rice was imported
from Rangoon, Siam, and French Indo-China; wheat flour from
Australia and India; cold storage foodstuffs from Australia, and
other foodstuffs from China. Difficulties connected with shortage of
supplies and shipping made it necessary to set up food control in
1917. An enquiry was instituted into measures for increasing home
produce of rice and other foods, and " cultivation clauses " were
inserted into leases of newly alienated lands. In 1918 the United
States restricted imports of rubber, with a consequent reaction upon
the Straits Settlements industry. This could not, however, im-
mediately affect food cultivations, and in that year shortage in
India, floods in Siam, and the demand for imported rice in Java and
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS AND DEPENDENCIES
58i
Japan caused serious conditions in the Straits Settlements. Siam
prohibited export of rice in July 1919: the Straits Settlements con-
troller took entire charge of import and wholesale dealing, and a
food production department was established which fostered home
planting, and in spite of many difficulties it was found possible, early
in 1920, to ensure supplies for several months. The Governments of
the Straits Settlements, Netherlands India, and Ceylon agreed in
1919 to purchase through a single agent to avoid competition.
The cultivation and yield of coco-nuts declined in and after 1917,
and the destruction of palms to make room for rubber had advanced
so far in Singapore and Province Wellesley that an enactment was
directed against it. Copra prices, however, rose in 1919. The clove,
nutmeg, gambler, and areca nut industries of Penang shared in the
general decline of cultivations which had become subsidiary to
that of rubber. The pineapple cultivation was affected by the
difficulty of obtaining tin plate for the canning industry. As for live
stock (of which mention has been made above) a report for 1917
showed that whereas in 1910 Malacca exported 12,000 pigs, in the
later year that number was imported, and that the former large
export of poultry from Penang was more than balanced by import.
Forestry. Measures have been taken to amalgamate the forest
services of the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States,
the first step being taken in 1918, when the forests of Malacca were
placed under the deputy conservator of forests for Negri Sembilan.
The area of reserved forests in 1920 was 107,270 ac., about II % of
lands in the colony. The mangrove industry has been fostered by
imposing a control over cutting, and by replanting, over 2,000,000
seedlings having been planted in Penang and the Dindings in 1919.
Tin. War conditions reacted favourably upon the tin trade.
In July 1918 the price reached $160 per picul, and subsequently $185
when buying was prohibited except under licence. But after the
Armistice the price, already declining, was further lowered when
the Imperial Government ceased to buy direct, and the Federated
Malay States had to guarantee purchase at $118 per picul.
Commerce. Imports were valued at 43,856,000 sterling in 1914,
and exports at 38,032,000. Both rose annually thereafter almost
without exception, until in 1919 the figures were: imports, 96,664,-
ooo; exports, 99,318,000. The entrepot trade in tin and Para rubber
is illustrated by the following figures for 1919:
Imports (piculs)
From
Tin
Tin Ore
Rubber
Malay States . . . ' .
Netherlands India ....
Siam
Other countries ....
133,000
38,000
6,000
2,000
686,000
113,000
207,000
32,000
1,412,000
456,000
79,000
Exports
To
Tin,
piculs
Value
Rubber,
piculs
Value
United Kingdom .
United States
Elsewhere
324,000
454,000
219,000
$41,347,000
$59,928,000
$27,445,000
406,000
2,310,000
254,000
$ 44,088,000
$230,511,000
$ 24,227,000
Shipping. The total tonnage of shipping entered and cleared
for the year 1919 is shown as follows: Singapore 14,088,775;
Penang, 4,009,126; Malacca, 564,400; Christmas I. and Labuan,
222,882. The principal flags were British (nearly five-ninths of the
whole), Japanese, and Dutch, and the total increase over the year
1918 was 5,820,913, nearly four-fifths of which was in British ship-
ping. The total of 18,885,183 tons thus compares with 13,064,270
tons for 1918 when the shortage of shipping was most acute, and
with 27,124,789 tons in 1913.
Work on the Lagoon wet dock and main wharf reconstruction,
Tanjong Pagar, was completed and made over to the Singapore
Harbour Board in May 1917. The revenue and expenditure of the
Board, which reached $6,015,648 and $4,216,015 respectively in
1912, declined to $5,432,425 and $3,421,271 in 1915, and amounted
to $9,617,718 and $5,444,410 in 1918. Penang wharf and dock
receipts amounted in 1919 to $996,372 (approximately), and ex-
penditure to $815,092. The wharf tonnage returns for Singapore and
Penang show the following figures :
No. of
Vessels
Net
Tonnage
Inbound and Outbound
Coal, tons
Cargo, tons
Singapore T^ft ;
p * \ll\l :
2,708
2,114
732
5i2
5,794.536
3,330,791
1,532,361
581,132
1,338,495
732,231
282,067
60,029
1,462,788
1,213,73
399,412
251,183
Land Communications. The Singapore Railway Transfer Ordi-
nance, 1918, enabled the Government of the Federated Malay
States to construct a causeway across Johor Straits and to lay a rail-
way to connect the Singapore line with the Johor and Federated
Malay States systems. The sale of the Singapore Railway and
railway stores involved a sum of $4,149,750. Metalled roads in the
colony at the end of 1919 had a length of 584 m. (Singapore, 96 m. ;
Penang and the Dindings, 86 m.; Province Wellesley, 166 m. ; Ma-
lacca, 231 m. ; Labuan, 5 m.) ; and the Public Works Department had
charge, in addition, of 50 m. of gravelled roads in Malacca, and 93 m.
of " natural " roads in Penang, the Dindings, and Prov. Wellesley.
Education. The centenary of the modern foundation of Singapore
by Sir Stamford Raffles was the occasion of local celebrations in
Feb. 1919, and by way of commemoration it was decided to found
a Raffles College for higher education. Evidence of the general
enthusiasm for this scheme was given by the prompt provision of
subscriptions which ensured its success and enabled plans to be laid
forthwith. The Straits Settlements Government promised a dona-
tion of $1,000,000 and an annual contribution of $50,000: the
Governments of the Federated Malay States and Johor, and many
private individuals, contributed. There have been other signs of a
demand for a more active education policy; it being especially de-
sirable as a counter measure against undesirable propaganda.
The Government maintained in 1919 eight English schools, and
aided 45 English, Anglo-Tamil, Malay, Tamil, and Chinese schools:
it also supported the Malacca Training College for Malay teachers.
The Central Training College in Perak, the erection of which was
started in that year, is intended for Malay teachers not only in the
Federated Malay States but also in the Straits Settlements.
Labuan. Revenue collected in Labuan in 1919 amounted to
$38,308, and expenditure was $81,927. The total value of trade
was $3,748,930 in that year, and $2,763,561 in 1918. Merchant
shipping entered and cleared amounted to 141,686 tons in 1919. The
Labuan Exploration Co. of London undertook a geological survey in
1920 with the view of prospecting for minerals.
Christmas Island. Revenue (1919), $26,155; expenditure, $12,791.
The export of phosphate of lime, which reached 89,889 tons in 1917,
showing a large increase, fell to 53,370 tons in 1918 and amounted to
68,621 tons in 1919. The export was taken in 1919 by Japan (71 %)
and Australia. Shipping entered and cleared amounted to 81,197
tons (61 % Japanese). There is a small export of rubber. The
phosphate company maintained its output during the war, completed
an inclined haulage way, and carried the railway to new quarries at
South Point in 1918-9.
Cocas Islands. A typhoon in 1909 left standing only 3 % out of
over 1,000,000 coco-nut palms, but replanting was completed in
1911, and export of copra was resumed two years later and reached
800 tons in 1918. An exchange cable station of the Eastern Ex-
tension Telegraph Co. and a high-power wireless station are estab-
lished on Direction Island. The German raider " Emden " landed a
party to destroy these on Nov. 9 1914, and was caught and herself
destroyed by the " Sydney " of the Australian navy, running ashore
on North Keeling Island, while her landing-party captured and
escaped in the schooner belonging to the proprietor of the islands.
The governor of the Straits Settlements is high commissioner
for the Malay States, Federated and Non-Federated (see MALAY
STATES), and also for Brunei, and British agent for Sarawai
and British North Borneo. These three divisions, of northern
Borneo are dealt with below.
Brunei (see 4.681). Pop. (1911), 21,718. Revenue (1919),
$162,020; expenditure, $138,844. Imports were valued in 1916 at
$254,756, and $614,061 in 1919; exports at $734,254 in 1916 and
$1,134,864 in 1919, including plantation rubber ($243,596), cutch
($304,249), and coal ($296,621). The demand for sago, wild rubber
(jelutong) and other forest produce, and dried fish, was great, and
purchase prices ceased to be controlled by a group of traders as
previously, which enabled the peasantry to profit to the extent of
balancing the high prices of rice and other foodstuffs. Attempts
were made to increase home production. The rice crop of 1918-9
failed, but the effort was maintained and rewarded in the following
season. Plantation rubber (429,823 Ib.) came mainly from the Brunei
district, which has become the chief centre of the industry, in place
of the Temburpng basin. The cutch industry was suffering from the
former indiscriminate cutting of mangroves in accessible districts
where no replanting had been done, and the production was only
maintained at the expense of heavier labour and transport. The
Brooketon collieries yielded 29,565 tons of coal in 1918 and 26,274
tons in 1919. Attempts to develop a petroleum field at Tutong at
this period were unsuccessful, though it was still expected that
later there would be good results. Plantations and mines were en-
countering a serious shortage of labour, owing to the prosperity of
the native traffic in forest produce, etc., above referred to.
Sarawak (see 24.207). Pop. (estimated 1919), 600,000. Revenue
(1918), $1,921,964; expenditure, $1,455,692. Imports, $9,908,732;
exports, $11,540,190. Gold was exported to the value of $1,256,500
in 1915 and $923,100 in 1918. An extensive oil-field has been de-
veloped in Baram district, and 74,400 tons of oil were exported in
1918. Other principal exports include sago, pepper, and jelutong.
There are four wireless stations, affording communication with
Singapore. Charles Vyner Brooke (b. 1874) succeeded his father,
Sir Charles Johnson Brooke, as rajah on May 17 1917.
British North Borneo (see 4.262). Pop. (i9Ji), 208,183; (esti-
mated 1919), 227,000. The revenue of the British North Borneo
Chartered Company (exclusive of land sales) has shown unbroken
increase since 1910, from 170,767 in that year to 234,804 in 1914
582
STRANG STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
and 373,936 in 1919; expenditure for 1919 amounted to 193,230.
Imports were valued in 1919 at 925,235, and exports at 1,453,990,
including rubber (782,037), tobacco (mostly grown on estates;
230,122), coal (78,706), copra (39,629), cutch (24,651), sago, and
dried fish. The company's railway from Jesselton extends to
Melalap in the interior, and has a branch from Beaufort to Weston,
and a total length of 130 miles. There are four wireless stations. A
Legislative Council was established in 1911 to aid the governor and
civil staff in the local administration: the commercial, planting,
Chinese, and native communities are represented on it. The com-
pany created an opium monopoly department in 1913, following 'the
policy of the Straits Settlements Government. (O. J. R. H.)
STRANG, WILLIAM (1850-1921), British painter-etcher (see
25.982), was in 1918 elected president of the International
Society of Sculptors, Painters and Gravers. In 1909 the degree
of LL.D. was conferred upon him by Glasgow University. His
later work includes the etchings " The Little Flower Girl "
(1909); " Nymph and Shepherds " (1910); " On the Omnibus "
(1911); "The Walls of the Alhambra " (1912) and "The
Mirror" (1912); besides various portraits, including one of
Thomas Hardy (1910). He had only recently been elected a full
R.A. when he died suddenly at Bournemouth, on April 12 1921.
See Catalogue of William Strang's Etched Work, 1882-1912 (1912).
STRATEGY: see TACTICS.
STRATHCONA AND MOUNT ROYAL, DONALD ALEXANDER
SMITH, IST BARON (1820-1914), Canadian statesman (see
25.1000), died in London Jan. 21 1914. His barony passed by
special remainder to his daughter Margaret Charlotte, wife of
Robert Jared Bliss Howard, of Montreal (d. 1921).
STRAUSS, RICHARD (1864- ), German composer (see
25.1003). His opera, Ariadne auf Naxos (1912), was produced
at His Majesty's theatre by Thomas Beecham in May 1913
and the same year Der Rosenkavalier, first produced at Dresden
in 1910, was performed at Covent Garden with great success,
eight performances being given; in point of fact, this proved
to be Strauss's most popular opera. His other recent works in-
clude Festliches Praeludium, for orchestra (1913), and Josephs
Legende (1914). In addition to the works enumerated mention
should be made of Eine Alpensinfonie, (1915, op. 64); and the
three-act opera, Die Frau ohne Schatten, libretto by Hugo von
Hofmannsthal (1916, op. 65). In the winter of 1920-1 Strauss
visited S. America, where he officiated at Buenos Aires as opera
conductor, subsequently returning to Vienna.
STRAVINSKY, IGOR (1882- ), Russian musical composer,
was born at Oranienbaum, near St. Petersburg, June 18 (O.S.
June 5) 1882. His father was an opera singer, who early dis-
covered his son's remarkable musical gifts. At the same time,
however, he wished the boy not to devote himself entirely to
music but to study law, and with this end in view Igor Stravinsky
entered the University of St. Petersburg. At the age of 22,
however, a meeting with Rimsky-Korsakov decided him in the
direction of a musical career, and the former declared himself
ready to take Stravinsky as a pupil. His first work for orches-
tra was a symphony (1907), followed by a suite, Faune el Bergere,
and two short works, also for orchestra, Feu d'artifice and
Scherzo fanlaslique. A meeting with Serge Diaghiliev turned his
attention to the possibilities of the ballet, and in rapid succession
appeared L'Oiseau de feu (1910), Petrouchka (1911), and Le
Sucre du Printemps (1913). His next important work was an
opera, Le Rossignol (1914), founded on Hans Andersen's fairy
story of The Nightingale, of which the second and third acts
were later worked up into a symphonic poem, Le Chant du
Rossignol (1917). The opera was produced at Covent Garden
in 1920, and the same year appeared a revision by Stravinsky
of Pergolesi's Pulcinella.
STREUVELS, STUN, the pen-name of FRANK LATEUR
(1871- ), Flemish author, who was born at Heule, West
Flanders, Oct. 4 1871. He was a nephew of Guido Gezelle
(1830-1899), a celebrated Flemish poet, and until 1905 worked
as a baker at Avelghem, a village near Courtrai in West Flanders.
Writing in the West Flemish dialect, he was accepted in Belgium
and Holland as the most distinguished Low Dutch author of
his day. He produced many short stories, including Openlwcht
(1905) and De Vlaschaard (1908), a collection of which, trans-
No. of
Disputes
No. of Work-
people Directly
and Indirectly
Involved
Aggregate
Duration of
Disputes in
Working Days
1907
60 1
147,000
2,162,000
1908
399
296,000
10,834,000
1909
436
301,000
2,774,000
1910
531
515,000
9,895,000
1911
903
962,000
10,320,000
1912
857
1,463,000
40,915,000
1913
1.497
689,000
11,631,000
1914
999
449,000
10,111,000
1915
707
453.000
3,040,000
1916
578
281,000
2,581,000
1917
803
885,000
5,809,000
1918
1,300
1,142,000
6,332,000
1919
1,413
2,515,000
34,903,000
1920
i,7i5
1,932,000
27,011,000
lated into English by A. Teixeira de Mattos. appeared in 1915
under the title of The Path of Life. In 1912 appeared Het
glorierijke Licht (" The Glorious Light ").
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS (see 25.1024). In the following
account of later developments between 1907 and 1921, strikes
in the United Kingdom are first dealt with, sections following
for other countries.
(A) UNITED KINGDOM
I. Statistics. Table i shows the total number of strikes or
lock-outs recorded in each year from 1907 to 1920, inclusive;
the number of workpeople involved therein, and the aggregate
loss of working days due to these disputes.
Table I.
It will be seen that the figures show a general advancing
tendency, partially checked during the World War. The total
for the year 1920 shows the highest figure ever recorded for
number of disputes, the highest figure (with one exception)
for the number of workpeople involved, and the highest figure
(with three exceptions) for the aggregate duration of disputes.
The exceptions in this latter case are 1893, with 30,468,000 work-
ing days; 1912, with 40,915,000 working days; and 1919, with
34,903,000 working days. In 1893, 1912 and 1920 the high
figures were principally due to great coal strikes; the year 1919
was a year of great industrial unrest.
As showing the general advancing tendency of the figures,
it may be instructive to compare the average of the four years
1907-10 with the average of the four years 1917-20:
Average of
Years 1907-10
Average of
Years 1917-20
No. of Disputes .
No. of Workpeople In-
volved ....
Aggregate Duration (in
Working Days)
492
315,000
6,416,000
1,308
1,633,500
18,511,000
It should be stated that the increase in the number of disputes
may be partly accounted for by improved facilities for obtaining
information with regard to minor disputes, which may have
previously escaped notice; but this will not account for more
than an insignificant part of the increase in the figures for number
of workpeople involved and for aggregate duration, since the
greater disputes, involving large numbers of workpeople, have
always been well reported in the newspapers. Table 2 (p. 583)
shows the distribution of strikes between the principal groups of
trades, taking the averages for the 10 years 1911-20.
Table 2 shows that the average number of workpeople involved
in each dispute was a little over 1,000, and that the average dura-
tion of disputes was about 14 days. The figures, however, vary
widely as between one trade and another. Thus, the average num-
ber of workpeople varies from a little more than 200, in the building
trades, to over 3,000 in the mining and quarrying group; while the
average duration varies from 8 days, in the transport trades, to 27
days in the building trades.
The figure for average numbers involved, and still more that
for the average duration, give an exaggerated idea of what may be
called the " normal " magnitude and duration of a strike. It is the
great strikes, involving many thousands of workpeople, that are
commonly also the hardest fought and the most prolonged. Great
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
583
masses of workers are not mobilized for industrial conflict except
for some object which they regard as of first-class importance; and
it is exceptional for a strike or lock-out of this magnitude to occur
unless all means of reaching a pacific settlement have been exhausted,
and unless both employers and workpeople are organized in strong
combinations, with great financial resources. All these factors tend
to prolong precisely those strikes -in reality a small minority
which involve large numbers of workpeople, and thus exaggerate
enormously the figure for " aggregate duration." For example,
nearly 40% of the aggregate duration of disputes in the building
trades was due to the great dispute in the London building trade in
1914, which lasted for more than six months and accounted for about
2,500,000 working days. In the mining and quarrying industry,
two-thirds of the total aggregate duration of all the disputes was due
to the two great coal strikes of 1912 and of 1920; if these were
eliminated, the average number involved in disputes in this group of
trades would be reduced from over 3,000 to 1,800, and the average
duration from 14 to 8 days. The case is much the same with the
other great groups of trades; and, speaking broadly, it may be said
that the vast majority of recorded disputes involve comparatively
small numbers of workpeople, and last less than a fortnight often
indeed, only a few days.
To put the same thing in another way. The number of disputes
which had an aggregate duration of 25,000 days and upwards
varied, in the period 1904-1:5, from n (in 1904) to 72 (in 1913),
with an average of 32, or 5% of the total number of disputes. Yet
this 5% of disputes accounted for 65% of the number of work-
people involved, and for no less than 86 % of the aggregate duration.
Or again, the number of disputes in which 2,500 workpeople or
upwards were involved varied, in the years 1904-13, from a mini-
mum of 4 (in 1905 and in 1907) to a maximum of 43 (in 1913), with
an average of 18, or less than 3% of the total number of disputes;
but this 3 % of disputes accounted for 67 % of the total number of
workpeople involved, and for 74% of the aggregate duration.
Some trades are far more subject to industrial disturbance than
others; in the building trades the proportion of men who strike or
are locked out rarely reaches I % of the total number employed
in the industry, and in the clothing trades the proportion is not
much higher ; whereas in the coal-mining industry the proportion who
strike or are locked out rarely falls below 5 % and frequently rises
above 20% in a year.
The mean percentages of workpeople involved in disputes for the
years 1904-13 were as follows:
Building trades .... . . 0-7
Coal mining
Other mining and quarrying .
Metal engineering and shipbuilding
Textile trades
Clothing trades ....
Other trades
21-4
2-2
3-3
6-4
1-3
All Trades 4-4
The statistics of causes show, on the whole, remarkable regularity.
Such fluctuations, as there are, are due principally to the prevalence
or otherwise of wage disputes. In years of good or improving trade,
strikes for advances in wages are numerous; in years of bad and
declining trade such strikes become much fewer.
The statistics of results show somewhat less regularity. The
principal features of this part of the table are the diminishing pro-
portion of disputes settled in favour of the employers, and the
Table 2.
Group of Trades
No. of
Disputes
No. of
Workpeople
involved
(Thousands)
Aggregate
Duration in
Working
Days
(Thousands
of Working
Days)
Building
Mining and Quarrying
Metal Engineering and
Shipbuilding .
Textile
Clothing
Transport .
Miscellaneous (inclu-
ding Employees o f
Public A u t h o r i -
ties) . . . .
Average for all above
Trades 1 .
119
164
265
107
58
88
260
25
508
1 80
138
19
ISO
68
652
7,067
2,765
2,H3
258
1,230
968
1,061
i, 088
15,083
'Exclusive of the general strike at Dublin in 1913-4. which
, cannot be classified under any of the separate trade headings. This
strike involved about 20,000 workpeople, and had an aggregate
duration of about 1,900,000 working days.
increasing proportion settled by a compromise. In the first half of
the period the proportion of disputes settled in favour of the work-
people was 24 % on the average ; settled in favour of the employers,
44 % ; and compromised, or partially successful, 32 %. In the second
half of the period the corresponding percentages were 26, 28, and 46.
It should be noted that the second period includes three or four years
of exceptional prosperity, a condition which tends to promote settle-
ments in favour of the workpeople ; and that this was followed by the
period of the war, when prices were constantly rising and industrial
conditions were altogether abnormal.
Table 3 classifies the disputes of the years 1900 to 1920, (a) accord-
ing to their causes, and (b) according to their results :
Table 3.
Proportion of Disputes
arising on questions of
Proportion of Dis-
putes settled
i
3 a
"a
o
IB
1-1
U
a
gS>
lp
1
sj
tn
_O
a,
|
O
"a
"O
I
4-1
1
.*s
g
3
o _
4-J O
69
3
a
1
w
o
5
y
~a
"* 3
a
^n
ot
o
, t |
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g
Q
2
1 1
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u
u
3
a
E
&
H
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>, n
o r".
4_l
3
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'3
O
I
iSI
1
s s
*-
H
e
w-
c
H
Per
Per
Per
Per
Per
Per
Per
Per
Per
Per
cent.
cent.
cent.
cent.
cent.
cent.
cent.
cent.
cent.
cent.
1900
68
i
14
17
IOO
31
34
34
i
IOO
1901
63
4
13
20
IOO
26
44
3
IOO
1902
60
5
13
22
IOO
24
47
28
i
IOO
1903
60
4
14
22
IOO
23
48
29
IOO
1904
65
4
13
18
IOO
17
51
32
IOO
1905
66
4
13
17
IOO
20
47
33
IOO
1906
68
3
II
18
IOO
32
37
31
IOO
1907
64
3
14
19
IOO
32
41
27
IOO
1908
62
3
H
21
IOO
20
44
36
IOO
1909
59
6
H
21
IOO
18
46
36
IOO
1910
57
4
15
24
IOO
25
37
38
IOO
1911
64
3
16
17
IOO
25
32
43
IOO
1912
63
3
17
17
IOO
27
31
42
IOO
1913
66
3
16
15
IOO
29
25
46
IOO
1914
63
3
18
16
IOO
25
33
42
IOO
1915
73
2
12
13
IOO
23
37
40
IOO
1916
76
3
12
9
IOO
22
27
51
IOO
1917
73
i
15
ii
IOO
31
20
48
i
IOO
1918
68
2
17
13
IOO
29
21
48
2
IOO
1919
64
II
15
10
IOO
24
22
54
IOO
1920
69
3
15
13
IOO
24
29
47
IOO
Aver-
ages
65
4
14
17
IOO
25
36
39
IOO
II. Principal Disputes. The year 1908 (in contrast to 1907,
which was entirely free from any disputes on a great scale)
saw three great disputes: (i) a shipbuilding dispute involving
35,000 workpeople, and with an aggregate duration of 1,719,-
ooo working days; (2) an engineering dispute on the N.E.
coast, involving 11,000 workpeople, and with an aggregate du-
ration of 1,706,000 working days; and (3) a dispute in the cot-
ton trade, involving 120,000 workpeople, and with an aggre-
gate duration of 4,830,000 working days.
In each of these three disputes the workpeople struck against
(or were locked out to enforce) a proposal to reduce wages.
This was at one time a common and important cause of disputes;
the great coal strike of 1893, for example, was against a reduction
in wages. During 1910-20 there were few or no disputes of any
importance on this ground; in fact, these three disputes in 1908
were the last important disputes arising out of an attempt to
reduce wages, until the ship-joiners' dispute, which, beginning
in Dec. 1920, was the precursor of a series of strikes or lock-
outs culminating in the coal strike of 1921.
In each of the 'three disputes referred to. above, one or more
of the trade unions concerned was prepared, before the strike
or lock-out occurred, to accept the terms offered by the em-
ployers; but in each case one or more other trade unions resisted
the reduction. Modified terms offered by the employers were
accepted in all three cases.
There were no important disputes in 1909; but in 1910 several
prolonged disputes, involving large numbers took place.
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
Trouble arose in Northumberland and Durham in Jan. 1910,
with regard to the working of. the coal mines under the Eight
Hours Act (the Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1908), which came
into operation, in those two counties, on Jan. i 1910. Agree-
ments had been reached between the two coal owners' associa-
tions and the respective miners' union in Dec. 1909, as to the
working of the mines under the new arrangements; but a large
number of men at the various mines repudiated the agreements,
and refused to go down the pits. About 85,000 workpeople were
involved in Durham, and about 30,000 in Northumberland.
At most of the pits the strike was over by the end of Jan. ; but
a minority of men stood out, and the strike was not finally settled
until April. The aggregate duration of the dispute was about
1,280,000 working days in Durham and about 1,080,000 work-
ing days in Northumberland.
Certain members of the United Society of Boilermakers and
Iron and Steel Shipbuilders stopped work in Aug. 1910, in
breach of an agreement with the Shipbuilding Employers'
Federation, at two shipyards, one on the Tyne and the other
on the Clyde; and the Employers' Federation locked out the
members of the Boilermakers' Society at all the federated
shipyards on Sept. 3. About 25,000 workpeople were directly
or indirectly affected.
A provisional agreement made between representatives of
the parties on Oct. n 1910, was twice rejected by the work-
people on a ballot vote, and it was not until Dec. that a final
agreement supplementing that of March 1009 was reached, and
accepted by the workers. Work was resumed on Dec. 15.
The aggregate loss of time in this dispute was about 2,850,000
working days.
A strike of coal miners and surface workers in the Rhondda
Valley began on Sept. i 1910 and continued for nearly a year,
being settled in Aug. 1911. It arose out of a dispute at one pit
concerning the price list for a particular seam, and was followed
by sympathetic strikes at other pits belonging to the same
employers. An agreement was finally reached on the price list,
and on a guarantee of an average wage. About 12,800 men and
boys were involved at the beginning of the strike.
The years 191 1-2-3 were years of violent, and almost continuous
industrial unrest. Among the most important disputes of these
years were those described below.
A series of seamen's and transport workers' strikes began in
June 1911. The original occasion of the first dispute was a
demand put forward by the National Sailors' and Firemen's
Union for the formation of a conciliation board, consisting of
representatives of the Union and of the Shipping Federation,
to consider a programme of reforms desired by the Union. The
Federation refused to discuss the demands, and the seamen and
firemen came out on strike at various dates in June 1911, many
of the principal ports being affected. (London was not affected
till a little later.) Strikes of dock labourers, carters, tramway-
men, and other transport workers occurred at some of these
ports, partly in sympathy with the seamen, and partly in
support of demands of their own for improved working conditions.
Serious disorder occurred at Hull, Manchester and Salford.
Settlements were reached at various dates in July and Aug.
affecting seamen and dockers at Hull and Goole; seamen and
carters at Manchester; dock labourers and tramwaymen at
Liverpool; and seamen and transport and other workers at
Cardiff. There were also a large number of sectional settlements
in the London dock, shipping, and transport trades.
The railway dispute of 1911 began with a strike of 1,000
railwaymen (goods porters, etc.) at Liverpool on Aug. 5, the
men alleging their inability to get their grievances dealt with
by the conciliation boards set up under the scheme of 1907.
They were joined by railwaymen at Manchester and at many
other centres. On Aug. 15 the executives of four of the rail-
waymen's trade unions sent to the various railway companies
a resolution, stating that they were being pressed by their
members to declare a strike, and giving the companies 24 hours
to decide whether they would immediately meet representatives
of the workers to discuss their grievances. The Government
got into touch with representatives of the companies and of
the trade unions on Aug. 16; and on the following day the Prime
Minister announced that the Government was prepared to
appoint immediately a Royal Commission, to investigate the
working of the Railway Conciliation Agreement, and to report
what amendments, if any, were desirable in the scheme. This
announcement did not prevent a strike; but a provisional settle-
ment was reached on Aug. 19, and work was generally resumed
on Aug. 21 (except on one railway, where it was resumed on
Aug. 23). The Royal Commission began its sittings on Aug.
23, and reported on Oct. 18. The trade unions, however,
refused to accept the Commission's recommendations without
various modifications; the railway companies, on their side,
took the line that both sides were bound by the findings of the
Commission. On Nov. 22 the House of Commons debated
the question, and passed a resolution to the effect that the
parties should be invited to meet with the view of discussing
the best mode of giving effect to the report of the Royal Com-
mission. The Board of Trade signified to the parties their
readiness to call a fresh conference " on the understanding that
the findings of the Royal Commission were accepted in principle
and in substance." The parties accepted these conditions,
and a conference was held, at which an agreement was reached,
the recommendations of the Royal Commission being accepted
with certain alterations and additions. The effect of the new
agreement was to expedite the settlement by the conciliation
boards of matters in dispute, to secure greater uniformity in
the decisions of the conciliation boards, and to give such de-
cisions greater finality than they had previously possessed.
The Cotton Weavers' Association of N. and N.E. Lancashire
engaged in an active campaign in this year (1911) against the
employment of non-unionists. The employers replied by a
general lock-out, which began on Dec. 28, about 160,000 work-
people being involved. This is exclusive of the workpeople
in the spinning section of the trade, who were put on short time,
or thrown out of work, owing to the stoppage of the principal
outlet for their production. The chief industrial commissioner
(Sir George Askwith) invited the parties to a conference, which
was duly held; and an agreement was reached on Jan. 19 1912.
Work was to be resumed on Jan. 22, under the old conditions
of employment, on the understanding that no action should be
taken for six months in the way of tendering notices or striking
mills on the non-unionist question. It was also agreed that,
at the end of that period, Sir George Askwith would, if requested,
submit proposals for the settlement of the question.
The great coal strike of 1912 involved an aggregate loss of
working time of over 30,000,000 working days in the coal mines
alone. There was also, of course, much consequential un-
employment and under-employment in other industries. The
percentage unemployed among members of trade unions rose to
11.3% at the end of March 1912; while blast furnaces, steel
sheet works, and the glass bottle industry, were brought almost
to a standstill, and tinplate mills working were reduced to
about 14% of the normal number.
The strike arose out of a demand by the Miners' Federation
for the payment of a minimum wage for every man and boy
working underground in the mines. A conference between repre-
sentatives of the coal-owners and of the miners had discussed
the question of the earnings of miners in " abnormal " places
(i.e. in working places where, owing to the thinness of the seams,
or other causes beyond their control, the hewers were unable to
earn the recognized minimum or average rate for the district),
and a considerable measure of agreement had been reached ; but
at the annual conference of the Miners' Federation at Southport
on Oct. 6 1911, it was decided " to take immediate steps to secure
an individual district minimum wage for all men and boys work-
ing in mines in the area of the Federation, without any reference
to the working places being abnormal."
A ballot of the members of the Federation was taken on the
question of handing in notices to establish the principle of an
individual minimum wage, as expressed in the resolution quoted
above. There was a large majority (445,801 to 115,721) in favour
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
585
of giving notice; and notices were accordingly handed in, to
terminate at the end of Feb.
At a subsequent meeting the Miners' Federation fixed the
minimum rates they were prepared to accept in each district for
piece workers " at the face " (i.e. hewers, etc.) ; and also added
the following general instructions to their representatives, for
their guidance in any negotiations that might ensue with the
mine owners:
" No underground adult worker should receive a rate of wages less
than 53. per shift." (This did not apply to the Forest of Dean, or to
Bristol and Somerset.) " Individual minimum wages for all piece
workers other than colliers to be arranged by the districts them-
selves, and to be as near as possible present wages."
Day rates for underground workers, and boys' wages, were also
to be left to local arrangement; the boys' wages not to be less than
the then existing wages, and not in any case less than 2S. a day.
Unsuccessful negotiations took place between the coal owners
and the men; and on Feb. 20 Mr. Asquith, who was at that time
Prime Minister, intervened, and invited both parties to meet
him and other members of the Government, separately, in con-
ference on Feb. 22. From that date onward till March 15 the
Prime Minister kept in constant touch with the parties, who
finally met, in joint session, with representatives of the Govern-
ment, on March 12, 13 and 14. On March 15, the Prime Minister
announced that the Government had decided to ask from Parlia-
ment " a legislative declaration that a reasonable minimum wage,
accompanied by adequate safeguards for the protection of the
employer, should be a statutory term of the contract of employ-
ment of people who are engaged underground in coal mining."
In accordance with this announcement the Prime Minister
introduced a bill in the House of Commons on March 19 1912,
which received the Royal Assent on March 29, as the " Coal
Mines (Minimum Wage) Act, 1912." The Act provided for the
setting up of a joint district board in each of 22 districts specified
in a schedule to the Act, to determine the minimum rates of
wages for workmen employed underground in coal mines. On
March 27 the coal owners met and adopted a resolution in favour
of working the Act; and on the same day the men's Federation
decided to take a ballot of the members on the question of resum-
ing work, pending the settlement of minimum rates by the dis-
trict boards. The ballot showed a majority (244,011 to 201,013)
against resumption; but, at a national conference held on April 6,
it was decided to terminate the strike.
A great strike of dock and other transport workers in the Port of
London and on the Medway began on May 21 1912, and lasted
over two months. The immediate occasion of the dispute was the
refusal of a workman who belonged to the Amalgamated Society
of Foremen Lightermen to join the Amalgamated Society of
Watermen, Lightermen, and Bargemen; the latter society is
affiliated to the National Transport Workers' Federation, but
the former is not. The employers refused to interfere, and be-
tween 5,000 and 6,000 lightermen left work on May 21, followed
later by a number of dock workers, who ceased work in sympathy.
The underlying cause of the dispute, however, was dissatis-
faction with the carrying out of the various agreements that had
been arrived at in settlement of the disputes in the previous year
(see above). The Government ordered an enquiry to be held by
Sir Edward Clarke, K.C. ; and the alleged grievances of the work-
men were found to come under seven heads, including:
Employment of non-union men, in alleged breach of an agree-
ment, by two of the employers' associations.
Refusal of an employers' association to meet the trade union to
discuss rates of wages and conditions of labour.
Refusal of certain employers to pay rates of wages fixed by various
rds or agreements. Alleged interference with union workmen.
The board of trade invited representatives of the employers
id of the workers to a conference, to discuss Sir E. Clarke's
port. The men accepted, but the employers declined to be
present, and stated that they could not accept Sir E. Clarke's
report as an award on the points dealt with by him. They were
unable to adopt certain suggestions made by the Board of Trade
for the formation of a federation of employers; and refused,
" under any circumstances, to any recognition of the Union of
Transport Workers' Federation ticket, or any discussion for such
recognition." Following upon debates in the House of Commons,
and upon further conferences with the parties, the Government
put forward various proposals on June 7; these were accepted
(in substance) by the men, but refused by the employers. The
Transport Workers' Federation thereupon declared a national
strike of transport workers. Certain of the unions affiliated to
the Federation took a ballot of their members as to the advisa-
bility of ceasing work, the result being in each case a majority
against a strike; and only about 20,000 men, at Manchester and
some of the minor ports, came out on strike. These all returned
unconditionally after a few days' stoppage.
The places of the men on strike in London had by this time
begun to be filled up by non-unionists; and the employers took
a very determined attitude, refusing to agree to any conditions
precedent to the men returning to work. Further negotiations
were fruitless, and on July 27 the men's strike committee recom-
mended an immediate resumption of work. By July 31 the re-
turn to work was fairly general; and by Monday, Aug. 6, prac-
tically all the men who could find work were reinstated. About
100,000 workpeople were involved in the dispute, and the
aggregate duration was about 2,700,000 working days.
A strike of tube and other metal workers in Birmingham, Wol-
verhampton, Wednesbury, and other towns in the " Black Coun-
try," began on April 25 1913, and continued until the middle of
July. As many as 50,000 workpeople were involved at the
height of the dispute, and the aggregate duration was about
1,400,000 working days. The majority of the strikers were
labourers or semi-skilled workers; but a large number of skilled
men were thrown idle owing to the absence of the labourers. The
men demanded an all-round advance of 2s. a week on day-rates,
and 10% on piece-rates, with a standard minimum of 233. a week
for unskilled men; and various rates, on a scale rising with. each
year of age, for youths and for girls. The parties were brought
together through the intervention of the chief industrial com-
missioner; and an agreement was signed on July 7, fixing the
standard rate for adult able-bodied unskilled labourers at 233.
in the Birmingham district, and at 223. in the Black Country-
district, to be raised to 235. after six months. The rates for
youths and for girls were also fixed, on a scale rising by ages.
Piece-work rates were to be fixed by agreement between the
several employers and their workmen, the day-rate, however,
being guaranteed irrespective of piece-work earnings.
The Dublin dispute of 1913-4 was unique in British industrial
history, in that it was the only dispute of importance, at least
since regular records have been compiled, in which all the trades
of a whole city and district were involved, including even agri-
culture. It was, in fact, the nearest approach to a " general "
strike that had ever been known. Ever since the year 1908 there
had been much industrial unrest in Dublin, frequently taking
the form of the sympathetic strike. The " sympathetic " strike,
in this developed and organized form, is a species of boycott,
aiming at the complete dislocation of the trade of the firm or
firms attacked; the withdrawal of their own employees is sup-
plemented and reinforced by the refusal of the employees of
other firms to handle their goods. The immediate occasion of
the strike was an announcement by the Dublin Tramway Co. of
the temporary closing of their parcels department, and of their
intention, when that department was reopened, not to allow their
employees in that department to belong to the Irish Transport
and General Workers' Union, which had been active in the
policy of the sympathetic strike. A number of tramwaymen
struck work on Aug. 26, demanding the reinstatement of the
locked-out workpeople in the parcels department; they also put
in claims for increased wages, shorter hours, and other conces-
sions. Following this came strikes (or lock-outs) of employees of
flour millers, coach builders, biscuit manufacturers, coal mer-
chants, steamship companies, master carriers, master builders,
timber importers, cement and brick merchants, and farmers in
the County Dublin; besides a large number of independent
firms, in a wide variety of trades. At a meeting on Sept. 3, 400
employers inJtiublin passed a resolution to the effect that " the
5 86
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
position created by the Irish Transport and General Workers'
Union (a union in name only) was a menace to all trade organi-
zations, and had become intolerable "; and pledging themselves
not to employ members of that Union, or any persons refusing
to carry out his employer's lawful and reasonable instructions. A
large number of employers endeavoured to require their work-
people to sign an undertaking in the following terms:
" I hereby undertake to carry out all instructions given to me by
or on behalf of my employers, and, further, I agree to immediately
resign my membership of the Irish Transport and General Workers'
Union (if a member), and I further undertake that I will not join or
in any way support this Union."
On Sept. 26 it was announced that a Court of Enquiry had
been appointed, consisting of Sir George Askwith, Sir Thomas
Ratcliffe Ellis, and Mr. J. R. Clynes, to inquire into the dispute,
and to take such steps as might seem desirable with the view of
arriving at a settlement. The Court of Enquiry heard evidence
at Dublin on Sept. 29 and on Oct. 1-4, and issued their report on
Oct. 6. The report (i) regretted that no steps had been taken to
set up Conciliation Boards, as had been several times suggested;
(2) reported that there were indications that substantial griev-
ances existed in the various industries; (3) condemned the policy
of the sympathetic strike; " no community," it declared, "could
exist if resort to the sympathetic strike became the general policy
of Trade Unionism "; and (4) condemned the undertaking which
the employers had endeavoured to impose on the workpeople, as
contrary to individual liberty, and such as no workman or body
of workmen could reasonably be expected to accept. The report
also made proposals for the settlement of the dispute, based on
the establishment of a series of conciliation committees. These
proposals were accepted by the workers but rejected by the em-
ployers, who declared that they could not recognize the Irish
Transport and General Workers' Union, until it was reorganized
on proper lines, with new officials approved by the British
Joint Labour Board.
Various other efforts were made to settle the dispute, notably
by the Joint Board (the " British Joint Labour Board," already
referred to). This was a composite body representing the par-
liamentary committee pf the Trades Union Congress, the Exec-
utive Committee of the General Federation of Trade Unions,
and the Executive of the Labour party. These overtures came
very near to success, the parties being brought together in joint
conference; but the negotiations broke down, on Dec. 20 1913,
on the question of reinstatement. All this time the employers
had been gradually replacing the men on strike or locked out;
and a few of the men who had struck (or been locked out) had
returned to work. During Jan. and the early part of Feb., the
majority of the remaining strikers whose places were still open
returned to work, most of them agreeing to handle all goods and
to obey orders. In some cases the men also undertook not to
belong to the Transport Union.
The principal dispute of 1914 was in the London building trade.
Numerous strikes had occurred against the employment of non-
unionists, although most of the trade unions were bound by
agreements which contained (inter alia) a stipulation that there
should be no discrimination between union and non-union labour.
At a conference with eight of these trade unions, held on Dec. 23
1913, the employers put forward certain proposals for enforcing
these agreements by means of penalties; these proposals were
rejected by the trade unions, and on Jan. 7 1914, the London
Master Builders' association gave notice that they regarded the
working-rule agreements as no longer in force. The employers
next endeavoured to impose on the workpeople an individual
undertaking to work peacefully with non-unionists, on pain of a
penalty of twenty shillings. Most of the men refused to sign the
undertaking, and the strike began on Jan. .26 1914. Various
efforts were made to settle the dispute; but proposals which had
been agreed to by the men's representatives were twice rejected
by the trade unions on a ballot vote. One of the smaller unions,
however, accepted the terms at the second vote, and came to a
sectional agreement; and sectional agreements were afterwards
made with two other trades. At this point the National Federa-
tion of Building Trade Employers resolved on a : 4ock-out of all
their employees throughout the country, if the dispute were not
settled by Aug. 15. Before the threat could be carried out, how-
ever, the World War had begun; and a settlement was hastily
reached, on the basis of the acceptance by the men of the terms
last offered by the employers, with certain modifications. The
chief points in the settlement were:
_ Employers to be at liberty to employ any man, but unions to have
right of appeal against any operative who has made himself specially
objectionable to his fellows. Ticket inspection granted, but not
during working hours. National executives of unions to guarantee
observance of rules. Six months' notice to be given for termina-
tion or modification of rules.
There was a strike of coal miners in Yorkshire, lasting from the
middle of Feb. to nearly the end of April 1914, in which about
150,000 workpeople were at one time involved. The employers
at certain collieries had refused to add the usual percentages to
the newly established district minimum rates; and it was finally
decided that a lower minimum should be fixed for certain collier-
ies, and the percentages above standard calculated on these
reduced minima.
The outbreak of the World War brought all the important cur-
rent disputes to an end; and, though there were a large number
of disputes in the remaining months of 1914, and indeed during
the whole period of the war, most of them were quite unimpor-
tant, and were brought to a very speedy conclusion. After the
passing of the first Munitions Act in 1915 many of these strikes
were illegal; and, even when they were not illegal, they were
sometimes unauthorized by the central executives of the respec-
tive trade unions. The fact that the dispute was illegal or unau-
thorized; the swift intervention of the Government, armed with
emergency powers; and perhaps more important than all
these the severe reprobation of strikes by public opinion, tended
to restrict their scope and above all to shorten their duration.
Hence the aggregate duration even of some of the disputes that
excited most public feeling, such as the Clyde Engineering dispute
of Feb. and March 1915 (about 110,000 working days) was quite
trivial by comparison with the great disputes before the war.
On Feb. 4 1915, the Government appointed Sir George Askwith,
Sir Francis Hepwood, and Sir George Gibb, as a " Committee on
Production in Engineering and Shipbuilding Establishments,"
to enquire and report as to the best means of insuring that the
productive power of the employees in engineering and shipbuild-
ing establishments for Government purposes should be made
fully available. The Committee recommended (inter alia) that
industrial disputes should never be allowed to result in a stoppage
of work; and that disputes which could not be settled by the
ordinary means should be referred to an impartial tribunal for
immediate investigation and report with a view to a settlement.
The Government accepted the recommendation, and appointed
the Committee on Production as the tribunal indicated.
Hence in 1915, though there were over 700 disputes, there was
only one with an aggregate duration of over a million days, a coal
strike in South Wales, arising out of a deadlock over a wages
agreement.
There was also only one large dispute in 1916, a strike of 30,000
jute workers at Dundee, which lasted from March 24 to June 8.
The workpeople claimed an advance of 15% on piece-rates of
wages, but ultimately returned to work on the old terms. This
year was particularly free from disputes in the coal industry,
which is generally the most affected by disputes.
Several unauthorized strikes, on a fairly large scale, occurred
in the engineering trades in 1917. These excited a great deal of
public attention, both because of the vital importance of main-
tenance of the fullest possible engineering output during the
war, and also because the strikes were openly outbreaks of revolt,
not only against the restrictions imposed on industrial freedom
by various statutes and regulations, but also (what was felt to be
even more serious) against the authority of the trade union
executives. Measured, however, by the test of aggregate dura-
tion, only one of these disputes the engineering strike of May
1917 was of very serious importance; and, as all the disputes
had many features in common, it will suffice here to give an
account of the dispute in May and of another in November.
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
587
In Nov. 1916 the Government had introduced a system of
" trade cards," under which certain trade unions, including the
Amalgamated Society of Engineers, were permitted to issue
cards to their own members, conferring (under specified condi-
tions) protection from military service. The system was obvious-
ly open to abuse, and the Government decided to abolish it.
Simultaneously they had before Parliament a new munitions
bill, which, as originally drafted, proposed (inter alia) to make
provision for " dilution " (i.e. the partial utilization of unskilled
or semi-skilled labour on work hitherto confined exclusively to
skilled men) on commercial engineering work. Previously
" dilution " had been confined to Government work.
The immediate occasion of the strike was a trivial dispute at
an engineering works at Rochdale, the owners of which had
committed a technical offence against the Munitions Acts. They
were prosecuted and fined; but the result of the prosecution was
not known until after the strike had begun.
On April 29 1917 the honorary secretary of an unofficial body
called " the Manchester Joint Engineering Shop Stewards' Com-
mittee " sent out a letter calling upon engineers to come out on
strike at the close of work on the following day against (i) dilu-
tion on private and commercial engineering work, (2) the with-
drawal of the trade cards, and (3) the new munitions bill. Most
of the engineering employees in Lancashire (which is the chief
centre of the textile engineering trade) came out; and also in Shef-
field, Derby, Southampton, and finally London. On the other
hand, Glasgow, Newcastle, Cardiff, Birmingham, and Leeds,
which were mainly " munition " centres, and not likely to be
affected by the new policy, remained at work.
The unofficial committee who had taken charge of the strike
denounced the official executives of the trade unions in violent
terms. The executives, on their side, denounced the strike, and
came to an agreement with the Government for the abolition of
the trade card system. The Government supported the execu-
tives, declared their determination not to recognize the rebellious
shop stewards, and finally arrested eight of these. Ultimately,
however, the Government was obliged to receive the shop stew-
ards' leaders; but under the guise of " the unofficial strike com-
mittee," and accompanied by the Executive Council of the
Amalgamated Society of Engineers (the principal trade union con-
cerned). A settlement was immediately arrived at, the unofficial
committee agreeing to go back to their districts and get the men
back to work, and leaving the negotiations in the hands of the
Executive Council of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers.
The trade card system was abolished; but later in the year the
minister of Munitions announced the withdrawal of the clauses
in the Munitions Bill which would have permitted dilution on
private work.
The Coventry strike was also a " shop stewards " strike,
Coventry being one of the centres of the Shop Stewards move-
ment. Unrest in this town was increased by the housing condi-
tions, which were very bad, owing to the influx of munition
workers and the consequent excessive overcrowding. On Nov.
19, the toolmakers and toolsetters at one of the engineering works
in Coventry adopted a " stay-in " strike, as a protest against
their inadequate rates of pay (in comparison with the unskilled
men whom they had to instruct), and also in support of their
demand for the recognition of the shop stewards. Next day the
shop stewards went in a body to interview the head of the firm;
he was ready to meet them, " and not ask who they were," but
this was not enough for them; they demanded to be received as
shop stewards. The employer refused, and the shop stewards
called out all the workpeople. The whole of the engineering
firms at Coventry were stopped within a few days, when it was
estimated that 50,000 workpeople (men and women) were out.
The strike was settled on Dec. 2 1917, by four members of the
Government, who interviewed representatives of the employers
and of the workpeople, the latter including some shop stewards.
The negotiations which followed led up to an agreement between
the Engineering Employers' Federation and the trade unions
which for the first time recognized shop stewards, if duly elected
and officially endorsed and controlled by their trade unions.
Apart from the engineering and munition trades the most
important dispute of 1917 was a strike of colliery examiners (over-
men, firemen, and shot-firers) in South Wales for the recognition
of their trade union; the other underground and surface workers,
to the number of nearly 128,000, were thrown idle by the strike.
After a stoppage of three days the Colliery Examiners' Trade
Union was recognized, and the employers agreed to set up a
joint board to decide questions relating to firemen and shot-firers.
Industrial disputes were very numerous in 1918, but the great
majority involved small numbers and were of short duration.
Nearly all the considerable disputes occurred in the second half
of the year; the extreme seriousness of the military situation in
the first half of the year exercised a restraining influence suffi-
cient to prevent many large movements. The only strike of any
magnitude in this period was one among coal miners in the em-
ployment of a " combine " in S. Wales, who sought for recog-
nition of a committee of their own, confined to workers in the
pits of the combine.
An engineering and munition strike occurred at Coventry and
Birmingham in July 1918, against the introduction of what was
known as the " embargo." This was a prohibition by the Govern-
ment of the engagement of any additional skilled men by certain
firms. The prohibition applied only to a very small number of
firms, but this fact was not known to the workers; indeed the
existence of the embargo at all was not generally known until a
notice (in misleading terms) was issued by one of the firms affected.
The strike was brought to an end, after a week's stoppage, by the
Government announcing that men absent from work on July 29
would have their protection certificates withdrawn.
Two strikes in the cotton trade occurred in this year, one in
Sept. and the other in December. The first arose from a demand
of the cotton spinners and piecers for unemployment pay for
time lost owing to the restrictions on the working of the mills
imposed by the Cotton Control Board to meet the shortage of
raw material. They returned to work after a week's stoppage on
the promise of an enquiry by an independent tribunal, to be
appointed by the Government. The second strike was in support
of a demand by the cotton spinners and piecers, and the card-
room workers, for an advance of 40% on the current rates of
wages (i.e. on the list prices, plus all the percentage additions
already made thereto). They returned after nine days' stoppage,
having obtained an advance of 50% on the standard piece-price
list of wages, equivalent to about 30% on the current rates.
In this year there was also a long dispute (lasting 47 working
days) between a cooperative society and the Amalgamated Union
of Cooperative Employees. This union seeks to organize all
classes of employees of cooperative societies, whether distributive
or productive, without regard to occupation, or " craft." The
cooperative society, however, demanded that its employees in
printing works should belong to one or other of the " craft "
unions, and not to the Amalgamated Union of Cooperative Em-
ployees. The matter was ultimately referred to arbitration, and
decided in favour of the society.
The years 1919 and 1920 were years of great industrial unrest
in a variety of trades. The hours of labour in the engineering and
shipbuilding trades were reduced, as from Jan. i 1919, from 53
or 54 to 47 per week; but many of the workers were dissatisfied,
some desiring a reduction to 44 or even 40 hours, while others
were aggrieved because the rates paid to piece workers and to
" lieu " workers were not increased to compensate for the reduc-
tion of hours. (Time workers received the same rate of pay for
the reduced hours as for the hours previously worked.) Work-
people, to the number of 1 50,000 in all, came out on strike in Jan.
at various centres, and remained out for periods ranging from
one to eight weeks. Some returned to work unconditionally;
others agreed to return on the promise of a national settlement.
There was much unrest in the coal mining industry. One hun-
dred and fifty thousand miners were on strike in Yorkshire in
Jan. 1919, in support of a demand for a simultaneous stoppage of
20 minutes per shift for meals for surface workers; most of these
were out for one or two days only. The demand was granted, for
the period of Government control. The same men were on strikt
588
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
again in July and Aug., for an advance of 14-3% in piece-rates
to compensate for the reduction in hours from eight to seven per
day; after a stoppage of from 25 to 29 days they accepted the
national settlement, which gave an advance of 12-2%. In
March 100,000 miners in South Wales, the Midlands, and York-
shire were on strike, and another 75,000 miners in Nottingham-
shire, Derbyshire, Lancashire, and other districts were on strike
in July, over the question of the miners' demands for increased
wages, a reduction of hours, and the nationalization of the mines.
There was a great strike in the cotton trade, for a reduction of
hours and 30% advance in wages, in June and July 1919, both the
spinning and the weaving sections being affected. The advance
was granted, and the hours were reduced from 535 to 48 hours
per week (instead of 465, as asked).
The greatest railway strike that had ever occurred in England
began at midnight on Sept. 26 1919. An agreement had been
made between the Government, the Railway Executive Commit-
tee (representing the companies), and the trade unions in March
1919, providing, inter alia, for the determination by negotiation
of new standard rates of pay for the various grades. Standard
rates were agreed upon, in Aug., for drivers and motormen, fire-
men and assistant motormen, and engine cleaners; and in Sept.
the Board of Trade forwarded to the National Union of Railway-
men their proposals for the standard rates of other grades, show-
ing an average advance of 100% on pre-war rates, with a mini-
mum of 2 a week. The Union rejected these proposals, claim-
ing that the new rate should be based on the highest standard
rate already existing for each grade, plus 335. war wage, with a
minimum of 3 a week. Failing a favourable reply by Sept. 25,
they announced an immediate strike. Negotiations continued,
and fresh proposals were made by the Government; but the
Union did not feel justified in postponing the strike, which accord-
ingly began, as stated, at midnight on Sept. 26. The Associated
Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen, although not
directly concerned in the dispute, supported the National Union
of Railwaymen, and its members also ceased work.
On Oct. i a conference, arranged by the National Transport
Workers' Federation (to which the railwaymen are affiliated),
was attended by representatives of the Trades Union Congress
Parliamentary committee, of the Labour party, and of a number
of other trades besides railways. A mediating committee was
appointed, and negotiations were resumed between the Govern-
ment, the mediating committee, and the National Union of
Railwaymen. A settlement was reached on Oct. 5, and work was
resumed on the following morning.
The settlement provided for the resumption of negotiations,
with the understanding that they should be completed by Dec.
31 1919; and for the stabilization of wages at their then existing
level up to Sept. 30 1920 (subject to review at any time after
Aug. i 1920). It was also provided that " no adult railwayman
in Great Britain shall receive less than 513. so long as the cost of
living is not less than 110% above pre-war level."
A strike of ironmoidders, core-makers, and iron and steel dressers
began on Sept. 22 1919, and lasted until Jan. 12 1920. About
65,000 men were involved in the immediate dispute; but the
shortage of castings consequent on the dispute greatly hindered
the working of the engineering industry for many months.
The demands of the men were for an advance in wages of 1 55.
a week for journeymen and 73. 6d. a week for apprentices. At the
settlement on Jan. 12 they accepted an advance of 55. for men
over 1 8 years of age, the same as had been granted to men in the
engineering trades in the previous November. It was also agreed
that negotiations should be resumed on the questions of: (i) the
general working conditions in foundries; (2) questions arising out
of the introduction of the 47-hour week; (3) minimum standard
rates for the various districts; and (4) the jurisdiction of the
unions over apprentices, and the wages of apprentices.
A strike of all classes of workpeople in the furnishing trades
began in the Manchester district and N. E. Lancashire on June
27 1919, in support of a demand for an advance in wages, a work-
ing week of 44 hours, and other concessions. On July 26 a lock-
out was declared at High Wycombe, Birmingham, Nottingham,
Bristol and other centres, to enforce the termination of the dis-
pute. At most of the centres involved in the lock-out settlements
were reached by the end of Oct., advances in wages being granted;
in some cases provision was made for the discussion of proposals
to introduce sectional work, piece-work, or female labour, where
not formerly in operation. The original dispute was also settled
at the end of Oct., various advances being granted. At High Wy-
combe, where the largest number of workpeople was involved,
the lock-out was not brought to a close until nearly the end of
Nov. ; here also advances in wages, varying according to sex and
standing and the class of work done, were granted.
The year 1920 was remarkable for one dispute, the national
coal strike of Oct. and Nov., the aggregate duration of which was
second only to those of the two previous great coal strikes in 1893,
and in 1912; and for an unprecedented number of smaller dis-
putes, in a great variety of trades, many of which would have
ranked as " great " disputes in a normal year. There were also
many minor disputes in the building and in the textile trades.
The coal strike began out of a demand put forward by the Min-
ers' Federation of Great Britain (i) for a flat-rate advance in
wages of 2s. a shift for all persons of the age of 18 years or over,
with corresponding advances for those under that age; and (2)
for a reduction of 145. 2d. a ton in the price of domestic coal.
These demands were presented to the Controller of Coal Mines
on July 15, and refused by the Government on July 26. A ballot
of the Federation showed a great majority (606,782 to 238,865)
in favour of a strike in support of these demands; and strike
notices were handed in, in every district, to expire on Sept. 25.
Negotiations between the Government and the miners con-
tinued, in the course of which the miners dropped their demand
for a reduction in the price of domestic coal. The Government,
after making various alternative proposals which were not accept-
able to the miners, concentrated on the policy of making any
advance that might be granted bear some relation to increased
output. The miners, however, still pressed for an immediate
unconditional advance of 2s. The strike notices were twice
postponed, at first for a week and then for another fortnight, in
order to allow the negotiations to continue. At this stage the
mine-owners were called into conference; and meetings between
representatives of the miners and of the mine-owners took place
almost daily from Sept. 25 to Oct. 2, inclusive.
During the first fortnight of Oct. a second ballot of the miners
took place on certain proposals which had been formulated by
the mine-owners at these conferences. These were to the effect
that if, during the first fortnight of Oct. there were indications
that the output of coal was at the rate of 240,000,000 tons per
annum, an advance of is. a shift should be conceded as from
Oct. i, with an additional 6d. for each 4,000,000 tons, up to 33. at
265,000,000 tons. The wages for the remainder of the year
would be similarly regulated, and the whole scheme would come
up for review at the end of December. The owners also pledged
themselves to cooperate with the men in measures for increasing
output. These proposals were rejected by the men, on a ballot
vote, by a still larger majority (635,098 to 181,428); and work
at the mines ceased on Oct. 16, except that certain men were
allowed to continue at work for keeping the mines in order.
The strike was debated in the House of Commons on Oct. 19;
and tentative suggestions for a settlement were made by Mr.
Brace (at that time a member of the executive of the South
Wales Miners' Federation), and by other members. Informal
conversations, and then formal negotiations, followed between
the Government and the miners' representatives, to which at a
later stage the mine-owners also were called in; and an agreement
was reached on Oct. 28 which the miners' representatives under-
took to submit to their members, with a recommendation of
acceptance " as a temporary measure." The agreement pledged
the miners and the mine-owners to cooperate with the view of
increasing output; also to prepare a scheme for the future regula-
tion of wages, " having regard, among other considerations, to
the profits of the industry, and to the principles upon which any
surplus profits are to be dealt with." Pending the preparation of
this scheme an immediate advance of 23. a shift was to be granted
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
589
to persons of 18 years of age and over, with corresponding ad-
vances to persons under that age; and from Jan. 3 1921, until the
new scheme was ready, the advance would be automatically
adjusted, at monthly intervals, in accordance with the surplus
output in excess of 219,000,000 tons a year. The ballot upon
these terms showed a small majority against acceptance (346,504
to 338,045), on a reduced total vote;- but at the miners' delegate
conference at which the result was announced it was decided that
work should be resumed on Nov. 4, or as soon after as possible,
in view of the rule of the Miners' Federation which requires a
two-thirds majority for the continuance of a strike.
A strike in the building trade of Scotland occurred in May,
June, and July 1920. During the war wages in the Scottish
building trade had been regulated by awards given every four
months, as in the engineering and shipbuilding trades. A claim
for an advance of 6d. an hour, as from April i 1920, came before
the. Industrial Court in March under this agreement, and was
refused. The joiners in the west of Scotland, influenced by the
high rate of wages given to joiners in the shipyards, had with-
drawn from the National Agreement, and claimed the advance
of 6d. independently of the other building trades operatives; and,
when this award was given, they came out on strike, to the
number of about ten thousand. Negotiations with the employers
ensued; and at the beginning of July about a third of the opera-
tive joiners had obtained their demand for a rate of 25. 6d. an
hour. Bricklayers and masons and their labourers had also
obtained an advance in the west of Scotland; but at Edinburgh
and Dundee, and in Ayrshire, they were out on strike. As delay
to housing schemes was feared through the strike, further con-
ferences were held under the chairmanship of an officer of the
Ministry of Labour; and an agreement was reached on July 8
giving all classes of operatives an advance for the period from
July 9 to Nov. 30. The parties also agreed to meet again, to
consider a scheme for levelling up rates between sections, and
for the grading of districts.
Shipyards joiners and carpenters came out on strike on Dec. i
1920, against a proposed reduction in wages of 123. a week.
(This was the first strike, on a considerable scale, against a reduc-
tion of wages since those of 1908, mentioned above.) The em-
ployers alleged that the ship-joiners had received a special addi-
tional bonus during the preceding time of pressure in the ship-
yards, over and above that given to other shipyard workers,
because it would have been impossible otherwise to obtain the
necessary labour, in view of the intense competition from the
building trades; and that the exceptional circumstances which
had justified the advance had now come to an end. The num-
ber involved at the end of Dec. was about ten thousand.
A strike of piano workers in London, to the number of about
6,500, began on April 10 and lasted for three months. The em-
ployers sought to introduce a system of payment by results,
which was objected to by the workers. Work was resumed on
the systems of payment existing in each factory; with a provision
that a ballot vote should be taken within three months to deter-
mine the future system of payment for the entire trade.
A strike of electricians, which was of great importance owing
to the principle involved, began on July 2 and ended on Sept. 16
1920. The members of the Electrical Trades Union came out on
strike at an engineering works at Penistone (Yorks), against the
employment of a foreman who was not a member of their trade
union. The Engineering Employers' Federation replied by a
lock-out of all members of the union employed in federated firms
throughout the country. The Government appointed a Court of
Enquiry, under the Industrial Courts Act, to enquire into the
dispute; but the day after the Court had begun taking evidence
the Electrical Trades Union notified to the Joint Industrial
Council for the Electricity Supply Industry their readiness to
withdraw the question of principle, i.e. the claim that foremen
must be members of a trade union. The dispute was settled on
these lines on Sept. 16, the men withdrawing their strike notices
and the employers the lock-out notices. The number of men
involved by the lock-out was about seven thousand.
A strike of shirt and collar makers in Belfast, Londonderry,
Coleraine, Dublin, and other towns, began on June 12 1920, and
lasted for over two months. The cutters only were directly
involved, to the number of about 302; but about 17,000 other
workpeople were thrown out of. work. The cutters demanded
higher wages, and the strike was settled by a compromise.
A strike in the spinning branch of the cotton trade began at
Oldham on Sept. 15 1920. During the war an agreement had
been made for the employment of female " creelers " (who carry
away the finished yarn) to. help the spinners in cases where " little
piecers " (boy assistants) were not available; and it was part of
the agreement that the spinners should receive extra payments,
in compensation for the additional work thrown upon them when
" creelers " were employed instead of " little piecers." In Sept.
1920, an agreement was signed between the master spinners and
the Operative Spinners' Trade Union withdrawing, in part, these
extra payments. A large number of the spinners came out on
strike against this agreement, in defiance of the executive of their
union. The strike began on Sept. 15, and the maximum number
on strike was reached a week later, when the number was about
20,000; and about an equal number of cardroom workers and
others were thrown out of work by the dispute. The men grad-
ually went back to work on the terms of the agreement; most of
them were back by Oct. 5, but the strike was not quite at an end
until the end of that month.
Coal Strike of 1921. The first seven months of 1921 were no-
table for a rapid and continuous increase in the number of trade
disputes concerning proposals for reduction of wages. The strike
of shipyard joiners and carpenters against a proposed reduc-
tion of i2s. per week, which had begun on Dec. i 1920, and
came to involve directly some 10,000 workpeople, continued
until Aug. 1921, when a settlement was reached on the basis
of a reduction of gs. per week, to take effect in two stages.
Among other important disputes in this period was the strike
in Feb. 1921 of some 5,000 nut and bolt workers in the
Black Country against a proposed wage reduction, which lasted
five weeks, the employers' terms being then accepted. In March
3,500 vehicle builders and 2,170 waterproof garment finishers
came out on strike against proposed reductions of wages; the
former dispute lasted four weeks and ended in the acceptance of
a modified reduction; the latter lasted five weeks and ended in
the acceptance of the reduction on condition that it should
take effect in two stages. In June a national engineering strike
was threatened but avoided at the last hour, while 10,000 engi-
neering apprentices in the Manchester district struck against a
proposed reduction in wages, which three weeks later was accept-
ed. In June, also, a new wages agreement in the cotton textile
industry, involving an immediate reduction of about 19% on
actual wage rates, was only made after a dispute which lasted
three weeks and involved some 375,000 operatives.
None of the strikes of 1921 against proposed reductions in
wages compares, however, in magnitude or consequence with
the great national coal strike, which began on April i and
ended qn July i in an agreement which was to last un-
til Sept. 30 1922, and thereafter, until terminated by three
months' notice on either side. The position at the end of the coal
strike of 1920 has already been described. Briefly a temporary
settlement has been made under which the wages of miners
varied according to the total output of coal from the mines of
Great Britain: the more the output, the higher were the wages
to be received. The miners and owners were under an obligation
to prepare a scheme not later than March 31 1921, for the
future regulation of wages in the industry, " having regard,
among other considerations, to the profits of the industry and to
the principles upon which any surplus profits are to be dealt
with." The industry was still under Government control, and
the " control " powers of the Mines Department of the board of
trade did not expire, in any event, until Aug. 31 1921.
The coal industry, however, did not escape the effects of the
general industrial depression, which indeed may be dated from
the coal strike of 1920. The values of exported coal fell heavily,
while the demand for coal for industrial or domestic consump-
tion at home also decreased. The output figures for each of the
590
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
four months from Dec. 1920 reflect the changes in the current
demand. In the five weeks ended Dec. 25 the output for Great
Britain was 25,406,700 tons; while in the five weeks ended Jan.
29 1921, it was 21,803,600 tons. In the four weeks ended Jan. 29
it was 18,540,500 tons; while in the four weeks ended Feb. 26
it was 17,369,100 tons, and in the four weeks ended March 26,
16,435,200 tons. An incidental result of this decreased output
was the disappearance as from Feb. 28 of the wages advances
granted under the settlement of Nov. 1920. In so far as the
position, as affected both by the decreased output and by the
reduction in values of export coal, may be judged from the
Mines Department statistics, in Feb. 1921 the average loss over
the whole of the collieries of Great Britain on every ton of
coal disposed of commercially was 55. nfd. In two districts,
namely Yorkshire, and Derby, Nottingham and Leicester, there
were small credits of 3|d. and id. per ton respectively; while
the debit balances ranged from 45. of d. per ton in Durham to
i8s. ifd. per ton in South Wales.
In these circumstances the Government decided to terminate
their control of the mining industry on March 31. This was
the date at which the agreed scheme for the future regulation
of wages in the industry was to be ready, but it was five months
earlier than the date at which decontrol had been expected. On
the one hand, the fall in the price of export coal to such an extent
that there was no appreciable difference between the export
price and the inland price, made it no longer necessary to regulate
the pit head prices and the distribution of coal, and all such
regulation was withdrawn as from March i. On the other hand,
the continuance of financial control, which had been a corollary
of the regulation of prices and distribution was only involving
the Government in heavy financial liabilities. The Coal Mines
(Decontrol) Act, 1921, " an act to curtail the duration of and
amend the Coal Mines (Emergency) Act, 1920," was therefore
passed. The Act received Royal Assent on March 24, and its
effect was to terminate the special interest the Government had
hitherto had in the Mining Industry, as regards, for example,
output and prices, wages and profits. Control at that moment
meant financial assistance to the industry, and the removal of
that financial assistance on March 31 made the formulation of a
new wages agreement a matter of imperative urgency, if the
work of the mines was to be continued after decontrol.
The decision of the Government to decontrol was communi-
cated by the president of the board of trade to the mine-owners
and miners, i.e. the Mining Association and the Miners' Fed-
eration of Great Britain, on Feb. 23. At the time the an-
nouncement was made, the Mining Association and the Miners'
Federation were in the midst of negotiations with regard to the
permanent scheme for the regulation of wages, which under
the agreement of Nov. 1920, they were to complete by March
31 1921. On Feb. 25 the two bodies met again, and agreement
was reached upon a considerable number of important points.
But on one fundamental issue it was found impossible to agree.
The representatives of the Miners' Federation insisted upon the
necessity of a national wages scheme, with some form of a na-
tional pool, for the industry. The representatives of the owners
insisted that wages must be based upon the wage-paying capa-
city of the districts, national discussion being confined to the
enunciation of certain general principles which might provide
the districts with some uniform method of determining their
wage-paying capacity.
A definite conflict of principle had thus occurred. It was clear
however that no scheme designed to be permanent would be
applicable without modification to the abnormal position in
which the industry would find itself on decontrol on April i. It
was therefore conceivable that agreement might be reached on a
temporary scheme applicable strictly to the emergency period,
leaving the points of difference on the permanent scheme for
further discussion. In this way the occurrence of a dispute
immediately upon the cessation of control might be avoided.
Following upon a joint meeting of the two sides held on March
17, the National Delegate Conference of the Miners' Federation
decided to ascertain the opinion of the districts as to whether or
not they were prepared to abandon temporarily the policy of a
national wages board and a national pool, and to empower the
national executive to proceed with the negotiations with a view
to establishing a temporary agreement on a district basis. On
March 24 the Conference reassembled to receive the replies of the
several districts, and these indicated that a very large majority
of the Federation were against the proposal to enter into any
temporary agreement on a district basis. There was thus no
movement towards the owners' position. Notices terminating on
March 31 contracts of employment at the existing rates having
already been issued by the owners, the Executive Committee of
the Miners' Federation met on March 30, and sent out the fol-
lowing instruction to the districts: " That all notices must take
effect regardless of occupation in every mine and plant in the
Miners' Federation." Practically the whole of the men ceased
work in accordance with this instruction at the close of the last
shift on March 31. There was, however, some divergence in the
districts on the question of withdrawing the pumpmen and en-
ginemen who were covered by the official instruction of the
Federation. These men were not withdrawn in all cases.
At this stage it may be noted that there were some points of
agreement between the owners and miners. The agreement of
Nov. 1920, envisaged a permanent scheme for the regulation of
wages which would have regard " to the profits of the industry
and to the principles upon which any surplus profits are to be
dealt with." Working from this basis, by the time of the joint
meeting of Feb. 25, four further principles had been agreed upon
as follows:
1. Wages must conform to the capacity of the industry to pay.
2. The receipt of a standard wage should justify a corresponding
minimum profit to the colliery undertakings.
3. Any surplus remaining after these, and, of course, the usual
working costs, had been met, should be divided between the men and
the owners in agreed proportions, the workpeople's share to be an
addition to their standard wages.
4. Joint audits of the owners' books by accountants representing
each side should be made to ascertain all the data necessary for the
periodical determination of wages.
On all other matters arising out of the proposed permanent
scheme there were differences of considerable importance between
the two sides. The following account of the main differences is
based upon the draft agreement approved by the Delegate Con-
ference of the Miners' Federation of Great Britain on March 10
(i.e. at the first available opportunity after the joint meeting
of Feb. 25), and the report of the mine owners on the situation
which was submitted after approval by the Central Council of
the Mining Association, to the president of the board of trade on
March 25 (i.e. immediately after the refusal of the miners to
enter upon negotiations with a view to a temporary settlement
on a district basis) :
1. The miners proposed that there should be established a
National Board, consisting of 16 representatives of each side, which
should determine all questions of wages and profits affecting the
mining industry as a whole, i.e. the national regulation and dis-
tribution of wages. The National Board would take over the powers
and duties of the existing district conciliation boards with regard to
the fixing of general rates of wages. The owners would agree to
maintain in production by the means of a national profits fund all
existing collieries, and all collieries developed subsequently, until
such times as the National Board might decide to the contrary.
On these points, the owners' position was that the idea of a
" national profits fund " was abhorrent to them, that they wished
district conciliation boards to be the sole authorities for fixing
wages, and that national discussions should only deal with ques-
tions of principle, so as to provide the districts with a uniform
method of determining wages.
2. The miners proposed that the new standard wage should be
made up by incorporating all the existing percentage additions to
district basis rates with those district basis rates, special allowance
being made in favour of the men who were benefitting under the Hat
rate minimum advance which was guaranteed with the 20% wages
advances of March 1920. The owners proposed that the new
standard wages should be the district basis rates, plus the percentage
additions prevailing in July 1914, plus the percentage additions
made consequent upon the reduction in hours from 8 to 7.
3. The miners proposed that against their standard wages
should be set, as minimum profits to the owners, a sum amounting in
the aggregate to 10% of the sum paid as standard wages. The
owners proposed that this figure should be 17%.
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
59i
4. The miners proposed that any surplus remaining after meeting
standard wages, other costs and minimum profits, should be divided
between miners and owners in the proportion of too to 10. The
owners proposed that that proportion should be 80 to 20.
5. The miners proposed that their share of this surplus should be
distributed by means of national uniform flat rate additions to their
standard wages. The owners proposed that the miners' share of the
surplus as ascertained in each district should be distributed as a
percentage addition to the standard district rates.
6. Whereas the miners' proposals meant that the whole mining
industry in Great Britain should be treated as one unit within which
wages would be varied uniformly, the owners proposed to take as the
units of uniform variation, the 25 districts among which the collieries
of Great Britain are distributed by the Second Schedule of the
Mining Industry Act, 1920.
With regard to the question what modifications, if any, might
be introduced to meet the abnormal conditions of the period fol-
lowing immediately on control, the owners expressed their will-
ingness to waive their share of the surplus in favour of the work-
men, on condition that ascertainment of the proceeds of the
industry in each unit should be made at monthly periods during
the continuance of the concession; but they insisted that it was
inevitable that wages should go down on decontrol. From the
miners' point of view it was evident that the introduction of their
scheme at that moment might mean the loss to the men of war
wage and Sankey wage, and the miners' argument therefore was
that the Government's obligation to pay war wage or Sankey
award did not cease by the decision to decontrol the trade on
March 31. The war wage had been given to meet the increased
cost of living when the latter was only 80 per cent in excess of
the pre-war figure, and (though the Government rejected this
interpretation) under the terms of the award the miners claimed
that the wage was liable to revision only when the cost of living
fell again to that point. With regard to the Sankey wage, the
argument of the miners was that the Government had accepted
the Sankey Commission's recommendations for an advance in
wages of 2S. per day, and if the Government now proposed that
these conditions should be abandoned, it would be guilty of a
breach of faith. The miners reiterated at all times from Feb. 23
to March 31 their demand that the Government should abandon
its decision to decontrol the industry, or at least should continue
to subsidize it during the existence of the depression from which
it was suffering.
The general argument of the miners at this time was that the
situation demanded a full national settlement of the wages and
profits problem for the industry. The trade as a whole needed
uniform peace and security, and district or local negotiations
must result in strife. The workmen and their families had to live
in the poor districts as well as in the rich, and for uniform expend-
iture of energy there should be uniform reward. This had been
recognized by the Government, first by the payment of uniform
war wages to meet the increased cost of living, and, secondly, by
the acceptance of the decision of the Sankey Commission to
raise uniformly the wages of all coal miners to meet the agreed
case for a uniform advance in their standard of living. A Na-
tional Wages Board, exercising the right to distribute nationally
both wages and profits, need not necessarily result in a uniform
profit for all undertakings, but by means of a small levy upon the
total tonnage raised in every mine, money would be made avail-
able for maintaining poor collieries in production as long as their
coal was in demand.
The view of the owners, on the other hand, was that the wide
variations in the losses of different coalfields made anything in
the nature of a national settlement of wages impossible. While
there were such divergencies between district and district, each
district must determine its own wages by its ability to pay, and
he individual who could not pay the wages so determined must
decide for himself whether to close his pits or to bear the loss.
he country could not afford to keep unprofitable pits working.
From the opening of the strike on April i, four whole months
passed before an agreement between the owners and miners was
cached. The first difficulty to secure a resumption of negotia-
tions encountered was in the Government insisting that the first
subject to be discussed should be the return of the safety men to
he mines, while the miners held that negotiations were useless
if their demands for a wages settlement along national lines, and
a national profits' pool, were totally unacceptable. But the
influence of the other members of the Triple Alliance secured a
modification of both points of view, and joint negotiations were
resumed on April n and 12. On April 12 the view of the Govern-
ment was outlined that, while the miners' demand for a national
settlement of wages might be practicable, their demand for a
national pool of profits was impracticable. A pooling arrange-
ment for the equalization of wages in the industry was declared
not to be possible without the resumption of complete and per-
manent control by the State of the mining industry. A national
settlement of wages, however, was suggested, by which the 2nd,
3rd, 4th and 5th points at issue between the owners and miners
as outlined above should be determined by the joint conference,
whilst subsequent differences of interpretation should be referred
to a national joint committee of owners and miners. The prime
minister explained the Government's proposals as regards the
abnormal period following upon decontrol, as follows:
" If and when an arrangement had been arrived at between the
coal owners and the miners as to the rate of wages to be paid in the
industry, fixed upon an economic basis, the Government would be
willing to give assistance, either by loan or otherwise, during a short
period, in order to mitigate the rapid reduction in wages in the
districts most severely affected."
These proposals were fully discussed, but the miners' officials
intimated their inability to accept them or to abandon their for-
mer position, and the conference thereupon ended. This failure
at once brought to a head the question whether the other two
members of the Triple Alliance, namely, the National Union of
Railwaymen x and the National Transport Workers' Federation,
would take sympathetic strike action in support of the miners.
A general meeting of the National Union of Railwaymen, and
a full conference of the executives of unions affiliated to the
National Transport Workers' Federation, were summoned,
and remained in session until April 16, when the question of
sympathetic action was finally settled. The mediatory efforts
of the railwaymen and transport workers on April 9, which
secured the resumption of negotiations between owners and
miners, had been supported by a decision that a sympathetic
strike should take place on the night of April 1 2 unless negotiations
between the miners, owners and Government were reopened
before that date. This strike of April 12 was avoided by the
resumption of negotiations on the nth, but on the i3th, the day
after the failure of the resumed negotiations, the railwaymen and
transport workers determined to strike at 10 P.M. on April 1 5 in
support of the miners. This sympathetic strike of April 15 was
avoided, however, at the last moment. In the late evening of the
i4th a group of private members of the House of Commons, after
hearing a statement by Mr. Evan Williams, president of the
Mining Association, dealing with the effect on the miners' actual
earnings of the owners' proposals, invited Mr. Frank Hodges, the
secretary of the Miners' Federation, to make a similar statement
on behalf of the miners. In the discussion which followed his
speech, it was understood from Mr. Hodges that the miners
would be prepared to discuss a temporary wages settlement, pro-
vided that a period of time were fixed for the negotiation of a
permanent settlement, to contain the principles of a national
pool and a national wages board. The Prime Minister was at
once communicated with, and on the following morning he
invited owners and miners to meet him again for a further con-
sideration of the wages question. The executive of the Miners'
Federation, to general surprise, abruptly declined this invitation,
and Mr. Hodges, whose " offer " was thus ignored, tendered his
resignation (though it was afterwards withdrawn). The leaders
of the railwaymen and transport workers, however, in these cir-
cumstances decided not to proceed with the sympathetic strike,
and a breach was created in the Triple Alliance.
The next stage in the history of the dispute was a second series
of joint negotiations between owners and miners, from April 22
1 The Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen
before the close of this episode joined the other railwaymen and the
transport workers in the discussions and the decisions on the quesr
tion of sympathetic strike action.
592
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
to 28, as a result of a further invitation from the Prime Minister.
This conference produced a further set of proposals from the
owners, and the first detailed proposals for a settlement made
by the Government in the course of the dispute, but these were
rejected on the 28th by the National Delegate Conference, on
the ground that they did not concede " the fundamental prin-
ciples of a National Wages Board and a National Pool." No
definite progress had been made as regards the proposed estab-
lishment of a permanent scheme for the regulation of wages in
the industry. The Government suggested that the period of the
permanent scheme should be one year from the close of the tem-
porary period, subject thereafter to 3 months' notice on either
side. This suggestion became part of the final settlement of July
i. They declared that a national pool or levy would involve
legislation and must be regarded as a political issue; but they
would accept a " National Wages Board " entrusted with the
tasks of drawing up a schedule of districts and determining the
principles by which wages should be adjusted in the districts, as
well as with the duties of interpretation. The owners also spoke
at this time of " areas " rather than " districts," the " areas "
being the six divisions of Great Britain, among which the 25 dis-
tricts are distributed by the Second Schedule of the Mining In-
dustry Act, 1920. On the other hand, as a result of the statements
of the owners and the Government, substantial progress was
made with the preparation of a detailed temporary scheme for
the emergency or abnormal period. The main points of these
proposals may be summarized as follows:
1. The duration of the temporary scheme was to be three months.
2. In each of the three months, a maximum sum per shift should
be fixed, and the wages of no miner should be reduced by more than
that maximum sum. The maximum reduction would be expressed as
a national flat rate.
3. For the first month a maximum reduction of 33. per shift was
proposed and for the second month, one of 35. 6d.
4. The Government were prepared to make a grant of 10,000,000
as their share in the cost of the scheme, and it was suggested that a
portion of this grant might be carried forward into a fourth month.
5. The owners were prepared to waive all share in the surplus in
any area, if the taking of that share would have the effect of reducing
the rates of wages in one month as compared with the previous
month. This was an elaboration of the proposal of the owners as
regards the emergency period given above, and made public on
March 25.
6. The owners were also prepared to agree that, during the period
of the temporary scheme, deficiencies in standard profits should not
be carried forward from one accounting period to another.
The miners, however, were as much opposed to this proposed
temporary scheme as to the owners' permanent scheme. They
could not accept a temporary settlement which was related to
district settlements; they could not accept reductions which
would force their wages below the cost of living level; and they
maintained their demand that the Government should render
financial assistance to the industry so as to prevent this occurring.
On a cost of living basis they argued that the maximum reduction
in the first place should be 25. per shift: whereas the Govern-
ment proposed a first reduction of 35. per shift.
From the close of the second series of joint negotiations on April
28, a whole month elapsed before official negotiations were
resumed. A third series of negotiations was then begun on May
27, an address being made by the Prime Minister to a joint assem-
bly of the central committee of the Mining Association and the
executive committee of the Miners' Federation. Proposals for a
settlement were submitted by the Government separately to the
two sides on May 28, and on June 3 the observations of owners
and miners on these proposals were communicated to the Prime
Minister. The reply of the Miners' Federation, drawn up by
their executive committee, was to the effect that in every instance
the districts had rejected the proposals. On June 4 the Prime
Minister announced that the Government's offer of a grant of
10,000,000, intended to mitigate the reductions in wages and
allow of a gradual scaling down of wages until they reached an
economic level which the industry could sustain, would be with-
drawn unless a settlement were reached within 14 days. This
announcement was followed by joint meetings between owners
and miners on June 6, 7, 8 and 9, and on June 10 the National
Delegate Conference of the Miners' Federation adopted a recom-
mendation of their executive to refer the alternative courses of
action to a ballot vote of their members. The alternatives were
put to the men as follows:
" (l) Are you in favour of fighting on for the principles of the
National Wages Board and National Pool, with loss of Government
subsidy of 10,000,000 for wages if no settlement by June 18 1921?
" (2) Are you in favour of accepting the Government's and
owners' terms as set forth on the back of this ballot paper? "
The result of the vote was known on June 1 7 : the first ques-
tion was answered in the affirmative by 433,614 members, and
the second question by 180,725. The previous decisions of the
representative bodies of the Federation were thus emphatically
confirmed. The Government therefore announced their with-
drawal of the proposed subsidy, and the basis for a temporary
settlement had for the time being disappeared.
From the point of view of the final settlement, however, this
third series, of negotiations was important for the modifications
which were made in 'the owners' permanent scheme. The owners
definitely adopted the Government suggestions regarding the
duration of the permanent scheme and the establishment of a
National Wages Board; they proposed the establishment of
similarly constituted district boards to determine district ques-
tions; they accepted a proposal made by the Government that if
the rates of wages as fixed under the permanent scheme did not pro-
vide a subsistence wage to low-paid day wage workers, additions
in the form of allowances per shift worked should be made by the
decision of the district wages boards; and they were prepared to
guarantee that the miners should receive during the first year of
the agreement a minimum percentage addition of 20% to the
standard wage as proposed by the owners.
The final period from June 17 to July i was remarkable for
the marked changes in the attitude of the executive of the
Miners' Federation. On June 18 an invitation was issued to the ex-
ecutive committees of all unions affected by wages disputes to meet
the miners' executive at the earliest possible date, with the object
of taking joint national action with the miners to secure their
several demands. The meeting was arranged for June 25. Mean-
while the annual conference of the Labour party held at Brighton
on June 21-4 showed plainly that no support for extended mili-
tant action would be given by other trade unions. The projected
meeting of June 25 was therefore abandoned, and the Prime
Minister was again approached by the miners' executive with a
view to securing a satisfactory wages settlement. Joint negotia-
tions between miners and owners were accordingly resumed on
June 27, and on the evening of that day it was reported to the
Government that an agreement had been reached, upon the
assumption that the Government would reopen their offer of a
grant of 10,000,000 to the industry. On June 28 the Govern-
ment expressed their willingness to subsidize wages as required,
during the temporary period, up to a maximum of 10,000,000.
The miners' executive then referred the proposed terms to their
districts; and their recommendation that the terms should be
accepted was indorsed at the district meetings. On July i the
final agreement between the Miners' Federation and the Mining
Association was signed, the House of Commons voting, on the
same day, a subsidy in aid of wages in the form offered by the
Government on June 28. Work in the coal mines throughout
Great Britain was resumed as rapidly as the circumstances at
each colliery permitted.
The agreement largely incorporated the terms of the interim
proposals. With regard to the temporary period of three months,
it was agreed that the maximum national flat-rate reductions
should be 25. per shift in the first month, 2S. 6d. in the second
month, and 35. in the third month; and that, in those districts
where it was not necessary to enforce the full maximum reduc-
tion, the wages payable during the temporary period should be
calculated in terms of uniform district flat-rate reductions, and
not in terms of basis rates plus percentages. On the other hand,
the Government subsidy was now a maximum sum, and any
balance not issued in respect of the temporary period of three
months was no longer available to ease any further reductions
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
593
which might be necessary in the fourth month after the settle-
ment. With regard to the permanent scheme the settlement pro-
vided that standard profits should be 17% of standard wages,
and that 83 % of the surplus proceeds should be applied to the
payment of wages above the standard rates. The duration of the
guarantee that the miners should receive a minimum percentage
addition of 20% to the standard wages, was extended from one
year to the whole period of the permanent scheme. In other
respects the permanent scheme was the one first outlined by the
owners before the beginning of the strike, but it included the
important modifications and safeguards introduced in the course
of the third series of joint negotiations:
The outbreak of the strike had led to the Government passing
an Emergency Powers Act into law, to enable exceptional pro-
vision to be made for the protection of the community when
" any action has been taken, or is immediately threatened by any
person or body of persons, of such a nature or on so extensive a
scale, as to be calculated ... to deprive the community, or a
substantial portion of the community, of the essentials of life."
On March 3 1 a proclamation was made under this Act declaring a
" state of emergency " to exist, and by successive renewals at
monthly intervals the " state of emergency " was continued until
the settlement of July i. Within this general period a state of
more intense emergency occurred from April 8 to June 2. During
this latter period the Reserves were embodied, and in addition to
the enrolment of special constables, a Defence Force was enlisted
with the object of supporting the police in providing protection
to volunteers who were maintaining the mines in condition, or
who might be required to carry on transport work in the event of
the extension of the coal strike to railway and transport services.
During the state of emergency, a series of emergency regulations
were in force under which the Mines Department of the board of
trade controlled the supply, consumption and movement of coal,
and the police authorities in the various parts of the country
were endowed with special powers for the suppression of sedition.
(B) FOREIGN COUNTRIES
A brief account is given bilow of the most recent statistics of
the strikes and lock-outs in the principal European countries,
other than the United Kingdom, available in 1921.
France. Detailed statistics of strikes and lock-outs for the years
1890 to 1912 and summaries for the years 1913 and 1914 had been
published by the French Ministry of Labour. The following are the
totals for the years 1907-14:
Year
Number of
Disputes
Number of
Workpeople
directly
affected
Aggregate
Duration in
Working
Days
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913'
1914"
,279
,104
,036
,5il
,474
,120
,073
672
198,136
124,248
169,509
290,899
230,795
268,230
220,448
160,566
3,563,237
2,307,120
3,581,928
4,887,837
4,037,475
2,335,891
2,223,781
2,192,078
1 The figures for the years 1913 and 1914 relate only to strikes.
The principal groups of industries affected by the disputes were
in 1907 the transport group involving 43,248 workpeople; in 1908
and 1909 the building trade group involving 56,691 and 42,658
workpeople respectively; in 1910 the transport group involving
83,025 workpeople, and the building group involving 75,695 work-
people; in 1911 the building group involving 93,660 workpeople;
and in 1912 the mining and quarrying group involving 137,602.
During the years 1907 to 1912, 46% of the total number of work-
people affected were involved in disputes concerning wages, 19%
in disputes concerning hours of labour, 10% in disputes concerning
the employment of particular classes of persons, 1 1 % in disputes
concerning working arrangements and the remaining 14% in dis-
putes due to other causes. The results of disputes during the period
under survey were as follows: disputes involving 12% of the total
number of workpeople directly affected terminated in favour of the
workpeople; disputes involving 44% in favour of the employers;
those involving the remaining 44% in a compromise.
Germany. From 1899 statistics of strikes and lock-outs other than
in agriculture have been published annually by the German Federal
Statistical Office. The figures for the period 1907 to 1918 are sum-
marized below:
Year
Number of Disputes
Number of Work- .
people directly or
indirectly affected
1907
2,512
280,016
1908
1,524
119,781
1909
1,652
130,883
1910
3,228
390,706
1911
2,798
385,216
1912
2,834
493,749
1913
2,464
323,394
1914
1,223
98,339
1915
141
15,238
1916
240
128,881
1917
562
668,032
1918
772
1,325,897
The principal groups of industries affected by disputes in 1913
were the metal and engineering group involving 81,025 workpeople,
the mining and smelting group involving 78,221 workpeople, and the
building trades group involving 69,899 workpeople. In 1918 the
principal groups were the mining and smelting group with 336,378
workpeople involved, and the metal and engineering group with
279,921 workpeople involved.
Of the total number of disputes occurring during the period
1907-18, 52% arose on questions of wages, 16% on questions of
hours, and the balance on questions of the employment of particular
classes of persons, working arrangements and miscellaneous matters.
During the same period 15% of the total number of disputes were
settled in favour of the workpeople, and 39 % in favour of the
employers, while 46% were compromised.
Belgium. Statistics of strikes and lock-outs are published by the
Belgian Ministry of Industry, Labour and Supplies. The table
given below shows the number of strikes and lock-outs, and the
number of workpeople directly affected, in the period 1908 to 1919;
with the exception of 1914 to 1918.
Year
Number of Disputes
Number of Work-
people directly
affected
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1919
118
123
no
162
206
167
372
17,085
23,469
27,257
57,203
63,772
23,752
164,030
The mining and quarrying and the textile industries accounted
for 6,096 and 3,114 respectively of the workpeople affected in 1908,
for 6,456 and 2,846 of the workpeople affected in 1909, for 21,103
and 2,388 in 1910, for 34,417 and 9,089 in 1911, and for 38,479 and
5,856 in 1912. In 1913 the textile industry accounted for 10,158 of
workpeople affected, and in 1919 the mining and quarrying industry
for 99,035 of the workpeople affected. The causes of the disputes
during the period 1908-13 were mainly questions of wages, 52 %
of the workpeople being involved on this account. Of the total
number of strikes during the same period 13 % ended in favour of the;
workpeople, 59 % ended in favour of the employers, and 28 %
resulted in a compromise.
Holland. Statistics of disputes in Holland are published by the
Central Statistical Bureau. The figures for the years 1907-19 are
given in the table below:
Year
Number of
Disputes
Number of
Workpeople
directly
affected
Aggregate
Duration in
Working Days
1907
154
I5,!54
4,366,691
1908
135
7,i65
91,860
1909
189
8,455
272,013
1910
146
13,238
334,595
1911
217
20,005
435,992
1912
283
21,672
367,751
1913
427
30,161
787,876
1914
271
25,569
361,400
1915
269
15,179
165,247
1916
377
18,127
249,442
1917
344
31,317
526,507
1918
325
39,640
607,236
1919
649
61,667
1,051,884
During the period 1911-5 the proportion of disputes due to
questions of wages was 55 %; it was 58 % in 1916, 55 % in 1917, 57 %
in 1918, and 58% in 1919. The results of the disputes during the
period 1910-9 were as follows: 22% ended in favour of the work-
people, 28% ended in favour of the employers; 44% were com-
promised ; and 6 % were either indeterminate or the result unknown.
594
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
Sweden. The Swedish labour department has published statistics
of strikes and lock-outs since 1903. Figures for 1908 to 1919 are
shown below:
Year
Number of
Disputes
Number of Work-
people directly
affected
1908
302
40,357
1909
138
30' .749
1910
76
3,671
1911
98
20,576
1912
116
9,980
1913 .
119
9,591
1914 .
US
H,385
1915 .
80
5,"9
1916
227
20,711
1917
475
46,701
1918
708
61,223
1919
440
81,041
Of the disputes recorded during the period 1910-9, 63% were
caused by questions of wages. In the same period 28% of the
disputes were settled in favour of the workpeople, 28% in favour
of the employers, and 42 % were compromised.
Spain. Statistics of strikes are published annually by the
Spanish Institute of Social Reforms. The figures for 1905-18 are
given below:
Year
Number of Strikes
Number of Work-
people directly
affected
1905
130
20,176
1906
122
24,394
1907
118
12,671
1908
127
12,748
1909
78
6,683
1910
151
35,897
1911
118
22,154
1912
169
36,306
1913
20 1
84,316
1914
140
49,267
1915
91
30,591
1916
178
96,882
1917
176
71,440
1918
256
109,168
Questions of wages were the main causes of 48% of the strikes
during the period 1910-8. In the same period 32% of the strikes
terminated in favour of the workpeople, 34 % in favour of the em-
ployers and 34% were compromised. In 1918, 29% of the work-
people directly affected were employed in agriculture and cattle
breeding, II % in the textile industry, 10% in the mining industry,
and 9 % in both metal and engineering and clothing trades.
(C) BRITISH DOMINIONS
Canada. Statistics of disputes are published by the Department
of Labour. The following table shows the number of disputes, the
number of workpeople involved and the aggregate duration in
working days during the years 1908-19 :
Number of
Year
Number of
Disputes
Workpeople
directly or
indirectly
Aggregate
Duration in
Working Days
affected
1908
68
25,293
708,285
1909
69
17,332
871,845
1910
84
21,280
718,635
1911
99
30,094
2,046,650
1912
150
40,5"
1,099,208
1913
"3
39.536
1,287,678
1914
44
8,678
430,054
1915
73
9,140
106,149
1916
75
2i,i57
208,277
1917
148
48,392
1,134,970
1918
196
68,489
763,241
1919
298
133,988
3,942,189
Of the 449 disputes recorded during the period 1911-5, 128
occurred in the building trades, 103 in the metal trades, 51 in the
clothing trades, 39 in the general transport trades and 29 in the min-
ing industry. The majority of the disputes during the same period
were due to questions of wages and hours, about 70% of the disputes
being due to this cause. With regard to the results of the disputes
during this period 139 or 30% resulted in favour of the workpeople,
164 or 36 % in favour of the employers, 79 or 17 % were compromised
and in the remaining 67 cases the result was indefinite.
In 1919 the industry most affected by disputes was the metal
and engineering, in which there were 45 strikes, involving 70,268
workpeople and a time loss of 1,993,704 working days. Forty
strikes, involving 10,779 workpeople and resulting in a loss of 287,146
working days, occurred in the building trades. Of the 298 disputes
recorded in 1919, 223 were due to wages. In the same year 157 of
the disputes terminated in favour of the workpeople, 88 in favour
of the employers and 23 were compromised.
Australia. The systematic collection of statistical data regarding
strikes and lock-outs in Australia was initiated by the Common-
wealth Bureau of Census and Statistics at the beginning of 1913.
The following table shows the number of strikes and the number
of workpeople directly and indirectly affected in the years 1913-9:
Year
Number of Disputes
Number of Work-
people affected
1913 .
1914 .
1915 .
1916
1917 .
1918
1919 .
208
337
358
508
444
298
460
50,283
71,049
81,292
170,683
173,970
56,439
157,591
In 1919 the total number of working days lost on account of strikes
and lock-outs was 5,652,726. (J. H.)
(D) UNITED STATES
In Nov. 1909, more than 25,000 shirt-waist makers struck in
New York City; in July 1910 the cloak and suit makers in the
same city; and in Oct. the men's clothing workers in Chicago.
These strikes were remarkable for the numbers involved, and for
the plans of adjusting grievances which resulted.
The joint agreement of the bituminous mine operators with
the United Mine Workers expired April i 1910. Disagreements
as to district boundaries prevented its renewal without friction.
On April i about 300,000 miners struck. In most districts the
operators soon granted the wages increases demanded. Some
45,000 miners remained out. In July the union concluded an
agreement with the remaining operators, only to have it rejected
by referendum of the strikers. The miners returned to work in
Sept.; the union had paid out $674,216 in strike benefits. The
same year, in Columbus, O., the street-railway employees struck
three times, in April, May and July, because of discharges of
union members. The state Board of Arbitration considered the
company responsible. The strikes were marked by violence;
much of the company's property was destroyed and a number of
lives were lost. Twice the militia were used to restore order.
In 1912 there were strikes led by the Industrial Workers of
the World among the silk workers of New Jersey, the lumbermen
in Louisiana, and the textile workers in Lawrence, Mass. (See
TRADE UNIONS.) The Lawrence strike lasted for nine weeks
and affected 1 2 mills. On Jan. 1 1 about 14,000 employees walked
out, and during the strike the number increased to 23,000. The
cause of the strike was the announcement by mill owners, when
the state law went into effect limiting the hours of women and
children to 54 a week, that the reduction in hours would not be
accompanied by an increase in the hourly rates of pay. At the
beginning of the strike only a small number of the operatives
were organized; the paid-up membership of the I.W.W. in Law-
rence was not more than 300. During the strike the I.W.W.
claimed 14,000 members; but the next year the membership had
dwindled to one-half. Violent acts by strikers, greatly exagger-
ated by the press, and violent acts by deputies, police and militia,
scarcely mentioned by the press, embittered the struggle. Early
in the strike Haywood, Ettor and Giovannitti, I.W.W. organizers,
went to Lawrence. Their coming resulted in a reduction of
violence, for they preached passive resistance; however, threats
to prevent strikebreakers from working probably continued. A
business man of Lawrence, not connected with the strikers, was
arrested and fined for placing sticks of dynamite in various parts
of the town, presumably to discredit the strikers. The American
Federation of Labor contributed $11,000 to the strike relief
fund, the Socialists $40,000 and the I.W.W. $16,000. Two
hundred children of the strikers were sent to New York to be fed
by other workers in order that their parents might hold out
longer. Ettor and Giovannitti were arrested in connexion with
the murder of a woman, and used their trial for propaganda.
The I.W.W. urged a general boycott of Lawrence. As a result of
the strike 30,000 employees received wages increases of from 5 %
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
595
to 20%, and an increased rate for overtime. The largest in-
creases were given to the unskilled workers.
The anthracite coal strike, beginning March 31 1912 lasted
seven weeks. About 1 70,00x3 men and boys were out. The results
were wages increases, abolition of the sliding scale and provision
for a grievance committee. A strike of the coal-miners of Paint
Creek and Cabin Creek in W. Virginia lasted from April 1912 to
July 1913, and was marked by violence and lawlessness. Thir-
teen lives were lost. It has been estimated that the employers
lost $2,000,000 because of the strike, the strikers $1,500,000 in
wages and that the strike cost the taxpayers of the state or county
$500,000. Miners in other states contributed $602,000 to the
strike fund. The U.S. Senate ordered an investigation.
In 1913 business was active, the cost of living was rising, and
there were many strikes. A strike of silk workers in Paterson,
N.J., beginning in Feb. involved 293 establishments and over
25,000 workers. The strike was in protest against the introduc-
tion of the three- and four-loom system, and to enforce shorter
hours and increased wages. After the strike began, the I.W.W.
sent in their leaders. They succeeded in holding the workers
together during the five months of the strike. The attempt by
the American Federation of Labor to organize the workers and
effect trade agreements with the employers failed. The strike
was lost through exhaustion of the workers. A strike in the cop-
per mines of upper Michigan, for recognition of the Western
Federation of Miners and to compel the enforcement of certain
state laws, began in the summer of 1913 and lasted until April
1914. The men were taken back with the promise of wages in-
creases and reduction of hours, but on condition that they give
up membership in the union.
In Sept. 1913 a strike broke out among the employees of the
Colorado Fuel and Iron Co. for recognition of the United Mine
Workers' Union, wages increases and the enforcement of state
mining laws. In Dec. a Federal grand jury indicted many of the
union officials for violating the anti-trust Act by trying to cre-
ate a monopoly of labour. Mine operators were also indicted for
violating state mining laws. In Jan. 1914 the Federal House of
Representatives ordered an investigation. Early in the strike
the state militia had been sent in and martial law declared.
Both sides were guilty of violence. The strikers had moved from
the houses owned by the company to tent colonies on land
leased by the union. One of the largest of these was at Ludlow.
On April 20 1914 militia fired into the tents, which were ignited,
and 7 men, 2 women and 1 1 children perished. Each side accused
the other of initiating the attack. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., on
behalf of the employing company, refused to go to arbitration
with the union, which he believed to be controlled by eastern
agitators. President Wilson then sent 2,000 Federal troops to
restore peace. They took the place of the militia, who withdrew,
and disarmed the strikers and mine guards and deported the
strikebreakers. In Sept. President Wilson proposed that the
company should take back the strikers not guilty of violence
and establish grievance committees and a committee of appeals
to effect arbitration. The proposal was accepted by the miners
but rejected by the operators. Early in Dec. 1914 the President
appointed a commission to settle future disputes in the Colorado
mines, made up of representatives of the employers, the union
and the public. The union then voted to call off the strike and
on Dec. 30 part of the Federal troops were withdrawn. At no
time during the strike did the directors of the company visit the
property, but after investigation by the U.S. Commission on
Industrial Relations, John D. Rockefeller, Jr., visited Colorado.
The result was the introduction of a system of employee repre-
I sentation. The miners voted to accept the plan, which provides
for annual election, by the workers in each camp, of representa-
| tives to meet in conference with the employers' representatives.
; Each district conference names committees on conciliation, safety,
sanitation, health and housing, education and recreation. A
supervisor of welfare work was appointed. The workers were
i granted the basic 8-hour day and check- weighmen. A promise
was given that union men would not be discriminated against,
but the union was not recognized.
A lock-out of 16,000 coal-miners in Ohio which lasted more
than a year was settled in May 1915, by Federal mediation. For
a year after the war broke out in Europe, business was depressed
in the United States, and many workers were competing for em-
ployment; but with increasing demand for labour on war con-
tracts strikes again became numerous. In 1915 there were 102
strikes and 6 lock-outs of machinists in the four months July to
Oct.; in nearly every case the basic 8-hour day was gained. In
1916 there was rioting in connexion with strikes in the oil re-
fineries at Bayonne, N.J., of iron and steel workers in East
Youngstown, O., and of 30,000 workers of the Westinghouse
Elecfric Co. in Pittsburgh. Unorganized iron miners on the
Mesaba range in Michigan were on strike from June to October.
In the same year there were also strikes of longshoremen on the
Pacific coast, and street railway employees in several cities.
Coal strikes affected 350,000 men. Some 10% of the strikes
that year were in New York City where more than 300,000
workers were out, chiefly in the garment trades.
After the United States entered the war the American Federa-
tion of Labor discouraged strikes in essential industries. Dis-
putes were settled by negotiation. A number of strikes did occur,
however, in some cases involving large numbers of workers; the
great majority were settled by Government committees. Those
responsible for war labour administration were of the opinion
that the period of the war should be one of truce in the industrial
field. Demands for closed shop or for radical social change were
barred. The truce was not always respected by workers or em-
ployers, but on the whole it was adhered to. Local machinists'
unions in Bridgeport and Newark came under radical socialist
leadership. As many of the Allies' war orders were placed in
Bridgeport there was great demand for machinists and the town
became overcrowded. The men were dissatisfied because their
pay was lower than that of men in the shipbuilding yards, and
because employers discriminated against the unions. In the
summer of 1917 the men demanded the 8-hour day, 10% increase
in wages with certain minimum rates of pay for each class of
workers, right of union membership and shop committees for
the adjustment of grievances. The answer of the employers was
to ask the U.S. attorney-general for criminal action. Various
Federal agents were sent to Bridgeport but were unsuccessful
in preventing the strike which occurred in May 1918. The
strikers, however, were persuaded by the Federal mediator to
return to work. Hearings were held in Washington before a
special board of the Ordnance Department, and on June 8 the
award was made public. After some protest the workers accepted
it, but the employers refused, with the result that the men again
went out on strike June 26. The War Labor Board took up the
matter, but unsuccessfully, an umpire was appointed, who
granted the 8-hour day, arrangements for collective bargaining,
and wages increases for the most poorly paid workers; but not
classification of workers with minimum wage rates. The men felt
that the Government should have sustained its earlier award,
and they refused to accept the second, which seemed to them
to be a compromise with the employers. A third time they went
out on strike. President Wilson then wrote to the strikers threat-
ening that unless they returned to work immediately, they
would be refused employment in any war industry in their
community, they might not claim draft exemption on the
grounds of employment in an essential industry, and that the
U.S. Employment Service would refuse to find them work in
other localities. On Sept. 17 1918 the men voted to return to
work. The President also required the employers to reinstate all
strikers. The collective bargaining machinery provided by the
award never functioned.
In the summer of 1917 the entire lumber industry of the
north-west was disorganized by strikes. The chief demand was
for the 8-hour day. The President's Mediation Commission was
unsuccessful in its attempt to settle the difficulties. The employ-
ers continued the ro-hour day, but they had difficulty in keeping
men, and those who did accept employment practised sabotage.
In the shipyards workers refused to handle " lo-hour lumber."
These conditions continued until Col. Brice P. Disque, sent into
596
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
the field by the " spruce division " of the War Department,
effected the organization of the Loyal Legion of Loggers and
Lumbermen made up of both employers and employees and with
the aim of improving conditions by mutual agreement. Members
signed a pledge of loyalty to the U.S. Government. On March
i 1918 the employers introduced the 8-hour day without reduc-
tion of wages. A sanitary survey of the camps was instituted,
and other improvements in living conditions were made. Labour
turnover decreased and output increased considerably. Although
at first it had aroused suspicion, the organization won support of
most of the employers and men, but both A. F. of L. unions and
I.W.W. continued to oppose it.
In many places the public, in sympathy with the employing
interest and angered by the philosophy of the I.W.W., attempted
to prevent strikes by arresting labour organizers as these came
into a locality. Some were thrown into jail and sometimes kept
there for long periods without trial. Among the strikes in con-
nexion with which violence occurred were those of the miners
in Arizona, in 1917, who struck near Jerome (May) and Bisbee
{June) and also in two other districts. The chief demands were
for higher wages and grievance committees. Mine owners
charged the I.W.W. as responsible, although an A. F. of L. inter-
national union was actually in charge of the strike. About 100
miners were deported from Jerome by the employing interests,
in cattle-cars. The train was turned back at the California state
line, and the men were kept in jail for three months. On July 12
1917 in Bisbee, 1,200 strikers were dragged from their beds by
armed citizens, compelled to march, and then confined in a ball-
field and loaded on cattle-cars. The train was sent through the
desert until taken over by soldiers camped at Columbus, N.M.
Here they lived on army rations for three months, and then
scattered. One-third of these men were members of the I.W.W.
In July 1919 county officials arrested 107 men, prominent citi-
zens of Bisbee, charged with kidnapping and assault, in connexion
with the deportations of two years before. Civil suits for damages
were filed against mining companies and the railways by the
men who had been deported; these were settled out of court.
In the six months following America's entrance into the war
3,000 strikes were reported; in the first six months of 1918 the
number was 1,771. When the Armistice was signed, the War
Labor Board had on hand several hundred cases awaiting hear-
ings. Now that the national emergency had passed, many em-
ployers and employees ceased to cooperate. Strikes began again.
As in 1916 and 1917, the greatest number of strikes in 1918 and
1919 were in the metal trades, building, clothing, textile, trans-
portation and mining. The largest number of workers in any one
strike in 1916 was 60,000, in the men's clothing strike in New
York; in 1917 no strike involved as many as 40,000; in 1918,
60,000 machinists were on strike in northern New Jersey. The
strikes of 1919 were remarkable for the number of workers in-
cluded; the total number was reported to the Bureau of Labor
Statistics as 4,112,507. Not many strikebreakers were employed;
the labour reserve was still depleted owing to business prosperity
of the war period. Many of the larger strikes occurred in New
York City and its vicinity; 176,000 struck in the clothing trades;
150,000 textile workers in New Jersey and New England; 16,000
marine workers struck in New York harbour in Jan.; 17,000 in
March; and 20,000 longshoremen in March. In July 40,000 ma-
rine workers of the Atlantic coast struck; 100,000 were out some-
time during the year. In 1919, also, 65,000 struck in the stock-
yards in Chicago; 100,000 in the shipjferds of New York and
vicinity; 151,000 in the New York building trades; 43,000
anthracite miners in Pennsylvania.
After the Armistice, war labour adjustment boards, one after
another, were disso'ved. Workers who had been prevented from
striking by the promise of peaceful settlement of grievances, felt
that the Government and employers had broken faith. The re-
sult was widespread unrest, and a number of spontaneous
strikes by the rank and file of-union membership, not authorized
by the union officials. Demands both for the closed shop, and
for the open shop were pushed without thought of compromise.
Employers discriminated against union men, and recourse was
had to force. In accordance with a resolution of the convention
of the A. F. of L. in June 1918, the 24 international unions which ',
claimed jurisdiction over the trades in the steel industry co-
operated to organize all the workers in that industry. Mass
meetings were held in Sept. in mill towns. The companies re- ,
plied by discharging union members; the U.S. Steel Corp. ig- i
nored the request of President Gompers of the A. F. of L. for a
conference. On July 20 1919 the committee of the 24 unions de- |
cided to submit a strike vote to their membership. Twelve de- ]
mands were made. The real issue was recognition of the union.
Wages in the industry were high, but the hours long. In 1911
the stockholders of the Steel Corp. had ordered an investigation
of conditions of work. The report showed that 50% to 60% of
the employees in rolling-mills, open hearth and blast furnaces
worked a 1 2-hour day. The committee recommended a reduction
in hours, but the recommendation was quashed by the finance
committee. In Sept. 1918 the basic 8-hour day was granted,
which resulted in increased pay, not shorter hours. The com-
munities in which steel workers lived were ruled politically by
company influence. In W. Pennsylvania organizers were denied
free speech and assemblage by local authorities. The unions
voted to strike. The call to strike on Sept. 22 1919 was pub-
lished in seven languages, to all workers in iron and steel mills
and blast furnaces not bound by trade agreements. The com-r
panics prepared for battle. At McKeesport alone 3,000 citizens
were sworn in as special police subject to instant call. The mills
of the Pittsburgh district were fortified and provisioned. On.
Sept. 21 rioting and arrests began. The next day 365,000 men
stayed away from work. The state constabulary were sent in.
Gradually the men went back to work. On Jan. 8 1920 the
national committee for organizing the workers permitted the
100,000 men still out to return to the mills. Those who were
taken back were required to give up their union cards. The
national committee reported that 156,702 union members paid
initiation fees between Aug. i 1918 and June 31 1920, and es-
timated at 250,000 the total number organized.
February 6 to n 1919 there was a general strike in. Seattle
Wash., involving 60,000 persons, in sympathy with shipyard
employees who were striking for an increase in pay. The general
strike was carried out by craft unions of the A. F. of L., although
I.W.W. propaganda in the interest of industrial solidarity may
have helped to put the workers into the spirit for such a mass
demonstration. On the first day no unions stayed out; some
workers had permits from the strike committee to work in the
interests of public health and safety; garbage was collected and
milk was delivered to distributing stations. A Labour guard
patrolled the streets to preserve order. The business men viewed
the strike as a "revolution." The mayor announced that unless
the strike were called off on the morning of Feb. 8, he would de-
clare the city under martial law. This threat was not carried out,
although citizens armed themselves, and the governor sent troops
and machine-guns. On Feb. 1 1 the strike was called off. Work-
ers had been returning, indeed, since the second day and a
month later all were back, without wages increases.
The New York harbour strike of Jan. 1919 arose spontaneously
as the result of local initiative and comprised practically all the
16,000 or 17,000 men employed on harbour craft. As a result
50,000 longshoremen also were idle. The harbour had been the
scene of industrial dispute since 1917. The immediate cause of
the 1919 strike was the refusal of the employers to appear for
arbitration before the War Labor Board to which the men had
appealed for the 8-hour day and increased pay. The employers
were persuaded by President Wilson to accept arbitration, and
the men returned to work. The award did not provide for the
8-hour day, and the men struck again. The Railroad Administra-
tion then made concessions to the men on boats, and they returned
to work. Other Government employees followed, and by April
the private employers settled for the original lo-hour day but
with wages increases. On Oct. 7 the railway men struck again.
The longshoremen joined them, against the orders of their
national officials. They wanted increased pay; the strike dwin-
dled away and was over by November.
STRINDBERG STRYPA-CZERNOWITZ, BATTLE OF 597
In Aug. 1919, although forbidden by their national officers,
the railway shopmen called a strike because of the delay of the
Wage Adjustment Board to reach a decision on the demands of
the men for increased pay. The strike began in Chicago and
spread to New York and Boston; 250,000 men went out. After
six days the strike was called off and the men returned to work.
At the request of President Wilson the demands for wages in-
creases were postponed. Other strikes not authorized by national
officers of the union were those of employees of the General
Electric Company in four cities in 1918 and of the New York
local of the International Typographical Union in 1919. For
1917, 72 "unauthorized strikes" were reported, 58 for 1918,
and 125 for 1919. Those in 1919 involved 1,053,256 strikers.
In Nov. 1919 435,000 bituminous coal-miners struck for wages
increases of 60 %. They also demanded the 6-hour day, and the
5-day week in order to distribute the work through the year.
The miners at first refused to arbitrate the dispute as they
feared the delay would give advantage to the employers. An
injunction was issued to prevent the use of union funds for strike
benefits. An award of an impartial committee was accepted in
March 1920, which granted an average of 27% increase in wages,
but the 8-hour day was retained.
About 93% of the policemen of Boston struck in Sept. 1919
for the right to organize and affiliate with the American Federa-
tion of Labor. The city was subject to rioting and crime until
the National Guard restored order. President Wilson declared a
police strike to be a crime against civilization. The police com-
missioner filled the places of the strikers with other men. In
Aug. 1919 there was also an actors' strike, in which the stage
hands and musicians joined in sympathy. An " outlaw " strike
on the railways in April 1920, due to the delay of the President
in appointing the Labor Board provided by the Transportation
Act, was opposed by the brotherhoods. In 1919 and 1920 there
were strikes on the Brooklyn Rapid Transit road, and in 1919
also on the Interborough Rapid Transit of New York.
A strike and lock-out in the men's clothing industry in New
York of six months' duration was settled June 2 1921. The settle-
ment may be regarded as a victory for the union, and for the
principle of trade agreements. Since Sept. 1920 negotiations had
been carried on between the employers' association and the union.
Business depression gave an advantage to the employers, for
whom a lock-out would not mean such a loss as if it had come a
year earlier. On. Dec. 2 the employers presented an ultimatum
to the union stating that unless piece work, a reduction in wages
and the employer's full control of employment and discharge
were accepted before Dec. 6 the manufacturers would put their
own programme into effect, regardless of the decision of the im-
partial board. The union rejected the ultimatum. The reply of
the employers was an announcement that the impartial machin-
ery had ceased to function. Stoppages of work by employees and
lay-offs and shut-downs by employers followed. By Dec. 13 the
union instituted picketing. An offer of mediation by the state
Industrial Commission was accepted by the union, but rejected
by the manufacturers. The manufacturers' association resigned
from the national federation. In Jan. 1921 one of the employers
began suit for an injunction against picketing, $500,000 damages,
and dissolution of the union because of its alleged revolutionary
character. The suit for dissolution was dismissed on March 29.
By March 27, 425 shops had reopened under agreements with the
union, so that 25,000 of the 60,000 clothing workers were again at
work. On April 5 the union announced that $1,000,000 had been
raised toward their defense fund. Early in May certain of the
employers resigned from the association, and the remainder
reached an agreement with the union, by which the bargaining
machinery with the impartial chairman was reinstated. The
workers accepted a 15% cut in wages. The union brought suit
for Si, 000,000 damages against the employers on the charge of
attempted boycott of union members.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. M. Bing, War-Time Strikes and their Adjust-
ment (1921); P. R. Brissenden, The I.W.W. (1919); J. H. Cohen,
Law and Order in Industry (1916) ; U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,
Monthly Labor Review. ' (J. R. Co.)
STRINDBERG, AUGUST (1849-1912), Swedish author (see
25.1038), died at Stockholm May 14 1912. His plays have been
translated into English by E. and W. Oland (1912-3) and
H. B. Samuel (1914).
See A. Henderson, European Dramatists: August Strindberg
(1914); C. D. Marcus, Strindbergs Dramatik (1918); C. L. Schleich,
Erinnerungen an Strindberg (1917).
STRYPA-CZERNOWITZ, BATTLE OF. The fighting in the
area between the River Strypa and Czernowitz (the capital of
the Bukovina) in the winter of 1915-6 comprised an important
scries of operations on the eastern front between Russia and the
Central Powers.
In the middle of Nov. 1915 the fighting activity in the Russian
theatre of war had died down (see EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT
CAMPAIGNS). Both for Austria-Hungary and for Germany
the war against Russia became of secondary importance in pro-
portion as the war of annihilation against Serbia progressed.
The Central Powers had for the moment no offensive in view
against Russia, who was exhausted after the heavy fighting
which had gone before. Both belligerents now settled down to a
war of position, which enabled them to restore their armies. This
lasted until Christmas.
In the middle of Dec., Ivanov, who was in command of the
Russian S.W. front, prepared for a new great offensive. This was,
no doubt, with the view of raising their fallen prestige and regain-
ing the confidence of the wavering Balkan States; above all to
relieve Montenegro, whose overthrow by Austria-Hungary was
imminent; and not least to serving the advantage which a Rus-
sian victory would have in influencing Rumania, which was still
vacillating, to join in against the Central Powers.
Three Russian armies the VIII. under Brussilov, the XI.
under Shtcherbachev and the IX. under Lechitski, with 32 infan-
try and 13 cavalry divisions as well as some Reichswehr forma-
tions attacked the Austro-German front S. of the Polesic in
E. Galicia and in the Bukovina.. From N. to S. there stood
opposed to the Russians the main body of Linsingen's group of
armies, Bohm's group of armies and Bothmer's and Pflanzer-
Baltin's armies, counting roughly 40 infantry and 13 cavalry
divisions. The approximate strength expressed in rifles was in
the proportion of 450,000 Austro-Hungarian to 480,000 Russian.
The Austro-Hungarian infantry divisions were on a lower estab-
lishment than the Russian.
Whereas on the N. wing and in the centre no particular actions
took place, the main attack, assigned by Ivanov to Lechitski's
and Shtcherbachev's armies, was delivered against Pflanzer and
Bothmer on a front stretching from the Rumanian frontier to
Burkanow on the Strypa. The main burden of the attack fell on
Pflanzer-Baltin's army, which was fighting with 8 infantry and
5 cavalry divisions against the Russians' 10 infantry and 6
cavalry divisions.
Not without reason had the Russians selected the S. wing as
the point of attack. A success which should give them back the
capital of Bukovina could not have failed in its effect on Ru-
mania. And besides, an advance into Bukovina was the shortest
cut to the Carpathians, the reacquisition of which was among
their most cherished ambitions. They hoped, by defeating
Pflanzer's army, to roll up Bothmer's and Bohm's fronts.
The preparations for the attack on the Bessarabian front had
been evident since the middle of December. Lechitski had during
that month assembled 4 corps in front of Pflanzer's S. wing
between the Pruth and the Dniester. A sharp watch was kept on
this section by the XI. Corps under von Korda, general of infan-
try, with 3 infantry divisions and I of cavalry. Pflanzer was pru-
dently preparing for the anticipated attacks by organizing the
positions so strongly as to compensate for the deficiency in
numbers. Reinforcements did not arrive until later.
On Dec. 23 an attack on Papp's brigade was repulsed with
heavy Russian losses. In the following days small enemy attacks
multiplied themselves at numerous points of the front. On the
26th heavy artillery fire began, and on the morning of the 27th,
heralded by a heavy bombardment from at least 200 guns, the
Russian mass attack was launched on the Bessarabian frontier
STUART
and to the N.E. of Zaleszczyki, having as its centre of gravity the
positions N. of Toporowce. In the afternoon also the Russians
flung themselves six times on the Austro-Hungarian positions, 15
or 1 6 rows deep, but in vain. They were driven back with heavy
losses either by artillery fire or in hand-to-hand fighting.
On the 28th they repeated their ruthless attacks, which, as at
Toporowce and Bojan, became exceedingly violent. The S. wing
of the S. army was attacked on the same day by the Russian XI.
Army, now commanded by Gen. Sakharov in place of Shtcher-
bachev. At Burkanow an Austro-Hungarian outpost on the
Mogila height had to be brought back to the main position. On
the zpth the battle reached its height. Not only the XI. Corps
but also the VI. Corps and the 36th Inf. Div., defending the
heights on the E. bank of the Strypa, were furiously attacked.
The Russians had brought up fresh forces from Odessa and
Kherson for the attack on the N. wing of Pflanzer's army. The
Russian VII. Army, with 5 to 6 divisions of the Caucasian V.
Corps and the II. Army Corps, pushed in between Lechitski's
and Sakharov's armies, and in addition the II. Cav. Corps came
over from Lechitski's S. wing. Considerably reinforced by these
new forces, Ivanov continued to bring fresh masses into the
attack on the Austro-Hungarian VI. Corps and the 36th Inf.
Div. But as on the previous days all these attacks, courageous
as they were, broke down. Sakharov's S. wing met with the same
fate in attacking the Burkan6w bridge-head. Here the I32nd
Inf. Bde. of Hoffmann's Corps heroically repulsed one onslaught
after another and brought 900 prisoners behind the lines, leav-
ing as many Russian corpses in front of the obstacles.
On the 30th and 3ist the Russians, after hours of preliminary
bombardment, renewed their attempts to break through oppo-
site the VI. Corps. But Arz, reinforced by the 38th Honved Inf.
Div. which had been brought up from the S. army, repulsed all
the assaults. On the 3ist the Russians, having had no success,
and considerably weakened by their enormous losses, withdrew in
the evening. On the Dniester front and the Bessarabian frontier
they confined themselves on both days to moderate artillery fire,
being greatly exhausted by the preceding days. On the II., I.
and IV. Army fronts also, only artillery duels took place.
On New Year's eve and the morning of Jan. i 1916 the
attacks on Pflanzer's S. wing in Bessarabia increased in intensity.
But Korda repulsed all the Russian IX. Corps attacks in hand-
to-hand fighting, with the help of the 9th Inf. Bde., which had
come up from the Italian theatre. In the afternoon 6 Russian
infantry regiments returned to the assault at Rarancze, and suc-
ceeded in forcing back the Austro-Hungarian position by about
300 paces on a breadth of 1,200 paces. A counter-attack was at
once put in hand, but could not penetrate owing to renewed Rus-
sian attacks. Arz's and Bothmer's S. wing, which was attacked
by the Russian XXII. Corps at Sokolov, repulsed all attacks on
New Year's day.
On the 2nd the Russians repeated their efforts to break through
at Rarancae, but failed in each case. But in view of the Russians'
superior numbers, the Austro-Hungarian higher command re-
nounced the idea of winning back the lost position.
On the 3rd and 4th the battle burst forth again on the Dniester
front. At Toporowce and Rarancze furious fighting again took
place. But the Russians' efforts remained fruitless, their attacks
being frustrated by the striking bravery of the defenders in close
fighting. Here the bravt Croats of the i6th Inf. Reg. played a
most glorious part. At Ocna, too, and at the bridge-head of
Michalcze, N.W. of Uscieczko, the front and flanks of which were
already surrounded by the Russians, all attacks were untiringly
repulsed. On the sth, after these assaults, a short lull set in once
more in E. Galicia and on the Bessarabian frontier.
On Jan. 7, the Russian Christmas Day, which was also the
opening day of the attack on Montenegro, the Russian storm-
masses again attacked the VII. Army. At Dobropole a counter-
attack by the i2th Inf. Div. drove the troops of the 3rd Turkestan
Div. out of a captured line of trenches. At n A.M. the Russians
opened a heavy bombardment on the Korda's XI. Corps, follow-
ing it up at one o'clock with an infantry attack on the Toporoutz
and Rarancze positions. But this again brought no success.
On the Sth, gth and icth, it seemed as if the Russians had again
to pause and take breath. Austro-Hungarian airmen reported
the approach of new Russian reinforcements opposite the N.
wing of Pflanzer's army. On all these three days, however, the
Russians continued to fire on the positions. On the loth the
firing at Toporowce and Rarancze became considerably more
vigorous, and when it reached its greatest intensity on the nth,
and finally resolved itself into a bombardment, Korda again
prepared for a most determined resistance. From three o'clock
in the afternoon until ten in the evening, the Russian masses
stormed the Austro-Hungarian positions unceasingly in the
attempt to break through. But each new attack ended in a pre-
cipitate retreat, thanks to the excellent artillery defence.
Pflanzer's front had meanwhile been reinforced by the 4oth
Honved Inf. Div., the 2nd Cav. Div. and the 24th Inf. Division.
It was not until the i3th that the Russians girded themselves
for a fresh attack. With their divisions filled by fresh troops, they
launched against Korda's positions eight violent assaults before
the evening of the I4th, but were obliged to retire each time with
heavy losses. This was their last effort. Their strength seemed
broken, and on the isth, except for some firing on the positions,
there was peace.
The failure of the Russian attacks, and the cessation of hos-
tilities against Montenegro which followed on the i7th, indicated
the close of the New Year's battle. There were still a few isolated
attacks in the next few days, but the need for rest on both sides
brought about a speedy return to the war of positions. The
embittered attacks of the Russian S. army persisted with only
a few intervals for 24 days, ending in a complete victory for
Austria-Hungary along the i3o-km. battle-front of the VII.
Army. At Rarancze only was a small portion of the front given
up, whereas the Russian masses paid heavy tribute before the
strong Austrian positions.
Thus the Russians failed to achieve their great aims. Their
offensive was not able to save Montenegro from her fate, the
Austro-Hungarian front had not been forced back, and the
failure of the attack, which cost the Russians at least 170,000
dead and wounded and 6,000 prisoners, could not definitely
influence Rumania's policy. (E. J.)
STUART, JAMES (1843-1913), British educationist and
politician, founder of the university extension movement, was
born at Balgonie, Fife, Jan. 2 1843, the son of Joseph Gordoa
Stuart, a manufacturer. He was educated at St. Andrews and
at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was third wrangler in.
1866. In 1867 he was elected a fellow of Trinity, and became a.
mathematical tutor. The same year he lectured in astronomy to
women teachers at Liverpool, and such was the success of these
lectures that he was invited to repeat them at other centres.
From this small beginnning arose the university extension,
movement, which, though undertaken at first merely as an.
experiment, has now attained a very great success. In r8;5
Stuart became first professor of mechanism and applied mechan-
ics at Cambridge, and in this capacity was responsible for the
organization of the university workshops and the teaching of
engineering generally. In 1882 he unsuccessfully contested
Cambridge University as a Liberal, but in 1884 was elected for
Hackney. He held this seat till 1885. From 1885 to 1900 he
was member for Hoxton and from 1906 to 1910 member for
Sunderland. He was created a privy councillor in 1909. For
many years he was a Progressive member of the London County
Council, and was also interested in the management of the Star
and the Morning Leader. Stuart married in 1890 Laura Elizabeth,
the daughter of J. J. Colman, head of the great firm of mustard
manufacturers, and became a director of the firm in 1898. He
died at Norwich Oct. 13 1913.
STUART, RUTH McENERY (1856-1917), American writer,
was born in Avoyelles parish, La., in 1856. She was educated in
private schools in New Orleans and in 1879 married Alfred C.
Stuart, a planter. Her first story, Uncle Mingo's Speculations,
appeared in 1888 in the Princeton Review. She moved to New
York City in 1891 and soon became known for her stories of
negro life in the South. She also wrote much verse for magazines.
STUBBS STYRIA
599
She often appeared as a public reader of her own works, which
Jre characterized by humour and pathos. Tulane University,
w Orleans, conferred upon her in 1915 the degree of Litt.D.
e died in New York City May 6 1917.
ler numerous books include Carlotta's Intended (1894); Sonny
(1896); In Simpkinsville (1897); Moriah's Mourning (1898);
Napoleon Jackson, the Gentleman of the Plush Rocker (1902); The
Second Wooing of Salina Sue (1905) ; Sonny's Father (1910) ; The
Unlived Life of Little Mary Ellen (1910) ; Daddy Do-Funny's Wisdom
Jingles (1913) and Plantation Songs and Other Verse (1916).
STUBBS, CHARLES WILLIAM (1843-1912), English divine,
was born at Liverpool Sept. 3 1843, and educated at the Royal
Institution school, Liverpool, and Sidney Sussex College,
Cambridge. His father and grandfather were Yorkshire agricul-
turists, and throughout his life he took a strong interest in the
welfare of the agricultural labourer, publishing three volumes
on the subject, Village Politics (1878), Christ and Democracy
(1883) and The Land and the Labourers (1890). He was a strong
Liberal with somewhat socialistic views, and was preferred by
Mr. Gladstone to the living of Stokenham and Chivelstone in
Devon in 1884. In 1887 he was transferred to Liverpool, becoming
rector of Wavertree. In 1893 he became dean of Ely, remaining
there till 1905, when Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman nominated
him to the bishopric of Truro. He was Hulsean lecturer at
Cambridge in 1904, and published his lectures under the title
The Christ in English Poetry (1905). His other works include
A Creed for Christian Socialists (1896); Charles Kingsley and
the Christian Social Movement (1898) and a Handbook to Ely
Cathedral (1898). He died at Truro May 4 1912.
STURDEE, SIR FREDERICK CHARLES DOVETON, IST
BART. (1859- ), British Admiral, was born at Charlton, Kent,
June 9 1859, the son of a naval officer, and entered the navy
in 1871. He was promoted lieutenant (1880), commander (1893),
captain (1899), rear-admiral (1908), vice-admiral (1913), ad-
miral (1917) and admiral of the fleet (1921). He saw service
in Egypt (1882) and in Samoa (1898-9) when he was in command
of the Anglo-American force. He was assistant-director of
Naval Intelligence to the Admiralty (1900-2) and chief of staff,
Mediterranean Fleet (1905-7) and Channel Fleet (1907). In
1910 he became rear-admiral of the first Battle Squadron, and
commanded the 2nd Cruiser Squadron (1912-3). During the
World War he was commander-in-chief, on the " Invincible,"
of the squadron which won the battle of the Falkland Is., Dec. 8
1914, and he took part in the battle of Jutland. He was created
K.C.B. (1913), and K.C.M.G. (1916); and a baronetcy was
conferred on him in 1916, with the title " of the Falkland Is."
In 1918 he became commander-in-chief of the Nore.
STURDZA, DEMETRIUS (1833-1914), Rumanian statesman
(see 25.1051), died in 1914.
STURGKH, CARL, COUNT (1859-1916), Austrian prime minister
from Nov. 3 1911 to the time of his murder, was born on Oct. 30
1859, of an ancient noble Styrian family, and in 1881 he became an
official of the Statthalterei at Graz, and later of the Ministry of
Education. He left the State service in 1891, when he was elected
as a representative of the loyal land-holding interest to the Reichs-
rat. He attached himself to the Left of the German party, and
came forward as a keen opponent of universal suffrage. He was
from Feb. 10 1909 to Nov. 3 1911 Minister of Education, and a
zealous advocate of the humanistic education traditional in the
gymnasia. Stiirgkh was one of the committee of five ministers who
decided on the dispatch of the ultimatum to Serbia and the decla-
ration of war, which brought on the World War. He was lulled on
Oct. 21 1916 by a shot fired by the Social Democrat Friedrich
Adler, a son of the Social Democrat leader, Viktor Adler, as a
protest against Stiirgkh's government without parliament. (See
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE.)
STURMER, BORIS VLADIMIROVICH (1849-1917), Russian
politician, was born in 1849, the son of an emigrant his father
being captain of a fire brigade at Tula.- He studied at the univer-
sity of Petrograd, and there made friends with Count Bobrinsky,
a member of one of the leading Russian families, who introduced
him into the upper circle of Petrograd society. His affable man-
ners Snd his ability to win the confidence of important people
are the only explanation of his brilliant success in a circle to
which he did not belong by birth or fortune. He started his
career in the Chamberlain's department of the Imperial Court,
but he held at the same time different situations in the Senate,
the Ministry of Justice and elsewhere. When in 1892 the Gov-
ernment rejected the candidate nominated to the presidency of
the executive board of the Tver Zemstvo, Sturmer, whose name
was on the list of the Tver gentry, was appointed to this office.
It was the first case of a president of the Zemstvo being appointed
instead of being elected. In 1894 Sturmer was appointed gover-
nor of the Novgorod, and later of the laroslavl province. Sub-
sequently he was in charge of a department of the Home Office.
In 1904 he was created member of the State Council, but he
never took an active part in the legislative work. Mean-
while he won the confidence of the Court, and he was made
prime minister in Jan. 1916, at a period when the Emperor,
avoiding strong personalities, wished to secure the fulfilment of
his orders by devoted servants. As prime minister Stunner's
reactionary attitude provoked a strong opposition in liberal and
patriotic circles; rumours accusing him of connexions with Ger-
many were widely spread without real proof. These accusations
were finally brought to the tribune of the Duma by M. Milyukov
and resulted in Stiirmer's resignation in November. After Sazo-
nov's dismissal Sturmer took the portfolio of Foreign Affairs,
and his activities in this department resulted in the premature
declaration of war by Rumania, so disastrous for that country
and for Russia. He was arrested after the revolution, and he
died in prison of disease in Sept. 1917.
STYRIA (see 25. 1058), an Austrian territory bordered on the E.
by the Southern Slav State and that part of Burgenland which
belongs to Austria; on the N. by Lower and Upper Austria; on
the W. by Salzburg and Carinthia; and on the S. by the Southern
Slav State. The part of Styria included in the Southern Slav
State has an area of some 2,366 sq. m. and had, in 1910, a pop. of
433,000. The Austrian territory extends over some 6,304 sq. m.,
of which the greater part is mountainous and almost the whole
lies in the Eastern Alps. Styria had formerly three large divisions :
Northern or Upper Styria; Middle Styria; and Southern or
Lower Styria. Lower Styria and the southern part of Middle
Styria, up to the Posruck range and to the Mur have, however,
been taken over by the Southern Slav State. Middle Styria is
surrounded on the W. and N. by a semi-circular mountain range
which joins the Cetic and a part of the Noric Alps and has re-
cently become known as the " Steierische Randgebirge." The
pass through which flows the river Mur between Bruck and Graz
unites it to Upper Styria. The northern part of Upper Styria is
occupied by the heights of the IfdrdHchen Kalkalpen. The eastern
part of the Noric Alps, the Bachern together with the Posruck,
now belongs to the Southern Slav State.
Population. The pop. of the Styria of to-day was, in 1910,
952.59; in I9 2 it had decreased to about 946,720 (151 per sq.m.).
It is almost purely German. The proportion of males to females in
1910 was as 1,000 to 983; in 1920 as 1,000 to 1,053. While Styria
lost some 75,000 Germans, among whom were 9,000 belonging to
the exclusively German-speaking districts, she has now only about
5,000 Slovene inhabitants. In 1910 the pop. of'the present-day
Styria was as to 97-4% Roman Catholic and 2-1 % Evangelical.
For administrative purposes, Styria is divided into 16 districts
and the autonomous city of Graz, the capital (pop. 157,032 in 1920).
Other important places are: (pop. figures are taken from the census
of 1920) in the Traun and Enns district of Upper Styria Bad
Aussee (pop. 1,370); Eisenerz (pop. 6,337); Manazell, the famous
resort of pilgrims (pop. 1,881); in the Upper Mur district Juden-
burg (pop. 5,668); Fohnsdorf (pop. 7,199); Zeltweg (pop. 3,682);
Knittelfeld (pop. 10,672); Leoben (pop. 11,231); Donawitz (pop.
15.087); Vordernberg (pop. 2,352); Bruck an der Mur (pop. 8,490);
in Miirz-Thal Kappenberg (pop. 12,576); Miirzzuschlag (pop.
6,483) ; in Middle Styria Konach (pop. 2,655) ; Voitsberg (pop.
3,283); Eggenberg bei Graz (pop. 15,554): Weiz (pop. 3,620);
Furstenfeld (pop. 5,649) and the Gleichenberg Spa, Kurort Gleichen-
berg (pop. 872).
Education. Styria has three higher educational establishments,
namely the university and the technical college of Graz and the
Montanist College in Leoben.
Notwithstanding the great unevenness of the surface, only 8-0 %
of the present Styria could be reckoned as unproductive in 1900.
Of the productive parts, 19-1% was arable; 0-9% gardens; 0-5%
6oo
SUBMARINE CABLE TELEGRAPHY
vineyards; 11-8% meadows; 13-3% grazing lands; 54-4% was,
however, forest. This territory is justly called " green Styria."
Cattle-raising has greatly developed and farming is actively car-
ried on on the high lands. Nevertheless, in 1918 there were only
358,108 head of cattle (of which 170,630 were milch-cows) and
344,188 swine. A good breed of horses exists in Ennsthal and con-
siderable attention is devoted to poultry-farming in Middle Styria,
where the shooting and fishing are good. The forests yield a great
variety of timber.
Minerals. Styria is so rich in iron ore that it has been called the
" land of iron " (eiserne Mark). Lignite is also abundant. Of the
total output of the mines of present-day Austria (51,000,000 kronen
in 1915) 71% (36,000,000 kronen) is attributed to Styria; its out-
put of iron (1-8 million tons in 1915) is over 94% of the Austrian
total. Iron-mining is almost exclusively confined to the Erzberg
between Eisenerz and Vordernberg. The manufacture of iron in
Austria is now almost entirely confined to Styria (538,753 tons out
of a total of 541,004 tons). The most important iron-smelting works
are in or near the above-named region and at Hieflau, Trofaiach
and especially Donawitz; in the lignite districts, in Zeltweg and
Knittelfeld, near the lignite diggings of Fohnsdorf and in Eibis-
wald; also in Murz-Thal (Kapfenberg, Miirzzuschlag). The Miirz-
Thal is also the centre of the newly created scythe-making industry.
The lignite produced, 1-8 million tons or over 74 % of the Austrian
total, is found in many places. The most important mines are at
Fohnsdorf in Upper Styria; the product of those near Leoben is
used by the great metal works of Donawitz and others and there
are smaller mines in Murz-Thal; in Western Middle Styria in the
districts of Hoflach and Voitsberg and those of Eibiswald and Wies.
Styria also produces salt; 28,000 tons, some 17% of the whole
Austrian output, was obtained near Aussee in 1915. It yields also
almost the entire Austrian output of graphite and some sulphur,
lead and zinc ores, clay and building stone. The output of mag-
nesite has become especially important; Styria alone almost sup-
plies the world, chiefly from the neighbourhood of Veitsch, Trieben,
Kraubath, in the Breitenau near Brack and elsewhere.
Water-power. The plentiful and accessible supply of water-power
has caused the installation of great electrical stations of which,
however, full advantage has not been taken. The electrical works
of Weiz are world-famed.
Manufactures. Notable Styrian manufacturing industries are
those of the iron works at the places already named, also at Pallen-
Thal (Rottenmann, Trieben) and at and near Graz. These turn out
a great variety of iron goods; small articles as well as scythes,
machinery, locomotives (Graz), bicycles (Graz) and wagons.
Graz makes carriages and automobiles and also holds an important
place in the wide-spread wood industries (including furniture).
The manufactures of lignite and cellulose, pasteboard, paper (Grat-
Korn, near Graz, and other places), also of beer (Graz), tiles, flour,
leather, explosives (Deutsch-Landsberg and other places) are con-
siderable. Less important are flour-milling, and the textile, glass,
tobacco and chemical industries.
Communications. The new frontier cuts through the Marburg-
Unterdrauburg line so that the connexion between Middle Styria
and Carinthia goes a long way round, causing considerable incon-
venience. Mariazell is now connected by rail with Vienna.
SUBMARINE CABLE TELEGRAPHY (see 26.527). In 1921
there were over 298,000 nautical miles of telegraph cable in opera-
tion at the sea bottom, made up of some 3,000 separate lengths,
of which about 2,540 were administered by the various govern-
ments concerned, whilst the remainder were the property of
private (mainly British) companies. Of the world's cables, over
130,000 n.m. are owned by British companies, 71,000 by Ameri-
can companies, and 24,000 by companies of other countries. How
much the Allied countries especially Britain were indebted to
submarine telegraphy in connexion with the World War will
probably never be fully realized. Had British communication
with the Dominions been cut off at the outset by the enemy,
months would have elapsed before arrangements could have been
completed for the despatch of the overseas contingents which
rushed to British aid. On the other hand, within four hours of
the declaration of war, Germany was entirely deprived of direct
telegraphic communication with the United States. A British
cruiser effected the required interruption in the English Channel
by cutting both the cables running between Emden and New
York via the Azores, one being taken in to Penzance ( Cornwall).
Then in March 1917 they were both cut at points 643 and 610
n.m. respectively from New York, one of them being diverted by
a British P.O. telegraph ship into Halifax, Nova Scotia. Since
July 1917 this has been at any rate temporarily turned to account
as a connecting link with the All-British Pacific Cable system.
The other line was handed over to France and taken in to
Brest. 1 Altogether 20,000 n.m. of ex-German cables were cap-
tured during the war, covering practically every one of those
passing through the English Channel.
Remarkable indeed were the achievements of submarine tele-
graph cable- laying and repairing authorities during the war. I
Despite the active German submarine warfare, a vast number
stand to the credit of British ships, largely to meet immediate
strategic requirements. Whilst some of these were effected by
cruisers of the Royal Navy provided with the necessary apparatus
and the required length of cable, they were in the most part
carried out by specially designed telegraph ships, though accom-
panied as often as possible (where especially desirable) by a
man-of-war as escort. In addition to manufacturing 20,000 m.
of trench telephone cable, the Telegraph Construction and Main-
tenance Co. made 19,000 m. of submarine cable, and its ships
were actively engaged on highly dangerous work in the way of
laying, repairing and diverting cables. The " Telconia " per-
haps the most efficiently designed telegraph ship in existence
made 75 cable repairs and laid 24 new lines around the English
and Irish coasts whilst in commission for H.M. Post Office.
The first entirely new cable to be laid during the war was that
by the Telegraph Construction Co.'s T.S. " Colonia " between
Montevideo and the Falkland Is. in 1915, under the auspices of
the British Admiralty. In the same year, this company also laid,
under Post Office supervision, a direct Anglo-Russian cable from
Peterhead (Aberdeenshire) to Alexandrovsk (about the nearest
Arctic Ocean coast point to Petrograd). In both instances this
was the earliest occasion on which a cable had been brought to
the farther point. The first line had purely strategic objects in
view, but the second was more especially to meet the fact that
communication between Britain and Russia had previously been
only effected across countries that were now to a great extent en-
emy countries; indeed, the Indo-European Telegraph Co.'s land
line system had become practically inoperative ever since the
out break of the war. This work was a truly remarkable feat. The
cable was laid in the winter and was landed on Russian territory
at the time of year when the sun does not rise above the horizon
in those northern latitudes. In fact, the entire undertaking had
to be carried out in darkness, as well as in seas infested with enemy
submarines. It was conducted with every possible secrecy, it
being arranged for the " Colonia," in order to mislead the enemy,
to go on a preliminary cruise in an entirely different direction.
With land lines at each end and special repeaters, direct tele-
graphic communication was thus established between the Central
Telegraph Office in London and the corresponding building in
Petrograd. Moreover, many telegrams from countries S. of Rus-
sia Greece, for instance passed over this cable in making their
circuitous journey from the Levant to various quarters of the
globe. This was the first piece of ocean cable work that the Brit-
ish Post Office had ever had to do with. Thus, for its purpose,
Post Office engineers and clerks were initiated, at short notice, in
the art of deep-sea cable-laying and long distance cable-working
at the hands of the contractors, as well as by a staff of the Eastern
Telegraph Co. provided for working the cable. 2
The other more especially important piece of British cable
work was the putting through of one of the Emden-New York
cables as the first Imperial Atlantic cable to link up with the
All-British Pacific line. The path taken by what now constitutes
a completed "All Red " route to Australasia is London, Penzance,
Fayal Isle, Azores (mid- Atlantic), Halifax, Bamfield (Van-
couver), Fanning I. (a small, mid-Pacific, coral formation),
Suva (Fiji Is.), Norfolk I., from whence there are two branches,
one to Southport, Queensland (Australia) and the other to
Auckland (New Zealand).
The Atlantic section of this " All Red " cable system was being
worked in 1921 by the Post Office. Thus it has come to pass that
a Government department, that, conjointly with the great cable
companies, had opposed in turn the scheme for an All-British
1 Owing to the enemy's submarine activities, the late German
Atlantic cables could not be attended to for some 14 months.
2 The Post Office Engineering Department's previous experience
of cable work was closely confined to short Channel lines, etc.
SUBMARINE CABLE TELEGRAPHY
601
Pacific Cable and then later that for an All-British Atlantic Cable,
has been called upon itself to put into practice the latter, and now
appears as an exponent of " All Red " cables generally. The
department in question did much fine work during the war. At
the very outset on the eve of Aug. 4 1914, indeed its principal
telegraph ship, the " Monarch," set forth for the N., where many
emergency cables were forthwith laid. It was not long, however,
before she met her glorious end, and her "shattered bones" are
now lying on the bed of the English Channel the scene of most
of her work. She was one of the very first vessels to be especially
designed for cable-laying and repairing.
Another telegraph ship that met her end over the war was the
" Dacia," owned by the Silvertown Company. This vessel had
accomplished a great deal in her time, and during July 1915-
Feb. 1916 she effected cable communications between Brest
(France) and Casablanca (Morocco), by cutting in at suitable
positions and picking up and relaying part of the Borkum-Tener-
iffe cable belonging to Germany. Nearly 450 n.m. of cable were
picked up and relaid on this occasion, part of it in a depth of 2,000
to 2,500 fathoms. She then proceeded to establish communica-
tion between Casablanca (Morocco) and Dakar (W. Africa),
by cutting in, picking up and relaying portions of the Teneriffe-
Monrovia cable belonging to Germany. Eight hundred n.m. of
deep-sea cable were on this occasion recovered and relaid in an
average depth of over 2,000 fathoms. We have here a " record "
in cable work. It was undertaken for the French Administration,
and Casablanca had not up to that time been connected to Europe
by submarine cable. The cable facilitated the sending of troops
to France by Morocco and Senegal when greatly needed.
Messrs. Siemens Brothers' unique and highly efficient tele-
graph ship " Faraday " originally designed by the late Sir
William Siemens, F.R.S. also achieved much during the course
of the war on behalf of the British Post Office, which had at one
time in commission practically every telegraph ship available,
including the largest (T. S. " Colonia ").
Even though observing constant vigilance, a telegraph ship,
when effecting a repair, being deprived of manceuvring powers
by attachment to the cable, is peculiarly vulnerable to anything
like a torpedo attack. It is, therefore, something to be able to
say that the Post Office kept Britain and the European conti-
nent in continuous electrical communication. During the early
part of the war telegraph ships went about their business alone
and unattended, but with the development of intense submarine
warfare naval escorts had to be provided by the Admiralty.
Escorts are not, however, a safeguard against submerged mines,
and so it was that the old " Monarch " met her fate, going down
with her flag flying. On one occasion a telegraph ship on repair-
ing work hove up a mine with the cable, but beyond damage to
machinery and breakage of crockery, no harm was done.
Apart from the disposal of four of the world's telegraph fleet, 1
there were only two instances of Germany getting the best of
things in the matter of cable communication. Within the first
year of the war, a German man-of-war landed a party on the
deserted beach of Fanning I., and this party succeeded in cutting
the All-British Pacific cable there. The other case was that of
the "Eastern" cable landed at Keeling-Cocos. Here again the
attacking party from the " Emden " succeeded in cutting the
cables, 2 but an alarm signal which had been got through led to
the " Emden's " final doom. In this case great enterprise was
shown by the " Eastern " Co.'s superintendent, and in neither
instance was the interruption very serious or lengthy. Though
there were only these two cases of enemy disturbance of the
Allies' cables, many were rendered dumb from the wear and tear
of four years, during which time it was impossible to effect re-
pairs, for lack of suitable ships and the risk of exposing slow-
moving vessels to enemy attack.
1 The total number of such vessels in 1921 was 49, of which some
half dozen were owned by contractors for the original laying of ocean
cables, the rest being smaller vessels, of the cable working companies,
for subsequent repairing operations.
2 The officials in charge had, however, prepared a ruse by utilizing
some spare cable as a dummy, and this dummy the Germans
solemnly cut.
During the latter part of the war, the American submarine
cables on the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean coasts were taken under
control of the United States Government. Inter alia there was a
feeling that considerable advantage would attach to the coordina-
tion of all the telegraph systems throughout the country. Even-
tually ( Nov. 2 1918 ) the U.S. Postmaster-General also assumed
administrative control of all cable landing on U.S. territory, after
the necessary negotiations with other countries concerned had
been carried through. Control ended on May 2 1919.
Post-war Developments. War wastage, the banning of private
codes, considerable general increase of traffic 3 (partly owing to ab-
sence of mails) and voluminous Government messages, were all
responsible for an appalling cable congestion during the war, the
result being several days' sometimes even weeks' delay in the
transit of messages on most of the more important trunk lines.
Though, after the Armistice things became somewhat easier, with
the withdrawal of the censorship and the renewal of private
codes, the ultimate delivery of cablegrams was even in 1921 a
very slow business. When the Marconi Trans-Atlantic wireless
service was re-established some measure of relief was felt. Un-
fortunately, however, it was only capable of dealing with a small
proportion of the ordinary prevailing cable traffic. The hamper-
ing of trade, during the war, by the prohibition of most private
cable codes, was very considerable. To take an example, a cer-
tain firm had been in the habit of sending every week some 40
cablegrams at an average of i each. The cost of the same mes-
sages in plain English would have been some 320.
Most of the cables requiring repairs after the war had been
attended to by 1921, but there was still considerable delay on
cablegrams, even though the lines were being worked at their
full capacity, day and night.
When it is remembered that in the year before the war (1913)
826,000 messages passed through the two Atlantic cables then
connecting the United States with Germany/ it will be realized
what it meant to American commerce alone to be deprived of
these direct cable connexions. In 1921 it was planned to lay a
new Atlantic cable between the two countries, and to extend the
German cable that had been taken into Brest by the French, as
a compromise, to central or northern Europe with a landing
en route off Denmark.
Ever since all of what were formerly British Atlantic cables
passed, in 1912, into the administrative hands of the Western
Union Telegraph Co. of America, the British Government had
been strongly urged as, indeed, for many years previously to
establish a State Atlantic Cable as a connecting link with the
All-British Pacific Cable. The war only served to accentuate
this view. Whilst the capture and diversion of the German At-
lantic Cable (taken into Penzance and Halifax) went some way
to meet requirements, this line had not only been irregular in its
performance but much congested with traffic, largely American.
When therefore, in 1919, the Western Union Co. brought to
an end their lease of the Direct United States Co.'s cable
system between Ballinskelligs (Ireland), Halifax (Nova Sco-
tia) and Halifax-Rye Beach (United States) on the ground of
it being so constantly out of operation the British Government
entered into negotiations, towards the end of 1920, for the pur-
chase of the line at a cost of 570,000, or scarcely more than half
the value of a new cable. When this is given effect the line
together with the Imperial Pacific Line will form a complete
and strictly "All Red" route between the Mother Country and
Australia. Though the line (originally laid in 1874) is even of
more ancient order than the ex-German cables, British Imperial
needs will, to a great extent, be met. The shortcomings will
be further met when a Canadian land line, connecting the All-
British Atlantic and Pacific Cables, is provided.
The All-British Pacific Cable, first laid in 1902, has more than
justified itself. During its first year scarcely more than 200,000
r In the case of the Eastern Co.'s system this was more than
doubled by the war. Thus, the annual gross receipts of the company
were about 2,000,000 more than previously, and much the same
applies to others in the same group.
4 In actual fact these cables accounted for 32 % of the total traffic
of the Commercial Cable Company.
6O2
SUBMARINE CABLE TELEGRAPHY
words were sent. Ten years later, the volume of traffic had been
increased ten-fold. The war brought this up to some 26,000
words per day, or about 9,500,000 words per annum. Notwith-
standing the large capital cost of this line (2,000,000) it pro-
duced a gross profit of 94,000 for the year 1920, whilst its
reserve fund stood at nearly 1,107,000. To illustrate the high
strategic value of the line, during the war, if the Allies had hap-
pened to be even temporarily deprived of naval control, the
British Mediterranean cables would undoubtedly soon have been
cut, which would have meant that British inter-imperial tele-
graphic communication could only have been secured by means
of the All-British Pacific line. It had been felt for a long time
that, since the Imperial Pacific cable was laid as far back as 1902,
steps must be taken to duplicate it in order to provide against
complete breakdown, as well as for dealing with over-congestion.
In 1921, however, owing to the necessity for economy and to the
high cost of materials, it seemed probable that this duplication
would require to be limited, for the present, to the duplication of
the long, slow working, section in very deep water, i.e. the 3,458
n.m. between Bamfield (Vancouver) and Fanning I., which runs
into a depth of 3,400 fathoms (nearly 3! n.m.), and brings
down the resultant speed on the whole line to a low figure.
Perhaps nothing contributed more in the past to the leading
commercial position of Britain than her enterprise in the matter
of telegraph cables. Fortunately, too, she also recognized that
the problem of Empire is largely a problem of communication.
Arising out of the war to some extent, there has been a general
demand for a great deal more inter-communication, not only be-
tween different branches of the British Empire, but also between
distant foreign countries. This demand must be met in the first
place by a considerable addition to the world's cable system over
and above those that were in operation previous to hostilities.
The part of the British Empire which in 1921 was more especially
badly served in the matter of telegraphic communication was the
West Indies, where, largely owing to the nature of the sea bottom,
the existing inter-insular lines (originally laid in 1870) were
constantly breaking down. 1 But for "atmospherics" in these
tropical regions, this would be an ideal case for " wireless." As it
is, it would seem that an efficient air service would do most to
improve prevailing shortcomings at any rate for mail purposes,
the steamer service being also very deficient. From a world
standpoint, however, probably the most acute need for additional
cable facilities is in the Pacific Ocean, for, while the traffic over
the N. Atlantic cables has been practically quadrupled since 19 13,
Pacific cable traffic has increased nearly nine-fold.
The war also aroused the United States to her disadvantage
in the matter of cable communication as compared with her trade
rivals. Thus, on April 26 1921, the U.S. Senate passed a bill " to
prevent unauthorized cable landings in the United States or any
of its possessions." The bill gives the President sweeping author-
ity also to issue, withhold and revoke licences as to cable landings,
as well as for obtaining concessions for the United States in other
parts of the world. Section 2 of the bill enables the President " to
withhold or revoke such licence when satisfied such action will
assist in obtaining for the landing or operation of cables in foreign
countries or in maintaining the rights or interests of the United
States." The President may grant such licence on such terms as
will assure just and reasonable rates. The licence is not to give
the licencee exclusive rights of landing or of operation, in the
United States. The policy appears to be based chiefly upon con-
siderations that shall guard against consolidation or amalgama-
tion with other cable lines, while insisting upon reciprocal accom-
modation for American corporations and companies in foreign
territory. In 1920 the U.S. authorities refused to allow a cable
laid for the Western Union Co. to be landed at a point on the
coast of Florida on the ground that it was intended for connect-
ing up, via Barbados, with the " Western Telegraph " system
(at Maranham) of a British company. 2 The American Govern-
1 Report of the Royal Commission on Trade between Canada and
the West Indies (Cd. 5369, 1910).
2 The prospects of trade with S. America are, in fact, so attractive
that telegraphic communication therewith has been made a special
ment considered that allowing such a cable to be laid would have
lent colour to the British company having sole rights of communi-
cation between the United States and Brazil. As a matter of
fact, another American company (All America Cables, Inc., of
New York) 3 was also preparing to lay a cable to the Brazilian
Coast, and it was thought by the U.S. Government that by
acceding to the application of the Western Union Co., the claims
to a monopoly being possibly established thereby might prevent
the other cable being laid a cable greatly to the interests of
American trade with Brazil. The United States had evidently
determined to establish its own system of cables throughout the
world, partly for high national reasons, but also with a view to
developing trade, especially with S. America.
France also has shown a disposition to be increasingly active
and enterprising in this matter; likewise Japan.
International Cable Conference, 1920-1. Probably no tele-
graphic conference has ever been the scene of such acute disagree-
ment on essential points as that which held sittings during parts
of 1920 and 1921 at Washington. This was perhaps natural,
when we remember (a) that Germany had been relieved of prac-
tically all her cables, (ft) that the destiny of these cables was of
first-rate importance to all the principal powers.
Soon after the confiscation of the German cables an agreement
was entered into between Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan,
whereby these ex-German lines were to be severally distributed
amongst them. The United States having come into the war
some time later, it was proposed at the Conference, that these
cables should, as a substituted arrangement, become the joint
property of the five Allies.
The actual diversion of the German Atlantic cables was com-
pleted by Great Britain in July 1917, and by France in Nov.
1917 in both instances after the United States had joined
the Allies. The American view was, therefore, that neither of
these appropriations of cables between the Azores (Portuguese
possessions) and the United States could be justified, seeing
that both the United States and Portugal were already allied
with England and France in the vigorous prosecution of the
war. Then again, no single section of the ex-German cable in
the Pacific touched Japanese soil, but one landed on American
territory (Guam). Thus it was argued that it was something of
an anomaly that the Japanese should ever have seized the Ger-
man cable system, to the great detriment of American trade with
China and the Philippines and correspondingly to their own
(Japanese) advantage.
There were probably few matters that could, in principle, be
dealt with so suitably by the League of Nations as those associ-
ated with international telegraphic communication. But that
could only apply if, and when, the United States joined the
League, or, on the other hand, in instances where America was
in no way concerned. With ex-German islands and cables, how-
ever, it was quite clear that the United States was very much
concerned. Further, there was no nation whose interests wore
liable to be so much affected by the mandate as regards Yap
more especially in reference to the cable as the United States.
The control of telegraphic communication between that island
and China meant much to Japan. On the other hand, such an
arrangement was regarded as contrary to American interests.
In these circumstances, seeing that the United States was one of
the "principal Allied and Associated Powers," the question was
raised why such a mandate was ever granted to Japan without
the assent of the United States. However, the Yap difficulty
was eventually settled, so as to preserve American rights, at
the Washington Conference in Dec. 1921 (see JAPAN; also
WASHINGTON CONFERENCE).
consideration of recent years both in Britain as well as in the United
States. Thus, in order to improve the then existing facilities, a
cable was laid in 1910 by the Telegraph Construction & Mainte-
nance Co. between St. Vincent, Ascension and Buenos Aires, these
sections now forming a part of the Western Union Telegraph Co.'s
system. In 1920, the same company laid a cable between Maran-
ham and Barbados.
, a Formerly the Central & S. American Telegraph Co., with lines
down the W. coast of the American continent.
SUBMARINE CABLE TELEGRAPHY
603
It was perhaps in the nature of things that those countries
such as the United States which were in a less favourable posi-
tion in the matter of cable ownership should especially desire the
internationalization or neutralization of cables. Certainly, the
neutralization and internationalization of cable systems might
have one advantage, i.e. bring to an end the suspicions, right or
wrong, that messages concerning another country were delayed,
scrutinized, tampered with, etc. Such charges were largely due
to keen commercial rivalry, and principally if not entirely a
question of news agencies rather than cable companies. Any
foundation they had was probably more or less closely limited to
the war, when certainly Canada was very ill-supplied with news
from Europe or indeed, with reference to Imperial matters
whilst over-abundantly informed of trouble in Ireland.
Strategic Cables. Unless the strict neutralization of cables be-
comes the order of the day, under the League of Nations or
otherwise, the best principle would probably be that every coun-
try should partly for strategical reasons establish for itself
many more cables on a variety of routes well clear of foreign soil.
These should be worked on a low rate basis for the general en-
couragement of intercommunication, but especially for develop-
ing commerce and trade. They should be supplemented by
wireless, which is already in use as feeders to the cable sys-
tems. There can be no question that messages passing through
cables touching foreign territory are insecure. If the cable lands
on an enemy's country, the message is stopped or read off, and if
on neutral soil, it runs the chance of also finding its way to the
enemy , if only because a country whichis neutral to-day may be un-
friendly to-morrow. A clear distinction must be observed between
an international submarine cable and a national cable. An inter-
national cable is one which connects the territory of different
independent states; a national submarine cable is one which
unites the territory or the colonial possessions of a single inde-
pendent state. The character of the charter or ownership of a
submarine cable determines whether it should be deemed foreign
or national in respect to a particular state. Apart from their
great strategic value, the Chambers of Commerce of practically
every important town in the United Kingdom have, on strictly
business grounds, loudly urged for a system of All-British ca-
bles worked at comparatively easy rates. The same course has
also been taken at various influential congresses of the Chambers
of Commerce of the British Empire, partly with a view to ensuring
against enemy interruptions and eavesdropping. Promoters of
private enterprise are indisposed to undertake the laying of
cables of a strategic, rather than commercial, order. On the other
hand, the cables on the trade routes through the Mediterranean,
etc. are especially liable to interruption, much more so than
those in the open ocean.
Cable Tariff. The ordinary cable rates, though showing ma-
terial reduction from those of the earliest days, were in 1921 still
very high from the public standpoint. 1 For financial reasons,
they were largely based on the length of cable involved (see
accompanying table), whereas it is just in the case of especially
great distances that the cablegram is at an advantage against the
mail boat. Here is a striking case where public (i.e. national)
and private interests necessarily clash, and where, of course,
national interests should be made supreme. This, it is to be
feared, can be done only by adequate state control.
In the final report (Cd. 8462) of the Dominions Royal Com-
mission in 1917 expression was given to the view that " charges
are very high, the scales extremely complicated and their justi-
fication difficult to recognize." The report goes on to say: " The
popularization of the cable service can only come with a simplifi-
cation of the charges and their radical reduction; at present out-
side its commercial use cable communication is a luxury."
In 1912 a system of half rates for plain-language cablegrams
deferred in transmission for 24 hours was introduced after many
years' outside pressure. This reform marks something of an
epoch in the history of cable telegraphy, and has, in due course,
become universal. Week-end cablegrams at a reduced rate were
1 Some of the more recent reductions may possibly be due in part
to the competition such as it is of wireless telegraphy.
Principal British, etc., cable route stations, with approximate
cable distances from London, and tariff, ordinary rate, therefrom.
Station
Approxi-
mate cable
mileage
Ordinary
rate
s. d.
Madeira
1,617
I
St. Vincent
2 ,744
2 2
Ascension
4,519
2 O
St. Helena ....
5,37
2 O
7 IQO
2 O
Gibraltar
/, *yy
I,5l
o 3
Malta . .'....
2,618
o 4
Alexandria
3,483
I O
Port Said
3,636
I O
Aden . .....
5, 65
2 O
Bombay
6,910
I 8
Colombo
7,328
I 8
Penang
8,735
2 IO
Singapore
9,135
2 IO
Labuan
9,869
2 IO
Hong-Kong
10,657
3 o
Shanghai
11,584
3 o
Zanzibar '. . .
7,024
2 O
Seychelles
8,145
2 O
Mauritius
9,210
2 6
Fremantle
14,289
3 o
Adelaide
I 5. 8 34
3 o
Melbourne
16,500
3 o
Tasmania
16,700
3 o
Bathurst
J -IIQ
2 6
Sierra Leone
jto * y
3,785
2 6
Accra
4,807
3 o
Lagos
5,079
3 o
Bonny
c AOO
3 O
Newfoundland
iJIT"
2,4IO
o
I
Nova Scotia
2,727
I
Halifax
3,150
I
Montreal
3,777
I
Vancouver
6,677
i 6
10 ^8
2 6
Fiji (Suva)
tOO
12,401
2 8
Norfolk Island . . . .
13,383
2 8
Queensland ;
14,220
3 o
Auckland
14,101
2 8
Nelson . . . . .
14,550
2 8
Sydney
15,352
3 o
Bermuda ....
4,000
2 6
Jamaica
5,264
2 6
Colon .
5,894
2 8
Barbados
6,542
2 6
Trinidad
6,621
2 6
Pernambuco
4,606
I 7
Rio de Janeiro
5,973
2 7
Montevideo
7,135
2 9
also introduced a little later, this being further supplemented by
reduced rates for press messages between Britain and her Do-
minions. There is also now the " cable letter " service which
offers even more favourable rates.
With practically all the great cable companies, the tariffs were
maintained throughout the war at the same normal figure, whilst
considerably more business was done than under peace condi-
tions. A great increase in Government messages occurred, and the
suspension of private codes added vastly to the length of most
business telegrams, not to mention the continuous flow of ex-
tensive press " cables " relating to the war.> Then, again, an
enormous number of messages were sent such as in normal times
free from postal shortcomings would be limited to ordinary
written correspondence or to " deferred " traffic, which was
abandoned by most of the cable companies throughout hostilities.
The net result was that these organizations, unlike railway com-
panies, not only maintained their reserves, but very materially
added to them during the war. The best explanation here is to be
found in the fact that cable repairs to be faced after the long
period of warfare were altogether abnormal, though it must be
remembered most of the companies concerned already had enor-
mous reserves. The principal exception is the case of the Central
and South American Telegraph Co., combined with the Mexican
604
SUBMARINE CABLE TELEGRAPHY
Telegraph Co. (the former operating what are now known as
the All- America Cables), which, during the war, made large
reductions in their tariff, even though, on the greater part of their
route, holding a monopoly. The directors expressed their con-
viction that (a) the cable performs a very special mission during
warfare, and (b) it plays a highly important part in the fostering
of trade relations. They were, therefore^ determined to aid in
every way possible the efforts to maintain and extend the already
large trade between the United States and the countries of Cen-
tral and S. America.
It must not be forgotten that an essential accompaniment to a
low telegraph tariff is many more communicating strings; other-
wise, the congested condition only becomes worse congested. On
the other hand, it is also only by great developments of one
sort and another in our means of communication that an in-
creased, as well as cheaper, telegraphic output can be secured.
Nationalization. One result of the Dominions Royal Commis-
sion's exhaustive inquiry was the following expression of opin-
ion. 1 " We feel bound, however, to record our opinion that at no
distant date the nationalization of the private cable companies
will become one of the most urgent problems for statesmanship."
Their report states further: " It appears difficult, if not impos-
sible, to attain the desired cheapness of cable communication, as
to the importance of which we hold the strongest views, without
interfering with the rights of private companies." Again: " The
urgency of placing cable communication on such a footing that
it would be available, not only to the rich, but to all classes, not
only to the merchant, but also to the private individual, is mani-
fest and imperative."
But it must not be forgotten that the world is indebted, in the
first instance, to the enterprise of private companies for the es-
tablishment of submarine cable communication. Some of the
companies have certainly been assisted in their enterprise by
large Government subsidies. 2 Moreover, these companies have
met with rich returns over their enterprise.
Telegraph Control Board. Whether State ownership should
ever be adopted by a country is, of course, a large question, but
it seems obvious that in national and imperial interests a measure
of State control is desirable in the matter of inter-imperial com-
munications generally. A controlling organization of one sort or
another appears to be called for, if only for watching and securing
public interests, where clashing with private interests, in return
for favours granted by the State.
In the case of Great Britain there are no less than seven Gov-
ernment departments (in addition to the Treasury) concerned
in this matter. Hitherto one of these alone (the Post Office) has
been acting for the Government, and all questions regarding
other departmental interests had to be submitted to the Post
Office. This was never very satisfactory in the result.
A British inter-departmental board to deal with inter-depart-
mental telegraphs of all sorts has been advocated for many years.
By this scheme, all the Government departments concerned were
to be represented and to meet periodically to discuss and settle all
important matters as they arose. The war made it clear to the
British Government that something of the sort was necessary;
and Jan. i 1919 saw the establishment of such a committee, the
whole coming under the aegis of the Committee of Imperial De-
1 Final Report (Cd. 8462 of 1917).
1 These are as follows :
Name of
Company
Amount
of Sub-
sidy
Period of
Subsidy
Cables for which
Subsidy granted
Eastern Telegraph
Co.
Easte'rn & S. Afri-
can Telegraph
Co.
Eastern Extension
Co.
Direct West India
Co.
4,500
f28,000
1.13,500
4,000
8,000
20 years from
April 24 1901.
20 years from
Nov. 1893.
20 years from
Jan. I 1900.
Indefinite.
20 years from
Feb. I 1898.
Sierra Leone-
Ascension.
Zanzibar- Seychelles-
Mauritius.
Three S. African
cables.
C hefoo- Weihaiwei.
Bermuda-Jamaica.
fence. Such a control board, or committee, becomes increasingly
desirable in these days of wireless development, for a nice sense
of impartiality and discrimination may be required for decid-
ing what should be effected by cable and what by wireless.
Working Developments. The development of the art of sub--
marine telegraphy was considerable during 1907-21 not so
much in relation to the cable itself as to the electrical apparatus
for working it. These include the introduction of automatic re-
lays (associated more especially with the names of the late
Dr. Alexander Muirhead, F.R.S., and Mr. S. G. Brown, F.R.S.)
on the Eastern, Western Union, All-British and Commercial-
Pacific cables, as well as other wide-spread cable systems.
These have almost entirely superseded manual retransmis-
sion between cable sections. Secondly, the introduction of
magnifiers (or amplifiers, as they are sometimes called), by
rendering the signals more legible, has enabled the carrying
capacity of the cables to be enormously increased, at the same
time adding to their reliability in the matter of accuracy. Such
devices are based on the published experiments of Charles Cur-
tis in the United States and Edward Raymond-Barker in Eng-
land, and emanate in turn from K. C. Cox, T. B. Dixon, Walter
Judd, Angus Fraser, E. S. Heurtley and Axel Orling. The Heurt-
ley magnifier has been very widely adopted by the Pacific Cable
Board, the Eastern Association Companies, etc. In vastly im-
proving the character of the signals, this type of apparatus
achieves the net result of adding to the effective working speed
in the same degree. Indeed, the later results with the Orling
magnifier point to a speed increase of as much as 200 per cent.
Thirdly, automatic printing apparatus has been introduced on
the land lines worked in conjunction with cables. This apparatus
is for the most part due to Mr. F. G. Creed.
Then again, Maj.-Gen. G. O. Squier, Chief Signal Officer of
the U.S. army, has experimented with alternating current genera-
tors for cable telegraphy, and his researches point to results
of a highly advanced as well as revolutionizing character.
The Imperial Cable section of the "All Red " route is associated
with some of the latest developments in cable telegraphy. The
transmission both at London and Halifax is effected by what are
known as converter cable transmitters. These are entirely auto-
matic in their working, and, by the use of a switch, will take
either Morse or cable type of perforation. There are automatic
repeaters at each of the intermediate stations. One of these sec-
tions, i.e. Bamfield-Fanning, 3,458 n.m., is the longest existing
cable length, and has always been a source of great difficulty in
the matter of speed as well as from a commercial point of view
generally. In the circumstances, the results that have been
achieved, by means of recent electrical devices, are very remark-
able. It is, indeed, highly creditable that the score of a cricket
match can be got through from Melbourne to London within 15
minutes, despite the six intermediate retransmitting points, over
so great a total length. A few years earlier, such retransmissions
were always effected manually. Now, however, automatic (ma-
chine) repeaters are gradually becoming general for all extensive
systems with a number of intervening cable sections. The average
duplex working speed on the entire route (controlled by that of
the long section) was formerly 18 words per minute, 3 but it has
been very considerably increased by means of the Heurtley ampli-
fier or magnifier. Something like a 40% increase in the simplex
working speed (or 20% duplex) is claimed on this apparatus,
which converts the microscopic signals associated with a
long cable worked at high speed into characters of reasonable
size. On the Atlantic sections some of the very latest de-
vices have been introduced for the purposes of efficient and
high speed working, such as had previously been adopted
by the Eastern Associated Telegraph Companies. In the
main, the plan is that of Morse working in connexion with
the Gulstad Relay, so that the speed of connecting land lines is
brought up to that of cable code working. 4 The Eastern Compa-
3 Nearly all long cables are now worked on the duplex system.
4 On the Indian Government (Persian Gulf) system between
Basra and Karachi, the speed for land line Morse was actually raised
from 35 to 75 words per minute.
SUBMARINE CAMPAIGNS
605
nies have further greatly added to the efficiency of their system
by means of the Creed Printer, which is also installed on the
Atlantic section of the "All Red" route, as well as in connexion
with Wheatstone high-speed working on the Pacific cable land
line system between Melbourne and Sydney.
A Stock Exchange Telegraph Service of a highly efficient order
was established some years ago between London and New York.
So efficient is this that messages are got through within ten
minutes. Something like 2,500 such messages are transmitted
between the two Stock Exchanges during an afternoon.
Cables and Commerce. In pre-cablc days each country was, in
large measure, an independent commercial unit. The subma-
rine cable has done much to alter that state of things. Whereas
in 1870 the total value of the commerce between the United
States and Great Britain was' about 90,000.000, in the fiscal
year ending June 30 1920 it was as much as 525,000,000. Be-
sides the enormous increase in volume of business brought about
by the extension of telegraphic service across the oceans, this
quickened communication has also brought a complete change
in business methods. It has, indeed, introduced an element of
stability into international trade such as was seriously lacking
when intercourse depended solely on the mail.
The World War has tended also to increase cable traffic be-
cause of changed business habits. During the early months of the
conflict a rigorous censorship on cable messages was enforced by
the Allied Governments. At first codes of all kinds were prohib-
ited, and although this regulation was subsequently modified to
allow the use of ordinary commercial codes, private codes and
lighter messages were stopped. As a result, many business firms
discovered that for much of their cable business the time and
labour spent in coding and decoding as well as the errors which
are inevitable in the transmission of unintelligible matter made
messages in plain language only slightly more expensive than
code. The result after the war has been a considerable increase
in the percentage of plain-language messages. Another factor in
the greater traffic has been the increased use of the cables for
transactions which were formerly carried on by mail. This has
been due partly to changed conditions which have made speedy
communication more than ever necessary, and partly to the
fact that the business houses, which were forced to increase their
use of the cables during the war, have continued to do so on dis-
covering the great convenience of cable communication in com-
parison with the mail.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sir Charles Bright, Telegraphy, Aeronautics and
War (1918) and Inter-Imperial Communication through Cable, Wire-
less and Air ( Paper to the British Association, Sept. 12 1919);
Post Office Electrical Engineers' Journal (1919-20) ; Telegraph and
Telephone Journal (1921). (C. BR.*)
SUBMARINE CAMPAIGNS. At the beginning of the World
War the submarine was a comparatively new weapon of untried
possibilities, whose ultimate place in naval warfare it was hard
to foresee; and there ensued a period of tentative effort, confined
at first to the North Sea, which lasted from Aug. 1914 to Feb.
1915. Germany started the war with 28 submarines, but the
unreliable nature of the Korting engines fitted in the first 18
boats (Ui-Ui8) had given her a low opinion of their merits. This
was accentuated by the result of the first operation of the war
consisting of a sortie by 10 boats up the North Sea, in which Uis
was rammed by the light cruiser " Birmingham " on Aug. 9 1914
and Ui3 disappeared. On the British side some 56 submarines
were available, the newest boats of the D and E class being
attached to the 8th Flotilla (18 boats) employed under Com-
modore Roger Keyes in guarding the approach to Dover Straits
with a couple (E6 and E8) reconnoitring in the Bight.
Early Days of the War. Submarines did not play a decisive
part in the Heligoland Bight action on Aug. 28. The six British
submarines present were disconcerted by the unexpected ap-
pearance of British light cruisers, and the German submarines
were retained off Heligoland guarding the approach to the rivers.
'The first British warship to be sunk by submarines was the
" Pathfinder," a small cruiser torpedoed by U2i (Otto Hersing),
off the Forth on Sept. 5, an incident which aroused little com-
icnt beyond emphasizing the danger of old ships patrolling on
regular beats. The sinking of the " Cressy," " Hogue " and
" Aboukir " off the Dutch coast on Sept. 22 1914 was a much
heavier blow. They had been sent to patrol on the Broad Four-
teens, between England and Holland, and were steaming slowly
in line abreast two miles apart at 6:30 A.M. when the " Aboukir,"
" Hogue " and " Cressy " were torpedoed in quick succession.
This was the work of Otto Weddingen in Ug, and the wholesale
disappearance of Cruiser Force C within an hour with a loss of
over 1,400 men came as an unpleasant shock, and definitely
established the power of the new weapon. By the end of Sept.
submarines were pushing past Dover Straits into the Channel,
and on Oct. 16 1914 the fear of the new weapon reached a climax,
when on a false alarm of one in Scapa Flow the British Grand
fleet hastily put to sea at night and proceeded to Lough Swilly
where by a freak of misfortune the "Audacious" ran on a mine
and was lost. Oct. 20 1914 had seen the sinking of the first
merchant ship, the ss. " Glitra," off Norway by Uiy, but it was
not until Nov. 23 that Ui8 actually attempted to enter the Flow.
The Grand fleet were at sea at the time and Ui8 was rammed by
a minesweeper, the " Dorothy Gray," close to the Hoxa entrance.
She went down to 1 1 fathoms with her hydroplanes damaged, and
coming to the surface later was rammed by the destroyer
" Garry " and forced to surrender, the first and (with the excep-
tion of UBn6 in 1918) the last attempt to enter Scapa Flow.
Defensive Methods. The war found the British navy almost
destitute of defensive methods against the submarine. A com-
mittee had sat on the subject but had evolved nothing but the
modified sweep a somewhat clumsy contrivance consisting of
a line of explosive charges towed astern, regulated in depth by a
water-kite and fired from inboard. The defence of Scapa had
been mooted as early as 1912, and Adml. Jellicoe, then at the
Admiralty, had taken an important part in discussions on the sub-
ject, but nothing had been done beyond allocating a small sum
for the purpose in 1913, which was diverted to Dover to build a
wall on the breakwater, in pursuance of the pre-war tendency to
try and fit prospective wars into the existing naval ports. By
the end of 1914 Cromarty had been supplied with Capt. Donald
Monro's boom, but Scapa with all its entrances was not secure
till Feb. 1915. Counter measures at this stage of the war were
confined to an extensive development of the Auxiliary Patrol
organization, the tentative supply of defensive armament to
merchant shipping, and the equipment of a comparatively small
number of vessels with the modified sweep. The trawlers of the
Auxiliary Patrol played an important part in minesweeping and
in escort work, but were too slow and too poorly armed to be
really effective in offensive operations against the submarine.
By the end of 1914 the submarine was generally recognized as a
new and powerful weapon in naval warfare, though its tremen-
dous potency as an instrument of the guerre de course had not
been fully realized. Germany had lost 7 and with the addition of
ii had 30 now available, with 42 U boats and 127 UB and UC
under construction and on order. Von Tirpitz, fully alive to
their possibilities, was already building great hopes on them.
The early morning of New Year's Day 1915 saw the old
battleship " Formidable " (Capt. A. N. Loxley) fall a victim to
U24 off Start Point while patrolling up and down with the Chan-
nel fleet at 10 knots. The captain went down with the ship.
Only 141 were saved out of a crew of over 800, and the incident
demolished once and for all the opinion of a certain school of
naval thought that the submarine could be ignored.
They were now going farther afield. Otto Hersing in U2i
made his first cruise to the Irish Sea in Jan. 1915, and this
month too saw the first instances pf a ship being torpedoed with-
out warning in the case of the British s.s. " Tokemaru " and s.s.
"Ikaria " off Havre on Jan. 30 by U2o (Schwieger, who was to
earn an unenviable reputation for ruthless warfare).
Campaigns of 1915. Feb. 4 1915 saw the close of what may
be termed the preliminary phase of submarine warfare. The
German naval staff now decided to conduct a general campaign
against merchant shipping, and on this date the German Govern-
ment issued a declaration constituting all waters round Great
Britain and Ireland a war zone (Kriegsgebiet), in which from
6o6
SUBMARINE CAMPAIGNS
Feb. 4 all enemy merchant ships would be destroyed without it
being always possible to avoid danger to passengers or crew, and
where even neutral vessels would be exposed to danger of attack.
This evoked on Feb. 1 1 a strong protest from" the United States
denouncing it as an indefensible violation of neutral rights. The
date was postponed to Feb. 18 and the order modified to the
extent that neutral ships were to be spared, though in adjudging
their neutrality all circumstances and not the flag only were to
be taken into account. March 18 1915 saw the end of Otto
Weddingen in 1/29 which was on her way home round Great
Britain, about half-way between Kinnaird Head and Norway,
when she was rammed by the battleship " Dreadnought " after
attacking the battleship " Maryborough." The inauguration
of the new campaign was followed in March by the establish-
ment of the Flanders flotilla, which at first consisted of small UB
and UC boats working chiefly round the Thames and east coast.
By Oct. 1915 it had grown to 16 boats, and was contributing a
fair proportion of the ships sunk.
The Flanders flotilla had hardly started its career when it met
with a formidable obstacle in Dover Straits. Experiments had
been proceeding for some months in the use of steel wire nets to
indicate and obstruct the passage of submarines, and the admiral
at Dover (Rear-Adml. Hon. Horace Hood) now succeeded in
closing the Straits by this means for over four months. The nets
used were in lengths of 100 yds. and 60 or 30 ft. deep, shot by
drifters, and by Feb. 13 1915 he had some 30 drifters riding to
their nets in the Straits. Bad weather took a heavy toll of the
equipment, but the results were surprisingly successful to an
extent hardly appreciated at the time. U8 fouled one of these
nets on March 8 1915 off the Varne and was forced to come up
by the destroyer " Ghurka," which exploded a modified sweep
over her. U37 went down the Channel later in the month and
never returned. Early in April 1/32 got caught in a net, and had
so much difficulty in getting clear that she went home north-
about. She drew a formidable picture of the obstruction, and
on the strength of her report the Bight flotillas received instruc-
tions to go northabout, and the Flanders boats following their
example also eschewed the Straits for over four months. It was
thought at first that in the net a permanent antidote to the
submarine had been found, and net bases were established at
several ports, particularly at Larne for the North Channel, but
technical difficulties (clips and indicator buoys) supervened, and
the Germans overcame the lighter form of net by net cutters.
The sinking of the liners " Falaba," " Lusitania " and " Ara-
bic " constituted three beacons in the 1915 campaign. The
former, an Elder Dempster liner of 4,806 tons on the way to
Sierra Leone, was torpedoed with five minutes' warning on
March 27 by UaS off the south of Ireland, and sank in eight
minutes with the loss of over 100 lives. The indignation arising
from this incident had hardly subsided when it was fanned
to fever heat by one of the most momentous incidents of the war.
On May 71915 Schwieger in U2o was off the Old Head of Kinsale
(south of Ireland) when he sighted a great liner homeward bound.
This was the " Lusitania " going only 18 knots, her decks
crowded with women and children. At 2:15 P.M. he sent two
torpedoes into her without warning and she went down in 20
minutes with the loss of 1,198 lives, while Schwieger " moved
with mixed feelings " watched the terrific scene. A chorus of
applause arose in Germany, but the deed can be seen now as an
error of the first magnitude, which set on foot the whole train of
circumstances which brought America into the war. The con-
troversy between the German naval staff and the Chancellor
immediately reached a crisis. The latter refused to be responsible
for such acts, and on June 5 1915 an imperial order was issued
forbidding the sinking of large passenger vessels. Von Tirpitz,
the Secretary of State, was furious, and he and Bachmann, the
chief of the naval staff, both sent in their resignations, but were
commanded bluntly to remain at their posts.
Meanwhile Otto Hersing, the pioneer in distant fields, had
sailed on April 25 in U2i for the Mediterranean. Arrangements
had been made to provide him with oil on the way, probably
in the vicinity of Tangiers, but they broke down, and he arrived
at Cattaro on May 13 with only half a ton of oil fuel left. He
reached the Dardanelles on May 25 and instantly made his
presence felt. The " Vengeance" was missed by a torpedo that
day; the old battleship " Triumph " supporting the Anzacs off
Gaba Tepe was hit by two torpedoes at 12:30 P.M. and turned
turtle in nine minutes with a loss of over 200 lives. Two days
later (May 27) the " Majestic," supporting the troops inside the
Straits, was hit and capsized with the loss of 49 men. The whole
system of naval bombardment received a severe shock, though it
was not till Aug. 13, when the " Royal Edward " was sunk near
Kos by UBi4, that the transports began to suffer.
By this time another counter to the submarine had been found
in the decoy ship, whose early type consisted of trawlers or
vessels with submarines in tow. Three submarines were sunk in
this way during the summer of 1915 (U4O on June 23 by C24,
U23 on July 20 by C27, and 1136 on July 24 by the " Prince
Charles "). Aug. 19 1915 saw the destruction in the approach to
St. George's Channel by the decoy ship " Baralong " of 1127,
while she was attacking the " Nicosian." Several German
sailors had boarded the latter vessel, and the American cattlemen
in her, when they saw the submarine disappear, fell on them and
threw them overboard. Germany gave vent to a roar of indigna-
tion, undisturbed by the fact that the very day U27 was sunk
U24 (Schneider) met the White Star liner " Arabic " outward
bound off the south of Ireland and sank her without warning with
the loss of 44 lives. Indignation in America flamed up anew.
Again at great headquarters von Tirpitz wrestled with the
Chancellor and again the Chancellor won the day. The use of
decoy ships and defensively armed merchantmen, by increasing
the danger of coming to the surface, provided the German naval
staff with a strong argument for unrestricted warfare, but the
imperial decision went in favour of the Chancellor, and orders
were issued on Aug. 30 that no liners were to be sunk without
warning and due regard for the safety of passengers. This was a
bitter blow to the partisans of submarine warfare, and Adml.
Bachmann, the chief of the naval staff, who had not been con-
sulted on the issue, resigned and was succeeded by Adml. von
Holtzendorff. The commander-in-chief of the High Sea fleet,
Adml. von Pohl, also asked to be relieved, but to no purpose.
He was told he did not understand the political situation. On
Sept. 20 1915 further orders were issued to suspend submarine
warfare on the west coast and in the Channel. The campaign
now languished in British waters. From Sept. 1915 to Feb. 1916
activity against merchant shipping practically ceased in the Bight
and was transferred to the Mediterranean.
During the year Feb. 1915 to Jan. 1916 a total of 394 Allied
and neutral ships had been sunk by submarines with a gross
tonnage of 1,059,141 tons; of these 225 (760,440 tons) were Brit-
ish, 54 of which had been sunk in the Mediterranean. Some
60 merchant ships had been sunk without warning during the
year and 17 submarines had been destroyed, an average of one
submarine for 23-1 ships.
The Baltic. Meanwhile British submarines had been active
in the Baltic and the Dardanelles, where a great field had opened
to British heroism. In the Baltic 9 (Comdr. Max Horton) and
Ei (Comdr. N. F. Laurence) were the first to penetrate early in
1915, and proved a valuable addition to the Russian (Adml.
Essen's) force. On July 2 1915, when the Russians sank the
minelayer " Albatross," 9 sent two torpedoes into the old
cruiser " Prinz Adalbert " and drove her back to port. On Aug.
4 1915 13 ran ashore on the Danish island of Saltholm while
passing the Sound. Before the 24 hours given her by the Danes
to get off had elapsed two German destroyers appeared and,
opening fire on her, killed half the crew, an act which did not pass
unavenged. The Germans at the time were making a determined
attempt to force the Gulf of Riga with a view to operating on the
Russian flank, and the battle-cruisers of the ist Scouting Group
with the ist Battle Squadron and a number of light cruisers had
been lent for this purpose by the High Sea fleet. Ei now ap-
peared on the scene, and the very day that 13 received its
deadly hail of fire sent a torpedo into the battle-cruiser " Moltke"
off the Gulf of Riga, driving her back to port.
SUBMARINE CAMPAIGNS
607
Winter did not stop the activity of the British submarines.
In the latter part of 1915 E8, Eg and Eig (Comdr. F. A. N.
Cromie) attacked the important iron ore trade from Lulua
(Sweden) to Germany, and between Oct. n and 23 sank 14
large German steamers engaged in it. The " Prinz Adalbert "
too was sunk by E8 on Nov. 8, and on Dec. 12 the light cruiser
" Bremen " and- destroyer Vigi were sent to the bottom. The
Germans now set to work vigorously to devise counter measures.
Minefields were laid in the Sound off Drogden, in the Flint-Rinne
at the southern end of the passage on the Swedish side and at
Falsterbo; an old battleship was stationed to defend them; tor-
pedo flotillas were despatched to patrol the entrance to the
Baltic, and convoy flotillas were organized for the Swedish trade
with the result that British submarine activity suffered a severe
check and the difficulty of entering the Baltic was greatly in-
creased. The work of submarines there was also seriously
hampered by the inability of the Russian dockyards to cope with
their demands, an unmistakable indication of the probable failure
of any attempt to conduct a big campaign in that sea.
The Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean the ability of
submarines to assist the Dardanelles campaign by interfering
with Turkish transport in the Sea of Marmora was fully realized,
but the passage of the Dardanelles was not an easy proposition.
Twenty-seven miles long with a width of only a mile in the famous
Narrows (the 35 m. stretch between Chanak and Nagara) lent
itself easily to defence, and could be transformed into a veritable
trap for submarines. It is impossible to give the details of every
passage where every passage was an heroic venture. Lt.-Comdr.
Norman Holbrook had made the passage on Dec. n 1914 in
Bn and torpedoed an old battleship, the " Messidiyeh." 15
(Lt.-Comdr. T. S. Brodie) was now the first to go up on April 15,
but grounded in Kefez Bay (on the Asiatic side some 10 m. up)
and was lost, his ship being torpedoed later by a picket boat
under Lt.-Comdr. Eric Robinson, to prevent it falling into the
hands of the Turks. 14 (Lt.-Comdr. E. C. Boyle) followed,
passing Chanak on the surface and running submerged for forty-
four hours. She sank three ships, including the transport " Gul
Gemel " with 6,000 troops, bringing her commander a V.C.
AE2 (Lt.-Comdr. H. H. G. Stoker) made the passage on April
25, diving under the minefields, but on the 3oth broke surface
suddenly, and coming under fire was forced to the surface and
sunk. On May i the French submarine " Joule "attempted the
passage and succumbed to a mine. En (Lt.-Comdr. M. E.
Nasmith) passed safely at the end of May, sank 10 ships, pene-
trated into the Bosporus and torpedoed the transport " Stam-
boul " and an ammunition ship there. Passing KilidBahr on his
way back, her commander found a large mine perched in the
bows which he dropped neatly by dipping and going astern, and
won a V.C. in its place. 12 (Lt.-Comdr. Kenneth M. Bruce),
7 (Lt.-Comdr. A. D. Cochrane), 2 (Comdr. David Stocks),
20 (Lt.-Comdr. C. H. Warren) and Hi (Lt. Wilfred Pirie)
followed, doing the same heroic work in difficult and dangerous
waters. 14 was up again in July and sank 22 ships, great and
small, including a 5,ooo-ton steamer on Aug. 7, and clearing the
Sea of Marmora. He was assisted in this task by En, who sank
the old battleship " Hairredin Barbarossa " the same day and
the transports " Chios" and "Samsoun" with the ammunition
ships " Espahan " and " Tenedos " a week or so later. By this
time a powerful barrage had been laid at Nagara, greatly in-
creasing the risk of the passage. The French submarine " Mar-
riotte " encountered an enemy submarine and was sunk (July 26)
and 2 on her way in got badly entangled in the Nagara ob-
struction, but managed after 10 minutes' plunging about to get
! clear. 7 was not so fortunate. Going up on Aug. 4 she got
i enmeshed in the nets, and after the explosion of three mines in
; her vicinity was forced to the surface and sunk. E 12, who folio wed
in Sept., remained up 40 days with 20 and Hi in her company
I for a time and sank 37 ships. On the way down she fouled a net
in the Narrows and went down to 245 ft., with the hydroplanes
jambed and the conning tower flooded; finally she struck the
chain moorings at Kilid Bahr which swept away the entangle-
ment, and though she broke surface and came under fire managed
chain i
E~~* <
to win through. The French submarine " Turquoise " was sunk
by gunfire on Oct. 30 1915, and a final toll of British boats was
taken in 20 (Lt.-Comdr. C. H. Warren) which fell a victim to
stratagem after passing through the Narrows. With the help
of an Allied code probably taken from a captured submarine
she was inveigled to a rendezvous and torpedoed by UBi4 on
Nov. 6. Ei i remained up a record period of 48 days in Nov. and
Dec., sinking 46 ships of different sizes. The last submarine to
make the hazardous passage was 2, which was recalled on Jan.
2, a week before the final evacuation, and got safely through.
For the latter part of the year '191 5 two submarines had usually
been working in the Sea of Marmora at a time. Altogether some
32 passages had been made or attempted by submarines, and
though they had incurred the loss of 7 of their number (15,
AE2, Ey, 20, " Joule," " Mariotte " and " Turquoise," their
efforts had met with a large degree of success. The Sea of
Marmora had been made unsafe, the Turks had been forced to
send their troops by a roundabout route by rail to Rodosti and
then a three days' march to Gallipoli. Their tale of losses in-
cluded two old battleships, one destroyer, 12 sloops and small
craft, 7 transports, and no less than 197 vessels of all sorts and
sizes, steam and sail, of which 36 were over 1,000 tons. This was
the end of the Dardanelles submarine campaign, whose record
fills a golden page^in the annals of the navy.
In the autumn of 1915, when activity in British waters di-
minished, five more German submarines were sent to the
Mediterranean. With them went Max Valentiner in 1138 and
Arnauld de la Periere in 1/35, two of the most distinguished
German submarine commanders. The result was immediately
evident. Valentiner, on his way from Gibraltar to Cattaro alone
sank a round dozen' of ships, including the Italian liner " An-
cona " with a loss of over 200 lives, and the sinkings in the
Mediterranean in Nov. went up to 23 chiefly off Crete, Malta and
Tunis. They were nearly all merchant ships. No more men of
war fell to them, and out of 242 transports only three were lost,
the " Royal Edward " (Aug. 13, loss of life 955), " Ramazan "
(Sept. 19) and the "Marquette " on Oct. 23. On Dec. 30 1915
Valentiner sank the P: & O. liner " Persia " (7,974 tons) off
Crete without warning with a loss of 334 lives, but Germany
refused to admit that it was one of her submarines and tried to
transfer the responsibility to Austria. This brought the year
1915 to an end, a year fertile in hope and speculation, begetting
vast promises of further success. To all Germany the future of
her navy lay beneath the waters, though few could read the
riddle as far as the bottom of Scapa Flow.
Types of German Submarines. A short digression may be inserted
here on the general types and characteristics of German submarines.
They comprised four main classes converted mercantiles (Deutsch-
land class), U boats, UB and UC. The converted mercantile num-
bered a bare half-dozen (Uisi Ui55) and were used chiefly off the
Azores and in 1918 off the coast of America. They were about 213
ft. long, large, slow and clumsy, going about nine knots only on the
surface, but capable of remaining put for. three to five months. They
had a good armament of two 5-g-in. guns, six torpedo tubes (4 bow,
2 beam) and 30 torpedoes. The U boats were the principal type, and
were large boats which did most of their work in the Atlantic
approaches. They were 210-225 ft. long, could go 142-17 knots on
the surface, and 8-9 knots submerged. They could only maintain
this speed submerged for an hour or so, but could continue at a speed
of about two knots for as much as 48 hours ; then, like all submarines,
they had to come to the surface and recharge their batteries with the
help of their Diesel motors. They carried two guns (usually one 4-1
in. and one 22-pounder), with 4 to 6 torpedo tubes and 8 to 12
torpedoes, and remained out generally from 25-30 days. There was
also a special class of U minelayers, which originally numbered 10,
viz. Uyi-USo, carrying 36 mines and 2 torpedoes. They had only a
single hull and were slow boats, rarely cruising at more than 5 knots.
Though the work on the west coast of Scotland and off the Dutch
coast in 1918 was done by these boats they were not as a class very-
successful, and by 1918 there were only 5 of them left. The UB
boats were originally built for coastal work, and the first 17 were
small boats capable of being sent in sections overland. The earlier
boats could remain out from 7-14 days, the Jater boats from 14-24
days. They carried one gun forward (a 4-1 in. or 22-pounder) and
the earlier boats 2 to 6 torpedoes, which were increased to 5 tubes
(4 bow, i stern) and 10 torpedoes in the later type. The UC boats
were essentially minelayers, carrying one 22-pounder forward, 3.
tubes with 4 to 6 torpedoes, and 18 mines. They remained out
6o8
SUBMARINE CAMPAIGNS
from 10-20 days in the North Sea, but when working in the Channel
from Flanders rarely more than twelve. Submarines cruised nor-
mally on the surface. When attacking they usually proceeded at
periscope depth (about 45 ft. for U boats), cruising at 65-85 ft"., and
going to 150 ft. if attacked. The fact that a periscope was rarely
visible, even with glasses, at over a mile, emphasizes the difficulty of
counter-attack.
German Submarine Flotillas. The flotillas were distributed in
four principal commands the North Sea (or High Sea fleet) flotillas
working from the Bight and usually termed the North Sea flotillas;
the Flanders flotillas working from Zeebrugge; the Mediterranean
based on Pola, Cattaro and Constantinople, and the Baltic (or
Kurland) flotilla working from Baltic ports. The Flanders flotilla
consisted wholly of UB and UC boats and was allotted a definite
area of operations, which extended on the east coast of Great
Britain as far as Flamborough Head (Yorks), and in the Channel as
far as 7 W. (about as far as Waterford) and down to the Gironde.
At the beginning of the year 1916 the strength of the various flotillas
was approximately North Sea 16, Baltic 6, Flanders 18, Mediter-
ranean 12. There were 16 boats approaching completion, and 161
boats building and being delivered at the rate of 8 to 10 a month.
Campaign of 1916. The year 1916 was marked by another
long-drawn-out controversy between the German Chancellor and
the naval staff. The Chancellor stood out against unrestricted
naval warfare (that is sinking at sight) ; the naval staff fought
for it. Nor were their arguments lacking in force. If a submarine
came to the surface at a distance a ship could run away, if it
rose close at hand it was exposed to fire from an armed merchant-
man or decoy ship. In Jan. 1916 the German naval staff pre-
sented a memorandum claiming that unrestricted warfare would
force England to make peace in six months. It stated that from
Feb. to Oct. 1915 one or two steamers, averaging 4,085 tons, had
been sunk daily by each submarine. This was an exaggerated
estimate, for the figures for British ships in 191 5 were more nearly
one-third of a ship per submarine per day, but on this basis they
calculated a loss of 631,000 tons a month, at which rate it was
estimated that England would be reduced to her knees in six
months. A definitive audience took place at Great Head-
quarters on March 6 1916, when it was decided to postpone its
execution till April i' in order to bring all possible means of
persuasion to bear on the United States in the attempt to recon-
cile them to the idea.
Von Tirpitz, in despair at the continual frustration of his
plans, resigned, and his place was taken by Adml. von Capelle.
Five days before the prescribed date UBi8 (Steinbrinck) tor-
pedoed the " Sussex " on March 24 1.916 on her way from Folke-
stone to Dieppe with 25 American citizens on board; and though
she remained afloat, the forepart of the vessel was blown up and
some 80 passengers were killed and injured. America's patience
now came to an end, and on April 18 President Wilson threatened
to break off diplomatic relations. The German Government
gave way, and abandoning the idea of ruthless warfare issued an
order on April 25 precluding submarines from sinking any mer-
chant ship at sight, and requiring them in their war against trade
to act in strict accordance with the methods prescribed by prize
law, which entailed stopping a ship, examining her papers and
giving all the crew and passengers an opportunity to leave her
before proceeding to any act of destruction.
Meanwhile the chief of the naval staff at Berlin had issued an
order, which came into force on Feb. 29 1916, that armed mer-
chantmen were to be regarded as warships, and the attention of
German submarine commanders was called to a clause in the
prize regulations under which all merchantmen which might
attack a German or neutral ship were to be regarded as pirates.
This found its sequel on March 28, when Capt. Fryatt in his ship
the " Brussels " attacked 1133 on her way to Holland, and, being
captured with his ship by a German destroyer on June 23, was
tried and shot (July 27 1916).
The decision against unrestricted warfare came as a bitter
disappointment to Adml. Scheer, who received the order on his
way to carry out the Lowestoft raid on April 25 1916. He im-
mediately recalled all the High Sea fleet submarines and ordered
them to cease operations against merchant shipping. He refused
to have anything to do with what he called the blunt edge of the
weapon, and had decided that if they were not to be used in un-
restricted warfare he would use them only in fleet operations.
The Flanders command followed suit with most of its boats, and
the Mediterranean flotillas were left to continue the campaign
against commerce alone. Just as Adml. Scheer's order went out
an extensive barrage was being laid off the Belgian coast (April
24) by the Dover Patrol (Vice-Adml. Sir Reginald Bacon).
This was an effort on a large scale to cope with the submarine by
a combination of mines and mine-nets. It consisted of some 18 m.
of moored nets fitted with net mines, supported by lines of mines,
running parallel to and about 12 m. off the Belgian coast. It was
completed by May 71916 and a patrol was maintained on it by
day from May to October. It is difficult to estimate its precise
value, for the diminished activity ascribed to it at Dover was
undoubtedly due to the cessation of submarine operations on
political grounds from May to Sept. 1916. No doubt it made
work more difficult for Flanders submarines, but the mines were
poor and notoriously ineffective. A single boat (1)83) was
destroyed in its vicinity the day it was laid by a lance bomb
thrown from a drifter, the " Gleaner of the Sea." Another (UB 10)
ran into it and took eight hours to clear with net mines exploding .
all round her, and though the work entailed in the barrage de-
serves a generous meed of praise no submarine was actually
destroyed by it in 1916, and it certainly never prevented the
entry and exit of the Flanders boats.
Steinbrinck, of the Flanders flotilla, was now sent to cruise in
the Channel to report on the feasibility of warfare on the lines
of prize law, which involved the stoppage and due warning of
ships before destruction. His report was unfavourable, and dur-
ing the summer the Flanders boats worked only on the E. coast.
Scheer meanwhile used his Bight flotillas (reinforced with
Flanders boats) in fleet operations, of which the most important
were those of Jutland and Aug. 19, when the " Nottingham "
and " Falmouth " were sunk by U52 and U66. It was on this .
latter occasion that 23 (Lt.-Comdr. Robert Turner) torpedoed
the German battleship " Westfalen " on its way out of the Bight.
This was at 5:30 A.M., and on rising to the surface later at 10:10
A.M. he reported the German fleet to the C.-in-C., then some
i So m. off, an incident which first brought into prominence the
possibilities of the submarine in fleet reconnaissance work.
During the summer the chief of the German naval staff was try-
ing to persuade Scheer to modify his " harsh professional con-
ception "of submarine warfare, and resume restricted war against
commerce in accordance with prize law. The Mediterranean
submarines had continued working on these lines with good re-
sults; the Flanders flotilla had recommenced on a small scale
in Sept. 1916, and the operations in concert with the fleet had
only resulted in the sinking of two light cruisers. The " Deutsch-
land," under Capt. Paul Konig, tried a trading venture across
the Atlantic during the summer, reaching America on July 91916
and returning on Aug. 23 with a cargo of rubber, nickel, and tin,
but the " Bremen " which followed her in Sept. was lost. U53,
under Lt.-Comdr. Hans Rose, a skilful and chivalrous com-
mander, crossed the Atlantic (leaving on Sept. 17 and arriving
on Oct. 7) and sunk five merchantmen off Newport News. The
" Deutschland " made a second trip across, arriving in New
London on Nov. i and reaching Germany safely on Dec. 10 1916.
There her mercantile career ended, and she was fitted out as a
submarine-of-war and went off to work in the Azores. Archangel
too became a sphere of activity for a time, and seven ships were
sunk there in Oct., but the initial success did not continue, and
in Nov. Us6 was sunk by Russian patrols. The German naval
staff now decided that all flotillas were to resume the campaign
against commerce in accordance with prize law, and orders to this
effect were issued on Oct. 6 1916. Scheer had underestimated
the power of legitimate warfare. The monthly average of all
Allied and neutral merchant ships sunk by submarines had been
76 ships and 153,521 tons (gross) from Feb. to Sept. 1916. From
Oct. 1916 to Jan. 1917 the average rose to 173 ships and 346,405
tons, and the campaign was extended with success to the Azores,
Canaries and Madeira, where Funchal was bombarded on Dec.
3 by a converted mercantile.
"Unrestricted" Warfare, 1917. But during the autumn
Scheer and the naval staff found powerful allies for the policy
SUBMARINE CAMPAIGNS
609
of unrestricted warfare in Hindenburg and Ludendorff. The
topic was again discussed on Sept. 3 1916 at Great Headquarters
at Pless in the presence of the Chancellor, Hindenburg, Luden-
dorff and Adml. von Holtzendorff, and it was finally decided to
postpone it till an effort had been made to come to terms. Then
followed the note of Dec. 12 1916 calling on the Allies to avoid
further bloodshed, and on Dec. 22 the naval staff presented
another memorandum in which it was hoped to reduce British
shipping by 39% in five months, on a basis of 600,000 tons
monthly, an estimate which turned out to be excessive, for by
June 1917 British shipping had been reduced only from 18-2 to
16-6 million tons, a reduction of only 9-1 %. The offer to negoti-
ate was rejected by the Allies, and it was decided on Jan. 9
to commence unrestricted warfare on Feb. i 1917. All Germany
was waiting for the decision. The Reichstag listened to the
Chancellor's announcement in breathless silence, and on Feb. 3
the American ambassador left Berlin. Germany now had 148
submarines, of which 28 were in the Mediterranean and some 20
in Flanders. She had commenced with 28 and had lost 51. The
repairs incurred at Jutland, the provision of patrol vessels and
the vacillations of policy had reacted on submarine building, and
von Capelle had only laid down 90 boats to Tirpitz's 186, but
during 1917 269 more were ordered and it was hoped to keep
pace with the demand. The barred zone announced by Germany
on Jan. 31 1917 in which all shipping was liable to be sunk
extended roughly from Terschelling (Holland) to Udsire (Norway) ,
thence to the Faroe Is. and passing down the meridian of long.
20 W., 350 m. from the coast of Ireland, went on to Finisterre.
It also included the Mediterranean with the exception of its
western portion round Majorca and a narrow track 20 m. wide
as far as Greece. The area round Archangel was added to it
NAVAL SUBMARINE CAMPAIGNS
GERMAN BARRED ZONES
in March 1917, and on Jan. n 1918 it was extended to the
meridian of long. 30 W., 720 m. from the coast of Ireland, and
two large areas were added round the Azores and C. Verde Is.
The effects of the new campaign were quickly felt. The sys-
tem under which traffic approached Great Britain on routes
patrolled by ships and trawlers with a sprinkling of destroyers
proved incapable of meeting the emergency. Losses of Allied
merchant ships rose from 171 in Jan. to 234 in Feb., 281 in March
and 373 in April. This was the black month of the war. At
this rate one ship in every four that left British shores did not
xxxii. 20
return, and by Nov. 1917 the irreducible margin of shipping
would probably have been reached. The effects were most
severely felt in the Channel, Mediterranean and the routes south
of Ireland (called the Fastnet and Scilly approaches), which were
strewn with the hulls of sunken ships. The outlook was dark and
perplexing to those who saw the Grand Fleet remaining mistress
of a sea which was becoming a cemetery for British shipping, and
had not realized the fact that the battle fleets were becoming
subsidiary factors in a new form of the guerre de course. The
efforts to deal with the situation took a threefold form. Firstly,
a convoy system (see CONVOY) was introduced involving the
escort of merchant shipping at sea and the control of all shipping
movements; secondly, the naval staff was reorganized so as to
insure a due status for the convoy system," and a planning section
and anti-submarine division were added to it (see ADMIRALTY
ADMINISTRATION) ; thirdly, invention and research were speeded
up in the technical fields of mines,, depth charges and hydro-
phones. These efforts were successful. Gradually the losses of
ships went down and the losses of submarines crept up.
The enemy's operations can only be broadly described; his
principal areas were the approaches to the Channel and Irish
Sea, the North Sea (particularly off the Yorks. coast), the Chan-
nel and Mediterranean. The number of submarines operating
varied. As a rule there might be two or three (converted mercan-
tile) operating in the Azores and on the Dakar (W. Africa) coast,
8 or 9 U boats in the Atlantic approach (from longitude 7 to
12 W.) and on their way there and back, 4 or 5 (including a
couple of Flanders UC) in the Channel and its approach, with
5 UB (Flanders) and 2 UC (Flanders) in the North Sea. In the
Mediterranean there were usually 4 to 6 submarines at work, i
including i or 2 on the N. African coast, i or 2 round Italy, i
perhaps off Salonika, 2 off Egypt, Syria and Crete. This gives
a total of some 25-30 submarines at work. The tonnage sunk per
submarine varied. Curiously enough the average bag was con-
siderably more in the time of restricted warfare than it was in
1917-8. In the former period it was probably something like
16,000 tons a trip. U49 on her first trip in Nov. 1916 in the
Channel and Bay of Biscay sank 40,000 tons, and Forstmann,
Arnauld de la Periere and Max Valentiner in the Mediterranean
thought little of 20,000 tons a trip in 1916. But in 1917 the
average bag was probably not much more than 8,000 tons for a
U boat and 3,000 for a UB or UC. In the North Sea in Jan. 1918
a U boat was fairly fortunate to get 4,000 tons, and in the Chan-
nel 6,000 tons had become a fair bag.
Progress of Counter Measures. In the anti-submarine cam-
paign great progress was made in technical devices, and larger
depth charges were supplied in greater quantities. Type D charge
(300 Ib. T.N.T.) entirely superseded type D x (120^.), and
the output was increased. Destroyers carried five or s'x instead
of one' or two; some were equipped with as many as 20 or 30,
and the number of submarines sunk by depth charges rose from
8 in 1917 to 15 in 1918. Decoys (generally designated Q ships)
continued effective in 1917, and five submarines were sunk by
them during the year. These were merchant ships manned with a
trained crew and armed with guns carefully concealed by special
devices. On a submarine opening fire the ship would stop and a
portion of the crew called the " panic party " took to the boats,
lowering them carelessly and hurriedly in the hope that the sub-
marine would approach and board the vessel. If she did the
bulwarks fell and a deadly fire was poured into her at close
quarters. Capt. Gordon Campbell was the most successful
exponent of this stratagem. Utf fell to his ship, the " Pargust,"
on Feb. 17 1917 off the southwest of Ireland, and UC2g was sunk
by her on June 7 in the same area, bringing him a V.C. His last
ship, the " Dunraven," sank on Aug. 10 after a heroic action
with U6i, in which the after gun's crew remained steady at their
post with the poop blazing under them and were blown up with
the gun rather than betray the nature of their ship. The " Prize,"
(Lt. Wm. Sanders) and the " Stonecrop " (Comdr. Morris
Blackwood) were also gallant ships, the former sinking U88 out
in the Atlantic on Sept. 17 and both being sunk by submarines.
By Sept. 1917 the decoy had lost its efficacy, though four were
6io
SUBMARINE CAMPAIGNS
still in use in the early part of 1918. From first to last it achieved
the destruction of 13 submarines with the loss of some 20 decoy
ships, great and small, some like the " Prize " and " Vala "
with all hands. Its place was now taken by the seaplane and P
boat. The latter were low boats not easily seen in mist or at
dawn and were responsible for no less than four submarines in
1917. Aircraft now began to be really effective, and in 1917 six
submarines succumbed to the 3co-lb. bombs of large Handley-
Pages in the southern portion of the North Sea. British sub-
marines too were constantly on patrol, and were able to count
six submarines to their credit by the end of the year (Gi3 sank
UC43 off the Shetlands March 10; 54 U8i in the Atlantic May i ;
D? U45 north of Ireland Sept. 12; 45 UC79, Oct. 19; 52 UC63
Nov. i, in the North Sea, and 15 UC6s Nov. 3, in the Chan-
nel). The hydrophone, an instrument designed to detect sub-
marines by sound waves under water, also developed greatly,
but was more useful as a detector and in controlled minefields
than in actual pursuit.
The whole system of staff work was overhauled. Direction of
convoys became one of the principal functions of the naval staff
and the machinery of Intelligence was adjusted in this light.
Intelligence of first-rate importance derived from wireless di-
rectionals had hitherto been shrouded in secrecy and locked away
in drawers for the edification of the very few. The director of
Naval Intelligence (Rear-Adml. Sir W. R. Hall) at last obtained
control of it, and spread it abroad and circulated it to every
command. The movements of all enemy submarines hitherto
veiled in secrecy were displayed on a great chart in the Convoy
room, and subjected to careful analysis by the new Plans Section.
In Oct. 1917 this division prepared a large mine-net operation
based on careful observation of submarine tracks in September.
In spite of bad weather and unfavourable circumstances three
large submarines (Uso, U66 and Uio6) found their way into the
minefield and were sunk, causing a scare in the Bight which sent
submarines round by the Kattegat for the first time.
Plans were prepared too for mining the Bight, but it was not
till Sept. 1917 that the new mines were ready in sufficient quan-
tity. Gradually the whole strength of the High Sea fleet had to
be concentrated on getting submarines in and out. An armada
of minesweepers, barrier breakers, escort forces and outpost forces
were constantly at work trying to keep a passage open for them
along ways which extended as far as 150 m. from Heligoland.
Dover still remained a thorn in the flesh. The cessation of sub-
marine activity in April 1916 had been erroneously attributed
there to the Belgian coast barrage, and a similar barrage had
accordingly been laid across the Straits in the latter part of 1916.
It was composed of mine-nets 60 ft. deep with a minefield in
support. But the mines were of the old defective design. They
dragged into the nets, sank British ships, and had to be swept
up in June and July 1917. The barrage entailed enormous labour
but did not close the Straits, and from Feb. to Nov. 1917 enemy
submarines passed at the rate of at least 24 passages a month.
This was a serious matter, for the Dover passage saved a Flanders
boat eight days on the double journey to the Channel approach
out of its trip of 14 days, and a Bight boat six days out of its trip
of 25 days. In Oct. the whole question became acute, for Flan-
ders boats were responsible for some 22 ships a month in the
Channel. The proper antidote was a strong minefield, and the
vice-admiral at Dover had suggMtod in July 1917 laying a deep
minefield from the Varne to Gris Nez, but the new mines were
not ready and could not be supplied to Dover till Nov. It was
partly laid on Nov. 21, but it was not constantly and intensively
patrolled so as to make the submarines dive, with the result that
between Nov. 21 and Dec. 821 submarines made the passage in
safety. This was a severe disappointment, and instructions were
sent to establish a strong patrol equipped with flares and search-
lights to force the submarines down. This was done to a limited
extent, and on the igth the new minefield took its first toll in
UBs6. But difficulties arose in the execution of the plans and
the urgency was so acute that before the end of the month Rear-
Adml. Sir Roger Keyes, Director of Plans, was sent to Dover to
assume the command, and the next four months saw nine sub-
marines destroyed in the Dover area. By Feb. 1918 the Bight
boats had ceased to use the Straits, and by May the activity of
the Flanders boats in the Channel had been enormously reduced;
the blocking of Zeebrugge contributed to this result, and the
losses in the Channel were reduced to six a month, the minefields
laid by the Flanders boats falling from 404 in 1917 to 64 in 1918.
The year 1918 saw the commencement of a much more am-
bitious scheme the Northern Barrage which aimed at nothing
less than mining with 120,000 mines the huge stretch of 240 m.
between the Orkneys and Norway. (See MINESWEEPING AND
MINELAYING.) This was really an immense task, complicated by
a deep gut some 60 m. wide on the Norwegian side where the
depths ran to 150 fathoms. The credit for its conception and
execution lies largely with Adml. Sims and the U.S. navy. It
was an American enterprise performed by American sailors in
American minelayers. As it was only commenced in April and
was barely completed in Oct. its value is difficult to appraise, but
the loss of some half-a-dozen boats can be attributed to it in
Sept. and Oct. 1918. United States destroyers too were doing
invaluable work in escorting convoys, and had been doing it ever
since May 1917, during the dark months of 1917 when destroyers
were more valuable than battleships.
The losses in the Mediterranean had given rise to serious con-
cern, and the First Lord (Sir Eric Geddes) and the director of
Naval Intelligence proceeded there in person to arrange for an
extensive reorganization of the commander-in-chief's staff. Its
clear waters, too deep for mines, and its regular tracks had been
an ideal hunting ground for submarines. During 1917 only two
German submarines had been lost there, and in the black month
of April 1917 the Mediterranean had supplied one-fifth of the
tonnage sunk. The arrival of some 14 Japanese destroyers in the
summer brought the losses down about 10%, but in Dec. 1917,
when vigorous action had greatly reduced the losses at home, the
Mediterranean was still contributing 147,000 tons a month or,
over one-third of the whole. The convoy system was now intro-'
duced in the Mediterranean, the Otranto barrage was estab-
lished and reinforced, and in May 1918 no fewer than four sub-
marines were destroyed there. The effect of these measures was
soon felt. Our losses in that sea were reduced from 95 ships a
month in the last quarter of 1917 to an average of 43 in July,
Aug. and Sept. 1918.
The U-boat zone had been extended to the Azores in Nov.
1917, and one or two boats had been working regularly there
with fair results and comparative immunity till May n 1918
when UiS4was torpedoed by 35 about 150 m. west of Cape
St. Vincent, an exploit directly due to improved intelligence.
Adml. von Capclle had been confident that his submarines
would be able to prevent the U.S.A. troops reaching Europe, but
actually not a single transport was lost up to Feb. 5 1918, when
the " Tuscania " was torpedoed with a loss of only 44 lives out
of 2,404. To stop the ceaseless flow of troops four large sub-
marines were sent across the Atlantic, but though they destroyed
over 60 ships they did not get a single loaded transport, and
Uis6 was lost in the Northern Barrage on her way home. On
July 19 1918 the great liner " Justicia," 32,234 tons, was hit by a
torpedo from UB64 at 2:30 P.M. off the Skerryvore (Scotland, W.
coast), and attacked again by U54 and UBi24 the next morning.
A whole armoury of depth charges was dropped round UBi24
by the " Marne " and other destroyers, forcing her to the sur-
face to surrender. All this time the mining of the Heligoland
Bight went steadily on with the help of the gallant 2oth Destroyer
Flotilla (Capt. Berwick Curtis), and its exits were occasionally
entirely closed. The Flanders flotilla felt the full force of the
increased activity at Dover and suffered heavily. In Jan. 1918
it numbered 29 boats; it lost no less than 24 during the year and
its strength dropped to 13. By the middle of 1918 it had earned
the dread name of the " Drowning Flotilla," and its boats could
reckon on a life of only three or four trips.
The Kattegat still remained open. In April 1918 a deep
minefield was laid there, and had it been possible to keep it
patrolled the submarines would have had to face another serious
danger. How far this was practicable is a moot point.
SUBMARINE CAMPAIGNS
611
The reports of destruction in 1918 gradually began to fall into
four categories. Either a mine demolished the boat wholesale,
or an aeroplane swooped down on it with 3oo-lb. bombs, or a
volley of depth charges forced it to the surface, or a torpedo
from a British submarine brought its career to a sudden end.
Depth charges competed with mines as the principal instrument
of destruction (destroyers and patrols 39%, mines 30%); then
came the submarine 8%, with aircraft a bad last.
It is impossible to narrate the long story of destruction. UB8i
may be mentioned as an example of the unenviable career of a
German submarine. On her way down Channel on Dec. 2 1917
she struck a mine off the Owers (near Portsmouth) and water
began to enter by the stern. An attempt was made to bring her
to the surface, but the after-tanks would not blow and her stern
sank to the bottom in 90 feet. The gauges showed the bows to be
out of water, and with the boat lying at an angle of about 60
a torpedo was lowered from the bow tube, and a man rammed
up its narrow length. The sea cap was opened cautiously and it
was found that the mouth of the tube was a couple of feet above
water. Men were rammed carefully up and seven men had
dragged themselves painfully out, only to find the cold so bitter
and the strain so great that most of them elected to go back and
join those who were seeking oblivion and death in the oxygen
flasks. ?32 patrolling in the vicinity saw the bows above water,
but in the endeavour to get alongside the wind and waves
bumped her against the submarine, which went to the bottom,
leaving only a solitary survivor. Two little drifters contributed
their quota to the tale. On April 17 1918 a little drifter, the
" Pilot Me," whose jolly name was in itself an omen of success,
working in the North Channel, suddenly sighted the periscope of
UB82, 150 ft. off, and turning quickly dropped four depth charges
on it. The submarine came up at an angle of 45, and three
other drifters, the " Young Fred," " Look Sharp " and " Light,"
all opened fire on her. She went down and the " Young Fred "
dropped four depth charges on her, bringing her to a final end.
Statistics of Submarine Warfare. The dreary dreadful tale of
ships sunk and attacked is too long to give (for dates and names
see Admiralty Return of British Merchant and Fishing Vessels
Captured or Destroyed, Aug. 1919, H.C. 199). It includes the
names of nine hospital ships, all, with one exception, large ships
whose character was unmistakable (" Asturias " March 20 1917,
Channel, beached, 44 lives lost; " Gloucester Castle " March 30
1917, Channel, towed in; " Donegal " April 17 1917, Channel,
sunk, 41 lost; " Guildford Castle" April 10 1917, Bristol Channel,
hit by dud torpedo; " Lanfranc " April 17 1917, off Havre, with
167 wounded Germans, sunk, 34 lost; " Dover Castle " May 26
1917, Mediterranean, sunk, 7 lost; " Rewa " Jan. 4 1918, Bristol
Channel, sunk, 4 lost; " Glenart Castle " Feb. 26 1918, Bristol
Channel, sunk, 95 lost; " Llandovery Castle " June 27 1918,
Atlantic) . Of these the attack on the " Llandovery Castle "
by U86 (Patrig) was probably the most flagrant breach of the
principles of humanity. She was homeward bound from Canada
116 m. from the Fastnets (S.W. point of Ireland). The enormous
red cross of a hospital ship was lit on her side, glowing in the
twilight like a lustrous jewel, when she was attacked and sunk;
of the 258 persons on board, including 14 nurses, all except a
boatload of 20 perished.
Allied and Neutral Merchant Ships Sunk, 1914-8.
1914
(5
mths.)
1915
1916
1917
1918
(10
mths.)
By Surface Craft
' Submarines
1 Mines .
55
3
42
23
396
97
32
964
161
64
2,439
170
3
1,035
27
Total . . .
Total Tonnage (in
ooo's)
German Submarines
sunk
IOO
303
5
5i6
1,277
JQ
1,157
2,348
25
2,673'
6,184
66
1,0652
2,627
74'
1 Also three by aircraft.
* Also one by aircraft.
s Not including 14 blown up on evacuating Flanders and the
Adriatic.
Allied and Neutral Merchant Ships Sunk, 1917-8.
A. Allied and neutral merchant ships sunk by submarine.
B. Gross tonnage of merchant shipping sunk by submarines, in
ooo's.
C. Submarines sunk.
1917
1918
A
B
C
A
B
C
Jan.
H5
291
2
121
298
9
Feb.
March
April
209
246
354
464
57
834
4
4
2
114
I6 3
107
315
231
261
4
5
6 .
May
264
549
6
110
290
17
June
272
631
4
95
240
3
July
210
492
6
95
259
6
Aug.
I 7 8
489
4
102
270
6
Sept.
149
315
10
78
1 86
9
Oct.
ISO
429
8
5
106
5
Nov.
H3
259
9
4
Dec.
149
353
7
Total.
Total*
2,439
2,673
5,6i3
6,184
66
1,035
1.065
2,556
2,627
74
* (Including losses by surface craft and mines.)
In Oct. 1918 Flanders was evacuated and the remains of the
flotilla blown up. It was a Flanders boat UBn6 (Lt. Emsmann)
which made a last desperate effort to enter Scapa on Oct. 28. It
was heard on the hydrophones, and seen for a moment in the
search-light beam. Then came the heavy shock of an explosion
and the last of the Flanders flotilla found a fitting end in the
very gates of the enemy.
When the Armistice was under discussion, Scheer, who was
now chief of the German naval staff, recalled all the submarines,
intending to make use of them in a last desperate sortie with the
fleet, but he found himself suddenly confronted with mutiny, and
the fleet never sailed, though the submarines remained true.
Meanwhile in the British navy the evolution of the submarine
had followed a different path. Here there was a tendency to
produce a type useful in reconnaissance work and able to act in
tactical conjunction with the fleet. Of E class, which did yeoman
service, 49 were built and 27 lost. They were vessels of 180 ft.
long with three to five i8-in. tubes and a speed of 15 knots on the
surface and 10 submerged. They were followed by G class
(10 built in 1916, 4 lost) with better seagoing qualities and double
hulls, armed with one 3-in. anti-aircraft gun and 5 tubes (four 8-in.
and one 2i-in. astern); their speed was 14 and 10 knots. Of J
class 7 were built in 1916-7 and i lost. They were 270 ft. long,
carried one 4-in. and six i8-in. tubes and could do 18 knots on the
surface. K class were designed for fleet work, and were completed
in 1917-8 (16 -built, 3 lost). They were steam-driven on the
surface, attaining a speed of 22 knots, 334 ft. long, and carried
one 4-in., one 3-in. A.A. gun and eight i8-in. tubes. L class car-
ried one 3-in. A.A. and six 2i-in. tubes. They were 222 ft. long
with a surface speed of 17 knots. Some 25 were complete in 1918
(2 lost). Of M class only 4 were ordered. They were about 200
ft. long and carried a single i2-in. 35 calibres gun which could be
fired only in the direction of the bow. The design was " freakish "
and displayed a lack of tactical, strategical sense. Only one was
completed. R class, of which 1 2 were completed (none lost) , was
specially designed for anti-submarine work. They were short and
built for quick diving and rapid manoeuvring. They carried one
3-in. gun and four i8-in. tubes. Of British submarines 54 were
lost during the war:
By enemy destroyers
By mines .
By enemy submarines
Unknown (probably by enemy)
Aircraft
Sunk in error by British craft
Wrecked
Scuttled .
Accident (collision)
3
4
4
21
I
3
4
10
4
54
The question arises, How nearly did the German submarine
campaign attain its aim? The increase in submarine destruction
and the decrease in shipping losses possess h'ttle meaning apart
from the figures of output in either case. In spite of strenuous
612
SUBMARINE MINES
British effort the German submarine output more than kept
pace at first with their destruction. In 1917 the net gain in
submarines was approximately 45, but in 1918 the two exactly
balanced (74 added, 74 lost). The shipping position depended
largely on the irreducible margin which would have fulfilled
British needs. This may be taken as 12^ million tons, and in
addition there was always some 600,000 tons of British shipping
under repair (from enemy and marine damage) , requiring a total
of, say, 13,000,000 tons (gross). By the end of 1918 there were
3,391 British steam vessels of over 1,000 tons, with a gross
tonnage of 14,049,000.
The British shipbuilding capacity remained much the same
(about 1-2 million tons a year, 1-310 million tons gross for Jan. to
Oct. 1918), but net losses had been reduced to about 33,000 tons
gross per month, which meant that the submarine could no long-
er attain its object within a reasonable time. It is true that the
German -output of submarines would have increased 20 or so
monthly in 1919, but there is every reason to believe that the
Allied navies could have dealt with it. The really critical time
from Aug. 1917 to Dec. 1917 had passed. The submarine cam-
paign had failed. On three grey Nov. days they filed along
Germany's via dolorosa towards Harwich, bringing to a grim and
sordid conclusion one of the most tremendous chapters in the
history, not only of naval warfare, but of the world.
Final Tale of German Submarines in Nov. 1918.
U.
UB.
UC.
Total.
Building and fitting out .
Surrendered ....
Inspected
2.8
59
12
4.
15
53
7
<;
26
26
7
5
69
I3 !
26
14
Sunk and interned .
Various
66
68
3
57
191
3
ifio
isi
121
441
See Comdr. A. Gayer, Die deutschen U Boole (1920); Schecr,
Germany's High Sea Fleet in the War (1920); Archibald Hurd, The
Merchant Navy (vol. i., 1921); Comdr. J. G. Bower, Story of our
Submarines (1919) ; Henry Newbolt, Submarine and anti- Submarine
(1918) ; Comdr. Emile Vedel, Quatre annees de Guerre Sousmarine
(I9I9)-
(A. C. D.)
SUBMARINE MINES (see 26.1). It was the Russo-Japanese
War 1903-4 which saw the first use of what has been called deep-
sea mining that is to say, the application of the submarine mine
to strategic and tactical uses quite distinct from its previous
application for coast defence; and that war led to the intensifica-
tion of development in all maritime countries.
In the World War 1914-8 Great Britain laid a total of 130,389
non-controlled mines, 1,192 controlled mines and 25,983 of a
small special type of net mine; in addition, 899 British non-
controlled mines were laid by a U.S. minelayer. As showing the
growing intensity of mining as the war developed, British mine-
layers were engaged on an average number of days in each month
of 25 in 1915, si in 1916, n in 1917, and 20 in 1918. A mine
barrage across the Dover Straits contained 9,373 mines. The
great Northern Barrage from the Orkney Is. to the coast of
Norway contained 69,766 mines; of this number 56,033 were
American mines and laid by the U.S. minelayers. The British
minelayers, who were chiefly employed elsewhere, laid the
remainder. British submarines laid 2,469 mines. (See generally
MlNELAYING AND MlNESWEEPING.)
The chief naval war losses in surface ships due to the action of
mines were: .
Battleships
Cruisers
Destroyers
and Torpedo
Boats
Great Britain
5
3
22
France
i
i
5
Russia
i
6
Italy
i
2
United States
i
Japan
I
Germany
2
2O
Austria .,...
3
Turkey
2
Mines, as distinct from depth charges, accounted for the known
loss of 35 German (or Austrian) submarines.
The loss of the British mercantile marine due to mines was
673.417 gross tons, besides a loss in fishing vessels of 8,545 gross
tons.
Classification of Mines. Submarine mines can be divided into
two general types, controlled and non-controlled. These may be
again divided, each into two divisions, contact and non-contact,
and these may be further sub-divided into three classes, moored,
drifting and ground. A ground mine is one which is laid actually
on the bottom; it is chiefly useful in shallow waters. Drifting mines
may be submerged and oscillate between set depths, may float on
the surface, or may be suspended below a float ; they are especially
suitable for employment in river warfare. A moored mine which is
the type most frequently used, is a buoyant mine anchored to the
bottom by a heavy weight or " sinker," the mine being attached to
its " sinker " by chain or wire rope. The " sinker " may be automatic
in its working and, following an adjustment which is capable of being
readily made by the layer, it will take the mine to the desired depth
below the surface. The depth adjustment will be made by the layer
in accordance with the draft of the enemy's ships.
Controlled mines are those which have their firing source outside
the mine and directly controllable by human agency. An electric
current, provided by a dynamo or battery, is conveyed to the mines
by cables led along the sea bottom from a control station on shore
where the current may be switched on or off as desired. In the
case of contact controlled mines a break in the controlling circuit,
inside the mine, is completed when the mine is struck. Sometimes
this is arranged by the crushing of a horn or it may be arranged by
mechanism which acts due to the inertia of the blow. In the case of
non-contact controlled mines, the firing is accomplished either by the
direct observation of the operator or the mines themselves are made
their own observers. In the first case the observer follows the enemy
vessel through a telescope, which works over a prepared chart having
metal strips on it corresponding to the positions of the mines; when a
plunger on the training arm attached to the telescope comes into
contact with one of the metal strips, the circuit is completed to that
particular mine or line of mines and the mines are fired. Where the
mines are their own operators, each contains mechanism, such as a
microphone, which will pick up the sound of a ship's propellers and
will indicate to the operator the moment when he should fire.
The observation current from the mine is conveyed to the operator
by the same cables that are used to fire the mine.
Controlled mines are specially applicable to the defence of har-
bours, where, by nature of their control, passage of friendly ships
can be permitted but, at any time if necessary, can be denied. Con-
tact controlled mines are used chiefly in side channels, because, al-
though they can be put to " safe," they nevertheless foul the ground
and friendly ships passing might damage them or tear them from
their moorings; used channels have, therefore, to be mined with non-
contact controlled mines, moored at a depth below the draft of the
deepest draft ship using the channel.
Controlled mines are very costly to install and maintain and they
require a large personnel to tend and operate them. (See PLATE, figs.
6 and 7, for types of non-contact controlled mines.)
Non-controlled mines are those which are automatic when once
laid. They carry their own firing source or obtain it from the sea
and have no further dependence on any human control. Mechanism
is usually fitted which renders them safe during laying and for a
short time afterwards, or at any time should they break adrift
from their moorings. They may also be fitted with mechanism
rendering them safe or disposing of them by explosion after a de-
termined interval, and unless so fitted they must be swept up when
no longer required.
There are several methods by which contact non-controlled mines
are fired: (i.) Inertia, where the momentum of the blow displaces
a weight or pendulum inside the mine, causing the release of a per-
cussion firing mechanism, (ii.) Mechanical lever, where the contact
with a vessel displaces a rod or lever on the outside of the mine which
first cocks and then releases a percussion firing mechanism, (iii.)
Hydrostatic, where the contact with a vessel admits water, usually
by the crushing of an external horn, into a valve inside the mine,
which acting under the water pressure releases percussion firing
mechanism, (iv.) Electrical, which is usually of the well-known
" Hertz " horn type, where contact with a vessel crushes an exter-
nal horn which contains within it a bichromate solution in a glass
tube. When the glass of this latter is broken, the solution flows to
the plates of an electric battery, previously inert, situated within
the mine at the base of the horn. The solution energizes the bat-
tery, which is electrically connected to the mine detonator, thus
firing the mine. This type, though electrical in action, carries the
energy in a chemical form.
In the case of non-contact non-controlled mines, firing can be
accomplished by an observing mechanism, as for instance a micro-
phone, within the mine; as a vessel approaches, the sound of her
propellers is picked up by the microphone and by means of relay
mechanism the mine can be made to fire when a pre-determined
intensity of sound has been reached.
SUBMARINE MINES
Figs, i and 2 show contact non-controlled mines having the horn
type of firing mechanism and attached to their automatic sinkers
as they would appear on board the minelayer when ready for
laying. The small wheels on each side of the sinkers at the bottom
engage on the rail track laid along the minelayer's deck.
Figs. 3 and 4 show similar types of mines as they would appear
when broken adrift from their moorings and floating on the surface.
Fig. 5 shows a special type of horned contact non-controlled mine
adapted for discharge out of a torpedo tube of a submarine.
Figs. 6 and 7 show types of non-contact controlled mines as they
would appear when broken adrift from their moorings and floating
on the surface.
Fig. 8 shows the explosion of a depth charge fired at a depth of
40 feet.
SUDAN
613
The object of such an arrangement is to increase the probability
of the mine, but since in this case the mine is fired out of actual
contact with the ship's hull, explosive effect is sacrificed for the gain
in probability, a failing common to all types of non-contact mine.
(Various types of non-controlled mines are shown in the accompa-
nying Plate, figs. 1-5.)
Minefields. Controlled minefields, on account of the complicated
nature of material, etc., are applicable only to a limited defence of
friendly shores. The mines are usually laid by small special mine-
layers in short lines or small groups, all the mines of a line or group
being fired simultaneously where these are of the non-contact type.
Non-controlled minefields on the other hand are required on an
extensive scale and in all depths of water, both for offence against
the enemy and defence of friendly coasts. They may consist of
" barrages " to prevent the passage of enemy vessels through definite
and particular areas, " independent minefields " to inflict loss on the
enemy where there is a reasonable possibility of doing so, and
" mined areas," which are built up of individual minefields to inflict
loss on the enemy in 'areas which he is obliged to use when his
ships put to sea for operations or exercise. Mines are laid in lines
which are either continuous or broken up into groups, but variations
of a single line are more often used, especially when several mine-
layers are taking part in the operation together, the more usual
variations being two or more parallel lines, single indented or
stepped line and dog's leg line.
There are also some special forms of mining, such as the laying of
" connected mines " where two or more non-controlled mines are
connected together, or where, as an anti-submarine measure, the
mines are suspended in nets. The object of all such systems is to
increase probability, but the latter is only gained, in these cases, by
complication of the material and the laying of it out.
. Minelayers. Various classes of vessels are employed for laying
non-controlled minefields: (a) Large minelayers with large carry-
ing capacity for laying " barrages." (6) Fast minelayers of moderate
capacity for laying ' mined areas " or " independent minefields "
in enemy waters, (c) Very fast minelayers and submarine mine-
layers for laying small minefields close in to vulnerable points.
Submarine minelayers require special laying apparatus. Surface
minelayers are usually provided with narrow-gauge rails running
along the deck and ending in a discharge " trap " at the stern. The
" sinkers " have two pairs of wheels which fit the rail gauge and each
mine rests on top of its own sinker. The mines and sinkers are
disposed in long tiers along the rails and as the minelaying proceeds
the tiers are gradually hauled aft towards the traps, electrical
power being usually employed for this purpose. On nearing the
trap " each " unit " is hauled off the face of the tier in succession
and pushed into the " trap " from whence it is let go by order.
The spacing of the mines apart varies according to circumstance,
but the least distance at which mines can be spaced apart is limited
to the distance at which one mine, if exploded, will not damage or
countermine the next adjacent. The spacing on board the minelayer
is regulated by time; the interval between successive mines being
let go varies according to the speed at which the vessel is steaming
and the spacing being used. Where a minelayer has more than one
set of rails, it is usual to drop mines alternately from each set ; this
is for convenience and gives more time for the loading of each
" trap." (H. D. B.)
Depth Charges. A development of submarine mines which came
in during the World War is the engine known as a depth charge.
This, as its name implies, is a charge of explosive which is detonated
on reaching a given depth.
The explosive is carried in a mild-steel plate " charge case,"
to which rings are secured at the top and bottom for handling. A
primer for detonating the main charge is secured in the centre of the
charge case, round which primer lies the great bulk of the explosive
charge and immediately above the primer is secured the " pistol."
The pistol is arranged to fire the charge at varying depths.
One principle by which a depth charge may be fired consists of
admitting water to a chamber containing a hydrostatic diaphragm.
The pressure of the sea-water acts on the diaphragm and at the set
depth causes a striker to act, thereby exploding the charge. A suit-
able safety arrangement is of course provided, and this consists of a
safety key which cannot be withdrawn until the depth charge has
been adjusted for a depth setting.
Depth charges are carried in the stern of vessels, either in chutes
or on a tilting tray, and can be released either hydraulically from the
forebridge, or by hand. As the depth charge sinks at a rate of 10
ft. per second, it is clear that the laying vessel must maintain a
certain minimum speed to ensure herself against damage by the
depth charge she has dropped. This is 10 knots.
In addition to the two methods of carrying and dropping depth
charges already mentioned, an alternative is provided in some
ships in the form of a depth charge thrower. This consists of a
steel barrel and an " expansion chamber." Into the expansion
chamber is screwed an explosion tube which on firing sets up a
pressure which will throw the depth charge a distance of 40 yds.
with a time of flight of four seconds.
The introduction of the depth charge was brought about in 1915
owing to the complete immunity enjoyed by a submarine immediate-
ly on submersion, notwithstanding the knowledge of a surface vessel
that the submarine was in its immediate vicinity. The introduction
and rapid development of the depth charge entirely removed this
sense of security, and quite apart from the destruction of 34 sub-
marines actually achieved by this means, it produced a very great
moral effect upon hostile submarines, and hampered them in attacks
upon surface craft, owing to their perception of the risk of allowing
their periscopes to be sighted, and thus drawing down a rain of
these depth charges upon them.
Though depth charges generally cannot be depended on to vitally
damage a submarine outside a range of about 30 ft. (depending on
the weight of the charge), the effect on the nerves of a crew of a
series of heavy explosions at a greater distance than this fatal
limit is very marked, and may be regarded as one of the great uses
of this weapon. In many cases in which British submarines have
been subjected to a depth charge attack, the force of the explosion
has caused an immense concussion inside the boat. Fig. 8 in the
accompanying Plate shows the explosion of a depth charge at 40
feet. (B. A.)
SUDAN (see 26.9). The countries of the western and central
Sudan are treated under their distinctive names; the present
article deals with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, which, following
official usage, is -called the Sudan simply.
The area administered by the Sudan Government, enlarged
during 1910-6 by the addition of the Lado Enclave and Darfur,
was officially given in 1921 as 1,014,000 sq. miles. In the same
year the pop. was estimated at over 4,000,000, which compared
with an estimate of 1,853,000 in 1905. Nearly half the people
are primitive negroid tribes living in the equatorial belt. Khar-
tum, including Khartum North, had 39,056 inhabitants in
1921; Omdurman 59,429.
Economic and Social Conditions. The years 1910-2 were
years of prosperity, so much so that in April 1912 Lord Kitchener
declared that " there is now hardly a poor man in the Sudan."
But in that year the country experienced low floods and poor
rains, while the 1913 Nile flood was one of the lowest on record.
The rains, scanty at the best, failed altogether in some districts.
The result was that 1913 and 1914 were years of acute agricultural
and trade depression 1914 was described as perhaps the most
difficult, from the point of revenue and the economic situation,
experienced in the history of the Sudan. Trade suffered another
shock with the outbreak of the World War. Abundant rains
in the autumn and a high Nile happily resulted in providing the
country with an ample supply of food-stuffs. Yet 1915 was
little better than 1914. War conditions and the scarcity of
shipping had caused a much lessened demand for the produce
of the country. The cultivators, who form the majority of
the people, " while they had enough to eat, were short of ready
money " and hard pressed to pay their taxes. European con-
ditions were indeed closely reproduced in the Sudan so far as
commerce and economics were concerned. This was seen in
1916 when a period of comparative prosperity set in, though this
was also due in part to abundant rains and a good flood in 1915.
"The influence of the war," said the official report issued in
1920, " which had had such a depressing effect on trade in 1914
and 1915, began to operate in the reverse direction, and a great
impetus was given to the export trade through an unprecedented
demand for Sudan products. The presence of a large body of
British troops in Egypt requiring grain and live stock, the
demand created on the Arabian coast for Sudan millet, and in
England and Allied and neutral countries for cotton and gum
enabled all these commodities to be disposed of freely."
The experience of 1916 was repeated in 1917 and 1918 and,
although there was a low Nile and poor rains in 1918, the country
suffered no serious setback in 1919. Conditions in 1920 were
influenced by the world depression in trade, nevertheless the
year (following average rains and a medium flood in 1919) proved
one of fair prosperity.
In considering the productivity and industry of the country
it should be remembered that the Sudan consists of three
natural zones, the desert zone in the north, where cultivation
is only possible in a narrow strip on either bank of the Nile;
a central zone where there are large areas of fertility, including
the rainlands of Kassala and of Tokar, the Gezira plain, the
pastures and gum-forests of Kordofan; and a southern belt,
where the soil is richest and the rain tropical. But this southern
614
SUDAN
belt up to 1921 yielded very little, for the negroid tribes which
inhabit it showed scant inclination to do more than supply their
own needs, while the lack of communications over enormous
distances and the difficulties of administration rendered develop-
ment by outside agencies extremely hazardous. Timber was
however, obtained from the forests of the Bahr el Ghazal and
Lado and a (diminishing) quantity of ivory.
Apart from the tribes of this southern zone and even among
them progress in civilization was made the people of the
Sudan, negro and "Arab," 1 showed willingness, in many cases
eagerness, to benefit by Western civilization. Their standard
of living became more exacting and their desire for education
greater. Moreover, the possibilities and advantages of trade
through the World War, had been brought home to a larger
number of the population than before. "There has been,"
wrote the governor-general, Sir Lee Stack, in April 1920, " an
advance in energy and initiative, particularly among those who
make their living by cultivation."
Products and [Trade. Gum arabic is perhaps the most character-
istic product of the Sudan, which provides the bulk of the world's
supply. Formerly the only Sudan product in which Germany had a
direct interest, the largest share of the gum trade is now with Great
f.T^S: i I9 ' 3 - the expor t of gum was 336,000 kantars, it fell to
258,000 kantars m 1915 and was 344,000 kantars in 1910 (a kantar
equals 99-049 pounds). The value of the gum varied in the period
named from 314,000 to 744,000. The principal crops are
durra (millet) and cotton. As the area cultivated depends upon an
uncertain rainfall and an equally uncertain Nile flood, the amount
produced is liable to great variations. In 1915 the total area under
cultivation was 2,463,000 feddans, in 1916 it fell to i ,489,000 feddans
was over 2 000,000 in 1917 and but 1,669,000 in 1919 (a feddan
equals 1-038 acre). Nor in respect to durra does the export corre-
spond to the crop raised. Much of the grain is home-consumed and
only the surplus sent abroad. The durra exported in 191-5 was 2 080
ton, 3 ' !j* '914 only 530 tons. Exports rose to 84,000 tons in 1917
and fell to 1,650 tons in 1919. The total export of durra for the five
years 1915-9 was 245,300 tons, against 53,500 tons in 1910-4.
Great expectations were held as to the development of the area
under cotton by irrigation, but the financial situation created by the
war rendered any large extension impossible for the time being The
variation in output was great 9,400 bales (of 400 Ib.) in 1914-
23900 bales in 1915; 12,300 bales in 1919. The total export of
cotton in the 10 years 1910-9 was 161,000 bales. The yearly fluctua-
tion was mainly due to the variation in the crop of flood-grown
cotton in the Tokar district, Red Sea province. Only by irrigation
works and by the building of railways to afford the cotton districts
rapid and cheap means of access to the world's markets could any
crop * "p*** 1 (sce below:
, gum cotton and durra the chief exports were cattle and
sheep, Hides and skins and sesame. The extent to which the export
* live stock was stimulated during the war is shown by the follow-
ing figures: Total number of cattle exported 1910-4 64400- in
*Jf r %L? fi0 'i 2 o same P 0113 the number of sheep exported
was 459,000 and 648,000 respectively. The export of hide and
skins however, decreased being 1,928,000 in the five years 1910-4
and 1,552,000 m 1915-9. . The very large number of camels exported
thP t H USB ? EpPt/an Expeditionary Force is not included in
exnnrt.rl ' r rnS ' S T pl '? S f IV0 7 decrea sed; 2,792 kantars were
exported m 1913 and only 1,105 kantars in 1919; Dates, wood
charcoal, gold and senna were minor exports. '
wJn - fourth ! of , the total ex Prts go in the first place to Egypt
whence a considerable proportion is reexported to Europe. Nlariy
all the rest of the exports go to Arabia, Abyssinia or Eritrea. Im-
Trngahon.The cultivator in the Sudan depended mainly o
the rainfall and only to a less extent on the Nile flood and onartfficS
irrigation. While these conditions continued the area cut vated "
a year of good rams, could not much exceed 2,500,000 feddans while
cultivable land, given irrigation, has been estimated as high a
fourth of the total area of the Sudan. The Sudan Government
elaborated schemes for irrigating a small portion of this um-uldvited
land, namely the Gezira plain and the Tokar area. In add-on
fcSdTjffn ?hi?T? n ? SChCme f 1 irrigatin an a dditiona K
feddans in the Dongola province by annual flooding on the
system In 1917 as an emergency measure to meet war needs
19.000 feddans in Berber and Dongola provinces were put
cultivation by means of pump irrigation.
The Gezira scheme was of much importance. The Gezira
( = island) the land lying between the White and Blue NileTS
was original y proposed to irrigate 100,000 feddans Experiment
undertaken m 1911 at Tayiba. near Wad Medani, on the Blue Me
having proved conclusively that Egyptian cotton of the bes quality
could be grown commercially in that district, irrigation work was
started early m 1914, with funds advanced by the British Natio^a
Debt Commissioners. The intention then was to raise in London
ban of 3,000 ooo to meet the expense of the work, but owing to the
World War the scheme had to be held in abeyance. Eventually!
/? 2^1 i 6 ' 000 ' 000 *** authorized by the British Parliament
4,900 ooo to be spent on the Gezira works. Meanwhile it had been
decided to increase the area to be irrigated to 300,000 feddans The
f M i, me P r vlded for the erect 'n of a dam on the Blue NU
at Makwar, near Sennar, so as to raise the river to a level sufficient
to feed a great canal excavated across the plain. Work on the ca
the levelling survey and the necessary buildings was continued at a
snail s pace (owing to war exigencies) until I 9 ? 7 , when a fresh start
was made. In thelnterval the Egyptian Government had intervened
with irrigation projects intended for the benefit of Egypt and M
1916 investigations were conducted in connexion with the water
supply of both the Blue and White Niles. The result was a Ian
project, for which Sir Murdoch Macdonald, then adviser to the
Egyptian Ministry of Public Works, was responsible. In addition to
the Gezira scheme it was decided to build a dam across the Whi e
able ?o OM' AU ' Ia a ^ 2 ?, m ' S u Uth f Kha rtum, which should be
able to hold up nearly double the quantity of water stored bv the
ten dam rJt' 8 1 Whit l Nile dam being L the benefit Egypt
Drawings of the two dams, both engineering works of the first
magnitude were completed in 1917. Cement hiving been found at
convenient spot near Makwar, a factory was erected there in 1919
and the preliminary work pushed forward on both dams some of the
workmen engaged .being brought from the Yemen. Sir Wl iam
Willcpcks, the engineer of the Aswan dam, having very sever
criticized the schemes, a Nile Projects Commission, composed o^
eminent engineers unconnected with the Egyptian or Sudan serv
ices, made a thorough investigation during 1920. The commission
t^t b oth schemes were sound and the last obstacle to the
building of the dams appeared to be overcome. In 1921, however,
the Egyptian Government was compelled, owing to the serious
financial situation, to order the discontinuance of work on the
Gebe Auha dam; the Gezira operations were continued but at a
greatly reduced rate. Up to June 30 1921 some 3,264 ooo had
Been spent upon the Gezira schemes. Meanwhile a pal to
increase the Sudan loan to 9,500,000, owing to the increased cost
of labour, material and transport, had been rejected The Tote
area irrigation works fnr whirh ni, r, . ... estim t H fad
lue of external trade
Year
Imports
Exports
(including
Reexports)
Total
1910
1913
1918*
19192
1,348,000
2,109,000
4,024,000
4,8os,ooo
E 977,000
1,278,000
4,210,000
3.009.000
2,325,000
3,387,000
8,234,000
7,814 ooo
' Most of the "Arab" tribes in the Sudan are of Hamitic stock
Communications. As a corollary to the irrigation schemes at
Tokar a railway from that town to the seaport of Suakin was
sanctioned m 1919. The distance is about 60 miles. The rail
south from Khartum to Sennar and thence, crossing the Whi
Nile at Kost, westward to El Obeid, the capital of Kordofan-a
SffP t f I' 4 . m .'- was completed in 1911. It had the immediate
effect of stimulating the trade in gum arabic for which Kordofan
s lamous. both railways and steamers are State-owned in 1918 the
tC ?u le u S ri d -f Part ^ n Dl ltt ^, h , ich con trolled the whole of the' river traffic
i the White and Blue Niles and their tributaries south of Khartum,
was incorporated with the railways department, which had taken
V?r f the administration of the harbour of Port Sudan in I 9I4 . The
chief difficulty of the department during 1914-20 was in maintaining
regular services efficiently Great difficulty was experienced in
keeping the Bahr el Ghazal free from sudd blocks, which caused
much delay to steamers.
The upkeep of existing roads and the building of new roads
entailed heavy labour and expense. In the northern and central
zones wells had to be dug to make many of the tracks usable; in the
south there was superabundance of water and dense forests to be
cut through. One of the most important trade roads was that from
Kejat the southern limit of navigability of the Nile from Khartum
westward to the Belgian Congo border. Good work was done on
this road m 1916-8. Eighty streams had to be crossed in 125 m.; a
g le :?P. an steel bridge 193 ft. long was erected over the river Yei.
1 he difficulty of keeping the roads practicable in the equatorial
regions in the long rainy season was great. It was largely on the
opemng-up of roads, and more roads, that the complete pacification
oi the southern provinces depended. From 1916 onward experiments
SUDAN
615
were made in the use of motor tractors and cars on the roads, with
at first but moderate success. In 1920 the use of aeroplanes by offi-
cials for visiting distant posts was first recorded. This followed the
laying-out in 1919 of a number of aerodromes and the passage in
Feb. 1920 of aeroplanes engaged in the first Cairo to Cape flight.
This flight led to the discovery, from the air, by Dr. Chalmers
Mitchell, of the volcanic character of a range of hills in the Bayuda
desert (see AFRICA: Exploration).
On the conquest of Darfur the telegraph system was extended to
its capital El Fasher. Telephone exchanges are established in the
chief towns. The first wireless telegraphic stations were erected in
1915 at Port Sudan, Malakal, Nasser and Gambeila, a chain
extending from the Red Sea to S.W. Abyssinia. In 1916-8 five other
wireless stations were erected, three in Darfur, the others in the far
south, at Wau and Mongalla.
Finance. The subvention in aid of civil expenditure made to the
Sudan by the Egyptian Government, which began in 1899 with an
allocation of .156,000, reached its maximum in 1902 with E.268 t -
ooo, after which it was gradually reduced. In 1912 it stood at
.163,000. In 1913 it ceased to be paid in accordance with an
arrangement by which the Egyptian Government credited the Sudan
with the amount of the customs collected in Egypt on goods enter-
ing and issuing from the Sudan, estimated at .85,000. The
Egyptian Government, however, continued to defray military
expenditure on account of the Sudan, estimated at .172,000. The
insufficient rains and low floods with other external factors exercised
an adverse effect on the economic situation just when the subvention
was withdrawn. Nevertheless, the Sudan budgets of 1913-4-5
closed with a slight surplus. The more prosperous conditions which
followed eased the situation and allowed an increase of taxation
without impairing trade. Revenue, which in 1911 stood at .1,664,-
ooo, rose in 1919 to .2,950,000, with a surplus over expenditure of
.267,000. The budget for 1920 was balanced at .3,500,000. A
traders' tax was imposed in 1913, the trading community as a
class having up to then paid nothing in direct taxation. In 1919
E. 6% was payable on assessed annual profits exceeding .500. In
1917 an excise duty was imposed on sugar, in 1919 the duty on to-
bacco was raised ; heavy increases were made in railway and steamer
rates both for goods and passengers. The railway and steamer
services yielded a substantial profit (.210,000 in 1915, .286,000
in 1919). The rise in the price of all commodities was the main cause
of the increase in taxation. The surpluses obtained since 1916 were
passed to a reserve fund, the only source available, apart from bor-
rowing, for capital expenditure. On Jan. I 1920 the reserve fund
; amounted to .426,000 only, the "reserve" being almost wholly
1 expended year by year on necessary works.
Education. The Government schools are all in the northern or
Moslem half of the Sudan; the only schools among the pagans in
the southern half are those of the missionary societies. In the north
there was a considerable increase in the number of boys attending
' elementary vernacular schools, while the sending of girls to school
became more popular with parents. There were in 1919 five ele-
mentary girls' schools, besides higher schools for girls managed by
missionaries. There was after the war a considerable demand for
boys with a technical or industrial education. In 1920 over 400 boys
trained in the Gordon College workshops were in employment, as to
three-fourths in Government service. (F. R. C.)
Political History. The political status of the Anglo-Egyp-
tian Sudan remained in 1921 as defined by the treaty between
Great Britain and Egypt of Jan. 18 1899. Although the country
passed through a period of depression in 1913-5, comparing 1920
with 1910 there was a distinct advance in the well-being and
resources of the people. The recovery from the disastrous
rule of the Mahdi and Khalifa was shown by the large increase
in population. The period 1910-20 was also notable for a
marked growth of confidence in the Government. The loyalty
of the leading chiefs and notables was never in doubt, and
throughout the World War the vast majority of the people re-
mained peaceful and contented. The number of minor oper-
ations undertaken both before and after the war were mainly
against primitive tribes in the far south and did not affect the
1 more highly developed provinces.
By the annexation of Darfur in 1916 (see below) the area
under the control of the Sudan Government was increased to
over 1,000,000 sq. miles. This vast region was administered
in 1921 by some no British officers and officials, assisted by a
technical staff. The military establishment included 14,000
men of the Egyptian army, with one British infantry battalion
and a detachment of garrison artillery at Khartum. A new
unit, the Western Arab Corps, was raised for service in Darfur.
The Lado Enclave (see 16.60) was transferred in 1910 from
the Belgian Congo to the Sudan and added to the province of
Mongalla. In the same year an outbreak of the old fanatical
spirit had to be suppressed in Sennar, and during 1910-2 minor
expeditions dealt with local disturbances in Kordofan and
Mongalla. Others were also undertaken in 1914-8 to deal
with turbulent elements in the Nuba Mountains traditionally
obnoxious to authority and to keep order in the equatorial
regions, where the Nuer and Dinka tribes gave a good deal of
trouble. The most important of these operations was in the
Nuba province in 1917-8. After a number of collisions, in
which Capt. R. W. Hutton was killed (April 1917), a considerable
force was sent in the autumn of that year and after a somewhat
arduous campaign the hill tribes were in Feb. 1918 reduced to
submission. In 1918 the Sudanese troops aided in operations
against the warlike Turkana, a tribe, much given to raiding,
living on the Sudan-Uganda border. Unfortunately neither
the Sudan nor the Uganda Government had forces to spare to
station troops permanently in this remote area.
An incident at Kassala towards the end of 1918 of no political
importance is yet noteworthy as illustrative of the sporadic
outbursts of fanaticism to which parts of the Sudan were liable.
It was thus officially recorded:
" Without a word of warning and in the dead of night a band of
some 40 fanatics, led by a religious lunatic, suddenly rushed the
guard and inlying picket furnished by the Egyptian unit on the fort
and then proceeded to attack the lines of the camel company of the
Eastern Arab Corps. No longer aided by the element of surprise,
the band suffered heavily in killed and wounded at the hands of the
latter unit. The leader was amongst the killed and the few that
escaped were ultimately accounted for by the camel company and
the police."
Aggressive action by the Aliab section of the Dinkas in
Mongalla province led to the despatch of a small force in 1919
under Maj. R. F. White, which was accompanied by the governor,
Maj. C. H. Stigand. An attack by spearmen in the long grass
led to the death (Dec. 8 1919) of these two valuable officers
and other casualties, entailing a punitive expedition in the
following year.
The completion of the railway from Khartum to El Obeid,
the capital of Kordofan, in 1911 enabled the Government
better to control Darfur, where 'Ali Dinar ruled as a Sultan
tributary to the Sudan; and, after the French occupation of
Wadai, negotiations were in 1912 opened with France for the
determination of boundaries by the inspector-general, Sir Ru-
dolf von Slatin, on behalf of Great Britain and Egypt.
In Jan. 1912 King George and Queen Mary paid a visit to
Port Sudan on their return journey from India, and a review was
held at Sinkat by the King, at which representatives from almost
every section of the Sudan were present. The scanty rainfall
and abnormally low Nile of 1913 caused famine conditions in
portions of Dongola and the Blue and White Nile provinces.
Relief measures and the importation of large quantities of
millet from India made a most beneficial impression on the
populations affected. In April 1914 an exchange of certain dis-
tricts on the Upper Nile was effected, in the interests of both
administrations, with the Uganda Protectorate (see UGANDA).
On the outbreak of war with Turkey in Nov. 1914 the various
provinces of the Sudan, notwithstanding the Moslem character
of the majority, displayed perfect loyalty to the administration.
In Darfur, on the other hand, the Sultan 'Ali Dinar renounced
his allegiance, and, instigated by Turkish emissaries working
through the Senussi sect, contemplated an invasion of the Sudan.
His communications with the Senussites were cut off by posts
of irregulars, and early in 1916, military operations were under-
taken which led to the defeat and subsequent death of 'Ali
Dinar (for the military operations, see SENUSSI). Darfur was
thereafter administered as a province, and an Anglo-French
convention, signed at Paris on Sept. 8 1919, at length settled
the common frontier of Darfur and Wadai. The occupation
of Darfur was followed by an expedition in cooperation with the
French in the region north of Darfur against marauders of
the Guraan tribe, who had given considerable trouble to both
administrations. A garrison for Northern Uganda, whence
troops had been withdrawn to meet the menace from German
East Africa, was for a brief period provided by the Sudan Govern-
6i6
SUDERMANN SUGAR
ment. Except in Darfur, the war did not, externally, touch
the Sudan at any point, and its administration continued on
normal lines. The Prince of Wales visited the Sudan in 1916
and the Duke of Connaught in the following year.
The disturbances which broke out in Egypt in 1919 inter-
rupted direct communications with Cairo, and the temporary
cessation of Nile traffic caused a certain loss of trade. The
Sudanese populations were not concerned with the aspirations
of Egyptian nationalism, and the large Egyptian official com-
munity, while by no means indifferent to the development of
events in their own country, did not actively display sympathy,
so that this period of crisis passed without incident. Nor did
the Armistice and the negotiations which followed the victory
of the Allies occasion special comments. A delegation of
Sudanese notables proceeded to England to offer congratulations
on the successful termination of the war and returned with
pleasant impressions of their visit. The only remaining centre
of unrest in 1921 was the Abyssinian border, where raids and
hunting parties of chiefs, nominally but not effectively under
Abyssinian control, continued to give difficulty.
The outstanding event in Sudanese history during the war
period was the withdrawal of Sir Reginald Wingate from the
governor-generalship, on his being called to Cairo in Dec. 1916
as high commissioner for Egypt. He succeeded Lord Kitchener
as Sirdar of the Egyptian army and governor-general in Dec.
1899, after an almost continuous service with the Egyptian
army since 1883. Under his able and sympathetic adminis-
tration the Sudan had emerged from the chaotic condition to
which Mahdist misrule had reduced it, and gradually developed
into a peaceful and contented country. His name will long
be remembered by the people to whose regeneration he devoted
the best years of his life. Another historic association with the
Sudan was terminated by the outbreak of war between Great
Britain and Austria-Hungary, when Sir Rudolf von Slatin, the
inspector-general, whose advice in all native affairs had been
most valuable, was inevitably compelled to resign. Mention
may also be made of the resignation of Sir Edgar Bonham-
Carter in 1917 after 18 years' service. He had been responsible
for the creation and development of the whole legal and judicial
system of the Sudan.
Col. (afterwards Maj.-Gen. Sir) Lee Stack, civil secretary
to the Sudan Government, succeeded Sir Reginald Wingate as
governor-general and sirdar; Slatin Pasha's post was not filled.
See the Annual Reports on the finances, administration, etc., of
the Sudan, issued annually in London up to 1913, and the Report
for 1914-9, issued 1920, which is of special value. The Sudan
Almanac and Handbook to the Sudan are also official publications.
Murray's Guide to Egypt and the Sudan, and Macmillan's, Baedeker's
and Lock's guide-books may be used with profit. See also Y. P. Artin,
England in the Soudan (1911); and Sudan Notes and Records, an
excellent serial publication begun in 1918. The Survey Depart-
ment, Khartum, issues a map of the Sudan, in many sheets, on the
scale of i :25o,ooo. (J. R. R.)
SUDERMANN, HERMANN (1857- ), German dramatist and
novelist (see 26.20). His novels include Das hohe Lied (1909);
and Lilauische Geschichten (1917); while in 1911 appeared a volume
of short stories, Die indische Lilie. His later plays include Strand-
kinder (1910) ; Der Beltler von Syrakus (1911) ; Der gute Ruf (1913) ;
Die Lobgesdnge des Claudian (1914) , and Das Hohere Leben (1919).
SUESS, EDUARD (1831-1914), Austrian geologist (see 26.21),
died at Vienna, April 25 1914.
SUEZ CANAL (see 26.22). The five years 1909-13 witnessed a
considerable increase in the traffic passing through the canal.
The World War greatly restricted the use, particularly in 1917.
In the following table the figure for receipts is obtained by taking
25 francs as equal to i sterling except for 1920, when the rate is
reckoned at 50 francs to the i :
No. of
vessels
No. of
passengers
Net
tonnage
Gross
receipts
1909
1913
1917
1920
4-239
5,085
2,353
4,009
213,122
282,235
142,313
500,147'
I5,4 7,527
20,033,834
8,368,918
17,574,657
4,782,724
5,140,403
2,880,761
5,329.213
1 This abnormal increase was due to the movement of troops.
In Feb. 1915 the Turks, who had traversed the Sinai peninsula,
attacked the Suez Canal at various points, and it was not until
after the battle of Romani in Aug. 1916 that all danger to the
canal was ended. Throughout this period traffic was interrupted
on two occasions only, and then for very brief periods. During
the World War, under Adml. Robinson as Director-General of
the Egyptian Ports and Lights Administration, 1,239 transports
and men-of-war, totalling over 8,000,000 tons, were passed in
safety through the canal, and 965 transports, 43 hospital ships,
36 store ships and 307 colliers were dealt with at Port Said.
Striking differences in the pre-war and post-war shipping were the
elimination temporarily after 1914 of German vessels (which in 1911
had 13-4% of the tonnage) and the increasing number of Japanese
and United States ships using the canal. Japanese vessels represented
before the war 1-7% of the tonnage; in 1920 their tonnage had in-
creased to 9-1%. United States vessels, rarely seen in the canal
before the war, in 1920 represented 4-1% of the tonnage. British
ships continued to provide the bulk of the tonnage, the proportion
in 1920 being 61-7% compared with 62-2% in 1911. In 1920 three
passages were made by steamers of over 23,000 tons gross, a figure
never before reached, and one vessel had a length of 669 ft., the
longest registered in the canal. The quantity of goods passing
through the canal in 1920 was 34% below the figures of 1913. There
had been some change in the character of the merchandise, food-
stuffs diminishing sensibly in volume, though corn from Manchuria
and China made its appearance. Imports of coal from S. Africal
and Australia were particularly marked in 1919 and 1920.
A scheme to extend the concession of the Suez Canal Co. the
existing concession does not expire until 1968 was rejected by
the Egyptian General Assembly in 1910, not on its merits but'
in an effort to discredit the British administration. The Suez
Canal Co. cooperated heartily with the British authorities in
Egypt during the war. To meet the increased costs caused by the
war the Company in 1916 and 1917 imposed higher tariff charges, i
which, after the war, acted in restraint of traffic and were not of [
permanent benefit to the Company. In 1919 the Company asked j
to have put into operation at Port Said the free zone regime
provided for in an agreement made in 1902 between it and the
Egyptian Government. It held that the transit trade would be
stimulated if an area were set apart in which goods could be
handled, or remain, uncontrolled by the customs. An agreement
on the subject was drawn up in 1920.
It is noteworthy that in 1919, and to a much more marked extent
in 1920, the Company benefited by the decreased value of the
franc. This was made possible as snipping dues were collected in
Egypt and were paid in money less depreciated than the franc, and
profits earned in Egypt were used in the purchase of francs at cur-
rent rates. In 1920 the benefit from these operations amounted to
101,772,000 francs, or over 2,000,000 at average rates of exchange.
The annual reports of the Suez Canal Co., published in Paris,
give full statistical information. (F. R. C.)
SUGAR (see 26.32). In the year 1910-1 the world's produc-
tion of sugar amounted to 16,951,000 tons, of which 8,391,000
tons Were produced from cane and 8,560,000 tons from beet, in-
cluding that grown in America. For 1913-4 the world's total pro-
duction reached 18,486,000 tons, of which the cane production was
9,577,000 tons an increase of 1,186,000 tons of cane. The beet
crop for the same period was 8,909,000 tons, of which 655,000
tons were grown in America an increase of 349,000 tons. These
were the highest figures reached during the decade 1910-20, for
after the outbreak of the World War in 1914 the European pro-
duction declined yearly, until in 1919-20 the world's beet crop
reached only a little over 3,200,000 tons, of which 653,000 tons
were American. The world's crop of sugar for 1920-1 was esti-
mated at about 16,475,000 tons, of which cane was estimated to
produce over 11,828,000 tons, and beet 4,647,000 tons, of which
935,000 tons were American.
Owing to the British Government recognizing at once the impor-
tance of securing to the nation a supply of sugar sufficient for the
wants of the people, sugar was the first commodity to be controlled
in the United Kingdom during the war (see FOOD SUPPLY), and
within a few days of its outbreak the Government had bought
several thousand tons of sugar. In Aug. 1914 a Royal Com-
mission on the Sugar Supply was formed. It took over the duties
of buying and selling sugar. These operations were done through
the ordinary channels of trade, and everyone was guaranteed a
SUKHOMLINOV, V.
617
supply on the basis of his trade before the war, the actual quan-
tities being fixed from time to time in proportion to the sugar held
by the Government; and it is not too much to say that the sugar
control was the most successful of the many Government controls.
It may be noted that in the Final Report of the Commission
issued in June 1921 it was stated that: " The wisdom of the
Government in at once taking over in 1914 responsibility for
the sugar supply was, in our opinion, fully proved in the sequel.
But while we recognize that in the special circumstances State
management was a necessity, our experience does not lead us
to think that State control is a desirable thing in itself in the
region of trade in commodities."
The total consumption of sugar sold under control was approxi-
mately as follows :
Tons
818,488
1915
1916
1917
1918
IQI9
1920
,219,761
109,905
,595,004
952,408
The stocks held by the Commission on March 31 1921 were 390,-
479 tons of raw and 57,787 tons of white.
The Commission had desired to carry out their operations free
of cost to the Exchequer. " This aspiration cannot now be realized,"
they add, " but the fault is not ours. From time to time since the
middle of 1919 the Commission has on various occasions pleaded for
an increase in the selling prices of its sugars, so as to build up a re-
serve to meet the loss which it foresaw as probable on the liquidation
of its stocks on the conclusion of its operations. But on no occasion
has a rise been authorized until weeks or months after it was recom-
mended, and then not always to the extent recommended.
" From a calculation we have made we are able to say that if our
recommendations (which were always kept as low as possible in view
of the reluctance shown by the Cabinet to an increase in prices) had
been approved at the time they were made pur receipts would have
been 16,000,000 more than they have been in fact. Even that sum
is less than the deficit which it is probable that the Exchequer will
have to meet on our operations, and which we estimate at not less
than 24,500,000. Some may perhaps hold that it is not of material
importance to the public whether it has to bear a burden of this
kind in its capacity as a taxpayer or in that of a consumer of sugar.
But to us it is a matter of regret that we shall not be able to claim
that we discharged the duties imposed upon us without having re-
course to the funds of the Exchequer otherwise than for the purpose
of the temporary financing of our operations. The advances made
to us under this latter head by the Treasury stood on March 31 at
27,281,937."
The cost of the establishment of the Commission from 1914 to
1922 is given as 103,239.
The year 1920 stands out as having the most violent fluctuations the
sugar trade has probably ever experienced. The British Royal Com-
mission on the Sugar Supply and the American Equalization Board
acted conjointly in 1919, and by their actions controlled both the
American and European markets. Prices were kept between 303.
1 and 633. per cwt. for Java 96 F.L., but there was some hesitation in
: the autumn with regard to the continuation of the operations of the
! American Equalization Board, which did not decide on further action
until December. In the meantime a good deal of the Cuban crop
1 had been sold to Europe and the East on a basis of 6^c. per lb., and
when the American Equalization Board decided to continue control
it was too late to secure the Cuban crop. The planters, having sold
, a certain quantity of sugar, were independent, and prices were forced
up to I2c. (equal to 765. gd. per cwt.) at the end of January. In Feb.
there were, however, large offerings on the part of the Cuban plant-
ers, owing to supplies of sugar coming into the market, and quota-
; tions declined to gc. (equal to 593. 3d. per cwt.). In March the
American refiners began to buy freely, and this increased demand
was intensified by two serious reductions in the estimate of the Cuban
crop. Wild speculations took place, and in May as much as 23Jc.
(equal to 1363. per cwt.) was paid. Large purchases were also made
in Jan. and May of Manila sugar for shipment during the summer
months. The effect of these inflated prices brought its own remedy ;
consumption decreased rapidly both in England and in America,
and by the end of July Cuban prices had fallen to l6c. which was
' equal to a fall of 405. per cwt. This fall continued until, at the end of
the year, Cuban sugar was actually sold at 3c. per lb., or equal to
a total fall from the highest point of over lios. per cwt. The result
of these heavy fluctuations caused a financial crisis in the trade.
Enormous losses were suffered by the American and Canadian
refiners, who had bought and sold heavily for the autumn months,
and these forward sale contracts were largely repudiated when the
time came for delivery. The British refiners, being still under con-
; trol, escaped these violent losses.
The values of refined sugar in 1910 varied from 173. 3d. to 233. 6d.
oer cwt. for Tate's cubes, and in 19 n the year of exceptional
drought prices continued to advance to 273. 6d., but towards the
end of 1912 prices declined to 193. 3d. and with slight fluctuations
prices were further reduced at the outbreak of war to 173. gd. There
was then a steady rise, and in 1914 cubes were sold at 353., and granu-
lated at 303. per cwt.; in 1915 cubes were 503. and granulated
333., and then by gradual stages till, for domestic consumption,
cubes in 1920 reached Il6s. and granulated 1123., but, under the
voucher system which was in vogue during control, the prices of
sugar for manufacturing purposes were from i6os. to 1643. per cwt.
Refined sugar produced by the British refineries from 1910 till the
outbreak of war averaged about 45 % of the total consumption, but
after the war the production was about 74 %. The British duty from
1910 till 1914 was is. tod. per cwt., in 1915 gs. 4d. per cwt., in 1916
145. per cwt., and in 1918 it was increased to 253. 8d. per cwt., at
which it remained in 1921. This was out of all proportion to the
value of the sugar, and naturally checked consumption.
In 1913 the British Government withdrew from the Brussels
Convention, which had been adopted in 1903, after many years'
endeavour on the part of Great Britain to counteract the effect of
the system of continental bounties on beet sugar. The adoption
of the Convention had undoubtedly saved the British West In-
dian sugar trade from extinction, and British sugar refiners were
able to compete on more equal terms. At the same time there was
still strong opposition in England from the Free Trade party, who
were anxious to have sugar at any price, whatever injustice might
be inflicted on the British colonies and the home refiners. In 1911
there was a serious falling-off in the European beet crop, and there
was a large deficiency in the world's supply, so that an inevitable
rise in price took place. Russia, however, had large stocks on hand,
which, under the Convention, could not be imported into England
owing to the fact that prohibition was in force instead of counter-
vailing duties. Had there been countervailing duties the sugar
would have been shipped to England and the difference in duty
paid. Giving way to pressure from those who were anxious to get
cheap sugar irrespective of the reason for the cheapness, Mr.
Asquith's Liberal Government gave notice in Aug. 1912 to with-
draw from the Convention. The curious feature was that, as the
result of this notice, Russia was permitted to send a considerable
quantity in excess of the limit laid down by the Convention, but
the quantity she sent had very little effect in making up the
shortage of about 1,700,000 tons of the world's production.
In 1919 Mr. Lloyd George's Government (with Mr. Cham-
berlain as Chancellor of the Exchequer) took a further step in ac-
cordance with the views of the British West Indian planters, and
agreed to give preferential treatment to sugar produced within
the British Empire, in the form of a reduction in its case of one-
sixth off the import duty on sugar. The British preferential duty
on raw sugar at 96 polarization is equal to a preference of about
35. gd. per cwt., and on white sugar of a polarization over 98
43. 3.33d. It was too soon in 1921 to know what permanent effect
this concession would have upon the production of sugar in the
British colonies, but it was hoped that it would enable their
planters to compete with Cuba and other countries where costs
are considerably less, and consequently secure a larger share of
the sugar trade of the United Kingdom.
Since 1910 serious attempts have been made to grow beetroots
in England for the manufacture of sugar. A factory was erected
in 1911 in Cantley, in Norfolk, but was worked only one season, and
was closed during the war. It was purchased by a private Liverpool
firm in 1920. A fair quantity of beetroots was grown in the imme-
diate neighbourhood, but the high price which was given for the
roots made it impossible for the purchaser to make a profit on the
sugar produced. As a matter of fact a loss of from 60,000 to 70,000
was incurred. A further and more ambitious attempt was in 1921
being made at Kelham, Notts, where a large factory was erected, con-
siderable quantities of beets having been planted in the neighbour-
hood. The British Government not only subscribed 250,000 of the
capital, but also guaranteed interest on the amount of public capital
raised at 5% for 10 years, and took 125,000 of second debentures.
See also FOOD SUPPLY and RATIONING. (L. A. M.)
SUKHOMLINOV, VLADIMIR (1848- ), Russian general
and war minister, was born in 1848. He passed through the
cavalry school in St. Petersburg, and in 1867 was given a com-
mission in the Guard Ulans. He graduated from the Academy
of the General Staff in 1874. He took part in the war with Tur-
key in 1877-8 as an officer of the general staff, and was awarded
the St. George Cross of the fourth degree. From 1884 to 1886
6i8
SUN YAT-SEN SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT
he commanded a dragoon regiment and from 1886 to 1897 he was
the head of the officers' cavalry school in St. Petersburg, having
meantime in 1890 been promoted to the rank of general. His
next appointment was as commander of the loth Cavalry
Division. In 1899, while commanding the troops of the Kiev
military district, Gen. Dragomirov appointed him as his chief-
of-staff and later as his assistant. His close connexion with
Gen. Dragomirov, who enjoyed enormous prestige in the Rus-
sian army, ensured Sukhomlinov's future career. After the
death of Dragomirov, he was appointed commander in Kiev.
From 1909 to 1916 he was Russian war minister, and it was
under him that two Russian orders for mobilization were given
at the outbreak of the World War. Self-confident and ambitious
Sukhomlinov played a disastrous r61e in the administration of
the Russian army. Notwithstanding the discovery, even in
Oct. 1914, that there was an insufficiency of shells, rifles and
cartridges, he assured the Duma that everything was all right.
It was only in 1916, under strong pressure of public opinion,
that the Tsar Nicholas II. dismissed him from office. Finally
he was brought up for trial on a charge of treason. The court
found him guilty of offences in office, and he was sentenced to
penal servitude. Later Sukhomlinov was freed by an amnesty
granted by the Bolsheviks and went to Finland. In 1921 he
began the publication of his memoirs. (N. N. G.)
SUN YAT-SEN ( 1 86 7- ) , Chinese leader of the revolutionary
movement which ended in the abdication of the Manchu dynasty
in Feb. 1912, was born in Kuangtung province, the son of a
native Christian. He studied at the College of Medicine in
Hong-Kong from 1887 to 1892, and there took his degree in
medicine and surgery. He practised his profession first at
Macao and then at Canton, but from the outset of his career
displayed more interest in politics than in medicine, being by
temperament an iconoclast, an organizer of secret societies and a
leader of conspiracies against the established order of things.
Inspired by his semi-European training, with bitter resentment
against the Manchus, whom he regarded as responsible for China's
humiliation at the hands of Japan, he first raised the standard
of rebellion and of Cantonese independence in 1895; but the
coup failed and Dr. Sun was compelled to seek safety in exile.
Henceforward all his energies were directed towards stimulating
the anti-dynastic movement, first by the collection of funds from
the Chinese communities in the United States, Hawaii and the
Straits Settlements, and then by organized propaganda work
conducted by secret agents throughout the Empire. He received
considerable assistance and encouragement in Japan, where he
founded a society known as the Tung Men-hui, which played
a prominent part in Chinese politics after the establishment of
the Republic. Although an exile, he was generally regarded
by the "Western-learning" section of Young China as its
leader, especially after the Chinese Government's attempt to
kidnap him in London, in 1896. In 1911, when the revolution
broke out prematurely at Wuchang, Dr. Sun was in England;
but he hurried back to China and arrived at Shanghai on
Christmas Eve, in time to be acclaimed as the originator of the
Republican programme and elected Provisional President by
the delegates to the National Convention assembled at Nanking.
On Jan. 5, after having taken the oath of office, he issued a
Manifesto (countersigned by Wu Ting-fang as Minister for
Foreign Affairs) in which the purposes and policy of the Republi-
can Government were proclaimed. On Feb. 12 an Imperial
edict announced the abdication of the Emperor; it surrendered
the reins of government to the representatives of the sovereign
people and declared that henceforth the constitution should be
Republican; at the same time, the organization of the new form
of government was entrusted, "with full powers," to Yuan
Shih-k'ai. On the I4th, Sun Yat-sen resigned the Presidency and
in the name of the Nanking Assembly invited Yuan to accept the
position of Provisional President. His action was applauded
by Young China at the time as evidence of patriotic self-abnega-
tion, but events proved that it was chiefly inspired by recognition
of the fact that he and the Cantonese group of politicians who
had joined him as leaders of the Republican movement, did not
yet carry sufficient weight to justify them in attempting to form
a national government.
Relations between Sun Yat-sen and Yuan Shih-k'ai were
never cordial, but until the ejection from Peking of the Kuo
Min-tang Radicals by the President Dictator in 1913, they
preserved the appearance of goodwill, and towards the end of
1912 Sun accepted a highly paid appointment as Director of
National Railways at Shanghai. After the failure of the Kuo
Min-tang's " war to punish Yuan," Sun wandered again in a
wilderness of conspiracies. Eventually, after the death of the
Dictator (1916) he became one of the Cantonese group of
politicians which waged continual warfare against the party in
power at Peking. Because of the futility and sordid intrigues
which characterized the independent Military Government at
Canton, he, whose reputation in 191 2 had stood high at home and
abroad, came gradually to be regarded as an irreconcilable con-
spirator, whose personal ambitions were largely responsible for
the continuance of the senseless civil strife between the North and
the South. By the vehemence of his rhetoric, by the fervour of his
grandiose schemes for the remaking of China at the time of the
revolution, he captured the imagination of considerable sections
of the public, especially in the United States; but his subsequent
career failed to justify his own belief in himself as a heaven-sent
reformer. In April 1921, a special session of the Southern
(Canton) Parliament elected him to be President of the Chinese
Republic, his supporters declaring the Canton " Military
Government " to be the only lawfully constituted government in
the country; but the influence of these Cantonese " Constitu-
tionalists " over the other southern provinces had then become
almost insignificant, and the " Military Government," prohibited
by the Foreign Powers from interfering with the revenues of the
Maritime Customs, was confronted by financial problems of a
kind which threatened not only its reforming activities but
its continued existence.
SUPAN, ALEXANDER GEORG (1847-1920), Austrian geogra-
pher, was born at Innichen, South Tirol, March 3 1847. He was
educated at the Laibach gymnasium, and in 1870 took his
doctor's degree at Graz, afterwards becoming a teacher in the
Oberrealschule at Laibach. In 1872 he left Laibach and studied
geography at Vienna, Dresden and Halle, returning in 1877.
In 1881 he was appointed professor of geography at the univer-
sity of Czernowitz, and in 1884 became editor of Pctcrmanns
Mitteilungen, retaining this post until 1909, when he accepted
the chair of geography at Breslau. Under Supan's editorship
Petermanns Mitteilungen was more concerned with reports and
accounts of geographical work in every sphere than with original
papers and records of discovery, and a feature in which the
editor was much interested was the publication of supplements
to the Mitteilungen. An account of the economic produce of
N. America, 1880-5, appeared in this manner in 1886, and
Die Bevolkerung der Erde, founded 1872 by Hermann Wagner
and Behm, was continued by Supan as a supplement from 1890
to 1910. In 1889 he became editor of the statistical calendar of
the Almanack de Golha. His original contributions to geographical
science are chiefly concerned with climatology and oceanography,
and his published works include Lehrbuch der Geographic
(1873); Statistik der unteren Luftslromungen (1881); Grundzitge
der physischen Erdkunde (1884); Deutsche Schulgeographie (1895;
latest ed. 1915) and Die territorialische Entwicklung der euro-
piiischen Kolonien (1906), besides many papers in Petermanns
Mitteilungen. He died at Breslau July 6 1920.
SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT, MILITARY (see 26.113). During
the World War, the administrative services i.e. the management
of transport, supply, welfare and salvage became of vastly
increasing importance. The struggle was between groups of
nations bending to the task of war the whole of the resources of
a highly complex scientific civilization, and using in its prosecu-
tion every material and moral factor at their command. Some
note of the working of the administrative machinery (especially
at the culminating point of the struggle) is necessary to give a
true picture of the war. Attention will be given here in the main
to the British organization in 1918 with illustrative references
SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT, MILITARY
619
other armies and to prior dates. For the feeding of the British
iy, see FOOD SUPPLY.
When the armies first took the field in 1914, Germany was at
clear advantage in administration. That was to have been
; cted. It was her war, and she had prepared for it with me-
lous care. The equipment of the German soldiers comprised
iveral novel ideas for greater comfort and efficiency. Examin-
ing some of the German dead who had fallen in the early recon-
naissance affairs in front of Tirlemont on Aug. 14, the writer
had the first uneasiness that Germany might win, so strong was
the evidence their equipment gave of a patient and thoughtful
preparation. The impressive sweep of the German host through
Belgium showed, too, that the German railway organization
was superb, and the way the guns kept up proved that there had
been a clear thinking out in advance of the new problems of
ammunition-supply which the free use of heavy artillery as
field pieces had brought to the fore. German staff documents
published since the war by Gen. Ludendorff indicate that these
matters of administration had been studied from 1910 onwards
and that, the German staff were confident that their inferiority
in numbers would be compensated by a superior organization
in supply. The French administrative services in 1914 appeared
much weaker if examination were confined to plans and matiriel.
The troops were not as well provided for, the transport organiza-
tion not so well planned. But if the human factor were taken
into consideration much of the handicap was made up. The
French showed a genius for improvisation on the actual battle
field, and an astonishing faculty for " getting there " with infe-
rior means. Their food scales for man and beast (to give an
example) spelt scarcity in German or in English eyes; but they
sufficed. In the battle the French soldier was never inferior in
energy and endurance; and the French transport was generally
up to time. The national elan overcame material deficiencies;
and a genius for quick improvisation showed constantly, never
more dramatically than in the mobilization of. Gen. Gallieni's
" Taxi-cab Army " which moved out to the defence of the capital
at a critical juncture. The British administrative services in
1914 were lavish both of supplies and transport. But the
British force was a small one, and though its scale of transport
was extravagant compared with the French, the total was only
250 motor cars, 950 motor lorries and 40,000 horses. With
railway transport it then had no concern: the French managed
its railway transport. Indeed the British force in France in
1914 did not completely " administer " its own affairs. Though
it was a distinct army in command it was dependent on the
French organization for essential services of transport.
The Trench War. A long period of trench warfare fol-
lowed the battle of the Marne, and the administrative systems
of the three armies were adapted to new conditions, the chief
of which were an enormous increase of ammunition expendi-
ture, the introduction of poison-gas as a weapon, calling for
entirely new supplies of offensive and defensive material, and
a simplification of the problems of transport, which in a stabil-
ized warfare could follow almost a civilian routine, disturbed
only by the chances of shell fire. The trench war was, of course,
punctuated by heavy attacks on both sides, but the shift of
ground was never great. Administration, whilst it had to cope
with the enormous progressive increase in the scale and variety
of supplies per division, was thus given ample time as a rule to
increase its transport facilities. It could add to its broad-gauge
railway tracks, supplement them by light railways and tram-
ways as well as by motor-roads, and develop the canal systems
as useful adjuncts.
In this period of trench warfare the Germans suffered from a
steady deterioration as compared with the French and the
British. The war had become a contest of materiel in which
Germany could not keep up. The French were able to develop
their supply on more generous lines with the help of British and
American resources. The British transformed their system
completely. The nation took the view that " money was no
object " in securing for the troops the best possible chance of
victory and the best possible comfort in the trenches. The
growth of supplies (and therefore in transport) was almost
incredible. The British force in 1914-5 suffered from a shell
and gun shortage as compared with its enemy, because it had
been trained and equipped for a different type of warfare. It
had very little H.E. shell, and what it had was not really " high
explosive " owing to poor fuzes. The patient search for a " fool-
proof " fuze had been so successful that what little H.E. shell
they had spluttered off rather than shattered off. The pro-
duction of high explosive in 1914 was almost negligible. The
whole year's supply would not keep the guns of 1918 going for
a day. In 1915 Britain began to produce high explosive on a
large scale. In 1916 she had increased the 1915 amount seven-
fold. In 1917 she had increased that 1916 amount fourfold.
From March 1915 to March 1917 the increase was twenty-
eight fold. With the increase in the production of high explo-
sive went a corresponding increase in big guns and in field pieces.
The expenditure of ammunition in time reached to huge figures.
The following are the biggest day records in tons: Julyi 1916
(Somme) 12,776; April 9 1917 (Vimy) 24,706; June 3 1917
(Arras) 17,162; June 7 1917 (Messines) 20,638; July 31 1917
(Ypres) 22,193; Sept. 20 and 21 1917 (Polygon Wood) 42,156;
Aug. 8 and 9 1918 (general attack) 15,598 and 23,706. Ordinarily
the British depots in France kept a reserve of 258,000 tons of
ammunition, and the issues in a normal month ran to about
that figure, though it varied a good deal month by month.
Thus the average daily expenditure during the last months of
1918 was: May, 5,478 tons; June, 4,748 tons; July, 5,683 tons;
Aug., 9,046 tons; Sept., 8,576 tons; Oct., 4,748 tons; Nov.,
3,158 tons. (See also MUNITIONS.)
Gas Warfare. The introduction of poison-gas was, after the
growth of ammunition expenditure, the chief factor in the
increase of supply. It was constantly presenting new problems
for the administrative services. At first British and French
work was solely defensive the provision of masks, the wearing
of which would give immunity, the detection of new gases so as
to provide new means of defence. But in time the Allies took
the gas offensive, and then their gases were more potent and
more plentiful than the enemy's, and for lack of material he
could not give his men perfect gas protectors. The last form of
gas warfare was the introduction of mustard-gas, a powerful
corrosive discharged from shells, which infected the ground on
which it fell for many hours. The use of mustard-gas by the
enemy raised many problems of supply. The disinfection of
contaminated ground with chloride of lime, a prompt change of
clothing and bath treatment for men affected, proved efficacious
in dealing with mustard-gas. There was, too, safety in protective
overalls of oilskin. Mustard-gas affected the veterinary service
heavily, there being many casualties to horses and mules through
passing over ground infected with the gas.
Big-gun ammunition and gas-warfare munitions were, how-
ever, only two items of supply. Rifle and machine-gun ammuni-
tion, food for man and beast, trench stores, engineering stores,
were other items, all of which had a tendency to grow. In the
total during a spell of intense fighting, the British administrative
services would carry up to the battle-line 1,934 tons of supplies
of all kinds per day per mile of front. The intense battle-front
might stretch over 10 miles or more, calling for some 20,000
tons of munitions, food and equipment per day for that 10
miles, much of it passing through furious shell fire before reach-
ing its objective.
The French administrative services never reached the same
scale of supply as the British. They expended less ammunition,
issued a ration of less weight to man and beast, and dispensed
with much of the " comforts " equipment of the British force.
But in facing such a German effort as the Verdun attacks of
1916 they had a tremendous problem of transport, which was
met by a motor lorry mobilization, the success of which was
one of the great feats of the war.
British System Reorganized. From 1914 up to the date of the
first battle of the Somme (July 1916) the British administrative
services had had no very severe test (unless the battle of Loos
could be so counted, and the organization then was not good).
620
SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT, MILITARY
But by the middle of 1916 the British force in France considered
itself completely organized. In munitions it was better supplied
than any other force in the field. It had taken over control of
its own railway services, supplementing the French broad-
gauge railway system, which it had taken over and increased,
it had a system of light railways and a greatly increased scale
of motor transport. But the Somme battle showed many se-
rious weaknesses. Supply had been increased beyond the scale
that transport could cope with. There followed in Nov. 1916
a reorganization of the system. One feature of this organiza-
tion was good. The division of authority, which put the admin-
istrative services under two heads, one for the battle area and
one for lines of communication, was done away with. The
military railways, which had been hitherto starved, were reor-
ganized, and were generously supplied with staff and material.
But what proved in the result to be a mistake in organization
was made: railways were separated from the control of the
quartermaster-general (who kept control of other forms of
transport), and put under an independent directorate of trans-
portation. Thus the commander-in-chief had two separate
transport authorities to deal with.
There followed after the battle of the Somme a period when
the line was practically stable for a long period; and whilst the
almost stationary trench warfare continued, the weakness of
this division of authority, and the mistake of allowing any but
the military idea to rule in an essential part of the army organ-
ization, were not apparent. When the Germans attacked in the
spring of 1918 those errors showed very clearly, and the railways
had to be brought again under the control of the quartermaster-
general, after an interval during which they were under a com-
mittee of the staff. But the transport situation then was very
critical. The German advance had brought the British front
lateral line St. Just-Amiens-St. Pol-Hazebrouck under shell-
fire at many points. The Germans, whose strategy under Gen.
Ludendorff was dominated largely by transport considerations,
sought to paralyze completely the whole railway system by con-
tinuous air-attack on the British rear lateral Eu-Abbeville
Etaples, especially at the points where it crossed the rivers
Canche and Somme. Whole-hearted work in building " avoiding "
lines and bridges, and the efforts of the motor transport, just kept
the position in hand until a British advance in front of Amiens
relieved the front lateral. It was a happy circumstance that a
new quartermaster-general of the British army in France, Lt.-
Gen. Sir Travers Clarke, had just brought to completion the
building up of a G.H.Q. reserve of motor lorries. He thought
in the winter of 1917-8 that the battle of Passchendaele had
exposed a weakness in light railways that they had to work
along defined tracks which could be intensively shelled by the
enemy. The British army therefore decided to trust more to the
motor transport. There was effected a complete reorganization
of it, with the central idea of doing away as far as possible with
the " earmarking " of motor vehicles for particular units or
particular tasks, and making its total strength completely
mobile and liquid. Vehicles saved by this " pooling " were
formed into a G.H.Q. Motor Reserve. This proved of great
strategical benefit in the spring of 1918. The G.H.Q. Motor
Reserve was able then to take up part of the traffic load, and was
largely responsible for saving the situation. There were lorry
drivers who held the wheel for 36 hours at a stretch, and were
lifted from their seats fainting or asleep; a few who carried on
until no longer able to see through their bloodshot eyes ran
their cars into trees or walls or ditches. There were many cas-
ualties, but the situation was saved at a time when the railways
could not meet the work of supply.
Passchendaele, terrible ordeal as it was for the British army,
gave valuable hints as to the proper place of light railways in an
administrative system. Light railways at one stage of the
war were perhaps over-estimated. There was an inclination to
regard them as all-sufficing. The British administrative services
ultimately gave them their proper role, recognizing that they
were most valuable when the line of battle was stabilized for
same length of time, but tended to be less valuable as the war
became one of movement. In the spring of 1918, the British
army had 920 m. of light railways in operation; in the summer
100 m. less. Its great advance was planned on the principle of
concentrating labour upon pushing forward the bfoad-gauge
railways and the roads forward from them, trusting to motor
transport and to horse transport to carry on the load from
broad-gauge railhead. Earlier in 1918 controversy on the sub-
ject was keen, and the French were inclined to take a differing
view. The Germans, of course, were tied to light railways, for
they had not the. means to extend their motor traction. The
position on Nov. n 1918 seemed to justify the British view.
By the summer of 1918 the British administrative services
were so confident of their machine that they were supporting
strongly in favour of trying for a " knock-out blow " as against
the alternative plan of devoting the winter to final preparation
for an overwhelming campaign in the spring of 1919. " Admin-
istration " covered at this stage a wide scope. It arranged the
supply, from England, and from its own workshops and local
civilian workshops, of all the varied equipment of the forces,
from a tank and a is-in. howitzer to a tin of dubbin. There
came to the ports of France every month for the B.E.F. about
800,000 tons of material. The men to be fed totalled over
2,000,000 and the animals about 500,000. The transport sys-
tem in addition to half-a-million horses and mules, had about
20,000 motor lorries running over 9,000,000 motor miles per
month ; it carried on its light railways about 544,000 tons a month,
and ran every day 250 trains on its broad-gauge lines. It was
constantly building new railways and new roads, and developing
new harbour facilities. It ran canal and sea barge services,
forestry and agricultural services, and repair shops, on a gigantic
scale. It supplied the medical stores for wounded and sick,
the veterinary services, the laboratories for the defence of men
and animals against poison-gas and for the gas counter-offensive.
In the last year of the war it produced timber from French
forests for four-fifths of its total needs. It grew vegetables and
other food and fodder stuffs, and helped as tiller and harvester
in the French fields (in 1918 it saved the crops on 18,000 acres.,
harvesting at night, the soldiers having to work sometimes in
gas masks). It was its tailor, bootmaker, laundryman and even
ragpicker. The soldier on going out of the line had clean under-
wear waiting for him at his divisional baths; his soiled garments
were disinfected, cleaned and repaired for reissue; his socks
darned, buttons replaced, rents patched; and the garment
beyond repair was shipped away as rags for the shoddy mills
of Dewsbury.
This administrative army was caterer for men and horses.
The civilian world throughout Europe might be suffering from
scarcity of food supplies, but to the very last the British soldiers
and horses enjoyed good rations. This was only made pos-
sible by an organization that eliminated every form of waste.
As banker this administration dealt with every currency and
note-issue of the world. It had savings banks and an invest-
ment organization for British troops, and even special savings
banks for the Chinese. It insured its civilian labourers against
death and accident; it negotiated the payment of octroi to towns
where its troops were stationed, and paid compensation of
French property owners for the leases of their lands and build-
ings and the war damage to their property.
The Complexity of Administration. This wide range of activ-
ities, though it had to be carried on under conditions which
varied from day to day, fell with minor variations into three
main categories, (i) Maintaining a stabilized position. This
was comparatively easy. The traffic demand was known.
Wastage of horses and material could be calculated with some
certainty and replaced by a routine process. (2) Preparing a
big attack. This made the greatest strain on transport and
supply, and the necessary conditions of secrecy added complica-
tions. In preparing an offensive the traffic tonnage more than
doubled per division. This was due to the necessity for making
new railways and new roads, and the accumulation of defence
material to fortify a new line. But the accumulation of ammuni-
tion was also a factor. On a quiet sector two divisions could be
SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT, MILITARY
621
served by three trains daily. For the preparation of a big attack
ten divisions might be concentrated on that sector, and those
divisions in the preparatory stage of the attack would need
about 33 supply trains a day, and during the offensive about 27
trains a day. And these trains would carry material only to
broad-gauge railhead. After that most of it had to go farther
forward by light railway, motor and horse traffic, and in some
cases even by the " Yukon pack," i.e. by man porterage. (3)
Resisting a big attack. The difficult element here was its unex-
pectedness. The amount of supplies per division necessary to
go up from base would be 25% less than in the case of the prepa-
ration of a big offensive. There was always carried a good reserve
of ammunition, food and engineering stores, close behind the
line, and a further reserve of ammunition already loaded on
trains at appropriate railway centres. In case of emergency,
ammunition could start to move up as soon as a locomotive
could be coupled to a standing train. The German offensive in
1918 showed that the British carried near the front line too
great reserves, and there were unnecessary losses in food, stores
and ammunition, as a consequence. Forward " dumps " were
thereafter reduced.
The organization at the front in 1918 to cope with this work
in the British army, had at its head the quartermaster-general
(Lt.-Gen. Sir Travers Clarke) and two deputy quartermaster-
generals (Maj.-Gen. Ford and Maj.-Gen. May). The head-
quarters staff consisted of about 40 officers, and the detailed
work was divided under the following departments: Director
of Agricultural Production (Brig.-Gen. Earl of Radnor) ; Director
of Army Postal Services (Brig.-Gen. Price); Deputy Controller
of Canteens (Col. E. Benson); Director of Engineering Stores
(Brig.-Gen. Sewell); Director of Forestry (Brig.-Gen. Lord
Lovat); Director of Hirings and Requisitions and President of
Claims Commission (Maj.-Gen. L. B. Friend); Controller of
Labour (Brig.-Gen. Wace); Director of Ordnance Services (Maj.-
Gen. Sir C. M. Mathew); Paymaster-in-chief (Maj.-Gen. Sir
C. A. Bray) ; Director of Remounts (Brig.-Gen. Sir F. S. Garrett) ;
Controller of Salvage (Brig.-Gen. Alexander Gibb); Director of
Supplies (Maj.-Gen. Carter); Director of Motor Transport
(Maj.-Gen. Boyce) ; Director-General of Transportation (Maj.-
Gen. Crookshank); Director of Veterinary Services (Maj.-Gen.
Moore); Vice-Chairman Imperial War Graves Commission
(Maj.-Gen. Fabian Ware); Director of Works (Maj.-Gen. Sir
A. M. Stuart). Subsidiary directorates under the Director-
General of Transportation were: Director of Construction
(Brig.-Gen. Stewart); Director of Docks (Brig.-Gen. Wedge-
wood); Director of Inland Water Transport (Brig.-Gen. Luck);
Director of Light Railways (Brig.-Gen. Harrison); Railway
Traffic (Brig.-Gen. Murray); Roads (Brig.-Gen. Maybury).
A comparison of this organization with the French administra-
tive services would suggest that the British was over-elaborate.
But consideration must be given to these important facts: that
the British army was operating in a foreign country, and more-
over in the country of an Ally where there must be the least
possible friction with the inhabitants; that by custom both men
and animals in the British force required a particularly gener-
ous ration; that the British force expended far more ammuni-
tion than the French, and in its campaign methods kept up a
permanent minor offensive even on quiet sectors, as was not the
custom with the French. When in the course of the operations
early in 1918, French and British troops were intermixed in the
battle line, it was found by experience impracticable to supply
British units through the French system, and, except as regards
such items as hay and petrol, which were kept in a common
pool, the supply and transport had to be duplicated, a British
system being set up side by side with a French.
Salvage. An account of the administrative system in the World
War would be incomplete without some reference to the salvage
activities of 1917-8. The submarine war began to have its cumu-
lative effect just when there came the most peremptory reminders
that supply was going to be the determining factor of the final
struggle. Munitions, food, equipment, railways, roads, ships these
had become the most important factors, and victory would incline
to thejorce which could best concentrate the means to maintain an
overwhelming force at some particular point, and could best develop,
conserve, and transport its material. From 1915 to the middle of
1917 it was only necessary for the British army to ask and it re-
ceived. Later in 1917, and in 1918, there came requisitions which
could not be met. Just before the German attack in 1918 (to give
one example) there were desperate calls for barbed wire, to make up
an actual shortage of 8,000 tons in the minimum requirements for
safety; but it was not available. In food, forage, clothing, timber,
metals, the world-shortage had now become acute. The adminis-
trative services of all armies sought to better their position, in
Europe, by the organization of a department of salvage. As the
British salvage department explained, " the shortage of almost
every kind of raw material used for war supplies makes salvage an
important administrative service. Without a well-organized and
thorough salvage system, the full maintenance of our force in the
field would be made difficult .... The salvage organization is not
intended to take the place of, or in any way discourage, a consistent
effort on the part of every supply department to recover for repair
and re-issue its own articles and its own empties. It is intended to
supplement that effort; to collect and put to use what would other-
wise become derelict ; to insure that nothing utilizable is allowed 1o go
to waste. . . . There is nothing of the debris of the battlefield
which we cannot put to some use." Some of the items of salvage
values taken from a monthly return show the wide range of the
department swill for piggeries, 600; solder from old tins, 300;
cotton waste, 500; tin-plate (won by unrolling old biscuit tins,
etc.), 2,500; old lead, 400; various by-products 200,000. The old
rags collected did a great deal to help the cloth shortage at home.
The old bones collected made glycerine for explosives. In Sept.
1918 the British army saved 4,000,000, and the American army
3,000,000 by salvage.
The Animals of the Force. The administration of the animals of
the British force the largest mobilization of animals known to
history calls for a special note. The worst difficulty in their case
was mud. From early in autumn until late in spring the mud season
lasted. Off the pave roads all the fighting area of Flanders was semi-
liquid, and the problem at horse-lines was first to secure a solid
" standing," next to secure a solid road in and out to that standing,
and finally to secure a solid road to and from a solid watering-place.
Standings were usually made of bricks, and the army requisitioned
all the brick yards in the occupied area. Shell-ruined villages were
another source of brick supply. The bricks had to be set properly;
rubble was lost in the soil within a week. Losses from enemy action
were not very high among the animals until the last phase. There
was little cavalry work except at the end of the campaign and at its
very beginning. But horses and mules suffered greatly when the
enemy began to use mustard-gas (1917-8). The ground where a
mustard-gas shell had fallen was infected for long afterwards. If
horses were picketed on it, or even passed over it, casualties were
high. The irritant poison of the gas attacked their hoofs and their
skins wherever the hair was thin and caused sloughing wounds. An
effective curative treatment was found in a dressing, the chief
ingredient of which was chloride of lime. From the spring of 1918
the animals suffered severe attacks from the air. The enemy devoted
much of his air-force to bombing attacks on horse-lines, with a view
to lessening British transport strength. At first these attacks had
serious effects. Then horse-lines were camouflaged; the animals
were separated into small groups ; the lines were protected by bomb-
proof traverses of earthwork, which localized the effects of explosions.
In the summer of 1918 the wastage of animals by sickness had been
cut down to a very low rate (7-7%), as the result of skilful horse-
mastership. At this time forage difficulties were acute, but there
had been close organization for grading fodder in army and line-of-
communication areas, and the animals always had sufficient rations.
British administration was able to take a considerable part of the
burden of horsing the American units which arrived in France in
1918. Nearly 25,000 animals were made available by reductions of
the horse-strength of artillery units. A further 14,000 were saved by
giving 6-in. howitzer and some 6o-pounder batteries mechanical
transport. Another means of economy in horse flesh was the setting
up of a " category B " for animals which were not quite fit for arduous
work with a fighting unit, and were withdrawn to units whose de-
mands on them were less exacting.
Some Comparisons. As between the three administrative
machines, the French, the British, and the American in the
autumn of 1918, certain points of difference may be noted.
Both French and American systems still kept a dividing line
as regards administration between the base and the fighting
line. The British system had abolished this (together with the
post of Inspector-General Lines of Communication) in 1917.
The French divided the zone of the armies into the zone of the
advance and the zone of supplies (with sometimes an interme-
diate zone). In the zone of their advance administration was in
charge of the Aide major-general charge de la direction de I'ar-
riere at G.H.Q. But his administration had no functions of pro-
curement, only of distribution. In some points of administra-.
622
SURVEYING
tion the dividing line between the zone of advance and the zone
of supplies was abolished; e.g. all motor transport and all light
railways, wherever operating, were under a D.A. at G.H.Q.
The French system of supply and distribution was fashioned for
war in the home-country or near to it; when it was transplanted
(for instance, to Salonika) it had to be modified somewhat on the
lines of the British system. The American system put adminis-
stration in the fighting line under an assistant chief-of-staff
(6.4) at G.H.Q. ; and on the lines of communication under a
general commanding S.O.S. (corresponding to the former
British I.G.C.). Under the American system the chiefs of the
supply services were not at G.H.Q. but at the H.Q. of S.O.S.
With both the French and the American systems evacuation
and hospitalization of casualties were purely " Q " services:
in the British army they were under the adjutant-general
assisted by the quartermaster-general. Some other differences
came from geographical reasons. France itself was really the
supply-base for the Americans, whereas the British had the
United Kingdom for this purpose; so the Americans held great
stocks in depots 1 5 days of supplies in advance depots, 30 days
supplies in intermediate depots, 45 days supplies in base depots.
The American army naturally relied more largely on local
purchases (from the Allied armies and from European civilian
sources) than did the armies with their home bases nearer at
hand. General Pershing founded a general purchasing agency
to control these purchases. In 1918, out of 17,600,000 ship-
tons used by the American army only 7,600,000 tons came from
the United States and 10,000,000 tons were purchased locally,
and to the end of the campaign the American army drew largely
upon British and French supplies.
The British administrative machine in one particular point
was inferior to the American machine in 1918. Under the British
system the navy had control of all supplies by ship until they left
the transport. The navy could put a supply-ship into any port it
pleased, and naturally was guided chiefly by shipping consider-
ations. Thus supplies for the southern area might go to a
northern port. The American system put the supply ships
under army direction when they came within the three-mile
coast limit, and they could be directed to the port of supply
which was most convenient from the army point of view. The
French and the Americans used the railway regulating stations as
depots; the British used them as sorting stations only. The
British used the base-ports for sorting goods to a great extent;
the Americans did not. In the autumn of 1918 the Americans
found their one great depot, and sorting and regulating station,
at Is-sur-Tille insufficient for the needs of their growing army, and
they were proceeding with the organization of another station
when the Armistice came.
The general staffs of the various combatant nations were in
1921 still working out the lessons of administration as taught
by the World War. One principle seems to be generally accepted,
that it is wise to centralize as far as possible all administration
under one staff officer over the whole war area, trusting to him
to devolve and coordinate. That was the final principle of the
organization of the administrative services in the British army
in 1918. In the first phase of the war the French organization
did a large portion of the work of transporting the British army
and its supplies. As the British force grew in strength, and the
problem of its administration grew in complexity, the experiment
was tried of dividing responsibility between the quartermaster-
general of the force and the G.O.C. lines of communication.
" Q " tasks were under different control in battle areas and at
the base. This did not work satisfactorily, and the next experi-
ment was to divide responsibility between the quartermaster-
general and the director-general of transportation (the latter
having control of the broad-gauge railways, the former of all
other transport). This arrangement broke down in the spring of
1918, when the British army was put into serious jeopardy
through the transport situation; retirement south of the Somme
had to be contemplated, at one stage as probable, and the details
were actually arranged for the destruction of the ports of the
Pas-de-Calais so as to deny their use to the Germans. In the
* These figures indicate the volume an
summer of 1918 the British administrative services from the
coast line to the trench-line were put under one head, the quarter-
master-general, for experience suggested that the commander-m-
chief should have one man to whom he could confide the responsi-
bility of the administrative side of his army's operations: to
divide the responsibility was not to simplify but to complicate
the task. (F. F.)
SURVEYING (see 26.142*). The most striking feature to be
recorded in connexion with surveying generally is the greatly
increased importance which it acquired during 1910-20 from a
military standpoint. This was chiefly due to the stationary
character of the World War on the western front, but other
factors contributed, notably the introduction of air-photography.
The use of photographs, taken from aeroplanes, to determine the
position of enemy trenches and other detail inside the enemy's
lines, made a considerable difference in the technique of modem
war and reacted upon the methods of peace-time surveys. But
not only photographs from the air, but also photographs taken
on land have been pressed into the service of surveying, and the
applications of photography to surveys of mountainous regions
such as the higher Himalayas have been greatly extended.
In exploratory surveying the conditions have been changed
and simplified by the introduction of wireless telegraphy, for
the determination of longitude ; the accurate fixing of his longitude,
long the explorer's bugbear, is now no more difficult than taking
a latitude. In the more regular branches of the subject the
principal matter demanding attention is the development (in
which many countries have taken part) of accurate methods
of levelling, particularly of precise or geodetic levelling.
Surveying in War
Geographical and topographical surveys are well known
adjuncts to military operations. The war of 1914-8 showed
that all other classes of land surveying, i.e. geodetic triangulation,
levelling, and large scale surveying may be called upon to assist
in the development of scientific and mechanical warfare. It
is not possible to forecast whether future developments may
demand an enhanced accuracy of survey, or whether the increas-
ing importance of aviation, amongst other factors, may not pre-
vent a recurrence of the stationary operations which prevailed over
the western front for four years. A description of the more
important duties of the Survey battalions on the western front,
offers the best record of an intensive large scale military survey.
The Trigonometrical Control. The extent of the line, liable to
periods of intense activity throughout its length, and the constant
changes of army and corps fronts made it necessary to provide a
homogeneous and complete system of triangulation upon which to
base the maps and the local surveys called for.
Five separate and distinct triangulations already covered this
area before the outbreak of war, viz:
1. The French main arcs and subsidiary triangulations of
1800-50.
2. The new French Paris meridian and Amiens parallel and
their subsidiary orders of 1890-1900.
3. The French Admiralty coastal triangulation.
4. The Belgian national triangulation.
5. The German national triangulation.
All these triangulations were eventually combined into a single
coherent system, but not until just before the Armistice and too
late to assist in operations. The surveyors of the various armies kept
in the closest touch with each other, but discrepancies arose never-
theless, and time was wasted in fresh observations and recomputa-
tion. It was realized somewhat late that the adjustment of the
discrepancies of local triangulations is the best preliminary to
military surveys.
Many of the stations of the triangulations enumerated had been
destroyed or built over before the war and many were destroyed
during its progress. Numbers of new stations had, therefore, to be
established and the trigonometrical observer was employed in
intersection and interpolation, rather than new triangulations.
This patched and reconstructed triangulation stood then as a
basis for all the military surveys of the western front.
Provision and Issue of Maps. The British Expeditionary Force
took the field equipped with the 1/80,000 carte de I'etat major _ of
France and the British 1/100,000 maps of Belgium. Topographical
maps of this sort were accurate enough for mobile operations in which
no heavy guns were employed. Directly the operations tended to
become stationary first on the Aisne, and then in Flanders, staff,
gunners, and infantrymen demanded a map of such accuracy and
d page number of the previous article.
SURVEYING
623
scale that administrative arrangements, lines of fire, and trench
systems could be shown upon it. Such a map did not exist except
in the Belgian area, and elsewhere had to be made. The earlier war
surveys were made upon the plane table on a scale of 1/20,000 and
were completed up to the British trench lines. The subsequent de-
velopment of air-photography, and the discovery of the manuscript
sheets of the cadastral communal surveys, made it possible to com-
pile reliable maps, not only of territory in British occupation, but of all
that portion of north-eastern France occupied by the German armies.
The trench zone was mapped on a scale of 1/10,000, and forward
and back areas at 1/20,000. In all 6,000 sq. m. were surveyed.
A reliable map of the physical and artificial features of the country
is not sufficient in itself. The positions of defensive works of the
enemy batteries, of the points of administrative importance, and
of many other objects must be shown on frequently recurring edi-
tions. From 12 to 20 editions embodying such information on various
scales were kept up for the actual area of operations, whilst during the
progress of a battle daily editions were brought out.
To cope with this volume of printing it was found necessary to
provide for the rapid reproduction of trench maps at the Ordnance
Survey Office at Southampton and for small but complete litho-
graphic establishments in each army and at G.H.Q. Zinc plates
were prepared by the Vandyke process or by helio-zincography, and
flatbed printing machines, preferably motor-driven, were used for
printing in the field. The French and German armies had well-
equipped printing trains which were used for increasing printing
facilities in important areas. The French, for example, dispatched
a printing train to Italy in 1917. Towards the end the Americans
employed a well-designed printing plant in lorries.
A scale of issue of about two copies per officer engaged, of each
important map, was maintained, but experience showed that this
scale should be increased. During the whole period of operations
about 34,000,000 maps were printed for issue to the British troops,
of which about two-thirds were printed by the Ordnance Survey in
England and a third in France.
For the use of large scale maps in trench warfare a well-thought-
out system of coordinates, based on a suitable projection, was needed.
It must be possible to read off at sight the coordinates of any
desired point from a " g r '"l " or network of lines printed on the map.
All the armies had such systems. Experience proved that for ease
and accuracy of reference the "grid" should be in squares, the sides
of which can be divided decimally by eye. The artillery often desire
coordinates of the same accuracy as the surveyor i.e. on the scale
of nature. The system adopted should therefore be based upon the
coordinates used by the surveyor, with an easy form of abbreviation
to be used by all arms to define map positions. Accuracy of bearing
from any one position must be maintained together with as near an
approach to linear accuracy as possible, whilst the system must allow
of extension over the whole area of operations.
The considerations which influence the choice of a reference
"grid" have already pointed to the desirability of an orthomorphic
projection. For the conduct of surveys constantly in progress
it is equally important. Computations must be cut down to the
minimum, and this is best secured by working on a projection in
which the position on the ground and the position on the map can be
calculated in one process without sensible error.
From the cartographic point of view the question is not so
important, and there are many projections which would provide a
sensibly accurate map over large areas.
It was decided late in the war to adopt an orthomorphic pro-
jection with two standard parallels which had recently been adopted
in the French armies, but the decision came too late, and the Bonne
projection continued in use in the British army until the Armistice.
Surveys for Artillery Purposes. Other things being equal, that
artillery will dominate its adversary which has the quickest and
most accurate knowledge of hostile battery positions and which can
open most quickly an accurate and unexpected fire upon them.
The construction and calibration of guns and howitzers, the homo-
geneity of ammunition, and the measurement of those atmospheric
elements which affect ballistics are involved; but accurate survey
of the relative positions of gun and target is essential.
The positions of British heavy batteries were, therefore, fixed
with a theodolite, each battery was supplied with a chart or
"artillery board " on which the map was pasted down, in sections,
upon a zinc or three-ply wood surface, and special " bearing pickets "
were inserted in numbers in the battery zone. The bearings from
these pickets to surrounding objects, suitable as reference objects,
were tabulated and distributed.
The positions of hostile batteries were also surveyed with as
nuch dispatch and accuracy as possible by one or other or both
of the following methods:
(a) Intersection of three or more rays observed upon the flash
-f discharge, the reflection in the sky of this flash, or, upon the smoke
puff from the muzzle. This operation, commonly known as flash
spotting, was carried put by units, each of which manned four survey
observation posts, or instrument stations, and one headquarter post.
Each section had its own internal telephone system and was in direct
ommunication with an artillery headquarters.
Observations were directed by an ingenious controlling exchange
upon hostile guns in succession. This method, independent of the
map, gave very good results but depended for success upon good
visibility. Flash-spotting units could survey the positions of the
bursts of our own shell and were, therefore, also used extensively for
ranging and for calibration.
(b) Sound-ranging. A sound, in still uniform air, spreads outwards
from its origin with an equal velocity in all directions, and the sound
waves may therefore be likened to the ripples spreading outwards
on a pond from the point at which a stone has fallen into it.
If we now imagine a row of surveyed pegs, more or less tangential
to a ripple, projecting from the surface of the water, if we measure
the times at which the ripple strikes each peg and know the velocity
of the advance of the ripple we shall have all the data necessary for
fixing the position of the origin of the disturbance. All armies
engaged on the western front had some system for determining
the position of a gun from the sound of its discharge, embodying the
above principle. It is unnecessary here to describe the British
system, except in so far as the survey of the sound-receiving stations
is concerned^ A sound-ranging base was generally, though not
invariably, laid out on the arc of a circle, the centre of which lay in
the zone of the enemy's heavy artillery. There were usually six
sound-receiving stations about 1,000 metres apart. The coordinates
of the selected spot for each station were computed in the office,
and the surveyor had to find and mark the corresponding points on
the ground. Errors of more than one metre in position resulted in
sensible errors in sound-ranging.
Sound-ranging is naturally unaffected by bad visibility, but is
put out of action by a moderate wind blowing from base to gun and
is interfered with by any high wind. As in the case of flash spotting,
a good telephone connexion to the artillery headquarters is essential.
Surveying by Air-photography
Air-photography, or, to be more precise, photography of the
ground from the air, has been recognized as a possible method
of survey since the middle of the igth century.
Experiments in photographing the ground from balloons had
been made by Col. Laussedat, Major Elsdale and others from
1859 onwards, but air-photographs played no part in any
important survey before the outbreak of war in 1914. During
the course of the war the difficulty of producing maps on medium
scales was enhanced by the inaccessibility of the most important
areas. It was due to this fact, and to the development in 1915
of photography from aeroplanes, that large areas in many theatres
of war were mapped by the aid of air-photographs. But no full
examination of the possibilities was made, and for peace sur-
veys the method still remains in the experimental stage.
Optical Principles. Provided that the optical axis of the camera
is vertical at the moment of exposure, the resulting photograph of a
flat level area will be an accurate plan at a scale determined by the
equation
4-
where f is the focal length, h is the height of the camera above the
ground at the moment of exposure, s is the representative fraction
of the scale.
Such photographs will be called vertical photographs. As a
rule, however, the photograph is not exactly vertical, but the axis
is tilted at an angle to the vertical. The photograph then becomes
an inclined perspective view. (See Fig. I.)
Negative
( U//WC* ItHHVI ""
FIG. i.
If the direction and magnitude of the tilt of the axis were recorded
at the moment of exposure it is obvious that the photograph could
be projected optically or photographically on to the plane of the
map, although it would remain unfixed in position and orientation.
If the direction and magnitude of tilt are unknown then the pro-
jection on to the required plane, or " rectification," is secured by
comparing the relative positions of four surveyed points on the
624
SURVEYING
ground and on the photograph, which is then also fixed in position
and orientation. Where the tilt is known, approximately three
points common to map and photograph will furnish a solution. Two
further points of importance are that (l) straight lines upon a plane
remain straight lines upon any perspective view of that plane; (2)
at any point on an inclined perspective view the scale is not the same
in directions parallel to and perpendicular to the axis of tilt.
In plotting detail from vertical photographs certain errors, due
to instrumental imperfections, may arise but are seldom of sensible
magnitude. These are due to (i) a change in the relative position
of plate lens and area photographed, due to the shutter moving so
comparatively slowly that the movement of the aeroplane becomes
noticeable on the plate; (2) distortion due to optical imperfec-
tions of the lens.
Construction of the Map. In order to explain how a map is built
up, wholly or partly, from air-photographs it is advisable to take some
illustrative cases. The simplest case is where it is desired to produce
a map of an area in which a sufficient trigonometrical control
already exists and of which there is available a complete collection
of cadastral plans, which are, however, much out of date. Ground
features are low and gently undulating, extreme difference of
altitudes being two or three hundred feet only.
In such a case topography can be brought up to date from air-
photographs taken with the axis as nearly vertical as possible, and
fitted upon the cadastral framework by one or other of the methods
described below. When this is complete the map is contoured in the
field, names are added and the topography examined for omis-
sions or mistakes.
The most difficult case arises when the area to be mapped is
rugged and mountainous, and the inhabitants hostile: the positions
and heights of a few peaks in it, visible from accessible ground,
have been fixed trigonometrically, but no reliable map exists.
As a preliminary measure oblique photographs are taken from a
variety of points of view. The positions of the camera in space are
calculated, and from measurements on each photograph a number of
rays are drawn to noteworthy points in the valleys and on the hills.
Positions and heights are thus determined for a subsidiary control.
With the axis vertical a series of photographs of valleys and of
watersheds are taken, pasted together, and fitted to the control.
When the map has been thus built up, form-lines are added from the
oblique photographs and upon the fixed heights. In the majority of
surveys difficulties will be of an order intermediate between those
of the foregoing two cases.
Applications of Air-photography. In any particular survey air-
photographs may be used then for any or all of the following
processes, viz.: (i) Air-photo control, (2) Air-photo-topography,
(3) Air-photo contouring.
In taking vertical photographs for air-photo control, exposures
are so regulated as to ensure a substantial overlap, generally amount-
ing to 50% at least. Each successive photograph may therefore be
fitted to its predecessor, and lines or traverses of photographs may
be mounted and scaled between fixed points. Any two or more
traverses of different and independent lines may be made to inter-
sect over some topographical object, the position of which may be
determined as the simple, or weighted, mean of the individual posi-
tions from each traverse. Traverses may also be made to converge
and end upon some prearranged and hitherto unfixed object. This
method has given fairly accurate results in flat country on the scale
of 1/40,000, and is dependent upon the ability of the pilot to main-
tain an even keel and a constant height.
In broken and hilly country no method can be regarded as trust-
worthy which does not take into account differences of altitude.
We must then lie content to limit the use of each photograph to the
measurement of horizontal and vertical angles and to fix the posi-
tions of hew points by intersection from two or more photographs.
Where this principle is decided upon there remains no advantage to
be derived from the vertical photograph, and oblique photographs
are used in preference as covering larger areas and allowing greater
refinement in the measurement of vertical angles.
The first stage of this photo-topography from the air is to inter-
polate the position of exposure in space from three or more points,
the positions of which on the earth s surface are known, and which
appear on the photograph. If we consider the pyramids whose
apices are the lens and the bases of which are the triangles formed by
the three fixed points respectively on the ground and on the photo-
graphic plate (see fig. 2), we see that (a) the angles at the apex are
a function of the lengths ab, ac, be (which can be measured upon
the plate), and of the focal length, (b) the inclination of the ground
pyramid to its base is determined by the direction and magnitude
of tilt ; at the present time there are no means of measuring accurately
the tilt of the plate at the moment of exposure, and calculation
follows by successive approximations from a preliminary estima-
tion ; (c) the position of O in space can be calculated and plotted in
its correct projection on the plane of A, D, C; (d) angles may be
measured upon the plate and rays drawn to additional points from O.
From the nature of the case air-photo control must be limited to
the provision of a few supplementary points.
Where the area to be mapped contains a sufficiently close control
the filling in of topographical detail is more easily done from vertical
than from oblique photographs, providing that the area in question
is not markedly hilly. The scale on which photographs are taken
may be larger or smaller than that of the map, but it must be suffi-
ciently large to allow of clear identification of detail.
The area to be mapped is photographed from a prearranged height
in strips allowing for an overlap in all directions. Much depends
upon the training of the pilot in maintaining his height and his over-
lap. It is usual to arrange for a mechanical control of exposures
regulated according to the ground speed of the aeroplane.
Photo
Pyramid
Ground
Pyramid
Intersected Point
FIG. 2.
The plotting of detail from these photographs would be simple if
the axis of the camera could be maintained in a vertical position. It
would then be necessary only to bring the photograph to the scale
of the map. No means of ensuring this verticality has, as yet, been
evolved. It often becomes necessary, therefore, to fit photographs
individually upon the control points. This can be done graphically,
or optically by the camera lucida, or by the enlarging camera.
The graphic method depends upon the principle that as straight
lines on one plane remain straight lines on any perspective of that
plane the position of a point which lies upon the intersection of
two lines common to the ground and to the photograph may be
readily determined. Within narrow limits the proportional compass
set to the difference of scale between map and photograph at this
point may be used to fix additional points. It is more accurate,
however, to maintain the straight line principle and to cover the map
and photograph with a "grid" of corresponding lines, as in fig. 3.
PHOTO
MAP
FIG. 3.
The photograph is mounted on a sheet of paper a, b, c, d and
A, B, C, D are four points the positions of which are known and
are also identifiable on the photograph. Subsidiary common points
at oO are established by drawing the diagonals, and four subsidiary
quadrilaterals may then be formed by drawing lines through oO
from vV and wW the intersections of the prolonged sides of the
quadrilaterals. The same principle may be applied to any poly-
gons formed by joining up any number of points (more than four)
which are fixed on the ground and identifiable on the photograph.
Detail may be sketched in by eye.
A useful method of plotting, known as the four-point method, is
as follows (fig. 4) : It can be proved that the cross ratios of four
points which lie upon a straight line are the same upon any perspec-
tive view of that line, hence we can readily plot the position of a
fifth point (S) if we know the positions of four points A,B,C,D.
Let A, B, C, D be four known points on the photograph and
o, b, c, d their positions on the map, and let S be a point on the photo-
graph the position of which on the map is to be found.
Join A B, AC, A S, and A D, a b, a c, and a d.
SURVEYING
625
Lay a piece of paper with a straight edge, in any position cutting
the lines A B in B', A C in C', A S in S' in A D in D' and mark
these cutting points on the paper.
Now lay the paper strip on the map and fit it upon the lines
a b, a c, and a d, so that B', C' and D' lie upon these lines.
Mark on the map the position of a point s' opposite the mark S'
on the paper strip. Join a s'. Then s, the position of point S, upon
the map, lies upon the line a s'.
V\
FIG. 4.
Repeat this proceeding from B, C, or D, and another line b s',
c s', or d s', will be secured, the intersection of which with a s' will
define the position of S.
The camera lucida (see 5.104) has been used extensively for plot-
ting. The upright carrying the prism is mounted on a stand upon
which are also mounted two boards roughly at right angles to each
other called respectively the map and photograph boards. Move-
ments are added to allow of rotating the photograph in its own
plane, of tilting the map (or tracing of control points) around an
axis parallel to a marked horizontal line on the photograph board,
and of increasing or decreasing the distance between the prism and
the photo board (fig. 5).
Mill-headed Screur
actuating pinion for raising,
and lowering Photo-carrier
Slide and Rack
tarrying the Prill
Mill-headed Screui actuating
and oinion for rotating
Photo- carrier
Hilt. headed Screat actuating
Slide carrying Pritm
The movement! peculiar to thlt Instrument
are indicated oy dotted lines and arrwt
FIG. 5.
^Graphic and optical methods are tedious and lengthy compared
with a photographic rectification. The ordinary enlarging camera
can be made to answer the purpose with little modification. It must
provide, in addition to its focussing movements, as follows:
1. The negative must be capable of rotation in its own plane
around its centre.
2. The copying board and negative carrier must be capable of
rotation around parallel axes which are at right angles to the optical
axis of the lens.
3. The copying board and negative carrier must be capable of
movement along the line axis of the lens.
> 4. The negative carrier must be capable of a movement bodily at
right angles to its axis of rotation.
By means of these movements a coincidence can be obtained
between the four control points on the map and on the photograph,
and a " rectified " print may be obtained.
Little contouring has as yet been based on air-photographs. It
must be recognized at the outset that it is impossible to calculate
relative heights from measurements taken from a single photograph ;
for the accurate determination of relative heights we must have at
least two photographs taken from different places. An outline of
photogrammetry from the air has already been given and mention
has been made of interpolation in space, and of the survey of new
points by intersecting rays. A short additional step the measure-
ment of vertical angles on the plate makes it possible to calculate
the height of these new points.
Stereo-photogrammetry from the air may develop in the future,
but has not been made use of hitherto. On the other hand much use
has been made of the stereoscopic effect visible on two photographs
of the same area taken from different positions. Such information is
not of an exact nature but gives a valuable indication of ground forms
and brings out the system of drainage.
Until 1920 mapping from air-photographs had been confined almost
entirely to war time, and to areas already covered by a trigonomet-
rical control, hence there had been little opportunity of comparing
the cost of this method with that of any other, or of laying down
definitely its possibilities and limitations. Clearly its greatest value
lies in the mapping of inaccessible country.
So far as can be judged, the chief fields of usefulness open to air-
photo-topography are, the surveying of native towns on scales of
about 1/10,000, or 6 in. to I m. ; the surveying of deltas and intricate
water channels; and the surveying of ancient sites, on which the
indications of a former civilization become far more evident in the
air than on the ground. Topography on ordinary small scales, and
accurate large scale cadastral mapping are, so far, ruled out. But it
appears that developments may very well be looked for in each of
these directions.
Photographic Surveying
The idea of applying photography to surveying was originally
due to Col. Laussedat (1819-1907), who made some experiments
in the matter in 1859, and continued during his long life to
expound and develop the method. Although the system origi-
nated in France not much was done in that country in the way of
its practical application, and, if we except some minor work by
MM. J. and H. Vallot in the Mont Blanc regionin 1892 and some
similar mapping by M. Flusin in 1905, it is to Canada that we
must go for its first use on any considerable scale.
In 1895 Mr. E. Deville, surveyor-general of Dominion Lands,
published his important work on photographic surveying, which
remains a complete exposition of the subject if we exclude some
recent departures. Between 1886 and 1892 photographic surveys
were confined to the Rocky Mts. in the neighbourhood of the
Canadian Pacific railway, but in 1893-4 the method was used
by Mr. W. F. King in the survey of the Canada-Alaska frontier.
In 1901-2 Mr. A. O. Wheeler carried out a very successful
photographic survey of the Selkirk range, British Columbia, on
the scale of 1/60,000; this was published, with an interesting
account of the range, in 1905.
In the U.S. photo-topographic surveys had been made use
of on the International Boundary Survey and reports made
by Mr. M. A. Flemer of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in
1897-8. Stereo-photo surveys (see below) were employed in
the survey of Tutuila, Samoa, by the U.S. Hydrographic Office
in 1916; and an innovation in the shape of a panoramic camera
was first used by Mr. C. \V. Wright in Alaska in 1904 and ex-
tended by Mr. J. W. Bagley who wrote an important treatise on
the subject in 1917 (Washington, Government Printing Office).
In 1907-8 Lt. M. Weiss, of the expedition commanded by
Duke Adolphus of Mecklenburg, made a photo-survey of the
volcanic Mfumbiro Mts. to the N. of Lake Kivu. Other fragmen-
tary surveys in various parts of the world have been carried out
by the aid of photographic methods; most of them, as well as
those mentioned above, were in mountainous country.
Outline of the Method. Assuming that a photograph is a true per-
spective view, that the plate was vertical when exposed, and that
the horizon-line and focal length of the lens are known, it is clearly
possible to determine the horizontal and vertical angles from the
point where the camera was set up to all objects represented in the
photograph, the horizontal angles being measured from some known,
represented object. If two such photographs are taken from two
points, at known distance apart, we have the means of determining
the distance and height of all points shown on both photographs.
It will therefore be necessary in planning a photographic survey,
to arrange for a triangulation to fix the relative positions of points at
which the camera will be set up, and the first stage in the office
work will consist in the plotting of the triangulation. A camera
626
SURVEYING
station need not, however, be a trigonometrical point, provided that
its trigonometrical position can be measured from the photograph.
To use the photographs for plotting the detail, from each camera
station A draw, at its correct angle, the central line of view. Along
this line draw Ax, equal to the focal length of the lens; through x
draw a line at right angles to A x and plot from * the projections of
the distant points, as measured on the horizon-line of the photograph.
The intersection of rays from A to the points so obtained, with rays
to the same objects from other stations, will give their positions.
It is an almost universal rule of photographic surveying from the
ground to maintain the photographic plate in a vertical position,
because any inclination of the perspective plane of the plate adds
difficulties to the plotting.
A supplementary order of triangulation is usually added contem-
poraneously with the field work of photogrammetry, both to fix
camera positions and to add a few bearings and vertical angles
from which the photographic data may be checked.
For many years cameras specially designed for surveying work
have been available, a good example being the Bridges-Lee photo-
theodolite. The essential features of these are, that the focal length
should remain constant (for which purpose the sensitized surface
of the plate should be pressed firmly against the frame of the camera) ,
that the position of the optical centre, and of the horizon and prin-
cipal planes should be deducible from marks on the plate, and that
the lens should be free from distortion and aberration. It is also
important to provide levels by means of which to ensure the vertical-
ity of the plate. The later photogrammetric cameras are either
interchangeable with transit theodolites on the same portable stands,
carry eccentric telescopes, or else combine the two instruments by
substituting a telescopic lens for the usual photographic lens, and
by inserting an eyepiece in the back of the camera. The field work
demands a high standard of topographic training, for it is not easy
to select the minimum number of views sufficient to cover the coun-
try whilst leaving no gaps. Valleys and low-lying areas constitute
the main difficulty. One or two stations per diem are all that have
been occupied by the same party in the photogrammetric surveys of
the Canadian N.W. frontier, whilst a supplementary triangulation
was carried on concurrently.
The office work takes two or three times as long as the field work
and consists in plotting positions, calculating heights, and drawing
contours from data measured on the developed plates.
The picture trace will naturally assume the form of the arc of a
circle if a panoramic camera is used such as that employed during
1910-6 by Mr. J. W. Bagley in Alaska.
There are several plotting devices on the market, such as the
perspectograph, but they have not been largely employed. On the
other hand vanishing scales and perspectometers (grids showing
the perspective on a vertical plane of a series of squares on a hori-
zontal and lower plane) can be readily constructed.
Stereo-photo Surveying. The most recent development of photo-
graphic surveying consists in the employment of the stereoscopic
principle. The stereoscope as a toy has long been known, but Dr.
Pulfrich of the firm of Zeiss of Jena, and Col. von Hiibl of the Aus-
trian military ^geographical service, conceived the idea of applying
the stereoscopic principle to the service of exact surveying. Other
pioneers in 1907-8 were the late Capt. F. V. Thompson, R.E., and
Mr. Conrady. In 1913 Mr. G. Muller carried out a successful stereo-
photo survey for part of the proposed Hankow-Ichang railway. In
order to carry out a normal photographic survey successfully it is
necessary to arrange for stations far apart and for intersections of
some 30 degrees or so. But in stereo-photo surveying two stations
can be occupied on the same hill-top and their distance apart need
only be some 50 to 300 feet.
In the simplest case let two vertical photographic plates be ex-
posed from two points, say 100 ft. apart; let the plates be in the
same plane and their centres on the same level. Then if these plates
are put into a stereoscope provided with a system of lenses and
prisms such that the eyepieces are brought to a convenient distance
for seeing, we shall clearly get a very much magnified stereoscopic
effect as_ compared with what is obtainable with the naked eyes.
In the diaphragm of each eyepiece let there be a similar movable
mark, or line on glass. On looking through the eyepieces the
marks in question will appear as a single mark floating in space, and
by vertical and horizontal adjustments this mark can be made to
touch any given object in the picture. We have, thus, a means of
measuring small parallaxes and vertical angles, and these can be
read off graduated micrometer heads.
A stereo-comparator as above described gives angles from the
centre of the plate, distances and vertical angles; but the reading is
laborious and the map has to be constructed point by point.
In 1907 Lieut, von Orel, of the Military Geographical Institute
of Vienna, attempted the construction of a machine which should
quasi-automatically draw the map, and in 1909 such an instrument
was made by Zeiss of Jena. A further model of 1911 permitted the
automatic drawing of contours and the outline of detail. The in-
strument _is called the stereo-autograph ; several have been made and
are in existence in Austria, Germany and France. A stereo-auto-
graph is, of course, an expensive instrument and requires a skilled
operator and good plates of even density. But, given these condi-
tions, practical results have been obtained and the method is one
to be reckoned with in the future. Generally with stereo-photography
we are not limited to a country with marked features, as is the case
with normal photo-topography. Provided that the view is clear,
gently undulating or flat country can be as well surveyed and con-
toured as a mountainous region. The method has some obvious
applications, but it is useless in forest-clad country or in towns
and its value largely depends upon good view points. The old,
photographic surveying has as its chief field of usefulness a well-
marked mountainous region. The new is not so limited but its
r&le has not yet been fully determined.
Bibliography of Photographic Surveying. In 1895 Mr. E. Deville
was able to quote the titles of 26 works on photographic surveying;
in 1911 Dr. Pulfrich in his Stereoskopisches Sehen und Messen men-
tions 276 works, chiefly in German, on stereo-photography alone!
The following books may be recommended: Photographic Survey-
ing, E. Deville, Ottawa, 1895; Hints to Travellers, vol. I. R.G.S.,
1906; The Use of the Panoramic Camera in Topographic Surveying,
James W. Bagley, Washington, 1917; Revue Generate des Sciences,
March 1914, Paris, for stereo-photo-topography.
Longitude by Wireless Telegraphy
The chief technical difficulty which explorers and surveyors
in new countries have hitherto experienced has been in the
determination of longitude in regions unprovided with a telegraph
system. This applies to almost all the unexplored, or little
explored, parts of the world. Since 1910, however, the great
advance made in the transmission of signals by wireless telegraphy
has completely done away with this source of difficulty and error. I
Wireless " receiving " sets are now made of a very portable
character; so much so, that one mule or one porter can carry the
whole apparatus. Frequent practical use is being made of this
method of obtaining time signals, as the following instances will
show. In the year 1912 Comm. Edwards fixed positions during the ,
Bolivia-Brazil boundary commission by wireless signals from
Washington and intermediate stations; in 1913-4 Cav. Dr.
Filippo de Filippi in an expedition to the Karakoram used
wireless signals from Lahore and from Italy; Major A. J. '
Woodroffe in 1913-5 determined longitudes on the Peru-Brazil
boundary commission by wireless signals sent from Senna Madu-
reira, Brazil; in 1914-7 the French explorer, Lt.-Col. J. Tilho,
used wireless signals from Paris to determine longitudes in his
explorations of Tibesti, Borku, Erdi, and Ennedi; in 1917
Capt. A. J. Bamford determined the longitudes of Bagdad
and Kermanshah by wireless signals from Fao, which had '
previously been connected with Basra; in 1910-20 the American
traveller, Dr. A. Hamilton Rice, made use of wireless signals from
Annapolis, Washington and Darien, to determine longitudes
during his Amazonas expedition. Fig. 6 illustrates the wireless
receiving set used by Dr. Hamilton Rice in 1919-20; it was
designed by Mr. J. W. Swanson and Mr. P. F. Godley, and was
found quite satisfactory and very portable.
It is safe to say that, in future, no properly equipped exploring
expedition will be without its wireless receiving set. The designs
of these sets will change from time to time and, no doubt, improve-
ments will be made; but the method has proven to be thoroughly
practical, and the extra amount of transport required is already
of a negligible character. One of the greatest difficulties of the
explorer has thus been removed.
Levelling
Since 1910 much progress has been made in the development
of a sound system of levelling, especially with regard to pre-
cise, or geodetic levelling, i.e. that levelling which provides the
framework on which all national levels depend. The now defunct
International Geodetic Assn. laid down some wise rules on the
subject of the precision of work of the highest standard. The
admirable treatise of M. Ch. Lallemand, Nivellement de haute
Precision, marked a great advance on previous text-books; and
the production of the modern geodetic levelling instruments of
France, the U.S. and Switzerland afforded the means of greatly
increasing the accuracy of observation. To this should be added
the introduction, by the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom,
of a specially devised kind of permanent bench-mark, which did
away with a weak element in the old levelling, the instability
of the ground marks.
Levelling Instruments. As a type of the instruments in use for
levelling of high precision the level designed by Dr. Wildt, and made
SURVEYING
627
Set packed for transport.
Receiver and Loop set up ready for use.
FIG. 6. Portable Receiving Set.
Receiving Signals.
by the Carl Zeiss optical works of Jena, may be taken. Levels of
this kind are also manufactured by Messrs. T. Cooke & Sons of
York and Messrs. E. R. Watts & Son of London. The instrument
jncludes the following modern improvements which distinguish
it from the levels used for rougher surveys or engineering work;
the bubble is read from the eye end of the telescope, so that it is not
necessary to disturb the instrument by walking to its side and bend-
ing over to read it ; the final levelling of the instrument is effected
by means of a slow-motion screw which slightly tilts the telescope;
and the level is provided with a micrometer attachment in the form
of a plate of glass with parallel faces in front of the object glass and
this attachment can be tilted by means of a screw, the amount of
the tilt being read on a graduated drum. The use of this microm-
eter attachment enables readings to be made by the intersection of
graduations on the staff, instead of by estimation. It is essential in
using this attachment that the sights should be of equal length.
Various patterns of staves have been used by different survey de-
partments. The Ordnance Survey, for the new geodetic levelling
of England and Wales, used staves manufactured by the Cambridge
Mathematical Instrument Company. These staves are 10 ft. long
and the graduations are marked on a strip of invar (an alloy of steel
and nickel which has a very low factor of expansion) ; fixed to each
Btaff is a circular level, for the staff-holder to keep it vertical.
Ground Marks. The ground marks to which the observations
are taken in the field are of various kinds and are known in British
surveying as bench marks. The bench marks in use on the Ordnance
Survey are: first class or fundamental; second class, which consist
of flush brackets made of bronze let into a wall or other vertical
surface, and fixed with cement; rivets, let into horizontal surfaces,
such as pavements; and, third class, bench marks cut with a chisel
in brick or stone walls, of broad-arrow shape.
The fundamental bench marks are new. It is well known that
bench marks of the ordinary type are in general unstable; walls or
houses are pulled down, or are subject to settlement, bench marks
on isolated stones have been known to be moved and set up in new
positions, marks on pavements or kerbs are shifted. None of the old
types of bench marks is satisfactory as constituting permanent
records of height and position. Moreover, in certain localities, such
as mining areas and clay hillsides, the ground itself is unstable. It
was therefore decided in planning the geodetic levelling of England
and Wales that fundamental bench marks would be devised which
should be of a very stable nature. These are established at intervals
of about 25 m. from each other; the sites are carefully chosen and
no bench mark of this kind is placed on loose soil or rock liable to
local disturbance. In constructing such a mark a pit is dug through
the soil, sub-soil and loose rock, until sound rock, or hard chalk, is
found. The bottom and sides of the pit are lined with concrete,
and two reference marks are placed in the bottom concrete, one of
bronze and one of polished flint; these are covered with removable
caps of metal. When the observations have been finished the pit is
filled with sand or other suitable dry material. The internal marks
described are those which are used for departmental purposes; but,
for the public, an external mark is also provided. It is hoped that
these marks will last for many hundreds of years and will, in the
future, afford valuable information with regard to vertical move-
ments of the crust of the earth.
Method of Observation. The system of carrying out the observa-
tions in the field is based on the following principles. In order to
minimize the effect of systematic error the levelling of any line is
carried out once in each direction; the interval of time between suc-
cessive levellings should be as short as possible; to minimize the effect
of inclination of the line of sight the distances from the instrument to
the fore and back staves should be as nearly equal as possible ; to
enable the graduations on the staves to be read easily the length of a
space between the two staves is not in precise work to exceed loo
yds. ; to reduce the effect of refraction, no reading is allowed even
with the lower stadia hairs nearer than 6 in. from the lower end of a
staff; observations are not allowed in bad or windy weather; the
level is to be shielded from the direct rays of the sun.
It is on the observance of these and other common sense rules that
the accuracy of the work will largely depend, and great attention
must be paid to details, such as keeping the staves truly vertical or
not letting the staff fall heavily on the picket or bench mark.
Errors. The errors to which levelling is subject may be divided
into those due to the staff, those due to the level, those due to the
staff-holder, those due to the observer, and those due to the state of
the ground, atmospheric conditions and unknown causes. The sys-
tem of observation above described is directed towards eliminating,
as far as possible, all errors not purely personal. Ultimately, when
everything is done to evolve a sound system, it is the human element
which tells most in the result, and the observer should possess ex-
cellent eyesight, a good stock of patience and be scrupulously honest ;
for in this, as in all scientific measurement, there must not be the
least bias or wish to obtain a particular result. If the errors were alt
accidental and subject to the ordinary law, the probable error
should increase as the square root of the distance levelled. There is,
however, in levelling, a factor known as the " systematic error,"
by which the far end of a line constantly tends to appear the lower.
If this systematic error were quite uniform, then double levelling
would completely eliminate it; but this is not quite the case, and in
the result, we are left with errors mainly accidental, plus an un-
known amount of error not strictly subject to the law of accidental
errors. A careful investigation by the Ordnance Survey has shown
that the safest course, and that most in accordance with the con-
ditions of the case, is to treat the whole error as accidental and as
accumulating in proportion to the square root of the length of the
line levelled. This is contrary to French practice. The probable
error of I m. of double levelling is usually calculated from the
formula =0^67 (Sd 2 /4M), where "ZcP is the sum of the squares
of the discrepancies between the forward and back levelling from
mark to mark, and M the length of the line in miles. The value of
the probable error so obtained will usually be less than that obtained
from a consideration of the closing errors. In recent Ordnance Sur-
vey precise levelling the value of e, from the above formula, is found
to be somewhat less than -003 ft., whereas the value found from a
discussion of the actual errors of closure_of the level net-work is
0077. The probable error accumulated in the net-work between
Newlyn in Cornwall and Dunbar in Haddingtonshire, two places
separated by about 700 m. of levelling, is 0-16 ft., or about 2 in.
This figure will serve to give an idea of the accuracy of modern pre-
cise levelling.
AUTHORITIES. See Close & Cox, Text Book of Topographical and
Geographical Surveying i(H.M. Stationery Office, London, 1913);
Middleton & Chad wick, A Treatise on Surveying (1911), chiefly of
value for engineering surveys; W. Norman Thomas, Surveying
(1920). (C. F. CL. ; H. S. L. W.)
NAUTICAL SURVEYING
Although the World War restricted hydrographic surveying
work, it led to improvements in methods and in instruments.
So far as the British Naval Surveying Service was concerned,
it had generally been considered before that a marine survey
need not be carried out with the degree of accuracy which is
rightly considered necessary in purely land surveys; it being
628
SUTTNER, BERTHA
contended that so long as a marine survey was graphically
correct very little attention need be paid to topographical
details. Before the war the delineation of topographical details
was but a secondary consideration in a hydrographical survey,
and it was limited to the accurate fixing of objects conspicuous
from seaward; contouring, except in large harbour plans, was
generally sketched in by form lines. The experiences in the
World War showed that in localities of possible strategic value
accurate topography is of great importance. Where no land sur-
veys are in existence or contemplated, the delineation of the
land features must be included in the hydrographical survey.
The lack of information due to the neglect of this important subject
was much felt during certain operations of the war, particularly
as affecting long range naval bombardments. The necessity for
this accurate work on the part of the hydrographic surveyor
has resulted in the adoption of new methods and of new instru-
ments and the more general use of the land surveyor's instru-
ments, all of which undoubtedly tends towards the more accurate
charting of the seas. The elaborate methods and rigid accuracy
of a triangulation on shore have been recognized by marine
surveyors, although the refinement necessary for so-called first-
class triangulation work does not often present itself.
Instruments. Theodolites in current use (1921) are 4 in., 5 in.
and 6 inch. The majority of these, formerly graduated to one
minute, read to 20 sec. by Vernier, and micrometer theodolites read
to 10 seconds. The use of the theodolite for astronomical and tache-
ometer work largely increased. Sextants for observing, with stand
and artificial horizon, continue in use, but improvements in the
sextant such as an endless tangent screw and electric light for night
work have been adopted. More portable folding stands with slow-
motion screws for movement of the sextant in azimuth and altitude
are also supplied, and in addition amalgamated troughs, consisting
of gold-covered plates on which a thin film of mercury is floated!
have superseded the old artificial horizon consisting of a mercury
bath ; the new pattern is far less sensitive to earth tremors caused by
surf, traffic, etc.
The Astrolabe a Prisme, a very precise instrument for finding posi-
tion, enables altitudes of any stars at the exact altitude of 60
to be observed (see John Ball and H. Knox Shaw, A Handbook of
the Prismatic Astrolabe, published by the Egyptian Government,
Cairo Government Press, 1919).
Measuring chains have been almost entirely superseded by loo-ft.
and 500-ft. steel measuring tapes, which are supplied with standard-
ization certificates. The " lo-ft. pole" has been supplemented by
a " 20-ft. pole " operated by two men and consisting of two boards
connected by a wire 20 ft. in length and used in conjunction with a
sextant. This method of measuring distance is, however, being
gradually superseded by the use of tacheometers and tacheometer
staves marked according to the Admiralty pattern, with which dis-
tances up to over 2,000 ft. can be very accurately measured.
One-metre base range-finders are useful in measuring short
bases for plans of harbours, etc., when time or circumstances do not
permit of a more accurate method.
Of the various forms of heliostat the Gallon sun signal has proved
a most excellent instrument, and fitted to theodolites it allows of the
sun's rays being expeditiously and accurately directed to, and kept
on, the station desired, whether the latter is visible or not.
Ship sounding has been greatly improved by the introduction of
the Douglas Schafer sounding gear, which enables ship sounding to be
carried out under way in any depth up to about 40 fathoms with
great speed; other methods of sounding such as the " Somerville "
gear have also been adopted, and. in addition, far greater attention
has been paid to sweeping for rocks, shoals, etc., the method used
for mine-sweepin? having been adapted to thh purpose.
Other entirely different methods of sounding were also due to
experience gained during the war. The most popular method under
trial in 1921 was " Acoustic Depth Sounding '' which depends on- the
principle of the acoustic echo, the depth being measured by the time
taken for the shock of an explosion or other impulse produced in a
ship to reach the bottom and be reflected back as an echo to a
receiver on board the ship. By this device it was hoped to obtain
either a single indication of the exact depth at any moment or a con-
tinuous indication of the depth registered automatically at any
selected position. The importance of this method of sounding from
a ship under way at any speed, without the necessity of casting the
lead, needs no insisting upon.
Taut wire measuring gear was in 1921 fitted or being fitted to all
British surveying ships. This method of measuring distances at
sea in comparatively shallow depths had proved most successful
and was adopted after having been extensively used in connexion
with mine-laying during the war. The ship preserves a steady course
and at a constant speed over the distance to be measured and at the
same time runs out a thin piano wire from a drum which carries
many miles of the wire. It is laid taut by means of a special brake
device, the amount of wire out being registered on a dial. A correc
tion (always subtractive) must be made for errors. This varies
trom 1,000 to 3,000 ft. in a distance of loo m., and is governed bv the
contours of the sea bed upon which the wire has been laid The dial
registers 1 ,000 rev. for a mile of 6,080 ft., consequently when plottine
in sea miles a second correction, for latitude, is necessary. This
method of determining distance is specially useful when surveying
out of sight of land, and is used in combination with astronomical
observations and moored beacons.
Fixing Positions of Ships, Buoys, etc., by Subaqueous Sound-
ranging. This new method of accurately fixing the positions of
buoys, etc., is carried out by dropping an explosive charge at the
position it is required to fix. The sound of the explosion travels
hroughthewatertoa number of hydrophones suitably placed and
the positions of which are accurately known. The differences between
the times at which the shock reaches the various hydrophones are
:orded photographically by a galvanometer on shore, to which the
instruments are connected by cables. From these observations it ig
possible to calculate a position line for each pair of hydrophones
i hree or tour such lines from hydrophones suitably placed will eive
a cut, which is the position of the explosion.
As in all surveying problems, the accurate fixing of a point from
two others depends on the length of the base, that is, the distance
between two known points, so does the accurate fixing by sound
through the water depend on the hydrophones, or groups of hydro-
phones being such a distance apart, commensurate with the distance
at which it is required to fix the buoy, etc."
Chronometers. Surveying ships are now supplied with from 8 to
12 chronometers of the box type, with pocket chronometers for use
side the chronometer room. The chronometers supplied are
selected instruments which have successfully passed most exhaustive
tests at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. For astronomical work
on shore, the portable Lindqvir>t chronograph is employed In this
instrument, a chronometer fitted with special contact pieces auto-
matically sends an electric current every two seconds through an
electro-magnetic coil, and thus, by suitable mechanism records
every alternate second as a perforation on a paper tape, which is
kept moving at a uniform rate by means of clockwork. The closing
of a switch by the observer operates a second coil, which records
the instant of observation in a similar manner by making an addi-
tional perforation in the tape.
Wireless Telegraphy for accurate time and obtaining meridian
distances has been adopted, and in this connexion the wireless
Vernier time signals made by Eiffel Tower may be mentioned.
Amongst minor improvements introduced in surveying appliances
since 1910 may be mentioned the standardization of the markings of
leadlines, improved buoys for beacon work, light filters for fitting
to the eyepieces of sextant and theodolite telescopes.
_ By 1921, platinised and stainless steel mirrors for sextants and sun
signals were under trial; electrical lighting arrangements to sextants
and theodolites; eye shields for use in observing to assist in perfect
orientation of the head; sextant supports to facilitate observations
at sea; the arcless sextant which enables angles to be taken and rend
off (on a drum) without the necessity of removing the eye from the
telescope; wireless telegraphy outfits for use of detached parties,
and the gyro compass, were all in various stages of experimental
development. The Pillsbury current meter was entirely superseded
by the Ekman current meter, and other meters such as the Daisy
and Gurley were in use.
In calculating triangulations considerable time is saved in correct-
ing for false station by use of the station corrector diagram, by which
the correction can be obtained very quickly to any accuracy re-
quired (generally about 5 sec. of arc) and the tedious trigonometrical
calculation avoided. The slide rule has come far more into prom-
inence for small rough calculations. As the result of modern in-
ventions, it has been found necessary in recent years to produce
special charts for the use of submarines and for other purposes in
addition to the ordinary navigational chart. Charts for submarines
indicate graphically the nature of the sea bottom, so as to indicate
where vessels can rest with safety.
The introduction of wireless direction-finding stations as an aid
to navigation has necessitated the production of charts drawn on the
gnomonic projection, by the use of which positions can be more
accurately determined. Additional charts are also required for
testing range-finders and compass adjusting. Physical charts in-
dicate the direction of prevailing winds and ocean surface currents
at different periods of the year, localities and time where ice may be
fallen in with, and the direction and force of the stream and drift
currents of the oceans.
Considerable gain in accuracy has been obtained by printing
charts directly on backed paper, whereby the distortion incidental
to the old system of subsequently mounting them is largely elim-
inated. (H. p. D.)
SUTTNER, BERTHA, BARONESS VON (1843-1914), Austrian
writer (see 26.171), who in 1911 became a member of the ad-
visory council of the Carnegie Peace Foundation, died at Vienna
June 21 1914.
See H. v. der Mandere, Bertha Suttner (1909).
SUTTON SWEDEN
629
SUTTON, SIR HENRY (1845-1920), English judge, was born
Jan. 10 1845. He was educated at Rugby and Christ's College,
Cambridge, where he graduated in 1868. He was called to the
bar in 1870, in 1890 was made junior counsel to the Treasury,
and in 1905 was raised to the King's Bench division, being
knighted in 1906. He retired in 1910, and died in London
May 30 1920.
SVENDSEN, JOHANN SEVERIN (1840-1911), Norwegian
composer (see 26.175), died at Copenhagen June 14 1911.
SWAN, SIR JOSEPH WILSON (1828-1914), English physicist
(see 26.179), died at Warlingham, Surrey, May 28 1914.
SWAYTHLING, SAMUEL MONTAGU, IST BARON (1832-1911),
British financier, was born at Liverpool Dec. 21 1832, and came
of a Jewish family named Samuel, but afterwards took by royal
licence the name of Montagu. Beginning in early life in a very
humble way of business he gradually acquired great wealth by
enlarging its scope, and he rose to the head of the most important
arbitrage house in London. A strong Liberal in politics, he sat
in Parliament for the Tower Hamlets from 1885 to 1900; he
was a member of the Gold and Silver commission of 1887-90,
being himself a bimetallism He was created a baronet in 1894,
and raised to the peerage in 1907. Throughout his life he was a
zealous promoter of Jewish interests, founding the loan fund of
the Jewish board of guardians, the Jewish working men's club
and several synagogues, and for his work on emigration schemes
for the persecuted Russian Jews he made many journeys in
Europe and America, succeeding Sir Julian Goldsmid as chairman
of the Russo- Jewish Committee. He also helped to establish a
modern secular school for Jews at Jerusalem in 1875. He died
in London Jan. 12 1911, being succeeded in the title by his
eldest son, Louis Samuel Montagu (b. 1869). His second son,
Edwin Samuel Montagu (b. 1879), entered politics, and, after
having been Under-secretary for India (1910-4), Chancellor of
the Duchy of Lancaster (1915), Financial Secretary to the Treas-
ury (1914-6) and Minister of Munitions (1916), was made
Secretary of State for India in 1917. His fourth daughter,
Lilian Helen (b. 1873), became a well-known social worker and
was appointed J.P. for the County of London in July 1920.
SWEDEN (see 26.188). The Swedish census of 1910 showed an
increase since 1900 of 7-5%, from 5,136,441 to 5,522,403 inhabi-
tants. The pop. on Jan. i 1920 was 5,847,037 (2,868,395 males
and 2,978,642 females), of whom 1,701,249 were living in cities,
distributed as follows: Norrland (northern division) 1,018,009,
Svealand (central division) 1,879,146 and Gotaland (southern
division) 2,949.882. The density of pop. is rather low; in
Gotaland 34, Svealand 23 and Norrland only 4 inhabitants per
square kilometer. The chief towns with a pop. exceeding 20,000
inhabitants (Jan. i 1920) were Stockholm (415, 201), Gothenburg
(200,577), Malmo (111,931), Norrkoping (57,377), Helsingborg
(45,805), Gavle (36,092), Orebro (35,096), Eskilstuna (30,103),
Vasteras (29,530), Jonkoping (28,875), Upsala (28,041), Karls-
krona (27,029), Linkoping (26,300), Boras (23,941) and Lund
(22,827).
The excess of births over deaths is low: 10-6 per 1,000 in 1910,
6-9 in 1915 and 5-2 in 1919. The birth-rate for 1919 was 19-6 per
1,000. There were 24,704 emigrants in 1906, 27,816 in 1910,
7,512 in 1915, 10,571 in 1916, 6,440 in 1917, 4,853 in 1918, 7,337
in 1919. During the war emigration was naturally difficult.
The immigration figures were: 6,357 i n I 9 I S> 6,713 in 1916,
5,811 in 1917, 4,932 in 1918, 7,809 in 1919. The United States
received the largest contingent of the emigrants, but Norway,
Denmark and Canada also received considerable numbers.
Swedes resident abroad number between 2,120,000 and 2,245,000,
of whom 1,500,000 are in America and 370,000 in Finland.
Occupations. Agriculture, fishing and forestry provided 48-4%
of the pop. with their livelihood in 1910; in 1900 the percentage
had been 54-4, and in 1890 61-51, the decline having been progressive
since 1840, when the percentage was So-g.
Those dependent on employment in industry, mining, trade and
communications represented 45-8 % of the pop. in 1910, as against
38-8 % in 1900, 31 % in 1890 and 10-7 % in 1840. Those following the
so-called " free crafts " (fria yrken) or engaged in the public service
(oilman tjanst) represented 5-8% in 1910 (6-8% in 1900, 7-5% in
1890 and 8-4% in 1840). The most significant feature in this de-
velopment is the increased importance of the industrial section.
The census figures for 1920 in this respect were not available in
1921, but this section now represents half the population.
Agriculture. Cultivated soil included 3,723,000 hectares in
!9I5, I ,7 l 5,ooo hectares being used for grain, 1,411,000 for fodder
stuffs, 26,100 for root crops, 3,000 for other crops, and 333,000 being
left fallow. Gardens in 1915 occupied 47,533 hectares. The total
value of the harvests in 1914 was estimated at 1,112,000,000 kr. and
in 1920 at 2,012,000,000 kronor. The annual consumption of wheat
increased from 47-7 kgm. per person in 1891 to 87-8 in 1915. The
consumption of rye diminished from no-6 in 1891 to 98-1 in 1915.
The country's own production of corn has not been sufficient, and
large supplies have been imported. During the decade previous to
the war about 50% of the wheat was imported, and from 10% to
15 % of the rye. The ease with which corn could be imported mili-
tated against all attempts to make the country self-supporting in
this respect, and efforts came to be concentrated on stock-raising.
The number of horses in 1916 was 701,099, of cattle 2,913,159, and of
pigs 1,065,396. It was the agricultural policy of the country before
the war to import a considerable amount of the corn required and
large supplies of maize, oilcakes and other fodder stuffs, and in
their place to export live stock, butter and cheese. The balance was
not in Sweden's favour if seen merely from an agricultural stand-
point. In 1913 there was an exportation surplus for live stock of
16,500,000 kr. and for butter and cheese of 46,700,000 kr., but there
was an importation surplus for other animal products of 25,400,000
kr. ; for grain, potatoes and seed corn of 58,600,000 kr. ; for fodder
stuffs of 22,800,000 kr. and for manure of 14,800,000 kr. The bal-
ance showed an importation surplus of 58,300,000 kr. Some decades
earlier the country was as good as self-supporting, but the great
industrial population has come into being since then and conditions
of life have been radically changed thereby.
A more intense cultivation of the soil has been carried out with
great energy. The splitting up of the land for the most part into
small holdings has been a disadvantage to a certain extent. The
large farms lead the way, and in localities where modern methods of
agriculture sufficiently prevail the small farmers join together in
cooperative societies. The scientific study of plant-growing and of
manures is carried on in different parts of the country under the
guidance of a central institute in Stockholm. Seeds have been greatly
improved under the influences of the seed society in Svalov (in
Skane), which also exports seeds. The Swedish moss cultivation
society, which has its headquarters in Jonkoping, has taken the lead
in the systematic cultivation of the country's wealth in bogland.
Fishing contributes considerably towards the support of the
population. The value of a year's catch may be estimated at between
20,000,000 and 30,000,000 kronor. Export of fish provides a balance
of gain to the country of some millions of kronor a year. During the
years of the World War measures were taken to promote the con-
sumption of fish in Sweden itself.
Forestry. Out of Sweden's total land area, which amounts to
41,000,000 hectares, 21,400,000, or nearly 52%, constitute forest-
bearing land, whereof about 4,900,000 hectares, or 23-1 %, are public
property. In 1913 the output of sawed or planed timber was
estimated at 7,800,000 cub. metres, mechanical wood pulp 326,000
tons, chemical wood pulp 860,000 tons, charcoal 4,300,000 cub.
metres, and other products 18,500,000 cub. metres. In the same year
the exports of plain sawn and planed wood were valued at 186,900,-
ooo kr., of partly worked wood at 28,600,000 kr., and of wood-
pulp at 99,700,000 kr., or 315,200,000 kr. altogether. These exports
amounted to 38-6% of the total exports of the country. In certain
years the exports of the products of the forests have amounted in
value to half the total exports of Sweden. The economic world
crisis after the war naturally caused a great diminution in export.
Industry. Sweden is also rich in iron ore, and her water-falls
make her well equipped for industrial enterprises. But coal is to be
found in only one province, Skane, and she is obliged to import
large supplies of both coal and coke. The great distances for trans-
port, moreover, entail heavy freight costs. Workmen enjoy a cor-
respondingly high standard of living.
In 1915 the products of manufactories and mines had a value of
something over 3,000,000,000 kronor. The extent to which Swedish
industries had developed may be seen from the fact that the amount
of horse-power in machinery per 1,000 workers had increased to
3,532 in 1915, from 2,841 in 1911 and 1,980 in 1906. The most
important wood-sawing industries are found on the coast of Norr-
land, notably around Sundsvall and Hernosand. The timber is
floated down the big rivers from the forests. Paper pulp is one of
Sweden's most important exports. Paper is another. The exports
of mechanical wood-pulp (dry weight) in 1915 amounted to 150,103
tons, of which 80,783 went to Great Britain. In the same year
Sweden exported 721,786 tons (dry weight) of chemical paper-pulp,
of which 298,056 went to Great Britain. The iron industry is to
be found within a broad belt of land nearly level with Stockholm and
a little farther to the north. The use of charcoal has helped to make
practicable the manufacture of Swedish high-quality steel. In 1915
there were 135 iron-works (with 28,868 workmen), of which 78 had in
all 120 furnaces in use, producing 748,928 tons of pig-iron and 1 1,773
tons of castings. The exports of iron and steel in 1915 had a
value of 97,600,000 kr., as compared with imports of 27,800,000
630
SWEDEN
kroner. Foundries and mechanical engineering works in 1915 had an
output of 339,600,000 kr. ; exports were valued at 115,600,000 kr.,
as compared with imports of 41,400,000 kronor.
During the war some industries throve exceedingly, as, for
instance, those of iron, paper-pulp and paper; others suffered ap-
preciably at times from the lack of raw materials, as, for instance,
the textile industry. During the second half of 1920 and in 1921
industry was hit hard by the economic crisis.
Commerce. Sweden's foreign trade in 1916-20 presented a
curious picture, inasmuch as the value of her exports during the
war period exceeded that of her imports. In 1910 her imports
amounted to 669,200,000 kr. and her exports to 592,900,000;
the corresponding figures for 1914 were 726,900,000 and 772,400,000.
The figures for the subsequent war years were as follow 1915,
imports 1,142,500,000 kr. and exports 1,316,400,000 kr. 1916,
imports 1,138,600,000 kr. and exports 1,556,400,000 kr. 1917.
imports 758,600,000 kr. and exports 1,349,600,000 kr. ; 1918, im-
ports 1,233,300,000 kr. and exports 1,350,400,000 kr. After the war
the picture changes. In 1919 the figures were : imports 2,534,000,000
kr. and exports 1,575,700,000 kr. ; in 1920 imports 3,373,500,000 kr.
and exports 2,293,600,000 kr. It will be noted now goods were
regularly drawn out of the country during the war, while the im-
ports were inadequate. The circumstance that home-grown wood
was to a great extent used instead of imported coal also counted.
When the war came to an end the country lacked reserve stocks
and needed many articles of consumption. Importation increased,
in part on speculative lines, from Germany and Russia, and with
results which for the most part were unfortunate.
It may be interesting to give figures illustrating Sweden's com-
mercial relations with the leading belligerent Powers. In 1913 im-
ports into Sweden amounted to 846,500,000 kr. ; exports from
Sweden to 817,300,000. Her imports from Great Britain amounted
to 206,800,000 kr. and those from Germany to 289,900,000 kr. ;
her exports to Great Britain amounted to 237,300,000 kr. and
those to Germany to 179,100,000. Her transactions with Germany
were somewhat in excess of those with Great Britain, but the latter
country came first as purchaser of Swedish products. During the war
a great reduction came. Imports into Sweden from Great Britain
amounted to 183,800,000 kr. in 1914; 213,500,000 kr. in 1915;
164,400,000 kr. in 1916; 65,100,000 kr. in 1917; 148,700,000 kr. in
1918 and 668,900,000 kr. in 1919. Imports from Germany came to
238,600,000 kr. in 1914; 251,500,000 kr. in 1915; 420,200,000 kr.
in 1916; 288,200,000 kr. in 1917; 447,900,000 kr. in 1918 and
269,100,000 kr. in 1919.
Exports to Great Britain amounted to 258,300,000 kr. in 1914;
329,600,000 kr. in 1915; 320,100,000 kr. in 1916; 216,100,000 kr. in
'917; 252,600,000 kr. in 1918; 509,900,000 kr. in 1919. Exports to
Germany came to 174,800,000 kr. in 1914; 486,400,000 kr. in 1915;
437,500,000 kr. in 1916; 352,100,000 kr. in 1917; 292,800,000 kr. in
1918 and 130,800,000 kr. in 1919. During the war years British
coal imports into Sweden declined, and Germany largely made good
the deficiency, being naturally anxious to secure imports from Swe-
den. The figures for the Swedish importation of coal and coke, in
thousands of tons, during the years 1913-7 were: from England,
4,916; 4,683; 2,816; 1,707 and 604; and from Germany, 431; 335;
2,174; 4,281 and 1,708. It will be seen how energetically Germany
came forward in Great Britain's place as exporter to Sweden.
Shipping. The Swedish commercial fleet in 1910 included
1,214 steamers and motor-boats, of 842,460 total tonnage dead-
weight; in 1915 1,278 vessels, of 984,799 tonnage; in 1018 1,238
vessels, of 894,260 tonnage. The figures for sailing vessels were in
1910 1,635, of 204,624 tonnage ; in 1915 1,422, of 161,650; and in 1918
1,295, f I 4 1 .396. The diminution was due partly to war-losses.
Communications. The Swedish railway system had in 1910 a
length of 13,829 km., and in 1919 of 15,154, whereof 4,418 and 5,496
respectively were State railways. Through the thinly populated
inner region of Norrland there runs a State railway line which has
been opened for traffic between Ostersund and Vilhelmina. A single-
line railway along the coast of Norrland has been planned out and
begun with aid from the State. During the war the railways were
sometimes quite overloaded, so that locomotives could not be re-
paired to the extent they needed, and lubricants and good coal ran
short. The increased costs drove up passenger and goods rates.
During 190916 the Trollhatte canal was reconstructed and
deepened to four metres. The Sodertalje canal was in 192 1 in process
of reconstruction and of deepening to five metres. Through the
former operation navigation was made possible to the great Lake
Venner and thus between Gothenburg (Goteborg) and the Western
mining district, and through the latter a good waterway was being
created to the harbour of Lake Malar.
Social Conditions. Democracy has a strong hold on the Swedish
people, owing to the high degree of education reached by the masses
and to their inherited respect for the sanctity of law. Familiarized
from an early date with self-government, Sweden had begun already
in the closing decades of the igth century to build up a kind of net-
work of nonconformist religious associations, Anglo-Saxon in their
character, temperance unions and friendly societies. When, as the
outcome of advances in industrialism, the labour movement began
to take shape, it was able to utilize these habits of organization and
thus secure a position of considerable power comparatively quickly.
Now more than 60% of Sweden's wage-earners belong to trade
unions; at the beginning of 1921 these had over 400,000 members,
of whom 280,000 combined to constitute the so-called " Lands
Organisationen," which may be translated as " The National Or-
ganization," while simultaneously the political side of the labour
movement, Social Democracy, became a force of the first order.
Swedish Social Democracy has relied more and more on parliamen-
tary methods of reform, thereby awakening opposition on the part
of the labour extremists, with the result that in 1917 a new Socialist
party of the left came into existence, formed for the most part of
young men. a large number of whom were strongly influenced by
Russian Bolshevism. In the spring of 1921 these latter formed a
Communistic party connected with the Third International in
Moscow. The bulk of Swedish workmen, however, hold aloof
from revolutionary tendencies, thanks to the great extension which
has been attained by cooperation. While workmen constitute a
typical class party, another class party formed by the association
of farmers and countryfolk, under the title of the Bondeforbund,"
dated its origin from 1917.
In 1913 a law was passed instituting compulsory old-age and dis-
ablement insurance for the entire population. In 1916 a similar
accident insurance law was passed. The law passed in 1919 for an
eight-hour day was the most advanced of any in Europe. The
national administration includes a special social department, as
well as a number of boards for dealing with social questions.
The communes also, especially the large towns, have instituted
important social reforms; for instance, by creating public labour
exchanges, which have been State-endowed since 1907 and are
under State guidance and control. In common with the State,
moreover, the communes contributed to the general pensions in-
surance. The guardianship of the poor used to rest on the primary
communes, but, through a new Poor Law, passed in 1918, this
burden is now in certain cases transferred to the provincial assemblies
(Landsting) and the State.
The first decade of the 2oth century was marked by the creation
and swift growth of employers' associations (notably that known
by the name " Svenska Arbetsgivare Foreningen," whose members
in 1920 employed nearly 300,000 workmen) and also of associations
of landowners ; and in several great conflicts, as, for instance, in a
five-weeks' general strike in the summer of 1909, in which 300,000
workmen took part, the victory fell to the employers. For a long
time the State's only action in the matter remained the passing of a
law in 1906 for the intervention of a Conciliation Court in labour
disputes. By reason of the high standing, however, of the trade-
union organizations, and as the result of frequent collective agree-
ments on both sides, certain conventional methods of treaty came
into vogue in the field of labour disputes. In 1920 the Riksdag passed
a law instituting a central State conciliation and arbitration court,
as well as local courts of the same kind, to pronounce judgment in
labour disputes on the basis of their collective agreements.
The Liquor Question. For close on a century past the alcohol
question in Sweden has been a subject for the most serious considera-
tion and for constant measures of reform. The unhappy results of
the excessive consumption of gin at the beginning of the igth
century called forth an energetic temperance movement, led bjr
a clergyman named Peter Wieselgren (1800-1877), a " domprost, '
or dean, of the Lutheran Church; and in 1855 a law was passed
which abolished the right to manufacture gin for home consumption
and which granted concessions to companies, with no financial
interest in the traffic, to sell alcoholic drinks under public control.
This " Gothenburg System," as it was designated, brought about
considerable improvements in many respects, and the great tem-
perance societies, with a total membership of 450,000, have worked
in the same direction. It was, however, only by the new law re-
garding the sale of liquor which was passed in 1917, and which came
into force in 1919, that the underlying principle (" disinterested
management ") of the Gothenburg System was consistently put
into general practice. By this law the selling to individuals of drinks
containing more than 3-6% of alcohol was confined exclusively to
the so-called " systembolag " (" system company "), with about 150
branches, over the management of which the State authorities have
decisive control and which pays over all its profits to the State
Treasury except for 5 % interest on the capital invested. The con-
trolling of this " system company " is entrusted to a central in-
stitution known as " Kontrollstyrelsen." All persons who wish tc
purchase such liquors for home consumption are registered and
receive a pass-book ; the total amount of liquor allowed to them being
limited to a maximum of four litres a month. The abuse of alcohol
is attended by further restrictions or by the absolute withdrawal of
the right to purchase. The amount of liquor which may be sold to a
customer in a restaurant is also strictly limited and confined to
meal-times. This system of liquor-dealing, which was set on foot
in Stockholm in 1913 and organized by Dr. Ivan Bratt (coming to be
known as the Bratt system), was supplemented by a special measure
regarding the treatment of alcoholists. The system had remarkable
results, proportionate in large degree to the activity of the leading
members of the various companies. The consumption of spirits
decreased in many places, for instance in Stockholm, by nearly 50%.
The number of cases of drunkenness, which was formerly somewhat
high, was reduced throughout the country in Stockholm and in cer-
SWEDEN
631
tain other places by 60% and so was the number of persons suffer-
ing from alcoholism. Much opposition from the side of those who
regard the restrictions introduced as altogether excessive was
brought to bear against the system; on the other hand, a tendency
arose among the temperance associations to believe that total pro-
hibition was the only way towards the solution of the alcohol
problem. Smuggling and illegal manufacture of spirits developed
to a disquieting degree in the years 1917-8. There were signs, how-
ever, in 1921 of a return to a better state of things.
Finance. In 1910 the state budget amounted to 265,200,000
kr., in 1915 to 415,400,000, in 1920 to 929,400,000, and in 1921 to
1,131,100,000. For 1920 and 1921 the so-called " tillaggsstater,"
i'.e. supplementary military budgets, are included. The tax revenue
in 1921 amounted to 579,200,000 kronor. The consolidated national
debt amounted at the end of 1920 to 1,280,600,000 kr. ; in 1910 it
had been 543,400,000 kronor.
Apart from the national bank, the Riksbank, which alone issues
bank-notes, there were in IQIO 17 private and 63 joint-stock banks,
which in 1920 had decreased to II and 30 by amalgamations. Their
total paid-up capital and reserve funds amounted in 1910 to 562,600,-
ooo kr. and in 1920 to 1,084,000,000 kronor. At the end of 1920 the
Riksbank balanced its revenue and expenditure at 1,017,500,000 kr.
and the other banks' balance stood at 7,662,300,000 kronor. The
leading private bank is Stockholme Enskilda Bank; the largest
joint-stock banks are Skandinaviska Kreditaktiebolaget, Svenska
Handelsbanken (formerly Stockholms Handelsbank) and Aktis-
bolaget Goteborgsbanken.
The circulation of paper money increased from 206,500,000 kr.
in IQIO to 759,900,000 kr. in 1920. During the war years the Riks-
bank was relieved from its liability to meet notes with gold, and
also to receive gold in ingots (see EXCHANGES, FOREIGN).
The Swedish savings banks in 1910 numbered 477; their deposits
amounted to 1,870,800,000 kr. and their capital to 107,100,000
kronor. The post-office savings bank, a State institution, had de-
posits amounting to 84,400,000 kr. at the end of 1920.
Constitution. The Swedish Parliament, the " Riksdag," consists
of two elected Chambers, the First Chamber being composed of
communal representatives. A constitutional change of a radical
kind took place in 1907 and was confirmed by the Riksdag of 1909.
The communal suffrage was on a scale proportionate to income, the
graduation was now limited so that no person could have more than
40 votes, the bulk of the middle classes thus acquiring a preponder-
ance. Absent voters could delegate their voting rights to others.
Women had the communal suffrage in proportion to the degree
in which they themselves were liable to taxation. Proportional
representation was introduced in the case of both Chambers. Mem-
bers of the First Chamber, in common with those of the Second,
were paid. The suffrage in the case of the Second Chamber became
universal and remained, as before, equal for all.
By Riksdag resolutions in 1918, 1910 and 1921 the constitution
was further developed in a markedly democratic direction. Under
these reforms the First Chamber consists of 150 members, elected
by proportional representation by the provincial assemblies, i.e.
either by " Landstingen " or by specially formed bodies of electors,
chosen also by proportional representation by those possessing the
communal suffrage. The communal suffrage is universal and equal ;
it is no longer graduated and it is personal. When it was graduated
in proportion to income, business companies possessed the com-
munal suffrage. Anyone who fails to pay his taxes for three successive
years forfeits his right to vote. Women have the same voting rights
as men. The age at which the voting right is acquired is 23, but the
age is 27 for the right to vote for the members of the provincial
assemblies which elect the First Chamber. The right to vote by
proxy is abolished, but a husband may deliver a wife's vote in a
closed envelope, or a wife a husband's. Similarly, in the case of
both the communal elections and the elections to the Second Cham-
ber, soldiers on active service, absent seamen and fishermen, and
employees of railways, ports, customs and pilot services may send
in their votes by post.
The number of the voters in the communes has been more than
doubled. After the reform the communes' lists of voters contained
nearly 3,300,000 names, i.e. more than 56% of the pop., and of these
about 1,600,000 were men and 1,700,000 women. In March and
April 1919 took place the new communal assembly elections: in
two ' Landsting ' out of 25, and in 20 towns out of 107 (among them
Stockholm), the Social Democrats and Socialists of the Left together
won absolute majorities. In ten ' Landsting ' and 38 towns the Social
Democrats were the strongest party. The election periods are eight
years for the members of the First Chamber, one-eighth of whose
number are elected each year; and four years for the Second Cham-
ber's 230 members, who are all elected at one time. Women as well
as men are eligible as members of both Chambers. The age at which
a person becomes eligible, for the First Chamber is 35, for the second
23. To be eligible for the First Chamber a person must have a cer-
tain specified income or property. If a member can no longer per-
form his duties, his place is taken by a substitute elected at the same
time as himself. The Riksdag is called together every year on Jan. 10
for its ordinary meeting.
In 1921 the Riksdag passed an Act to provide that a consultative
referendum shall be had recourse to when the Government and the
Riksdag think it desirable to take the opinion of the people direct
by plebiscite on some important question before its decision by the
Riksdag. The proposal decided on must be submitted once again
after a new Second Chamber election, before it becomes binding.
Another constitutional change was involved in the creation of a
foreign affairs committee, which the Riksdag shall elect every year,
and with which the Government shall take counsel regarding foreign
affairs. The Riksdag's right to share in decisions regarding agree-
ments with foreign countries has been extended. Yet another con-
stitutional novelty is the right given to women to hold office under
the State where no special hindrance lies in the way.
HISTORY. On the death of King Oscar on Dec. 8 1907 he
was succeeded by his eldest son Gustav V. Rear-Adml. Arvid
Lindman had been at the head of the Government since May
1906, with Erik Trolle, former Swedish minister at Berlin, as
Minister of Foreign Affairs; Carl Swartz, a manufacturer, as
Minister of Finance; Maj.-Gen. Lars Tingsten as chief of the
Department of National Defences, and Alfred Petersson i Paboda,
a landowner, as Minister of Agriculture. In 1907 this Ministry
had carried a measure of constitutional reform, embodying
universal suffrage in regard to the Second Chamber and propor-
tional representation in regard to both Chambers; and this
measure, in accordance with statute, was confirmed by the Riks-
dag of 1909 after the election of members of the Second Chamber
in the autumn of 1908. Owing to a divergence of opinion within
the Ministry upon an important point bearing upon the extent
of the Riksdag's powers, Trolle, Petersson and one other minister
resigned in 1909. The new Foreign Minister was Count Arvid
Taube, who had succeeded Trolle as representative of Sweden
at Berlin. Some time afterwards Maj.-Gen. Tingsten also
resigned. Moderate Conservatism was the note of this Ministry.
The ministerialist party in the Riksdag had a majority in the
First Chamber and a minority in the Second.
The National Defence Question. At this period the problem
of national defence was in the forefront of Swedish politics,
inasmuch as the foreign affairs of the country were in a condition
calculated to arouse anxiety. The union with Norway had been
dissolved in 1905 and Sweden now stood alone in respect to
foreign politics. Finland, which in 1809 had been taken from
Sweden and united to Russia, had been having its autonomy
more and more reduced, and Russia's foreign policy seemed to
show a forward tendency westwards. A great variety of new mili-
tary measures in Finland seemed to point to something more
than a desire on the part of the Russian Government to prevent
a German invasion of Southern Finland in the event of a Russo-
German war. Right up to the north of the Gulf of Bothnia a
network of railways was being spread out for military purposes,
and new strategic lines were constructed of a kind necessitated
neither for purposes of defence against Germany nor for purposes
of trade. Barracks sprang up at the railway junctions. In
Sweden Russian spies were ubiquitous, and a Russian military
attache had to be recalled on the ground of having pushed
inquisitiveness beyond all limits. A handbook was produced for
the use of the Russian military service containing information
about the conditions of life in Sweden, and with Swedish maps in
it, as well as a short vocabulary of military terms in Russian and
Swedish. Swedes had an uncomfortable feeling that the attention
of Russia was being directed altogether too closely upon their
inadequately defended country.
A careful enquiry into the question of national defence had
been undertaken in 1907. The Liberal members of the com-
mittee of investigation which was appointed were dissatisfied
with its estimate of the defence expenditure required, and
signified their attitude by withdrawing from it in 1910. This
militated somewhat against the efforts of the committee, and it
proved to be impossible, as had been intended, to submit a new
scheme of national defences to the Riksdag of 1911. Instead of
this, the Government brought forward a proposal for a new
naval programme, and, in the face of opposition from the Liberals
and Social Democrats, carried a bill, as a first step, for the
construction of a powerful new battle cruiser.
Liberals in Office. In Sept. 1911 the general election for the
Second Chamber of the Riksdag, under the reformed methods
which had almost doubled the electorate, resulted in increasing
632
SWEDEN
the strength of the parties of the Left. The Liberals elected
numbered 101, the members of the Right numbering 65 and the
Social Democrats 64. Admiral Lindman's Ministry resigned, and
in Oct. the King entrusted Karl Staaff, who had been prime
minister in 1905-6, with the task of forming a new Government.
This Ministry remained in office until Feb. 1914. Count Albert
Ehrensvard, previously Swedish minister at Washington, became
Minister of Foreign Affairs, and both of the departments of
national defence were placed under civilians, in accordance
with the Liberal view that there should be greater civil control.
Alfred Petersson, who had gone over to the Liberals, became once
more Minister of Agriculture. The question of national defence
again came up for treatment, but upon different lines and almost
exclusively at the hands of the members of the Left. It had not
been possible to proceed further with the projected new ironclad
than the making out of the designs. The Government proposed
to the Riksdag of 1912 that the project should be abandoned
and the Riksdag agreed. This cancelling of a previous decision
of the Riksdag, on account of the new elections having altered
the composition of the Second Chamber, evoked strong dissatisfac-
tion. Within a brief space of time a sum of 17,000,000 kr. was
raised by voluntary subscription for the building of the ship, and
since the Government was unable to decline to use this fund the
keel was laid down on Dec. i. The whole country was now
stirred up, and further sums were subscribed in the same way to
furnish machine-guns for the Landsturm and to provide aircraft.
Towards the end of 1913 things had come to such a point that the
prime minister was able in the course of a speech to advance
arguments in favour of a forthcoming proposal for a winter
training for the army, the establishment of reserve forces, the
levying of a higher war-tax on the more well-to-do, the ameliora-
tion of the laws governing war, etc. But in view of the election
promises to which the Liberal leaders had committed themselves
during the contest of 1911 this programme was not to be submitted
all at once; its most important item alone, that of the training of
the infantry, would in the first place be submitted by itself on the
occasion of the Second Chamber elections of 1914 before being
proposed to the Riksdag. The public discussion of the matter
became very lively, and although no thoroughgoing defence
programme was in fact submitted to the Riksdag of 1914,
violent feelings were aroused and expressed.
At last even the small farmers and peasantry, usually anything
but enthusiasts for defence measures owing to the heavy personal
taxation entailed, were drawn into the movement. On Feb. 6
1914 there was a great meeting in Stockholm of more than 30,000
representatives of this class from all parts of the country, assem-
bled for the purpose of bringing home to King Gustav their
anxiety at not seeing the question handled promptly and in its
entirety. They were received by the King in the great courtyard
of the Royal Palace, and their spokesman declared that the
Swedish people were willing to bear the burden of whatever
measures of defence were necessitated by the gravity of the time.
The King answered that he, too, was of opinion that the
problem called for treatment in its entirety and without delay.
This demonstration had important consequences at once.
The Ministry had had no previous intimation of what the King
was going to say, and matters were brought to a head by the
resignation of Staaff and his colleagues. On Feb. 17 a new
Ministry was formed, with Hjalmar Hammarskjiold as its head.
Policy of Reform. In connexion with foreign affairs during
this period it may be added that, by arbitration at The Hague,
the sea boundary between Sweden and Norway was fixed in
accordance with Sweden's claim, and Sweden became a party to
the North Sea and Baltic Agreement of 1908. By dint of close
cooperation between the Government and the Riksdag a large
number of important reforms were instituted. Among those
carried through during Adml. Lindman's administration may be
mentioned (in addition to the franchise measures above noted)
the creation of a supreme administrative Court of Justice
(Regerings ratten), together with a legal council, formed of some
members of the Supreme Court, as advisers to the Government
in legislative matters. Civil marriages were made permissible
for all members of the State church. New laws were introduced
as to farmers' tenancies and the leasing and letting of houses,
flats, etc., and the speculative operations of the big companies
dealing in land in Norrland were restricted and placed under
control. A new company law was passed by the Riksdag and also
a new banking law. A progressive income and property tax,
based on the taxpayer's own statements as to both, was also
introduced, together with a progressive inheritance tax. Custom-
house duties were remodelled and the sugar-tax modified. An
arrangement was come to with the Grangesberg Co. in regard to
its iron-ore business in Lapland, by which the complicated
question of proprietorial rights was so settled that the State
joined in as part owner, receiving preference shares to the value
of 40,000,000 kr., a specified royalty on the proceeds of the mining
at Gellivara and Kirunavara and the right of redemption after
a specified period. Large grants were made to the electric power
stations at Trollhattan and Alvkarleby in central Sweden, as well
as to that at Porjus in an uninhabited region of Lapland, and a
widening of the Trollhatte canal was put in hand. A new law
regarding insurance against illness was passed. Night work
in certain occupations was forbidden for women. Improvements
were made in higher technical education. In 1909 a sharp
conflict arose between employers and workmen, and the latter
organized a general strike in which nearly 300,000 took part.
There were, however, no disturbances, thanks both to the disci-
pline maintained and to the wise measures adopted by the
Government. Social life was not brought to a standstill, as
the workmen expected, and after a lapse of two months the
conflict was brought to an end.
While the reforms introduced by Adml. Lindman's Ministry
lay mainly in the sphere of economics and industry, the Staaff
Ministry devoted its energies more especially towards social
questions. A new social department was instituted, as a centre
for the State's activities in this direction. The law bearing on the
protection of workmen was extended, and various forms of
workmen's unions were placed under control. A law was passed
regulating the methods of dealing with alcoholists. The profits
of the sale of spirits by the communes were allocated to the State,
compensation being allowed therefor, the object of this being
to free the communes from all economic interest in the liquor
trade. After long preliminary planning, an illness and old-age
pensions insurance law was passed, enacting obligatory insurance,
with payments in three degrees, for all, except pensioners of the
State, between the ages of 16 and 66, the pensions to be given
in case of illness, or on the completion of the 67th year.
The War Years, 1914-8. In the ministry which Herr Ham-
marskjiold formed in Feb. 1914 Herr K. A. Wallenberg, the
banker, was Minister of Foreign Affairs; Herr Dan Brostrom,
shipowner, Minister for Naval Defence, and Herr Oscar von
Sydow was Minister of the Interior. The Second Chamber was
dissolved, and after a very sharp contest the advocates of active
defence measures were returned in increased numbers, but with-
out having secured a majority, polling 86 seats out of 230, while
the Liberals numbered 71 and the Social Democrats 73.
The Riksdag met again in May, and the outbreak of the war
brought with it a solution of difficulties, inasmuch as all parties
recognized that there must be no disputing as to details of
defence at a moment when the whole surrounding world was
aflame. Universal military service had already been introduced,
but now the training time for infantry was increased to 340 days,
of which 250 were to be spent in recruit classes beginning in the
autumn and continuing throughout the winter, followed by the
usual training courses during three years. In order to secure non-
commissioned officers of the right kind it was judged well to
impose a longer training time, extending to 485 days, on students
and other young men of similar standing, while for cavalry and
artillery the period was fixed at 365 days. Large sums were
allotted for the provision of war materials and for the strengthen-
ing of the coast defences. A programme was drawn up for adding
new vessels to the fleet. Simultaneously with these steps towards
increasing the defences of the country, measures were introduced
for modernizing the existing code of punishments for military
SWEDEN
633
offences, this being accompanied by the creation of a special
official, to be appointed by the Riksdag, whose duty it would be to
inquire into all allegations regarding abuse of power or other
derelictions on the part of superior officers in the army or navy
an appointment designed to act as a protection for soldiers and
sailors against injustice.
An official declaration of neutrality was published without
delay, and all the ministries holding office during the war, with
the Riksdag's expressed approval, aimed at remaining absolutely
neutral. Neutrality involved the duty of preventing any of the
belligerent Powers from using Swedish territory as a basis for
operations against enemies. Throughout the entire war the
Swedish fleet remained on guard along the coasts of the country
and on several occasions it had to take active measures. During
the summer of 1916 there were many violations of neutrality
in Swedish waters. In order to elude the observation of foreign
battleships, trading vessels, flying the flags of belligerent countries,
or carrying dangerous freights, sought to get through a channel
called Kogrundsrannan within Swedish waters in Oresund, and
apparently frequent attempts were to be expected on the side
of belligerent countries at both ends of this channel to seize
enemy vessels even at the risk of this occurring within Swedish
waters. This channel was closed therefore against all but cer-
tain known Swedish vessels. The Allied Powers considered this
action incorrect and protested, but the channel remained closed
until Dec. 1918. A number of trading vessels belonging to the
Allied Powers, which, owing to the closing of the channel, were
confined in th; Baltic, were, however, allowed egress on the con-
dition that the Swedish population received a certain measure
of necessary supplies from the west.
The stagnation produced by the outbreak of the war as
regards foreign trade and shipping did not last long. Sweden
became for a time, like Holland and Italy, an intermediary
in the American trade with Germany, quite in accordance with
international law as it stood before the war. When, however, the
Allies proceeded to employ more and more stringently their
weapon of blockade against the Central Powers this business as
intermediary came quickly to a stop. The intensifying of the war
at sea brought with it great obstacles in the way of neutral
commerce. Its most painful feature was the sinking of neutral
vessels by the German submarines, with its accompanying loss
of lives. The mines which were spread about by other groups of
belligerents also claimed many victims. The proceedings of the
submarines called forth much indignation, and protests were
made, but without much effect. The measures of the Allies
were of a different order, but their control over shipping presently
became so oppressive that protests against this aho were made,
the weightiest protest coming from the three northern kingdoms
acting together. Sweden's geographical position and the com-
mercial conditions which existed before the war necessitated the
maintaining of relations with both sides. Trade transactions
with Germany were in 1913 somewhat in excess of those with
Great Britain, but Great Britain was the larger purchaser of
Swedish products. During the war one great displacement in
trade resulted from the diminution of Sweden's imports of coal
from Great Britain and the consequent necessity of making
good this diminution by imports from Germany.
Despite all the difficulties to be encountered it proved possible
to maintain importation into Sweden from the west of raw
materials, grain and other necessaries down to well on in 1916,
but from this time onwards there was an increasing scarcity.
When the Allies intensified their blockade, and Sweden could not
break off trade relations with Germany, the blockade-line was
drawn not between Sweden and the Central Powers but west of
Sweden and the other Scandinavian countries. All goods which
had to pass the blockade-line in the North Sea on the way to or
from Sweden were subjected to sharp control. As regards goods
from Sweden certificates of origin and ownership had to be fur-
nished, to make sure that they were not in reality disguised
exports from Germany, while in the case of goods for Sweden
guarantees were required to the effect that they would not be
forwarded to Germany. Suspected goods were unloaded in
British seaports. Black lists caused serious losses to conscien-
tious tradesmen as well as to others. Both groups of belligerents
set on foot elaborate systems of trade espionage in neutral coun-
tries. In order to regulate the undertakings which the belliger-
ents demanded from merchants, manufacturers and shipowners,
the so-called War Trade Law was passed in 1916 to give legal
value to officially recognized undertakings to foreign Powers,
while at the same time it was laid down that undertakings not
thus recognized lacked all legal value. A special trades commis-
sion was created to investigate all questions connected with this
matter. The international goods exchange came to be worked
like an enormous system of compensation, controlled by State
officials by means of agreement. Every neutral country had to
offer some equivalent in return for its imports. During the first
years of the war it was to the interest of the Allied Powers that
goods should go through Sweden to Russia. The great consign-
ments caused inconvenience to the Swedish railways, but they
made things easier for Sweden in the matter of imports.
Negotiations were set on foot for a commercial agreement be-
tween Sweden and Great Britain and her Allies, but they led to
no result during the time of Herr Hammarskjiold's Ministry, and
this fact was turned to account against him in the political con-
flict which went on over the internal affairs of the country. After
this Ministry resigned on Mar. i 1917, and Herr Carl Swartz
formed a new Government, the Foreign Minister, Adml. Lind-
man, brought about a temporary agreement by which the Swedish
people were allowed the right to import nearly 92,000 tons of
grain and about 40,000 tons of other goods, on the condition that
certain vessels belonging to the Allies then confined in the Baltic
should be allowed egress through the cloned channel of Kogrund.
After Herr Eden's Ministry succeeded to that of Herr Swartz
in the autumn new discussions were entered upon in regard to
imports. In Feb. 1918 a so-called modus vivendi agreement was
come to, enabling Sweden to import about 75,000 tons of maize,
feeding-stuffs, raw phosphate, mineral oils and coffee, and in
June a more comprehensive agreement was reached, in accord-
ance with which it was possible to import larger quantities of
grain, feeding-stuffs coal, oils, india-rubber, cotton, wool, hides,
etc. In this connexion Sweden placed at the disposal of the
Allies a portion of her commercial fleet. In addition, Sweden
guaranteed to the Allies a certain share in her iron-ore exports,
and also undertook to allow a certain amount of credit for goods
bought in Sweden. In this way Sweden's most essential import
was made sure of until the end of the war. In consequence of the
universal scarcity the three Scandinavian countries came to an
agreement as to the mutual exchange of commodities.
The hard conditions which prevailed during the war brought
Sweden and Norway closer together again. After the severance
between Sweden and Norway in 1905, and the election of a
Danish prince as King of Norway, the relations between the
Scandinavian countries had been somewhat cold. King Gustav,
who at one time had been the "Norwegian Crown Prince, himself
took the initiative, and in Dec. 1914 invited the Norwegian and
Danish monarchs to a meeting at Malmo, at which the affairs
of the three countries as affected by the war came under dis-
cussion. Other such consultations followed, for instance at
Christiania in Nov. 1917, and the prime ministers and foreign
ministers of the three kingdoms also came together, while on
some occasions of importance there were meetings at which
special delegates were present.
In Jan. 1918 Sweden gave her recognition to the new Finnish
State. When, shortly afterwards, the Red outbreak occurred in
Finland, there was a strong movement in favour of Sweden's
joining in on the side of the newly formed Finnish Government,
but when the Russian troops began to take part in the struggle
on the side of the Reds, Russia continuing to be a belligerent
Power, the Government and the Riksdag agreed that it would
not be wise to intervene. Swedish volunteers fought on the side
of the Whites, and a couple of Swedish ambulances were sent
over. Swedish refugees were brought back from Southern Fin-
land. While the civil war in Finland was still in progress a peti-
tion came from the inhabitants of the Aland Is. for Swedish
634
SWEDEN
protection against aggression on the part of Russian troops which
were stationed there. Troops were sent from Sweden to main-
tain order on the islands, and they achieved their purpose. When
Germany, however, came to the support of the Whites and landed
forces on the Aland Is., the Swedish troops were withdrawn.
Economic Measures. At the very beginning of the war period
the Swedish Government carried through several special adminis-
trative measures. The exportation of a number of commodities
of great importance was prohibited, partly in order that they
might be kept for home consumption, partly in order that they
might control the exportation by export licences. This system
was gradually developed until at last the export of all important
goods was prohibited. An Industrial Commission and an Unem-
ployment Commission were set up to decide on the measures
which should be taken to maintain industrial work and to miti-
gate the serious condition of unemployment which threatened.
A Food Commission was appointed to study the development of
the market, and a National War Insurance Commission was
charged with the task of dealing with insurances against loss of
life and property through the war on the seas, as the private in-
surance companies were unable to undertake all the risks. The
Riksdag's legislative powers were also called into play. A finan-
cial Moratorium was instituted at an early date. The Riksbank's
obligation to meet its own notes with gold was suspended,
and new laws were introduced giving the Government new pow-
ers, which were employed when necessary, to effect the compul-
sory purchase of goods from individuals and to fix maximum
prices on commodities. Swedish vessels could not be sold to
other countries without the Government's sanction, nor could
they carry freight from one foreign country to another. All this
accumulation of legal measures, which presently had added to it
the law against unreasonable increases in rent, the law against
" profiteering " and several others, did not come about at once
but grew out of the needs which were created by the conditions
of the war period. New organs for war-time administration were
formed in the Trade Commission (June 1915) and the Food
Control Commission (autumn 1916), the former of which had to
apply the War Trade Laws and to supervise exports and imports,
while the latter, as the successor of an earlier Food Commission,
took in hand the food rationing of the country.
Rationing. Before the war Sweden produced about four-
sevenths of the cereals which she required; the rest had to be
imported. On the other hand, she exported live cattle, pork and
butter, the production of which was made possible by the impor-
tation of feeding-stuffs. The fodder harvest of 1914 was so
scanty that it necessitated a reduction of live stock. The impor-
tation of cereals was undertaken by the State through the agency
of the Food Commission. When there began to be a scarcity in
some of the animal foods, and prices suddenly rose, recourse was
had to the fixing of maximum prices for the first time in Nov.
1915. In the course of the year also the exportation of animal
foods was restricted and producers were obliged, in return for the
granting of export licences, to allot a certain proportion of their
goods (" compensation goods " so-called) to the State for sale by
the communal authorities at low prices to those who were less
well-to-do. In the autumn of 1916 the scarcity of animal foods
became so serious that rationing had to be decided on, and, even
so, anxiety was occasionally felt lest the supplies should fail. The
situation was aggravated later by the bad harvest of 1917. In
Oct. 1916 it was decided that nobody should obtain sugar with-
out presenting a sugar-card. These sugar-cards gave a person the
right to purchase 13 kgm. of sugar a year, with an additional
amount for preserving purposes to each family. In Jan. 1917
bread-cards were introduced. Farmers were allowed to retain a
certain quantity of corn but had to sell all the surplus to the
State. All such stores, whether bought by the State or imported,
were rationed out to the rest of the population, who were given
bread-cards providing at first allowances of 250 grammes a day
to each person, later only 200 grammes, but again 250 in Nov.
1918. Persons engaged in particularly arduous work were al-
lowed extra rations. The bread-cards were used also on jour-
neys. The carrying out of this work of rationing needed very
thorough supervision, and this evoked dissatisfaction and annoy-
ance, especially among the farmers. The system was changed
in the food control year of 1918-9, each fanner being called
upon to supply a certain specified quantity of corn and being
allowed to do more or less as he pleased with what he had left.
Rationing ceased at the end of Aug. 1919.
The supply of bread was scantier than in normal times, and it
had to be supplemented with other food-stuffs, especially pota-
toes. The consumption of all these rose enormously and a great
scarcity began to be felt, most severely in the late winter and in
the spring of the year 1917 and 1918. People had to have re-
course to the eating of turnips. In the spring of 1917 there were
food riots in various localities. In 1918 the danger of famine
became worse, but calm prevailed. In the autumn of that year
potatoes also had to be rationed, but this expedient did not work
well. In densely inhabited localities milk was so rationed that
the needs in the first place of small children, then of pauper
children and the old and the sick were supplied. The exportation
of meat, including bacon and pork, ceased altogether in the first
half of 1917. The scarcity of fodder became at times so intense
that moss and heather and even pine-needles had to be employed
as substitutes in the cow-sheds. The selling of bacon and pork
was placed under strict control, but only with the result that
both disappeared almost altogether from the open market. The
rationing of butchers' meat was considered, but it was not
thought safe to take this step. Among other things rationed was
coffee. The scarcity of food generally caused the Government to
do what it could to intensify production by the putting of new
land into cultivation, etc.
The Fuel Question. The fuel question was beset with difficul-
ties although Sweden is so rich in wood. Before the war about
5,000,000 tons of coal and coke were imported, for the most part
from England. When, during the war, the importation from Eng-
land ceased, and Germany was unable to supply as much as Eng-
land used to do, the country was faced by a very serious scarcity
of fuel. This wasat the beginning of 1917. The regulation of the
business of the wood supply was then entrusted to the Fuel
Commission, which put wood-cutting operations in hand on an
enormous scale. In Nov. 1917 56,000 workmen were in employ-
ment at wood-cutting. Down to May 1918, when the work
ceased for the most part, 19,400,000 cub. metres of wood had
been cut. Forest owners were allowed to make provision for
their own needs. Other households had certain specified quan-
tities allotted to them, according to the number of persons in
each, special wood-cards being provided and the price of the
wood being fixed at figures which did not quite cover the cost.
Those persons who wished to buy more could do so but at higher
figures. Factories and railways had to pay higher prices. The
result was that fuel was always available in sufficient quantities,
but that the wood supply involved a loss to the State of over
100,000,000 kronor.
Industry during the War. The importation difficulties reacted
also upon industries. There was a great scarcity of lubricants.
This was partly met by the use of substitutes. The textiles,
rubber and leather industries, as well as several branches of the
chemical industry, suffered from the lack of raw materials. The
scarcity of copper and certain other metals and metal alloys
had injurious results on the working of electrical machinery and
generally throughout the whole sphere of mechanical engineering,
but, on the whole, Swedish industries were kept going under
favourable conditions. To deal with the importation of raw
materials, which was controlled by the Allies, import associations
were formed by the manufacturers who needed the raw materials
in question. These associations furnished the guarantees re-
quired by the Allies and imposed corresponding guarantees on the
delivery of the small quantities thus dealt out. The associations
were controlled by the Trade and Industry Commissions. In
cases where the supply of certain goods was exceptionally small
the State laid claim to the whole, and a system of rationing was
sometimes carried out by Raw Material Associations, formed by
the manufacturers and craftsmen who were in need of them. In
1916 steps had to be taken in regard to regulations for the sale of
SWEDEN
635
lubricants, iron pyrites, German iron, and hides, skins and print-
ing paper. The first article to be appropriated by the State was
linseed oil, next came hemp and india-rubber. In 1917 hides and
skins were appropriated, as well as lubricants, leather shoe-soles,
several metals, rails, paraffin, etc. Tickets for the purchasing of
benzine for motor-cars and motor-boats were provided through
the agency of the Industry Commission. All fat from the bones
of mammals and all offal, etc., were turned to scientific or techni-
cal account. The use of carbide lamps increased swiftly, as car-
bide is a Swedish product. The Swedish iron-works and factories
were constrained to supply iron goods at reduced prices to culti-
vators of the soil. In April 1918 rationing of wool began, as well
as of cotton yarn, woollen or cotton stockings and woollen or
cotton textiles and underclothing of these materials. Purchasing
cards were supplied only where the need of them was genuine
and " controlled." In Nov. 1918 the rationing ceased.
There was actually no very serious unemployment during the
war. A great number of men who lost their work in the building
and textile industries were employed in wood-cutting, clearance
work in the forests, executing orders for supplies of stone for the
communes, etc.
High Cost of Living. High prices were the combined result of
scarcity and the inflation of paper money. The prices of goods
rose higher than in Great Britain, for example. Official investiga-
tions show that if a family which had an income of 2,000 kr. in
1914 sought to keep up the same kind of living its expenditure
would have been increased to something over 3,000 kr. a year
according to the prices which prevailed in May 1917, and to over
4,850 kr. according to those which prevailed in Oct. 1918. Wages
had to be raised considerably. The State granted war bonuses
which amounted in all to a sum total of 100,000,000 kr. a year.
The State and the communes expended large sums also in subsi-
dies. From Dec. 1916 down to the middle of 1920 the sum of
112,500,000 kr. was used for lowering the prices of food, clothes
and fuel and, in some exceptional cases, rent, for the poorer
classes. Of this amount the State provided 77,000,000 kr. Dur-
ing the first half of 1918 389,000 families, or 1,344,000 persons,
benefited by purchasing goods at these lowered prices. The
building industry was at a standstill almost entirely. The State
took steps to help it but without much success.
Changes of Government. At the beginning of the war all the
burning questions of internal politics were put on one side, and all
efforts were concentrated on solving the problems presented by
the new condition of affairs. In the autumn of 1914 the new
elections for the Second Chamber took place. The party of the
Right remained unchanged in numbers, 86, the Liberals num-
bered 57 and the Social Democrats 87. Dissatisfaction with
Herr Hammarskjiold's Ministry increased gradually, the Govern-
ment as always happens being held to blame for the hardships
of the times. The Opposition contended that the ministers
showed a lack of diplomacy in their negotiations with Great
Britain and that they had not paid due regard to the opinions
of the Riksdag certainly the cooperation between the Govern-
ment and the Riksdag was not what it might have been. In
March 1917 the Ministry resigned. In an address with 600,000
signatures Herr Hammarskjiold and his colleagues were urged
to continue in office, but they persisted in their desire to with-
draw. Herr Carl Swartz, who previously had been Financial
Minister, formed the new Government, which was Moderate
Conservative in character.
The Swartz Ministry, in which Adml. Arvid Lindman was
again Foreign Minister, lasted only into the autumn. From the
start it had borne the stamp of a stop-gap Ministry, inasmuch as
the new elections were to be held in September. These went
against the Right because, among other reasons, the prevail-
ing hardships and the various measures of State interference
were laid to their blame. The Right polled 59, the Liberals 62,
the Social Democrats 86, while two new parties, the " Bonde-
forbund " a league of farmers and countryfolk and the
Socialists of the Left came in with 1 2 and 1 1 respectively. The
Ministry resigned and the King tried to arrange for a Coalition
Government representing all parties. This effort proving un-
successful, the Liberal leader, Prof. Nils Eden, undertook the
task of forming a Liberal-Social-Democratic Government. The
prime minister himself, the Foreign Secretary, Herr J. Hellner,
and five other members of the Government were Liberals; Herr
Hjalmar Branting, the leader of the Social-Democratic party,
was for a short time Finance Minister; Baron Erik Palmstierna,
a former naval officer and a Social-Democratic member of the
Riksdag, was Minister of Marine ; there were two other Social-
Democratic members of the Government, which adopted a
Liberal-Radical programme.
After the War. The Riksdag of 1918 passed, among their
legislation, a new Poor Law and a new Education Law, reflecting
the increased influence of the wage-earners. The wind of reform
blew more and more strongly in the autumn. An extraordinary
meeting of the Riksdag was called and very noteworthy de-
cisions were come to, which were ratified by the Riksdags of 1919
and 1921, involving (see under Constitution, above) an immense
democratizing of the administration. The consequences for the
First Chamber showed themselves at once, when the Govern-
ment dissolved it in the autumn of 1919 and the new election
took place. The chamber had been made up of 86 Conservatives,
43 Liberals, 19 Social Democrats and two Socialists of the Left.
This was now altered to 38 Conservatives, 40 Liberals, 19 mem-
bers of the " Bondeforbund," 49 Social Democrats and four
Socialists of the Left. The greatest novelty lay in the women's
vote and in their eligibility for both chambers of the Riksdag.
After the termination of the war in Nov. 1918 the emergency
measures were almost entirely abandoned. The regulation of the
bacon-and-pork-selling business ceased in Jan. 1919 and the
rationing of potatoes in May. In Aug. bread-cards disappeared
and the rationing of sugar also stopped on Aug. i. Most of the
industrial regulations came to an end during the first quarter of
1919. The Fuel Commission administration of the rationing of
fuel terminated on March i of the same year. With the close of
May the War Insurance Commission ceased its operation. The
Riksdags of 1920 and 1921 renewed in modified form some of the
emergency laws, but at the end of the first half of 1920 all that
remained of the various Commissions were some small commit-
tees of liquidation.
When the League of Nations was still in process of formation
the Governments of Sweden, Denmark and Norway appointed
committees for the purpose of considering together their attitude
towards it. The Swedish Government laid its proposal to join
the League before the Riksdag of 1920. Opinions were divided:
the decision was given in favour of accession by 86 votes against
47 in the First Chamber and by 152 against 67 in the Second.
The Riksdag incorporated in this decision an expression of ap-
proval of the basic principles of the League, but formulated also
its conviction that the Government should avail itself of every
opportunity for urging that the States not invited at first to join
the League should be incorporated in it as soon as possible; that
a more satisfactory arrangement should be come to for the
representation in it of the smaller States; that more definite
rules should be framed for the meetings of delegates and for their
methods of work ; that the standing international tribunal should
be constituted as soon as possible, and that its procedure in re-
gard to mediation and arbitration should be more clearly defined
and further elaborated; and also that efforts to bring about a
universal and effective reduction of armaments should be set on
foot without delay and vigorously pursued.
Sweden was represented at the International Labour Con-
ference in Washington in 1919 and at that in Genoa in 1920, as
well as at the League of Nations' first meeting at Geneva in 1920,
when the Swedish delegates acted on the lines indicated in the
Riksdag's utterance. In May 1921 the question between Sweden
and Finland as to the sovereignty over the Aland Islands was
settled by the League of Nations in favour of Finland (see
ALAND ISLANDS).
Sweden did not formally recognize the Soviet Government in
Russia, but at first a Russian representative was allowed to re-
side in Sweden to maintain the de facto relations between the two
countries. In Jan. 1919 he was obliged to leave (but not until
636
SWEDEN
Swedish residents in Russia had been enabled to return home)
because of oppressive conduct in Russia towards Swedes and
in regard to Swedish property. All trade relations were for a
time broken off, but to an enquiry from the Allied Powers as to
whether Sweden would take part in a blockade of Russia a reply
in the negative was given. In 1920 permission was accorded to a
Russian trade delegation to visit Stockholm. From the Russian
side large orders for railway engines were placed with Swedish
manufacturers, and much Russian gold passed through Sweden,
mostly destined for America.
The Eight-Hour Day. Within the ranks of the Eden Ministry
there was from the beginning a fundamental divergence of view
between the Liberals and the Social Democrats, but for some
time it was possible for them to work together. Moreover, this
Ministry was the only one for a long time past which had a gen-
uine majority, though a very heterogeneous one, in the Riks-
dag. The most important measure introduced in 1919 was for
a legalized eight-hour day, but when first proposed it was rejected
by the First Chamber. The Government dissolved the Chamber,
and after the new elections an extraordinary autumn session was
called at which the eight-hour day proposal was accepted. The
Right had retained only 38 seats, the Bondeforbund coming
back with 19, the Liberals with 41, the Social Democrats with
49, and the Socialists of the Left with three. According to this
law, which was to hold good provisionally until the end of 1923,
48 hours in the week constitute work-time in industrial and
other businesses in which at least four employees work at an em-
ployer's expense, agricultural work and forestry work excepted.
As a general rule over-time must not be instituted to a greater
degree than 150 hours in the year. A newly founded institution,
the Labour Council, decides questions concerned with the carry-
ing out of the law. A number of flaws were soon discernible in
the law, and in the Riksdag of 1920 this Council applied to the
Government to effect certain improvements. A proposal was
laid before the Riksdag of 1921 and was in the main accepted.
The modifications left the main principles of the law unchanged.
Sweden subsequently declined to ratify the draft of the Washing-
ton Convention of the League of Nations on hours of labour, partly
because it conflicted with the Swedish measure already passed,
and partly because adhesion would be binding for n years,
while the Swedish law held good provisionally for a shorter period.
The Social-Democratic Ministry. It was over the communal
taxation question that the Eden Ministry went to pieces. This
question had for a long period been under discussion, and it was
intended to submit some proposal in connexion with it to the
Riksdag of 1920. The Social-Democratic members of the Govern-
ment asked for a definite settlement, while the Liberals wanted
only a provisional solution. The end was that the entire Ministry
resigned, and that the King invited the Social-Democratic leader,
Herr Branting, to form a new Government. In March 1920 he
did so. Baron E. Palmstierna, formerly Minister of Marine,
became Minister of Foreign Affairs. All the ministers were
Social Democrats. The new Government could only count on
minorities in both Chambers as a regular Ministerial party. The
discussion of the communal taxation question ended in a victory
for the Liberal standpoint, a provisional arrangement. In the
meantime the Ministry awaited the result of the general elections
to the Second Chamber in the autumn of 1920. A comprehen-
sive programme was put forward by means of commissions of
inquiry into projects of socialization, industrial democracy, and
the control of trusts and other great combinations.
Change of Ministry. Dissatisfaction with the eight-hour day
and with the socialistic projects brought a good many electors
over to the party of the Right. The strength of the Social-Demo-
cratic party in the Second Chamber went down from 86 to 75,
and the number of the Liberals was reduced from 62 to 47, while
that of the Right went up from 59 to 70 and of the Bondeforbund
from 10 to 29. The Socialists of the Left were reduced from i r
to 7, a result of their sympathies with the Russian Communists.
Two members of the Chamber were " independents." The more
than usually complex party conditions led the King to invite
Baron Louis de Geer to form a non-political Ministry. Count
Herman Wrangel quitted the post of Swedish minister in London,
in which he was succeeded by Baron Palmstierna, to become Min-
ister of Foreign Affairs. The new Government began at once to
occupy itself seriously with industrial, commercial and financial
matters. Among other bills which it put before the Riksdag of
1921 was one for increasing the duty on coffee. On this being re-
jected Herr Tamm, the Finance Minister, resigned, and the
prime minister, too, then resigned. He was succeeded by Herr
Oscar von Sydow, former Minister of the Interior.
The Economic Crisis of 1920-1. During the latter half of
1920 Sweden had entered on a grave economic crisis her share
of the general economic difficulties which prevailed after the war.
The period from the dissolution of the union with Norway in 1905
down to 1914 has been characterized as one of great economic
development. During and after the war cost of production rose
swiftly, not least because the workmen, after the passing of the
Eight-Hour Day Act, in most cases obtained higher rates of wages
so that they could earn as much as when working longer hours.
Compensation had already been allowed them for the increase
in prices. As soon as importation possibilities became increased
after the war, goods began to be imported to an extravagant
degree, so that the country became flooded with them to the
detriment of home industries. Finally the Swedish exchange,
which stood somewhat higher outside than inside the country,
facilitated importation but hindered exportation. When the
international crisis came, with its swift fall in prices, it became
necessary to lower wages again, but this brought the country up
against great difficulties. In April 1921 about 60,000 industrial
workmen were unemployed; in June about 90,000.
The Swedish Red Cross. Some account of the activities of the
Swedish Red Cross must have its place in an outline of Swedish his-
tory during and after the war. King Gustav's brother, Prince Carl,
played a leading role in this connexion, and also the Crown Princess
Margaret (daughter of the Duke of Connaught), whose death in 1920
was sincerely mourned. The work of the Swedish Red Cross was
directed more particujarly to relieving prisoners of war in the various
countries, above all in Russia on the one side and Germany and
Austria-Hungary on the other. During 1915-8 a great number of
invalided prisoners, including 3,617 Germans, 22,123 Austro-
Hungarians, 428 Turks and 37,295 Russians, were brought homeward
through Sweden by means of the Swedish Red Cross, specially
equipped trains travelling between the Swedish-Finnish frontier in
the north and Triilleborg in the south. Across Sweden, moreover,
there went a stream of parcels by post, in both directions, for pris-
oners. The Swedish postal service dealt with 12,700,000 parcels of
this kind. The Crown Princess was specially interested in collecting
books to despatch to the prisoners' camps. Important work was
also done in the inspecting of the prisoners' camps in Russia, Ger-
many and Austria-Hungary. Delegates distributed gifts from home
among the prisoners: 1,016 railway waggons packed with such gifts
passed through Petrograd en route eastwards, and from Russia
1,012 travelled into Germany and 304 into Austria-Hungary. The
delegates drew attention to various shortcomings in the German
camps and in most cases this resulted in improvements being effected.
The conditions in Russia and Siberia were found to be much worse.
Delegates' records of what they saw revealed a terrible condition of
things in many camps. In some there were 30 deaths a day among
the prisoners. Under the guidance of the Swedish delegates new
hospitals were established in many places or old hospitals improved,
kitchens and baking-rooms being constructed, drains put into order,
and large stores of medicines and bandages, etc., being supplied.
In Jekaterinburg, for instance, the authorities threw all care for the
prisoners entirely on the Swedish delegates within a region of 1,200
s:|. miles. Thirty-three hospital buildings were erected in this re-
gion, and at some periods a Swedish Red Cross Kitchen established
there was able to distribute food to 1,200 men a day. This work was
attended with risks. Two delegates were murdered and several died
in hospitals for infectious cases. During the Finnish civil war two
ambulances were sent to Finland in 1920, and one ambulance was
sent to Poland to help in coping with the epidemic there.
The grave privations in many countries after the war due to
the scarcity of food aroused deep sympathy in Sweden. Among
other steps taken to afford help may be mentioned the welcoming of
20,000 children from Germany and Austria (and in some degree from
the Baltic Provinces) to stay in Swedish homes with a view to their
regaining health and strength. The homes of both the well-to-do
and the poor were thrown open for this. The total amount of money
devoted to such acts of helpfulness (including the cost of the chil-
dren's visits) is estimated at more than 25,000,000 kr., of which the
State was responsible for 1,500,000 and the rest was collected by
private subscriptions. A detailed report was laid before the Inter-
national Red Cross Conference in Geneva in 1921. (K. H.*)
SWEET SWITZERLAND
637
SWEET, HENRY (1845-1912), English philologist, was born in
London Sept. 15 1845. Educated at King's College, London,
Balliol College, Oxford, and Heidelberg University, he was a
recognized authority on the subject of phonetics (see 21.460-61;
9.597), and a readership in phonetics was specially created for
him in 1901 by the university of Oxford. His published works
include an Anglo-Saxon Reader; a Student's Dictionary of
Anglo-Saxon; an English Grammar; The History of Language,
and many editions of Old and Middle English Texts. He died
at Oxford April 30 1912.
SWETE, HENRY BARCLAY (1835-1917), English theologian,
was born at Bristol March 14 1835. He was educated at King's
College, London, and Caius College, Cambridge, and in 1858
was ordained. After some years of work in various country
curacies and livings he became in 1869 theological lecturer and
tutor at Caius College. In 1881 he became examining chaplain
to the Bishop of St. Albans, and the following year was appointed
professor of pastoral theology at King's College, London. In
1890 he succeeded Westcott as regius professor of divinity
at Cambridge, and retained this position until 1915, when he
retired with the title of emeritus professor. He was in 1911
appointed an hon. chaplain to the King. Swete's works on
Biblical texts are of the highest importance. In 1887 he published
the first volume of his edition of the Greek text of the Old
Testament, completing the series in 1894 (3rd ed. 1901-7),
while in 1898 appeared the Greek text of the Gospel of St. Mark,
with notes and introduction (2nd ed. 1902) and in 1906 that of
the Apocalypse of St. John (2nd ed. 1907). He was the editor
of Cambridge Theological Essays (1905) and Cambridge Biblical
Essays (1909), and was a contributor to Smith and Wace's Dic-
tionary of Christian Biography (1882-87) and Hastings's Diction-
ary of the Bible (1899-1900). He also produced many historical
and critical works, including The Apostles' Creed in Relation to
Primitive Christianity (1894; 3rd ed. 1899); Church Services
and Service Books before the Reformation (1896); Patriotic
Study (1902); The Appearances of Our Lord after the Passion
(1907; 2nd ed. 1908), and The Last Discourse and Prayer of Our
Lord (1913). He died at Hitchin May 10 1917.
SWIMMING: see SPORTS AND GAMES.
SWINFEN, CHARLES SWINFEN EADY, IST BARON (1851-
1919), English lawyer and master of the rolls, was born at
Chertsey, Surrey, July 31 1851. He was educated privately, and
in 1874 was admitted a solicitor, but in 1879 he was called to the
bar, having been during his period as a student a pupil of
Cozens-Hardy. In 1893 he became a Q.C., and in 1901 was
raised to the bench of the Chancery division and knighted. In
1913 he became a lord justice of appeal, and in 1918 master of
the rolls in succession to Lord Cozens-Hardy. He retired in
1919 and was raised to the peerage only a few weeks before he
died in London Nov. 15 1919.
SWITZERLAND (see 26.238). Before dealing with the affairs
of Switzerland during 1909-21, a note may be made on a curious
theory recently put forth, especially in Romance Switzerland,
that the Swiss Confederation is " the oldest republic or democ-
racy in the world." Now certainly a " king " has never ruled in
Switzerland (save in the case of Neuchatel before 1857), nor since
1648 has any emperor ever had any claim on the allegiance of the
Swiss. But then we must recollect that till 1798 Switzerland
never had a single head, whatever he might be entitled. If we
take the term " republic " to mean a " democratic Government,"
it is quite true that there were (and are) " republics " of that
kind in various regions of Switzerland (e.g. Schwyz), but what is
true of a part is not true of the whole. Again, before 1798 there
was no Central Government at all in Switzerland, while it was
only in 1848 that it first possessed a " President " (with very limi-
ted powers). But there was a president already in 1787 in the
United States of America, while the " free communities " or
" republics " of Andorra (in the Pyrenees) and of San Marino
(Italy) are far older than any such in Switzerland. Naturally the
' use of the word " Republik " by certain cantons before 1798 (e.g.
' the " Stadt und Republik Zurich ") referred to the rural districts
of each, and these by no means enjoyed "democratic government"
:1
at the hands of their respective towns. The fact that in 1848
the first " democratic Swiss Constitution " (still in force so far as
regards the practical details relating to the Central Government)
was avowedly based on that of the American republic is suffi-
cient to disprove the quaint theory that Switzerland is the (in
any sense) " oldest Republic in the world." The reverse is
really more nearly the case. In neither of the two ordinary senses
of " republic " is this theory even approximately accurate.
Population. As regards resident population, the results of the
last two Swiss censuses, Dec. i 1910, and Dec. i 1920 (only the
provisional results, published in Feb. 1921), were as follows:
1910
1920
Total
3,753.293
3,861,508
Languages
German .
2,594,298
_ _ i
French
793,264
_' _' i
Italian
302,578
| ' i
Romansch
40,122
i
Other languages
23,031
Religions
Protestants
2,107,814
2,218,589
Roman Catholics
1,593,538
1,586,826
Jews .
18,463
20,955
1 Figures not published up to Jan. I 1922.
The decrease in the number of the Roman Catholics is mainly due
to the fact that in 1910 the " Christian Catholics " (Old Catholics)
were reckoned among them, whereas in 1920, for the first time,
they were counted separately, the number given, however (56,250),
being greatly exaggerated, since in Tessin (where there is none of
this sect) many Roman Catholics described themselves as such under
some error. It is noteworthy that the Jews were in 1850 only 3,145
in number, but in 1910 already 18,463, and in 1920 20,955.
In five cantons the population has diminished (Outer Rhodes of
Appenzell, St. Gall, Tessin, Vaud and Neuchatel). In recent years
there has been much fear expressed in Switzerland that the non-
Swiss were increasing too rapidly for the welfare of the land. This
no doubt was due to the vast immigration of German, French, and
Italian workmen, who asked lower wages than the Swiss, and, when
settled down, became exempt from military service in their native
land. During the World War many returned home, and so the
figures are not so alarming as was feared at one time. Here is a
complete list :
1860 114,983, of which 1,202 were British subjects;
1870 150,907 (British subjects 2,297)
1880 211,035 (British subjects 2,812)
1888 229,650 (British subjects 2,577)
1900 383,424 (British subjects 3,535)
1910 552,011 (British subjects 4, 118)
1920 410,983 (British subjects, figures not available).
Thus the percentage rose from 57 per thousand in 1860 to 79 in
1888, and to 116 in 1910, the culminating point being reached in
1900 with 147, so that the 1920 figures of 106 show a distinct decrease,
largely due, like the diminution of the Roman Catholics, to the
greater number of French citizens who have gone from Geneva
back to France. In 1920 the 12 most populous towns in Switzer-
land (number of residents) were: Zurich, 205,892 (190,733 in 1910);
Geneva, 138,034 (123,153 in 1910) ; Basle, 135,134 (132,276 in 1910) ;
Berne, 103,990 (90,937 in 1910); St. Gall, 69,651 (75,482 in 1910);
Lausanne, 67,852 (64,446 in 1910) ; Lucerne, 43,696 (39,339 in 1910) ;
La Chaux de Fpncls, 37,591 (37,751 in 1910) ; Winterthur, enlarged, .
49,491 (46,384 in 1910); Bienne, enlarged, 34,414 (32,401 in 1910);
Neuchatel, 22,951 (23,741 in 1910) ; and Fribourg, 20,468 (20,293 m
1910). No other Swiss town has a population attaining 20,000,
though Schaffhausen is not far off with 19,930 (18,101 in 1910).
There are also 14 Swiss towns with populations below 20,000, but
over 10,000. The increase in the case of Berne is due to its absorp-
tion of the suburb Biimpliz, etc., and in the case of Bienne to in-
creased prosperity, while the decrease in the cases of St. Gall, of
La Chaux de Fonds and of Winterthur are to be accounted for by
industrial depression, and the departure of many workmen.
As the " Conseil National " is elected in the ratio of one mem-
ber for 20,000 of the total population or fraction surpassing 10,000,
the new census will increase its members by eight, so that hence-
forth it will have 197 members.
Politics. The members of the Swiss Federal Executive
(Bundesrat) were almost all changed in the period 1910-20, so
that in 1921 the seniors were G. Motta (first elected in 1911), and
E. Schulthess (first elected in 1912). The five other actual mem-
bers had all entered the Council since 1917 R. Haab in 1918,
Karl Scheurer, E. Chuard, and J. Musy, all in 1919, and H.
Haberlin in 1920. E. Chuard was the oldest in years (b. 1857),
while J. Musy was born in 1876. Thus the Council had been
6 3 8
SWITZERLAND
greatly rejuvenated. Six members were Radicals, Signer Motta
being the only Conservative and Roman Catholic.
The recent presidents of the Swiss Confederation (little more
than the chairmen of the Federal Executive) have been A.
Deucher(igog);R. Comtesse (1910); M.Ruchet (1911) ;L. Forrer
(i9i2);E. Miiller (1913); A. Hoffmann, (1914); G. Motta (1915);
C. Decoppet (1916); E. Schulthess (1917); F. L. Calender (1918);
G. Ador (1919), and G. Motta (1920); while the president for 1921,
E. Schulthess, would in 1922 be succeeded by the vice-president,
R. Haab. Of late years the Political Department (i.e. the Minis-
try of Foreign Affairs) has become specially important. A resolu-
tion of the Federal Executive in 1917 decided that this important
department should ipso facto be attributed to the president. But,
as the president changes annually, this plan was soon found very
inconvenient, and so in 1920 a return was made to the older
system that each councillor should retain the department assigned
to him. Hence G. Motta would be Foreign Minister till Jan. i
1923, when the date of fresh election came round again.
The Swiss people adopted by a popular vote the principle of
proportional representation for elections to the " Conseil Natio-
nal " in Oct. 1919. But though it was expected that the Socialists
would win many more seats they only won much fewer. The
Radical majority was reduced from 102 to 60, in the Assembly of
189 members, thus losing its absolute majority over all other par-
ties combined, but remaining the strongest single group. Forty-
one Socialists (in 1917 but 19) and as many Conservatives were
elected, and the new " Citizens and Peasants " party (a split
from the Radical party) obtained 28 seats.
Proportional representation was also winning its way in the
cantons, Aargau and Fribourg adopting it in 1920, followed in
1921 by Berne and the Valais. Thus 18 of the 22 cantons ap-
proved it. Indeed in 1920 the canton of Fribourg, hitherto
reckoned one of the most backward as to the recognition of popu-
lar institutions, made a great advance, accepting in one day the
facultative referendum, the initiative, the election of the Execu-
tive by the people, and that of the Legislature by proportional
representation. A number of Federal votes have been taken in
recent years. The constitutional amendments related to infec-
tious diseases (1913), the creation of an administrative court
(1914), the levy of a war tax (1915), the imposal of a stamp tax on
certain business papers (1917), regulations as to waterways
(1918), a renewed war tax (1918), entry of Switzerland into the
League of Nations (1920), and regulations as to hours of work
(1920). A law (facultative referendum) as to sick insurance was
also accepted in 1912. But of the " Initiatives " two were re-
jected (proportional representation in 1910 accepted, however,
in 1918), and a Federal tax in 1918, but in 1919 the detailed regu-
lations as to the working of proportional representation in the
" Conseil National," and a law abolishing gaming houses were
accepted. Of four later votes, all in 1921, those relating to popu-
lar approval of international treaties of a certain length, and new
regulations as to motor-cars and to aviation were accepted, but a
fourth relating to military courts of justice was rejected.
At the very beginning of the World War (Aug. 3 1914) the
Federal Parliament handed over to the Federal Executive cer-
tain extraordinary (emergency) powers of acting, and these powers,
excluding all obligatory popular votes were found to be very
convenient by the Federal Executive.
The entry of Switzerland into the League of Nations was
accepted by a popular vote on May 16 1920, the majority in
favour (mainly from the French-speaking cantons) being 97,051
votes and by nj to loj cantons. But in Feb. 1921 the Federal
Executive declined to allow the passage through Switzerland of
troops, raised to act as police in the case of the Vilna plebiscite.
Some of the members of the former Austrian Empire have
sought a nearer connexion with Switzerland. Liechtenstein was
indeed admitted into the Swiss postal, telegraph, and telephone
system. But the Vorarlberg (and for similar reasons the Tirol)
had not up to Aug. 1921 succeeded in being admitted as Swiss
cantons, there being great fear felt in Switzerland of increasing
the German-speaking population, and particularly of augmenting
the number of strict Roman Catholics.
Finance. The finances of the Swiss Confederation were in 1921
(so said M. Musy, the Swiss Finance Minister) in a difficult posi-
tion. Their backbone, in the matter of receipts, even in the pre-
war period, was the amount of the customs' duties. But even at
that period these produced less than heretofore. The last year when
they showed an increase was in 1912 (3,500,000). After that time
the decline was pretty steady, and the deficits higher and higher.
It has been estimated that, while in 1913 they sufficed to defray
about 84% of the total expenses of the State, in 1919 the amount
met only 28% of these expenses (in 1913 3,360,000, and in 1919
only 2,520,000). And these expenses steadily increased after the
outbreak of the war, though, of course, Switzerland was not one
of the belligerent Powers. The deficits since 1914 are as follows:
1914, 901,000; 1915, 862,000; 1916, 665,000; 1917, 2,000,000;
1919, 2,475,000, and 1920, 3,980,000 in 1920 the receipts were
13,740,000, and the expenses 17,720,000. Despite the formal
assurances of neutrality received from the principal combatants,
the War Minister of Switzerland thought it essential to guard all its
frontiers with a strong military force, and to erect costly new fortifi-
cations (as at Moral), so that at the end of 1920 the total " mobiliza-
tion expenses " amounted to no less than 47,500,000, while the
military expenses in the accounts for 1921 were 2,880,000, and that
only an estimate far inferior to the demands of the military authori-
ties. Large loans (nine in number, to the total amount of some
31,200,000) have been contracted, but on these heavy interest has
to be paid. Exchequer bills for two to five years at 6 % were also
issued in order to assure the supply of necessaries of life. Special
taxes were imposed, first a war tax (which produced 4,400,000),
then a tax on war profits (which produced 11,120,000), next a
" renewed " war tax (to last 16 years). The increased salaries and
wages of the army of federal officials (including the railwaymen)
were a further burden, and, naturally, as the cost of living increased,
there came a fresh rise of salaries and wages to meet it a vicious
circle. Even the telegraph and telephone rates had to be raised,
not to speak of the postal charges, so that while formerly a letter
within Switzerland cost only id. it cost 2d. in 1921 and a post card
id. in lieu of }d. The charges on foreign correspondence have also
been raised, so far as regards the transit from Switzerland to the
outer world, for a letter from 2jd. to 4d., and for a post card from
id. to 2.}d. As Switzerland produces very little in the way of raw
materials, such as coal, these had to be bought at high prices, a fact
which further raised the cost of travelling, hotel prices, and of all
articles of home consumption. The only persons who have not felt
these raised prices are the self-sufficing (or nearly so) peasants, who,
in some cases, have even made large profits by the sale of their
milk, cheese, butter, etc. Naturally the towns felt this rise to an
extraordinary extent, and great distress and lack of employment
resulted. The only cheering symptom, from the Swiss point of
view, was that the currency exchange was almost everywhere
favourable to Switzerland, save as regards American money. An
attempt has been made (Feb. 1921) to raise provisionally certain
customs duties but at Protectionist rates, so that the interests of
the consumers are being sacrificed to those of certain trades, as well
as (also provisionally) to limit imports to a certain extent. In 1912
the customs duties amounted to 6% of the value of the goods
imported, but in 1920 not even to 3 per cent.
Hence the deficit in the Federal budget for 1921 was put at five
or six million pounds, a huge amount for a country with under four
million inhabitants. If the Federal finances were in this state, the
cantonal and communal finances were no better.
It must be borne in mind that the direct taxes are paid by a very
small minority of Swiss. In the case of the direct taxes the total
amount, from 1914 to 1920, was about 70,000,000, while the
indirect taxes only brought in some 18,000,000.
Switzerland is still predominantly an agricultural country, so
that the majority of voters are peasants, with very narrow views.
The industrial population is very much weaker politically, and is
regarded with great disfavour by the Agrarian party, which desires,
for its own objects, to set up a " Chinese wall " round Switzerland.
But the land must have other manufactures than chocolate, con-
densed milk, cheese, etc., and thus must import much which has
to be paid naturally by its exports. Yet the narrow " Cantonal
spirit " is still widely diffused in Switzerland.
The annual deficits on the Swiss State railways are especially
great. It was officially reckoned that in 1918 the total Federal
debt had attained a height of about 33 per head of the population,
whereas in 1912 it had only been 17.
Army. Formerly detailed annual accounts as to the Swiss army
(a purely militia force) were published. But since the outbreak of
the war these accounts have no longer been issued. But an indiscre-
tion of the semi-official Bernese newspaper, the Bund of Berne
(June 23 1920), tells us that in June 1920 the numbers were 337,282,
of whom 71,993 formed the " second reserve," the rest falling into
the " Auszug " or " Elite " and the " Landwehr." The " Elite
includes the younger men from 20 to 32, and the " Landwehr || or
first reserve those between 33 and 40, while the " Landsturm
reserve proper is composed of men between 41 and 48.
At the beginning of the war Col. Ulrich Wille was elected the
" General," while Col. A. T. L. Sprecher von Bernegg became chief
SWITZERLAND
639
of the staff. It was thought necessary to guard all the Swiss fron-
tiers, a policy which cost 47,500,000, and disorganized industry
and agriculture to a very great extent. The German-speaking troops
were sent, as far as possible to the Jura or the French-speaking or
the Italian-speaking regions, while the French-speaking soldiers
looked after the German-speaking districts. The object was to
prevent any fraternization with the troops of the belligerents. Much
inconvenience was caused by this mobilization. The military organi-
zation was tightened up on the lines of the German army, and this
greatly bothered the free Swiss citizens.
Naturally the military budget increased greatly, amounting in
1921 to 3,000,000, though this represented a reduction of about
250,000 on the demands of the military authorities. This great
increase is to be explained in part, at least, by the increased cost of
material. In 1910 the annual cost amounted only to 1,680,000.
Agriculture, Commerce and Railways. Censuses of cattle have
been frequently made. In 1866 there were 553,205 cows, in 1886
663,102, in 1906 785,950, in 1911 796,909, in 1916 849,011, but in
I9'9 738,896 and in 1920 only 729,999. The great fall in the num-
bers is commonly attributed to the huge purchases of milch cows
made during the war by Austrian and Hungarian cattle dealers,
for export to Germany. Hence came a milk famine, and milk had
to be " rationed." Potatoes and other such produce were also
rationed and each householder had to plant them on his land, how-
ever unsuited for this kind of cultivation.
In 1920 foot-and-mouth disease raged furiously in all parts of
Switzerland, and even intercourse between neighbouring valleys
was forbidden in order to try to stop the spread of the infection.
During the war certain branches of Swiss commerce flourished
much, for, against the wishes and instructions of the authorities,
there was much smuggling of all kinds of goods over the frontier,
especially towards Germany and France, which, naturally enough,
are Switzerland's best customers. The imports were often less than
the exports. But in 1915 they were nearly equal in money value,
the imports being slightly more than the exports. However, in 1916,
the reverse was the case, the exports being 99,000,000, and the
imports 93,000,000, but in 1917 the imports had again the best of
it. In 1918 the imports amounted to about 96,000,000, and the
exports to about 78,000,000. (Great Britain ranked third in each
case.) In 1919 the exports amounted to 136,000,000, the highest
figure ever attained, and the imports to 143,000,000. But in 1920
the imports rose to the prodigious figure of 169,000,000, while the
exports dropped to 131,000,000.
As coal is practically non-existent in Switzerland it must be
imported, naturally at considerable cost. Hence the imported
supply had to be strictly " rationed " during the war, and the price
increased enormously, especially in the case of domestic consump-
tion. Of course, the factories suffered much, and the railways even
more. Hence the electrification of the latter was pushed on as
quickly as possible. But it was not possible to do this all at once,
and so one saw locomotives driven by means of logs of wood. The
number of trains was reduced, at one time very much indeed, and
the fares pushed up to a great degree, which much hindered com-
munications, even within the country. The first electrically-driven
train went through the St. Gotthard tunnel early in 1921. The
Lotschberg railway was opened in 1914, just before the outbreak
of the war, and thus its prosperity was greatly let and hindered,
while on the Valais slope, above Brieg, the unstable nature of the
ground has caused many landslips, and thus entailed many costly
repairs. But the great scheme for connecting the two stations in
Geneva has been indefinitely postponed, owing to its excessive cost.
Social. In 1912 a vast scheme of insurance against sickness and
accidents was accepted on a popular vote. But up to 1921 money
was lacking to put it into operation, even though unsuccessful
attempts had been made to " earmark " certain items of the revenue.
As everywhere else in Europe the unemployment problem was
troublesome in Switzerland. The militia employed in the great
mobilization came home, unused to work as before, while work was
scarce owing to the lack of money, the higher cost of living, and the
rise in the salaries and wages of nearly all classes. Naturally this
want of employment was felt most in and near the great Swiss
towns. And here came in a fresh complication the lack of dwelling
houses and flats. This was, in part, due to the rush from the coun-
try to the towns, and the crisis became very acute, so that in Berne,
at least, all foreigners were ordered out of the town, so as to procure
lodgings for Swiss workmen. In the rural districts neither unemploy-
ment nor lack of dwelling houses was felt to anything like the same
decree, though, no doubt, they existed to a certain extent. But
these rural regions are inhabited by peasants who do not easily
move from their homes, and are occupied in the cultivation of their
small bits of land. As in Switzerland there are few persons of
means independent of a trade or a profession, the disturbance in
social life was very great, while the high taxes and high wages
limited the power of employing labour.
Ecclesiastical. There were several welcome symptoms of the
cessation of the " Kulturkampf," or religious strife following on the
decrees of the Vatican Council. On Sept. I 1920, a papal nuncio
for Switzerland was named, for the first time since 1873, in the per-
son of Monsignor Luigi Maglione, titular archbishop of Caesarea.
He was already favourably known in Switzerland by reason of his
love for that country, and his devotion in the case of prisoners of
war and sick children. In Feb. 1921, the canton of Berne at last
resumed its full legal responsibility for the reconstituted diocese of
Basle, after holding aloof for many years, and thus recognized the
bishop as spiritual head of the diocese, thus allowing him full liberty
of exercising his functions within the canton for an unlimited period
(and no longer for five or 10 years, as heretofore). Again, in the
census of 1920 the " Christian Catholics " (the Swiss " Old Catho-
lics," who previously had been included among the Roman Catho-
lics) were numbered apart, though by reason of some error in the
case of the canton of Tessin their number was put at 56,250; the
real number is believed not to exceed 35,000 to 40,000.
On the other hand the Pope laid claim to the direct nomination of
the bishop of Sion in the Valais.
The new census has put an end to the topsy-turvy fact that in
the canton of Geneva the Roman Catholics outnumbered the
Protestants so many French Roman Catholics have returned to
France that the balance has been reversed.
Mention may be made of the fact that, in 1910, in the canton of
Basle, the separation of Church and State was carried out, while in
the same year women obtained the right of voting in the disestab-
lished Protestant church of Geneva.
In the summer of 1920 reunion conferences were held both at
Beatenberg and in Geneva, but almost wholly between various
Protestant denominations.
The World War Period. During the fateful days immediately
before the war broke out in 1914, the uncertainty whether there
would really be war or whether commonsense would prevail
kept the whole of Switzerland in a state of feverish anxiety, and
when the loaded dice fell, very many persons in Switzerland
were seized with panic. A wild assault was made on all provision
establishments which supplied the necessaries of life, and these
were bought in mad fashion and in quantities far above what was
required. In many families stores of eatables were still found
after the lapse of two years, and that quite apart from what had
been spoilt. The banks and other establishments of a like kind
had to withstand a regular siege, for everyone desired to get his
property back. This haste had finally to be restrained by orders
issued by the Government. As if by enchantment coins of small
denominations disappeared from circulation. Not even at the
post-offices was it possible to change Swiss banknotes for large
sums. It was especially hard on the foreign tourists who were
surprised by this sudden war. No one was any longer willing to
change their foreign banknotes and cheques, formerly cashed
so eagerly. Only the hotel keepers found themselves forced to
receive cheques in payment for their accounts, and that despite
the danger of incurring great losses by this act of friendship.
On the Swiss frontiers the blocking of all communications
took strange forms. A typical case was that of Basle, close to the
northern frontier. The tourists rushed in by thousands, and the
railway trains were enormously delayed. With the keenest anxiety
everyone sought for a carriage, a motor car, or some kind of cart
so as to reach the frontier as easily and as quickly as possible.
Many, whose cash had disappeared in consequence of the difficul-
ties caused by the exchange, had to set out on foot, burdened
with their luggage, to cover the great distance. These carts
themselves were heavily laden with luggage, trunks and band
boxes, while high up on these artificial mountains were perched
travellers of every land, who to-day shared their common hard
fate peaceably, but on the morrow were to oppose each other as
enemies. Here was a German professor clothed in homespun,
there an Englishman in tweeds, near by were some merry Belgian
ladies with huge hats and elegant parasols, and, on top of all,
countless schoolboys with caps of diverse colours. So was it all
day long in the town. All this wild confusion was caused by the
sudden interruption of international communications and the
closing of the frontiers.
Thousands also were deprived at one fell stroke of their daily
bread. Such were chiefly Italians, who desired to regain Italy
over the St. Gotthard or the Simplon, often with only a little
cash, sometimes quite penniless, and who were blockaded in
Basle, and in incredible numbers, finally some 40,000 of them.
All these unfortunates had to be cared for till it was possible for
them to resume their journey. Quarters were found in private
villas and other dwelling houses for the sick women and children.
The Cooperative Society of Basle sent great carts filled with
640
SWITZERLAND
bread and milk, private benevolence made gifts of tea and other
eatables. School houses and gymnasiums gave shelter to these
unhappy, homeless Italians as far as quarters could be found
anywhere, but a great number had to camp out in the open. Only
when the great rush had somewhat abated was it possible to
facilitate their return to their own country.
Side by side with these arrangements military preparations
were carried out in Switzerland. On July 31 1914 the entire
Swiss army was warned to be ready, and as early as Aug. i the
order to mobilize was given. The first day for this was Aug. 3,
and two days later the mobilization was quite complete. The
troops were ordered to the frontiers which till now had been
guarded in part by the second reserve (Landsturm), called out
first of all. At the same time (Aug. 3) the Swiss Parliament gave
the Swiss executive unlimited powers, even in financial matters.
Col. Ulrich Wille was named as commander-in-chief, and
Col. Sprecher von Bernegg as chief of the general staff.
As it was hoped that the war would not last very long,
the mobilized troops went off joyfully to the frontiers. The
belligerent States solemnly assured Switzerland of their inten-
tion of observing its neutrality, a declaration which brought
about a certain amount of relief. When finally the principal
operations of war were seen to be taking place far from the
Swiss frontiers, the Swiss people were able to think of recalling
the troops, in order to simplify matters, from the service on the
frontiers, though some were later summoned to relieve those
actually serving there. But if in Switzerland a sigh of relief
arose, the sad fate of Belgium was felt to be a stern warning, and
greatly embarrassed the Swiss authorities, military and political,
and it was felt to be quite impossible to strip the frontiers of all
watching troops. The fact of this monotonous service, and the
conviction that the war might possibly last a long time, brought
about a certain disinclination for further service of this kind.
Besides, such protection of the frontiers threatened to become
costly to an appreciable degree. Therefore much criticism was
exercised, chiefly by the Socialists, who especially blamed what,
from their point of view, were the mainly needless fortifications
around Moral, which were regarded as simply a piece of military
display and lavishness, and were considered as a partial measure
directed against one only of the belligerents. Thus the Swiss
authorities had to order certain alleviations and simplifications
in this frontier service. In order to satisfy the agricultural in-
terest the peasant soldiers were called out at a period which
caused least disturbance in the cultivation of the land, etc.
Among the military war measures must be counted the aboli-
tion, from the beginning, of telephonic communications between
the different Swiss towns. This caused all the greater rush to the
telegraph offices, and yet even these were under the censor, at
least so far as regarded foreign countries.
The equipment of the Swiss army in new, field grey, uniforms
was carried out in 1915-6. The expense of these new uniforms
amounted to about 800,000.
Most unpleasant for Switzerland was the " Affair of the Two
Colonels" (Jan. 15 1516), Egli and von Wattenwyl. This pair
of Swiss officers were in regular communication with the German
and the Austrian military attaches, ostensibly only for supplying
such information as affected no Swiss military matters. All the
same this " affair" caused great amazement, especially in French-
speaking Switzerland, and in the breasts of the Socialists, who
saw in this action of two officers of the Swiss general staff an
unneutral and unfriendly act as regards the Entente. They were
court-martialed, but were acquitted of the charge of infringe-
ment of their official duties, and were handed over to the Swiss
executive for " disciplinary punishment " because of their con-
duct against Swiss neutrality. By this they were each sentenced
to 20 days' strict arrest, and to suspension as leading officials in
the Swiss general staff. Col. Egli demanded his dismissal at once.
The Socialists and a delegation of the Government of canton
Vaud required the summoning of the Swiss Parliament in order
to discuss the " Affair of the Two Colonels."
About the same time the war control of the Swiss railways was
abolished, while a census of Swiss who were not liable to do
military service and of arms in private hands was decreed. A
later appeal for well-qualified sharpshooters among Swiss citi-
zens resulted in the volunteering of about 100,000 men, of whom,
however, only a small percentage was accepted as being really fit
for such military service.
Much bad blood was caused in the Socialist camp, and also
among other citizens, by the Swiss Government's decision that
punishments for certain purely military offences were to be
purged in the penal establishments of Witzwil and of Orbe, while
in the case of the officers confinement in the fortresses of St.
Maurice and St. Gotthard alone was directed. Complaint was
also made of the alleged rigorous treatment of ordinary soldiers,
and of the far lighter treatment of officers charged with offences.
All this occasioned the promotion of an " Initiative " for the
total abolition of courts of military justice. Enough signatures
were obtained for this " Initiative," but it was later defeated on
a popular vote.
It is easy to understand that Switzerland was the special
rendezvous of foreign spies, especially the frontier towns and
even the capital, Berne. In this respect all the belligerents did
their very best. So even the former director of the Bernese
tourist bureau, for taking part in an intelligence service in favour
of a foreign Power, was condemned to five months' imprisonment j
and a fine of 8.
As early as Nov. 1916, the Swiss executive resolved to recruit
250 volunteers out of the army to serve as army police, and this
for the entire duration of the war mobilization.
Certain troops, especially those from industrial regions, had to j
be pacified by the Swiss Parliament by increased pay. This '
scheme did not find support as late as the end of the year 1916,
but was adopted in April 1918, and then it was not merely the I
pay which was increased, but also the amount of food rations
carried in the knapsacks, and emergency support in case of need i
(this in the case of soldiers' families).
The fact, too, must not be overlooked that in cases of discon-
tent with the military service many unfortunate events contrib-
uted to this dissatisfaction. One example was the accelerated
mobilization of the 3rd Division (May 1917), and the following
endurance marches in great heat, in consequence of which many
soldiers were made ill, and fell exhausted on the roads. This
brought about an exceedingly vehement movement against all
military service, and was utilized to the utmost by the workmen.
In June 1917 the Swiss Government had raised the amounts of
the emergency family grants in the big towns to about as. a head
per day for grown-up persons, and to 8d. for children, while in the
smaller towns the respective amounts were is. 6d. and 6d. In the
same year the length of the relief services was fixed at 2| months
for the younger and active men (Auszug), and at six weeks for
the older men of the first reserve or " Landwehr."
Considerable discontent prevailed in French-speaking Switzer-
land with the chiefs of the Swiss army, who seemed to it too
" Germanophile." This went so far that, in course of the discussion
by the Swiss Parliament of a report on Swiss neutrality (Aug.
1917), a formal vote of want of confidence was proposed, and the
compulsory retirement of the general and of the chief-of-staff de-
manded. All such proposals, however, were rejected, but they
threw a lurid light on the disagreement between French-Swiss
and German-Swiss. In the Assembly, however, the assertion of
the supremacy of the civil power over the military power was
approved, as was also greater economy in the matter of con-
structing fortifications, etc.
In consequence of the prolongation of the war, and the fre-
quent calling up as reliefs of soldiers without much means, great
distress was inflicted on them and on their families, and many
could not find work on being released from active service, as their
situations had been filled by Swiss citizens exempt from military
service and sometimes even by women. In order to alleviate this
crying distress a department for the promotion of the welfare of
the soldiers was founded by the Swiss executive which gave this
department a first contribution of some 18,000 (Aug. 2 IQI?)-
Later on came the " National Collection " (a voluntary contribu-
tion made throughout Switzerland), which brought in millions
SWITZERLAND
641
of francs. To stimulate this collection specially large medals of
copper, silver, and gold were struck, and also brooches made, all
being sold to the people. The term and the institution " For the
welfare of the Soldiers " must be understood to include also other
benevolent institutes for the soldiers on active service, such as
" Soldiers' Homes," some of which were splendid soldiers' insti-
tutes where refreshments were to be had cheaply, and which
afforded opportunities for reading and for writing letters. We
must not pass over the arrangements made for the washing
of the soldiers' garments. Not merely was the soldiers' body-
linen washed, but their clothes repaired, and in part replaced.
It would be most unjust to pass over the very prolonged occu-
pation of the Swiss frontiers if we did not mention the exertions
of the Swiss Red Cross Society. The Swiss Red Cross is managed
usually by a board of directors. But at the very beginning of the
mobilization (Aug. 2 1914) the Red Cross men were also called up,
and a medical man placed at their head as chief. At that moment
the Red Cross had at its disposal not quite 6,000. Hence it was
resolved to organize a national collection, not merely for actual
money, but also for gifts in kind (especially linen and woollen
garments), and this idea was eagerly taken up. The money col-
lected amounted to about 84,000, while the gifts in kind flowed
in abundantly. As to the latter the Swiss women displayed great
zeal. From all sides poured in shirts, socks, and other things, in
huge quantities, including bed-linen and objects for use in hospi-
tals. We must note the quaint fact that, over and above what is
commonly used by soldiers on active service, many odd gifts
were received, such as chemises for women, articles for female
toilettes, and even children's toys.
If detailed figures were to be given for the useful objects collected
from Aug. 1914 to June 1918 by the Swiss Red Cross Society, such
as body-linen, shirts, sheets for beds, etc., the number would run
up to several hundred thousands. The shirts, and the like, were
specially welconed by the poorer soldiers, who otherwise would
have fallen victims to various diseases arising from the lack of such
things, or in winter-time would have been frozen. For many, military
service was thus rendered far more endurable.
One of the chief tasks which fell to the Swiss Red Cross was the
creation of the so-called " v Red Cross Squads." These were com-
posed of men, exempt from military service, who placed themselves
voluntarily at the disposition of the Red Cross, and were provided
by it with uniforms and all things necessary for a regular " health
service." The Red Cross Society itself has a great number of car-
riages at its disposal, and also sometimes commandeered motor-cars,
and prepared the.n for the transport of the wounded. The troops
on active service, like the Medical Corps, also used such vehicles in
great numbers.
A further task of the Swiss Red Cross consisted in the training of
: well-qualified Red Cross women nurses (Red Cross sisters). Besides
these there were other training establishments, either religious or
lay (the latter are the mother houses which train nurses). At the
very beginning of the war the Red Cross reckoned on the services
of 960 sisters who could be employed in the care of sick soldiers.
Many of these were e nployed in the huts for the wounded, set up at
fixed distances behind the front, and in the military hospitals.
The Swiss army was severely tried by the influenza epidemic in
the summer of 1918 and in the following winter, and that too
during the general strike (see below). If the Swiss Red Cross had
' had many claims upon it previously, it was now scarcely able to
1 meet the tremendous demands made upon it, first, by the army
leaders, and later on (at first the plague was contemptuously termed
" the Spanish grippe ") when the epidemic spread to a totally unex-
pected extent among the non-military population, and the unceasing
cries for help from this side resounded louder and louder. As the
1 epidemic spread more and more widely, voluntary help had to be
enlisted. Here stepped in the so-called "Samaritan Associations"
(St. John's Ambulance), already closely connected with the Red
Cross, and encouraged their members, with a certain amount of
training obtained in voluntary sick-nursing courses, to place them-
selves at the disposition of the afflicted families. The chief work,
however, fell upon the Red Cross and its professional trained
nurses, and it is amazing how much the Red Cross achieved in this
department. About 10% of the professional nurses (sisters) died
of their exertions.
In another respect too the Red Cross rendered excellent service.
As is well known, the American Red Cross Society gave some
20,000 to the Swiss military nursing department. This sum was
employed in creating convalescent homes for the Swiss soldiers who
had suffered from influenza. The Swiss executive put this task also
in the hands of the Swiss Red Cross, which, however, later on had to
! make considerable additions to this amount of money.
In consequence of the spread of the influenza epidemic it became
necessary either to suspend or to delay the holding of the training
xxxn. 21
courses for recruits, the subsequent drill courses, and the education
of the non-commissioned officers. The percentage of invalid soldiers
was unexpectedly high, and as the epidemic was so rapid as to seem
like an explosion, it could be combated only with very insufficient
means. Hence very caustic criticisms were expressed without
reserve. These demanded publicly the dismissal of the chief of the
medical department of the Swiss army, who was said to be already
overweighted with the care of the " interned " foreign soldiers,
and so could pay too little attention to his own Swiss soldiers, and
had ordered precautionary measures at too late a period. All kinds
of military hospitals, if one can credit the accounts in newspapers of
all shades of opinion, presented a very sorry appearance. The care
of the foreign interned soldiers was taken away from this Swiss
chief medical officer, and also, after an enquiry, he was acquitted
of want of attention to his own Swiss soldiers.
After the Armistice (Nov. 1918) the Swiss army could gradually
be almost wholly demobilized. The defence of the frontiers was
entrusted to volunteer troops whose pay was fixed at from 8 to 10
francs (6 to 8 shillings) a day. This afforded a decent income at
least to many who no longer earned anything, whether because of
the direct effects of the war or of the prolonged military service in
their own land. It was asserted that in consequence of the prolonged
mobilization the Swiss soldiers had gained immensely in military
efficiency. But it was a pity that such efficiency cost the little land
of Switzerland between 40 to 50 million pounds, and this expense had
to be met by raising the customs duties, taxes on excess profits, two
sets of special " war taxes," etc., which, it was hoped, would bring
in the necessary funds, if only after a lapse of many years.
Once again considerable bodies of troops had to be called up
because of the general strike (Nov. 1918), which failed in a few days.
And these extra troops were required also by reason of the break-up
of the German and, especially, the Austrian armies, which flowed
back like a flood, and threatened a regular invasion of Switzerland.
In Nov. 1918 Gen. Wille resigned his post, as he considered that
his work was at an end. In the same month the military pensions
were increased 10% and the export of arms and ammunition for-
bidden, while the bureau of the Swiss general staff was also dissolved.
To meet the emergency support of the families of poor soldiers
during the four years of the mobilization period nearly 2,000,000
were expended. Both for the mobilized soldiers and for the volun-
teers the daily pay was raised to about 73. Before the war ordinary
soldiers received only 8d. a day. The old arrangements were put
into force again in March 1920.
The defence of the northern frontier had to be strengthened again
at the time of the signature of the Peace of Versailles (June 1919),
for a huge immigration from Germany was feared. Later, the fron-
tier police had also to be strengthened because of the great amount
of smuggling and the enormous number of people who crossed the
frontier because of the bad conditions of life in central Europe and
the lack of employment, for Switzerland, as the sole non-enemy land
open, was regarded as an El Dorado. On Aug. 28 1920 the watch on
the frontiers was definitely abolished. The strict watch on the
frontiers had greatly impeded all facilities for travelling, and the very
severe regulations as to the visa of passports and payment of other
dues were subsequently greatly lightened.
Economic E/ects of the War. After the first excitement had
died down, there were, in the first months of the first year of the
war, no notable advances in the prices of various articles in
Switzerland. This took place gradually, as the difficulties of
importing articles increased. As early as Nov. 1914, Italy
announced that she would place no hindrances in the way of the
export of articles of food and supplies of raw materials.
In the matter of corn Switzerland was not in a very favourable
position at the beginning of the war, for the supplies existing
there would have barely sufficed for a couple of months. One
must not forget that the Swiss agriculturists devote their atten-
tion far more to milk and cheese than to corn. This latter, there-
fore, could be delivered more cheaply by foreign countries, and
was a far less profitable occupation for the Swiss farmer than
milk and its products. Hence Switzerland fell more and more
into a state of dependence on foreign countries.
The Swiss authorities naturally first of all attacked this press-
ing problem, and tried to find a remedy. They acted very shrewd-
ly in that they introduced, Jan. 9 1915, a provisional monopoly
of corn, and issued a special decree relating to its export. Thus
the country was to a certain degree provided with the raw ma-
terials for bread and, above all, a bar was placed on all specula-
tion in this most necessary article. Hence it was possible in the
following month of May to note that the regular supply of corn
was proceeding quietly, and that Switzerland was better sup-
plied with corn than at the beginning of the war.
In the case of various articles such as bread and milk, a prohi-
bition to export them was issued at once. It may cause surprise
642
SWITZERLAND
at first to be told that milk was included in such a prohibition.
But whoever is aware of the fact that nearly all the milk, so far
as it is not consumed within Switzerland, was worked up into
various shapes (e.g. cheese, butter, condensed milk) and then
was exported in great quantities, will not find fault with this
prohibition, when he learns that in Switzerland itself there were
periodical milk famines for the native consumers. And it came to
pass that milk itself was exported from Switzerland. For exam-
ple, in the frontier city of Basle, the inhabitants at the beginning
of the war were forced to exchange milk for vegetables grown in
Alsace, because for ages the supply of fresh vegetables for Basle
had been supplied by Alsace alone.
When the war had lasted about a year, and no end to it was
visible, the necessaries of life in Switzerland began to be not only
more expensive, but also scarcer. In June 1915 it was therefore
forbidden to export any articles of this kind. This regulation was
due to the act of profiteers, who bought these necessaries of life in
huge quantities, and then accumulated them for export to cen-
tral Europe. Switzerland now found itself in a rather awkward
position. If she forbade the export of necessaries of life, central
Europe menaced the stoppage on their side of the import into
Switzerland of the various articles which she most needed, such
as coal, raw materials, artificial manure, etc. On the other hand,
the Entente threatened Switzerland with a rationing of the con-
signments of necessaries of life in case the export of such to
Germany and Austria were not entirely stopped, for the Entente
had soon discovered that for central Europe this matter was the
sorest point in its war administration.
In the course of wearisome negotiations with both parties the
Swiss tried to find a satisfactory arrangement. So first they tried
to found with Germany some sort of organization for imports.
Industrial firms founded private import trusts, e.g. in Geneva,
under the name of Societe auxiliaire du Commerce et de I'ln-
dustrie. A similar trust was created in St. Gall, and in Basle a
so-called " Import Trust Company." It became harder and
harder to assure sufficient supplies for the whole country. The
imports of necessaries of life from the " Free Zones " to Geneva
were subject to strict supervision by France. On the heels of the
corn monopoly of 1915 there followed in 1916 a monopoly of the
importation of rice. In order to ascertain the amount of existing
stocks of provisions within Switzerland the Swiss executive
ordered a return of the supplies of such wares as were found in
the entire country. As the supplies of necessaries of life became
scarcer, so did the prices rise steadily.
The " S.S.S." (i.e. SocUle suisse de Surveillance Sconomique) ,
with its headquarters in Berne, had itself entered on the commer-
cial registry. Complaints were made by important members of
the general public that by this action the exports and imports
were placed practically under the control of the Entente. It was,
however, too easily forgotten that naturally it was not the inten-
tion of the Entente to permit an uncontrolled import to Switzer-
land, and then an uncontrolled export to central Europe, and so
supply its enemies with the things they lacked. But the Swiss
rightly argued that it was absolutely essential for them to keep up
a certain exchange of commodities with central Europe. For
instance, cattle in great numbers were exported to Germany and
Austria-Hungary, whence coals, iron, steel, manure, sugar and
other needful articles were imported into Switzerland.
It would have been far easier to supply Switzerland with all
these goods, had a larger number of railway goods trucks been
available. But many were away in foreign parts in order to col-
lect the accumulated goods in foreign harbours, because neither
France, Germany, nor Italy had any trucks available for the
through journey to Switzerland. Often the trucks were delayed
for months on the way, or were utilized by the belligerents for
their own needs, so that quite often Switzerland had to.make pro-
tests, and to claim the return of its trucks. Even in 1921 France
was still refusing to pay the sum agreed on for Swiss trucks held
up and utilized by her. In consequence of this insufficient supply
of goods trucks the import of corn to Switzerland was at one time
quite blocked, and this caused no little anxiety in that country.
As the feeding of the Germans began to be more and more diffi-
cult, and the prisoners and evacuated persons had to suffer there-
by, many good persons in the Entente lands caused bread to be
baked in Switzerland, and then, with other articles, to be sent to
Germany for the use of the Entente subjects interned there.
Switzerland had nothing to urge against this proceeding so long
as there were sufficient supplies for its own people. But later on
the supply of wheat for this purpose had to be specially delivered
by the Entente. In the same year (1915) a prohibition to export
cotton was issued, and from Nov. 25 onwards cheese could not
be sent away in quantities of more than ij lb., and licences
to export butter were no longer granted.
It was in 1916 that the profiteers were most numerous and
most active in Switzerland. In April the Swiss executive had to
make new and sharper laws against the speculators who chose the
necessaries of life as their field of operation. In Geneva a great
organization was discovered which busied itself with such specula-
tions. By order of the cantonal executive considerable supplies
of coffee, cocoa, and chocolate were seized, and a number of
foreigners expelled. Great quantities of rice and fat were also
confiscated in Basle and in Buchs, on the Austrian frontier. One
must assume, of course, that the greater portion of these goods
had been smuggled over the frontier. Soldiers, customs officers,
frontier guards had their hands full with countering the tricks i
of smugglers, speculators and profiteers.
Henceforward the economic relations began to get sharper
and sharper. After the inquiry as to the existing stocks of sugar
came the sugar monopoly. This had become necessary because
the wholesale firms were no longer willing to undertake the
importation of sugar. (Before the war Switzerland imported
annually sugar to the value of about r, 500,000.)
As the blockade of the Central Powers by the Entente became
more and more strict, this had a reflex action on the economical
situation of Switzerland. That little country found itself hard
pressed from all sides. In June 1916 Germany threatened the
stoppage of all exchange of goods if Switzerland would not deliver
those which had been stored on German account in Switzerland, I
and the Entente as firmly refused to let this threat be carried out. ,
In the same month a Swiss delegation journeyed to Paris in order
to remove these difficulties. But at first no settlement could be
reached, for the Allies and Germany both obstinately clung to
their points of view. Finally in Sept., with great trouble, an
arrangement was concluded with Germany. Hardly was this in
force when France, England, and Italy required that Switzer-
land apply to them measures similar to those which Switzer-
land had accepted in the Germano-Swiss arrangement. How
complicated this situation often was for Switzerland is shown
best by the Note, according to which the Entente required from
Switzerland a prohibition for the export of all those manufac-
tures (machines and parts of machines), the making of which re-
quired oil for greasing them which came from the Entente states.
The distrust of Switzerland became greater and greater. Ger-
many complained that Switzerland had abandoned its neutrality, >
and was under the protection of the Entente. On the other hand,
the Allies grumbled that the goods delivered by them were han-
ded over by Switzerland to the Central Powers. What wonder
then that the saying became prevalent in Switzerland " A neu-
tral Power is kicked from the left, and whipped from the right."
The following fact will show how much during the war Switzer-
land had to depend on a reasonable amount of imports. In 1916, i
despite all the efforts of the Swiss farmers, only two-thirds of the
supply needed for the country could be produced. Besides wheat
for bread, raw materials, artificial manure, cattle for slaughter,
fat, and by far the greater amount of the potatoes used, had to
be imported from foreign parts (Germany, Holland and Italy).
In 1916 Germany exported to Switzerland 1,600 trucks filled with
potatoes, both for consumption and for sowing.
For foreigners it was not easy to understand why Switzerland
placed the seizure of the harvest and the fixing of maximum
prices for the most important necessaries of life in the hands of
the Military Department, for in Switzerland, as in other lands,
so-called official Food Departments had been set up. It was
easier to understand that the military authorities were empow-
SWITZERLAND
643
ered to issue orders that the supplies of hay and straw of each
harvest should be commandeered. Inquirers were informed that
the Military Department or the Chief War Commissariat office
had, in the course of years, accumulated a great stock of corn,
which was renewed every three years. When, at the very begin-
ning of the war (Aug. 27 1914) the Swiss executive sanctioned the
grinding of " full flour " and then, as is well known, ordered a
corn monopoly for the Confederation (Jan. 9 1915), and also
commandeered the entire corn harvest, the Chief War Commis-
sariat office was the right authori ty to carry these orders out. But
on Aug. i 1917 a central bureau for the provision of bread was
set up, and on Aug. 10 1917 this was followed by a Swiss bread
bureau. On Sept. 13 1918 a Swiss Provision Department was
resolved on, and the bread matter was entrusted to it.
The entry of Italy into the war (May 23 1915) was a hard blow
to Switzerland, making it more anxious than ever, but still worse
was the declaration made by Germany (Feb. 1917) to the Allies
of the unrestricted submarine warfare. By this step Germany
won no sympathy from the neutrals, although the Swiss executive
refused the suggestion of the United States to break off all diplo-
matic relations with Germany. The Swiss held that this refusal
was in accordance with their neutrality, as Germany was the sole
land which supplied coal to Switzerland, for the Entente had now
to send coal to Italy and could not supply it to Switzerland. At
any rate Switzerland got coal from Germany, despite increased
prices, cheaper than Italy did from its Allies.
The declaration of Germany (on Feb. i 1917) that the port of
Cette lay outside the blockade zone was only a poor comfort for
Switzerland. It ought to have secured previously a reasonable
amount of imports. France strained its resources to satisfy the
demands of Switzerland as far as it could, and sanctioned impor-
tant traffic alleviations for the transport of necessaries of life.
But this did not hinder the needs of Switzerland from being in-
creased. On Feb. 12 1917 two "meatless" days per week
were ordered, and on other days only a single dish of meat was
allowed for each meal.
One misfortune followed another. Soon the Argentine Repub-
lic announced (April 1917) that it had forbidden the export of
wheat, even the supplies already bought by Switzerland.
However, it must not be thought that during this critical
period Switzerland had simply folded its hands on its breast.
It tried as far as possible to make itself independent of foreign
countries by directing additional planting of potatoes, vegetables
and materials for bread. Flowers disappeared from all gardens.
Everywhere their place was taken by potatoes and other vege-
tables. The pleasure parks and drill grounds in and around the
towns were commandeered for the same purposes. In the even-
ings, when the day's work was done, the workingmen of the towns
were seen, pick and hoe in hand, busy turning up the ground
which previously had served all purposes except the planting of
useful things. The State ordered each parish to put gratis at the
disposal of the poorer classes land for cultivation, and even
swampy spots had in all haste to be prepared for cultivation. It is
easy to understand that sometimes practical impossibilities were
demanded. " One lives and learns." . Next, after the land had
been prepared for cultivation, suitable kinds of manure were no
longer to be had. Those who were not owners of cattle could pro-
duce none. Artificial manure of good quality proved too dear
to be purchased by poorer people. These were obstacles that
must not be underestimated, but absolute need and the horrible
period of the war overcame them all. Frequently the results of
this compulsory planting did not even approximately reward the
pains and work which had been bestowed upon it, but people
were too filled with joy to despise the little that was actually the
result. Thousands and thousands of families who previously
did not produce necessaries of life had themselves to plant the
amount of potatoes and vegetables required for their own use,
and so considerably relieved the crying need. In 1917 120,000
trucks of potatoes were produced (the normal production was
about 100,000 trucks). But there was no abundance of this
commodity, for in many poorer families potatoes had to replace
macaroni, and such like wares which had become more expensive.
These measures on the part of the Swiss authorities were indeed
very drastic, but they could not have acted otherwise. The
townsman, like the country farmer, was affected by them. The
latter indeed had to submit to regulations which meant a revolu-
tion in his ordinary business. He was ordered, without the slight-
est regard to the number of his cattle, to plant a fixed quantity
of his land in corn, in such and such a manner. With far less
help than heretofore (for the men of military age were generally
absent), the peasant women and their half-grown children had
alone to do all the work. Not infrequently even their horses
were taken away for service 6n the frontier.
When the peasants had planted, as ordered, the fixed quantity
of land in corn, and so helped in the supply of bread, it turned
out that now they had too little hay for their cattle. Experience
taught here, as elsewhere, that an existing state of things could
not be simply changed by the alteration of a screw in a machine.
The aforesaid regulations reminded men of the State right of
tutelage in the matter of dealings with corn, as had been usual
in Switzerland as late as the i8th century. Great quantities of
corn were procured and stored in granaries, in order to secure
cheaper bread to the people in general.
The more profitable pasture business (e.g. breeding of cattle
and milk industry) had developed from agriculture. Before the
war there were big farmers in Switzerland, who only grew pota-
toes and other vegetables enough for their own use. But the
rest of the land was laid down in grass. So it is easy to under-
stand that before the war Switzerland could export yearly huge
amounts of cheese, butter, and condensed milk.
Against the introduction of " bread cards " Switzerland
fought with tooth and nail. The workingmen in the towns were
not willing to be deprived of their unrestricted amount of bread.
A middle way was therefore tried in Switzerland the grinding of
the corn less finely, and the prohibition of the sale of fresh baked
bread (Feb. 12 1917). Further, in May, a decree directed that
bread should only be sold 36 hours after it was baked. But al-
ready in Oct. the final solution of this problem could no longer
be deferred the daily ration of 9 oz. a head.
Bread and meal were joined on the same card. The bread
card was split up into such small rations that the traveller could
obtain in the hotels and restaurants per portion only ij ounces.
This regulation was followed in Feb. 1917 by the order to make
macaroni, etc., only out of eggs, and then on March i 1917 ap-
peared the cards for rice and sugar. In the case of sugar about
2i Ib. extra were allowed per head for making jam.
Every month or two Switzerland had to start new negotiations
with the belligerents, and to conclude new agreements. In May
1917, the negotiations about the management of the S.S.S. were
brought to a conclusion, and an understanding was reached about
the import of fodder and the export of live cattle. For the export
of fodder from the Entente lands, Switzerland had had to export
live cattle as " compensation." A new economic agreement be-
tween Germany and Switzerland was also concluded.
A special chapter in the provisioning; of Switzerland was formed
by the struggle about the price of milk. Here the consumers and
the producers were often hotly opposed to each other. The work-
ingmen in the towns reproached the peasants with illegal exploita-
tion of the hard lot of the people, and that the latter often from
time to time intentionally brought about a milk famine in order to
drive prices still higher up. The " Town Associations " (a product
of the war as against the country) took an active part, though not
always with the same arguments, in this struggle against the peasants.
These, on their side, refused absolutely, seeing that all kinds of
fodder were always becoming dearer, and by reason of the general
rise in prices, to supply their wares at the same fixed price. It was
not always easy for the authorities in case of these quarrels to hit
on a middle way which was good for all parties alike. One reason
for the scarcity of milk was certainly that Switzerland temporarily
exported many head of cattle, and this business wasted much milk.
Then again, as butter and cheese rose in price, greater supplies of
these articles were manufactured, as it was the more profitable
business. All this took place, be it well understood, at the expense
of the consumer, who had to suffer much thereby.
In order to assure nevertheless a sufficient supply of milk for
the Swiss people in general, the Swiss executive empowered the
Agricultural Department to fix the amount of the milk rations
allowed to each parish, and sanctioned the delivery of milk at
644
SWITZERLAND
reduced prices to persons of small means. The maximum price for
a litre (if pt.) of milk was therefore fixed at 33 centimes (about
3^d.) in April 1917, but for people without means at 26 centimes
(about 2$d.). The State and the parishes had between them to
make up the deficiency. In order to create a closer organization
and to render the commerce in milk somewhat the same for all 22
cantons, a central bureau for the supply of milk and its products in
Switzerland was set up in Aug. 1917. It was empowered to issue
decrees, and to subject the whole industry to Federal control. That
was quite necessary, because it happened that the milk for the
inhabitants of the towns was already rationed (so in Berne on Jan. I
1918 the daily allowance a head was only three-fifths of a litre),
while in the country free trade prevailed in this business. As the
danger of a fresh rise in the price of milk became more and more
imminent, the town workmen opposed it vigorously. They threat-
ened a general strike if this most essential commodity should be
again raised in price. In the Chamber of Deputies of the Swiss
Parliament a compromise was made on this basis the Swiss execu-
tive to grant one rappen (less than a farthing) per litre to the milk
producers, and to pay the extra expenses of the transport this
was only to avoid a fresh rise in the price of milk (Oct. 1917). This
was well meant, but it turned out later to have been a mistake, since
from this time onwards rich and poor profited by this arrangement,
and the Swiss authorities had to pay out a huge amount of money.
For the time certain kinds of cheese (cream cheeses, etc.) were
not allowed to be sold, and the consumption of butter was restricted.
Finally, it was arranged that each landowner was obliged to deliver
a fixed quantity of milk from each cow for consumption. When
later in 1918-9 the rationing was still more limited (Oct., half a
litre, and in Nov. one-third litre per head) this evil was not so
much due to any intentional over-production of milk products by
the peasants, but, as pointed out above, because many peasants by
reason of the compulsory planting of corn, and dearer hay, etc.,
and the consequent hay famine, could afford only to keep a far
smaller number of cattle. This circumstance may have affected
the production of milk more than was stated above. It must be
added that children up to a fixed age and persons over 60 could
claim an extra ration so too sick persons, but for these a medical
certificate was necessary.
At the beginning of the war people were much perturbed by the
payment of 26 rappen (about } of a franc) for a litre of milk, and
yet in 1921 the price was 52 rappen (about j franc), or an increase of
100 per cent. After the conclusion of peace and on the return of
more normal economic conditions it was hoped that a slight allevia-
tion would ensue. But in 1919-20 the foot-and-mouth disease in
Switzerland increased to such a degree that at the end of 1919 the
daily ration of milk in the towns sank to below the average in the
war-time to one-third of a litre. The foot-and-mouth disease
caused Switzerland a loss of about 5,500,000. Finally, in April 1920
this limitation was abolished. The milk famine was one of the
greatest calamities that occurred in Switzerland during the entire
war period.
It goes without saying that macaroni, groats and oatmeal, barley,
cheese, butter, fat, and oils were all rationed, and even also, in part,
potatoes and coals. The supervision took place by means of specially
issued cards. The butt of the card had to be given up every month
when new cards had to be procured. These bore every month differ-
ently coloured signs of authenticity. A regulation was also made
that in each household even necessaries of life, which were not
rationed, should not be kept in quantities exceeding the supply
required for two weeks.
Some necessaries of life were meted out with a very sparing hand :
thus only rather over I Ib. of meal per head and per month was
sanctioned, while, from Oct. 1917, white meal and groats were only
allowed for hospitals and sick persons, and, even to procure these,
corresponding bits of the bread and meal card had to be sacrificed.
Other important necessaries of life were rationed as follows: maize
about 14 oz., rice about 9 oz., and sugar about 20 oz. in each case
per head and per month. But even these rations were not fixed
fast-^on the contrary they were raised or lowered according to the
existing supplies imported.
The restrictions that were most felt were those on butter and on
fat for cooking. Foreign lard, even before the outbreak of the war,
had been imported in great quantities. But afterwards the imports
of this article fell off more and more in July 1917 it had decreased
by 90 per cent. Hence the supervision of all kinds of fat was placed
under State control, and in Jan. 1918 a so-called "Central Bureau
for Fat " was set up to ensure the provisioning of the country with fat
and oil, both for eating. The fat and butter cards (fat for eating
and oils) were brought in on March I 1918. They allowed about 12
oz. of fat and about 5 oz. of butter per person each month. In June
the ration of butter fell to about 3^ oz., and then rose again to about
9 oz. After the Swiss Government succeeded in buying in America
(Jan. 1919) 15,000 tons of pigs' fat, it became possible to abolish
the rationing of fat in July of the same year, but the butter cards
remained in use for two months longer.
About the same time (July 1919) the rationing of macaroni,
Ets, oatmeal, and barley was abolished, and two months later
t.) the same was done with the bread and meal cards, and
ly with the " meatless " days.
For the poorer classes so-called "Distress Relief" was organ-
ized, i.e. the Confederation, the cantons, and the parishes together
paid over to these poorer people a portion of the price of certain
necessaries of life. The principal objects of this charity were bread,
milk, and potatoes. In the towns many classes of the population
had to be supported in this manner in the town of Berne alone
about 27 % . In the summer of 1918 the increase in the prices of
necessaries of life rose to 120%, and in the autumn of the same year
to 150%. Throughout the country the town workmen organized
demonstrations against this increasing cost of necessaries, and these
were combined with other matters of political discontent, these
latter being stimulated by the events in Russia and in Germany
and all leading up in Nov. to the general strike (see below).
Manufacturers in general accommodated themselves quickly to
the state of things produced by the war. An exception was formed
by the embroidery industry of eastern Switzerland, which was
paralyzed through insufficient exportation and lack of foreign orders.
On the other hand, the watch factories did very well, because they
could manufacture parts of ammunition for the belligerents, which
brought in much money, both to masters and men. The same
thing happened with the great industrial magnates, who manufac-
tured turning lathes, machines or parts of machines for the same 1
object, and exported them. The delivery of completely manufac-
tured ammunition was forbidden by the Swiss executive as being
contrary to neutrality, but it was not difficult to get round this
prohibition. Each of the belligerents sought to arrange matters to!
its advantage. Germany once claimed that every manufacturer:
of western Switzerland who delivered articles to the Entente should
receive no more German coal for his factories. France, on the other 1
hand, forbade the use of grease for machines and parts of machines
which were to be exported to Germany. It was not always easy
for Switzerland to steer the right course, without totally depriving
its workmen of their wages.
The provisioning of Switzerland with coal proved often a very
difficult and complicated matter. At the beginning of the war, and
in part even up to the year 1916, it was not possible to complain in
Switzerland of a coal famine, properly speaking, for the prices had
risen by not quite a quarter per ton. Before the war one had to
pay to the coal merchant (including his profits) about 2. 8s. per :
ton, and in 1916 some 73. or 8s. more. But matters changed alto-
gether in 1917, for not only did the price (including the profits of
the coal merchant) rise to 5. 43. but restrictive measures were
taken. By a decree of the Swiss executive of March 7 1917, no one
was allowed to procure a supply of provisions sufficient for over
three months. In Basle the so-called " Central Bureau for Coal "
was set up. Any person who required more than five tons of German
coal had to take a share in the aforesaid company, or else to pay an
extra 2 per ton. The object was to secure to Germany an adequate
money advance, probably in order to compensate her for the loss on
the exchange. Germany was required to provide solvent guarantors, :
so as to make sure that the money would be forthcoming. Later on,
a local " Coal Supply Bureau " was set up in every town and every \
parish, which fixed the amount that any person could be allowea,
and supervised the distribution. The prices for good coal (including
merchants' profits) amounted to 10 per ton. New restrictions ;
were often issued. The census of the amount of coal was soon fol-
lowed by its rationing. It is well known that Switzerland, apart '.
from peat and some slate coal, possesses no coal proper. That fact
suffices to prove how dependent she is in this respect on foreign sup- i
plies. A ' Swiss Coal Co." was formed, the object of which was to '
support financially efforts to find more coal in the country. Re- I
searches were carried on all over the land, and a certain amount of
coal of poorish quality was found in the cantons of Berne and of
the Valais. Peat too was cut, wherever there was a possibility of the
smallest supply. But one cannot be surprised that, despite the high j
prices, the quantity of this coal fell far short of the amount required. ',
Soon after the scarcity of coal began, and particularly by reason
of the rise in its price, the railways and the steamboats on the
Swiss lakes were forced not only to raise their fares, but to take
other restrictive measures. First of all the "excursion tickets"
were suppressed, and then also the cheaper sorts of return tickets
abolished (1917). The circulation of trains was reduced from March I
1918 by a third. In Nov. 1918 the State railways raised their
tariff for goods by about 80%, and in the same month experiments
were made with supplying locomotives with wood instead of coal,
and this, in consequence of the ever-increasing coal famine, even in
the case of fast trains. The cantons were each bound to deliver a
certain quantity of wood, according to their size and their supplies.
Canton Berne, in particular, had to furnish very large quantities of
beech wood. Previously, the whole supply of fuel had been seized
by the State. All public bureaux and post-offices had to reduce the
hours during which they were open, schools had to have holidays,
etc. One restricted railway scheme appeared after another, and
from Dec. I the circulation of travellers, on those bits of the rail-
ways which were still run by steam, was provisionally entirely sus-
pended on Sundays and festivals. The only trains allowed on those
days were those which carried milk. At the same time the distribu-
tion of letters on Sundays was discontinued.
In this time of need Strenuous attempts were made by the Swiss
authorities to electrify the railway lines, where this could be done
SWITZERLAND
645
most efficaciously. The private non-State railways were encour-
aged to do the same, and subsidies were promised to them for that pur-
pose. Although, with certain exceptions, such as the St. Gottnard
line and some smaller bits, this permission could not be utilized to
the extent required, this is to be explained by the unheard-of prices
asked for raw materials. The purchase of electrical machines alone
absorbed such huge sums that the necessary capital could not be
brought together.
In Oct. 1920 a fall in the price of coal took place, and the supply
also gradually became better than heretofore, so that in the winter
of 1920-1 the rationing of coal was abolished. The coal supply
organization in Basle was wound up. But now another difficulty
appeared. In consequence of the augmented supply the " Central
Bureau for Coal" had acquired great quantities of coal at prices
which were still high. Likewise the supply of peat had increased in
amount. But as the coal prices sank the supply could not keep pace
with the reduction in prices unless at a great loss. Business men com-
plained that they could get coal direct from the pits at lower prices
than those payable in Switzerland. The Swiss executive resolved to
give financial aid for the distribution of the existing stocks in the coun-
try at cheaper prices. But it imposed on each ton of imported coal
an extra customs duty, and this measure was to last until this
advance was reimbursed.
Treaties. In order to complete the picture of the economic diffi-
culties which existed in Switzerland during the war we must here
add a short account of the treaties which she was compelled to con-
clude with the belligerents.
The " S.S.S." (Sociele suisse de Surveillance economique) , intended
to regulate the circulation and employment of wares in the interest
of the Entente, was founded on Oct. 1 1 1915. At the same time the
" Treuhandstelle " for commerce with the Central Powers came
into existence.
On Sept. 2 1916 the so-called Economic Agreement was con-
cluded to facilitate the exchange of goods. Germany by this had
to release per month 253,000 tons of coal, and the amount of iron
and steel required by Switzerland. Switzerland, on the other hand,
handed over products of milk, meat, etc. A Swiss export com-
mittee looked after the export of war supplies, produced with Ge^-
man raw materials (the so-called " Swiss Central Iron Bureau ").
It was forbidden to use German iron or German coal for the produc-
tion of war supplies destined for the Entente.
On Aug. 20 1917 a new arrangement was made. Germany was
to grant permission to export 200,000 tons of coal at 3. 123. a ton,
and 19,000 tons of iron and steel, in both cases per month. On its
side, Switzerland was to grant Germany a credit per month of
800,000 (foundation of the " Central Bureau for Coal ").
On Sept. 29 1917 this arrangement was followed at once by a
similar agreement with France. A group of Swiss banks granted to
a group of French banks a credit per month of 500,000, this to
last from October to December. In return Switzerland obtained from
France certain economic reliefs. After two months this arrange-
ment was renewed for 10 months, the credits allowed rising with
certain improvements in the import of goods. On March 20 1918
a similar credit was granted to a group of English banks, the monthly
maximum amount being fixed at 400,000.
On Aug. 30 1917 an agreement with France and Italy was con-
cluded for the export of wood, to be worked up, from Switzerland.
On Dec. 5 1917 the United States also made an agreement to supply
240,000 tons of bread-stuffs, till the next harvest. Other kinds of goods
were " contingented." The lack of room on ships delayed, how-
ever, the delivery of these supplies very much. In place of the
agreement with Germany (which had run out) a new treaty, much
less favourable, was concluded (May 15 1918). Germany was
bound to give leave for the export of 200,000 tons of coal, iron, and
steel. The Swiss " Treuhandstelle " had to superintend the exchange
of goods according to the S.S.S. system.
The Economic Agreement of May 5 1915 with Italy was still in
existence. But on Nov. I 1918 an economic and financial treaty
was made with this country, as also with France and England. The
credit to be allowed every month was fixed at a maximum of 200,000,
but the amount of imports was limited.
In order to execute all these financial obligations of Switzerland
the " Swiss Financial Association " was founded in Lucerne on
Aug. I 1918. To protect itself against the imminent danger of a
maritime blockade, Switzerland agreed with Germany on April 24
1918 that free passage should be given for all cargoes destined for
Switzerland.
In a fresh financial agreement with France (July 19 1919) Switz-
erland obtained a credit of about 1,250,000. The economic treaty
with this country ran from March 25 1919 to the end of 1919. In
Oct. and Nov. of that year the contingents of Switzerland for
watches and embroideries were somewhat raised. In a fresh agree-
ment of March 10 1920 a bargain was made with Switzerland for
the delivery of 10,000 tons of coal (brown coal) from the pits on the
left bank of the Rhine each month. Switzerland had to supply,
among other things, electric power, but the promised amount of
manure received by Switzerland was quite insufficient.
At the end of Nov. 1919 a new compensation treaty was made
with Italy about the delivery of oil-cake and hay in exchange for
cattle, for breeding and use.
The coal agreements came to an end in the beginning of 1919.
On Jan. 22 1919 an economic treaty was made with the United
States ; bigger contingents of goods were secured to Switzerland and
a tonnage of 70,000 (soon raised to 100,000), England and France
guaranteeing these amounts.
On March 25 1919 yet a new agreement was made with France
about the supply of goods. France promised to deliver 60,000 tons
of coal from Lorraine per month (at 4. l6s. a ton) and also manure
and facilities for the transport of goods. On its side Switzerland
engaged to deliver cattle for breeding and certain goods (chocolate,
watches, embroideries, etc.) tothevalueof about 108,000 per month,
and also a new credit not to exceed about 1,500,000 at the most.
The credit arrangement with England of March 20 1919 was not
renewed. Later on, England too raised the contingents which
could be imported, and sanctioned (March I 1919) again the admit-
tance of embroideries and silken goods. On April 28 1919 the
" black lists " were abolished, and also the certificates of nationality
and the contingents of imports permitted by the S.S.S.
Such were the economic agreements which Switzerland had to
sign. Her economic dependence on foreign countries is thus abun-
dantly clear, and yet it must be said that all the belligerents had
taken much kindly notice of her position in this way or in another.
It must be recognized that the Swiss authorities managed to get
well through all their difficulties, and did not fail to take precau-
tionary measures (sometimes very incisive) to provide the Swiss
with all the necessaries of life. But, in consequence of the incredible
rise in prices and the excessive prices- of necessaries of life, even of
those which are most indispensable, they were unable to bring it
about that the distress of the people should not lead to dissatisfac-
tion, complaints, and great discontent.
General Strike of Nov. 12 1918. The Swiss Socialists (or Social
Democratic party) were never stronger, and to a certain degree
more feared, than towards the end of the fourth year of the war.
The rise in prices of all commodities, and too the unforeseen and
the previously unknown dearth of dwelling houses, were utilized
very cleverly and ably for the purposes of propaganda, and
brought great reinforcements to the Socialists. Protest meetings
against too high prices were organized, and these were sometimes
accompanied by political demands which caused serious restless-
ness. The revolution that had broken out in Russia in the preceding
year and the break-up (Oct. 1918) of Germany, from the military
point of view, and in part also from the political point of view,
hurled their waves of revolt as far as Switzerland. Here the
leaders of the workmen imagined that the moment was come for
violent action. The crisis was the summoning of troops to
Zurich, the Government of which on occasion of the memorial
day (organized by the Socialists) of the Russian Revolution,
feared serious riots. The calling of the troops to Zurich was con-
sidered by the workmen as a provocation, and the reply was a
general strike for 24 hours, which very soon developed into an
unrestricted general strike in the whole of Switzerland. The
railways ceased to run, and in most Swiss towns the entire body
of workmen took a holiday, though not in the rural districts or in
western Switzerland where the strike was sometimes only a
partial cessation of work, and ended in a speedy breakdown. In
order to make this general strike more popular with the workmen
the so-called " Olten Committtee of Action " put forth a social
and political programme, which was submitted for speedy
acceptance to the authorities, and included the following de-
mands. The immediate transformation of the Government of
the country so as to be in accordance with the will of the people.
The new Government was to bind itself to the following pro-
gramme at the very least ; new election of the " Conseil National "
according to the principles of proportional representation;
voting rights of all kinds for women; introduction of the gen-
eral obligation to work, and of the 48-hour week in all public
offices and private businesses; the reorganization of the army
so as to make it the army of the people; the securing of the sup-
plies of necessaries of life, this provision to be carried out with
the agreement of the rural producers; insurance for old and sick
persons; State monopoly of imports and exports; and redemp-
tion of all State debts by the rich.
The Swiss executive refused to negotiate with the strikers, and
the peasants made a show of cutting off the milk supplies of the
towns. Another hope too of the strike leaders failed. They had
expected that the soldiers, especially the members of the asso-
ciation of the " League of Soldiers " (thought to be imbued with
revolutionary ideas and later forbidden by Gen. Wille), would
646
SWITZERLAND
naturally refuse military obedience. The military authorities,
however, had taken the precaution to summon trusty troops
from the rural and Alpine regions, and so the leaders of the
strike saw their hopes falsified. When the news spread of the
ultimatum issued by the Swiss executive to end the strike at
once, otherwise the strike leaders would run the risk of being
put into prison, the general strike came to a natural end. Such
a strike has seldom broken down more wretchedly. The 48
signers of the " Olten Appeal " were accused of instigating the
strikers to mutiny, and so were handed over to the military
authorities for examination. By this accusation was meant any
appeal which directly or indirectly was made to the soldiers, with
the warning not to march against their own brothers, and not to
turn their weapons against the workmen, but, in case such a
command should be given, rather to refuse military obedience.
By far the greater number of the 48 signers were acquitted.
Only a few of the most prominent and the most compromised
leaders were kept, and received punishments ranging up to six
months' imprisonment. Here, as elsewhere, it became clear that
the greater part of the Swiss workmen never would approve a
united general strike with purely political aims.
Interned Prisoners. As early as Oct. 1914, a beginning was
made with the dispatch of the evacuated civilians home to
France, Germany, and Austria, passing through Switzerland.
And up to March 5 1916 some 60,000 persons were conveyed
back to France alone by the same route.
On Feb. 21 1916 an arrangement was finally made about the
exchange of the severely wounded German and French prisoners
who were to pass through Switzerland. After the consent of the
Swiss Red Cross had been previously obtained, this duty was
confided to it by a decree of the Swiss executive. Now began the
foreign action of that institute which lasted for five long years.
Constance and Lyons were fixed on as the exchange centres; the
trains were to pass through Switzerland at night, and the railway
carriages required were to be furnished by the State railways.
Before the actual transport took place, " selection committees "
visited the various prisoners' camps, in order to inspect the
severely wounded men, and to settle which should be included in
the exchange. The Swiss Red Cross agreed to defray all the
expenses for the food, etc., of these poor men, and their nurses
etc., but not the railway fares.
Besides the medical men, male Red Cross nurses accompanied
the trains, sometimes also soldier nurses, while women nurses
from nearly every Swiss nursing home looked after the invalids.
The journeys took place at longer or shorter intervals, but often
there were lengthy breaks, due to the state of the war, and to
difficulties that arose between the hostile states.
The Swiss people took a great and a very sympathetic share
in these transport trains. People flocked from long distances to
the railway stations merely to see the trains rush past, and had
the feeling that thereby they had showed their sympathy with
the unfortunate victims of the war. At the places where the
trains halted, the joy was enormous. At some spots the trains
had to stop because the people would block them by standing
on the rails, and a huge quantity of loving gifts, for which room
Was scarcely found, literally overflowed the Red Cross carriages.
The good example of France, Belgium, and Germany was fol-
lowed in Nov. 1916 by Italy and Austria also. The exchange sta-
tions here were Como-Monza and Feldkirch-Dornbirn, and many
trains came through with Austrians, Bulgarians, Turks, Serbs,
English, and Italians. Later on, when Austria resolved to re-
patriate the numerous Italian consumptives, whose illness was
still in the preliminary stages, special consumptive trains became
also necessary. Imbecile soldiers were transported in great num-
bers. Twice trains, with many such, came through, and no one
could determine their names or their homes.
A most pitiful and moving spectacle was the sight of the trains
filled with evacuated civilian travellers. Old men with snow-
white hair, women of all ages, and children, even unweaned
infants, were seen in these trains. These unfortunate persons
were warmly welcomed and well fed, in the most hospitable
fashion. It is a gloomy chapter in the history of the war.
The interned soldiers were mostly housed in the Alpine regions.
This took place for various reasons. First of all, the high air was
looked upon as a great factor in their convalescence, and then
again they were isolated from the temptations of bigger places
and towns, and, finally, in the tourist centres many hotels stood
empty, all ready to receive this new kind of guest, and well fitted
to shelter great bodies of interned.
No Swiss industry was so hard hit by the war in its very exis-
tence as the Swiss tourist traffic, once so flourishing. According
to the statisticians, milliards of francs were invested therein, and
so, soon after the outbreak of the war, special measures of protec-
tion (such as exemption from bankruptcy suits) and also acts of
charity had to be taken. What wonder then that the Swiss
authorities, by this action in favour of the interned, hoped to
kill two birds with one stone, and appropriate these small profits
to the stricken Industrie des Strangers ?
The daily sum paid for accommodation, etc., per head was
originally four francs, later five francs, and even in 1921 an extra
amount of one franc daily per head for 1918 was the subject of
negotiation. (These sums were paid by the respective states con-
cerned.) But no state, save defeated Germany, had agreed up to
June 1921 to this extra expense. The food was simple and
nourishing, and in some places it was more than good.
At the beginning of the period of internment the interned were
given free postage for all letters sent to their native countries.
And nothing too was charged for parcels sent thence to foreign
countries. This humane arrangement was afterwards first re-
stricted, and later on quite suppressed, as the war seemed to be
never ending, and the cost to the Swiss post-office ran up to
2,000,000, and even more.
A great difficulty arose as to the employment of the interned.
In some places they took to an industry which promised them
certain profits. Such were the beautiful, and even most artistic
works of art which were produced by simple and untrained sol-
diers. They acted as joiners, mechanics, turners, wove baskets,
made ropes, and nets, painted pictures, etc. In Thun, as early as
1916, a school of commerce was opened for the interned. The
universities of Basle, Berne, Geneva, Lausanne, and Zurich
allowed interned to matriculate as students. The Bernese Uni-
versity Committee provided in 42 prisoners' camps outside
Switzerland both teachers and students with money, food of
various kinds, clothing and books. The interned were permitted
to hold exhibitions of their products, and special committees were
founded to promote the sale of the fruits of their labour. Now
and then they received visits from high-placed countrymen (such
as Gen. Pau, etc.). They looked after their social amusements
themselves. One English committee even got together money
for the visits of English women to their husbands interned in
Switzerland. The English interned enjoyed the special sympathy
of the Swiss. The number of prisoners interned in Switzerland
was already in Aug. 1916, 18,936 11,823 French, 4,322 Ger-
mans, 1,607 Belgians, 1,183 English, and one Austrian. These
numbers later increased very much, and finally, when difficulties
arose about food in Switzerland, it could not possibly receive an
unrestricted number, and so after a certain time the interned
were exchanged for others.
When the internment of wounded prisoners was resolved on in
Switzerland this business was entrusted to the chief army medical
officer, and the Swiss Red Cross. Practically, the Red Cross took
charge only of the transport of the interned to and from Switzer-
land, everything else being supplied by the army authorities.
The interned had fewer invalids than the exchanged prisoners,
and so required only ordinary trains with occasional carriages
in which to lie down; but many persons seriously ill were sent
home, and the Swiss Red Cross looked after all such cases.
After the Armistice the principal transport of the prisoners
belonging to the Entente took its start. The sick and invalids
were partly sent for in special " sanitary" trains, French, Eng-
lish, American, and Italian, the nurses, etc., being supplied by
the Swiss Red Cross. All these journeys passed off without any
serious accidents, at least it never happened that any one was
injured, though the trains went at express speed.
SWITZERLAND
647
The Swiss Red Cross spent (apart from the railway fares)
some 13,000 in carrying out this transport. No fewer than
8i,377 persons were conveyed by the Swiss Red Cross, and that
without counting the numerous civilians interned and civilians
evacuated, who had previously passed through Switzerland, the
number of these amounting to several hundred thousands. All
these persons travelled through Switzerland.
In April 1919 there were still 5,000 Germans interned in
Switzerland. These could only be sent home later, shortly
before the home-coming of the prisoners interned in France.
The international action of the Swiss Red Cross extended also
to investigations as to prisoners and missing soldiers. From all
parts enquiries arrived, relating to the whereabouts of various
soldiers. This was a task which properly belonged to the Inter-
national Committee at Geneva, specially created for this purpose.
In many cases, however, the Swiss Red Cross, thanks to its
fortunate and useful communications by reason of the exchange
of the interned, could answer these enquiries. With this object
a special office was set up in Berne for the interned prisoners of
war in Switzerland, and to this all enquiries were to be addressed,
whether for interned persons or missing persons.
International Red Cross at Geneva. The following was the
share of this well-known institution. When hatred and reprisals
on both sides got the upper hand, it issued a series of appeals,
first of all in favour of common action in carrying out the task
of the Red Cross, next to the belligerents on behalf of the
wounded and sick, of the nursing staff, of their supplying necessary
wants in accordance with the Convention of Geneva, and of the
Hague Convention. Next came protests against the torpedoing
of hospital ships and against the bombardment of hospitals on
the field, the protection of Red Cross unions, the recognition of
the Red Crescent, as to the treatment of prisoners, and the dis-
tribution of money collected (about 13,000) to the Red Cross
associations of the belligerents, as to the reception of Red Cross
sisters in Switzerland for rest and refreshment, missions to visit
camps of sick prisoners in Italy, Bulgaria, etc., and prisoners'
camps in general, the facilitating of communications between the
Red Cross associations of the several belligerents, in favour of
the sending home certain categories of war prisoners, against the
propaganda bureaux, and against the employment of poisonous
gas, etc. That is only an imperfect list of the tasks which the
International Red Cross undertook, and which it would take a
book to describe in detail. Its influence was not less blessed than
that of the Swiss Red Cross, and was of extreme importance for
facilitating communications between the belligerents. It is worth
mentioning that the French poet, Romain Rolland, gave half
the proceeds of his Nobel prize to Gustave Ador, the president of
the International Red Cross in Geneva, for the war prisoners.
Help Given to Other Nations. As early as June 28 1915,
Switzerland hearkened to the cry of distress from little Luxem-
burg, then occupied by the Germans, and sent flour to help its
suffering population. On Oct. 6 of the same year the Luxemburg
Minister of State, von Eyschen, came to Berne to arrange for
the supply of the necessaries of life to his country through the
Swiss " Import Trust." The principality of Liechtenstein was
supplied also with food-stuffs; this led to its closer association
with Switzerland, and in 1921 it had Swiss postage stamps and
used francs as money. On Dec. 4 1918, shortly after the Armis-
tice, Switzerland, in order to alleviate the hunger in the German
districts of Austria, sent ten trucks, laden with flour, and nine
with rice, to Innsbruck. These supplies were reimbursed by the
Entente, as also were the 100 trucks of necessaries of life sent on
the 27th of the same month. Switzerland was selected as being
able to send supplies quickly. Later, she sent them from the
Stocks meant for her own consumption.
But this kind of help was not the only sign of sympathy shown
by Switzerland. When the need increased it extended its charity
to the reception of badly nourished children belonging to the
belligerent states. In Sept. 1916, 760 Belgian children from the
occupied territory were long in the canton of Fribourg. In other
Swiss cantons such poor children were also received. In the year
919 alone a total of 43,000 foreign children was received in order
to recover from illness. It were principally Belgian, Austrian,
and German children who benefited by this act of charity.
Obituary, 1910-21. Death was especially busy with the great
Swiss historians during the decade 1910-20. J. Dierauer (1842
1920); W. Oechsli (1851-1919); Karl Dandliker (1849-1910);
B. van Muyden (1852-1912) passed away, as well as Jakob
Heierli (1853-1912), the principal authority on prehistoric Switzer-
land; Adolf Water (1841-1913), the bibliographer of works of travel
in Switzerland; Caspar Decurtins (1855-1916), the great authority
on the Romansch dialect; Jean Grellet (1852-1918), the well-known
writer on Swiss heraldry; EmilioMotta (1857-1920), the founder and
also the editor (for 35 years) of the Bollettino della Smzzera Italiana,
which rendered such great service for the history of Italian-speaking
Switzerland; and Henri Fazy (1842-1920).
The fine arts also mourned the loss of Ferdinand Hodler (1853-
1918), the merits of whose pictures were so hotly discussed during
his lifetime; Max Buri (1868-1915), the delineator of Bernese peasant
life; and Eugene Burnand (1850-1921). To these losses we must
add Richard Kissling (1848-1919), the famous sculptor; and J. R.
Rahn (1841-1912), the historian of Swiss art.
Other Swiss, each eminent in his own way were Theodor Kochef
(18411917), the world-famous surgeon; F. Imhoof-Blumer (1838
1920), the celebrated numismatist; F. A. Forel (1841-1912), the
physicist and monographer of the Lake of Geneva ; Johannes Coaz
(1822-1918), the great authority on Swiss forestry, and a mountain
climber whose active career ended in 1850; J. H. Graf (1852-1918),
the mathematician and leading authority on old Swiss cartography;
and, last but not least, J. H. Dunant (1828-1910), the founder of
the International Society of the Red Cross at Geneva.
We must not omit a group of men of letters of the " Suisse
Romande " Gaspard Vallette (1865-1911) and Philippe Monnier
(1864-1911); and the novelist Edouard Rod (1859-1910).
Our list may be brought to a close with the names of the linguist,
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913); and of the Romance scholar,
Heinrich Morf (1854-1921).
Miscellaneous. Perhaps the most important event which hap-
pened in Switzerland in 1920 was the first meeting of the League of
Nations in Geneva, a spot selected, it is said, by President Wilson.
In Feb. 1921 Switzerland declined to allow the passage of police
troops to guard the peace in the Vilna popular vote.
Switzerland has adopted officially the day of 24 hours, running
from midnight to midnight.
Naturally, the possibility of winter sports in Switzerland was
excluded (save for the natives) during the war, and they had not
quite reached their former vogue even by 1921.
The long war had a most disastrous effect on the Swiss hotel
industry. Previously to it far too many big hotels had been built,
so that the whole industry was overcapitalized and in a state of
great indebtedness to the banks. After the end of the war many
hotels were pulled down or diverted to other uses, even in such fre-
quented spots as InterlakenandGrindelwald. It has been stated by
H. Gurtner that the total capital invested in- the Swiss hotel busi-
ness was in 1912 about 45,500,000, or about one-thirtieth of the
total amount of the wealth of Switzerland. The same writer puts the
total value of the hotels in the Bernese Oberland at about 6,000,000
just before the outbreak of the war.
On May 15 1914 a great national exhibition was opened at
Berne. But the speedy outbreak of the war nearly ruined it.
The rate of exchange on London varied much during the war.
After the first shock it rose to over 26 francs (par 25), but then
sank, and attained its lowest point in June 1918, with 18-83^. It
subsequently recovered somewhat, but in Aug. 1921 it stood only
at 21-64. Of course this involved great losses for English residents
and travellers, while the better value, obtained both in France and
Italy, drew many to those lands.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, 1909-21. In 1910 the 6th and final volume of the
Dictionnaire Geographique de la Suisse (the first appeared in 1902)
was issued at Neuchatel, while in 1918 the same publishers began
the publication of the Dictionnaire Historique et Biographique de
la Suisse. (Both publications are issued in French and German.)
H. Earth gave to the world in 1914-5 the three vols. (going down to
the end of 1913) of his marvellous Bibliographie der Schweizer
Geschichte. In the domain of constitutional history we have a new
and revised edition (1914) of W. Burckhardt's Kommentar der
schweiz. Bundesver fas sung von 1874; A. Heusler, Schweiz. Verfas-
sungsgeschichte; E. His, Geschichte des neueren Schweiz. Staatsrechts
1798-1848 (vol. i. 1920) ; and W. Raustein, Die schweiz. Halbkantone
(1912). For very early Swiss history we have A. Schenk, La Suisse
Prehistorique (1912); P. E. Martin, tudes critiques^ sur la Suisse d,
Ifcpoque merovingienne, 554-715 (1910); and Marius Besson (now
the Bishop of Lausanne and Geneva), L'Art barbare dans I'ancien
diocese de Lausanne (1909).
The very best detailed history of the Swiss Confederation is that
by J. Dierauer, entitled Geschichte der Schweiz. Eidgenossenschaft,
now complete in five vols. and published at Gotha (vols. i and ii.,
2nd. ed., 1913; vol. iii., 1907; vol. iv., 1912; and vol. v., 1917) which
brings the tale down to 1848; a continuation is in preparation
there is also a French translation. E. Gagliardi, Geschichte der,
Schweiz (2 vols., 1920), is a new general Swiss history.
-6 4 8
SYDENHAM SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
An important episode in Swiss history is narrated by E. Gagli-
ardi, Der Anteil der Schweizer an den italienischen Kriegen, 1494-1516
(vol. i., 1494-1509, 1919). Marie Louise Herkin's life of C. V. Bon-
stetten, 1745-1832 (1920) is a contribution to Swiss literary history
of the i8th century. W. Oechsli's Geschichte der Schweiz im loten
Jahrhundert, from 1798 (vol. ii. appeared at Leipzig in 1913, the
work will be continued by E. Gagliardi), and J. VViniger's life of
Josef Zemp, 1834-1908 (1908), like E. Deriaz's Un Homme d'tat
vaudois, Henri Druey, 1799-1855 (1920), and T. Weiss' life of Jacob
Stampfli, 1820-1879 (1920), relate to modern Swiss history. In
1918 W. Oechsli published at Zurich a new edition of his Quellen-
buch zur Schweizergeschichte.
In geology we have to note A. Heim, Geologic der Schweiz (appear-
ing since 1919 in parts at Leipzig). In the domain of the fine arts
vol. iii. of the Schweiz. Kiinstler-Lexikon appeared in 1913, as did
an extensive supplement to the work. The special works by J.
Scheuber, Die mittelalterlichen ChorstMe in der Schweiz (1910) and
by E. A. Stuckelberg, Cicerone im Tessin (1918) are also very useful
works in this department.
In ecclesiastical history we have the fine monograph, Angelo-
montana (1914), and vol. ii. (vol. i. appeared in 1907) of I. G. Mayer's
Geschichte des Bisthums Chur (1914), and vol. v. (1917) of E. Dou-
mergue's Jean Calvin.
Another subject of great importance to Switzerland is treated of
in H. A. Gurtner's Zur Verschuldung des schweiz. Hotelgewerbes
(1918), written by a Swiss hotel-keeper's son.
The following works refer to the Swiss Alps Julien Gallet, Dans
I'Alpe Ignores (1910); E. J. P. de la Harpe, Les Alpes Valaisannes
and Les Alpes Bernoises (1911 and 1915 respectively) ; and H. Diibi,
Die ersten 50 Jahre des Schweizer Alpenclub (1913, also in French).
Turning now to the several cantons the following works deserve
mention :
BASLE: R.,'Wackernagel, Geschichte der Stadt Basel (vol. ii. 1916,
vol. i. appeared in 1907); A. Heusler, Geschichte der Stadt Basel
(vol. i., 1917).
GENEVA: L. Cramer, La Seigneurie de Geneve el la Maison de
Savoie, de 1559 a 1605 (2 vols. 1912) ; H. Heyer, L'elise de Genev.
1535-1909 (1909); L. Blondel, Les Faubourgs de Geneve (1919; vol.
iii. 1918) of the Recueil Genealogique Suisse; W. Oechsli, Les Cantons
Suisses et Gcnbie 1477-1815 (1915); and E. Doumergue, La Geneve
desGenevois (1914).
TICINO: Karl Meyer, Leventina und Blenio von Barbarossa bis
Heinrich VII. (1911).
VALAIS: D. Imesch, Die Walliser Landrats-Abschiede seit 1500
(vol. i., 1500-19, 1916); and A. Buchi, Korrespondenzen und Akten
zur Geschichte des Kardinals Matth. Schiner (vol. i., 1489-1515, 1920).
VAUD: B. van Muyden, Pages d'Histoire Lausannoise (1911), and
Recueil de Genealogies Vaudoises (4 parts, 191220).
ZURICH: K. Dandliker, Geschichte der Stadt und des Kantons
Zurich (3 vols., 1908-12). (VV. A. B. C.)
SYDENHAM, GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, IST BARON
(1848- ), British soldier and administrator, was born in Lin-
colnshire July 4 1848. He was educated at Haileybury and Wim-
bledon, andafterwards at the Royal Military Academy. In 1868
he entered the Royal Engineers, and in succeeding years served
in various expeditions abroad, including the Sudan operations of
1885. The same year he returned to England, and was employed
at the War Office until 1892, being at the same time secretary
to the Colonial Defence Committee. He was also secretary
to the Royal Commission on Navy and Army Administration.
From 1894 to 1901 he was superintendent of the royal carriage
factory at Woolwich. During all these years Sir George Clarke,
who was created K.C.M.G. in 1893, had earned a great repu-
tation, outside as well as inside his profession, as an authority
on military questions, over and above his special subject of
fortification. On his retirement from Woolwich, he was made a
member of the important committee on War Office reorganization.
In 1901 he was appointed governor of Victoria (Australia), and
on his retirement in 1904 he became secretary to the Committee
of Imperial Defence. From 1907 to 1913 he was governor of
Bombay. He had been created G.C.M.G. in 1905, and in 1913
was raised to the peerage. He subsequently took a vigorous
interest in many public questions, becoming chairman of the
Royal Commission on Contagious Diseases (1913-5), chairman
of the Central Appeal Tribunal (1915-6), and president of the
National Council for Combating Venereal Diseases. In addition
to his classic work on Fortification (1890; 2nd ed. 1907), his
publications include The Navy and the Nation (1897) and
Imperial Defence ( 1 898), besides handbooks on military subjects.
SYKES, SIR MARK, 6TH BART. (i879-i9i 9 ),English traveller
and politician, was born March 16 1879, the only child of Sir
Tatton Sykes, 5th Bart., of Sledmeer, Yorks. He was educated
at the Roman Catholic public school of Beaumont College and
afterwards at the Ecole des Jesuites, Monaco, and Jesus College,
Cambridge. He served in the South African War (1902), in 1904
became secretary to Mr. George Wyndham in Ireland, and in
1905 went to Constantinople as honorary attache to the British
embassy, remaining there until 1907. Before this, however, he
had begun a series of travels and explorations, especially in
Turkey and the Near East. He published several works dealing
with his various expeditions, among them being Through Five
Turkish Provinces (1900); Dar-el-I slam (1903); and Five Man-
sions of the House of Othman (1909). He also prepared maps of
the north-western region of Mesopotamia and of the southern
districts of Palestine, for which in 1906 he was thanked by the
Army Council and Foreign Office. His knowledge of these
regions proved invaluable during the World War. In 191 1 he was
elected to Parliament for Central Hull as a Unionist, and in 1913
he succeeded his father as 6th Baronet. On the outbreak of war
in 1914, Sir Mark Sykes raised a battalion of the Yorkshire
Regiment, but did not proceed with it to France. He was sent
on important special missions to Russia, Mesopotamia and
Syria, and published in 1915 The Caliphs' Last Heritage. He
died suddenly in Paris Feb. 16 1919.
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM, in physiology (see 26.287).
On studying the effects of stimulation of the sympathetic nerv-
ous system it appears that they are directed towards activat-
ing the body for fight or flight. The dilatation of the pupil in-
creases the perception of light; the acceleration and augmenta-
tion of the heart-beat increases the blood supply; the constriction
of the blood vessels in the visceral area raises the blood pressure,
driving the blood from the digestive area, whose functions are
simultaneously inhibited, into the skeletal and cardiac muscles,
the lungs and the brain. The sweat glands are stimulated to cool
the blood heated by increased muscular effort and the hairs are
erected in many animals to render them more alarming. The
" goose skin " experienced by man under emotional stress is
similarly produced, though not now advantageous. Some
emotional responses, like some bodily structures, are vestigial
remains. The other division of the autonomic system, to which
the name of parasympathetic has been given, serves the purpose
of building up reserves and of fortifying the body against times
of need and stress. Thus by contracting the pupil it shields
the retina from excessive light; by slowing the rate of the heart
it gives it longer periods for recuperation; it excites appetite and
by promoting the assimilation and digestion of food it stores up
energy. The sacral division of the parasympathetic is a mecha-
nism /or emptying, thus leading to greater comfort. The sympa-
thetic is, therefore, katabolic, converting potential energy into
kinetic, and facilitating outward manifestations of that energy;
while the parasympathetic is anabolic, directing energy inwards,
where it is stored up. When these two are distributed to the same
structure their action is always antagonistic.
In pain, fear, rage and any intense excitement, the sympathetic
neurons are brought rapidly into play and the action of the
cranial division of the parasympathetic is inhibited. Anabolism
is in abeyance and katabolism goes on unchecked. This is
comprehensible, since these katabolic activities are defensive in
origin and aided the primitive animal in its struggle with or
flight from its enemy.
Of late it has been realized that each of these divisions of the
autonomic system cooperates with its appropriate group of endo-
crine glands. The sympathetic group consists of the adrenals,
the thyroid and the pituitary each of which are accelerators of
metabolism. The intimate relationship embryologically, struc-
turally and functionally between the nervous and glandular
elements is best illustrated by the adrenals. The medulla of the
adrenals and the sympathetic ganglia originated from similar
cells, preganglionic fibres end round both, and adrenalin, the
secretion of the medullary portion, produces the same effect on
any part as stimulation of the postganglionic fibres ; an interesting
example of parallelism between a nervous and chemical mecha-
nism. Just as the preganglionic fibre stimulates the secretion of
adrenalin, so adrenalin increases the postganglionic responses.
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
649
A similar reciprocity exists in the case of the thyroid; it is
stimulated to secretion by the sympathetic and the secretion
lowers the threshold to sympathetic stimulation. The existence
of sympathetic secretory nerves to the pituitary has been shown,
but there is no definite evidence of a reciprocal action of its
secretion on the sympathetic.
The endocrine group which cooperates with the parasympa-
thetic must be looked for chiefly in the glands of the alimentary
tract and its annexes, since the building up of energy must
ultimately be derived from the food. Gastric secretion is started
by the appetite and the taste of food reflexly stimulating the
organs, but it is continued by a hormone in the pyloric glands of
the stomach which spur the fundus glands on to renewed effort.
In its turn the acid gastric juice entering the duodenum acts on
its mucosa to form secretion, which stimulates secretion of pan-
creatic juice. But the pancreas forms an internal secretion as
well, which promotes the assimilation of sugar. Indeed, the
metabolism of sugar gives a particularly good illustration of the
general principle here laid down. Acting muscle requires three
and a half times as much sugar as resting muscle, and the
mobilization of sugar into the blood is a necessary preliminary to
muscular effort. Accordingly sympathetic stimulation is found to
produce this effect, through the adrenals, thyroid and pituitary,
the secretion of each of which taken separately will lower
carbohydrate tolerance and may excite glycosuria. On the other
hand, the pancreas which is innervated by the parasympathetic
has a precisely opposite effect, the antagonistic action of the
glands being as definite as that of the associated nerves. Another
example of this antagonism is seen in the continuous flow of
pancreatic juice following removal of the adrenals, which can be
temporarily inhibited by injection of suprarenal extract. Again,
it is well known that adrenalin dilates the pupil of an excised eye
but not of the intact eye of a normal individual. Therefore some-
thing inhibits the adrenalin effect. In depancreatised dogs
adrenalin does dilate the pupil, and it has been found to do
the same in patients suffering from pancreatic disease, since the
normal antagonism of the pancreas to the adrenals is then lost.
This pupillary response may also be present in hyperthyroidism,
suggesting that the thyroid excess inhibits pancreatic activity,
allowing adrenalin to show its dilator action unchecked.
The sympathetic nervous system, the endocrine glands and the
gonads form a basic tripod entrusted with the duty both of the
preservation of the individual and the continuity of the species.
Their relationship is shown in disease as well as in health, and is
reflected in many neuroses and psychoses. Disease is the resultant
of some external action and of the reaction of the organism against
it. It therefore draws on the defensive mechanisms and connotes a
position of less stable equilibrium in which the body works with more
friction. It may demand an increased supply of hormones to com-
pensate for this, which may ultimately lead to exhaustion of the
gland that provides it. In this way the balance between the en-
docrine glands is disturbed, either from overaction of a gland, or
from its unopposed action through the loss of an antagonist.
The sympathetic-endocrine system is affected alike by toxic,
nutritional or psychic factors, and is particularly jikely to be in-
juriously influenced if more than one such factor is overtaxing it.
As this system has to defend us against internal foes, such as bac-
terial infections, as well as external enemies, we find that it plays an
important part in the regulation of the body temperature. Since it
has been shown that the cerebral vessels are remarkably impermeable
to drugs and toxins as long as they maintain their integrity, it has
become impossible to explain febrile reaction to infection by a
, central mechanism. When the activity of the thyroid and anterior
lobe of the pituitary is diminished, less heat is produced. When
increased production is required, the thyroid and adrenals give
histological evidence of increased secretion. Cramer has found this
both in fevers and after exposure to cold. He has also experimentally
produced such changes by the injection of a drug which causes
fever. Infections such as gas gangrene which do not induce a febrile
reaction do not produce these changes. He has traced the adrenalin
into the blood vessels, whereby sympathetic nerve endings all over
the body will be stimulated. At the same time more sugar is poured
into the blood, largely through thyroid activity. The oxidation of
this sugar increases heat production. It has long been known that
the adrenals may show marked signs of exhaustion after a severe
infection such as diphtheria, while the thyroid may suffer after typhoid
fever. Such exhaustion appears to be an important factor in the
psychoneuroses of convalescence.
The influence of nutritional factors on the apparatus is seen in
the way in which ( i) pregnancy enlarges the thyroid and pituitary ;
(2) vitamine defects cause enlargement of the adrenals and pituitary
while causing some atrophy of other endocrine glands; (3) deficiency
of assimilable protein in the food causes pellagra in which the
adrenals suffer, while the sympathetic nervous system shows actual
structural degeneration. While toxic and nutritional influences play
chiefly on the glandular part of the apparatus, psychic factors
naturally act primarily on the nervous part, though ultimately both
parts will become affected, whichever is involved first. The sym-
pathetic is the lowest level of the nervous system and retains several
characteristically primitive features, such as peripheral ganglion
cells, myenteric nerve nets, connector fibres lying outside the central
nervous system, and urgent widespread responses, rather than
accurately localized and discriminative ones. This is in accordance
with the evolution of the nervous system for defense, and with the
maintenance of this primitive function by the sympathetic. Pain
has been shown by Trotter to be the specialization of the primitive
sensation of lower animals, and fear might similarly be regarded as
a specialization of a primitive emotion. It is to such sensation and
emotion that the sympathetic nervous system preeminently
responds. Both pain and fear are apt to become intense when the
appropriate motor response is prevented, though they may not be
appreciated when vigorous response is possible. Thus during the
excitement of a fight neither fear nor pain may be experienced under
conditions which would ordinarily induce them. In the civilized
state the response appropriate to primitive man has often to be
repressed. The effect of this repression may show itself either as an
anxiety neurosis, at the psychic level, or at the sympathetic-endo-
crine level in certain affections of the associated glands, and in cardiac
or digestive neuroses. Such repressions are particularly likely to be
necessitated when the great instincts of self-preservation, repro-
duction and gregariousness, which relate respectively to the life of
the individual, of the species and of the community, come into
conflict with one another. The constant demand for adrenalin
when sympathetic action is increased in fear and anxiety may
lead to exhaustion of the gland. Addison's disease presents a clear-
cut picture of adrenal deficiency in its symptoms of muscular weak-
ness, low blood pressure, pigmentation and vomiting. Although this
is due to organic changes, slighter degrees of a similar condition are
now recognized and it has been suggested that this enters into many
war neuroses and other functional states characterized by vasomotor
instability, low blood pressure and myasthenia. Conversely, pro-
longed oversecretion by the adrenals must tend to raise blood pres-
sure through the sympathetic, tending in turn to arteriosclerosis,
with all its widespread effects. The well-known influence of anxiety
in producing this condition can thus be explained.
There is a close association between the thyroid, the reproductive
organs and the sympathetic. The thyroid tends to enlarge at pu-
berty, marriage and in pregnancy, while myxoedema is most apt
to occur after the climacteric. Amenorrhoea is common even in the
minor degrees of hyperthyroidism. The effect of sympathetic irri-
tation in producing thyroid enlargement and Graves' disease is now
recognized. Gushing showed that if in cats he sutured the phrenic
nerve to the cervical sympathetic so that every respiration stimulated
the latter, he could produce the symptoms of Graves' disease. The
influence of distressing emotions in producing hyperthyroidism was
well shown during the air-raids on London during the World War.
Epidemics of Graves' disease also followed the Kishinev massacres
and the San Francisco earthquake. Again, if a distressing emotion
has a matrimonial origin, it is particularly likely to induce Graves'
disease, for here each limb of the basic tripod is involved. The
disease has been compared with a state of continuous fear, a descrip-
tion which tallies with its general appearance.
The pituitary body also shows the two-fold association with the
reproductive organs and the sympathetic nervous system. The
anterior glandular part has an effect on temperature, the growth of
bone and skeletal tissues and the reproductive organs. The inter-
mediate lobe influences carbohydrate metabolism, while the secre-
tion of the posterior lobe is mainly a stimulant to plain muscle and
to the secretion of milk. The effect of the secretion of the posterior
lobe on diuresis is still a matter of controversy, but it is clear that
disease of the posterior lobe is often found in diabetes insipidus and
that stimulation of the sympathetic nerves to the gland will cause
polyuria. Probably hysterical polyuria is thus produced.
It is also clear that some cases of glycosuria are of sympathetic
nervous origin; the physiological mechanism by which this can be
brought about has already been explained. Diabetes is character-
ized, like sympathetic stimulation, by an exaggerated katabolism.
This shows its effect first on the most abundant and most easily
metabolised of the food-stuffs, the carbohydrates, which are also
essential for muscular action, to which sympathetic stimulation
should normally be a preliminary. Sympathetic stimulation induced
by various disagreeable emotions will increase metabolism generally
and specially lower carbohydrate tolerance. The influence of ex-
citement and emotion in causing glycosuria is well recognized. It
is commonest in Jews, a notoriously emotional race. When stocks
go down in New York, says Crile, diabetes goes up. Temporary
zlycosuria occurred in a number of men who merely watched a foot-
ball cup-tie without participating in it. Glycosuria has been, un-
fortunately, comparatively common in young officers entrusted
with heavy responsibilities during the war. Singer and Clark have
650
SYNDICALISM
recorded two cases in which there was alternation between gly-
cosuria and the exhibition of mental symptoms, as if the emotional
discharge asserted itself either at the metabolic or the psychic level
but not at both.
Finally, the inhibitory effect of the sympathetic on the digestive
processes must be remembered. Fear checks the secretion of saliva,
anger stops the secretion of gastric juice. Depressing emotions acting
through the sympathetic check the peristalsis of the stomach while
closing the pyloric sphincter, thus leading to a dilatation of the
stomach. A similar inhibition of intestinal peristalsis may occur,
leading to intestinal stasis. This in its turn will lead to a drag on the
sympathetic nerves in the mesentery, increasing their inhibitory
effect. Thus a vicious circle is established and the persistent intes-
tinal toxaemia that results may produce organic changes in many
structures, including the group of endocrine glands which cooperate
with the sympathetic.
The consideration of diseases produced through the agency of the
parasympathetic lies outside the present topic, except in so far as
the vagus may overact from a loss of balance produced by diminished
sympathetic action. Suffice it to say that laryngeal spasm, asthma,
slow or irregular action of the heart, low blood pressure, hyper-
chlorhydria, spastic constipation and a liability to skin disturbances
of the vasodilator type are among the symptoms evoked. Since
febrile reaction to disease is a function of the sympathetic, which is
antagonistic to the parasympathetic, we find that those subjects
with an overacting vagus do not react well to infections and, indeed,
show an abnormal sensitiveness to many foreign proteins. Their
tendency to undue anabolism is sometimes indicated by their
tendency to flabbiness of the tissues and overgrowth of lymphoid
structures. A curious point is the occurrence of sweating, since the
secretion of the sweat glands is under the control of the sympathetic.
Put a similar discrepancy is seen in the action of a vagotropic drug
such as pilocarpin.
In assessing the effects of the sympathetic nervous system in
disease, it must be borne in mind that we have very littleTcnowledge
of its morbid anatomy, though a beginning has been made in the
study of pellagra. The evidence so far mainly relates to function
and were our knowledge of its structural alterations at all comparable
to what we know of organic changes in the spinal cord, we should be
on firmer ground. But enough has been learned to show that the
sympathetic plays a large part in the regulation of the internal
viscera, and, through the endocrine glands, in general metabolism.
The balance between these glands determines to a large extent both
the racial and individual characteristics. Climatic influence has a
profound effect through the skin on the sympathetic nerves and hence
on the endocrine glands. The development of protective pigment is
an important method by which the sympathetic-endocrine system
can react to this, and the unadaptibility of albinos in this respect
is well known. Thus physical environment can influence both tem-
perament and structure, and the sympathetic-endocrine system
must have played a large part in developing the variability of man
into different races.
Evolved in a subconscious plane the sympathetic nervous system
remains for ever beyond the control of the will. Timme quotes an
instance which, while apparently contradicting this, proved on
further inquiry to support it. This was the case of a man who could
voluntarily dilate his pupils, who could cause the pilomotor muscles
to raise the hairs on his arm, and who could at will produce the
phenomenon of " goose-flesh " in various parts of his body. When
closely questioned he admitted that the effects were produced not
immediately by his will, but always by the intermediation of some
association called into being by him. Thus when dilating his pupils
he always imagined himself looking far into space, under which con-
ditions the pupil does dilate. For the goose-flesh effect he would
picture to himself his arm plunged into ice-cold water, and the
goose-flesh appeared. Various associations produce autonomic
effects without our will, and it is reasonable to infer that, if we can
recall these associations through our will, the same autonomic effects
will be produced.
The higher centres of the brain show their influence on the lower
chiefly in the direction of inhibition. The highest organism is the
most self-controlled, but the sympathetic cannot be thus controlled.
The will can only help in so far as " it can make our voluntary ac-
tivities harmonize with our environment." The emotional apparatus
remains, as McDougall has pointed out, the most unchanging part
of our nervous equipment, though the stimuli to which it responds
may vary enormously in different individuals. But once the re-
sponse occurs, it is extraordinarily true to type. This is compre-
hensible since the apparatus retains so many features of the primitive
nervous system. (W. L. B.*)
SYNDICALISM." Syndicalism " is the name given to a form
of socialist doctrine elaborated by, and born from the experience
of, the members of the French syndicats or trade unions. On the
one hand it is a body of social doctrine, or theory of social organi-
zation; on the other it is a plan of action for the realization of this
ideal. Of all the social theories competing for existence it is the
most purely proletarian in origin. One writer indeed has de-.
- . - -". . ,
scribed it as " working-class Socialism " (le socialisme ouvrier)
in contradistinction to the types of socialism originated and
propagated by middle-class " intellectuals." Without unduly
stressing the importance of this fact, it may be said that syndi-
calism is that form of socialist theory which regards the trade-
union organizations, entirely proletarian in origin and direction,
as at once the foundations of the new society and the instruments
by which it is to be erected.
The syndicalist starts from the assumptions common to most
schools of socialist thought. He affirms the inherent injustice of
the wages system and the fundamental immorality of capital-
ist society, which is based, in his belief, on the exploitation
of labour. He accepts and pushes to its logical conclusion the
Marxian dogma of the class war; he therefore affirms that soli-
darity of interests does not, and cannot, exist as between em-
ployer and employed, between capitalist and wage-earner. From
these premises he draws the usual socialist conclusion, namely,
that individual ownership of the instruments of production must >
be abolished and communal ownership and control substituted
for it. But at this point syndicalism and socialism (as usually
understood) part company. Whereas the orthodox socialist
demands control by the consumers acting through the State and
its dependent organs the municipalities, the syndicalist demand,
until very recently, was for producers' control, acting through the
organizations of their own creation the trade unions. This is the
essential feature of syndicalist theory, that which differentiates it
from other revolutionary schools of thought. The arguments
usually employed by its advocates may be briefly set out.
State organization and control of industry are, in their view,
incompatible with true working-class emancipation. The State
is, and must be, an instrument of class domination; it is indeed
" the executive committee of the capitalist class." It exists to
defend the interests of that class, and is consequently as much the
enemy of labour as capital itself. To extend its powers would be
to twine the bonds of wage slavery ever more firmly about the
workers' limbs. The State is, however, hopelessly wedded to an
uncreative bureaucracy, incapable of initiative and ignorant of
industrial technique. Its control, even if it were benevolent
(which the syndicalist denies it could be), would necessarily be
despotic and inefficient; the spirit of routine would combine with |
inexperience to crush out the possibility of economic progress.
Here, as will be seen, the syndicalist endorses the ordinary in-
dividualistic criticism of State socialism. Producers' control,
exercised through the syndicats, would, on the other hand, combine :
freedom with efficiency. Every worker would participate di-
rectly in the government of his industry; he would thus enjoy the '
substance of democracy instead of the shadow offered him by the
bourgeois State. Moreover, the worker would be led to identify
his personal interests with the successful conduct of the indus-
try; he would have a pride in his work which would manifest
itself in improved quality and greater output, thus producers'
control would be justified both on human and economic grounds.
The form of social organization in which this ideal could be
realized was, until recently, conceived somewhat as follows. The
unit of organization would be the local syndicat. This would be
brought into touch with the local groups by means of the Bourse
du Travail, the present function of which is to act at once as an
employment agency and a general centre for trade-union activi-
ties. When all the producers were thus linked together by the
bourse, the administration of the latter would be able to estimate
the economic capacities and necessities of the region, could
coordinate production, and, being in touch through other
bourses with the industrial system as a whole, could arrange for
the necessary transfer of materials and commodities, inwards
and outwards. A species of " economic federation " would thus
replace the structure of capitalist industry, with which would
necessarily disappear the political and administrative machinery
of the State. Two features of this Utopia need to be emphasized:
consumers as such were excluded from any share in industrial
control, and a localized system of industry was envisaged.
This latter feature was a direct reflexion of French economic
circumstances; both industry and trade-unionism were much
SYNDICALISM
651
more local in range than in other and more highly developed
countries. But the movement towards large-scale organization
which has so profoundly affected every aspect of economic life in
recent years has produced a corresponding modification in
syndicalist ideals. At the same time, it has begun to be recog-
nized by the theorists of the movement that the consumers'
point of view cannot wholly be disregarded. The experience of
the World War has also had its effect. The Congress of Lyons,
therefore, in 1919 was moving with the times when, in demanding
the " industrialized nationalization of the great services of mod-
ern economy: land and water transport, mines, water-power,
and credit organizations," it denned " nationalization " as " the
confiding of national property to the interested parties, namely,
the associated producers and consumers." This clearly envisages
organization on a national scale and the participation of consu-
mers' organizations in control.
Syndicalist theory starts, as has been said, from the idea of a
class war which must be waged relentlessly till a complete social
transformation has been accomplished. The essential weapon in
this struggle is the power of the organized workers. As the cause
of the conflict is economic it must necessarily be fought out in the
economic sphere. Syndicalist congresses have persistently repu-
diated political action, and pinned their faith to a general strike as
the grand instrument of social revolution. This reliance upon in-
dustrial or " direct " methods of action flows necessarily from
the fundamental notions of syndicalism as to the nature of the
State, and also from strictly practical considerations. Outside
the mine or factory, workingmen hold divergent religious or
political opinions which make effective mass action difficult, if
not impossible. Inside, the nature of their employment gives
them a sense of solidarity which overrides minor differences and
bands them together in the syndicat for common defence; to
persuade them to pass from the defensive to the offensive is the
syndicalist's task, and in the accomplishment of this political
labels and controversies would be a hindrance. Moreover, the
political party is not, and cannot be, a class organization. The
Socialist parties swarm with men of middle-class origin whose
only bond with the workers is the slender one of opinion. In any
event, the political party is an inefficient instrument for revolu-
tion; it can only operate effectively at electoral periods, and even
then the mass of voters do nothing more than cast a ballot and
return to their customary apathy for a term of years. Political
action does nothing to rouse them from that apathy, to inspire
them with revolutionary flan, to train them to initiative and
independent thought. On the contrary, it asks for nothing better
than docile followers of self-constituted leaders. The strike,
therefore, is the characteristic syndicalist weapon. However
limited in its scope and object, it is an educative experience;
successful, it inspires the workers with a sense of power; unsuc-
'cessful, it impresses upon them the servility of their lot and the
necessity for better organization and wider aims. Thus every
strike is a preparation for the revolutionary " day," when the
workers, or a fighting minority of them (for syndicalism repudi-
ates as bourgeois the dogma of the sacredness of majority rule),
shall seize the instruments of production by an " expropriatory "
strike. In the meantime, they are working out from day to day,
in the ordinary course of their employment, the ethics and the
jurisprudence of the new social order.
The strike, of course, is not the only weapon in the syndicalist
armoury. Various other means of waging the class war, known
collectively as sabotage, are both preached and practised. These
range from bad or slow work to the grew perlee (destruction of
goods or machinery) and the chasse aux renards (assaults on
" blacklegs " orjaunes). It is fair to say that many syndicalist
leaders criticize these methods as destructive of the worker's
moral and technical competence.
Syndicalism is essentially French in origin and reflects French
working-class experience and conditions of life; nevertheless the
history of Great Britain shows interesting foreshadow! ngs of it.
The idea of industrial self-government by the producers attracted
fora time the mobile mind of Robert Owen; and the Grand
National Consolidated Trades Union of 1834 was an attempt
to realize it in practice. James Morrison, a young self-taught
operative builder, seems to have originated the syndicalist con-
ception of class antagonism on the part of the working-classes
(see Max Beer, History of British Socialism). The Building
Trades Union had developed the same notion in the previous
year (S. and B. Webb, History of Trade Unionism). The plan
of a general strike originated by one Benbow for a time, under
the strange title of the " Sacred Month," made part of Chartist
propaganda. There is no evidence, however, that these projects
had any echo on the European continent. The syndicalist idea,
as understood in France, may be said to have originated in the
discussions of the International Working Men's Association. A
French delegate to the Congress of Basle in 1869, for instance,
prophesied that " the grouping of different trades in the city
will form the commune of the future " when " government will be
replaced by federated councils of syndicats and by a committee
of their respective delegates regulating the relations of labour
this taking the place of politics " (Levine, Syndicalism in
France). The collapse of trade-unionism in France after the
sanguinary suppression of the Communalist insurrection in 1871
had as a necessary consequence the submergence of these ideals
for a considerable period, and only a combination of favouring
circumstances brought them once more to light. Among these
the discontent of the organized workers with Socialist politics,
and the anarchist propaganda of a general strike, may be partic-
ularly mentioned. These influences manifested themselves with
increasing strength during the 'nineties in the two great labour
organizations of the period the General Confederation of La-
bour (or " C.G.T." under its French initials) and the Federation
of Bourses du Travail. The secretary of this latter organization,
Pelloutier, did more perhaps than any other individual to work
out the characteristic doctrines of syndicalism and spread them
among his fellow-workers. When these two bodies joined forces
in 1902, trade-unionism in general and syndicalism in particular
received an immense accession of strength, and the doctrine subse-
quently remained in spite of the efforts of political socialists to
capture the syndicats for their own purposes the characteristic
expression of French revolutionary idealism.
As such, it has inevitably received much attention from obser-
vers and writers drawn from other social classes. Of these the
best known is Georges Sorel, but it is a complete error to suppose
that he was the originator of syndicalism, or that he has had much
influence on working-class opinion. The difficult form of his
writings, with their frequent obscurity and lack of continuity,
would alone have made this impossible. Sorel's adaptation of the
Bergsonian doctrine of the " elan vital " to syndicalist purposes,
and his theory of " social myths " (of which the general strike is
one), have had considerable influence upon intellectual circles,
but have affected no more than a fringe of working-class readers.
Syndicalist doctrine has had considerable influence outside
France. In the United States, a movement of somewhat similar
character arose with the organization of the Industrial Workers of
the World. The Chicago Convention of the I.W.W. in 1905
drew up a declaration, the preamble of which affirmed the reality
of the class struggle, embodied the theory of social organization
which this involves and further made a plan for the realization of
this ideal:
" The unit of organization industrially is the workshop or Yard
Committee, wherein the workers are organized as workers, irres-
pective of craft, grade, or sex. These Committees are coordinated
by the formation of Works or Plant Committees, composed of dele-
gates from each Workshop or Yard Committee. The Plant or Works
Committees are coordinated by delegates from each of these Com-
mittees, in a village, town, city, or district, forming a Workers'
Council, in which there are also delegates from the residential com-
mittees, these latter being the units of the social aspects of the
organization."
The above scheme differs very little from the general theory
of syndicalism in France, and presents a simple parallel to the
shop-stewards' movement in Great Britain, which indeed was
based upon it. The influence of the I.W.W., it may be noted, was,
largely confined to the alien immigrant workers: it never pene-
trated the American Federation of Labor to any serious degree.
652
SYNGE, J. M.
The influence of these ideas on the trade-union movement in
Great Britain and Ireland has been very pronounced, though
they have taken a different direction, modified by the traditional,
conservative instinct of the British working-class. In Great
Britain the real cause of the permeation of certain unions by
syndicalist ideas was the absorption of trade-union leaders in
administration or in politics, which caused them to lose touch
with the rank and file. Especially is this the case with regard to
the miners, the railwaymen's unions and the engineers.
Daniel de Leon was leader of the Socialist Labour party in the
United States from 1880 onwards, and his writings influenced
British socialist thought, particularly in the Clyde and in the
mining valleys of S. Wales. Though not a syndicalist in the
strict sense, he advocated organization by industry and the
general strike. It is significant that 1903 saw in England the
secession of the Socialist Labour party from the Social Demo-
cratic Federation. After that date, in addition to the growing
educational influence of the Independent Labour party (though
this was never syndicalist), was seen the promotion of the Work-
ers' Socialist Federation, the British Socialist party (in the post-
war period) and the Communist League, all of which advocated
practically the same structure of organization and policy. They
all agreed in a lack of faith in political action, though not always
refusing to utilize it, but their real politik was industrial action.
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, they secured greater promi-
nence; they became the stormy petrels of the labour world
in Great Britain, and their effect on the political action of the
Labour party was seen in the Council of Action in Aug. 1920.
In England, between 1900 and 1910, there was a growing
dissatisfaction among the rank and file with political action,
despite the fact that the influence of the Labour party in the
House of Commons secured the trade-union movement freedom
of industrial and political action by the Trades Disputes Act of
1906 and the Trade Union Act of 1913 to a greater degree than
ever before, it was felt by the far-sighted among the rank and file
that a speeding up was necessary, and State collectivism as a way
out towards industrial democracy was discredited. James
Connolly, the Irish Labour leader who was executed after the
Easter rising in Ireland in 1916, started a similar organization to
that of Daniel de Leon on the Clyde in 1905. In his pamphlet
Socialism made Easy he enunciated the syndicalist principles
" that they who rule industrially will rule politically," and that
" the functions of Industrial Unionism is to build up an industrial
republic inside the shell of the political slate, in order that when
the industrial republic is fully organized it may crack the shell of
the political slate and step into its place in the scheme of the uni-
verse." Tom Mann, while in France and Australia, which had im-
ported the ideas of the I.W.W. from America, was also powerfully
influenced by the same theories, while on the Rand, in S. Africa, a
small but very influential group of leaders was working out the
structure, forms and policy of a movement similarin character. In
1910 Tom Mann preached the new faith in all the big industrial
centres and rapidly won many followers. Workmen had refused to
follow their orthodox leaders from about 1008, as they felt that
the trade union of the old Liberal-Labour school was behind the
times. The Plebs League was founded by a group of labour
students in Ruskin College, Oxford, about the same time, and
in 1909 these seceded from Ruskin College and founded first
a labour college in Oxford and then moved to London as the
Central Labour College, financed by the S. Wales miners and
the railwaymen. This educational movement organized classes
in every .mining area in S. Wales, led by tutors from these
two colleges, and influenced largely by the new ideas. A
similar movement took place on the Clyde, in the great ship-
building centres like Barrow, Birkenhead, and Pembroke Dock,
and also in inland engineering centres like Coventry and Shef-
field. Then followed the railway strike of 1911 and the great
coal strike of 1912. It is quite clear that the National Union of
Railwaymen and the Miners' Federation of Great Britain became
organized as two of the most powerful unions in consequence of
the new thought, not because their leaders had adopted syndi-
calism in the form taught by de Leon and the French group of
thinkers, but because they adapted it in the peculiar British way;
they made it practical and definite; they shaped it in alliance
with the political and trade-union structure of Britain. They
disagreed with the syndicalist view of the State, but they recog-
nized the driving power of the theories that stated " that political
power is a reflex of industrial power." The transport workers
soon had a similar federation, and after the strikes of 1911 and
1912, and the Irish transport workers' strike of 1913, the Triple
Alliance (of railwaymen, transport workers, and miners) was
formed in 1915. The failure of this last to function during the
miners' strike in the spring of 1921 discredited " direct action,"
and the British labour movement swung back towards constitu-
tional and parliamentary methods.
See J. A. Estey, Revolutionary Syndicalism (1913); L. Levine,
Syndicalism in France (and ed. 1914) ; G. D. H. Cole, Self-Govern-
ment in Industry (3rd ed. 1918), The World of Labour (1919), Labour
in the Commonwealth (1919), Introduction to Trade Unionism (1918);
S. and B. Webb, History of Trade Unionism (1920) ; H. Lagardelle,
Le socialisme ouvrier (1911); J. R. Macdonald, Syndicalism (1912);
John Sparfjo, Syndicalism, Industrial Unionism and Socialism (1920) ;
Bertrand Russell, Principles of Social Reconstruction (6th ed. 1920);
Arthur Gleason, What the Workers Want (1920); The Industrial
Council for the Building, Industry 1919 (Garton Foundation) ; G. D. H.
Cole, Guild Socialism Re-stated (1920) ; J. Graham Brooke, American
Syndicalism (1913); P. F. Brissenden, The I. W. W. (1919); James
Connolly, Socialism made Easy (1905); N. Ablett, The Miners' next
Step (1912); A Plan for the Democratic Control of the Mining Indus-
try (South Wales Socialist Society, 1919); J. T. Murphy, The
Workers' Committee (1918). (S. H.; J. M. R.)
SYNGE, JOHN MILLINGTON (1871-1909), Irish dramatic
author, came of an Anglo-Irish family, which had contributed
several bishops to the Irish church. He was born near Dublin
April 16 1871. A delicate child, he was left much to himself,
and as a youthful member of the Dublin Naturalists' Field Club
took long rambles over the Dublin and Wicklow hills. At Tririity
College, where he graduated in 1892, he obtained prizes in Irish
and Hebrew, and he knew something of several modern languages.
At this period his chief interest was in music and he gained
a scholarship in counterpoint and harmony in the Royal Irish
Academy of Music. A sonnet, moreover, contributed to Kot-
tabos, shows not a little of the accomplishment of verse, as well
as his innate passion for primitive things. During the next
few years (1893-8), Synge travelled in Germany, Austria, Italy,
finally making Paris his headquarters. He managed to spend a
third of the year in Paris, a third in the W. of Ireland, and a
third in London or Dublin. W. B. Yeats found him in Paris
(1898) preoccupied with theories of language and literature, and
advised him to return to Ireland. He went to the Aran Is.,
where he shared the life of the islanders, and he gave an account
of it in a series of sketches afterwards collected in the volume,
The Aran Islands (1907). In these and other sketches of the
same period he had not quite shaken off the obsession of " styl-
ism," and still had a wish " to do for the W. of Ireland what
Pierre Loti had done for the Bretons." Gradually, however,
Ireland got hold of him, and, turning to the dramatization of
incidents in the life he now knew intimately, he began to
elaborate, partly from his note-books and partly from the writings
of Lady Gregory and Dr. Douglas Hyde, that richly imaginative
though largely artificial dialect of Anglo-Irish which he carried
to its furthest capacities. The Abbey theatre was opened
towards the close of 1904, with Synge as one of the directors.
He had already produced two one-act plays, In the Shadow of
the Glen and Riders to the Sea (1903), of which the first had ac-
quired some notoriety for the author as an affront to Irish morals;
he had also written a farcical play, The Tinker's Wedding,
which proved a failure when acted (1909) after his death. The
beautiful three-act play, The Well of the Saints, produced before
a few dozen people in the early months of the Abbey (1905),
was regarded as a new affront; and in Jan. 1907, rumour having
got about of its subject matter, the performance of The Playboy
of the Western World was interrupted by an organized disturbance
which continued night after night for a week. This affair, when
the merits of the play came to be known, made the fame of the
Abbey theatre. Synge's health was now shattered, and with
SYRIA
653
death in prospect he worked at his fine play Delrdre of the
Sorrows, all but completing it before the end came on March 24
1909. Just before he had collected his curious Poems (1900).
Synge appeared at a peculiar moment in the development of
Irish literature, which had begun to address a largely increased
public, blended of the two main elements of the population. By
descent and culture he was of the Anglo-Irish stock, and he really
saw the Irish subject matter in the detached spirit of an artist.
It was probably something like this that part of his audience
detected in the Playboy, and it caused his work for a while
to be rejected in his own country. Time, however, has already
proved the depth of Synge's injight into the soul of peasant
Ireland. The Playboy is by general consent his masterpiece.
In this play, the fantastically rich imagery of his dialogue, which
elsewhere has often a somewhat monotonous effect, has full
dramatic justification; the play has even, like Hamlet, the
supreme mark of vitality, that it conveys the suggestion of a
permanent human enigma. There are good critics, however,
who assign the highest place among his works to Deirdre.
A collected edition of Synge's works, in four volumes, was published
in 1910. In John Millington Synge and the Irish Theatre (1913), M.
Maurice Bourgeois has given, in great detail, an account of his life
and writings; and there is a critical study of him by P. P. Howe
(1912). (W. K. M.)
SYRIA (see 26.305). The greater part of the decade 1911-21
was a period of depression and distress in Syria, which, in common
with the rest of the Ottoman Empire of which it then formed
part, suffered from the interruption of commerce and the war-
time exactions consequent upon the Italo-Turkish, the Balkan
and the World Wars in an almost unbroken succession from 1911
until 1918. Although only for a brief time an actual theatre of
hostilities, Syria, which had escaped with a slight bombardment
of Beirut in Feb. 1912 during which a Turkish gun-boat was
sunk in the harbour by an Italian squadron, was particularly
exposed to military requisitions and exactions.
Even before the entry of Turkey into the World War involved
the Levant ports in a fresh blockade (Nov. 1914) the coastal
population had begun to migrate inland from fear of enemy
landings, and the whole country was disorganized by the pressure
of refugees on the one hand and of the military preparations for
an invasion of Egypt on the other, while the civil population
was much excited by the shameless propaganda conducted by
German agents who sought to inflame Moslem prejudice against
Christians all over the country. The Minister of Marine, Ahmad
Jemal Pasha, who was also in command of the IV. Army and
governor-general, conducted the government of the province in
such a way as to give rise during a long period to the suspicion
that he aimed at imitating Mehemet All in founding for himself
a semi-independent viceroy alty; and his autocratic exactions
and high-handed measures did much to pave the way for the final
revolt against Turkish authority, which caused its collapse
when the battles in Palestine in Sept. 1918 had broken the front.
In the subsequent operations Syria was overrun rather than
conquered. Damascus fell to the British and Arabs on Oct. i,
Tyre was taken by the British on Oct. 4, Beirut was seized by a
French squadron on Oct. 5 and occupied on Oct. 7 by British
troops, which took Horns on Oct. 16, Tripoli (Tarabulus) on
Oct. 1 8, Kama on Oct. 21, while the Arabs took Aleppo on Oct.
25 and the French occupied Alexandretta on Nov. 10.
Immediately after the liberation of Syria Gen. Allenby set up
an administration of Occupied Enemy Territory in accordance
with "the Laws and Usages of War" laid down by international
agreements embodied in the Hague Convention. In order to
comply as far as possible with the divergent policies to which
the British Government had committed itself he confided those
areas which had been liberated chiefly by Arab troops to " O.E.
T.A. East," with Arab administrators under a chief administra-
tor at Damascus 'Ali Riza Pasha er Rikabi, while the Lebanon,
the littoral N. of the Ladder of Tyre, and as far as Bab Yunis N.
of Alexandretta, was under Col. P. de Piepape as chief admin-
istrator O.E.T.A. North in Beirut with French officers. Later,
when Cilicia was occupied in conformity with the Armistice
which came into effect on Nov. i O.E.T.A. in Beirut became
O.E.T.A. West and Cilicia was controlled by a new O.E.T.A.
North under the French Col. Breraond.
From the very first the French had considerable difficulties
to face, as Arab Nationalism and the idea of Syrian independence
based upon the doctrine of self-determination both greatly
influenced the civil population, which was, moreover, puzzled
in that French officers were engaged in administering the country
on French lines and conducting a French propaganda, when it
was notorious that British troops had liberated the country and
were still occupying a great part of it, and that the Arab admin-
istration in Damascus was anxious to lean on the British alliance
and to ignore as far as possible the existence of the Sykes-Picot
Agreement which had divided the country into arbitrarily
defined spheres of influence regardless of the claims of the Arabs.
Colonel de Piepape was, moreover, much hampered by the limited
selection of French officers from whom he had to pick his
administrators. Furthermore, Syria being a comparatively rich
and civilized part of the Ottoman Empire and inhabited almost
entirely by non-Turks had been particularly exposed to the
exactions of the Turkish army and Government, and her popula-
tion had been greatly exhausted by military conscription,
political deportations, voluntary flight of refugees and by the
ravages of locusts, starvation and disease. Yet Syria was unable
to benefit to any great degree from the presence of the British
army, as had Palestine; few military roads were made except
the remarkable rock-cut carriage-way across the face of the
Ladder of Tyre (Ras en Naqura) which was made by Sir Valentine
Fane's yth Indian Div. little local labour was employed, and
charitable contributions for the help of the civil population of
Syria were the less readily forthcoming as it had none of the
religious and sentimental glamour attaching to the Holy Land.
With the withdrawal of the British Army of Occupation from
O.E.T.A. North and West which began on Nov. 4 1919 and
ended on Jan. 19 1920 the difficulties of the French were greatly
enhanced, as their own troops were hardly numerous enough to
cope with the forces of disorder which began to raise their heads
almost immediately. Attempts to enforce French authority
were met with armed resistance. Certain of their agents played
them false, and both in Cilicia and Syria Gen. Gouraud, who
had become High Commissioner in Beirut in Oct. 1919, had to
cope at once with Turkish Nationalist plots directed from
Angora, panislamic agitation, anti-Armenian traditional hatred
and Syrian and Arab Nationalism. Active troubles soon began,
the Damascus administration, now controlled by the Emir
Faisal, had little real authority over the semi -independent tribes
which were plentifully supplied with rifles, either issued to them
for war against the Turks, or captured weapons, and it was itself
harassed by the conflicting policies of the Syrian extremists who
resented the presence of the Arab " Patriarchalists " from the
desert, and of the Hejaz Arabs who maintained that Syria was but
a province conquered by them in war and lawfully at their
disposal. The Emir had, moreover, to keep the peace with his
French and British allies in the face of a growing anti-European
spirit which was hostile to the French schemes for controlling
Syria and indignant at the British attitude towards the Jews,
while Syrian Nationalists resented the partition of the country
between two foreign Powers and inclined towards anybody even
the once hated Turks who offered hopes of driving the Euro-
peans into the sea.
Baalbek was the scene of the first fighting between the
French and Arabs at Christmas 1919. In Jan. 1920 the French
were attacked near Quneitera and in the Merj lyun. Later
in the month their troops were engaged in the Latakia (Ladigiye)
district, and while they were able to recover Baalbek before (he
end of Jan. their garrison at Alexandretta was attacked in Feb.
On March i the Jewish colony at Tell Hai, near Metulla, in what
was then the French sector of Upper Galilee, was raided by
Arabs. On March 8 the Syrian National Congress, sitting in Da-
mascus, under the influence of impatient extremists, proclaimed
the Emir Faisal as King of Syria, and placed him in an extreme-
ly difficult diplomatic position. In the face of the extremists he
654
SYRIA
was unable to hold back, and he organized a Syrian Cabinet
under Riza Pasha and did his best to enforce discipline through-
out his dominions where compulsory military service had been
reintroduced on Dec. 21 1919. The authority of Damascus was,
however, unable to restrain the outbreak of Arab Nationalist
enthusiasm which the formation of the kingdom of Syria aroused.
Antioch was taken from its small French garrison on March 20,
there was anti-European trouble from the Amanus to Jerusalem
(see PALESTINE) , and Arab officers entered into renewed relations
with the Nationalist Turks of Angora. As early as Dec. u 1919
Ramadhan ibn Shalash, the Arab governor of Raqqa, instigated
by Angora, had made common cause with a Kurdish freebooter,
Ibrahim Pasha Milli, and had attacked Deir ez Zor, from which,
although hi the French sphere of influence, the British had not
yet withdrawn. The Emir Faisal immediately dismissed Ramad-
han, but he became contumacious, declined any longer to
recognize the authority of Damascus and openly adhered to the
Nationalist Turks. His Arab successor in Raqqa, Maulud Pasha,
was equally disloyal, and throughout the summer disturbances
in both French and British areas were actively fomented by him
and other disobedient adherents of the Damascus Government.
More vigorous steps were taken by the Nationalist Turks
of Angora. Not content with conducting a campaign of ex-
termination against the Armenians in Cilicia where the French
were not strong enough militarily to occupy the whole province
in the face of the formidable Turkish forces operating against
them and the Armenians, the Government of Angora invaded
northern Syria itself. Aintab was attacked in strength on April i
1920. It was relieved by a French column with some difficulty
on April 15-16, but, when the relieving troops were withdrawn
on April 28, the siege was resumed on April 30. It was relieved a
second time on May 22, and an armistice was concluded on May
29 by which the French evacuated the citadel and established
themselves in a fresh position. They were again attacked by the
Turks and relieved for a third time on Aug. n. This time the
French were strong enough to attack in their turn, although un-
able entirely to invest the Turks, who had occupied the citadel as
part of their position. After long-drawn operations, during which
the Turkish mines in one of the piers of the great bridge of the
Bagdad railway over the Euphrates at Jerablus were exploded
by lightning and two spans of the bridge wrecked, the French
were successful, and Aintab was once more made safe on Feb. 10
1921. During this period its pop. is supposed to have decreased
by some two-thirds to 25,000. Nor were the disturbances in
the N. confined to the Aintab area, apart from the campaign
in Cilitia. Nationalist Turks and Syrians at the beginning of
Dec. raided as far S. as Jebele on the coast 14 m. S. of Latakia,
and farther E. a force of Nationalist Turks established themselves
near the newly fixed boundary between Syria and Mesopotamia
and tried to stir up unrest among the desert tribes.
In the S. the existence of an independent state at Damascus
with Nationalist aspirations to absorb all Syria and the Lebanon,
and unwilling to admit French influence or recognize any French
mandate, was likely to prove an uneasy neighbour the more
so as the Emir Faisal had declined on two occasions (March 27
and May 8) to repair to Paris at the invitation of the Allies to
explain the situation. The Emir maintained that it was only by
remaining at Damascus that he could hope to restrain the more
extreme Nationalists from launching a wholesale attack upon
French territory. As soon, therefore, as Gen. Gouraud had an
adequate force at his command with which to enforce the
authority given to France as Mandatory for Syria on behalf of the
League of Nations, he made ready to impose it upon Damascus,
when in June 1920 the Emir Faisal was beset by difficulties.
Himself one of the Ashraf, a son of the King of the Hejaz, he
found it increasingly difficult to restrain the Nationalist Syrians,
the pro-Turk panislamists and the Patriarchalist tribesmen
who were traditionally hostile to any authority which sought to
stand between them and their prey in the cultivated lands. In
June the Cabinet of Riza Pasha fell, largely on the question
of the relations between Syria and the Europeans particularly
the French, and Hashim Bey Attassi took office. At that time
in the discussions of the budget in the French Chamber it appeared
that France, while proposing to allot some 3,700,000 for the :
expenses of the High Commissionership of Syria and some
440,000 for propaganda to be directed against the extremist
doctrines of those opposed to her rule, was ready to grant a
subvention of 800,000 to the Emir Faisal provided that he co-
operated whole-heartedly in the execution of the Mandate.
The Emir was, however, in no position to do so, owing to the
intractability of the Nationalist leaders who threatened to depose
or murder him if he ventured to abate in any way from the extreme i
of their ambitions, wholly incompatible wi th any foreign Mandate.
At the same time the economic situation of Syria was bad, and the
taxes were extremely high for example, the camel tax in Syria
was 3 (3 is. 6d.) per beast as against i rupee (is. 4d.) per
beast in Mesopotamia, and the sheep tax was 36 P.T. (75.)
against 8 annas (Sd.) and were, moreover, farmed, owing to the
absence of the necessary fiscal machinery for ensuring official
collection. Thus the Emir's Government was regarded with sus-
picion by the Nationalists and those who were opposed to any
accommodation with France, or indeed any European Power.
On July 14 1920 Gen. Gouraud informed the Emir that French
authority was to be enforced and that he would assume control
of the Syrian railways hitherto run by the Arab administration,
parts of which had not been working since January. This in-
timation was none too soon, as it was known that the Arab general,
Rushdi Bey, in command of the 3rd Arab Div. and governor of
Aleppo, who had formerly been in the Ottoman service, was in
active communication with the Nationalist Turks of Angora for
the purpose of arranging joint operations against the French.
Almost at the same time Gen. Gouraud found it necessary to
arrest nine members of the Administrative Council of the Lebanon,
apparently for conspiring with Syrian Nationalists to make it
impossible for France to exercise her Mandate.
The Emir Faisal was willing to comply with Gen. Gouraud's
wishes, but the Syrian Nationalists, miscalculating their strength,
opposed the advance of Gen. Goybct's column which was sent
to occupy Damascus. They even attacked the Emir Faisal,
delayed the final message of submission sent by the Emir and
his Cabinet to Gen. Goybet, and by ill-judged hostilities com-
pelled the French to defeat them smartly at Khan Meisehm
on the road through the mountains N.W. of Damascus on
July 24, and to enter that city next day as conquerors rather
than as protecting allies, thus bringing about the downfall of the
Emir, whom the French held responsible for the resistance of the
Nationalists although it had been offered in defiance of his
authority and policy. The Emir's last Cabinet fell with him,
and the French, who inflicted a fine of 8500,000 (10,000,000
frs.) upon the country, caused a new administration to be formed
under 'Ala ed Din er Rubi, while the Emir Faisal and his family
withdrew from Damascus on July 28, going to Haifa, where he
remained until Aug. 4, when he left for Europe.
The suppression of the Nationalists at Damascus did not
immediately bring peace to the country, as the French were unable
adequately to control the Hauran, and on Aug. 20 Bedouin
raiders stopped a train at Khirbet el Ghazali on the Hcjaz
railway and murdered the Syrian prime minister 'Ala ed Din er
Rubi, Ata el Ayyubi, the Minister of the Interior, and 'Abdur-
rahman Yusuf, President of the Council of State; for some
time afterwards railway communication was hazardous in that
area, and trains were generally protected by a guard of soldiers
in armoured trucks at either end.
On Sept. i 1920 Beirut became an autonomous district of
the Greater Lebanon (Grand Liban) , which was enlarged from its
former extent under the Turks so as to embrace all Biqa' or the
Coelesyria composed of the Turkish kazas of Hasbeya Rasheya,
Biqa' and Baalbek (which, originally allotted to " O.E.T.A.
West," were left to the administration of O.E.T.A. East by
Gen. Allenby as having been largely liberated by Arab troops),
and the coast territories between Palestine and the Nahr "Akkar;
and next day the former Turkish sanjak of Latakia and the north-
ern parts of that of Tripoli were formed into a new administrative
area of Ala wiya { Terr itoire des Alaouites). In the N. the Turkish
SYRIA
sanjaks of Alexandretta, Deir ez Zor and Aleppo, were united
(Sept. i 1920) to form the " Government of Aleppo," which
thus extended to the Khabur, beyond which the country was
under the administration of the French officer commanding in
the Confins Militaires; and by the end of the year the caravan
route over the Beilari Pass above Alexandretta was so far cleared
of Turkish raiders and Arab marauders that civilian traffic began
to be resumed. In the S. however the Hauran was still disturbed,
and in March 1921 a party of Arab raiders blew up bridges on the
Hejaz railway over the Yarmuk and to the N. of Dera, while the
Syrian Nationalists were reported to be active in that sector of
the British sphere beyond the Jordan which still formed part of
the; Emir Faisal's dominions but was not in any way subject to
British authority. In April however this danger was abated, as
the Emir's elder brother, the Emir 'Abdalla, arrived in 'Amman
and restored order throughout the area of the ancient kingdom
of Kerak in cooperation with the British.
Frontiers. On Dec. 23 1920 the frontiers towards Mesopotamia
and Palestine were fixed in such a way as to retain the whole of the
Litani-Leontes watershed with Quneitera in French mandated ter-
ritory, and providing for the joint Anglo-French use of the railway
between Semakh and Nasib, although the line itself remains in French
territory. On the side of Arabia the frontier runs from Nasib to
Imtar and thence in a straight line to Abu Kemal on the Euphrates.
In March 1921 Gen. Gouraud, when in London for the Near
Eastern Conference, took advantage of the presence of the represen-
tative of the Nationalist Turkish administration at Angora, Bekir
Sami Bey, to conclude an agreement, in virtue of which the French
withdrew from the whole of Cilicia, and adopted as the northern
frontier of their Syrian mandated territory a line running from Payas
on the coast N. of Alexandretta to Choban Beg (Bey) on the Bagdad
railway, and thence along the railway to Nisibin, whence it runs to
the Tigris and down that river as far as the frontier of Mesopotamia
near Jeziret ibn 'Omar, thus restoring Killiz, Aintab and Urfa
(Edessa) with an area of 22,500 sq. km. and an estimated pop. of
some 640,000, to the Turks.
On March 4 1921 the formation of an autonomous Druse (Druz)
State, comprising the Jebel ed Druz in the Hauran, to be under
French supervision but independent of Damascus, was announced.
Area and Population. Thus the area comprised in Syria as de-
fined by the boundary agreements of Dec. 1920 and March 1921 is
divided into the Greater Lebanon (Grand Liban), Damascus, Jebel
ed Druz, Alawiya, Aleppo and the military territory.
Although no exact census had been taken in Syria the following
figures are supplied by the French administration :
I. Greater Lebanon (Grand Liban) :
(a)
(i)
<0
(d)
(e)
CO
Sanjak
South Lebanon
Biqa'
Mount Lebanon
North Lebanon
City of Tripoli
City of Beirut
Total
Capital
Sidon (Saida)
Zahle
Ba'abda
Shtora \
Area sq. km.
2,172
3,600
3,000
2,065
18
Pop.
132,000
110,000
180,000
164,000
140,000
10,855 726,000
II.
(a)
(i)
III.
(a)
(0
Alawiya (Territoire des Alaouites):
Sanjak of Latakia composed of the kazas of Jebele, Sahyun,
Baniyas (Valenia), Omranie or Masyaf and the municipal
area of Latakia.
Sanjak of Tartus composed of the kazas of Tartus (Tor-
tosa) Santa, Qal 'at el Husn.
Total area 6,200 sq. km. with a pop. of perhaps 400,000.
Government of Aleppo:
Sanjak of Alexandretta, area 5,000 sq. km. divided into
the kazas of Alexandretta pop. 26,000, Beilan pop. 20,200,
Antioch pop. 126,900, and Harim pop. 36,700, or 209,800
inhabitants for the sanjak.
Sanjak of Deir ez Zor, area 30,000 sq. km. and a pop. of
174,000.
Sanjak of Aleppo: Area sq. km. Pop.
City of Aleppo
Kaza of Jebel Sima'an
El Bab
'Azaz
Membij
Ma'aret en Nu'man
Idlib
Raqqa
Jisr esh Shughr
Total for the whole Government
4,694
2,437
2,200
3,86 7
3,450
i, 800
,7,200
1,125
26,773
6i,773
144,006
25,130
27,752
9-957
5,030
21,629
53,598
9,865
36,018
33 2 .985
716,785
IV. Government of Damascus:
(a) Sanjak of Damascus:
Kaza of Damascus
Wadi el 'Ajam
Duma
Zebdani
Quneitera
Jerude V
Nebk /
(J) Sanjak of Hauran:
Kaza of Hauran
'Ezra
Musmiye
Bosra Shams
(c) Sanjak of Horns:
Kaza of Homs
Qaryatein
Job Jerra
Palmyra (Tadmur)
(d) Sanjak of Kama:
Kaza of Hama
Selemiye
Hamra
Area sq. km.
600
800
841
1 80
2,000
12,000
655
Pop.
238,504
16,732
37,937
H.I55
43,183
29431
22,221
Total for whole Government
Thus the whole of Syria contains:
Greater Lebanon
Alawiya
Aleppo
Damascus \
Jebel ed Druz /
Military Territories
16,421 402,163
3,500 29,760
1 .3 l8 30,018
3,972 14,718
970 26,436
9,760 100,932
4,000 88,214
4,000 6,945
2,000 4,159
10,000 5,340
20,000 104,658
1,900 77,205
2,500 20,864
815
5,215 98,069
51,396 705,822
10,855 726,000
6,200 400,000
6i,773 716,785
51,396 705,822
25,700 154,500
155,924 2,703,107
The precise boundaries of the state of the Jebel ed Druz had not
yet been settled in 1921, but it was to be detached from the sanjak
of the Hauran then in the Government of Damascus.
Administrative Divisions Of these various administrative areas
the Greater Lebanon is under a French Governor who appoints
Lebanese officials to take charge of the seven departments of In-
terior, with Gendarmerie and Police; Finance; Justice and Pious
Foundations; Public Works, Posts and Telegraphs; Education and
Fine Arts; Agriculture, Trade and Industry; and Public Health.
Each of these officials is assisted by a French adviser. The sanjaks
are administered by Lebanese mutesarrifs with French advisers,
assisted by local administrative commission. Pending a census of
the population and a subsequent election a provisional administra-
tive commission of 15 Lebanese members had been nominated. Its
functions and powers are analogous to those of the old Adminis-
trative Council under the Organic statute of the Lebanon in 1864.
In Damascus the administration is directed by a Council of State
composed of Ministers each assisted by a French adviser.
In Aleppo there is an Arab Governor who appoints native officials
to take charge of the departments of Finance; Justice and Pious
Foundations; Public Works, Posts and Telegraphs; Economic
Services; and Gendarmerie and Militia. The Governor is assisted by
a council and an administrative commission. The former is com-
posed of the heads of the five departments, of heads of religious com-
munities, of two members from each of the three sanjaks, and of the
mayors of Aleppo, Antioch and Alexandretta. The administration
is supervised by a French Resident appointed by the High Com-
missioner, and French advisers assist the heads of departments and
the mutesarrifs of sanjaks.
In Alawiya a French Administrator with French heads of the
four departments of Finance; Public Works, Posts and Telegraphs;
Public Health; and Justice and Pious Foundations, controls the
administration. There is an administrative commission composed
of seven Alawiye (or Nuseiriye), two Christians, two Sunni Moslems
and one Isma 'iliye (" Assassin "). Each sanjak has a French
Deputy Administrator with a native mutesarrif as his subordinate.
In virtue of the treaty of March 4 1921 between Gen. Gouraud
and the religious and political chiefs of the Druses the State of the
Jebel ed Druz in the Hauran is administered by a Druse governor
elected by the population for four years, subject to the confirmation
of the French High Commissioner. He is assisted by a council,
elected for three years, which has one session every year during which
the budget is voted, and by a permanent Administrative Commis-
sion. French advisers assist .the higher Druse officials. The local
gendarmerie and police are recruited by voluntary enlistment.
All these administrations, which are autonomous inter se, are subject
to the general control of the French High Commissioner of Syria who
6 5 6
SZELL
resides at Beirut, going into summer quarters at Aley in the Lebanon.
Currency. On May I 1920 the standard currency of the pound
Syrian (S) was introduced to supersede the pound Egyptian (E),
which had been the official currency under the British occupation,
and the now obsolete pound Turkish (T). The S is equivalent
to the French louis of 20 frs., formerly well known in Syria, and is
divided into loo piastres of 20 French centimes each.
Railways. During the decade 1910-20 the railway construction in
Syria was chiefly directed towards improving and linking up the lines
serving the trade routes across, and little attention was paid to the
development of a purely Syrian system for the development of the
country. The only line which can be classed in this category is that
between Tripoli and Horns, which was opened in June 191 1, and even
this was chiefly useful for importing the heavier material required
for the construction of the Bagdad railway which was being built
across the country in the north. During the World War it was taken
up and its rails used in the extension of the Bagdad railway towards
Nisibin, but after the French administration had been established
the line was relaid and the railway was again opened for traffic in
July 1921. In the same way the French Hauran railway between
Damascus and Mezeirib was taken up and used in Palestine.
Of the Bagdad railway, destined to link the Syrian system with
Haidar Pasha, and perhaps with Europe and Mesopotamia, the
Adana Osmanie (92 km.) and Dorak-Yenije (23 km.) sectors in
Cilicia were opened on April 27 191 1, the sector Bulgurlu-Ulu Kyshla
(38 km.) in the Taurus was opened on July 7 1911, and that from
Ulu Kyshla to Kara Punar (52 km.) in Dec. 1912. At the same time
the Aleppo-Moslemiye (Muslimie) (15 km.), Moslemiye-Raju (77
km.), and Moslemiye-Jerablus (103 km.) fork was opened, and the
branch from Toprak Kale (on the Osmanie branch) to Alexandretta
(60 km.) at the foot of the Beilan Pass was opened in Nov. 1913.
This branch was cut in several places by H. M. S. " Doris " in
Dec. 1914, but was reopened for traffic in 1921. During the war every
effort was made to complete the great tunnels in the sectors Kara
Punar- Dorak and Osmanie- Raj u, and, after being used for narrow
gauge traffic for some months they were opened for standard gauge
use just before the Armistice, and the first through train from rlaidar
Pasha reached Aleppo in Oct. 1918. Further E. the line was pushed
forward to Nisibin: Jerablus-Tell el Abyadh (95 km.), Tell el
Abyadh-Ras el 'Ain (87 km.), Ras el 'Ain-Nisibin (120 km.).
In Dec. 1913 in return for a French loan the Porte gave a conces-
sion for the extension of the French standard gauge railway then
working between Aleppo and Rayak down through the Biqua 1 and
Galilee to Ludd in Palestine, but nothing came of it, and no steps
were taken to start the harbour works at Jaffa, Haifa, Tripoli and
Alexandretta for which permission was granted at the same time.
During the war the railways of Syria were greatly strained to
meet military requirements, damaged by hostile action, and in-
adequately kept up, rolling stock became worn out and many engines
built for coal consumption were forced to use wood. As a result
when the French took over the control of the Syrian railways in
July 1920 they found them in need of wholesale reconstruction.
Agriculture. The chief Syrian industry is agriculture, and it is
estimated by the French authorities that of 1 1 ,000,000 ac. available
for cultivation in Aleppo, W. of the Euphrates, only about 1 ,500,000
were in 1921 under the plough. A still larger and even less developed
area is known to be available for agriculture E. of the river. In the
sanjaks of Hama and Horns and in the Biqua' the cultivable area is
estimated at over 1,000,000 ac., while the Damascus oasis contains
1,500,000 ac. of good land.
The corn lands of the Hauran are reported to have produced
230,000 tons of wheat in 1919-20, of which 1 15,000 was exported to
neighbouring districts. During the war the Haurani cultivators
.were generally able to sell their wheat to the Turks for gold, and it is
estimated that they obtained 2,000,000 in this way. Payments for
animals and labour however were only in depreciated paper.
The tobacco district of Latakia in Alawiya used to produce some
1,000 tons of tobacco annually.
The production of silk in Syria, which fell during the war to less
than one-tenth of its former volume, began to revive in 1920, and
the export from Beirut nearly doubled on the 1 18 tons of silk and 82
tons of cocoons and allied materials exported in 1919.
Before the war it was estimated that there were some 5,000,000
sheep, 1,000,000 goats, 500,000 kine and 250,000 camels in Syria,
but during the war it appears that the sheep and goats were reduced
by at least 50%, the kine suffered more severely, and the camels,
which were very wastefully used by the Turks for military purposes,
were still further reduced in numbers, at least 40,000 having been
lost in the Jordan valley alone in 1916-7.
Commerce. The trade of the port of Beirut since 1910, the last
complete year of peace, may be summarized as follows :
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1919
Imports
Tons
233,297
216,162
145,054
193,844
118,917
64,547
Exports
Tons
50.934
48,078
53,072
49,248
30,588
18,547
Exports of Syrian produce from Beirut in 1911, the last normal
year of peace, and in 1919, the first complete year since the Armistice,
were as follows:
1911 1919
Tons Tons
Wool 5,500 1,521
Hides 400 122
Olive Oil 233 90
Apricots 4,468 1,436
Wine 161 7
Gums 40 34
During the first quarter of 1920 466 tons of wool were exported
from Beirut and 248 tons from Alexandretta, which had just been
reopened for commercial traffic. In that period 67 tons of hides were
exported from Beirut. For 1919 the value of imports was declared
at the Customs as follows:
Jan.
Feb.
March
April
May
June
uly
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
E
59,597
223,111
629,614
376,117
551,737
900,370
1,213,974
534,332
848,570
781,366
1,031,477
895.248
8,045,513
It must, however, be remembered that goods have to be declared
at their local value, on which an 1 1 % ad valorem duty is collected.
During 1909 prices for imported goods were unreasonably high.
Archaeology. Before the war extensive excavations had been
started on the site of the ancient Carchemish, near Jerablus, under
the direction of D. G. Hogarth, with the aid of T. E. Lawrence and
C. L. Woolley. These operations, which had yielded highly satis-
factory results after the interruption due to the war, during which
these three archaeologists all distinguished themselves by their
widely different services against the Turks, were resumed in Jan.
1920 under Mr. Woolley, and pursued in spite of the prevalent unrest
and the actual hostilities which went on in the immediate neighbour-
hood. (H. P.-G.)
SZELL, KOLOMAN (1845-1915), Hungarian statesman, was
born on June 8 1845. He studied at Pest and Vienna, and in 1867
became deputy for the district of St. Gotthard. He very quickly
won the reputation of being remarkably well informed on eco-
nomic and financial questions. Szell was one of Deak's intimates,
whose ward, the daughter of the Hungarian poet Vorosmarty, he
had married. In 1875 he was Finance Minister in the Cabinet of
Koloman Tisza, and as such imposed on himself the task of restor-
ing the shattered credit of Hungary. In 1878 he concluded with
Austria the first economic Ausgleich. At that time the single Aus-
trian bank was changed, in conformity with this arrangement, into
the dualistic Austro-Hungarian bank, and Szell consolidated the
Hungarian Rentes, and nearly succeeded in balancing the State
finances. As he feared that this balance would again be upset by
the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, he resigned from the
Cabinet, incurring thereby the displeasure of the Crown. He
still kept his seat in Parliament, and as deputy constantly criti-
cized the financial policy of the Tisza Cabinet. At the beginning
of the eighties Szell founded the Hungarian Mortgage Credit
Bank, of which he was governor until the end of his life. He
opened entirely new sources of credit for Hungarian agriculture.
He declined repeated offers of the portfolio of Finance. When the
Banffy Ministry suffered a serious crisis at the end of 1808 and was
compelled to resign in Feb. 1899, Szell was entrusted with the for-
mation of a new Cabinet. By means of the Pact of Feb. 23 1899
he restored parliamentary peace. On the basis of the so-called
Szell formula the new Ausgleich with Austria until the year 1907
was concluded after long negotiations. The most important re-
sult of this was that Hungary attained the status of an independ-
ent customs area, but, under the arrangement for reciprocity,
still maintained intact the existing conditions of the Customs
Union with Austria. In 1901, under Szell's Ministry, the new elec-
tions resulted in a Liberal victory. A year later began the strug-
gle for the reform of the national defence, and Szell introduced in
.1902 the law for increasing the number of recruits, in exchange for
which the Independent party wanted concessions to the principle
SZILAGYI
657
of nationality. The obstruction against the provision for de-
fence lasted from the end of Jan. to April 4 1903, and resulted in
the suspension of the constitution ("Ex lex" condition). Szell
sought to wear down the opposition by delay. As part of the ma-
jority would not agree to this, he resigned on June 16 1903. When
his successor, Count Stephen Tisza, on Nov. 18 1904 brought
about a split in the Liberal party by forcing through Parliament
new rules of procedure, Szell joined Count Andrassy in the seces-
sion from the party. Under the Coalition Cabinet of Wekerle,
Szell was chosen president of the Constitutional party. He
tried continually, but in vain, to bridge the opposition between
Tisza and Andrassy. He died on Aug. 16 1915. (E. v. W.)
SZILAGYI, DESIDER (1840-1901), Hungarian statesman and
jurist, was born at Nagyvarad (Grosswardein) on April i 1840.
He studied law at Budapest, Vienna, and in Germany, and early
attracted attention by his articles on law and politics. As head of
a section in the Hungarian Ministry of Justice he travelled on a
commission from the Government to England to study there the
conditions of the administration of justice, of which he had a
knowledge then equalled by few. Brought up wholly in Liberal
ideas, Szilagyi took a conspicuous part in the codification work of
the Ministry of Justice. Deputy in 1871, professor of public law
and politics at Budapest University in 1874, he was in 1877 one of
the leaders of the Opposition, which, however, he left in 1886. In
1887 he was returned to Parliament by Pozsony (Pressburg) as an
independent member. He became Minister of Justice in 1889.
From this time to 1894 he directed his efforts principally towards
a radical reform of the whole administration of the courts. In
1894 he took a conspicuous part in ecclesiastical legislation, with
which his name is permanently connected. Article XXXI. of the
Law of Civil Marriage, and articles XXXII. and XXXIII. on the
religion of the children and on State registration, were the result
of his active cooperation. After the appointment of Baron Banffy,
the former president of the Hungarian House of Deputies, as
prime minister, Szilagyi was elected president of the House on
Jan. 21 1895, which office he retained until 1899. A man of ex-
tensive knowledge, spotless character and wide vision, and a
brilliant orator, he was one of the most considerable of the Hunga-
rian statesmen of his day. He died on July 3 1901.
See Szilagyi's Speeches (4 vols., in Hungarian, Ed. Fayer).
(E. v. W.)
658
TACNA-ARICA QUESTION TACTICS
TACNA-ARICA QUESTION. Among long-standing dis-
putes between states, the question of Tacna-Arica, be-
tween Chile and Peru, still remained unsolved in 1921.
Its history can be summarized as follows.-
The Treaty of Ancon, which, ratified on March 28 1884, put
an end to the war of 1879 between Chile and Peru, was carried
out in its entirety with the single exception of Clause 3,
dealing with the fate of the provinces of Tacna and Arica. In
1 88 1, when Peru first sued for peace, Chile, with an eye to the
future safety of her frontiers, demanded the cession of three
Peruvian provinces: Tarapaca, Tacna and Arica. The Peruvian
Government made no difficulty about the first-named, which
passed definitely into Chile's possession; but they refused to
consider the cession of the relatively valueless provinces of
Tacna and Arica, on the ground that public opinion in Peru
would never suffer it. To smooth the way for them Chile offered
to purchase the territory in question for the sum, or equivalent,
of ten million Peruvian soles, but the offer was rejected. The
war therefore continued until 1882, when Chile succeeded in
occupying the Peruvian capital. Chile again made the cession
of Tacna and Arica a sine qua non for the signing of the peace
treaty. The Peruvian Government's chief concern was to find
a way of acceding without grievously wounding the national
sentiment. Examples were not lacking in recent European
diplomacy of a means of effecting this; France, especially, had
had recourse to an expedient wherewith to save appearances and
mask important transfers of territory, namely, Nice and Savoy
in 1860 (Treaty of Turin), and the island of St. Barth61emy in
1877 (Treaty of Paris). That expedient consisted in inserting
in the treaties whereby the territory was ceded a soothing stip-
ulation for a plebiscite, which should decide, at some future date,
its definite ownership. Comparison shows that the negotiators
of the Treaty of Ancon, in drafting the clause concerning Tacna
and Arica, followed closely enough the formulas provided by
the Treaties of Turin and Paris. The clause runs as follows:
Art. 3. The territory of the provinces of Tacna and Arica,
bounded . . . etc., shall continue in the possession of Chile and
subject to Chilean legislation and Chilean authorities for the term
of ten years, reckoned from the ratification of the present Treaty of
Peace. This term having expired a plebiscite shall decide by popular
vote whether the territory of the said provinces is to remain definitely
under the domain and sovereignty of Chile or continue to form part
of Peru's territory. The country in whose favour the provinces of
Tacna and Arica shall be annexed shall pay to the other ten million
pesos in Chilean silver money or in Peruvian soles of equal fineness
and weight.
A special protocol, which shall be considered an integral part of
the present treaty, shall establish the form in which the plebiscite is
to take place and the terms and periods in which the ten millions
are to be paid by the country which shall remain owner of the
provinces of Tacna and Arica.
Chile's contention subsequently was that this clause was
inserted solely in order to allay Peruvian national resentment and
so to make possible the conclusion of peace; that the plebiscite
to which it refers was to be carried out under such conditions as
to render inevitable the definite annexation of Tacna and Arica,
upon which Chile had insisted from the first; that the sole pur-
pose of the stipulated lapse of 10 years before the plebiscite
should be held was to give the Peruvian people time to accustom
themselves to Chilean rule, and that the sum of 10 million soles
which would be paid by Chile was meant as compensation for
the cession. Peru, on the other hand, maintained that the pleb-
iscite clauses introduced into such treaties as those of Turin and
Paris had not the disguised intention that Chile claimed, and
that, even supposing they had, the plebiscite called for in the
Treaty of Ancon was of a very different nature.
The period of 10 years had not expired before Peru took steps
to secure the holding of the plebiscite, proposing conditions,
which, as they included the restriction of the vote to the Peru-
vians born in the two provinces, proved unacceptable to Chile.
Several years of fruitless negotiation ensued, and in 1901 Peru
severed diplomatic relations. Four years later she accepted
Chile's invitation to renew their intercourse, and to seek with
her neighbour an agreement based upon the interests and con- j
venience of the two republics; but the Peruvian plenipoten-
tiary, on his arrival at Santiago, made it clear that his Govern-
ment desired no other agreement than such as would forward the
carrying-out of the plebiscite under the same conditions proposed
previously, and diplomatic relations were again broken off.
Notwithstanding her contentions as to the purely accom-
modatory nature of the clause in dispute, Chile always declared
her willingness that the plebiscite should be held, provided the
suffrage were not limited to Peruvians but extended to all the
adult inhabitants of the provinces, including foreigners resident
therein since a certain date, who could read and write; and that
a representative of Chile, as the nation exercising sovereignty
over the territory, should preside over the commission control-
ling the proceedings. For her part, Peru insisted that the 10
years stipulated for the holding of the plebiscite was a maximum
period, and that since its expiry in 1894 Chile no longer exer-
cised such sovereignty de jure, and could not therefore justly
claim to preside. Chile, on the contrary, held that the term was
intended as a minimum period.
Diplomatic intercourse having been resumed, Chile, in IQIO,
made definite proposals for the holding of the plebiscite in
accordance with her contentions. Peru refused, and once more
broke off relations.
In 1920 Peru made formal request for the revision of the
Treaty of Ancon by the 1921 Assembly of the League of Nations,
but later withdrew her demand, reserving the right to renew it
at a future Assembly. The problem of Tacna and Arica stood
in 1921 therefore in much the same position as at any time sub-
sequent to the Treaty of Ancon, though towards the end of
the year suggestions for arbitration were again under discus-
sion. The area of the territory in dispute was only 23,306 sq.
km., and only 18,000 ac. were in 1921 under cuLivation. The
pop. numbered no more than 37,000, and the trade and indus-
try were almost negligible. Nor were any ethnical, linguistic or
religious considerations involved, the inhabitants, whether Chil-
ean or Peruvian, being of the same race, speaking the same lan-
guage and professing the same faith.
TACTICS 1 (see 26.347*). While personal reminiscences of the
Great War had up to 1921 appeared in plenty, and in many
languages, it is remarkable that so far no comprehensive and
scientific study of its abiding tactical lessons had been published.
Diarists and biographers there had been; also not a few training-
manuals and text-books; but the world was still awaiting the
Clausewitz or Henderson who would show it how military science
developed from 1914 to 1918 in the minds of great leaders, how
the world struggle differed from anything and everything that
preceded it, and how it was finally lost and won. This is the
task which will eventually confront the true biographer of
Marshal Foch, the greatest soldier figure of the war, when it
becomes possible to follow his innermost thoughts during the
progress of the conflict. The future historian will have to show
how principles and theories which had been developed during a
lifetime of profound study were abandoned, modified or con-
firmed as the result of experience of modern war, contact with
the military chiefs of Allied nations and bitter contest with the
best military brains Germany and Austria could produce.
When some skilled military writer shall have interpreted Marshal
Foch as G. F. R. Henderson interpreted Lee and Stonewall
Jackson, it may be possible not only to understand the Allied
victory but perhaps even to penetrate into the future and to
realize some of the simpler problems which war on the great
scale has in store. That is the best the military historian can
hope to do so to present the picture of the past as to throw
1 This article may be considered also as supplementing, for the
World War, the article STRATEGY (25.986).
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
TACTICS
659
some light upon the obscurity of the future. Always we are left
groping our way through what is at the best semi-darkness, but
any ray of light is helpful. It is in this spirit and with full con-
sciousness of the difficulties and dangers which lie ahead that
the present writer attempts here the task of reviewing the prac-
tical developments of the decade 1910-20 and of presenting them
in a form which in 1921-2 might already be out of date.
I. TACTICS IN THE WORLD WAR
Tactics and Strategy. First it may be as well to inquire
exactly what is meant by tactics, and whether the division
between strategy and tactics is left as clear as it was before the
World War introduced the new feature of continuous lines
offering no flanks for attack, and ceaseless fighting which, from
day to day and month to month, varied only in intensity.
Let us ask two questions: (a) Can grand or combined tactics
still be defined as the sphere of the higher commander on the
day of battle ? and (6) if so, can we accept the corollary that all
the fighting on the western front from 1915 until 1918 was tac-
tical and outside the sphere of strategy ? All days were battle
days; but does this mean that the problems which the command-
ers of the British, French and Italian armies in the field were
called upon to solve were essentially tactical in their nature? The
definition may require some modification, but to the second ques-
tion the answer is distinctly " Yes." They were vast problems in-
volving all sorts of considerations, but they were essentially tactical.
Questions of strategy, so far as Britain was concerned, were
dealt with in London, or in conference with her Allies in Paris,
Rome or elsewhere. It was in these places and not in the field
that great decisions were formed as to the despatch of troops to
the various theatres of war, the formation of new forces, and the
wisdom, or the reverse, of embarking upon fresh undertakings.
Behind them all were the equally anxious problems of finance
and allotment of man-power. In modern wars, Army, Navy
(in which is included the Merchant Marine) and Munitions are
only three departments of the nation; each puts forward its
rival claims, which can only be judged by the Government in
consultation with the technical advisers. And so it is that, as
war absorbs into itself more and more of a nation's energies and
resources, the Government with the prime minister at its head
must accept responsibility for strategy in the highest possible
sense of the word. In no sense, however, can the Government
be held to be responsible for tactics, which are the exclusive
sphere of the military commanders. The Government, in con-
sultation with their technical advisers, allot troops; soldiers alone
command them. Whether that command, in its turn, gives scope
for strategy, as in Palestine, or only for grand tactics, as on the
western front, depends upon the number of men available in
proportion to the size of the theatre of war, upon the railway
and road development of the theatre of operations, and upon
many other considerations.
Strategy, now as always, is the art of bringing the enemy to
battle on terms which are disadvantageous to him; grand tactics
are the methods employed for his destruction by a force of all
arms. Before the war, when aviation was still in its infancy,
the term " all arms " included as a rule no more than infantry,
artillery and cavalry. Even the engineers were rarely consid-
ered as having any direct influence upon the result of a battle.
All this is changed, and to the four arms there must now be
added, without any doubt, aeroplanes and tanks, and it is a
matter for the gravest consideration whether in future wars the
chemist will not occupy as important a position as he now does
in peace. Machine-guns are purposely excluded here, not be-
cause their importance is underrated, but merely in the hope of
avoiding unnecessary complication and because they may be
included in the wide term of infantry, which also covers such
accessories as bombs and rifle grenades.
The sphere of the higher commander in battle is therefore
by so much enlarged in that he must know how to utilize and
combine far more weapons than were at his disposal in earlier
wars, and the demands made upon him are in the same degree
heavier and more complex. And so through all the long chain
of command, from " the Chief " at G.H.Q. to the platoon com-
mander in the foremost trench. It has been amply proved
that, more than ever, no arm of the service is complete in itself;
each requires in a greater or less degree the assistance of others
in order to win even a small success. The smallest raid into
a German trench needed hours, almost days, of careful prepa-
ration: night patrols and aeroplane photographs for recon-
naissance; artillery and trench mortars to destroy the enemy's
wire; if the ground won is to be held engineers must help to
make it good, and even if it is not to be held the engineers must
be called upon to destroy with explosives enemy machine-gun
emplacements or other defences. Then, according to the object
of the raid and the intentions of the commander, arrangements
must be made for the withdrawal or reinforcement of the raid-
ing party, all of which require most thorough and careful fore-
thought. Much of the detailed preparation for a minor oper-
ation of this kind will fall upon company and platoon command-
ers; and when it is remembered that in war platoons may be,
and often are, commanded by junior non-commissioned officers,
it is seen that, just as responsibility for the success of higher
strategy must depend upon the wisdom of the prime minister
and the Government, so responsibility for tactical success ex-
tends to the last link in the chain of military command.
War has become national in a sense in which it never was
before, and it is a sad reflection that, after twenty centuries of
Christianity, its study is more important than ever. Owing to
the insular position of Great Britain, its dense population and
consequent dependence upon overseas trade, it, more than any
other country, is dependent upon success in war. No country
in the world could so ill support defeat; yet in no country is the
study of war so much neglected. There has recently been a
most praiseworthy effort to train the British soldier in the arts
of peace; it might be well if similar efforts could be made to
fit the civil population in all classes of society for the vital
responsibilities of war. The response to Lord Kitchener's ap-
peal in 1914-5 proved beyond doubt the essential soundness of
the national spirit; but the story of a hundred battles proves
that spirit without professional knowledge and skill is desper-
ately expensive in life.
Hence it is that, just as our conception of war has become na-
tional and the need of study more general and less strictly pro-
fessional, so our definition must be less restricted. We prefer
to regard tactics, even " combined tactics," simply as the art of
commanding troops in action, without any limitation as to the
number of troops employed or the status of the commander.
Indeed, it is perhaps easier, in considering the fighting in France
and Belgium, to exclude the role of the commander-in-chief
than that of many of his junior subordinates. Nevertheless, for
the purpose of this article, we shall be concerned entirely with
the sphere of the larger formations, with organization and equip-
ment, with the effect of inventions upon attack and defence, and
with the changes and developments in tactics since Russia and
Japan fought themselves to a standstill in the plains and high-
lands of Manchuria.
Communications. Now, these changes have been brought
about by exactly the causes which have produced the whole
evolution of tactics during the last two thousand years, namely,
improvement in weapons and communications that is, in con-
veying ever more men to the field of battle and in furnishing
them with ever more efficient means of killing when they get
there. For, after all, the object of tactics is to kill; if possible
without being killed, but in any case to kill. For the first time
in history these developments enabled armies during the World
War to be placed and maintained in positions which offered no
flanks for attack and therefore afforded no scope for strategy or
for manoeuvre. Increase of population was a contributory cause,
but primarily the "continuous lines" extending from sea to sea
were rendered possible only by the development of railway and
road communications, and by firearms of marvellous range,
rapidity and precision. It was these features, existing so far only
in Europe, and attaining their fullest influence only in western
Europe, which differentiated the World War from everything
66o
TACTICS
which preceded it. Something of the same kind was seen during
the Russo-Japanese War, when great mountain ranges made
movement far from the railway extremely difficult, with the
result that, broadly speaking, neither Oyama nor Kuropatkin
had room for manoeuvre, and tactically the war resolved itself
into a series of frontal assaults on a defended defile. So it was
that, from 1914 to 1918, commanders on the western European
front had no opportunity for crushing strokes and striking
victories like Austerlitz, Rossbach or Salamanca. Their genius
had to show itself rather in the skill and ingenuity with which
they made use of the resources placed at their disposal by
modern science, than in rapidity of movement and dashing
leadership. More than ever war has become "an art served by
many sciences," but in so doing it has lost much of its romance.
It was only as they moved eastward out of Europe to Palestine
and Mesopotamia, where restricted railway communications
and scanty populations made it necessary to operate with com-
paratively small forces in big countries, that the British com-
manders found themselves working under conditions which pre-
vious experience had made familiar to them. Before 1914 in-
stances of the tactical use of railways could be numbered on the
fingers of one hand; the arrival of the ever-famous Stonewall
brigade on the battlefield of Bull Run, the dramatic appearance
of Lambton's naval brigade at Ladysmith on the morning of
Oct. 30 1899 at a critical moment in the action of Lombard's
Kop, and one or two other examples complete the tale of occa-
sions when railways can fairly be said to have had a direct in-
fluence upon a tactical decision.
All this is now changed. Broad-gauge and light-gauge lines
are now a necessary and ever-increasing part of the mysterious
machinery of battle; and it is they, together with the comple-
mentary service of road transport, that have made it possible to
mobilize the entire manhood almost the whole adult population
of a nation, and to maintain in the field armies numbering
several millions of men. These armies in their turn claim the
services of every industry and every factory to such an extent
that in time of war the term " civilian population " is merely
misleading, and undefended towns and ordinary merchant ves-
sels become legitimate objects of attack. Thus it is that the
new feature of " continuous lines " has been introduced into
civilized war, and frontal attacks have become inevitable.
Obstacles: Wire. Here, however, we must stop to consider
another new factor which has resulted directly from the extended
use of railway communications and the " nationalization " of war.
This is the use of obstacles, more particularly of wire. For sev-
eral years before 1914 it had been amply evident to every student
of the great military problem of Europe that, so soon as the
German armies were mobilized and received the order to march,
every road between the Dutch frontier and the mountains of
Switzerland ' would be filled to overflowing with advancing
troops. There was, be it noted, no doubt whatever among com-
petent soldiers that Germany would not hesitate to violate the
neutrality of Belgium; indeed, the very size of her armies, as
well as her declared principle of envelopment, made it certain
that she would do so, even had the fortifications of the eastern
frontier of France not barred the way from Alsace and Lorraine
to Paris. To this extent, therefore, " continuous lines " had
been foreseen, but it was generally considered that they would
exist only during the opening phase.
The present writer can recall very clearly an interesting argu-
ment between a very distinguished senior officer and two of his
subordinates which took place early in 1914. The senior officer
maintained that he found it impossible to visualize a collision
along a front of something like 140 miles. The two subordinates
maintained that this gigantic battle must be the result of the
numbers which would certainly be mobilized; clearly it could
not last very long before it broke up into groups of armies oper-
ating semi-independently, but, taking Mukden as something of
a guide, they expected to see the first, and perhaps the decisive,
battle rage from Belfort to the neighbourhood of Namur for
perhaps three weeks. " Well," was the senior officer's final
remark, " I'll give you three weeks, but not a day longer," and
with that the juniors departed content. Some things, it will be
seen, turned out as anticipated; but many, especially the rapidity
of the Allied retreat, turned out very differently.. On the one
hand, the German movement through Belgium was too quick
and too successful to allow the Allied armies to make the expected
stand; on the other hand, the continuous lines were never
broken, and after three months of moving warfare the siege of
Germany began. Once started, it lasted, not for three weeks, but
for four whole years a phenomenon which was due to field
fortifications and, more than anything else, to wire.
It is a remarkable fact that in all the tactical exercises, staff
rides and other instructional devices in which soldiers were ac-
customed to indulge before the war, the problem of field fortifi-
cation was but lightly considered. This is true of all countries,
and it is quite wrong to believe that Germany, as has been held
in too many quarters, showed any greater prescience than her
enemies. The reasons are simple: first, it was not possible to
test the efficacy of trenches, dug-outs, barbed-wire entangle-
ments or " pill-boxes " under manoeuvre conditions, when time
was short and compensation a grave consideration; secondly, it
was generally agreed that fortified positions limited the offensive
power of the defending garrison and could themselves be easily
avoided or turned. This was the teaching of the South African
and all previous campaigns, and even Manchuria gave but little
indication of what war was to be like in the highly industrialized
areas of western Europe. Thus it was that, at the end of the
first battle of Ypres, in the middle of November 1914, the
British, French and German armies found themselves con-
fronted with entirely novel tactical conditions which demanded
entirely new tactical treatment; and to-day new tactics involve
not only the training of troops but also the application of mechan-
ical device. In 1914 the new conditions were those of " con-
tinuous lines," for which the solution was eventually found, but
only through a weary process of " trial and error," in the course
of which the ultimate victors came perilously near to exhaustion.
It is not proposed here to discuss the various methods which
were adopted with a view to avoiding the central problem and
seeking a decision in other theatres of war, for they have noth-
ing to do with tactics. It is, however, permissible to refer to the
effect of operations in different theatres of war upon the tactical
evolution in the armies of the Allies and of the Central Powers.
Interior Lines. Put quite briefly, it would appear to be this
that, as a result of their central position and possession of
interior lines facilitating the rapid transfer of troops from one
theatre of operations to another, the German commanders were
not so free to concentrate their attention upon the demands of
local conditions as were the French and especially the British.
The theatres of Mesopotamia, Gallipoli and later of Salonika
and Palestine were so remote from France and from each other
that it was less difficult to allot to each the necessary proportion
of the different arms, and to give to each the distinct training
and equipment essential for its efficiency, than it was for Ger-
many, whose troops and commanders were constantly on the
move from one theatre to another. Hence it was that, while
Germany was inclined, or compelled, to compromise, the Allies
opposed to her were able to specialize, with the result that, with
one notable exception, in every theatre the initiative and the
lead in tactical development were with them. That notable ex-
ception was the not very noble or praiseworthy one of the use of
gas. In the true realm of tactics it may fairly be said that, from
the end of 1914 until March 1918, when Ludendorff had for
the first time been able to devote his individual attention to the
problems of the western front, the lead in tactical evolution
was always with the Entente armies.
Changes in Organization. To return to the deadlock in the
West, it became clear towards the end of 1914 and beginning
of 1915 that the problem of field fortification could not be
solved by the methods of 1870, S. Africa or Manchuria. It
was not that principles were changed and theories at fault.
The power of modern rifle fire had been amply demonstrated,
especially by the British Expeditionary Force, whose trust in
their weapons had been more than justified; the French seventy-
TACTICS
66 1
five, the British long-range field gun (for as such the 6o-pounder
must be regarded), and indeed the German heavy howitzers
had done all that had been expected of them, but one and all
failed to compete successfully with the new factor. Infantry,
even with the best available artillery support, could not be
expected to assault with success the hostile lines, which were
daily becoming stronger; and cavalry, which had been invalua-
ble during the retreat of Aug. and the early days of Sept. 1914,
as well as in the subsequent advance, could find no scope when
Nov. and Dec. came. No vulnerable flank was offered, nor was
there the slightest opportunity for those daring raids against
the hostile communications which have sometimes offered such
dangerous attraction to the cavalry leader. The conditions
were indeed the exact opposite of those in S. Africa during
1890-1902. Similarly, the German army had been able to
prove that the theory of tactical envelopment was the inevitable
corollary of machine-guns and quick-firing artillery, for frontal
attack was far too costly, and Joffre and French and their lieu-
tenants had once more proved to the world that counter-attack
was the soul of successful defence. It was not that the principles
or theories were wrong; so far as they went they were correct
enough, but the trouble was that they did not carry sufficiently
far. Their basis was manoeuvre, and suddenly it was found
that manceuvre was no longer possible, but that it had been
displaced by the tedious processes of siege warfare. Infantry was
still the conquering arm, but was now less dependent upon cav-
alry and even more dependent upon engineers and artillery;
while the Air Force was rapidly acquiring an importance which,
though foreseen, had in peace always been put aside by consid-
erations of expense. It was at this stage, too, that the bomb
first made its reappearance as an infantry weapon, and its use
increased to such an extent that, towards the end of the battle
of the Somme, in the autumn of 1916, it threatened to supersede
the rifle. Many new auxiliary services grew up, many new
weapons were invented, and leading men in every branch of
science devoted their great talents to the destructive art of war.
Yet amidst so much which was new the great central problem
of war remained unchanged, for it was, as it always has been,
the destruction of the enemy's field army. In the new condi-
tions which had arisen this meant great innovations in army
organization. The cry was for more technical troops of all
kinds. A third field company (engineers) and a pioneer battalion
were added to each British division; the signal service was
greatly extended, and, above all, the demand for more and
heavier artillery was urgent. Every month, almost every week,
new needs were discovered and fresh demands from the armies
in the field were reaching the British authorities at home, who
were already more than fully employed in equipping Territorial
divisions and in raising new armies. Put quite broadly, however,
the problem of the capture of the German fortified lines, which
could not be turned, was one of improved material and im-
proved cooperation between artillery and infantry, each with
the attendant services necessary to efficiency. That is the main
thesis to which it will be necessary to return again and again.
Artillery and Infantry Cooperation. At this point it will be
as well to look backward and to trace very briefly the history of
the evolution of artillery and infantry cooperation for the pre-
vious twenty years or so. It is the story of the contest between
artillery and field fortification, which in some respects resembles
that between the gun and armour at sea, or between ships and
forts. It is, in fact, the old contest between attack and defence.
For many years before the S. African War it was an accepted
axiom of combined tactics that any attack by infantry must be
preceded by an artillery bombardment, of which the principal
purpose was partly to overcome the enemy's artillery and partly
to shake the moral of his infantry. Accustomed as we have
become during the last few years to think of guns at least in
hundreds, it seems strange to turn to the official account of the
battle of Magersfontein (1899) and to read that at 4.30 P.M.,
on the day preceding the attack which was to take place at
dawn, the British force opened fire with one 4-7 gun, one battery
of howitzers and three of field artillery, which " shelled Magers-
fontein Hill for two hours. . . . Though his guns had pro-
voked no reply from the Boer, Lord Methuen felt confident
that they had not only inflicted loss, but had produced consid-
erable moral effect upon the Boer commander. This, however,
was not the case. The fire had but one important result, that
of warning the enemy that an attack was imminent." The fact
was that in those days military science overestimated the powers
of a few guns and underestimated those of hastily con-
structed entrenchments, which were then in their infancy and
almost an unconsidered feature of war. Again and again the
same thing occurred, but so difficult is it to learn from any
experience but one's own that we find the Japanese army making
exactly the same mistake some four years later. Then, at the
action of Ta-shih-chiao, the Japanese, with a vastly stronger
artillery than the British had possessed at Magersfontein, bom-
barded the Russian right for several hours. So heavy was the
fire on this occasion that General Stakelberg declined to occupy
his trenches, and reported to his senior officer that, should he be
forced to do so in order to repel an infantry attack, he would
certainly suffer very heavy loss. But no infantry attack devel-
oped, Stakelberg's troops remained under cover, and the losses
inflicted by the bombardment were almost negligible. From
these and many similar . experiences the theory was deduced
that, in order to get results from the fire of the guns, the artillery
bombardment must be accompanied by an infantry attack. To
cooperate successfully, the action of the two arms must be
simultaneous instead of successive, for only in this way could
the enemy be compelled to man his defences, to show himself
above his parapets, and to expose himself to shrapnel fire. In
the words of the French regulations of 1913: "Artillery no
longer prepares the infantry attack, but supports it." The old
term, " artillery preparation," belonged to a dead language.
Such, in a few words, was the generally accepted theory of
infantry and artillery cooperation at the beginning of the World
War, and during the earlier stages it proved to be remarkably
correct. It was not until the field armies found themselves
brought up short by deep trenches protected by wire entangle-
ments, furnished with strong revetment, and strengthened
by dug-outs, that the experts discovered that, curiously enough,
new conditions must be met by old methods, and the discarded,
not to say discredited, " artillery preparation " was revived.
Up to this point, too, it may be fairly claimed that the actual
artillery material with which the various armies took the field
in the autumn of 1914 had stood the test well, although natu-
rally subjected to the restrictions on ground of expense which are
inevitable in times of peace. Each artillery, English, French
and German, had, however, developed on somewhat different
lines, corresponding to the mentality of the different nations,
their theories of battle fighting and the amount of money avail-
able for each experiment. Each of the three armies had a
mobile field gun, England the i8-pounder, France her famous
75-millimetre and Germany the 77. France, thinking always of
rapid movement either in retreat or advance, and always refus-
ing to consider the possibility of standing on the defensive, had
concentrated on the light, rapid-firing and very accurate field
gun, with an organization on a divisional basis. England also
believed in the divisional organization, but in addition to the
i8-pdr. she had the 4- 5-in. howitzer for high-angle fire, which had
been found so necessary in S. Africa, and the 6o-pdr., whose long
range, commanding the roads and often forcing premature
deployment of the German infantry, was invaluable during the
retreat. The German army alone possessed heavy howitzers
and high explosive, no doubt because the general staff always
considered the possibility of being forced to engage permanent
fortifications on the French and Belgian frontiers, but it was
weak exactly in those points upon which the French and English
had specialized. The 77-mm. was inferior as a field gun both to
the 75-mm. and to the i8-pdr.; it possessed nothing corresponding
to the 4- 5-in. howitzer; and its heavy artillery, while possessing
great shell power, was lacking in range. Thus it came about
that, when expense was no longer a ruling factor, each army
began to borrow ideas from the other and to adopt material
662
TACTICS
suitable to the wearisome ordeal of trench warfare. Thus, too,
Europe stumbled into that war of material, of ever stronger
material of defence and ever stronger material of attack, which
was to last until the autumn of 1918. It was under these con-
ditions that the German army, which was to have been back in
its own homes " by the fall of the leaf," found itself pinned to
French and Belgian soil, and that the war, which at the outset,
as was believed by most of the leading authorities in England,
political, military and financial, could not last more than six
months, dragged out its devastating existence for more than
four long years. One man among them alone ventured at that
early stage to lay his plans for a long war, Lord Kitchener.
Offensive or Defensive? It was a depressing situation for the
professional soldier of England, France or Germany to find him-
self in. No matter to which of the three armies he happened to
belong, he had been trained from youth in a war of movement,
of stroke and counter-stroke, and of rapid decision. The more
he knew of the history of his profession, the more deeply he had
studied the campaigns of the great captains, the firmer was his
belief in the power of the offensive and the " will to conquer."
There was much searching of heart, especially among those who
had seen the German masses beaten back time after time by the
attenuated lines of the British Expeditionary Force in the first
battle of Ypres. If the rifle alone could do so much, how was it
possible to overcome strong defences heavily protected with
barbed wire and bristling with machine-guns? Had modern
developments changed not only the methods of warfare but
the very basic principles themselves ? Had, in fact, the defence
become stronger than the attack?
There were those who thought that a decision, since there
must be one somehow, must be sought elsewhere than in France
or Flanders, and there arose the controversy between " East-
erners " and " Westerners," which lasted as long as the war
itself. But that great question carries us into the region of
strategy. Clearly no commander could be content to sit still
and avoid a decision on his own front, at least without direct
orders from the supreme authorities. Nevertheless, the same
causes which gave birth to the desire to " find a flank " else-
where than in France produced even on the western front two
schools of thought, which were christened by the French, with
their wonderful gift for discovering appropriate labels, the
" usuristes " and the " trouistes." The former, as their name
implies, held that nothing could be gained by hurling infantry,
however well supported, against the German lines. In support
of this view they were able to point to the desperate losses which
were incurred in the fruitless fighting of the early part of 1915,
and to the opinion of a captured German officer who, when asked
when and how he thought the war would end, was said to have
replied: " In about six months' time, and about fifty metres
from where we now are." A war of attrition, and victory
through exhaustion, or by somebody else's efforts in some other
field, were the tenets of the " usuristes." These theories found
no appreciable support in the British army, nor in the British
troops from overseas or in the Dominions whence they came.
The war of attrition was rightly regarded by them as a danger-
ous " will-o'-the-wisp " which was bound to lead to disaster,
for it meant the abandonment of that " will to conquer " which
has always been the greatest asset of victorious leaders, and
depended for success upon the collapse of the enemy's moral
rather than upon the triumph of their own. The arguments of
the " usuristes " could not be disproved. They could be met
by faith alone; but faith was not lacking, and the names which
will always be held in the highest honour in every country
are those of leaders, whether political or military, who never
lost their belief in the power of the offensive and refused to be
tempted into the broad and easy path of the " usuristes."
The " trouistes " had their way, and in the end they com-
pelled victory. The principal article of their belief was a firm
conviction that morally the defensive is the weaker role, and
that the path to victory must always lie through a wisely and
resolutely conducted offensive. Put shortly, and in axiomatic
form, " there is no defence which cannot be broken." The
formula was simple, but the proof was only found after three
more years of trial and error.
Since the very earliest days of the war the cry in every army
had been for more and heavier artillery, with more and heavier
shells, and the fighting of the earlier part of 1915 merely empha-
sized the same need. By Sept. 1915 the French and British
armies, no less than the German, had been provided upon a
scale never before dreamt of, but yet far below that which was
to be reached before the war was over. Side by side with this
vast expansion went the increase of the signal corps, for without
cooperation between the arms it was clearly useless to expect
the full value from either. Before the war, both in France and
England, this subject of cooperation had received great atten-
tion. It formed the subject of countless essays, lectures and
articles in technical magazines. All that was lacking was prac- ;
tical application and testing under service conditions. Probably
the Signal Service which took the field with the British Expedi-
tionary Force excelled both the French and the German, but it
depended largely upon despatch-riders, admirable in a war of
movement but of less use on a modern battle field. In the words
of a French writer: " II cut mieux valu quclques harangues de
moins sur la liaison, sur 1'union des' coeurs d'artilleurs et de
fantassins, et quelques kilometres de plus de fil teltphonique."
But telephone wire costs money, and its absence is just one of
those difficulties with which every army must expect to be
faced at the beginning of a great war. By Sept. 1915, however,
the Signal Service, the link between infantry and artillery, was '
well equipped; but, in the absence of practical experience, its
possibilities and limitations were not yet realized. In this
direction, as in many others, much was still to be learnt.
First Great French Attack. Material equipment was pro-
vided lavishly and the first of the great attempts to burst through
the enemy's lines was eventually fixed for Sept. 25 1915. At
that date much of the British army was still new and inexpe-
rienced, so the main attack was delivered entirely by the French
in the Champagne country. Farther to the north subsidiary
attacks were launched both by the French and the British, but
with them we are not concerned. Already the old formula:
" The artillery does not prepare the attack, but supports it,"
had been so far abandoned that three days were devoted to the
destruction of enemy's defences by guns of every calibre, and
these had themselves been preceded by several days of counter-
battery work; thus was seen the revival of the old discredited
" artillery duel," which cannot fail to interest the eventual
historian of tactical evolution.
It is clear that an attack which is thus prepared has one grave
weakness. The exact time, and even the day, of the infantry
assault may be concealed from the enemy unless he is sufficiently
fortunate to capture a prisoner who knows and can be persuaded
to part with the secret, but there is nothing of the rapid march
followed by the speedy onslaught and crushing blow of a Lee or
a Stonewall Jackson. On the contrary, the attack is not only
faced by astonishingly strong defences but is at the same time
deprived of what is perhaps its principal weapon surprise.
Some efforts were, of course, made to conceal the exact area
selected for the main attack by carrying out similar bombard-
ments on other parts of the front, but the vast amount of ammu-
nition necessary for a real destruction of wire defences and dug-
outs rendered it impossible to carry out a thorough preparation
at more than one or two points. Thus it came about that the
element of surprise was lacking, and the attack was to this
extent weakened. Nevertheless in the initial stages it was almost
completely successful. The hostile front was broken on a front of
15 miles, and some 20,000 prisoners were taken, together with
about loo guns.
Great hopes were raised momentarily, not only on the fighting
front but in London and in Paris. But these hopes were sadly
dashed, for it was quickly discovered that, after all, the real
difficulty for the assaulting troops was not the capture of the
enemy's organized first-line defences, formidable and almost
impregnable though they had hitherto appeared to be, but the
exploitation of success. So soon as the great attack had been
TACTICS
663
launched there was no longer any doubt as to the exact point
or points at which the German reserves were required, and as
the attack began to lose its energy and vigour the defence grew
stronger. The assaulting infantry found itself in a compara-
tively narrow salient, exposed to a cross fire of artillery from
both flanks, and checked in front by machine-guns which could
not be hastily located. It was just at this moment that the infan-
try found that its own artillery support was weakened, for guns
were trying to move forward to new positions and were at the
same time struggling against perhaps their greatest difficulty,
namely, ignorance as to the exact position of their own infantry.
As the days passed the defence steadily grew stronger, until at last
the attack withered away and finally ceased altogether towards
the end of the first week in October. When the time came to reckon
up gains and losses it was found that against a gain of some
40 square kilometres of ground, 30,000 prisoners and more than
100 guns, the French army had put a loss of 120,000 killed or
missing and 260,000 wounded. The German loss was probably
not much less.
The stories of the various subsidiary attacks were not very
different from that of the principal French effort. There had
been no break-through, but much had been learnt. In the first
place it had been proved that the attack was still stronger than
the defence, for the leading infantry had passed through the
German lines with surprising ease, and there was a general feel-
ing that at several points, notably at Loos, the Allies might
well have won greater success than that which actually came
to them. There was, therefore, reasonable ground for the feel-
ing that, notwithstanding bitter disappointment, the advocates
of the " break-through " had been justified, and that, with the
experience that had been gained, success would certainly be
achieved " next time."
New Tactical Lessons. The causes of failure may be summed
up thus: (a) the attacks were made on too narrow fronts; (b)
there was no surprise; (c) communication between infantry and
artillery was not satisfactory. So far as the first of these causes
of failure was concerned, it was evident that it could be remedied
by allotting more men to the attack, and that in turn developed
itself into the more or less mechanical question of the provision
of more guns and ammunition. The second cause was more
difficult, since, as has already been seen, surprise and prolonged
bombardment cannot well be reconciled. One or the other must
be sacrificed. The third cause of failure led to a very definite
step in infantry and artillery tactics, and to the evolution of
ideas which were put into practice for the first time in the fight-
ing on the Somme in 1916.
As has been seen, it had already been found necessary to
abandon the idea, formed in S. Africa, that " artillery does not
prepare the infantry attack," and it had been realized that an
adequate artillery would have had no difficulty in dealing with
the Boer defences. The fault, after all, had not been in the
older theories of attack, but in the British army having tried
to carry them into effect with insufficient material. Had, for
instance, Lord Roberts's army in Feb. 1900 been provided with
heavy and light guns on the 1915 scale, Cronje's defence at
'l Paardeberg could not have lasted six hours, and the costly
| infantry attacks would have been entirely superfluous. Clearly
, the fault had not been in the theory of an artillery preparation,
which had now been proved to be so completely indispensable
that it was necessary not only against the first system of defences
but also against the less elaborate lines in rear. How to secure
, this cooperation against the second and third lines of defence
was in Sept. 1915 the latest of tactical problems. The solution
then adopted was that the guns must lengthen range or attack
new targets at the request of the infantry. Such was the training
and instruction of 1915, and it was only when put to the test of
actual fighting that it was discovered that no system of com-
munication which the wit of man had yet devised was sufficiently
good and sufficiently reliable to keep artillery fully informed of
the requirements of the infantry; nor was the artillery always
able, for various reasons, to do exactly what the infantry wanted,
even when fully informed. It was out of the confusion and
disappointments of Champagne and Loos that the theory of
methodical progress with limited objectives was eventually evolved
and put into practice in the Somme fighting of 1916.
The experience of the first two years, or, more accurately,
twenty-two months of the war was brilliantly summarized in a
memorandum on the attack, dated June 20 1916, 1 over the
signature of Marshal Foch, then general commanding the
northern group of the French armies. Later experience, no
doubt, caused further modification of views, but this document
is invaluable as showing the stage which had been reached by
the best military thought of the day; for it is in every way worthy
of the great reputation which the author had already won for
himself as a writer and as a student of war no less than as a
great commander in the field. No excuse is needed for quoting
some of the more important passages.
In the first place it is assumed as a reasonable basis for con-
sideration that the German defensive organization will consist
in a series of prepared positions, of which two will be complete,
while the others will be more or less skeleton, but sufficiently
advanced to be quickly made tenable.
" Against such defensive organizations and against an adversary
who is perfectly protected, infantry is incapable of preparing an
attack with rifles and machine guns, just as fire power prohibits all
action by 'cold steel.' For these reasons infantry has lost its offensive
power in the actual battle. Guns alone can destroy the enemy's
defences, upset his organization, kill or annihilate the defenders
and master his artillery.
" In consequence, the r61e of the infantry is limited to seizing and
occupying the ground over which the artillery has wrought effective
and complete destruction."
In another part of the same paper the marshal says:
" In such conditions the attack of every position entails two
phases: (i) the destruction of the defences, or the artillery prepara-
tion; (2) effective occupation by the infantry (de vive force). Experi-
ence has shown that when the destruction by the artillery has been
effective the advance of the infantry is easy and cheap in human
life. When the destruction has been but partial or not thorough,
infantry is completely checked "...
" Artillery preparation is clearly the measure of infantry possi-
bility. It must be resumed the moment the advance is checked. The
depth of ground shelled by the artillery decides the area which can be
allotted for conquest by the infantry. It is not great two, three or four
kilometres." 2
From these hypotheses it follows logically that each successive
position requires fresh reconnaissance, fresh bombardment and
a fresh infantry assault. Infantry, however, by virtue of its
own fire-power, is more than ever able to resist counter-attack.
These new theories may be summed up in the words of another
high authority: " Artillery conquers defences, infantry occupies
them." What a complete change two years of war had brought
about from that other phrase: " The artillery does not prepare
the infantry attack, but supports it"! Yet be it noted that the
latter was also the direct result of war experience.
A further example of the leading position which artillery had
by this time attained is seen in the rapid elaboration of the
" creeping barrage." It will be remembered that during the
Champagne fighting, artillery altered range or changed its
targets " at the request of the infantry." This system had
proved unworkable in actual practice, and for it was gradually
substituted a new plan by which infantry and artillery worked
together in accordance with a carefully prepared time-table.
It is only necessary here to record the fact that for the first time
infantry movements conformed to artillery fire, although it is
also true to say that the artillery " lifts " were based upon the
speed at which it was calculated that infantry could move. It
is also noteworthy that, as the idea of moving close up to the
wall of bursting shell, whether shrapnel or high-explosive,
became more familiar to the infantry, the artillery " lifts " were
reduced and the rate of progress became slower. Such tactics
required no mean degree of confidence in the infantry and a high
standard of accuracy in guns and ammunition as well as of
training in gun-crews. Some casualties from the barrage fire
1 It will be noted that this memorandum was issued only a few
days before the opening of the Somme offensive.
1 The italics are ours.
664
TACTICS
were unavoidable, but it was found far safer for infantry to run
the risk of an occasional short burst than to let the barrage run
away from them, leaving them exposed to enemy machine-guns.
Two other points in connexion with the Somme battle are
especially worth noting. First, several attempts were made
to operate on a really large scale by night, and on one occasion
at least considerable success was won. Secondly, tanks made
their first appearance, an event of real historic importance.
Nevertheless it must be admitted that 1916 brought the
Allies little if any nearer to the longed-for " break-through "
than had 1915, and largely for the same reasons. Again it was
evident that prolonged bombardment was the enemy of surprise.
Again it had been found that the first system of defence was far
less difficult to deal with than were the less well-organized and
comparatively ill-defined lines in rear. In addition it was dis-
covered that the shell-torn ground opposed a formidable obstacle
to the movements of the attacking infantry, while every hole
was a ready-made emplacement for a German machine gun. 1
Great things had indeed been achieved both by the British and
the French armies but the enemy was not crushed, and after
months of fighting on an unprecedented scale he still preserved
an unbroken front from the English Channel to the Swiss moun-
tains. This time the explanation was held to be that, after all,
the system of limited objectives was wrong, for the delay neces-
sitated by the methodic preparation for each successive attack
merely permitted the enemy to recover from the previous
reverse, to bring up reserves of infantry and artillery, and to
oiganize a fresh defence. Thus at each stage of the battle the
defence grew stronger, and the attack weakened until it at last
died from exhaustion. From this premise it followed that if
real success was to be won the artillery preparation must be
heavier than ever but in greater depth, and the infantry must
pass through all the successive lines of defence in one irresistible
rush. Such was the teaching of the French official instructions
of Dec. 1916 which prepared the ground for Gen. Nivelle's dis-
astrous attack in April 1917.
Lessons of 1917. Unlike its predecessors, the campaign of
I9T7 was singularly unfruitful in tactical ideas. Partly owing
to insufficient preparation, partly to over-confidence and partly
to want of secrecy for it was commonly reported that every
flower-seller in Paris knew exactly what was intended the
great French offensive by the IV., V. and VI. Armies met with
a severe reverse. The subsidiary attack by the British I., III.
and V. Armies was more successful, but again resistance was
found more difficult to overcome as the attack progressed, and
the operations were finally abandoned when it became evident
that the main attack, from which so much had been hoped and
expected, could not attain its object. .
The principal scene of operations then became the Ypres area.
First the capture of the Messines ridge, and then the prolonged
attack, in appalling weather and on a narrow front, against the
Passchendaele ridge. As had happened on every previous
occasion, the first system of enemy defences fell easily enough, 2
but difficulties increased just when, theoretically, they should
have been most easy to overcome. The artillery " preparation,"
on a scale far greater even than in the Arras battle of April, did
its work only too well, for, coupled with the heavy rains, it
converted a naturally swampy country into a pock-marked
morass, intensifying in a high degree the troubles of the infantry,
and greatly curtailing the usefulness of the tanks, which were
by this time an important new arm of offense. During this
period, too, the use of gas, especially the newly discovered
" mustard " variety, became more persistent and more general
than ever before. Masks were worn for hours on end, and so
impregnated did the soil become that many men suffered merely
1 In addition the British armies in particular had to overcome
almost incredible difficulties in keeping up the requisite supplies of
ammunition and food over a country which was almost devoid of
roads. It was indeed found necessary to institute a regular road
department of the, transportation directorate.
' It should also be noted that the perfection (coupled with ample
supply) of instantaneous fuze now made the destruction of wire
defences a far simpler affair than it had been before.
from sitting or lying down to rest. Never has any army fought
under greater disadvantages than did the British during the
autumn of 1917, yet, even if it did not do what was hoped from
it, it is only necessary to read Ludendorff's account to realize
how heavy was the strain upon the German resources. Moreover,
under the leadership of Hindenburg and Ludendorff , the defensive
strategy and tactics of the German army had been radically
overhauled during the winter of 1916-7, and the moral of the
troops had been wonderfully improved. Indeed, the army which
held the French on the Aisne, the British at Arras and the
combined Allies round Ypres was altogether different in spirit
from that which had been hunted back to the Hindenburg line
during the previous winter. Even the air service responded to
the new spirit, and the Entente troops no longer enjoyed the
immunity from bomb attacks which had been theirs throughout ;
1916; far from it. Such was the effect of the masterful and
trusted leadership which now had control of the German army.
Tactically, the principal change brought about by the new
regime was a greater elasticity in defence, which aimed at
affording as ill-defined a target as possible to the attacking
artillery and the vaguest possible objective to the assaulting
waves of infantry. In reserve were held certain battalions 1
whose duty it was to advance to the counter-attack as soon as-
it was known that an attack had been launched, and thus it came
about that more than once infantry which was in process of
organization and consolidation after a successful attack found
itself thrown upon the defensive and perhaps forced back from
a position which had been dearly won. Special aeroplanes were
detailed to look out for these counter-movements, and special
batteries to deal with them, sometimes by putting down a
defensive barrage of gas, and from these small beginnings grew
up that war of movement which gradually reasserted itself and
increased in intensity until at last the war was lost and won.
More and more as the great attacks, whether French, British
or combined, failed to win a decisive result, it was realized that
in some way or another the element of surprise must be rein-
troduced, for without it the offensive was deprived of almost
half its power. But the question was, How could the enemy
defences be overcome without the preliminary bombardment
which inevitably " gave away " the assailant's intended plans?
The solution of the problem was at last found in the use of tanks,
and at the battle of Cambrai tanks came into their own. 3 Massed
secretly by night conveniently near the objective, and advancing
when the time came under cover of an artillery barrage, but
over ground which had not been rendered impassable by tons of
heavy shell, the tanks effected a complete surprise, passed line
upon line of defences, and enabled supporting infantry to occupy
an important area of ground with but little loss. So severe had
been the drain upon the German reserves during the Ypres
fighting that for some twenty-four hours the British troops were
within an ace of really effecting a break-through, and Ludendorff
has himself said that if they had been able to push on a little
farther they might have broken in upon his communications and
so have scored a considerable strategical success. But the drain
upon the British reserves had been no less heavy than upon the
German, and the necessary weight to turn a tactical victory into
a strategical success was just lacking. In the end Ludendorff was
able to mass troops for a counter-attack, and some of the
ground which had been lost was re- won; but for the Allies by
far the most important result of the Cambrai fighting was that
the " trouistes " had been able to justify the faith which was in
them and to show that there was a way leading to decisive
victory namely the proper cooperation of infantry, tanks and
guns. The seed sown at Cambrai bore rich fruit in the campaign
of 1918, but before it could do so Ludendorff was to show that,
even without tanks, a break-through was not impossible.
The " Break-through " in igiS. In discussing the first great
French effort to break through the German defensive lines, that
* It should be noted that the earliest embryo of the tanks made its
appearance against Bullecourt in May 1917 ; but the number of these
new engines was then insufficient and their tactics were not well
understood. The attack failed, but the date is important historically.
TACTICS
665
of 1915 in Champagne, it was shown that there were three
important causes of non-success namely, absence of the element
of surprise, unsatisfactory cooperation between infantry and
artillery, and the fact that the whole enterprise was on too
small a scale. In a brief review of later offensives it has been
possible to show how these defects were gradually overcome,
how artillery gradually dominated the tactical theories of the day,
but at the same time rendered surprise an impossibility, until
at Cambrai it seemed that the solution had at last been found.
But Cambrai was itself something of an experiment, and on too
small a scale to have a really decisive result.. As is always the
case in war, the armies of the Central Powers had been passing
all the time through the same evolutionary stages as those of
the Entente. The minds of Hindenburg and Ludendorff were
busy with exactly the same tactical problems as those which
daily occupied the thoughts of British, French and Italian
commanders. After the great failure in front of Verdun in the
early part of 1916 there was no German offensive on the Franco-
British front until March 1918, but much experience had been
gained in the East and in Italy; moreover, there can be no doubt
that Ludendorff's penetrating mind had grasped the reasons for
the failure of successive attacks by the Entente armies, as well
as the real meaning and significance of Cambrai. Profiting by
the experience of others always a most difficult thing to do, but
perhaps particularly so in war he had refrained from himself
taking the initiative until the Russian debS.de had put him in a
position to do so on a really grand scale. By March 1918 he
was able to mass some 80 well-trained divisions for offensive
operations in the West, and this in turn enabled him to attack
the British III. and V. Armies on a front of 80 kilometres.
The mere fact of being able to stage an attack on this scale
gave the German armies a great prospect of success, and elimi-
nated the third of the causes of failure enumerated above. The
other two were more difficult to deal with, but in order to secure
surprise Hindenburg and Ludendorff decided to dispense with
that counter-battery work and artillery preparation which on
the Somme, at Arras and round Ypres, no less than in
Champagne, had disclosed the Allies' intentions while at the
same time rendering the ground difficult, and sometimes impos-
sible, to the attacking infantry. Five hours only were allotted
to the artillery bombardment, and in this time wire was to be
cut and the enemy guns to be mastered at least sufficiently to
allow the infantry to advance. Such was the solution of the
second problem the introduction of surprise and the decision
to attempt so much in so short a time was perhaps the bolder
since the German army must accomplish without tanks and on
a much larger scale what the British had accomplished with them
at their last attempt. 1 The third difficulty that of cooperation
was overcome by the provision of large numbers of light trench
mortars, 2 which, as well as a proportion of field guns, accompanied
the infantry advance, as well as by an elaborate system of light
signals by which the infantry might indicate their position and
wishes to the artillery.
Thus each of the difficulties of 1915 found an appropriate
solution in 1918. The attack was on a sufficiently large scale
to allow considerable room for manoeuvre within the salient
which was inevitably formed; the infantry received adequate
: support from the artillery, at least for several days, and until it
was itself exhausted by appalling loss and by the breakdown of
supplies (for which the efficiency of the British air service was
largely responsible) on congested roads; lastly, a tactical surprise
had been effected, with the result that the troops which bore
the brunt of the first onslaught were without reinforcements for
several days; and this was principally due to the fact that there
was no preliminary bombardment to indicate definitely the
portion of the front which had been selected for attack.
1 The facts that the German design had been foreseen at Versailles
and that the evidence of prisoners confirmed the British forecast in
no way detract from the tactical skill with which Ludendorff's plans
were prepared and executed, or from the value of the lesson.
*It has been said that the Germans possessed 15,000 of these
weapons in 1918.
Nevertheless, notwithstanding the admitted skill and care
with which the German commanders had prepared their plans
and the colossal scale upon which they carried them out, they,
no less than the Entente, failed to reach decisive results. What
they did was to show what it was possible to achieve with the
materials which science and industry had by this time placed
in the hands of the commanders in the field. They had shattered
many of the shibboleths of trench warfare and shown that
infantry was still the conquering arm. In doing so, they not
only exhausted their own man-power, but set loose a new set of
tactical ideas which were seized by the genius of Marshal Foch
and eventually assisted in their own destruction; for, just as
Germany had learnt from the Allied successes and failures of
1915, 1916 and 1917, so the Allies in their turn learned from the
German success and failure of 1918.
Foch in Command. It is not necessary here to trace the steps
which led to the appointment of Marshal Foch to the Supreme
Command in March 1918. All that remains to be done is to
follow the effect of that appointment upon the tactical history
of the war on the western front. Even after the first great
German drive had been checked in front of Amiens, the initiative
remained with the Germans for more than three months while
the great soldier who was now in command of the Allied armies
was reorganizing his forces and making his own plans. During this
period the German attack tactics were unaltered, but each
successive effort was a little weaker than that which preceded it,
and the only new development was the skill with which one
French commander evaded the enemy's blow, surrendered his
forward posts and crushed the assaulting lines as they approached
his real fighting positions. Such tactics were only possible at a
specially favoured portion of the front, but that they were
brought into play at the right place and at the right time was
another sign that trench warfare was becoming a thing of the
past. Meanwhile Foch was maturing his plans, and when
historians of the future, with full documentary evidence at their
disposal, examine the record of these days it may be found that
the marshal's greatest claim to fame is that he, the student of the
past, still retained his belief in the war of movement and in the
counter-stroke as the strongest weapon of defence.
Twice in the earlier stages of the war great counter-strokes
had been delivered with marked success, but for two years they
had not been repeated, and the side which had attacked had been
met only with passive defence. In 1914 the German sweep
towards Paris had been outflanked by Manoury and thrust back
to the line of the Aisne, and nearly two years later the costly
attempt to capture Verdun had been checkmated by the opening
of the first battle of the Somme, though not until it had been in
progress for several months. Since that date there had been the
two great Entente attacks of April and July 1917 and the
German attack of March 1918. In 1918 troops for the attack
were provided by withdrawal from Russia, where they were no
longer required; but in 1917 it had been necessary to denude
important parts of the front in order to release the number of
divisions necessary for offensive action, and to trust for defence
to a highly developed trench system which could be held by
comparatively few troops, so that there was a considerable risk
of counter-attack. It is remarkable that, against an enemy
trained in the German traditions, the assailant was always able
to impose his will, and the defence became largely a question of
railways and transportation. The relief of troops on a fighting
front, their replacement by others, and their transport to a quiet
part of the line became a regular tactical system to which the
French gave the name of roulement. It was a new feature of war,
completely contrary to the peace teaching of every country, but
one which was the logical result of the elaborate preparations
which were then considered necessary before it was possible to
burst through a modern system of field fortification. It was not
until Marshal Foch assumed command that the grand tactics
of defence underwent any real change, and perhaps he was
fortunate in that Cambrai and the March offensive had shown
what was possible, and that, as the result of the movement which
had taken place, the positions held by the opposing forces
666
TACTICS
were not so formidable as they had hitherto been. Be that as it
may, it is none the less the fact that Marshal Foch had the
courage and resolution to make his defence active, and to base
it upon the counter-attack to return, that is, to the practice
of former wars, and to the theories which he had himself so
often preached in peace.
In this connexion two points of particular interest should be
noted. First, it was not until the middle of July in 1918 that
Foch was ready to pass from the defensive to the offensive, and by
that time the Germans were perilously near Paris. There must,
therefore, have been a grievous temptation to stand purely on
the defensive, as Ludendorff had so often done with success, and
it was a bold decision which rejected what to a lesser man might
have appeared the easier and the safer course. Secondly, there
was the peculiar configuration of the German front, which,
after running almost due south from the English Channel to
Soissons and Chateau-Thierry, turned sharply westward to
'Verdun. The German forces within this right-angled salient
were lapped round and enveloped, with the result that in what-
ever direction they attacked they must expose a flank to an active
and vigorous opponent. If Ludendorff should attack southward,
Foch would counter eastward from the west face of the salient;
similarly, if Ludendorff attacked westward, the counter-move-
ment would come from the south. In either case vital German
communications provided a strategical objective within possible
striking distance. It was indeed a weak tactical situation., in
which a series of great and costly but only half-successful
assaults had landed the German army, and of which the com-
mander of the Entente armies intended to take full advantage.
His opportunity came in the middle of July. On the morning
of the 1 5th the Germans attacked on both sides of Reims. For
three days the battle continued with varying fortunes, until
at daylight on the i8th Foch launched his carefully prepared
counter-stroke on a front of 35 miles against the right flank of
von Boehm's army. There was no artillery preparation, but
the French advance was covered, on the Cambrai principle,
by a swarm of tanks. The surprise was complete, and by nightfall
the German flank was crushed and von Boehm's principal line
of communication was in Mangin's hands. But more than this
had happened, for at one blow Foch had passed from the
defensive to the offensive, and had seized the initiative, on a
more comprehensive scale, but in the form made classic by the
great commanders of history. The initiative, once chosen, was
never relinquished, but was followed by a series of rapid and
vigorous blows, beginning with the brilliant attack by the
British IV. Army south of the Somme on Aug. 8. From that
moment until n A.M. on Nov. n the German army knew no
rest, but was pushed from one strong position to another by
victorious forces of many nationalities, into all of which Foch
had been able to instil something of his own personality and
surprising vigour. The time as well as the direction of the
counter-stroke had been truly chosen, for, after acting on the
offensive through four strenuous months, the German infantry
had exhausted its strength, and moral defection and despondency
had spread from the homeland to the armies in the field. It is
Foch's eternal glory that he had had the moral daring to wait
until this moment had come. So the great counter-stroke of 1918
had in it all the elements which had gone to make the success
of exactly similar, if smaller, efforts in former campaigns. It
was carefully prepared as an integral part of a general plan of
campaign ; it was directed against an adequate strategic objective ;
it came as a surprise; and it was correctly timed. Perfect in con-
ception and execution, it met with its reward, but the curious
thing is that it contained nothing new. What the world really
saw on that July morning of 1918 was the touch of the artist
who knew how to express old ideas in modern terms of war for
Foch was bigger than the tools he handled. Perhaps Ludendorff
was not but it is easy to criticize the commander who fails.
Attack Tactics. At this point it may be as, well to leave the
subject of the counter-attack and to return to the study of
infantry and artillery cooperation as exemplified in the latest
phase of the operations. Once more we may turn with advantage
to a French memorandum on attack tactics. This time it is one
dated July 12 1918, only six days before Mangin's counter-
attack. In it, as in all the more recent documents, stress was
laid upon surprise, and it was expressly laid down that attacks
must be launched either without artillery preparation, or, if
that was not possible, then the bombardment must be as short
and as violent as possible. Then followed the important words:
" Finally, the infantry must realize that it possesses an armament
which is strong enough to enable it to exploit its first success, and to
continue its progress, while overcoming local resistance with its own
resources and without artillery action.
The same spirit inspires the IV. Army instructions for Aug. 8
when the tactics of Cambrai were more or less closely followed.
What a change from the memorandum of June 1916 when the
system of methodical advance from position to position, with
artillery preparation preceding each stage of the infantry move-
ment, is insisted upon. Surely tactical opinion has again come
round full circle, and at the end of four years' war we are not
very far from the position at which we started: " Artillery does
not prepare the infantry attack, but supports it." Yet both the
tactical memoranda from which we have quoted have the same
high authority, that of Marshal Foch himself, and both are wise,
for the conditions of 1918 differed widely from those of twoj
years earlier. In 1916 the initial attack was against positions
upon which months of labour had been spent, and held by an
infantry confident in their leaders and in themselves, and quite
sure of ultimate victory. Against such defences and with the
material" at the disposal of the Allied commanders, prolonged
bombardment offered the only possible prospect of success;
but it equally increased the difficulty of subsequent movement
across heavily shelled country and left the enemy in no uncer-
tainty as to ultimate intentions. In minor operations, notably
round Thiepval and Beaumont Hamel, real tactical surprise was !
frequently attempted with success, but only in comparatively
minor operations undertaken with important but limited
objectives when the defence had been already disorganized.
In 1918, on the other hand, German infantry had been wearied
by incessant travelling from front to front in its efforts to
burst through the network of opposing armies, with which
Entente strategy had encircled it. Two years of effort, which
history will certainly look upon as prodigious, had culminated
in the great offensive which, begun on March 21 and ended on
July 18, had exhausted the physical energy of the troops and
produced a corresponding deterioration of moral. At the same
time two years of under-nourishment and nervous strain had
undermined the spirit of the civil population to an extent which
was necessarily reflected in the army. The defences, again,
were but improvised trench systems, hastily adapted to the i
requirements of the moment and in no way comparable to those ;
of 1916. Against them the British and French armies could
bring a more numerous and more powerful artillery than at any
previous period of the war; a better and more numerous air
service; a more formidable infantry equipment, thanks to the
now universal light mortars; and, finally, an ample provision !
of tanks those new engines of war which were certainly the
best means of overcoming the German machine-gun defence i
and, by their moral as well as their physical effect, were to play
so great a part in the final phase of the war. With such changed
conditions it would indeed have been strange and wrong if
corresponding changes had not been introduced into tactics, i
Changes in tactics are brought about by scientific discovery
and consequent improvements in the means of killing. At no
time in history have men of science devoted themselves so
universally and so whole-heartedly to war requirements that
is to say, to the art of killing their fellow-creatures as they did
from 1914 to 1918. Gas, bombs, smoke screens, wireless teleg-
raphy in the field, are but a few of the means by which scientists
had a direct influence upon tactics and by which the research
student in the laboratory was directly connected with the
platoon commander in the field.
It was, therefore, by the united efforts of all classes in a
truly national war that trench warfare came to an end in Aug.
TACTICS
667
1918; but that which followed was not the open warfare of
Frederick the Great, Napoleon or Wellington. Even to the very
end, in Nov., the opposing lines were continuous for 300 miles,
and no open flank afforded opportunity for crushing defeat.
Local flank attacks there were in plenty, and some on quite a
big scale, but there was no Waterloo or Sedan. It had been a
national war, and the German nation had suffered a crushing
national defeat; but even when the Emperor had deserted and
fled ignominiously to Holland the beaten army was still able to
withdraw across the Rhine in some semblance of order.
Palestine. Different in almost every respect, and therefore
also in the tactics employed, were the campaigns conducted in
parts of the world outside Europe. This was especially so in
Palestine, and for that reason will it be well to devote some space
to the special conditions of that theatre of war and upon the
resulting conduct of operations. In the first place the theatre
of war was practically a neutral country. Nominally a part of
the Turkish Empire, Palestine was in actual fact extra-national,
or extra-imperial, with a population by no means united or
enthusiastic in support of the Turkish power. The Russo-
Japanese War offers another, and even more remarkable, instance
of a quarrel between two nations being settled on the territory
of a third. In such conditions the war can have none of those
national characteristics which formed such a dominating and
distinctive feature of the war in the west of Europe. This was
the fundamental difference between the main campaign and
the subsidiaries, from which it came about that the defeat of
Turkey was less national and far more military than was the
defeat of Germany. A second important feature of difference
is to be seen in the railway development of the theatre of war.
It is only through a complete network of railways, supplemented
by road transport, that a nation is able to concentrate the
whole efforts not only of its manhood, but of its entire population
upon the one purpose of winning a war, just as in peace the
whole efforts of a population are concentrated upon various
forms of industry. When the necessary conditions are lacking,
the resultant warfare must inevitably be, if not exactly more
primitive in form than in a highly developed country, at least
nearer to that waged by the professional armies of the past.
The preparatory stages of this campaign, including the
Turkish raids against the Suez Canal and the subsequent
advance to El Arish and the neighbourhood of Gaza, need not
detain us beyond noting the construction of the broad-gauge
railway from Kantara across the Sinai desert. It was wise
strategical and tactical foresight which had led Allenby's
predecessor, Sir A. Murray, to insist upon a broad-gauge line
and so be prepared for operations on a large scale instead of
yielding to the temptation to content himself with a narrow-
gauge line, which could have been more easily and rapidly
constructed and would have sufficed for his own immediate
requirements. A false, or at least a different, decision on his
part in the spring of 1916 would have had a most hampering
effect upon subsequent operations, of which it was at that time
only possible to foresee the most shadowy possibility.
For the purely tactical study, we may pass at once to the
period of Lord Allenby's command and the advance in Pales-
tine. This period may itself be divided into two phases: first,
that campaign which began with the capture of Beersheba on
Aug. 31 1917 and culminated in the entry into Jerusalem on
Dec. ii of the same year; secondly, the dramatic series of
operations which, between Sept. 19 and Oct. 26 1918, resulted
in the destruction of the IV., VII. and VIII. Turkish Armies.
Allenby's strength in mounted men was significant of the
possibilities of the theatre in which he was to operate. In
i iiscussing the development of the tactics on the western front
10 mention has been made of the mounted arm, simply because
ifter the first weeks of the war it had no scope for acting in its
peculiar sphere; there was no scope for mobility and the mounted
nan never really found his opportunity. It was exactly the
everse with the Palestine campaign. So we find that in all
;hese operations the infantry gets from the cavalry or other
mounted troops far more of the support which it always requires
and from the artillery far less. There are no long preliminary
bombardments, for as a rule there are neither guns nor targets,
but in the very first operation undertaken, the capture of
Beersheba, " a mounted attack by Australian Light Horse,
who rode straight at the town from the east, proved completely
successful. They galloped over two deep trenches held by the
enemy just outside the town, and entered the town about 7 P.M.,
capturing numerous prisoners." 1 In passing, it is worth noting
that the operation against Beersheba was undertaken expressly
because " when it was in our hands we should have an open
flank against which to operate, and I could make full use of our
superiority in mounted troops"; and again, when the city had
been taken, with 2,000 prisoners and thirteen guns : " This success
laid open the left flank of the main Turkish position for a
decisive blow." Surprise and movement had taken the place
of costly infantry assaults, simply because local conditions had
made them possible.
Exactly the same experience was repeated in the second stage
of this campaign, which began in Sept. 1918 and ended when the
armistice came into force on Oct. 31. At the commencement of
these operations the Egyptian Expeditionary Force was holding
a line from the river Jordan on the right to a point where the
left rested on the Mediterranean coast, 10 miles north of Jaffa.
The total fighting strength of the force was 12,000 mounted
men, 57,000 infantry and 540 guns. Opposing them, the Turkish
IV. Army watched Lord Allenby's right on the Jordan, in the
centre was the VII. Army on a front of some 20 miles, while
on the right was the VIII. Army holding a similar length of
front. Including reserves, but excluding certain posts on the
Hejaz railway which were more than fully occupied defending
themselves against the Arabs, the Turkish commander-in-chief
had at his disposal some 4,000 mounted men, 26,000 infantry,
with 400 guns, by no means a strong force with which to stand
on the defensive on a front of over 50 miles against an active
and resolute enemy.
Allenby's numerical superiority, it will be noted, was especially
in mounted men, and this he decided to turn to full advantage
when he resolved to make Nazareth, a good 40 miles to the north,
the objective of his next advance; but to set his cavalry free it
was first necessary for the infantry and artillery to force an
opening through the Turkish front. By using every device to
deceive the enemy as to his intentions, Allenby was able to
concentrate 35,000 rifles and 383 guns on his left, where they
were opposed by no more than 8,000 rifles and 130 guns, while
two cavalry divisions and one Australian mounted division
were immediately available. 2 The infantry attack was launched
at 4:45 A.M. on Sept. 19 after an artillery bombardment last-
ing no more than fifteen minutes, the exact object of which is
not clearly evident. The attack was completely successful,
and the cavalry, dashing through the opening afforded to
them, seized the communications and closed all lines of retreat
to the north. Nazareth was entered on the second day of the
operations, and four days later " the last remnant of the Turkish
VII. and VIII. Armies had been collected." The IV. Army met
the same fate only a few days later, and on Oct. i the Arab army
and Allenby's Mounted Corps entered Damascus, which lies
nearly 100 miles in a straight line to the north-east of Nazareth.
Still pressing northward, and completing as they went the
unutterable destruction of the Turkish armies, the mounted
troops, with a few armoured cars, entered Aleppo, more than
200 miles north of Damascus, on Oct. 26, and when the armistice
was signed on the 3ist were within striking distance of
Alexandretta.
II. TACTICS AFTER THE WORLD WAR
An effort has been made so far to give in outline some idea
of the tactical conditions on the western front and in Palestine,
'From Lord Allenby's despatch, dated 16.12.1917: "What
would not the British or French cavalry on the western front have
given for such an opportunity! But wire, mud, shell holes, and
especially German machine guns, effectually prevented any such
possibility."
a Lord Allenby's despatch, dated 31.10.18.
668
TACTICS
the methods resulting from these conditions, and the results
achieved. Utterly dissimilar as were these two theatres of war,
the underlying principles of victory are found, as always, to be
the same. A firm faith in the offensive, concentration at the
right time and against a suitable objective, surprise, and coopera-
tion. The welding of all the forces, moral and physical, by the
genius of the commander into one homogeneous whole, with one
common inspiration, and directed to a common objective, namely
victory. So far the two campaigns selected for illustration are
in agreement with one another and with all the campaigns of
the past; in every other respect the contrast is complete. On
the one hand, in France and Flanders we find whole nations in
arms, troops numbered by hundreds of thousands, and, as a
necessary corollary, continuous lines, heavily fortified and
without flanks to be turned, almost (one might say) without any
vital line of communications, so complete were the railway and
road systems available. As the result long periods of stagnation,
infantry deriving no assistance from the mounted troops (except
indeed when acting dismounted), and dependent in the first
place upon artillery and latterly upon tanks as well. Movement,
when at last it comes, is by slow stages, until when victory is
won it is by the crushing of a nation rather than of the armies
in the field-alone; for this was national war. On the other hand,
in Palestine we find armies operating in a neutral arena, small
in numbers with open flanks to the east, and each dependent
upon a single line of railway; scope and objective not only for
trained and disciplined mounted troops, making full use of their
mobility, but also for light rapid-moving Arab levies harrying
the Turkish communications, and achieving great strategical
and tactical results, with but little loss to themselves, entirely
by the power of movement. Artillery here plays but a secondary
or even lesser r61e, for instead of congestion there is spacs
space in plenty, and when that element is present light troops
come in to their own; activity takes the place of force, and victory
is over the field armies rather than over the civil population.
Between the two extremes of the western European front and
Palestine lay such other campaigns as Mesopotamia and Mace-
donia; but these, though interesting enough in themselves,
add nothing to our present purpose and seem only to emphasize
the same theory in less convincing form namely that each
theatre of war, by its own distinctive physical features and
climate, influences, if it does not actually dictate, the tactics by
which battles and campaigns are won. Otherwise war might
become an exact science instead of the most difficult of the arts.
This war of 1914-8, then, by its very size and variety, has
solved no tactical problem, has answered none of the questions
left by S. Africa in 1890-1902, or Manchuria in 1904-5, but,
like all its predecessors, has raised many new ones. Strategy
is still the art of bringing the enemy to battle on terms which are
disadvantageous to him; tactics are still the methods employed
for his destruction. In former wars this most desirable object
was accomplished by a judicious combination of artillery,
cavalry and infantry. To-day the object is the same, but the
means have been complicated to a degree which in 1910 was
altogether beyond human imagination. Railways have completed
the work of Carnot and the French revolutionary generals, and
made national war a complete reality; but through the perfec-
tions of the internal-combustion engine war itself has taken on
a third dimension. If a great master was formerly required
properly to handle and combine the comparatively primitive
means at his disposal, how much greater should the artist now
be who is to use, and not to waste, the much more complicated
tools which science has now placed in his hands. As science
advances the art becomes more complex, things tend to become
greater than men, and use more difficult than invention. Always
change has followed along the same line, but so rapid have been
the latest steps that the armies of 1921 were further from those
of 1821 than Napoleon's armies were from those of Hannibal;
yet the human imagination and capacity remain as they were
two thousand years ago.
All through the ages changes in tactics have been brought
about by improvements in the means of killing. Latterly
science has advanced with giant strides, yet the mechanism of
slaughter appears to be only in its infancy. How difficult,
therefore, to foresee even with what weapons later wars may be
fought, and what may be the next steps in tactical evolution.
It is easy, indeed, to let the imagination run riot, and to picture
whole populations destroyed by infernal machines easily and
efficiently controlled by wireless waves. The pebble is to be
thrown in at Berlin, Stockholm, Moscow or anywhere else you
will, and the influence carried to the uttermost parts of the
earth. Equally easy it is to persuade oneself that there will be
no change, and the next war will begin exactly where the last
left off. History teaches us, unfortunately, that neither of
these views is likely to be exactly fulfilled. Possibly they serve
as useful correctives one to the other; but the difficulty is to
strike the happy medium. When so many new questions have
been raised and so few old ones have been answered, only one
definite new principle seems to have been established. It is
that, more than ever before, tactical methods must vary in
accordance with the theatre of operations, and that methods
suitable to one country are unsuitable to another. Indeed
even this is hardly new, since it is clear that methods which
sufficed to overthrow the Mahdi at Omdurman would have been
quite unsuitable against the Boers in S. Africa. A short time
ago we were satisfied with two classes " normal warfare "
and " savage warfare"; that is to say, war against highly
trained, well-equipped professional armies or against primitive
races, of which every able-bodied man was an ill-equipped
untrained soldier. Those distinctions no longer suffice. Here
there is an initial difficulty, for in trying to imagine the tactics
of the future we must first imagine the conditions under which
war will be fought. Will they resemble the conditions of France
and Flanders, of Macedonia, Mesopotamia or Palestine?
Conditions for Future Wars. One thing is certain, that the
wit of man cannot devise a system which will be equally suitable
for all. Principles there are, but nothing more. This is especially
a British difficulty, for no army of the world is called upon to
fight under such varying conditions as is the British; moreover,
the British army of modern history has never fought in its own
country. It is only necessary to reflect upon the history of the
World War of 1914-8 to realize that, while Germans fought
almost entirely on their own frontiers, if not in Germany, French-
men in France, Italians in Italy, Turks and Bulgarians in Turkey
and Bulgaria, the British army and troops from the British
Dominions and India fought all over the world. French troops,
it is true, fought in many distant campaigns, but except at
Salonika the oversea campaigns were preponderatingly British,
and cannot be considered apart from the British Dominions and
India. The only other countries at all in like position are
America and Japan, with few extra-territorial commitments.
As a further branch of this same problem we must for a
moment consider the troubles of organization and equipment
which are inseparable from those of tactics. The French army
exists for the defence of France, the Italian army for the defence
of Italy. Defence, no doubt, includes offensive action, especially
in the case of Germany, but how simple these tasks seem
compared with that imposed upon Great Britain with all her
world-wide interests. It is easy to see with what confidence the
general staffs of continental European nations can address
themselves to their well-defined problems, and how much more
complex are the manifold problems of the British general
staff. Others can fortify their frontiers. Not so Great Britain
or her Dominions, who must always be prepared to fight oversea
in some theatre of war which cannot be foreseen with any degree
of confidence or certainty. That is one fundamental and special
complication, as the result of which tactics, organization and
even equipment must always, from a British point of view, be
something of a compromise, ready and able to be adapted to
special conditions on the actual outbreak of war.
Let us consider for a moment what is to be the future of
trench warfare. Will future wars reproduce the conditions of
1914 which led up to it? Will it be the normal warfare of the
future, or was it no more than a passing phenomenon? Is it
TACTICS
669
desirable or not to organize, train and equip modern armies
with a view to it?
The only possible answer to these questions is that nobody
knows. Similar conditions would no doubt produce similar
results, but are we likely to find them? What we know beyond
the possibility of doubt is that in 1914-8 highly developed
industrial countries with dense populations were fighting on or
near their own borders. It was these conditions which made
possible a war on a front of hundreds of miles; and we may well
ask if they can be found again, and, if so, where? Probably the
answer would be that only nations possessing the greatest
possible resources could support a war of this kind, and that
those nations are extremely limited in number, even more limited
in 1921 than they were in 1914. Trench warfare in its extreme
form is the direct outcome of the industrial revolution of the
nineteenth century, and is not possible between such nations,
for instance, as Russia and Poland.
But there is more than this. It must also be remembered that
trench warfare came in 1914-5 as a surprise, and that all armies
dropped into it quite unconsciously. It began with a few strands
of ordinary wire laid out in front of simple old-fashioned fire
trenches. It was indeed a strange phenomenon. In place of
the rapid decision for which everyone trad looked, the largest
armies the world had ever seen were peering at one another
through their screens of metal. That was late in 1914, just at
the moment when all the belligerents had practically run out of
gun ammunition, when there was no means of dealing with
such an unexpected obstacle, and neither side could get at the
other. Nothing like this had ever been seen in war. As we now
know, it took four years to find the way out of the impasse, but
the important point to note is that after the war every nation
possessed the antidote. With masses of artillery, instantaneous
fuzes and tanks, is trench warfare of this type in any circum-
stances conceivable? One thing at least seems to be certain, and
that is that, having learnt their lesson, the armies of all nations
will strain every nerve to render it impossible, and to avoid a
repetition of the wearisome experience of 1914-8.
If this means anything at all it is that future wars between
civilized nations will be opened with a suddenness and violence
far in advance of 1914. In past wars there have always been a
few days of grace between the declaration of war and the first
serious collisions. In 1914 Germany issued orders for her gen-
eral mobilization on Aug. i, France declared war on the 3rd, the
Belgian frontier was crossed by Germans on the 4th and by
France on the 6th; Liege was entered on the 7th, and the last
forts were captured on the isth; finally the field armies came into
collision on the I7th and i8th. Meanwhile on the southern front
the French occupied Mulhausen on the 8th with covering troops,
but failed to hold it, and it was not until the i4th that their
I. and II. Armies and the Alsace group were mobilized and
ready to advance into Alsace and Lorraine.
Now, in considering the strategy or the tactics of the opening
phases of any future campaign, it was very difficult in 1921 to
divest the mind of the picture of 1914, and to remember that
there no longer existed in Europe two great military nations
with armies magnificently led, fully organized and separated
only by an almost imaginary line .called a frontier. Something
of the sort, it is true, may be found in the borders of France
and Italy, but a formidable mountain range only to be trav-
ersed by troops at certain well-defined points introduces an
important factor which was absent in 1914. Other open frontiers
also remained in 1921, notably between Germany and Poland,
between Poland and Russia, and still between France and
Germany; but, for the time at all events, organized well-equipped
armies no longer existed as we knew them in 1914, except in
the cases of France and Italy. Nevertheless it is necessary to
look forward. Germany, no doubt, had been forbidden by the
Peace Treaty to maintain an army of more than 100,000 men,
but it was by no means impossible that before many years had
passed several of the more backward nations of Europe would
become rich and prosperous, with great industries and extensive
railway systems, and would be unable to deny themselves the
luxury of great standing armies and all the paraphernalia of
war. History, at least, is not encouraging in this respect, and
it would certainly be most unwise to assume that, because the
necessary conditions of a first-class war were no longer visible
in Europe in 1921, they would remain so for ever, or even for a
very long time; moreover, it cannot be forgotten that the
opening years of the twentieth century saw a first-class war far
outside the confines of the European continent.
No excuse is, therefore, necessary for the assumption, in 1921,
that coming generations would know war even as the present
generation has known it, and that its opening phases would not
be so very unlike those of 1914, always with such difference as
is brought about by the scientific development of engines of
destruction. If this assumption is justified and it is absolutely
necessary to make some assumptions the prospect is that
either there will be no declarations of war, or that by various
means the period of mobilization will be very much shortened
and the great collisions will take place much more rapidly than
before. And this with two objects, partly to avoid trench warfare
and to reach a rapid decision, partly to ensure that fighting shall
take place on enemy territory and not in the homeland. These
objects are in their essence strategical, but will naturally find
themselves reflected in the tactical sphere. In the first place,
with a view to protecting themselves from a sudden inrush,
nations may have to spend vast sums upon the fortification of
their frontiers, as France did after 1870, and as Germany did for
ten years prior to 1914. The influence of these great fortifications
and their ultimate fate are not, however, very encouraging, and
it is more probable that money may be spent upon the equipment
of field armies, and that very special attention may be paid to
the success of the first inroad into enemy territory, to seizing
the initiative, upsetting the enemy's plans and insuring that at
least the opening battles are fought upon his soil.
Tanks and Aeroplanes. For these purposes great use will
presumably be made of aeroplanes, and rapid-moving tanks
acting in company with cavalry and horse artillery, and here
we are at once upon highly speculative ground since the
tactical value of these new services is still uncertain. There is
a fascination in dreaming of possibilities, but experience shows
that tactical development has always proceeded by the slow
processes of evolution rather than by revolution, and notwith-
standing the great successes achieved by tanks towards the end
of the World War, it is difficult to believe that they will be able
to act alone for any great length of time. In this connexion it
must always be remembered that at the end of 1918 tanks had
the enormous advantage of still being something of a surprise.
They were constantly improving in efficiency and numbers, and
through bitter experience correct tactical methods were gradually
evolved. More important than all, even up to the end of the
war anti-tank defence was ineffective, an advantage which the
new arm cannot expect to enjoy even at the beginning of future
campaigns. Even with this great advantage in their favour tanks
were vulnerable, and at Hooge and even at Cambrai it was seen
that boldly handled artillery could, on occasion, inflict great
damage. Increased speed and improved mechanism will render
tanks less vulnerable, but against them must be set such possible
defence as light easily hidden artillery and anti-tank guns.
Indeed, there is just a possibility that future years may see a
competition, not unlike that at sea, between gunnery in its
various branches on the one hand and speed coupled with armour
on the other. The tank will endeavour to combine mobility
for offensive action with its own protection, while the gunner and
rifleman will try to force the tank to carry armour so heavy as
to destroy its mobility. Something of this kind was actually
seen in the case of the German tanks, which, in the effort to
afford security to their crews, had been so solidly constructed
as to be almost useless. Another difficulty from which tanks
may suffer is inability to carry out their own reconnaissance in
moving warfare. Tanks would also appear to be almost as
defenceless at night as is artillery; they are indeed entirely an
offensive weapon except for the actual protection which their
armour affords to the crews. For these reasons tanks would
TACTICS
appear to be dependent upon other arms, and incapable of
entirely independent action at all stages for reconnaissance,
for overcoming anti-tank defence and for security. At the
same time there is no doubt whatever about the immense
reinforcement of offensive power which they have brought to
the other arms. In themselves they combine mobility, fire and
protection, each in a certain degree; moreover, they may solve
many difficulties with regard to supply of ammunition, especially
to cavalry. It has been amply proved that the great enemy to
cavalry, and to infantry as well, is the machine-gun, and it is
exactly against this weapon that tanks have proved themselves
to be most efficient. Once a machine-gun is located in the open,
i.e. almost anywhere except behind concrete defence, the tank
can deal with it quickly and effectively, while guns heavy enough
to destroy the tanks themselves should in their turn be dealt
with by horse artillery. In this way each of the three arms will
derive support and protection from the other, and all will
derive information and active assistance from the air.
Aeroplanes will carry out both strategical and tactical
reconnaissance, will locate the enemy's forces, and, so long as
light lasts (an important reservation), will watch and report
his movements. In action they will watch the progress of their
own forces, look out for counter-movements, indicate in every
possible way the nature of the enemy defences, and intervene
in the fight, whenever possible, with bombs and rifle-fire.
If any such cooperation is to be possible, the various arms
must not only understand one another thoroughly, have been
trained together and have established a mutual confidence,
but they must have ample and efficient means of intercommunica-
tion, which can only be by wireless telegraphy or telephony.
The same principles must apply to the employment of tanks
with infantry and field (including heavy) artillery. Of all the
difficulties which infantry has to overcome the two most dreaded
are wire and machine-guns. In discussing the action of tanks
with cavalry, rapid movement over comparatively open country
has been assumed, but it is unlikely that this can be more than
a preliminary phase of a few days' duration in a campaign where
the belligerents are on even terms in matters of equipment.
Heavy slow-moving troops will be rushed by rail to the frontier
and will come into action within a few miles of railhead. Then
will come the great struggle for the initiative, the result of
which may well decide the whole war, and ruthless vigour will
be demanded from troops and leaders. At this stage there will
be great battles in which, as in August 1914, neither side will be
completely on the defensive or completely on the offensive;
but both, in their determination to reach rapid decision, will
think chiefly of attack, and there will be comparatively few
highly organized defences, other than those which may have been
prepared in peace-time. Hastily prepared defences may be
extremely effective against infantry, especially if well concealed.
It is then that tanks, moving easily across country, crashing
through hedges, crossing hollow roads, climbing embankments
and making paths, easily and quickly, through hastily con-
structed wire entanglements, will be of the utmost assistance to
their accompanying infantry. In the stage of the campaign
we have tried to imagine there will hardly have been time to
construct land mines, the tank's greatest enemy, but the opposing
infantry will be provided with heavier anti-tank rifles and more
light field guns than are possible with cavalry. Possibly the
tanks themselves may be more heavily armoured than those
with the cavalry, where rapid movement is the ruling factor,
but they cannot be entirely proof. They, like the cavalry tanks,
will be dependent upon the air for information and upon artillery
for support. Hence smoke screens, concealing the moving
target from the defending guns, may be invaluable, as well as the
moving barrage and the fire of guns told off to deal with special
obstructions, batteries of emplacements which have been reported
by aeroplanes or detected from air photographs. But since
both sides will possess tanks, presumably approximately equal
in numbers and efficiency, and since the tank is essentially an
offensive weapon, it is probable that a new feature may be
introduced into tactics, namely tank counter-strokes and tank
engagements, for on each side these machines will attempt to
get at the enemy's infantry and protect its own. But with all
their power for offensive action the tank still has grave limita-
tions, for there are still obstacles to movement, such as the
muddy banks of a sluggish stream, which they cannot overcome;
mud, as the armies knew it in Flanders, is to the tank what
uncut wire is to the infantry, and without power to move the
tank is highly vulnerable. Valuable as they doubtless are, it is,
therefore, easy to fall into the error of overestimating their
possibilities, and it is important to bear in mind that they will
not always have the moral effect upon infantry that they had
when they were terrible and unfamiliar objects on the battle-
field. They cannot turn hostile infantry out of even hastily
prepared entrenchments; the most they can do is to make it
comparatively easy for their own infantry to get in, and even
to do so much they are themselves dependent upon the help of
supporting artillery, while all arms are almost blind without
the help of aeroplanes.
So far it may perhaps be possible to penetrate into the
future, and to anticipate that the opening stages of the next
great war between highly developed nations possessing con-
tiguous frontiers will not be very unlike those of 1914 except
that they will be fought out with more complicated machinery i
and with even greater vigour. He would, however, have to be
very bold who would venture to prophesy whether, with all
the new inventions we now possess, or indeed with others of
which we as yet know nothing, wars will really be short and
decisions quick or whether prolonged passive resistance is still
a possibility. Have the aeroplane and the tank, heavy artillery
and the instantaneous fuze so strengthened the offence that it
will be able to overcome any defence which human ingenuity
can devise, and that there will be a return to the Napoleonic
era, or will the defence again be able to assert its superiority
as it did from the winter of 1914 to the summer of 1918? Is it
again possible that aeroplanes, aided conceivably by artillery
firing at extreme range, may wage war against the civil population
with asphyxiating gases and heavy bombs, and render war so
terrible and so destructive to life and property that field armies
may cease to have their purpose? The answer would appear
to be that one lesson which emerges from the late war is that there
is no limit either to human ingenuity or to human endurance,
and for that reason, if for no other, it is only prudent to assume
that the balance between offence and defence will be as finely
adjusted as ever in the past, and results will depend not upon
engines but upon the brains and courage of those who use them.
Minor Wars. If we leave for a time the consideration of what
may be termed first-class campaigns and turn to those of the
second or third class, it would certainly seem as though science
had rendered the advantage of civilized nations over uncivilized
greater than ever before in both the strategical and tactical
spheres. As has been shown, one great feature of differentiating
first- from second-class campaigns is that of space and freedom
of movement. Movement means power to concentrate with
rapidity and secrecy and so to effect surprise. Now, it so
happens that while campaigns of the first class have in the past
been confined almost entirely to Europe, those against uncivilized
or undeveloped races are conducted under the burning skies of
Africa or Asia. Frequently the climate has been a more for-
midable foe than the enemy, and the tribesmen or local levies
have had far greater mobility than highly trained European
infantry. Any device, therefore, which can add to mobility is
enormously in favour of the civilized man, the product of
industrial conditions. The campaign in Palestine gives the
best possible example of tactical success directed against a '
suitable strategical objective. Victory when it came was absolute ;
and complete, but it was over an enemy whose moral had been
shaken through acting purely, or almost purely, on the defensive
through four years of war. Against that enemy the British
forces had won a series of tactical successes, but it was not until
cavalry had secured full liberty of movement that tactical
success was crowned by strategical victory. Against an enemy
ill provided with special means of defence and with inferior
TACTICS
671
artillery equipment, fast-moving tanks should give to cavalry
or mounted infantry an invaluable reinforcement in fire power.
It is the weakness of mounted troops that whenever they are
called upon to use fire one-fourth of the personnel is out of
action, merely taking care of their horses; and this at the critical
moment of action. No such disability handicaps the tanks,
whose fire power is great in proportion to the personnel employed.
They will, therefore, supply exactly the factor in which mounted
troops are necessarily weak, while their own peculiar drawback,
vulnerability to fire from artillery or specially constructed
rifles, will be of little account. Mechanical difficulties, from
heat and other causes (for the strain upon the crew in a closely
confined space is always great), they will certainly have, but
these should not be insuperable and may be disregarded. A
mixed force of tanks and mounted troops should therefore have
just that combination of mobility and fire power which is neces-
sary to allow civilized troops to make free use of space that is,
to manoeuvre freely and confidently against an uncivilized or
ill-equipped enemy before his -moral has been shaken.
Exactly the same arguments apply to tanks acting with
infantry and artillery in a formal attack against an uncivilized
enemy in position. The mere fact that such an enemy does not
himself possess tanks will add enormously to the moral effect
of their appearance, and should go far toward rendering an
1 artillery preparation or bombardment of any kind unnecessary.
If this is so, surprise becomes much more simple; and surprise
is, as always, the strongest weapon of the attack. It is evident,
therefore, that at every stage the older arms will be wonderfully
strengthened by new inventions, yet it cannot be claimed that
even in second- or third-class warfare science has yet succeeded
in producing anything entirely to take the place of the man and
the horse; for the man and the horse are, after all, the only
pieces of mechanism which are adaptable to varying circum-
stances, yet perfect in themselves and directed by an individual
intelligence. Science then does not as yet supersede the most prim-
itive factors in war, but where one side has the monopoly of its
products (or even only of some of them) there should be economy
of effort, and consequently of life, which should enable the
civilized army to be always on the offensive and to force a
favourable decision with great rapidity.
Lessons of 1914-8. To sum up, then, the experiences of the
past war and the effects of the latest discoveries, it would seem
that at first the defensive proved to be a far stronger form of
warfare than had been anticipated, because, owing to dense
populations and good communications, armies could hold
continuous lines, with no open flanks. Frontal attacks of the
most pronounced kind became unavoidable, and months and
even years passed before the attack regained its ascendency.
In these conditions there was no scope for the mounted arm, and
even the infantry returned to the most primitive form of war-
fare. Rifle-fire was useless, for it could not kill, and fire which
does not kill is wasted. It was then that the infantry had
recourse to the bayonet and the bomb, and the long-range
fighting of S. Africa ceased .to be. Instead, for three whole years
infantry tactics were on a lower and less scientific plane than in
the Manchurian War, which, in the opinion of many soldiers,
was fought out on altogether a lower plane than the S. African
War which preceded it. Meanwhile ever-growing demands were
made upon the artillery, not only for increased weight of pro-
jectile and volume of fire, but for a degree of accuracy which had
never before been considered necessary or even possible. So far
did the dependence of the infantryman upon artillery support
extend that there were some who advocated the abolition of
the rifle altogether, since it could no longer kill. Then came two
vitally important inventions first, the instantaneous fuze,
which deprived wire of much of its terror, and then tanks, with
their combination of mobility and- fire. With tanks and artillery,
infantry recovered its power of movement, and with movement
the rifle recovered its position, for trenches had lost their
protective value and once more it could kill in the open. In less
civilized warfare we can see that on a narrow space like the
Gallipoli peninsula continuous lines were possible, but elsewhere
space gave freedom for movement, fire was supreme, and the
victor imposed his will by crushing the enemy's field armies.
In both forms of warfare it was proved once more that in the
end infantry is still the queen of battle, but requires ever more
assistance from the other arms and from science.
Now, in this very question of the influence of scientific
discovery upon tactics, the World War has taught us much. But
need the experience have been quite so bitter? No doubt it is
easy to be wise after the event, but we should learn little if we
allowed ourselves to be convinced that we were perfectly wise
before it. To take only one instance, the enormous expenditure
of gun ammunition during the opening weeks of the war had the
effect of entirely using up all reserves within a very short time
after the opening of hostilities. It is now no secret that by the
end of the first battle of Ypres the British artillery was practically
without ammunition; guns were rare enough, but even the few
there were had nothing to fire. And this was true of all armies.
It was not only the weather which stopped the fighting in the
middle of Nov.; it was, as well, largely the fact that infantry was
almost deprived of artillery support. Moreover, it was just
this period of respite which enabled the armies to dig themselves
in, and to organize those systems of field fortification which for
so long defied assault. Now, this deficiency was due to two
causes. In the first place to a short-sighted economy, always in
favour of running a risk in order to avoid unpleasant parliamen-
tary criticism and this tendency exists in all countries; in the
second place, it was due to a tendency, which is also universal,
to devote too much attention to the past and too little to the
future. It is so easy to follow Napoleon's advice, to read and
reread the campaigns of the great commanders; it is so easy
to store the mind with facts and figures; but it is so difficult to
apply the knowledge acquired to the requirements of the future
and to breathe life into Dryasdust. This is, perhaps, the most
difficult task of the general staffs, which all nations had by iQ2r
established more or less upon the Moltke model. Every great
army has its inventions board, whose duty it is to sift the corn
from a vast quantity of useless chaff; but the real trouble is to
foresee what the tactical effect of any new discovery may be and
how to turn it to advantage upon the field of battle. It is easy
to learn by experience, but wonderfully difficult to prophesy.
Some instances there have been, notably Wellington's confidence
that, with the weapons he had, he could dare to go into battle
in new formations giving him unprecedented fire power. By
his penetrating insight he gained a very definite advantage over
men whose experience in European warfare was infinitely greater
than his own, and, by breaking away from the stereotyped lines
rendered classic by Frederick the Great and even by Napoleon,
British infantry gained a tactical advantage which they retained
until Waterloo. It was exactly the same firm and traditional
belief in the efficacy of rifle-fire which won the first battle of
Ypres, for at least in this respect nothing approaching the training
of the British Expeditionary Force had ever been seen in
European armies. Similarly, it was Moltke's realization of the
power of improved weapons and other developments of science
that was the origin of his idea of envelopment, whereby he
revolutionized German tactics and crushed the armies of Austria
and France. Both commanders took risks which are now
difficult to realize, but both were justified, not only by their own
victories, but by subsequent history. Wellington and Moltke
both had their critics, but there is no one who now doubts the
wisdom of linear formations or enveloping tactics.
It is unfortunately impossible to produce a Wellington or a
Moltke at will, but the application of the lessons of history to the
requirements of the future is at least as important and needs
at least as much study as the facts themselves. With each step
forward and as science renders more and more services to the
great art of war the future becomes more difficult to forecast.
In the first place it is evident that, as war becomes more complex,
peace manoeuvres must become less and less realistic. It is
related that Frederick the Great regularly rehearsed the move-
ments with which he intended to beat the Austrians. We are
also told that the comment of the victorious Prussian soldiers
672
TACTICS
after Koniggratz was that the battle had been " exactly like the
last manoeuvres." Something of the same kind might conceiv-
ably have been said of Mons or Le Cateau, but certainly not of
the Marne or of the first battle of Ypres; still less of the Somme,
the German offensive of 1918 or of Aug. 8. For many reasons
manoeuvres can only last for a strictly limited time, whereas
modern battles are almost unlimited in length; for the same
reasons troops can be employed only in limited, instead of un-
limited, numbers; while for other reasons the convenience of
the civil population outweighs the demand for military instruc-
tion. To such an extent did civil requirements outweigh military
that up to the outbreak of war British troops were not allowed
to sleep even in barns or outhouses, although billeting is a most
necessary, and by no means easy, military exercise, ignorance
and inexperience of which subsequently caused the British army
much suffering and fatigue. How infinitely more difficult will
it now be to produce anything which shall in any way represent
the conditions of a modern battle-field, with trenches, wire
entanglements, smoke screens, gas attacks, barrages, aeroplanes
and tanks! The thing simply cannot be done. Manoeuvres
will still be a valuable means of training up to a certain stage;
but that stage will be far short of the reality, and must be
supplemented in the general staffs by imaginative thought.
That is the first difficulty to be overcome. In the second
place invention, which has received so great a stimulus since
1914, will not now stand still. The vital importance of the
general staff keeping in close touch with the best and most
progressive scientific thought of the day, either through the
inventions board, or through any other form of " liaison," can,
therefore, require no emphasis. If anything is clear as to the
course of future wars between civilized countries it is that suc-
cess at the outset is half way to ultimate victory. If through
more rapid mobilization, a better strategical plan, or both, one
side can seize the initiative and drive it home by early tactical
success it will be in a winning position from the start. It can-
not be denied that, owing to the foundations laid by Moltke,
the superstructure built by Schlieffen, and the attention which
had for years been paid to the possibilities of machine-gun fire,
Germany held an advantage in 1914 which was only wrested
from her by " the miracle of the Marne " and by the fact that
her ammunition supplies failed her just as did those of England
and France. Had German leadership, equipment and tactics
in 1914 been equal to those of 1918 it is difficult to believe that
Paris would not have fallen in spite of the genius of French and
British commanders. And so it seems probable that the next
war will open with even greater suddenness and greater violence
than the last, with more efficient engines of destruction and more
rapid movement. The country that would have its tactical
development keep pace with science must, therefore, be pre-
pared to spend money upon experiment; its general staff should
have its research department; tactical training and scientific
research should together form the latest new Model Army.
Indeed, just as during the war every army commander had on
his staff his meteorological expert and his chemical adviser, so
surely the general staff in peace should ha~ve its chemical depart-
ment, for it is not impossible that the chemist may become as
important in war as in every great industrial enterprise.
But there is yet a third reason why future wars will certainly
produce unpleasant surprises which may even be revolutionary
in their nature. By the Treaty of Versailles the German army
was reduced to 100,000 men, but it could not alter the fact that
Germany's central position in Europe placed her in a situation
in which she believed that she must trust to arms for her exis-
tence or go under in the struggle. She has also been trained in
the belief that offence is the surest defence. Except that
Poland had taken the place of Russia on Germany's eastern
frontier, and that the Austrian Empire had disappeared, the
military problems of Central Europe remained in 1921 much
what they were before 1914. Germany was still an ambitious,
industrious nation, with 60,000,000 well-educated and intelli-
gent citizens. On the one frontier lies France, and on the other
Poland, both with large armies, and neither of them particularly
friendly to Germany. In these circumstances it was only
reasonable to assume that her policy would be to avoid war, at
least for many years to come. At the same time it was clearly
evident that her military problems must give rise to very
anxious thought. This spectacle of a rich, densely populated
country with an army regulated by treaty is, it is true, not en- '
tirely new. The same thing happened after Jena, but with the
difference that Germany was not then either rich or densely
populated. Nevertheless an answer was found to the restrictions
imposed by Napoleon. It need not be the same answer this
time, precautions against that having been taken, but there is
the alternative that Germany's effort may be to compensate
for the numerical weakness imposed upon her by scientific equip-
ment and by bringing new forces into play. The World War
showed beyond doubt that, given good leaders, a mass of un-
trained human beings could quickly be converted into an
efficient fighting force. Germany's military aim will, therefore,
naturally be to train the 100,000 men she keeps in peace-time
to become highly efficient leaders in war. Her war budget will
be high per man, for the army must be recruited on a voluntary
basis; yet the total sum will not be great compared to that of
other countries, and money will be available exactly for those
purposes of research and experiment which are seen to be so
highly important. Many years must elapse before Europe can
have recovered sufficiently from the results of the World War
to reproduce the conditions of 1914; and perhaps by that time
her peoples may have realized the futility of war as a solution
for differences of opinion or interest; but in this respect history
is far from encouraging, and all the time there will be in the cen-
tre of Europe a nation whose soldiers are thinking out war
problems on lines which must inevitably be quite different from
those followed by their neighbours. Hitherto all the military
nations have thought along similar lines. Sometimes one and
sometimes another has thrown up a great genius, the product of
whose mind had placed his own country at an advantage; but
here we have an entirely new set of problems, the solution of
which may lead to new and startling results.
In 1921 there were thus three important factors rendering it
more than ordinarily difficult to penetrate the obscurity of the
future. First, the impossibility of reproducing in peace-time
the conditions of the battle-field as we actually know them;
secondly, the effect of scientific research upon tactical evolution;
thirdly, the peculiar position of Germany and its repercussion
upon military thought. Other factors doubtless exist, for the
opening stages of every war bring their own peculiar surprises.
All that can be done is so to arrange plans that they may not be
too rigid, and may if necessary be adapted to meet the unexpected,
just as Joffre in 1914, surprised by the extent and weight of the
German turning movement through Belgium, switched his own
reserves to his extreme left and produced the counter-stroke of
the Marne and the Ourcq. This is merely an example culled
rather from strategy than tactics, but it serves to illustrate the
fact that, in war, the great contest between brain and brain, it
is the unforeseen which happens. The real difficulty is to antic-
ipate the problem rather than to solve it. Never in the history
of the world have tactical problems received such close attention
and study as during the years just prior to 1914. With one
great war just finished and the shadow of another hanging
heavily over Europe, discussions on strategy and tactics filled
the columns of newspapers and magazines not only of the pro-
fessional but also of the general press. The general staffs of
all nations worked out theories and doctrines of war, and the
official handbooks gave the armies the considered opinions of
the best military brains in each country. The conflicting sys-
tems of envelopment and penetration were weighed and con-
sidered, with the result that military training could be classified
in two clearly defined systems, sometimes called for convenience
the French and the German. The real value and capabilities
of quick-firing artillery and the necessary infantry formations
with which to meet it were thrashed out in theory, and so far as
possible by experiment, for, although the French " 75 " was
already an old gun, its effects had never really been tested on the
TACTICS
673
battle-field. Meanwhile Germany introduced her heavy field
howitzer and England her long-range field gun. The probable
effect of these new factors in war were weighed, discussed and
fairly accurately foreseen. But surprise came elsewhere, for
the factor which was neglected was the power of the railways to
maintain in the field such armies as the world had never beheld,
with what we can now see was only the natural corollary
field fortifications impregnable to the material which armies
then possessed, and by their strength and extent rendering
impossible both envelopment and penetration. The truth is
that it is less difficult to find the correct answer to the questions
which are asked by history, experience and such foresight as
we possess, than to foretell and ask the really vital questions.
III. THE ART OF LEADERSHIP
So far we have dealt almost entirely with the mechanism of
war, the tactics of 1914-8, and possible future developments.
There remains the all-important subject of command, and the
qualities which go to make a great commander the human
element for without true leadership arms and equipment and
even training will achieve but little. " With a great general no
action is executed which is the fruit of chance or fortune; every-
thing is the result of combination and talent " (Napoleon's War
Maxims, No. 82). Such was the considered opinion of the
great master of war, and it can be confidently asserted that
nothing has happened since he fought his last, and perhaps his
most wonderful, campaign in 1815 to shake it. Surely no com-
mander ever took greater risks than did Napoleon in the series
of operations which ended at Waterloo, but they were the result
of careful study and calculation and they came near to victory
over almost double his numbers. Even now who can say what
might have happened but for failure of his physical power and
energy at the most critical moments, for surely England and
Europe were never in greater danger than during the forty-eight
hours after the Prussians had been beaten on the field of Ligny.
How curious to reflect that a little more than a hundred years
later the descendants of those who stood at Waterloo should
have fought out another campaign on a vastly greater scale but
on very similar lines and on ground not very far distant. The
combatants were differently grouped, it is true, but the German
blow in March 1918 was directed at the junction of the Allied
armies, this time the British and the French, just as in 1815 the
French blow was struck at the junction between Wellington
and Blucher. Once again the British army was based on north-
ern ports, while her ally was based on inland territory; once
more the allies were for a time in danger of retiring along diver-
gent lines and perhaps of defeat in detail. Numbers and weap-
ons were different from those of 1813, but the main features of
the campaign and the principles upon which it was fought out
were the same. So true it is that the principles of war are sim-
ple and eternal, but the application of them varies in each par-
ticular case. Never yet has there been a great commander who
has not read and thought deeply about his art in order that, by
training his instinct on the right lines, he may decide correctly
when the supreme hour arrives. It is not in order .that we may
master the principles of war that Napoleon has advised us to
: " read and reread the campaigns of Alexander, Hannibal, Gus-
tavus, Turenne, Eugene and Frederick," but in order that we
May " obtain the secrets of the art of war," and those secrets
lie in application.
How strange, too, that of the great names which will go down
:o history in connexion with the campaign of 1918 two at least
ire those of men who had seen little or nothing of war before
1914 Foch and Ludendorff. For more than forty years Foch
lad no experience of anything but peace soldiering; Ludendorff
icard an enemy's rifles and saw his own men drop for the first
:ime in his life near Vise on Aug. 4 1914. Both had mastered
; :very detail of their art, not in the open field but in the solitude
)f the study. Each in his own way was an artist, but of the two
t Was Foch who had the inspiration, " the fire in his belly,"
vhich is the sign of the true master. Yet it is not enough to
ollow the movements even of these two, for all wars will not be
xxxn. 22
fought either with the numbers or the weapons of 1918 any
more than with the weapons and over the extent of ground of
1815. Something between the two may be found to be nearer
to the normal, but when due allowance is made for later inven-
tion, surely no campaign is better worth studying than this of
1815. Fought out between two great captains in the space of a
few days and over a few miles of country, it forms a very epit-
ome of war in all its branches. The doubt up to the last
moment as to Napoleon's intentions; the strategical surprise; a
concentrated force with one line of communication operating
between two forces with divergent lines; the handling of D'Erlon's
force and the attempt to effect a concentration on the battle-
field at Ligny; the British and Belgian rearguard action at
Quatre Bras and the retreat to Waterloo; Wellington's masterly
disposition of troops as contrasted with Blucher's two days
earlier; his telling use of advance posts, Hougoumont and La
Haye Sainte, breaking up Napoleon's massed attacks; the con-
centration of forces on the field and the great counter-stroke
against Napoleon's right and rear, so largely the result of
Blucher's loyalty and force of character; finally the stupendous
defeat, the inevitable result of this most difficult manoeuvre
when successfully accomplished, as it was here, at Koniggratz
and on one or two other occasions in history; and the relentless
pursuit. They were indeed crowded days of glory. And then
Wellington's characteristic comment: "A damned serious busi-
ness. Blucher and I have lost 30,000 men. It has been a
damned nice thing, the nearest run thing you ever saw in your
life. ... By God! I don't think it would have done if I had
not been there." 1
Since those days Moltke has perfected the art of marching to
the battle-field, of concentration by many different roads upon a
single objective, and we have seen the same manoeuvre devel-
oped under more difficult circumstances at Liao-yang. Arising
from Moltke's tactics, so closely followed by Oyama in Man-
churia, there have been many fierce disputes upon the compara-
tive virtues of envelopment and penetration on the battle-field.
Yet all these theories, these varying systems and bitter discus-
sions, are based upon one solid foundation, the development of
fire; for from the days of the long-bow to those of the modern
tank it is to the development of fire that all changes in tactics
are directly due. To-day, more than ever before, the power of
developing fire is in the hands of the commander who seizes and
retains the initiative. This he may do either through superior
readiness for war and quicker mobilization, through a better
strategical plan, or through superior numbers. In any case he
will require superiority in the air, and better, more numerous or
more skilfully handled covering troops, cavalry and rapid tanks.
Decisive battle will be the object, and the experience of the
World War would appear to prove that quick decision can only
be obtained through envelopment. Converging lines of com-
munication drawn from widely separated bases may then be a
positive advantage, especially since the rapid means of com-
munication now available have overcome much of their danger.
Moreover, so devastating is the effect of converging or enfilade
fire from modern weapons that the troops exposed to it are in
deadly danger. An attacking force, it is true, may conceal an
exposed flank by the skilful use of smoke, but not so the defend-
ing force, and the increased range and rapidity of modern arms
are on the side of the attack rather than of the defence. Each
commander will, therefore, strive with all his energy and will
power to secure the initiative at the outset of a campaign;
every artifice will be used and every engine will be employed.
Sooner or later, however, one or other of the combatants will be
forced to the defensive, but, if he is master of his art he will not
resign himself to his fate any more than did Wellington and
Blucher in 1815 or Joffre in 1914. He will devote all his skill
and resource to recovering his freedom of action and to assuming
that domination over events which will enable him, in his turn,
to impose his will upon his adversary.
This change of fortune can only be brought about by a tactical
counter-stroke, exactly as was done by the Entente armies in
1 The Creevy Papers, vol. i., chap. x.
674
TACTICS
1914 and again in 1918. On each occasion they aimed at the
envelopment of the enemy forces, for the very successes which
had brought the Germans so close to Paris afforded to a com-
mander, sufficiently skilful to seize it, the opportunity to deliver an
enveloping counter-attack the very opening he needed. Thus
it is clear that even to-day, provided the opposing armies are
well led, neither can have the monopoly of enveloping move-
ment or fire development, but that, as has always been the case
in war, " everything must be the result of combination and
talent." So it is that so soon as a great commander finds that,
for one reason or another, the initiative has passed from him he
will think only of the counter-offensive whereby he is to regain
it. He cannot wait, like Wellington at Salamanca, or Napoleon
at Austerlitz, and watch his enemy commit a fatal error, for
modern battle-fields are too vast, and mistakes are committed
too far from the field of action. His aeroplanes will no doubt
bring him much useful information, but before he can turn it to
advantage the whole situation may have altered. 1 He cannot,
therefore, so plan his battle as to make the action of his reserve,
or striking force, dependent upon some chance or fleeting
opportunity. Instead he must form some new plan, some new
combination of his own, and carry it through with undiminishcd
audacity and resolution. It is, perhaps, this blindness of the
commander which has brought about the greatest change of all
in modern grand tactics, for he cannot now survey the whole
even of his own force, and much more than formerly he is de-
pendent upon his subordinates, who must, in Napoleon's phrase,
" understand his system " if he is to be well served.
But there is another aspect of the matter. With weapons of
still longer range and greater accuracy than our modern artillery,
with small-bore weapons of still greater rapidity of fire than the
Maxim or the Lewis gun, fronts will become more and more
extended, and the establishment of continuous lines will be
possible even to comparatively small armies. It will be easier
to use natural obstacles for the protection of flanks, which will
become more difficult to find and to turn. In this respect the
defence would appear to have gained a distinct advantage over
the attack, in that frontal assaults are likely to become more
inevitable. The indirect result of the increased volume of fire
seems, therefore, to be more important than the direct effect.
Against this it is possible to put forward the suggestion that
frontal attacks are actually less to be feared than they were.
Formerly they had two disadvantages first, that they were
desperately costly in life ; secondly, that at the best they resulted
merely in the tactical retirement of the enemy, not to his destruc-
tion or to any great and decisive strategical result. Now, how-
ever, owing to the same increase of fire power which has strength-
ened the defence, it is possible for the assailant to make all his
dispositions for attack out of sight of and unperceived by any
enemy who elects to stand purely on the defensive. Little
more than a hundred years ago Napoleon drew up his army in
front of La Belle Alliance in full view of Wellington on the slopes
of Waterloo; a few years earlier Marmont had manceuvred in
front of Wellington at Salamanca and met his doom exactly as
had Kutusov, for exactly the same reason, at Austerlitz. All
this is now changed, and in 1918 Ludendorff showed how, even
without command of or even superiority in the air, it is possible
for the assailant to make his arrangements for attack without
being detected; and this instance is the more remarkable since
his intention had been foreseen and his troop movements were at
least suspected. It is this power of massing unseen against the
portion of the front selected for attack that gives the assailant
his principal chance of success, even should the attack not come
as a complete surprise. Moreover, the very extension of the
front which, by our hypothesis, has rendered the frontal attack
inevitable, makes it extremely difficult for the defender to ensure
that his reserves are best placed for resistance. Even with
superiority in the air and good intelligence, a commander who
has lost the initiative and has been forced to stand on the defen-
sive cannot be absolutely certain when the blow will fall. With
1 Moreover, so many movements will be carried out at night that
even the aeroplanes will miss a great deal.
his widely extended lines, it is more than probable that he ha?
several delicate points to guard, failure at any one of which
would give the enemy some considerable strategical advantage.
Hence the disposal of the reserves intended to be used for defence
becomes a matter of extreme difficulty, and unless the assailant's,
intention is exactly anticipated, as is not very probable, much
priceless time must be lost in moving them to the point of dan-
ger, and meanwhile the assailant may have secured an initial
advantage of which it will be extremely difficult to deprive him.
This brings us to the second weakness of frontal attacks thej
difficulty of winning any real strategical result. That weakness.
was very real so long as the only result of defeat was to compel'
an army, as in the Russo-Japanese War, to retire along its line:
of communications to a fresh position somewhat nearer to its
base. But with modern lines, extended even more widely than
in Manchuria, a new tactical idea has been evolved. Partly
owing to our enlarged ideas on the massing and use of artillery,
partly owing to the improved engines of destruction which
brought a great accession of strength to the attack, and partly-
owing to the tactical use of aeroplanes, there grew up that idea of
a " break-through " which was completely realized in the World'
War only in Palestine, but which came near to accomplishment;
in France in March 1918. But perhaps the factor which con-
tributes most to the chance of a successful " break-through " is:
that very difficulty in the disposal and handling of reserves to'
which reference has just been made. In this connexion it must!
be remembered that tanks have given the attacking force anj
altogether new power of pushing home an initial success with;
rapidity and vigour. In place of the slow-moving infantry!
which laboured painfully through the shell-torn swamps of the
Somme or the Passchendaele ridges, we may well sec a strong
force of tanks, able to move at a steady pace for several hours on;
end, turning defeat into rout, disorganizing communications!
and spreading panic before reserves can be brought from dis-
tant parts of a widely extended battle-line. Hence it would seem
that just those developments which give to the defender the;
power to defend his flanks and to guard against envelopment'
have at the same time given to the frontal attack a greater!
chance of success than it ever had.
In this case it may be asked, How should the commander who
has lost the initiative and been compelled to stand on the defen-j
sive attempt to recover control of his campaign ? The answer is,;
by exactly the same methods as those by which Foch recovered
it in July 1918 that is to say, by counter-attack. There is nol
other means. And this is true whether the attack be enveloping'
or frontal, and it is if possible more essentially true than ever
before, since, owing to the distance to be covered, reserves
which are held for purely defensive action are in great danger ofj
being too late. Not only can they not win a battle; they may I
well be too late to save it. Thus even the briefest consideration
of defence brings us to the old conclusion that attack must be met,
by counter-attack, that offence is still the soul of defence, and that'
the true role of the reserves in a defensive action is to convert it into an.
offensive one. These are but the oldest principles of battle
fighting, true from the days of Alexander the Great until to-day,
but always put into practice by new means and new methods.
This is the essence of Marshal Foch's own appreciation of
Napoleon (London Times, May 5 1921):
" Often during the darkest days of the war we used to ask our-
selves what Napoleon would do with the armies of to-day. . . .
This is what he would have said : ' You have millions of men ; I never
had them. You have railways, telegraphs, wireless, aircraft, long-
range artillery, poison gases; I had none of them. Yet you make'
nothing of them. Stand aside while I show you how to use them.' !
In a month, or perhaps two, he would have changed everything,
reorganized everything, employed everything in some new way, and |
crushed the bewildered enemy."
There in a few words we have the marshal's views on his
great predecessor. It is not that he would have discovered
some spectacular and dramatic way of winning the war, but
merely that he would have bent scientific discovery to his own
ends and put each new invention to its proper tactical use.
Thus he would have won battles, and when he had finished his
TAFT TAGORE
675
work all would have appeared obvious and simple. That is the
way of the artist; and the great tactician is a supreme artist.
(N. M.*)
TAFT, LORADO (1860- ), American sculptor (see 26.354),
was elected to the National Academy in 1911. He was director
of the American Federation of Arts from 1914 to 1917 and in
the latter year was appointed a member of the board of art
advisers for the state of Illinois. He received a silver medal
at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, San Francisco, 1915. His
recent works include: "Black Hawk" (1912, figure of an Ameri-
can Indian, at Oregon, 111.); Thatcher Memorial Fountain (1918,
at Denver, Colo.); and "The Fountain of Time" (1920, at
Chicago). In 1921 he published Recent Tendencies in Sculpture.
TAFT, WILLIAM HOWARD (1857- ), 27th President of the
United States (see 26.354), antagonized a considerable branch
of his own party in 1911 by his endeavour, which proved un-
successful, to secure a reciprocity agreement with Canada.
Meanwhile wide public interest had been awakened in the con-
servation of national resources and the President's attitude was
attacked by the conservationists. In 1909 Gifford Pinchot, chief
forester, charged Richard A. Ballinger, Secretary of the Interior,
with being opposed to conservation. A Congressional committee,
after investigation, exonerated the Secretary, but he later re-
signed. The attack upon Ballinger was denounced by the Presi-
dent, who continued to be criticized in connexion with the sale
of public lands, and who dismissed Pinchot from office. The
President lost ground also as a result of a breach of friend-
ship between himself and Theodore Roosevelt, who supported
Pinchot. In 1912 the President signed the Panama Tolls bill,
exempting American coastwise shipping from tolls; he affirmed
that it did not violate the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, and believed
also that the United States had the right to fortify the canal.
At the same time he expressed a readiness to arbitrate the ques-
tion with Great Britain, who had protested. Cleavage within
his party waSiCrystallized at the Republican National Convention
in 1912. In the pre-convention campaign Roosevelt came for-
ward as leader of the progressive wing against Taft as leader of
the conservative or " stand-pat " wing, and the mutual re-
criminations were bitter. At the convention, however, the con-
servatives controlled the party machine, and the committee on
credentials by arbitrary decisions excluded most of Roosevelt's
contesting delegates. Taft was renominated on the first ballot,
receiving 561 votes, 21 more than the required majority. Roose-
velt denounced the action of the convention and later was nomi-
nated by the newly formed National Progressive party. In the
ensuing election Woodrow Wilson, the Democratic nominee,
won an overwhelming victory, securing 435 electoral votes
to 88 for Roosevelt and 8 for Taft. President Taft carried
}nly two states, Utah and Vermont, and those only by small
pluralities. The general feeling throughout the country was
^hat President Taft had shown a deplorable lack of administra-
tive firmness, his good nature having caused him to vacillate.
3n retiring from the presidency in 1913 he became Kent pro-
'essor of law at Yale, but devoted much time to lecture engage-
ments. In 1913 he was elected president of the American Bar
Association, and in 1914 first president of the American Institute
}f Jurisprudence, organized to improve law and its administra-
tion. After the outbreak of the World War in 1914 he supported
President Wilson's strong stand for neutrality. In 1915 he
ipproved the Army League's campaign for preparedness. He
tfas an active promoter of the League to Enforce Peace, but
ifter America's entrance into the war he argued that victory was
lecessary for attaining lasting peace. In 1918 he was appointed
jy the President a member of the National War Labor Board
or arbitrating labour disputes during the war. In 1919 he
ndorscd the Peace Treaty of Versailles, regarding its most im-
wrtant part to be the Covenant of the League of Nations. He
.poke throughout the country in behalf of the League. After the
Senate's rejection of the Peace Treaty he urged reservations
f these would secure ratification. In July 1920 he was appointed
o represent the Grand Trunk railway on the board of arbitration
or determining the sum to be paid by the Dominion of Canada
when the road was to be made a part of the national system.
He supported Warren G. Harding, the Republican candidate
for president in 1920. On June 30 1921 he was appointed
by President Harding Chief Justice of the Supreme Court to
succeed Edward Douglas White, deceased.
He was the author of Popular Government: its Essence, its Per-
formance, and its Perils (1913) ; The Anti-Trust Act and the Supreme
Court (1914); The United, States and Peace (1914); Ethics in Service
(1915, Yale lectures); Our Chief Magistrate and his Powers (1916,
Columbia lectures) and The Presidency: its Duties, its Powers, its
Opportunities and its Limitations (1916, lectures at the university of
Virginia).
TAGORE, RABINDRANATH (1861- ), Indian poet and
author, was a member of a well-known Bengali family noted for '
its activities in literature, art and religious reform as well as for
its public benefactions. In 1921 the head of the orthodox Hindu
branch was Maharaja Bahadur Sir Prodyot Coomar Tagore
(b. 1873), a great-nephew of Prosunno Coomar, who was the
first Indian to be nominated to the Viceroy's Legislative Council
and founded the Tagore law professorship in the university of
Calcutta. The grandfather of Rabindranath was Dwarkanath,
" merchant, philanthropist and reformer," who was known to his
contemporaries as " Prince Tagore." He visited England in
1842 and again in 1845, sat to D'Orsay for his portrait, and,
dying of fever in London in 1846, was buried at Kensal Green.
In conjunction with Raja Rammohan Roy he initiated the
movement of religious reform which took shape as the Adi
Brahmo Somaj. This work was continued by his son Maharshi
Devendranath, of whose seven sons, Dwijendranath, the eldest,
devoted himself to the study of philosophy; Satyendranath,
the second, was the first Indian to enter the covenanted civil
service and served for 35 years in the Bombay Presidency; and
Jyotirendranath, the third, was an accomplished musician.
Their cousins, Abanindranath (b. 1871), Gogonendranath and
Narendranath, became distinguished artists. Rabindranath,
the youngest son, was sent to England to study law, but soon
returned. In 1901 he established the famous Shantiniketan,
or abode of peace, at Bolpur, a village 93 m. from Calcutta.
Originally organized as an asram, or retreat, by the Maharshi,
it was developed by Rabindranath into a school conducted on
unconventional lines, and he aimed at enlarging it into an in-
ternational university which should comprehend the whole range
of eastern culture. His outlook upon the west was thus summar-
ized by him in a letter published in the Indian press at the close
of 1919: " The bulk of English people can never be in a normal
state of mind with regard to us, our situation being unnatural,
and I am impelled to think that it is best for us to do our own
work quietly in our own surroundings." Gandhi's policy of non-
cooperation was, however, severely condemned by him as per-
verted nationalism, " which was making of India a prison,"
in a letter addressed to the principal of his school at Bolpur
in June 1921. He paid frequent visits to Europe, Japan and the
United States (where his son Rathindranath became a student
in the university of California), and carried through several lectur-
ing tours. His reputation as a writer among his own countrymen
was early assured, and the 30 poetical and 28 prose works com-
posed by him in Bengali are now regarded as classics. The Eng-
lish public first became interested in his works in 1912, and his
fame rapidly spread. In 1913 he was awarded the Nobel Prize
for literature and utilized the whole amount, 8,000, for the
upkeep of the school at Bolpur. He was given the degree of
Doctor of Letters in the university of Calcutta and accepted a
knighthood in 1915, but addressed a letter to the Viceroy in 1919,
resigning the title as a protest against the methods adopted for
the repression of disturbances in the Punjab.
His more important books, of which English translations have
been published, are the poems Gitanjali (Song Offerings) (1913),
The Crescent Moon (1913), The Gardener (1913), Songs of Kabir
doiS), Fruit Gathering (1916), Stray Birds (1917), The Lovers
Gift and the Crossing (1918); the plays Chitra (1914), The King of
the Dark Chamber (1914), The Post Office (1914), The Cycle of Spring
(1917)' Sacrifice (1917), and other plays; the novels, The Home and
the World (1919), The Wreck (1921); as well as a volume of letters,
Glimpses of Bengal (1921), and the short stories Hungry Stones
TANGANYIKA TERRITORY
GERMAN EAST AFRICA
(TANGANYIKA TERRITORY)
Scale. I: 7.500.000 MILES
SO IOO r*g
Boundary 1914 .--'1921
Railways
Roads
IRANGI
"O
otondoa Iranfei
MOZAMBIQUE ,: 4 |i a 'o* on n? . ""." . ?
\ Z A.-M B I Q'U E >-
(1916) and Mashi (1918); and republished lectures, Sadhana, or
the Realization of Life (1913)1 Nationalism (1917), Personality (1917).
He also published his Reminiscences (1917).
See W. W. Pearson, Shantiniketan (1917); article in Hindusthanee
Student (March 14 1921). (H. E. A. C.)
TANGANYIKA TERRITORY, the name officially given in
Jan. 1920 to that part of ex-German East Africa administered
by Great Britain. It has an area of some 365,000 sq. m., com-
pared with the 385,000 sq. m. of the former German protectorate,
the rest of the region having been added to Belgian Congo except
the small Rionga district at the mouth of the Rovuma, which
was incorporated in Portuguese East Africa. Urundi and
Ruanda, the provinces acquired by Belgium, were the most
populous parts of German East Africa, and whereas the popula-
tion of the German protectorate in 1916 was estimated at some
8,000,000 that of Tanganyika Territory in 1921 was under
5,000,000. Europeans in 1920 numbered about 2,200, of whom
1,400 were British and 300 Greek. The largest towns were
Dar es Salaam (20,000 inhabitants) and Tanga (16,400) on the
coast, and Tabora (25,000) inland.
With the conquest of the country in 1916-7 civil administra-
tors were appointed by the British and Belgians in the areas
they occupied, Mr. (afterwards Sir) H. A. Byatt being chosen by
the British. His headquarters were at Dar es Salaam. Iringa,
Mahenge and other regions were, until March 1918, adminis-
tered by Gen. Northey's chief political officer, Mr. (afterwards
Sir) H. L. Duff. At first the Belgians, with Col. Malfeyt as
Royal Commissioner, administered, from Tabora, the western
area from Victoria Nyanza to near the southern end of Tan-
ganyika. In March 1918 the Tabora region was taken over by
the British. By decision of the Supreme Council in May 1919
the mandate for German East Africa was assigned, without
qualification, to Great Britain, but Belgium advanced claims
to retain not only Urundi and Ruanda but a much larger area,
including the province of Ujiji, with the lake terminus of the,
railway from Dar es Salaam. The matter was settled by an
Anglo-Belgian agreement signed in Sept. 1919. By this agree-
ment Ujiji province went to Great Britain, and also such parts
of Urundi and Ruanda as were needed to allow the projected
railway from Tabora to Western Uganda a link in the Cape
to Cairo scheme to remain in British administered territory.
By another convention signed in March 1921 Belgium obtained
the right of transit of goods free of all custom duties over the
railway from Kigoma (the lake terminus of the line) to Dar es
Salaam, and in general by any other route adapted for transit,
TANKS
677
together with areas (on payment of nominal rent) at. both ports
for wharfs, bonded warehouses, etc. The districts which Bel-
gium had temporarily administered but which fell within the
British mandatory area were formally transferred to the
British administration on March 22 1921.
Orders in Council for the government of Tanganyika Territory
were made in July 1920. The next month the administrator,
Sir Horace Byatt, was gazetted governor and Sir William M.
Carter appointed Chief Justice. The terms of the mandate, as
proposed by Britain, were made public in March 1921.
In accordance with the terms of the Covenant of the League
of Nations the mandatory was bound to allow equality to na-
tionals of all members of the League in matters of residence,
trade and commerce. This condition had an important bear-
ing on the position of British Indians in the territory. It pre-
vented any discrimination being made against them, as had
been done in the neighbouring colony of Kenya. A proposal
had been made during the World War that the territory should
become, in effect, a reserve for India. This proposal could not
be adopted, but in Aug. 1919 the Colonial Office consulted the
Indian Government as to the desirability of setting aside special
areas for colonization by Indians. Investigations were made in
the territory by Sir Benjamin Robertson, with the result that
the Government of India in a despatch dated Feb. 10 1921
stated that it was improbable that Indian farmers would be
attracted to Tanganyika, where only large estates seemed
likely to succeed.
The Indian Government moreover drew attention to the
rights Indians possessed under the mandate and urged that
Indians should also be granted perfect political equality with
other settlers, of whatever nationality. Indians in Tanganyika
numbered in 1921 some 15,000. They had penetrated to every
part of the territory, and save for the competition of Greeks in
certain areas practically monopolized the retail trade.
The transition period 1918-21 proved difficult, and there was
much delay in setting up the new machinery of government. This
was in part inevitable, as until the Treaty of Versailles came into
force, an event delayed until Jan. 20 1920, the country was still
legally German territory. The whole of the German settlers were
repatriated and their estates sold during 1921. Until this process
was completed no new land grants were made, and agriculture was
practically at a standstill. A Land and Mines Department was,
however, formed towards the close of 1920, and mining regulations
were promulgated early in 1921. The only mineral worked on a
considerable scale was mica, the chief deposits being in the Uluguru
mountains. Between 1917 and 1920 mica valued at 40,000 was
exported for the British Ministry of Munitions. In March 1920 the
mines were closed. The alleged indifference of the administration to
the needs of the commercial and planting community evoked strong
protests, and further difficulties were caused by the change from the
German currency in rupees at 15 to the to the florin at 10 to the ,
preliminary to the substitution of the shilling for the rupee, as in
Kenya (see KENYA COLONY). The exports and imports for 1917-20,
taking the rupee at 15 to the , were:
Imports
Domestic
Exports
Re-exports
1917-8
1918-9
1919-20
1,109,000
1,007,000
1,158,000
591,000
674,000
1,330,000
36,200
26,200
96,300
These figures did not include sisal and cotton to the value of
284,000 exported by the custodian of enemy property nor the mica
exported for the Ministry of Munitions. The principal exports were
sisal, cotton, hides, skins, copra, coffee and ghee. Up to 1920 the
exports were mainly accumulated stocks. The chief imports were
cotton piece goods, rice and other foodstuffs. The re-exports repre-
sented transit trade with the Belgian Congo. Trade was mainly
with Zanzibar, Kenya and India. For the year ending March 31
1920 the net tonnage of the ships cleared was 193,000 (154,000
British).
Sir Horace Byatt and his staff had a difficult task in building up a
new administration on the ruins of the German system. In native
affairs they sought to reestablish the old tribal organization, almost
destroyed under German rule, and steps were taken to abolish
slavery. During 1918 and 1919 the Government had to feed large
numbers of the people, who, as a result of continued drought, suffered
severely from famine. The Indian penal codes were introduced, but
it was not until 1921 that civil courts having jurisdiction over non-
natives were established. The absence of such courts was not an
unmixed evil in this period of transition, though traders, who could
not sue for debts, were loud in complaints. But the tendency to wild
speculation and to charge high rates of interest was checked. Cus-
toms laws with a general ad valorem duty of 10% on imports
similar to those in force in Kenya were introduced before the World
War ended, and, in 1921, British weights and measures. Revenue
was derived chiefly from the customs dues, trade taxes and licences,
and hut and poll taxes, each able-bodied male native paying not
fewer than three florins a year. While revenue naturally rose as the
area under civil administration increased, so likewise did expendi-
ture. Up to March 31 1920 the total revenue received was 1,596,-
ooo, and the total expenditure 1,365,000. It then became necessary
to spend much larger sums to put the country into working order,
and for the year ending March 31 1921 the Imperial exchequer made
a grant of 330,000. For the next financial year the Imperial
exchequer made a grant of 914,000 the Colonial Office had asked
f r '.500,000. Heavy expense was incurred in making good the
damage done during the World War to railways, roads and harbours.
The garrison maintained three battalions of the King's African
Rifles; cost about 250,000 yearly. (
Under British administration the German names given to certain
districts and towns were replaced by native names. The following
changes were made: Wilhelmstal district became Usambara district
and Wilhelmstal (town) Lushoto. Bismarckburg district became
Ufipa and Bismarckburg (town) Kasanga. Langenburg district
became Rungwe and Neu Langenburg (town) Ntukuyu. Wied^
hafen, on Lake Nyasa, became Manda. In 1917 Oldoinyo Lengai
(God's mountain) at the S. end of Lake Natron was in frequent
eruption; it is the only known active volcano in the territory. In
May and June 1919 very severe earthquakes occurred in the S.W.
part of the territory. By the fall of the side of a mountain near the
N.E. end of Lake Nyasa some 5,000,000 tons of earth and rocks
were displaced: the falls in the Livingstone mountains altered
considerably the face of the country.
See Report on Tanganyika Territory (1921), a valuable official
monograph covering the period to the end of 1920; the Colonial
Office List for parliamentary papers; A. S. and G. G. Brown, The
South and East African Year Book and Guide (London, annually) ;
Hans Meyer, Ostafrika (1914); F. S. Joelson, The Tanganyika Terri-
tory (1921), and the authorities cited under GERMAN EAST AFRICA.
(F. R. C.)
TANKS The name " Tank," applied during the World War
to a bullet-proof, armed, track-driven, climbing, automobile,
machine-gun destroyer, was first given to an engine of war in
Dec. 1915, as a blind to conceal the true nature of the experi-
mental fighting machine then being secretly constructed in
England. After the first appearance of the machine in the field
in Sept. 1916, the word was universally adopted. It is here
used to describe all armed and armoured automobiles of a fight-
ing type propelled on the caterpillar system. To the British
is due the credit of first conceiving and introducing this weapon,
which was destined to exert a decisive influence on the course
of the war on land.
The conditions responsible for the birth of the tank were not
in principle new. They were the same as have always existed
in war, but intensified by the application of modern methods
to the situation unexpectedly created by the course of the land
campaign on the western front. Neither the strategic develop-
ment nor the outcome of its full tactical exploitation had been
foreseen. It was owing to this that so vital a factor as the tank
proved to be should have had to be improvised during the course
of hostilities as the solution of an age-old problem. The problem
was that of giving effective assistance, in the shape of direct
protection, to infantry advancing under fire.
Apart from cooperation elsewhere, assistance can be given in
two ways. It can be effected either by artillery, which with its
power of long range action can support advancing infantrymen
whilst in motion, and therefore unable to make full use of their
rifles, by shooting over their heads, or more directly by the pro-
vision of some form of physical protection against blows or
missiles. The attempt to provide protection whilst retaining the
power of movement both for hand-to-hand fighting and also
against missiles, as opposed to that afforded by fortification to
troops when stationary, has recurred throughout the history
of warfare. The best known examples of it are the shield and
body armour carried or worn by the man. Though the need
for these did not then cease, their practicability was terminated
by the introduction of firearms, since no weight of material
that the human being or the horse could carry was of avail
against missiles propelled by the force of powder. There was
TANKS
also the idea of giving wheel-borne collective protection to sev-
eral men at a time, and devices for doing this have been numer-
ous, and have varied according to the progress of mechanical
knowledge and the resources available at the moment.
The Assyrians made use of war chariots, or mobile fortresses, which
were adopted from them by the Egyptians and Israelites. 1 Chariots
were also employed by the Chinese in 1200 B.C. Then, for siege
warfare, there were the Roman Testudo, or " Tortoise," and the
mediaeval Beaufroi, or "Belfry," which was usually assisted by the
" Cat " or " Sow," an engine of a more mobile type. About 1400
A.D. Conrad Kyeser wrote on this subject, and some 20 years later
Fontana and Archinger designed cars, the latter a large machine to
carry 100 men. In the middle of the I5th century appeared the
" Scottish War Carts," known also as " Tudor War Carts." In 1472
one Valturio designed a machine to be propelled by wind sails.
In 1482 Leonardo da Vinci wrote to Ludivico Sforza describing
a machine which, except in motive power, was in essentials the
counterpart of the tank. A battle car was designed for the Emperor
Maximilian I., and in 1558 Holzschuher described one for use with
infantry and cavalry. Eleven years later two land battleships are
stated to have been built by Simon Stevin for the Prince of Orange.
Except those propelled by the wind, all the above were moved by the
muscular power of men or horses. In 1634 David Ramsey took out
an English patent for a self-moving car, and Caspar Schott designed
one for use against the Turks. In 1769 Cugnot, a Frenchman,
actually constructed a steam-driven road car which could be used
in war ; and later Napoleon wrote a paper on the subject of the auto-
mobile in war. In 1855 James Cowan, in England took out provi-
sional protection for a " locomotive battery fitted with scythes to
mow down infantry," and endeavoured to persuade Lord Palmer-
ston to take up this adaptation of the chariot. Capt. Nadar
put forward a similar suggestion in 1870; and in 1900 John
Fowler, of Leeds, produced armoured steam traction engines for
S. Africa.
The introduction of rifled breech-loading firearms did not
force into use any system of man-borne or horse-borne pro-
tection, notwithstanding that the range, volume and accuracy
of all kinds of fire was immensely increased and its effect ren-
dered correspondingly more deadly. For, it was less possible
than it had been to produce shields or body armour which were
capable of resisting the greater penetration of the rifle bullet
and yet light enough to be carried; whilst no practical method of
mechanical propulsion across country of the heavy weights in-
volved in collective protection had been discovered. And yet,
as time passed, the need for some more intimate form of help
for the infantry soldier than that afTordcd by artillery grew
more insistent. It was accentuated by the invention of the
machine-gun and of the magazine and the automatic rifle, and
by every successive improvement in small arms or artillery.
In point of fact, however, the mechanical difficulties had been
overcome some years before 1914. The " caterpillar," or
" track," or " endless band " system of propulsion, by which
weight is distributed by the increase of the surface bearing on the
earth, instead of being concentrated, as with a wheel, and a better
tractive effect obtained, which had been known, and in the United
States largely employed, for some years, had furnished the key
to cross-country mobility; and the perfecting of the internal
combustion engine had subsequently given to the world com-
pact power with light weight.
The principle of the "footed wheel," "caterpillar," or " track "
system of propulsion appears to have originated in the patent of
Richard Lovell Edgeworth in 1770 for a device whereby a portable
railway could be attached to a wheeled carriage. 2 This employed
the basic principle of all subsequent track-driven machines. Then
followed patents for tracks of different natures, by Thomas German
in 1801, William Palmer in 1812, John Richard Barry in 1821.
In 1846 there was the Boydell engine, with footed wheels, improved
upon by Andrew Dunlqp in 1861 ; whilst in 1882 Guillaume Fender
and John Newburn designed modifications of tracks. In the follow-
ing year the actual use of tank-like engines for war was predicted by
M. Albert Robeida in La Caricature. 3 In 1886 there came the Apple-
garth tractor, and the Batter tractor was patented in the United
States two years later. The latter anticipated the tank in many
details. All the above machines were steam propelled. In America
steam locomotives with caterpillar tracks, some furnished with sleds
1 The greater part of this historical summary is taken from Tanks
in the Great War by Brvt.-Col. J. F. C. Fuller, and The Forerunner
of the Tank by H. M. Manchester, The American Mechanist, Vol.
xjix. No. 15.
2 The Engineer, Aug. 10 1917 and following issues.
'* Strand Magazine, June 1917.
or runners, had for years before the war been applied to haulage in
lumber camps. After the appearance of the petrol engine Frank
Bramond patented in 1900 a special form of track for pneumatic
tired wheels. In 1907 a Rochet-Schneider car fitted with a chain
track was tried for military traction purposes, and in 1908 a 70 H.P.
Hornsby-Ackroyd chain track tractor took part in a review at Alder-
shot, and Hornsby also demonstrated a 75 H.P. Mercedes motor car
fitted with tracks, a speed of 20 m. an hour being attained on sand.
Another British tractor, of the footed wheel type, was the Diplock
Pedrail. In America petrol-driven caterpillar tractors had before
the war become quite common for agricultural purposes, amongst
them being the Bullock, Killen Strait and Holt tractors.
While experiments in petrol-driven caterpillar-track tractors
for military use had been carried out by the British authorities
before the war, there had been no serious investigation or pro-
posal by any nation to develop the caterpillar principle for
fighting as opposed to transport purposes. In 1903 Mr. H. G.
Wells had in fiction anticipated the intervention in battle of
fighting machines which amounted to large-size tanks. Five
years later Capt. T. G. Tulloch had suggested a scheme for a
steam-driven pedrail armed and armoured trench-crossing ma-
chine, and in 1911 had put forward a proposal to use armed and
armoured linked Hornsby-Ackroyd tractors with a crew of a
hundred men. And in 1912 Mr. L. E. de Mole, an Australian,
actually placed before the War Office a design, followed in
1916 by a model, for a climbing, fighting track-driven machine.
This was the real prototype of the tank; and in some particu-
lars, especially its pivoted ends and flexible chain tracks for
steering a curved course, it seems to have been superior to the
machine actually produced. Unfortunately, whatever may
have been official opinions or intentions in regard to this scheme,
no action was taken. 4 In Dec. 1915 a caterpillar-track wire-
cutter, invented by M. J. L. Breton, the French deputy, and
called the Tracteur-porle-cisaille, or Tracteur Breton, was tried,
and orders were given for a few, which, however, were not con-
structed. The Boirault cross-country motor, which consisted
of an articulated polygon, was also tried, but was found imprac-
ticable owing to lack of steering power.
In the years preceding 1914, military opinion generally in-
clined to the belief that in any future struggle open warfare,
or a " war of movement," alone was probable; that in such a
campaign mobility was the essential; and that there would not
be many occasions when a sheer unassisted frontal attack would
have to be pressed to the end against carefully prepared posi-
tions held by unshaken defenders. It was appreciated that such
operations if attempted would be costly to the infantry, though
how costly was not realized. And it was thought that they
could usually be avoided by manoeuvre, or, if they had to be
carried out, would be assisted by envelopment or flank action
which would relieve the task of the infantry by weakening the
power or determination of the defence to fight to the end, or by
operating at night or by surprise. The other, local, measures
for assisting the infantry consisted of the bombardment and
supporting fire of the attacking artillery up to the moment of
actual assault, and the covering rifle fire from stationary infantry
to cover those who could not use their rifles whilst actually
moving forward, both of which were intended to keep down the
defenders' fire. Great and, as it proved, undue reliance was
placed on this concentration of the fire-power of the attack
both from artillery and from small arms. It was hoped that
by the continual cumulative reinforcement of the firing line
until it had arrived at assaulting distance, and possibly dug
itself in, a superiority of fire over the defenders would be gained
sufficient to permit of the delivery helped by artillery till the
last moment of the final assault with the bayonet. To enable
the firing line to improvise some sort of protection when it could
no longer move forward and was " frozen " to the ground, the
infantry of all armies were equipped with a portable entrenching
tool. The blade of this instrument, it was thought, also, might
in some cases serve as a species of shield. Except by the Ger-
4 Mr. de Mole's ideas had no influence on the evolution of the
tank, for the originators of the latter were ignorant of his project,
which only became generally known after the war, in Oct. 1919,
some four years after the Mark I. tank was designed, when the sub-
ject came up before the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors.
TANKS
679
mans, wide extension of the attacking infantry was relied on to
reduce the casualties. The Germans favoured mass tactics,
trusting to break through by weight of numbers in spite of loss!
Up to the outbreak of the war, therefore, partly owing to a wrong
estimate of possibilities; to a non-appreciation of the progress
of science in its application to warfare; to fallacious reasoning
based thereon; to the necessity for economy in military matters;
and to the mechanical difficulties which had so long stood in the
way and which were still thought to stand in the way, not only
had no solution of the problem of providing mobile protection
been arrived at, but no serious effort to reach a solution had for
a long period been attempted. It followed that when hostilities
opened in 1914, save for the development of artillery tactics and
matlriel, not one of the combatants was really in possession of
better means of rendering possible the advance of infantry under
fire than those which had been at the disposal of the opposing
forces in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5. Indeed, in face of
the actual growth in strength of the tactical defensive all armies
were in this direction relatively weaker than in previous wars
of modern days. And the weakness seems to have caused no
anxiety. The prevailing complacency, however, was soon to
receive a rude awakening.
It might be imagined, since the Germans first assumed the
offensive on the western front, that they would have been the first
to become aware of this deficiency and to feel the need for mo-
bile protection. This was not so. Though they carried out a
succession of attacks during the first month of the war they were
not held up, except for a short time before the fortresses Liege,
Namur, Maubeuge, and Antwerp, which they reduced by gun-
fire, and were able until they reached the Marne to continue
their onward rush and to maintain their pressure. These attacks,
with the exception of the abortive assault on Liege, were not
executed against carefully prepared positions such as developed
later, and were not usually of a purely frontal nature unassisted
by tactical or threatened strategic flank operations or envelop-
ment. Nevertheless, the German losses were extremely heavy,
probably more severe than had been expected, but were thought
to be the price of the apparent general success of their strat-
egy at the time. They would have been truly justified had the
German plan of campaign in fact succeeded. During this
period such losses as they suffered were caused mostly by the
quick-firing field artillery of the French on the one hand, and
on the other by the musketry of the highly trained long-service
British infantry hastily entrenched in improvised positions.
This, it is stated, was so intense as to lead to the erroneous con-
clusion that the British Expeditionary Force had been secretly
and lavishly equipped with machine-guns. And it was not
owing to the strength of the resistance of the British or French
field armies on the defensive that the progress of the Germans
was finally brought to a standstill at the Marne.
It was only when the roles of the two sides were reversed and
the Allies assumed the offensive that the factors first came into
play that eventually forced on them a fresh effort to solve the
ancient problem. It was then, so far as the British were con-
cerned, that it became apparent that, notwithstanding the
weakness shown by permanent forts which had quickly suc-
cumbed to the power of specially designed ordnance, not only
had the capacity for passive resistance of field defences been
much increased, but the active power of the defensive had been
very greatly enhanced by the application of modern methods
and the scientific employment of modern arms.
More than a hint of this was given first by the nature of the resist-
ance made by the German rear-guards during the battle of the
Marne, notably at the crossing of that river at La Ferte-sous-Jouarre
on Sept. 9, where the British Ath Div. was held up almost entirely
by machine-gun fire in its endeavour to force the passage. It has
since become known that the Germans had concentrated at this spot
some 42 machine-guns, equivalent to the number of these weapons
with 21 British battalions. 1 Later, during the fighting on the Aisne,
greatly as the British were harassed by the German weight of artil-
lery, it was mostly by machine-guns that their efforts to advance
were checked, in some instances by the combined action of these
1 "Die deutsche Kavallerie in Belgien und Frankreich," Von
Poseck, p. 102.
guns and obstacles, such as abattis and wire entanglements, which
though improvised, were found to be very effective, especially in
view of the British weakness in artillery. Even at this early stage
so strong were the German defences that the nature of the operations
began to approximate to that of siege warfare. Later, at the begin-
ning of Oct., in the more open action when the British endeavoured
to outflank the German right to the north of Lille it was the same
story. Their progress was in every direction opposed by machine-
guns, sometimes in the open, sometimes in defended villages or
houses, and often protected by improvised entanglements. Almost
invariably the presence of German advance troops even in small
bodies implied the presence of machine-guns which were handled
with the greatest skill. The static warfare which then ensued on
the western front during the winter of 1914-5 after the failure of the
German offensive and the efforts of both sides to outflank each other
on the coast, only accentuated the tendencies already noted. Its
effect was to convert the struggle into a species of " field siege "
warfare from which all possibility of manoeuvre was excluded and in
which all efforts at the offensive had perforce to be attempts to break
through, entailing frontal attacks. Nevertheless, though this de-
velopment had been expected by the Germans no more than by
the Allies, and their immense preparations had been based on their
original plan of an overwhelming and short offensive campaign on
this front, they were in many ways well equipped for it. They were
for a long time in possession of an immensely preponderating
artillery an advantage in attack or defence ; whilst in defence the
nature of the fighting gave full scope to their untiring industry
backed up by their genius for field fortification. They also had a
great proportion of technical troops and an armament of machine-
guns far superior to that of the Allies. Though the relative conditions
between the sides in these particulars changed, in the struggle which
lasted for nearly four years the defensive was for a long time to
prove stronger than the offensive, all attempts at which had to be
carried out without finesse, by the method of brute force with its
prodigal loss of life. It was during this period more especially that
the machine-gun was to exert its influence and to reveal to the full
its true power in the prepared defensive.
The machine-gun was no new invention, but its possibilities
when cleverly used in numbers, though shown to some extent
in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, had not been proved. The
British and German were equipped with almost identical types
of the same gun differing only in detail, both being the outcome
of the genius of the late Sir Hiram Maxim. 2 Previous to the
Russo-Japanese War the weapon had never been held in great
esteem by the British military authorities, except by a few en-
thusiasts; but the lessons of that campaign had led to an effort
to increase the proportion of these guns in the equipment of
the army beyond that which existed at the time of the S. Afri-
can War. But this was not done owing to mistaken ideas of
economy. It was also held that superior musketry fire discipline
would make up for any deficiency in this respect, and great
pains were taken to train the infantry to attain a rate of fire
which in fact did exceed that of any other troops. On the other
hand the machine-gun had become the weapon par excellence
of the Germans. They perhaps of all nations had most correctly
gauged its worth, the fact that it combined the maximum of
killing power with the minimum of vulnerability, and the econo-
my in a military sense of its adoption on a large scale. And
after the Russo-Japanese War they had made a specialty of it.
Without ostentatiously increasing the proportion of machine-
guns with their infantry formations they had armed special
units with them and accumulated a large stock in reserve. They
had also trained a body of picked officers and men in their
technical and tactical use. Their army, therefore, entered the
Wr in this particular better equipped than any other. The
first sign of this fact was given by the bold method in which they
employed machine-guns in their onrush in the west. The next,
as has been said, was the skilful way in which they used them in
defence, at first in rear-guard operations, and then in the pre-
pared defensive. In these tactics they excelled, and specialized
in combining the intense fire power of the machine-gun wifh the
obstacle usually barbed wire entanglements in a way which
had never before been done. So far from the weapon being
looked upon as a rare article impossible of replacement to be
cherished and kept out of danger, it was not considered a dis-
grace for a gun to be lost once it had earned its value in killing
the enemy. This apparent prodigality was a measure of the
1 The British were equipped with the Vickers, the French with
the Hotchkiss, and the Germans with the Vickers-Maxim.
68o
TANKS
reserve of weapons available and the chief source of the great in-
crease revealed in the strength of the defensive. The pre-war
policy of the Germans was justified in the event. It was the
combination of this weapon with barbed wire as initiated by
them that suggested the need for the tank. And it was its inten-
sive application and elaboration after the opposing armies had
crystallized in two continuous closely opposing lines of care-
fully entrenched positions extending from the sea to Switzer-
land, that eventually brought the tank into being.
BRITISH TANKS
Early in Oct. 1914, it was borne in on the mind of a British
officer who had special opportunities for ascertaining what was
actually occurring, that the frontal assault of prepared positions,
especially when adequate artillery cooperation was not available,
had become impossible unless some more effective assistance
could be rendered to the infantry than that previously con-
templated and accepted as adequate; that this assistance in the
absence of gun power and ammunition sufficient to blast a way
through the whole enemy system of defences trenches, obsta-
cles and machine-guns should consist of some protected power-
driven machine which could force itself through barbed wire,
climb across trenches and destroy by gunfire or crush by its
weight the machine-guns of the defence. Knowing of the exist-
ence and cross-country capabilities of the American Holt cater-
pillar tractor, it occurred to him that a specially designed
machine developed on similar lines would be the solution of the
problem. This officer, Lt.-Col. (later Maj.-Gen.) E. D. Swinton,
R.E., at that time acting as official military correspondent (" Eye-
witness") with the British Expeditionary Force, was the first
officially to put forward a scheme for a caterpillar machine-gun
destroyer, in a communication to the Secretary of the Committee
of Imperial Defence in London on Oct. 20 1914.' Though the
machine then contemplated and finally evolved was for the pur-
pose of giving infantry protection when advancing, it was ex-
pressly designed to do this indirectly, by its own offensive and
destructive action. It was definitely intended, and designed, for
the express purpose of forcing its way through wire and crossing
trenches and hunting for machine-guns in order to destroy them
by shell fire or to crush them by passing over them. The only
"protection" using the word in its limited, and more usually
accepted sense afforded by it was that of its bullet-proof sides
to its own fighting crew. This point is accentuated because of
the misconceptions which have existed as to the r61c of the tank,
chiefly as to its being an armoured vehicle for transporting men,
or a mobile shield to give cover to those moving up behind it. It
did in fact perform this latter service, but only incidentally, in
its quest for machine-guns. Machines for carrying up bodies
of infantry and stores were not actually developed until three
years later as an extension of the principle. As will be seen,
the necessity for finding some mechanical method of carrying
troops under cover across country had already occurred inde-
pendently to a French officer. And in England similar sug-
gestions were put forward, also independently, by Lt. R. F.
Macfie, in Aug., and Lt. B. J. F. Bentley in Oct. 1914.
The history of the tank from Oct. 1914, until it took the
field 23 months later, and even afterwards, is a record of prog-
ress made often in the face of apathy, scepticism and even oppo-
sition. This is typical of the history of the evolution of most
inventions or new ideas, but is somewhat remarkable in this
instance because the subject was one of vital urgency imme-
diately concerning the lives of the British troops in the field. It
is also remarkable for another reason. The idea of this land
weapon not only received its first help toward realization from
the minister responsible for the navy, but its realization was,
indeed, only rendered possible by the financial support given
by him from naval funds. The gist of the suggestion made to
the Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence in Oct. 1914
was put forward by him in a memorandum and reached the
First Lord of the Admiralty, Mr. Winston Churchill, who was
1 For the origin of the tank see the Minutes of the Proceedings
before the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors, Oct. 1919.
predisposed towards experiments in the direction of some me-
chanical armoured device for carrying troops across country,
to take the place of the armoured motor car which could only
operate on roads. A certain number of these cars, belonging
to the armoured car section of the Royal Naval Air Service,
organized by the Admiralty, had been operating in France and
Belgium, and their utility had become seriously curtailed by the
destruction of the roads and the state of trench warfare which
had arisen. In Jan. 1915, the First Lord, to whom the employ-
ment of mobile bullet-proof shields had already been suggested,
took up the question of the urgent need for methods of meeting
the deadlock reached on land, and his views were officially
brought to the notice of the army authorities. He did not, how-
ever, only place the matter before the military. He caused
researches to be made in the direction of crossing trenches by
means of tractors carrying portable bridges, and in Feb. sum-
moned a special Admiralty expert committee under the chair-
manship of Mr. (later Sir) E. H. Tennyson d'Eyncourt, the)
Director of Naval Construction, to explore further the subject
of mechanical cross-country transport generally. This commit-
tee at once started work and continued its labour for some time,
experimenting chiefly in the direction of "landships" with
large wheels, coupled steam rollers, pcdrail and caterpillar
tractors, single and articulated, for which suggestions had been
put forward by different individuals. The underlying idea of
all these investigations was the production of a machine for :
the conveyance of troops, not a machine-gun destroyer.
Previous to the receipt of the First Lord's views, the need of a
specific machine-gun destroyer had been urged on the War Office
directly by Col. Swinton early in Jan. 1915, followed by repre-
sentations fron Capt. Tulloch. The War Office took the matter
up, but did not associate itself with outside technical experts to
investigate possibilities, as had been recommended. After the
trial and failure in Feb. of a Holt caterpillar tractor to cross
obstacles which it was not designed to negotiate, and that of a
wheeled tractor with the naval trench bridging device in May, it
dropped the whole idea as impracticable. Meanwhile the Ad-
miralty committee had continued its experiments, though with-
out knowledge of the conditions of the military problems it was
required to solve. In June, the War Office, then aware of the
Admiralty's activities, became desirous of collaborating in them,
and a joint naval and military committee was formed. The
efforts of the Admiralty thus obtained the first official recogni-
tion of the service for whose benefit it was really working. At
the end of the month the committee was furnished by the War
Office with a detailed specification of the requirements of the
destroyer as prepared by Col. Swinton and forwarded by the
Commander-in-Chief in France, and the Admiralty designers
were for the first time in a position to apply their inventive fac-
ulties to fulfilling certain definite conditions. The result of their
efforts was the production in Jan. 1916 of an experimental
machine paid for entirely from naval funds and produced almost
entirely by naval agency, which was the prototype of all British
machines. The chief point of its design, and on which it differed
from other caterpillar machines, was its rhomboidal shape and all-
round track, which were the invention of Lt. (later Lt.-Col.)
W. G. Wilson, of the Admiralty landships committee, working
in conjunction with Mr. (later Sir) W. Tritton. This machine,
afterwards known as the Mark I. Tank, successfully underwent
its official trials on Feb. 2. 2
As has been said, at the beginning of the war the solution of
the problem of enabling a frontal attack on trenches to be car-
ried out had been thought to lie very largely in bombardment
by artillery. But the futility of the limited bombardment by
field guns with shrapnel shell, which was all that was possible for
some months even against such comparatively weak defences as
the Germans at first held, became apparent. Then, in reply to
* For purposes of secrecy the name " Tank " had been applied
in Dec. 1915 to the experimental machine under construction, then
known as a " landship," in a report by a sub-committee of the
committee of Imperial Defence. It was suggested by two officers
connected with that committee. The experimental machine was
afterwards known as Big Willie, and, though a male, as " Mother.
TANKS
681
the insistent demand from the front the national energies had
been turned to the making of guns and ammunition of all types,
and prodigious quantities had been produced. But after the
battle of Loos it began to be realized that even a great concen-
tration of artillery and the expenditure of an immense amount
of ammunition in a prolonged bombardment from guns of all
calibres was not necessarily effective against such defences as
the Germans had created, and could not insure that the assault-
ing infantry would not be held up by uncut wire and suffer ter-
rible loss from concealed and protected machine-guns. Some
other means of dealing with the numbers of these weapons
which would survive a bombardment even of the heaviest
nature was necessary. As a result of the performance of the
experimental tank in Feb. 1915, G.H.Q. France came to the
FIG. I. Mark I. Tank.
conclusion that such machines might be of some assistance, and
made a demand for 4O. 1 This number was increased by the
British War Office to 100, and supply was undertaken by the
Tank Supply Committee of the Ministry of Munitions, com-
posed of members representing interests directly concerned,
under the chairmanship of Maj. (later Sir) Albert Stern. Orders
were placed on Feb. 12, and production was commenced at once
with the utmost secrecy, under great difficulties of labour and
material owing to the great national effort then in full swing to
produce munitions of all sorts.
During this initial period of manufacture various minor im-
provements of the original design were incorporated. The
1 The first order placed by the French army headquarters, without
awaiting the construction of an experimental machine was for 400
machines, and this was increased to 800.
sample machine, in accordance with the original specification
for a machine-gun destroyer, was armed with two 6-pdr. guns
and three Hotchkiss machine-guns. It was soon realized that,
though effective for its purpose, this armament was deficient in
man-killing fire-power for self-defence in the event of attack by
large numbers of men, and it was decided to arm a certain pro-
portion of tanks with four Vickers machine-guns instead of two
6-pounders. They were known as " females," the gunned
machines being known as " males." The total number under
construction was 150, half males and half females.
The Mark I. Tank (see figs. land 2). Details of this machine are
given in the table on p. 697, but since all the succeeding machines
were a development of it, some further description is given. Its
main characteristic was the all-round track, which gave it its climb-
ing power. This was perpetuated in all the British heavy tanks,
though in the medium, or " Whippet," tanks evolved later, the same
result was obtained by the projection of the tracks which were not
under the machine. The essential value of both forms of construc-
tion was that whatever the fore and aft angle of the machine with
the horizontal a gripping surface was presented. This was achieved
by the high, curved bows, rendered possible by combining the body
and the chassis of the machine and using the sides of the body to
support the tracks. The length was 32 ft. 6 in., over all, and 21 ft.
5 in. without the tail. The width was 13 ft. 9 in.; the height 8 ft.
\ inch. Power was given by a six-cylinder sleeve valve Daimler
engine of 105 H.P. ; transmission consisted of a cone clutch, primary
(two speed) gear box (controlled by the driver) differential secondary
(two speed) gears, actuated by hand levers, one to each track, and
chain drives to the driving sprockets at the rear of each track. There
Were thus four speeds ahead. This system necessitated a " gearsman "
at each side, and was inconvenient and clumsy. The petrol feed was
by gravity. There was no silencer. The armour plate varied from
12 mm. thickness in front to 6 mm. at the top and on the belly, the
only part proof against the German " K " (armour-piercing) bullet
being that 12 mm. thick. The armament of the male tank comprised
two 6-pdr. guns, one on each side and four Hotchkiss machine-guns,
and that of the female tank two Vickers machine-guns on each side
and three Hotchkiss machine-guns. Owing to the pressure of time
certain details in the design and equipment of the machine were
adopted in order to employ material which was in production and
quickly obtainable without waiting for special manufacture. The
power unit, including the engine, with gear-box and differential
was adopted because it was the standard power unit of an existing
tractor and already in production. The 6-pdr. gun was adopted not
because it was considered the best for dealing with machine-guns
(the 2-pdr. automatic gun was originally specified), but because the
Admiralty had a large number of these guns in hand and promised to
supply the requisite number to the army. The 6-pdr. proved, how-
ever, to be a very good weapon for its purpose. The male tank car-
ried 324 rounds of 6-pdr. common shell for the 6-pdr. gun and 6,272
rounds of S. A. A.; the female carried 31,232 rounds of S.A.A. 8
The crew consisted of one officer and seven other ranks. The driver
sat with the officer in the conning tower in front. The total weight
of the male tank when loaded was 28 tons; of the female 27 tons.
The average speed across country was 2 m. per hour, and the radius
of action, nominally 23 m., averaged 12 m. over rough ground. The
* It was originally proposed to carry a certain proportion of case
shot. This was not done, but it was found necessary later to do this.
26'5-Appnx
FIG. 2. Mark I. Tank.
682
TANKS
tank could cross trenches up to II ft. 6 in. in width and could climb
a vertical height up to 5 feet. Six of the first establishments of tanks
were equipped with a wireless set capable of sending and also to
some degree of receiving. 1
Two features of the Mark I. tank were not perpetuated in later
patterns, except in the first gun-carrier machines. One was the tail.
This consisted of a pair of wheels carried by a frame pivoted at
the stern of the machine which for ordinary steering could be ac-
tuated by the driver by means of wire cables. For sharp turns, which
were effected by driving on one track alone, they could be raised off
the surface of the ground by a hydraulic ram at the back of the
tank. The weight of this tail attachment also served to ease the rate
of descent of the tank after crossing a summit, and the extra length
it gave to the whole machine increased the width of the gap which
could be crossed. It was found in actual practice that the complica-
tion and liability to damage the tail was not compensated for by its
advantages, and its use was abandoned after the first actions. In
both the male and female Mark I. machines the 6-pdr. and Vickers
machine-guns were mounted in sponsons to give as far as possible
arcs of fire up to direct ahead and astern. In order to reduce the
width so that the tanks could be carried by rail these sponsons were
removable and could be unshipped for travelling, when they were
carried on small wheeled trollies. The inconvenience of this system
caused it to be abandoned, and in later patterns of tank the sponsons
were so designed that when travelling they could be swung inwards
and housed in the width of the tank, or could be unbolted and slid in.
In March 1916, measures were taken to provide the personnel
to handle the new weapon, and an establishment was framed for
a unit. For secrecy this unit, under the command of Col. Swin-
ton, was raised and formed, as a portion of an existing service,
under the name of the " Heavy Section," subsequently changed
to " Heavy Branch," of the Machine-Gun Corps. This was to
provide the personnel for the 150 tanks then under construction,
without any reserve of machines or man-power. At first the
organization was for three battalions of 50 tanks each, but this
was altered to six companies of 25 tanks each, each company
consisting of four sections of six tanks and one spare tank.
Each section was formed of three male and three female
machines, and was subdivided into three sub-sections of one
male and one female tank. A specially constructed and equipped
mobile field workshop was allotted to each two companies. To
assist in the formation of this unit a nucleus of officers and men
were transferred from the existing Motor Machine-Gun Corps;
officers also being obtained from the cadet battalions, and from
France, and other ranks being enlisted from the motor trade.
Technical personnel of all ranks was supplied by the Mechanical
Transport Branch of the Royal Army Service Corps.
The first headquarters of the Heavy Branch were at Bisley,
where, since there were no machines, the training was of a pre-
liminary nature confined to discipline and gunnery and the use
of the Vickers and Hotchkiss machine-guns. Training in gunnery
was carried out by means of borrowed guns, and entailed the
sending of the men to Salisbury Plain and to the Naval School
of Gunnery at Whale Island. So soon as the tanks began to be
delivered from the contractors, the training in driving, tactics
and shooting from tanks etc., was carried on in a secret area at
Elveden in Suffolk, where a facsimile battlefield had been pre-
pared. The whole of this work was carried out under immense
difficulties as regards time and the need for secrecy, the main
underlying idea of all the preparation being that the role of the
unit was to assist and help the infantry. By the beginning of
Aug. several machines had been delivered, and a certain amount
of training in their use had been carried out.
Meanwhile, the Somme offensive having come to a standstill
in spite of the power of the British artillery then available,
it was decided to use the tanks, or whatever of them were ready,
in the renewal of the attack. Two companies of the heavy
branch, 50 tanks with 10 spare machines, were accordingly con-
centrated in France for this purpose by the end of Aug., and
training was continued preparatory to taking part in operations.
Friday, Sept. 1 5, was to mark the appearance of the tank in war-
fare, when the secret of the new weapon which had been so
carefully kept would be revealed and the weapon itself put to
the test. The whole production of the unit up to this time was
a remarkable feat. Not only had a number of entirely new
1 This scheme was also abandoned and later found necessary.
machines been manufactured sufficient for 60 to take the field
within six months of the order for them having been placed at a
time of great industrial stress, but the secret of their creation,
which was known to thousands, had been so well kept that they
did actually come as a surprise to the enemy.
It was to assist in the further advance of the British right flank,
which had begun so successfully at the opening of the battle 10
weeks before, between the Somme and the Ancre that the tanks were
to be thrown into the fight. The IV. Army was to break through the
enemy's front between the Combles ravine and Martinpuich and
seize Morval, Les Boeufs, Gueudecourt and Flers. On its left the
Reserve V. Army was to attack and gain Martinpuich and Cource-
lette while the French were to press on its right. The cavalry were to '
follow up through the gap which it was hoped would be created and
seize the high ground about Rocquigny-Villers au Flos-Riencourt-
lez-Bapaume. Two companies of the tanks were engaged, the bulk i
with the IV. Army, the rest with the Reserve Army. The general ;
idea of their tactics was that they should start so as to reach their !
objectives five minutes before the infantry. They were to act in
small detachments of two or three machines against the strong i
points in the enemy's defensive system, lanes being left for their
advance in the artillery barrage commencing at zero hour.
The tanks advanced at dawn in a slight mist and came as a com-
plete surprise to the enemy. The operations, of those with the XV. j
Corps of the IV. Army were the most successful; but for various '
reasons the results of the employment of tanks was somewhat dis- I
appointing. Of the 49 machines taking part 32 alone reached their i
starting points, 9 pushed ahead with the infantry and caused con-
siderable loss to the enemy and 9 others, which did not catch up the
infantry, did good work in dispersing of the enemy still holding out ,
at isolated^ spots ; of the balance of 14, 9 broke down and 5 became
" ditched." (Ditching was usually caused either by a tank getting !
into such a position in a deep and wide crater or trench that its
engine power was not sufficient to pull it out, though the tracks ;
gripped, or by weight of the machine being taken by its belly on hard
ground, in which case the tracks revolved without biting.) One i
tank gave remarkable help to the infantry held up in front of Flcrs
by wire and machine-gun fire, when by its action it caused the sur- i
render of 300 Germans and enabled the infantry to move on. Another
destroyed a field gun. On Sept. 25 and 26, 13 machines acted with the
IV. and Reserve Armies. Of these nine were ditched in shell craters,
two reached the village of Thiepval and stuck there. But again, as a
set-off to mishaps, one single tank on the 26th performed a remark- j
able feat which demonstrated the potentialities of the machine.
Within one hour, and at the expense of five British casualties, it
made possible the capture of a strongly held, well wired, trench
(the Gird trench) some 1 ,500 yd. long and strengthened by numerous
strong points, which had held up a whole brigade of infantry since
the previous evening. The Germans suffered heavy loss, and 8
officers and 362, other ranks, surrendered. On Nov. 15, at the battle
of the Ancre after heavy rain, of five tanks that went into action, all
became ditched, two machines doing very valuable work before this
happened. Next day, in an attack on a field work south of Beau-
mont Hamel, one machine out of three employed was put out of ac-
tion by shell fire, and two became ditched. The latter, however,
were able to bring so effective a fire on the strong point that it sur-
rendered and 400 prisoners were collected by the tank crews. But,
whatever their defects, the tanks had passed with ease through
all entanglements and had destroyed many machine-guns, which
weapons, indeed, were practically powerless against it.
The employment of the tanks in Sept. 1916 was contrary to
the views of those who had originated the Arm, who were
responsible for its production and had most studied its action.
They held that the utmost value should be obtained from the
new weapon and that the secret of its existence should not be
given away until a surprise attack could be carried out on a
sufficiently extensive scale to give a chance of achieving a de-
cisive success. In this sense the launcl|jng of the tanks was a
repetition of the error made by the Germans when they released
gas on a small section alone on April 22 1915. Whatever may
have been the urgency at that time of reviving the momentum
of the Somme offensive, which had died away after weeks of
great endeavour and immense sacrifice, and of raising the moral
of the tired troops, and whatever might have been the success
of the new weapon, it is doubtful if the small number actually
employed could have given a result to compensate for the pre-
mature disclosure of the secret, which in potential value was
equal to that of the 42-cm. howitzers and the poison-gas of the
enemy. Again, not only was a small number of tanks used, but
they were employed in driblets in different directions, instead of
together in as great a mass as their available number would
allow. As an experiment this trial of the tanks was, no doubt,
TANKS
683
productive of valuable lessons, but they were obtained at the
cost of discounting the future. It was in the face of a consider-
able amount of scepticism that the machines took their place in
the battle-line, and those who did not believe in them, without
looking beyond the lack of any startling success achieved on a
great scale, were not slow in their condemnation. But one
thing the tank had definitely proved: The machine-gun and the
barbed wire entanglement no longer ruled the infantry battle. In
the tank, still experimental and imperfect as it was, they had
found their master. At last attacking infantry could meet the
defence on more than equal terms.
On the part of the tanks themselves there was mechanical failure
of machines, which were the first of their kind, tried under more
difficult conditions than those which they had been designed to meet.
The specification in which they had been constructed had been based
on the requirements of the spring of 1915 at a time when the pro-
longed shelling, such as in 1916 and later rendered whole tracts al-
most impassable even by infantry, was undreamt of. At the Somme
the tanks had to cross a dry " crumped " area, and at the Ancre a
combination of " crumped " area and morass. There were, in addi-
tion, breakdowns due to faulty design and to the unexpected wear
and tear of certain parts of the machinery, which only experience
could have shown should have been of special material and which
were, moreover, practically worn out by practice and demonstrations
before the action. Failures were also due to the lack of time for the
complete training and practice of the crews ; to insufficient prepara-
tion in the way of reconnaissance and supply services, which for
such complicated machines necessitated very complete organization.
On the other hand, many of the commanders at whose disposal
tanks were placed had no idea of their capabilities, weaknesses or
limitations. Nevertheless, the outstanding brilliant exploits of single
machines which did not break down, the great saving of life for which
the tanks as a whole were responsible, and the demoralizing effect
of their appearance on the enemy and the great encouragement
afforded to the British infantry, clearly showed that the machines
were sound in principle, only needing improvement in detail, and
that those handling them required more experience in this new
form of warfare.
As a result of its trial it was decided that the new Ann should
not only continue, but should be expanded to a force of 1,000
tanks. After the fighting on the Ancre the unit did not again
go into action till April of the following year, which allowed of a
period for expansion, reorganization and training, and the incor-
poration of improvements to machines. 1 The expansion of the
Heavy Branch of the Machine-Gun Corps was to be on the follow-
ing lines: there was to be a fighting headquarters in France and an
administrative headquarters in England. 2 The six original com-
panies were to be expanded to four battalions in France and the
two companies at home to five battalions, or nine battalions in
all. The unit therefore reverted to its original battalion organiza-
tion. It was eventually to comprise three brigades, each of three
battalions, each battalion of three companies and a workshop,
each company consisting of four fighting sections of five tanks
each and a headquarters section of four tanks, or 72 tanks to a
battalion. The number of tanks per section was shortly after-
wards reduced to four, making 20 per company or 60 per battal-
ion. These brigades were formed at the beginning of 1917, and
the organization continued unchanged until June, but though the
personnel was being raised and trained as far as possible on this
extended scale, the supply of tanks did not keep pace, so much
so that on April i, when it was decided that the tanks should
take part in the battle of Arras, only 60 Mark I. and Mark II.
machines could be counted on for action.
In Feb. 1916, when the original Mark I. tank was still in its
experimental stage, designs had been got out for a Mark II.
machine and a Mark III. machine, both of which were slightly
improved Mark I. tanks. After the Somme battle certain mod-
ifications which were found necessary were incorporated, and in
1 The most important improvement was the improvised " un-
ditching beam " which was introduced to assist a tank to extricate
itself when stuck. In the later types a specially designed contrivance
was part of the equipment of the machine.
2 Lt.-Col. (afterwards Maj.-Gen.) H. J. Elles, R.E., was appointed
colonel commanding the unit in France, Bng.-Gen. F. Gore Anley
being appointed administrative commander of the tank training
centre in England on Nov. 9. In May 1917 Brig.-Gen. Anley was
succeeded by Maj.-Gen. Sir J. E. Capper. The training centre was
moved to Bovington in Dorset.
Oct., in order to keep up continuity of supply, orders were given
for 50 machines of each type (making 250 tanks ordered in all)
pending the decision on the design for the 1,000 asked for by the
army, in Sept. The chief improvements consisted of the aban-
donment of the tail, as already mentioned; the addition of
" spuds," or fins, to the track plates, to give a better grip; and
the provision of improved rollers. The Mark III. machines
were also intended to have thicker armour to resist the " K "
bullet. In regard to the 1,000 new tanks preliminary orders
to collect material were given to the manufacturers in Sept. At
the end of the month when it was learnt that these machines
could not be ready by March i (partly owing to the manufac-
ture of spare parts necessary for the existing tanks), the demand
was cancelled, but was renewed two weeks later. This is men-
FIG. 3. Mark IV. Tank.
tioned to show that military opinion as to the advisability of pro-
ceeding with the new weapon was not unanimously favourable.
The 1,000 machines were to be of the type known as the Mark
IV., which was a much improved Mark I. tank. It was then
anticipated that this number could be delivered by the end of
June. Owing to various difficulties this estimate was not ful-
filled, but sufficient machines reached France in time to equip
two battalions for the attack on Messines in May; and it was
the standard British tank during 1917 and 1918.
FIG. 4. Mark IV. Tank.
The Mark IV. tank (see figs. 3 and 4). The first advance from the
original weapon was the same in size and general design, with certain
improvements. There was no tail. The track rollers were better.
The sponsons could be housed within the tank for rail transport.
The Lewis machine-gun was installed instead of the Hotchkiss
machine-gun (this was not an improvement and was reversed
later). A better radiator was fitted and also a silencer. The width of
the driver's cab was increased to allow of wider track shoes. The
petrol tanks were placed outside the tank at the stern. A short 6-
pdr. gun was adopted. Detachable spuds were fitted to the tracks,
and unditching gear provided. The entrances and exits were more
accessible.
During the Verdun offensive early in 1916 it had occurred to
those responsible for the production of the fighting tank that
one reason why the Germans had been unable to keep up the
initial pressure of their attack was their inability to bring up
their artillery and ammunition over the shelled and entrenched
area so as to keep pace with their advance; and that if they had
been in possession of guns mounted on self-propelled carriages,
or carriers pn caterpillar tracks, it would have assisted them
greatly. A design was therefore prepared in July of a " gun-
carrying " tank (see fig. 5), to carry a 6o-pdr. gun or 6-in. how-
itzer which could be fired from the tank if necessary or con-
veyed by the tank and fired from the ground. Of these machines,
TANKS
FIG. 5. Gun-carrying Tank.
48 were made, delivery in France commencing in July 1917.
They appear to have been employed as much' for the conveyance
of ammunition and stores as for the purpose for which they were
designed. In Dec. 1916, also, the design of the " Whippet,"
the Medium Mark A. tank, (see figs. 6 and 7) was commenced.
Of this type 200 machines were produced, delivery in France
starting at the end of 1917. It was evolved to be complementary
to the heavy tanks and to meet the demand for a speedier,
handier machine which could be produced in large numbers.
Its main points were its increased speed, nominally 8 m. per
hour on the flat, and an average across-country of 5 m. per
hour, and its lightness, one-half that of the Mark I. machine.
It was also easier to transport by rail. Each track was driven
independently by a four-cylinder 45 H.P. Tylor engine. Trans-
mission was by cone clutches to gear boxes of the constant mesh
type, giving four speeds forward and one reverse. The design
was largely due to Sir W. Tritton. Thus, at the end of 1916, in
addition to the first type of heavy tank in the field, measures
were in hand to supply a much improved pattern of that ma-
chine (Mark IV.) and also a lighter type the " Whippet."
; 2 J 4 S 6 Ifett
FIG. 6. Medium Mark A. or " Whippet " Tank.
TANKS
In the field, though there was still considerable doubt as to
the value of tanks, the next six months, from Oct. 1916, were, as
had been said, a period of expansion, organization and'traini'ng
and preparation for the operations of 1917. The training was
always handicapped by the paucity of machines; and it was
found necessary not only to educate the members of th(? new arm
itself but also other arms and the staff. Headquarters, schools
and rest camps and the usual organization of a large unit were
established. The next action in which the tanks took part was
the battle of Arras on April 9, when an attack was carried out by
the I., III. and V. Armies in order to penetrate the German
line by a sudden blow and allow of an army corps and two
divisions of cavalry to break through. From the point of
view of tanks it does not require much comment. Only 60
machines were available, and they were again not employed in
685
FIG. 7. Medium Mark A. or " Whippet " Tank.
a mass for a quick penetration but for " mopping up " oper-
ations along the whole front. 1 More complete preparations
were made for their cooperation than at the Somme. The battle
was prepared by a prolonged bombardment, and was also pre-
ceded by heavy rain at the last moment, which combined to
produce a sea of mud pitted with craters. The Vimy Ridge was
captured by a rush of the Canadians which rendered tanks un-
necessary, and on other parts of the front they had varying
success, but gave valuable assistance. Against Bullecourt on
the nth, where they attacked without artillery preparation
in the snow, the attack was a failure, though two tanks pene-
trated five miles behind the German front line, when they were
captured. Fighting continued till the 22nd. The cavalry were
prevented from breaking through by the usual obstacles
barbed wire and machine-guns. It was on the first day of the
fight that the first German " tank trap " was discovered con-
sisting of a deep covered-in pit. Again the main lesson learned
was that tanks should be used in mass and not dispersed. After
this battle an expansion of the Heavy Branch, Machine-Gun
Corps, from 9 to 18 battalions (nine of heavy tanks and nine of
medium machines) was decided on. But at the end of June this
expansion was suspended owing to shortage of man-power, as
it was apparently not yet realized to what extent the tanks
reduced casualties. Before the next action, the battle of Mes-
sines, a certain number of the new Mark IV. tanks had been
received and several of the old Mark I. and Mark II. machines
had been converted into supply tanks for carrying tank stores
to the fighting machines, a very great advantage the want of
which had previously been much felt. In the attack on the
Messines-Wytschaete Ridge, which started on June 7, 76 Mark
[V. and 12 supply tanks took part. The operations in this case
ipproximated to the " assault " in the old form of siege warfare
md depended mostly on an intense bombardment, lasting from
May 28 to June 7, and the explosion of 20 large mines. During
" Mopping up " consisted of disposing of small bodies of the
:nemy, especially such as had escaped the bombardment and allowed
:ne first line of the assault to pass them.
the infantry advance on Wytschaete the creeping barrage
proved so effective that tanks were only necessary at different
spots to overcome individual machine-guns. They advanced in
two lines, the first of 40 machines, going forward at zero (dawn),
and the second, of 34 machines, at 3 P.M. to the Oosttaverne
line, where their help was very valuable. Apart from the de-
bated point whether the third battle of Ypres should ever have
been fought or not, the work of the tanks in it needs still less
comment than at Arras or Messines. In spite of remarkable
feats accomplished by them, especially the capture of the Cock-
croft, a nest of strong points, on Aug. 19 with a loss of 15 in-
fantry, it was, on the whole so far as they were concerned, a
failure, and a failure which was inevitable and to be expected
under the conditions which existed. They had to act in a low-
lying area which had been converted into a potential swamp
through the destruction of the drainage system by the artillery
of both sides, rendered still worse by the churning up of the
surface into a wilderness of craters, which were filled by heavy
rain just before the battle. The only means of approach across
this morass were the causeways, which were naturally kept con-
tinuously under fire by the enemy. Preceded by many days of
intense bombardment the attack commenced on July 31, and as
it continued the rain made matters worse. That tanks should
have been expected to function under such conditions, when,
independently of the enemy's action, even the infantry were
unable to move forward, is astonishing. It shows that those
responsible for the decision to employ them were ignorant either
of the situation or the limitations of the machines, or both.
It was not till Nov. 20, when the tanks had been in France
over a year, that they were given an opportunity of showing
of what they were capable when employed on a large scale, in a
manner calculated to exploit their peculiar attributes, and under
favourable conditions. As this was a turning-point in the his-
tory of the new weapon it is of importance that it be described
in detail.
During 1916 and the greater part of 1917 the tanks had been
thrown into the fight in dispersed detachments to assist in over-
coming certain points of resistance, and somewhat casually as
an aid to the attacking infantry. The conditions, also, had
usually been such as to render success doubtful, sometimes im-
possible, and in any case of a minor nature. In several instances
they had succeeded in achieving their immediate object and had
undoubtedly saved many lives. In others they had failed.
As a consequence it was seriously discussed whether tanks should
not be abandoned as useless.
But those responsible for the Tank Corps (the name of the
unit had been changed to " Tank Corps " at the end of June)
lad been concerned in thinking out an operation which would
not only be strategically valuable, but would enable the corps
definitely to prove its worth and establish a confidence in itself,
which, never very marked on the part of General Headquarters,
lad recently been much shaken. Broadly, the scheme consisted
n launching without any preliminary bombardment a surprise
attack on a large scale with as many tanks as possible over
round suitable for their action, i.e. reasonably hard soil which
lad not been shelled to pieces. The area chosen was that near
Dambrai, in the re-entrant of the Canal d'Escaut between
ilibecourt, Crevecoeur, and Banteux, which consisted of almost
unshellcd rolling downs of chalk. The attack was originally
ntended to be of the nature of a " raid " (this was not adhered
o in its execution) carried out by an advance at dawn of three
ines of tanks, the first of which would make straight for the
enemy's guns, previously bombed from the air, to be followed up
>y the second and third; artillery cooperation to be confined to
counter-battery work and the destruction of communications
,nd depots, etc., behind the German front line. The essential
x>ints of the plan were surprise and speed. The project was
>ut forward and approved, and the result was the battle of Cam-
>rai, which took place on Nov. 20?
1 The action as fought was in almost every detail the execution of
he plan put forward officially for the employment of the tanks
ay Col. Swinton in Feb. 1916, 22 months previously.
686
TANKS
Further details of the plan were that the artillery barrage of
shrapnel and H.E. shell should open on the enemy's outpost at zero
hour (6 :2O A.M.) and be advanced by stages of 250 yd. just ahead of
the tanks and concentrated on special points. The tanks were to go
forward at zero hour in sections of three machines, sections being
allotted to different objectives according to the strength of the latter.
Each section was composed of one vanguard tank and two main
body tanks. The former was to lead and protect the advance of the
two other machines, behind which followed the infantry in parties of
varying size, marching in sections in single file. As the Hindenburg
trenches, some 12 ft. wide, would have to be crossed each tank was
to carry a specially made fascine 10 ft. long and 4j ft. in diameter to
drop into the trenches to assist in the crossing. Special machines
were fitted with drag grapnels in order to drag aside the wire en-
tanglements which were known to be exceptionally thick and strong,
for the passage of the cavalry. Great precautions were taken to
maintain secrecy, upon which so much depended, and extremely
careful preparations were made in the way of reconnaissance, the
training of the infantry to act with the tanks, the movement of
machines, and the formation of dumps of the necessary stores. For
instance the preliminary movement of the tanks necessitated 36
special trains, and the material collected in dumps included 165,000
gal. of petrol, 55,000 Ib. of grease, 5,000,000 rounds of S.A.A. and
54,000 of 6-pdr. ammunition. Three brigades (nine battalions) of
tanks took part in the attack, with two army corps of three divisions
of the III. Army, a cavalry corps and 1,000 guns. In all there were
378 (Mark IV.) fighting tanks and 98 administrative machines.
Fog on the morning of Nov. 20 assisted the attack, which was
carried out as arranged, the tanks following the barrage and the
infantry the tanks. The operation was an amazing success and came
as an absolute surprise to the enemy, most of whose infantry were
panic stricken and bolted or surrendered, the garrisons of certain
strong points alone offering a determined resistance. Assisted by the
tanks, the infantry by evening had occupied Marcoing, 1 Bois des
Neuf, Premy Chapel, Havrincourt, Graincourt, Aneux, Noyelles.
Next day, and on the 23rd, 25th and 27th, further progress was made,
but the tank units which had been fighting continuously were disor-
ganized and the crews physically exhausted; and the mistake had
been made of not keeping a small proportion of tanks in reserve.
On the 27th the impetus of the attack died out with practically no
more ground gained than had been won on the first day, where the
tanks, starting from a base of 15,000 yd. length, had in 12 hr., and
at a cost of some 4,000 casualties, enabled the enemy's zone to be
penetrated to a depth of 12,000 yd. (at the third battle of Ypres an
equal extent of penetration had taken three months), and 8,000
prisoners and 100 guns to be captured. And their action had ob-
viated the necessity for a preliminary bombardment (which would
have cut up the ground and rendered any rapid advance of infantry
impossible, and brought a concentration of enemy's reserves), and
also the usual wire cutting artillery fire, which together would have
cost many millions of pounds. (An estimate places the cost of the
preliminary bombardment at the third battle of Ypres at approx-
imately 22,000,000. A similar bombardment at Cambrai would
possibly have cost more, as the German wire was on the reverse
slopes of the rising ground.)
In numbers the personnel of the tank corps employed in the fight
amounted to a little over 4,000 of all ranks, or the strength of
strong infantry brigade. The fact that there were no larger bodies of
infantry ready to reinforce the tired troops and press the advantage
gained, and that the cavalry did not break through to Cambrai as
was intended, was not owing to any failure on the part of the tanks,
which achieved more than had been promised. The absence of any
large force to take advantage of the opening made by them tends to
show that it was not believed that they could do what they actually
did accomplish, and that their complete and extraordinarily speedy
success was as much of a surprise to British Headquarters as it was
to the Germans. For nearly three years efforts had been made by
both sides to force a way through the enemy's position quickly.
At Cambrai a door was suddenly flung open and there was no force
to press through. The success achieved by the surprise counter-
attack by the Germans on the 3Oth also had nothing to do with the
previous action of the tanks, but its effect was to discount the whole
British victory including their performance. Against the southern
portion of this German counter-attack a brigade of tanks which were
hurriedly collected proved their worth in a defensive r61e, and gave
invaluable assistance in stopping the onrush of the enemy.
The success of the tanks at Cambrai on Nov. 20, and all that
it implied, gave as much food for thought as had the first use
of gas by the Germans in 1915, unattended, however, by the
horror of the means employed on the first occasion when a sur-
prise penetration was effected by either side. It has been de-
scribed as the " Valmy of a new epoch in War, the epoch of the
mechanical engineer." 2 But it is doubtful if the truth of this
* The information of the capture of this village was sent back by a
wireless signal tank, and was received at Albert 10 min. after the
troops entered Marcoing.
* Tanks in the Great War, Col. J. F. C. Fuller, p. 153.
statement has been fully appreciated even three years after the
war. Even so, the effect of this action on the Allies, and also,
on the Germans, was immediate and far-reaching. It almost
established the fact, for which the protagonists of the tank had
been endeavouring to gain acceptance for many months, that the
new Arm; used properly, was a serious factor in warfare which
could not be put aside and ignored. And yet, though opinion in
regard to the tanks had changed, even at that period when the
immense losses suffered in the attempted offensives of the pre-i
vious eighteen months had rendered the problem Of man-powerl
so acute, the crucial point was still not realized that an actual
saving in life and economy in man-power would be gained by the
development and whole-hearted employment on a very large
scale of the mechanical Arm. And steps were not at once taken
for a great expansion. The increase of the Tank Corps pre-i
viously deferred was agreed to; but a proposed further expansion,!
based directly on the experiences of Cambrai, was not approved. '
And later, in April 1918, even the agreed increased establish-'
ment was again temporarily suspended after the German;
offensive in order to meet the demands for infantry reinforce-
ments, and was not completed until after the striking successes
gained by the tanks in July and Aug. 1918.
After Cambrai all ideas of attempting to prosecute the offen-
sive were abandoned, and there ensued a period of preparation
for resistance against the attack which was expected as the
result of the reinforcement of the German strength on the
west, rendered possible by the defection of Russia. To assist in'
meeting this, the Tank Corps, now of five brigades, or thirteen
battalions, with 320 Mark IV. and 50 Medium A machines fit. 1
for action, was in Feb. 1918 distributed in detachments over
some 60 m. of front.
During the second battle of the Somme, from March 21 to the end
of the month, the part played by it was to cooperate in various local ;
counter-attacks, its action being generally useful in assisting to de-
lay the enemy's advance, as the German infantry would not as a rule I
face tanks until their guns were brought up. But out of the total,
some 170 machines alone went into action usually and inevitably
in hasty, improvised operations carried out during the general
retrograde movement. Many machines were lost and their crews
employed on foot as Lewis Gun sections. It was during this period i
that the new " Whippet " machines made their debut with great !
effect. Generally speaking, the tanks were too scattered for full .
value to be obtained from their action. The corps also took its
share in repelling the second German thrust against the British,
which started in the Lys area on April 9, during which three battal-
ions fought, some of the personnel of the lost tanks fighting on foot as I
a Lewis Gun brigade. It was in this quarter, near Villers Breton-
neaux, that the first duel between tanks possibly a presage of |
future warfare took place.
The lack of decisive results obtained by the small detach-
ments of tanks acting in improvised counter-attacks in the
general defensive seems to have revived the lingering prejudices
of those who were hostile to the arm, and who maintained that
the mass action of Cambrai could never be repeated. However,
in spite of this, progress was made in May and June in preparing
for the future offensive, the chief point of note being that trie
new Mark V. (heavy) tanks, which were a great improvement i
on previous models, being much handier and also more mobile, ;
were arriving at the rate of 60 machines per week. On July 4
occurred the action which probably finally dispelled the doubts
of the most conservative and reactionary. This was the sur-
prise attack of Hamel, a deliberate offensive and not a defensive
counter-attack, in which recently received Mark V. machines
cooperated with the Australians. This fight was an example of a
perfectly organized action and of the advantage of previous
careful training to act together of tanks and infantry, and was
a speedy and complete success, achieved at the low cost of some
700 casualties. One feature was the special power possessed >
by the new and speedier tank of destroying machine-guns,
many of which were rolled over and crushed.
The logic of facts was irresistible, and after this action the
cooperation of the tanks was thenceforward accepted, not only
as a useful adjunct but as an absolute necessity, for all offensive
operations. On July 17, at the battle of Moreuil, one battalion
of tanks cooperated with three French divisions in a most sue-
TANKS
687
cessful attack on a similar plan launched after one hour's pre-
liminary bombardment.
July 18, the date of the great French victory of Soissons,
marked the turning point of the war. It depended on tanks,
and was rendered possible by their proper employment in mass
and as a surprise. In fact, as the recent British offensive on a
smaller scale had been, it was based on the battle of Cambrai.
It was followed by a similar operation, the battle of Amiens
on Aug. 8 which opened the British strategic offensive.
This battle was also based on the power of the tank arm, and was
designed and organized to derive the utmost value from it and
to give it every chance to perform its proper, logical function in a
general operation. The tactics to be employed by the tanks were an
elaboration of those employed at Cambrai modified by recent ex-
perience and adapted to the improved machines available. The
attack was carried out by three army corps, with three divisions in
reserve, a cavalry corps and II tank battalions. In regard to the
tank battalions they were now better equipped than they had been.
Nine were equipped with the new Mark V. machines (36 each), and
two with the " Whippets " (48 each), or in all 420 fighting machines.
There were also 42 tanks in reserve, 36 supply tanks, and 22 gun-
carriers, or 580 machines in all. The Whippet " tanks were to act
with the cavalry. There was no artillery bombardment, and the
tanks advanced with the barrage at " zero" hour. The heavy guns
were used for counter-battery work and the field artillery moved for-
ward in close support of the infantry. Noise barrages (made by low
lying aeroplanes) were used to drown the sound of the tanks' ap-
proach. On the first day the maximum advance of the tanks was 7\
m., and they continued in action for four days till the nth.
The battle of Amiens was a tremendous blow, both material
and moral, to the Germans, who, besides casualties, lost 22,000
prisoners and 400 guns; and the victory was admittedly very
largely due to the tanks. Amongst other lessons learned it was
again found that these machines, like other arms, required a
reserve to keep up the pressure after the first day of action, and
that the limit of endurance of the heavy machines before over-
haul was three days; that they were suited for trench warfare,
the medium machines for open warfare; that the heavy supply
tanks should be replaced by a light cross-country tractor; that
wireless and aeroplane communication, as then developed, was
not so certain as that by galloper; that it was a mistake to tie
up tanks to cavalry, for, during the approach they could not
keep up, and during the fight were kept back by the cavalry,
which under hostile machine gun-fire had to retire or move to a
flank until the tanks disposed of the machine-guns; and that
machines of greater speed and greater radius of action were neces-
sary. According to one authority, 1 if machines capable of
moving at 10 m. an hour with an endurance of some 100 m. had
been available, the German forces south of the Amiens-Roye-
Noyon road might have been cut off and the end of the war
greatly accelerated.
July 1 8 and Aug. 8 were not only victories for the French and
British over the Germans, they were victories over their oppo-
nents for the tank arm in each army. In regard to the British it
is sufficient to say that up to Nov. 5, their last fight, no attack
took place without tanks. They cooperated in every offensive
including such important operations as the battle of Bapaume,
and the second battle of Arras, the battles of Epehy, Cambrai-St.
Quentin (when the Hindenburg line was broken), the Selle and
Maubeuge. Latterly, indeed, during the " war of movement "
which set in after the Hindenburg line had been passed, advanc-
ing infantry when faced by the German rear-guard machine-gun
posts almost invariably halted for tanks to come up and dis-
1 pose of them before they moved forward.
So far as statistics can show what a part they played, the follow-
ing facts speak for themselves: By the time of the battle of Amiens
much of the personnel of the Tank Corps had been in action 15 or 16
times, and during the 95 days from that time to the Armistice tanks
(to the number of 1,993) were engaged in fighting on 39 days. The
casualties, killed, wounded and missing were 598 officers and 2,826
other ranks. These, though heavy in relation to the strength of the
unit, which was under that of an infantry division, were not heavy
for 39 days hard fighting if it be borne in mind that in pre-tank days
it was not unusual for an attacking division to suffer 4,000 casualties
in one day often without reaching the objective.
The final despatch of the Commander-in-Chief of the British
1 Tanks in the Great War, Col. J. F. C. Fuller.
armies contained the following words : ... Since the opening of our
offensive on August 8th, tanks have been employed on every battle-
field, and the importance of the part played by them in breaking up
the resistance of the German infantry can scarcely be exaggerated.
The whole scheme of the attack of August 8 was dependent upon
tanks, and ever since that date on numberless occasions the success
of our infantry has been powerfully assisted by their timely arrival.
. . . " It would not be too much to say, that in spite of any artil-
lery assistance, the series of overwhelming, immediate and economi-
cal (both in life and treasure) victories won at Amiens and afterwards
would have been absolutely impossible without tanks, as would the
whole scheme of the strategic offensive which depended for its execu-
tion and cohesion on the prompt and certain success of these attacks.
And this statement, which is tantamount to an expression of opinion
that human bodies cannot vie with armoured machines against wire
and machine-guns, is no disparagement of the British infantry. It is
one which would be borne out by the survivors of Neuve Chapelle,
Loos and the Somme.
After the action of the Somme a few tanks were at the end of
1916 despatched to cooperate against the Turks in Palestine,
where the situation was somewhat similar to that which had
arisen on the western front. It was doubtful, at first, whether
the machines, some parts of which wore out very quickly, would
operate in the sandy desert; but it was found that the dry sand
was less harmful than the mud of Flanders, and the tanks in
fact stood the test well, and covered a surprising number of
miles, though they happened to be machines already partly
worn out in training. Only eight tanks were sent out, which was
far too small a number to enable any very important result to be
obtained in a field where the bold use of tanks in force might
have had a decisive effect. The terrain favoured their action,
and the strength of the defence, doubtless owing to German
influence, lay largely in machine-guns. Their entry into action
was not a surprise, for the enemy were aware of their arrival in
the country; and they were used on two occasions only, at the
second and third battles of Gaza, on April 17 and Nov. i 1917,
all the machines taking part.
Though the tasks set before them at both battles would have been
more suitable to a force of machines five times their number, they
rendered in each case great assistance and saved much loss of life.
As a result of their help, which was greatly appreciated by the
infantry, who were, of course, chiefly affected, an effort was made
early in 1918 to obtain a number of " Whippet " machines for action
against the Turkish rear-guard during the further advance. But this
demand synchronized with the German offensive on March 21, and
no machines could be spared for a theatre peculiarly suited to them.
So far an outline has been given of the main tank operations,
and the development and expansion of the unit. The former
showed a gradual increase of the scale on which recourse was
had to the machines, and an elaboration in the preparations
made and the tactics applied. From the 49 fighting tanks which
were allotted to the attack at Cambrai, the number rose to
580 of all types at Amiens nearly two years later, the latter being
the greatest British tank action fought. And, according to the
preparations which were being made at the time of the Armistice,
any great offensive in 1919 would have been conducted with
thousands of British tanks alone, leaving out of consideration
the equally large numbers of French and German machines that
would have been engaged.
By Aug. and Sept. 1918 the type of heavy fighting machine
had been improved in design, reliability and speed, and a faster
medium tank had been introduced. Measures had also been
taken to equip, for cross country work, all the battle services
for the tanks. There were fighting tanks; supply tanks, to carry
up ammunition, drinking water and stores; gun-carrier tanks,
used for the same purpose, as well as for conveying artillery
and trench mortars, both sometimes dragging sledges similarly
oaded; wireless signal tanks; salvage tanks; all working on a
coordinated system toward the maintenance or pressure on the
enemy with the maximum of efficiency. And to assist in doing
:his there was a complete repair organization, the central work-
shops, with its advanced stores and salvage companies. For a
major operation, the system of attacking with a small number of
machines divided up into separate detachments had been aban-
doned and the proper tactics of mass attack in as large force as
Dossible in definite formations to meet different conditions,
with reserves to keep up the advance, had been adopted. Signal
688
TANKS
units had been formed. The elementary system of signalling
with flags and with daylight lamps to aeroplanes had been
elaborated, pigeons were used, and wireless signalling had been
reintroduced, and wireless telephony with aeroplanes had been
tried, but not with much success. Intimate cooperation with
low-flying aeroplanes had been organized, especially in the
direction of noise barrages, machine-gunning and bombing the
enemy, chiefly of the hostile guns, and dropping information, as
also observation for counter-battery work, and smoke-screens
were employed. In short the battle was organized to include and
harmonize with the new instrument.
In regard to the future of the tanks, had the war not ended in
1918, certain proposals for expansion for the 1919 campaign,
made at the Inter-Allied Tank Committee in Jan. 1918, were
again brought up in July, and new establishments for the in-
crease of the Tank Corps to a strength of 34 battalions were
sanctioned in Oct. This strength, together with the number of
some 6,000 machines which it was hoped to produce for 1919,
is in itself evidence of the importance attached to the tank arm
at the close of the war. Its strength in the field in Oct. 1918
amounted to 12,355 of all ranks, whilst many thousands more
were under training at home.
The work of designing and producing the different types of
machines which took the field, or were almost ready to do so,
necessitated a very large organization. In addition to the
Medium Mark A. (Whippet) machines, of which, as has been
stated, delivery began in France at the end of 1917, the follow-
ing types were evolved.
designed so as to be made up of parts manufactured in England and
the United States, and was to be engined either with the American
300-H.P. Liberty, or the British 3OO-H.P. Rolls-Royce, engine.
The engine-room was separated from the fighting-chamber by a
bulkhead and the ventilation was improved.
The Mark IX. tank (Infantry tank). The design for this was
begun in Sept. 1917. Thirty-five machines were made, but none was
actually used. It was a long machine with space in the centre to
carry 50 infantry or 10 tons of stores.
The Medium B (Whippet) tank. The design of this, which differed
from that of the Medium A, was commenced in June 1917. The
shape was more like that of the heavy tanks. It had a four-cylinder
I5O-H.P. Ricardo engine. Forty-five machines were made, but none
used. In all, 2,636 British tanks were constructed.
The production of the tanks on the first order for 150 which,
were in action in 1916, six months after the order had been
placed, was, as has been said, a remarkable achievement. After
that time supply was carrried out by the Mechanical Warfare
Supply Department of the Ministry of Munitions, working in
conjunction with the War Office and G.H.Q. in France. The
subject was handled by a succession of committees, composed
of those concerned, which endeavoured to obtain cooperation
and the allocation of responsibility as between the army, which
demanded machines and changes of design, etc., and those who
had to meet these demands. In Aug. 1918, control was taken
over by a Tank Board, to coordinate all sides of the question
of supply. There were naturally considerable difficulties in ad-
ministration of the production side of this weapon improvised dur-
ing hostilities, at a time when the manufacturing resources of
the country were already deeply committed in satisfying the
FIG. 8. Mark V. Tank.
The Mark V. tank (see fig. 8 and table A). This was in design and
size the same as Mark IV., but it was superior to it in the following
particulars: The engine, a 6-cylinder Ricardo engine of 150 H.P.,
was more powerful and was expressly designed for the tank. The
manoeuvring powers were improved by one-man control and an
epicyclic gear. The means of observation were improved. The
unditching gear could be worked from inside the machine. Better
means of clearing the tracks of mud were provided. The design for
this was begun in Oct. 1917 after the experiences of Messines and the
third battle of Ypres, and was to meet the requirements as then
known. Some of these machines reached France in time for the
attack on Hamel on July 4 1918, and this tank was the principal
machine of all the subsequent fighting. In all, 403 were made.
The Mark V. Star tank was the same as a Mark V. machine, with
6 ft. added to the middle of its length. It could cross wider trenches
(14 ft.) than the Mark V. machine, and could carry about 20 men in
addition to the crew. The design was not started till Feb. 1918, 32
machines being made, of which some were delivered in time for the
battle of Amiens. The tank was too long to be very handy.
The Mark V. Two-Star tank was the same as the Mark V. Star,
but with a 225-H.P. Ricardo engine. Design was started in May
1918, one being made but not delivered before the Armistice.
The Mark VI. tank was intended to be the same size as the Mark
IV. with an improved transmission (the Williams-Janny variable
speed gear), but did not get beyond the design stage.
The Mark VII. tank. This was 3 ft. 6 in. longer than the Mark
IV. and Mark V. It had a iso-H.P. Ricardo engine and a variable
speed gear. Seven were made, but none was used in the field.
The Mark VIII. tank. The design for this machine was commenced
in Dec. 1917; seven machines were made, but none was employed
in the field. It was larger (34 ft. 2 \ in.) than any other tank, and was
urgent demand for munitions of other kinds. The lack of con-
tinuity in the demands, also, which fluctuated as the value of
the tank varied in the opinion of the army in the field according
to its success in action, made continuity of work and accurate
forecasts of output almost impossible. There were also ques-
tions of obtaining the necessary labour, manufacturing facilities,
raw materials, and that of priority amongst so many competing
requirements for carrying on the war. The problem was com-
plicated by the multiplicity of special component parts and fit-
tings required, the great wastage of machines from action in the
field, and the quite unexpected wastage by wear and tear of
certain parts, some of which, as the design of the machines
d^vcloped, became obsolete before they could be used; and
there were the technical difficulties of ensuring efficiency in de-
tails, of which the only test could be use in the field.
A great expansion in the sources of supply became necessary
as the programmes of construction increased in size, and many
engineering firms were engaged in the manufacture of the tanks
in addition to the comparatively small number concerned in
1916 and 1917. Before the Armistice the supply of tanks was
considered so important that men were relieved from the army
to carry on production. The programme for 1919, including
Inter-Allied production, which covered over 6,000 machines,
required 193,000 tons of steel, 10,000 6-pdr. guns and 30,000
machine-guns, and an expenditure of 80,000,000. By the end
TANKS
689
of the war, tanks were accepted as being the best and most eco-
nomical means of arriving at a decision in the field, as the ratio
of results obtained to material and man-power absorbed was
greater than from any other means. In England develop-
ment in design has since continued in the direction of the evolu-
tion of tanks possessing greater speed and a greater radius of
action than that of the more or less embryonic machines which
were evolved during the war, and also in the production of
machines which can function either on land or on water. Success
in these directions will endow the machine, originally improvised
with the limited object of assisting the infantry to break through
an entrenched line, with far greater powers.
FRENCH TANKS
It is not remarkable that allies fighting a common enemy,
side by side in the same theatre of war and subjected to similar
conditions, should have evolved a similar means of meeting
them. And it would have been natural had they done this
simultaneously, in a common effort, or at least with mutual
knowledge from the beginning on the part of each of what the
other was doing. Curiously enough, this was not the case with
the British and French, the two nations concerned in the creation
of the tank. Forced into being by the same causes, a remedy
for the same disease, even suggested in form by the same mechan-
ical prototype, the British tank and the French Char d'Assaut
were conceived separately, and for many months developed on
independent lines, the British ignorant of French intentions
and the French ignorant of what the British were doing. In the
case of the latter, as of the former, it was the difficulty expe-
rienced in carrying out the pre-war theories of infantry attack
against a prepared defensive which finally led to the new ma-
chine, though the effect of the H.E. shell of the French field gun
may have prevented its necessity being felt so soon.
The French owed their tank 1 to the foresight and pertinacity
of Col. (later Gen.) J. B. E. Estienne of the artillery, who, during
the retreat of 1914, perceived the desirability for having some
means of transporting infantry under cover across obstacles and
swamps and ploughed land. Later, during the summer of 1915,
on seeing the caterpillar gun tractors in use in the field by the
British, his ideas took a more concrete shape in the direction of a
cuirass^ lerrestre (land battleship). This was to be a caterpillar-
propelled machine 4 metres long, 2-60 metres broad, 1-60 metres
high, weighing nearly 12 tons. It was to be provided with a
petrol engine, to travel at a speed of 6 m. per hour on the flat, to
be protected by armour up to 20 mm. in thickness, to carry
an armament of two machine-guns and one light Q.F. gun for
the attack of machine-guns behind shields, and to be capable of
crossing trenches two metres wide and forcing its way through
barbed wire. It was also to draw an armoured trailer carrying
20 men and equipment. This was worked out in greater detail,
but was in essentials the same as the scheme put forward in
England in Oct. 1914, except that as projected the cuirassg was
to be somewhat of a hybrid between a tug to haul a transport
filled with men and a fighting machine, and not purely a de-
stroyer which would open out a way for men to advance on their
feet. Actually, however, both types were developed as fighting
1 machines. Both, also, were inspired by the Holt tractor, of the
existence of which the British originator had knowledge before
the war, and of which the French originator first became aware
when he saw it at work behind the British lines. Before these
machines were introduced by the British in the early part of
1915 for moving heavy artillery, tractors on the caterpillar sys-
! tem were practically unknown in France. Later some brought
over from Tunis were employed with the army of the Vosges.
After communicating with the commander-in-chief, Col. Esti-
enne on Dec. i 1915 put forward his ideas in an official letter
with a request for an interview. This took place on Dec. 12,
which date can be taken as marking the official conception of the
French tank. After consultation between Gen. Joffre and Col.
Estienne, and discussions between the latter and representa-
1 For convenience the word " tank " will be used generally to
describe the French machines.
tives of the Renault and Schneider works during Jan., the
French Army H.Q. submitted to the Ministry of War a demand
for 400 tanks. These were to be of the design prepared jointly
by M. Brille of the Schneider Creusot Works, and Col. Estienne.
For the French, therefore, this was the commencement of the
solution of the problem of mobile protection for the infantry.
In regard to the French tanks, the year 1916 can be taken
as one of gestation. The year 1917 covered the birth and in-
fancy of the medium (Schneider and St. Chamond) tanks; the
first half of 1918 the adolescence and maturity of the medium
machines and the birth of the light (Renault) tank; and the last
half of 1918 the adolescence and maturity of the light machine.
But the period of gestation before the birth of the new arm, i.e.
the appearance in the field of the Arlillcrie d'Assaut, or " A.S.,"
was, as in the case of the British Tank Corps, somewhat lengthy.
Its promoters still had much opposition and many obstacles
to overcome, for the question of production was handled by
more than one department or directorate, a state of things
which is usually bound to result in friction and delay. It appears,
also, that whilst some officials were impressed with the vital ur-
gency for expedition others were moreconcerned to conduct matters
in accordance with the regular routine of peace procedure. But
there was no intervention by an outside department or ministry
to save the situation. It is not on record that the French Min-
istry of Marine collaborated in the creation of the Chars d'Assaut.
On Feb. 25, after some inter-departmental discussion and trials
of a baby Holt tractor, and without waiting for the construction
of any experimental machine, an order was placed with the
Schneider firm for 400 tanks, then called tracteurs Estienne t
afterwards known as Chars Schneider, to be delivered within
six months. This was only two weeks after orders had been
placed by the British for the first 100 Mark I. tanks. So far the
comparative progress in development of the new arm by the
two nations had been as follows: the idea of the tank had oc-
curred at about the same time to both; the matter had been put
forward officially by the British in the third month of the war
and by the French 14 months later; the first actual order for
machines, given by the British 18 months after war began, was
followed by that of the French only a few days later. The
British machines, however, took the field six months before
those of their Allies. In addition to the 400 Schneider tanks a
contract for 400 more machines of a different type was placed
with the St. Chamond Works in April, without the knowledge
of the commander-in-chief or of Col. Estienne.
Not long afterwards steps were taken for the formation and
training of personnel for the new arm at Marly-le-Roi. In
June French H.Q. received from British G.H.Q. official intima-
tion of what was being done in England. Col. Estienne visited
England, and after inspecting the Mark I. tank in the training
area at Elveden reached three conclusions. One was that the
two countries should collaborate in the production and cooperate
in the use of the new weapon in the field. The second was that
neither should forestall the other in employing it and so dis-
count its maximum value for the Allies as a whole. On this
Col. Estienne was specially insistent, because it was apparent
that the British were far ahead in production and would proba-
bly be ready before the French. The third was that as a comple-
ment to the heavy, somewhat slow, British tanks, capable of
negotiating almost any obstacle, the French should specialize
in the production of a speedier and more handy machine, which
would be to the British tank what field artillery is to heavy
artillery, would perform the duty of a swarm of skirmishers
in armour armed with a machine-gun, and would be capable
of going wherever an infantry soldier could go. The scheme
for light tanks did not meet with a favourable official reception,
and sanction for the construction of 50 machines of this type
was not given. Nevertheless designs were put in hand by the
Renault firm and at the end of Nov. were so far completed that
construction could have been started. Though no executive
action was taken for some months, except that 150 machines
for use as " command " tanks for the units of the ArtUlerie
d'Assaut were given, this was the genesis of the Renault tank.
690
TANKS
The French classified tanks in three categories:
Chars legers, machines weighing under 10 tons.
Chars mediums, machines weighing 10 to 30 tons, which could
be transported by rail on ordinary trucks.
Chars lourds, machines which would require specially constructed
trucks for transport by rail.
As the medium tanks were the first constructed and used,
their description will be given first. Both the Schneider and
St. diamond tanks were smaller and lighter than the British
Mark I. or any subsequent pattern of heavy machine, and were,
according to British nomenclature, males. The great difference
between them and the British heavy tanks was that the designers
of the former, in taking the caterpillar tractor as a model, had
been content to employ tracks somewhat similarly placed under
the body of the machine, and not extending all round it as in
the case of the British heavies. The tracks were also shorter
FIG. 9. French Char Schneider.
than the full length of the body, instead of projecting well
beyond it, at least at the front, as was the case with the British
Whippets, and the French Rcnaults, and both tanks had a
particularly " underhung " appearance. It was this arrange-
ment of the tracks which militated against the climbing powers
of the machines, whilst their comparative shortness limited the
spanning powers across a trench.
The Char Schneider (see fig. 9) was 6 metres in length, 2 metres in
width and 3-40 metres high. It consisted of an armoured body
resting on two horizontal girders with the necessary bracing. The
weight was taken by springs on two bogies on each side, which were
carried by the track rollers. The track was actuated by a driving
sprocket at the rear, there being an idle wheel at the front. The gear-
box was at the rear, the radiator in front. Power was given by a four-
cylinder Schneider engine of 60 horse-power. The petrol feed was
by pressure. Steering was effected by driving the tracks at different
speeds. The whole body formed a box of somewhat peculiar shape
protected by hardened steel plate of 1 1 -4 mm. thickness on the walls
and 5'4 mm. on the roof. There were various openings with movable
shutters for observation, etc., and the door was at the back. In
front was a steel prow, or beak, to prevent the machine dipping too
much when descending into a cavity. The armament consisted of
one short 75-mm. gun, of a maximum useful range of 600 metres,
mounted on the right cheek of the bows of the machine which
could from its position fire only on the right side and not directly
ahead. There was also one Hotchkiss machine-gun on each side
firing through a spherical shield mounting. For the gun 90 rounds
of ammunition were carried and for the machine-guns 4,000 rounds.
One officer, one N.C.O., and four men, of whom two were machine-
gunners and one a gunner, formed the crew. The officer drove.
The total weight of the machine was 13-5 tons and its useful speed
from 2 to 4 km. per hour. It could cross trenches of from 1-50 metres
to I -80 metres in width, and carried petrol for 6 to 8 hours' work.
The Char St. Chamond (see fig. 10) was a larger and heavier
machine. It was 7-91 metres in length, 2-67 metres in width and
2-365 metres or 2-35 high, according to the pattern. It consisted
of an armoured body in suitable framework suspended on spiral
springs on three bogies on each side, which were carried by the track
rollers. The drive was through the rear sprocket. The driving mech-
anism was petrol-electric and consisted of a four-cylinder Panhard
engine of 80-90 H.P. with electric self-starter, a dynamo of 52 K.W.
power and two electromotors, one driving each track. Driving was
done by a " tramway " control, by which speed and direction
were regulated. This system had great conveniences, for the machine
could be driven from either end without effort, but it had the draw-
back of being somewhat complicated and delicate. The petrol feed
was by pressure, and the tanks were two superimposed on the left
side and one on the right. The whole body formed a box with a
square sloping front wjthout any beak. It was enclosed in hardened
steel plate of 1 1 mm. thickness in the front shields, and 8-5 mm. at the
sides and 5 mm. on top. On the roof there were three observation
cylindrical capots with sides of ll-mm. steel above the commander's
and driver's ports. The doors were at the sides. The armament con-
sisted of one 75-mm. field gun, except in the first 175 machines which
had a Special gun, firing ahead in front, and four Hotchkiss machine-
guns, one in front to the right of the gun, one on each side and one on
the rear face. For the gun 106 rounds of H.E. were carried and for
the machine-guns 8,488 rounds of S.A.A. The total weight, loaded,
was 24 tons, and its useful speed on the flat 8-5 km. per hour. It
could cross trenches up to 2-50 meters in width in good soil. The
petrol carried was enough for from 6 to 8 hours. The crew consisted
of one officer, one N.C.O., two gunners, four machine-gunners and
one mechanic, or nine in all.
During Sept. the first tank of each type arrived at the training
centre, where a considerable number of officers and men from
different branches of the Service had already collected for pre-
liminary individual instruction. An additional training centre
for the formation of units was established at Champlicu, and
also a depot for the assembly of materiel at Cercottes, near
Orleans. It was then decided, also to create the new "Artil-
Icrie d'Assaul " and the charter of this organization may be
said to date from the 3oth of that month. Col. Estienne was
promoted to the rank of general, and was appointed " Comman-
dant de I'Arlillcrie d'Assaut aux Armies" and representative of
the commander-in-chief in tank matters with the Ministry of
Munitions, which department had been created and taken over
tank production. In Oct., with the arrival of more machines
of both types, the Artillcrie d'Assaut started on its career. It
seems that the use of the British tanks at Cambrai, which had
been deprecated by the French beforehand, and criticized for the
reasons already stated, may have stimulated the French to
press on with their own service, though what had been looked
upon as the supreme factor of surprise had been discounted.
FIG. 10. French Char St. Chamond.
The work of preparation, including training and equipment,
continued throughout the winter, in preparation for the offen-
sive to be undertaken in the spring of 1917. On March 31 1917,
the organization of the Artillcrie d'Assaut^ was as follows:
The tactical unit, under a captain, was the groupe, which was
divided into four batteries, each consisting of four tanks. A
groupe, therefore, comprised 16 tanks with a special " command "
light tank (Renault). For a Schneider tank groupe the estab-
lishment was 18 officers and 92 other ranks, for a St. Chamond
tank groupe 18 officers and 106 other ranks. A groupement con-
sisted normally of four Schneider or three St. Chamond groupes,
but was not rigid. For repair work each groupe had its own
workshop and a Section de ravitaillemcnt el de reparations
1 Why this arm was ever called " artillery " is not clear. Its closer
connexion with, and resemblance to, infantry was recognized later,
and the names of the elements of the organization for the light tanks
followed those of the infantry, e.g. battalion, company, etc.
TANKS
691
(S.R.R.), of i officer, in other ranks, was allotted to every 10
groupes. There was for the whole unit a Section de pare, or repair
park, similar to that of the Mechanical Transport Service. This
was found necessary so soon as tanks had been delivered in any
number, owing to the amount of tuning-up, minor repair work
and even alterations which had to be done.
Numerous faults at once developed in these entirely new machines
(as had been the experience of the British), but thanks to the time
available before they went into action, certain defects were discovered
and remedied. The first was that some parts of the machines wore
out very quickly, necessitating the maintenance of a very large stock
of spares. The thickness of steel plate where vertical was not proof
against the German " K " bullet, and it was found necessary to add
an outer plate of 5-5 mm. to the vertical armour of the Schneider ma-
chines, and 8-5 mm. to that of the St. Chamond machines. On the
whole the defects discovered in the Schneider tanks were not such
as to give reason to suppose that they would not be able to go into
action in the spring ; but those of the St. Chamond were more serious.
The design was found clumsy and the machine liable to ditch. In
addition to breakdowns in the power system and failure in details,
there was a lack of rigidity in the whole machine, and the tracks of
the first machines were too narrow.
Delivery of both types was extremely slow, especially of the
St. Chamond machines. At the end of March, though personnel
for 1 5 of the latter was ready, there was not one machine service-
able. At this time, on the eve of the great 1017 offensive of
which so much was expected, the Artillerie d'Assaut, instead
of being in possession of the 800 tanks which were to have been
ready by the previous autumn, had received not more than
208 Schneider and 48 St. Chamond machines. There were for
this operation, therefore, only 8 fully and 2 partly trained groupes
of Schneider and i of St. Chamond tanks, and not 40 groupes
as originally contemplated; and of the 160 Schneider machines
only one had been fitted with the extra bullet-proof protection.
In view of the diminution of the tank force from what was ex-
pected to be available, and with the example of the result of the
action of the British in the previous Sept. before it, the French
High Command had grave doubts whether to make use of tanks
in the coming operations or to wait until there should be suffi-
cient to exercise a greater influence. It was finally decided to
throw all possible weight into the attack.
April 16 was the baptism of fire of the French tanks, in Gen.
Nivelle's unsuccessful attempt to break through the German
line along the Chemin des Dames, E. of Craonne.
Eight Schneider groupes cooperated with the French V. Army.
They were divided into two parts of three and five groupes respec-
tively. One party did not succeed in crossing the German line,
though a few machines reached it, and it suffered severely from the
enemy's guns posted on the Craonne Plateau. The other party suc-
ceeded in crossing the enemy's second line, but were not followed up
by the infantry, owing to the German machine-gun fire. Two
Schneider groupes and one St. Chamond groupe allotted to the French
IV. Army for employment on the iyth were not thrown into the
fight, as the German artillery observation posts were not first cap-
tured by the infantry a lesson of the action of the l6th. The offen-
sive failed ; and though the new arm showed the utmost devotion and
gallantry, and its intervention saved many lives, it did not achieve
the success that was hoped. But the conditions were almost as
unfavourable for the employment of tanks as they could be, and the
tactics employed were not those urged by those responsible for the
new arm. The attack was not a surprise, being preceded by a heavy
bombardment, which, however, did not succeed in overcoming the
German artillery, and was made in broad daylight, without any
smoke-screen, against a position which permitted of direct observed
artillery fire against the tanks both when approaching and when they
reached the enemy's positions. The plan, also, in which certain
infantry units had been trained to cooperate, was that the tanks were
to attack the German third defensive line after the infantry should
have gained the first and second, and were not to advance until after
this had been achieved. The Germans, who were prepared for the
attack, therefore, had even additional time before the tanks ap-
peared, and the result was that their guns caught many of the ma-
chines in column before they deployed.
The machines themselves showed certain faults they were de-
ficient in speed and climbing capacity, the latter defect being
accentuated by the fact that since the Somme the Germans had
increased the width of their trenches. They also proved, as was
known before would be the case, vulnerable to direct hits of H.E.
shell, by which many machines were set on fire. Amongst other
points of design in which modification was found necessary was that
of isolating the petrol tanks from the interior of the machine, im-
proving the means of communication, the power of observation, the
ventilation, and various details of mechanism, and of widening the
tracks. On the whole the Schneider machines stood the trial best.
In the next tank attack, carried out on May 5 by the VI.
Army, the battle of Laffaux Mill, the three groupes employed
advanced with the infantry with marked success, especially in
the case of the Schneider machines. The counter-battery work
of the French was good and the enemy observation posts were
destroyed or masked; and the tanks did not remain too long
in advanced positions where the infantry were checked.
For nearly six months the tanks did not again go into action.
During this period great efforts were made to remedy the de-
fects disclosed, to expedite the delivery of machines, which was
much in arrears, and of spare parts, the demand for which (as in
England) had been found very greatly to exceed any anticipa-
tions, and to augment the establishment of repair units. In
preparation for the next operation great care was taken in the
training of infantry with the tanks in attack and in tank tactics
generally. On Oct. 23 five groupes of tanks took part in the
battle of La Malmaison along the Chemin des Dames. Their
assistance was most valuable.
Owing to previous heavy rain, and the bombardment which had
continued for six days and six nights, the ground was extremely
difficult, and in the centre the tanks were not of so much help in the
first phase of the attack as later. This state of the ground and the
lack of surprise again discounted to a great extent the preparatory
training undergone by the units of the Artillerie^ d'Assaut. The
practice which had been carried out beforehand with the attacking
infantry, however, proved of great value, as did the work of the
special unditching sections. The ground had been carefully recon-
noitred and aerial photographs supplied. The Germans relied on this
occasion more on their advanced field guns for defence, and had also
organized numerous special machine-gun posts furnished with plen-
tiful supplies of armour-piercing ammunition. But owing to the
counter-battery work of the French the tanks were not so much
damaged by the German guns as in April, in spite of the fact that the
attack was not a surprise. Two days later some St. Chamond
machines again operated with success.
Apart from the projected light tanks, the necessity for an
improved medium tank had been realized before April 1917, and
the subject was under consideration throughout the year. The
main directions in which the April offensive showed improvement
to be necessary were the desirability of mounting the gun in a
turret to give all-round fire, of mounting a 75-mm. field gun in
place. of the shortened 75, and of increasing the size of the
tracks and the power of the engine. Designs for a new medium
machine (C.A.3) were prepared in Aug. 1917, but were aban-
doned after the battle of La Malmaison because the further im-
provement then found desirable, i.e. the provision of 6 to 7 H.P.
per ton weight, a trench-crossing capacity of 3 metres, and an
ability to climb ahead or astern, showed that the designs were
already out of date, and would be more so by the time the
machines could be made. At the end of Oct. it was decided to
suspend the construction of an improved type of medium tanks
and to concentrate on that of the light machines; and in Dec.
the idea was finally dropped. The question of providing heavy
tanks was taken up at the end of 1916 as a result of the opera-
tions of the British machines in Sept., and in order to have
available a machine which would be complementary to the
light tanks it was hoped would be made. A project was put
forward for a heavy tank weighing 38 tons to carry a ios-mm.
gun, but its execution was postponed in view of the demands
that might be made for other machines. Two experimental
heavy tanks, one with mechanical and the other with electrical
transmission, were tried, and it was decided to investigate in the
direction of still heavier machines.
In regard to the type which will always be especially associated
with the French, the Char leger, or Renault tank, first suggested
by Gen. Estienne in July, and for which designs were prepared
in Nov. 1916, the commander-in-chief in that month expressed
his desire for 1,000 of such machines. But whereas those respon-
sible for supply had, in the case of the medium tank, pressed
forward the construction of one type, the St. Chamond, without
military approval of the design, in the case of the Renault 'every
obstacle seems to have been placed in the way of manufacture
of this machine, for which army H.Q. and the Arlillerie d'Assaut
692
TANKS
were pressing throughout the winter, though various trials were
made. In March 1917, the demand of army headquarters was
increased, being based on the requirements for an offensive on
a loo-km. front. This entailed the production of 3,000 light,
400 medium (improved Schneiders) and 150 heavy tanks. In
May an order was given for i ,000 Renault machines in addition
to 150 which had been ordered in March as "command"
tanks. Discussion as to design, armament and manufacturing
facilities and trials continued during the summer of 1917. In
Oct. it was settled that in addition to the 1,150 already on order,
2,380 more should be made, or 3,250 in all, the work being dis-
tributed between four French factories, the whole to be delivered
by the end of July 1918. Of the total, 1,000 machines were
expected to be ready by March 31 1918, for the contemplated
offensive in the spring, and 1,000 were to be manufactured in the
United States, of standard American parts and equipped with
Liberty engines. The decision to devote so much money as this
entailed and so much of the manufacturing power of the nation
at a moment when the demands for munitions of war of other
kinds was at its height illustrates the importance now attached
to the new arm. The British success at Cambrai seems to have
had considerable effect in influencing those who were still
sceptical of the value of the tank and of the wisdom of relying
on it for future operations. In Jan. 1918 a supplementary order
was placed for 470 machines, the final total figure fixed for' pro-
duction in France being 4,000, divided into 1,000 armed with
machine-guns, 1,830 with the 37-mm. gun, 200 signal tanks,
and 970 for a reserve armed with the 75-mm. gun.
The Renault tank differed greatly from the Schneider and St.
Chamond machines. Not only was it considerably smaller, but the
tracks were outside the body and not underneath it and extended to
a considerable distance in front. Its total length, without the mov-
able tail, was 4-100 metres; its breadth 1-740 metres, and its height
2-140 metres. The body was supported on hollow longitudinal
girders by a hinge arrangement at the rear end and suspended on
powerful springs in front so that the front of the frame and body
were capable of relative movement. Each girder was carried by
springs on four bogies supported by wheels running on the tracks.
The idle track pulley in front was of larger diameter than the
driving-sprocket at the rear and this and the projection of the tracks
gave the machine a greater grip in climbing over obstacles. The upper
portion of the track ran in spring guide rollers which were arranged
to regulate the track tension automatically. The interior of the
tank consisted of a driver's compartment in front and the engine-
room behind. The crew comprised two, one officer or N.C.O., who
was also the gunner, and one man who was the driver. The driver
was seated ; and also seated, or standing, behind him was the gunner,
with his head and shoulders in the turret. The latter revolved on
ball-bearings which allowed of all-around fire, and was furnished
with a lock and a door at its back. The whole of the machinery,
engine, radiator, clutch, transmission gear and petrol tank were in
the engine-room, separated by a steel bulk-head pierced by openings
closed at will from the driver s compartment. Power was given by a
four-cylinder Renault engine of 35 H.P., with the usual transmission.
Steering and control could be done by one man. Protection consisted
of hardened steel plate 16 mm. thick for the vertical portions (proof
against the armour-piercing bullet) and 8 mm. for other parts. The
armament was either a 37-mm. Puteaux semi-automatic gun, or a
Hotchkiss machine-gun; and 240 rounds including 40 rounds of case
shot, or i ,820 rounds of S.A.A. were carried. Fully loaded the female
weighed under 6i tons and the male just over 6J tons. There were
four speeds ahead and astern giving to the tank a maximum speed on
the flat of 7-78 kilometres. It could climb slopes up to 45 and span
openings up to 1-80 metres in width, in which it was assisted by the
movable tail. This was the machine upon which the French relied
for the operations of 1918. The question of the provision of Renault
wireless signal tanks was taken up in May 1917, and a machine
capable of sending and receiving wireless messages was constructed.
In the autumn and winter of 1917 the reorganization and
training of the ArtUlerie d'Assaut continued with a view to its
expansion. In addition to the medium tanks still being delivered,
it was expected, by March 31 1918, to receive 800 of the Renault
tanks then due. The establishment of the ArtUlerie d'Assaut was
tentatively fixed as follows: four groupements (16 groupes) of
Schneider tanks, with four repair sections; four groupements (12
groupes) of St. Chamond tanks, with four repair sections; 36
companies of Renault tanks; one groupe depot for Renault
tanks; one salvage groupe; three park sections. The number of
Renault companies was fixed at 30 before the end of the year.
The organization of the Renault tanks, which were regarded as an
infantry arm, was to be by sections, companies, battalions and
later by regiments and brigades. A company comprised three
sections of five tanks each and an echelon de combat of 10 tanks
(of which one was a wireless signal tank), 1 or 25 machines in all.
A battalion contained three companies of 75 tanks. Changes
were made in the administration, and Marly-le-Roi was given
up as a training centre, two army group-training centres being
established at Mailly-Poivres and Martigny, the training facili- j
ties and auxiliary services generally were increased and elab-
orated, and the relation of the ArtUlerie d'Assaut to the Ministry ,
of War was defined and simplified. All these preparations were
carried out with a view to the cooperation of the tanks in the '
French offensive in the spring.
When the German advance on March 21 1918 wrested the
initiative from the Allies, amongst other results it upset all the
plans carefully worked out for the French tanks. Instead of
taking part in mass in a great offensive, as intended, whatever
tank units existed had now hurriedly to be collected and thrown
into the defence. The factor ruling the speed of the creation of
the service had all along been the rate at which the materiel was
delivered. This, for various reasons, was always much behind
the scheduled time arranged. On March 21 the medium tanks
in a serviceable state fit for immediate use amounted in number
to 245 Schneider and 222 St. Chamond, or 467 machines of an
obsolescent type, and of the new Renault tank i machine ready
for action, with the army. (By the beginning of April over 400
had been turned out by the factories. But these were made up of
training machines without armament or armour, pattern ma-
chines, machines issued to the American army for training, and
those under test.) Moreover the approach of the Germans
necessitated the hurried evacuation of the tank centre and main
park at Champlieu. And so, not only was the new arm, still
in its early infancy, forced to face an entirely fresh situation
with improvised measures, but part of its organization was sud-
denly torn up almost before it had taken root. Great efforts were
made both to assist in coping with the immediately urgent
necessity of checking the enemy's advance and to prepare for
subsequent action. Champlieu was reoccupied in the beginning
of April, when the progress of the Germans to the north was
checked; but a central reserve park farther from the front, near
Fontainebleau, and three others were established.
Operations during April and till the end of May were confined
to the medium tanks, which alone were available and mobilized.
Four groupements of Schneider machines were allotted to the' III.
and I. Armies, joined later by three of St. Chamond machines.
All the actions now undertaken were, as was the case with the
British tanks, of the nature of minor counter-attacks, and not
such as the tanks were best suited for. They took place, on
April 5, at Grivesnes; on April 7 at Senecat; and on April 8 at
Cantigny, the last being in cooperation with the American
troops. The most successful was the last, in which the action
of tanks had been legislated for. The artillery bombardment
was short and portions of ground were left unshelled to allow
of the passage of the tanks. Though not actually fighting, the
tanks were at this period continually being moved about in
readiness, and to save wear and tear the system was adopted
of transporting them by road on special " tugs " drawn by
caterpillar tractors.
On May 31 the Renault machines received their baptism of
fire on the E. of the Forest of Retz. Three battalions of these
machines now ready were allotted to the VT. Army, and were
brought up by train, on lorries and on tugs. Six sections had to
be flung into the fight. Without previous reconnaissance or
any liaison with the already exhausted Colonial infantry, who
had never seen a tank, they had practically to make a cavalry
charge in broad daylight, without a smoke-screen, across a mile
1 Owing to delays in manufacture and difficulty in technical
training the first wireless signal tanks did not take the field until
July 1918, when after some practice they were found of great value.
As has been stated British tanks were fitted with equipment and
trained operators ready for the field in July 1916.
TANKS
693
of open plateau under observation of captive balloons and with-
out effective support from their own guns. One condition fa-
voured their action; their attack was a surprise.
Though the tanks succeeded in clearing the enemy out of their
positions, their success had no tactical result, for the infantry could
not follow up and consolidate the ground gained. But they caused
panic, and inspired a. nervousness and hesitation amongst the Ger-
mans which was invaluable at the moment. This and their sub-
sequent actions carried out during June served to prevent the enemy
from penetrating into the forest.
Meanwhile, four groupements of medium tanks led and greatly
assisted Gen. Mangin's counter-stroke at Mery-Belloy on June n
against the flank of the German salie'nt between Noyon and
Montdidier, by which the enemy's progress toward Compiegne
was arrested. The tanks played a great part in this operation
which had such strategic importance, but this action was the
high-water mark in the career of the medium tanks, for they were
becoming worn out and were gradually replaced by the new and more
efficient Renault tanks as the latter were produced.
By July considerable progress had been made in organizing
and equipping fresh units, and the Artitterie d'Assaut was able
to cooperate on a large scale in the battle of Soissons, Gen.
Foch's decisive counter-stroke of July 18 and following days,
against the German salient formed between Chateau-Thierry
and Reims. This was the vindication of the French tank arm.
To the X., V., and VI. Armies were allotted respectively six, one,
and one groupements of medium tanks, and to each three bat-
talions of Renault tanks, or a total for the operations of eight
groupements of medium and nine of Renault tanks. The battle,
which lasted from July 18 to the 23rd and 26th, so far as the
tanks were concerned, formed a turning point in the war. The
entire operation was based on the action of the tanks; every
available machine was thrown into the fight; and they were
given a chance of showing what they could do.
The tactics employed were those which had been urged all along
by Gen. Estienne and M. Breton, and were a repetition of those
initiated at Cambrai. The attack opened with the advance of a mass
of tanks without preliminary bombardment, as it happened, in
a slight fog, and was a complete surprise. Similar tactics on a smaller
scale were made use of again after the first day, but on the 23rd the
tanks suffered severely from the enemy's guns. Two battalions of
Renaults acted with the VI. Army east of Reims on July 1617, an d
cooperated with two medium groupes with the IX. Army on July
18 near the Marne, and some with the British on July 23 near
Espilly. In these operations, especially the main attack on July 18,
the tanks achieved what it had been claimed they would if properly
used. On July 30 the commander-in-chief issued a special Order
of the Day to the Artillerie d'Assaut -"Vous avez bien merite de la
Patrie," whilst Gen. Estienne was made a commander of the Legion
of Honour and promoted general-of -division.
The battle of Soissons had a great effect on succeeding oper-
ations. It established the value of the tanks beyond all doubt,
inspired enthusiasm in all that concerned the arm and expedited
the manufacture of the machines and the training and organiza-
tion of new units. Without giving even the list of actions in
which the tanks took part to the end of the war, it can be said
that the infantry now clamoured for their assistance, in spite of
their faults and failings, and they were employed whenever
possible. They were asked for by the commander of the VI.
French Army when transferred to Flanders, and on Sept. 30
and several days in Oct. were in action. Some were also sent to
Salonika. Out of the 120 days between July 15 and Nov. n
they were used on 45 days, and the casualties suffered amounted
to 300 officers and 2,300 other ranks. During 1918 3,988 indi-
vidual engagements were fought: 3,140 by Renault, 473 by
Schneider and 375 by St. diamond tanks. Toward the end
their actions amounted to disposing of the enemy rearguard
machine-guns which continually held up the infantry.
By Aug. the machinery of production and training had been so
improved that it was found possible to turn out one battalion of
Renault tanks (75 machines) per week, which implied a vast increase
in the whole of the rear organizations, which were now of a capacity
for the continuance of the tank effort on a greater scale in 1919.
As in England the production of tanks had become an industry.
Though the construction of medium tanks had been abandoned,
Gen. Estienne's opinion as to the necessity for heavy machines had
not changed from the time in Feb. 1918, when he had asked for 900.
But the same influences that had in 1917 retarded the introduction
of the light tank were now adverse to the contemplation of heavy
machines. To provide such machines an Inter-Allied factory was
established, but this was not completed before the Armistice. In
Oct., negotiations which had been carried on with the British Govern-
ment resulted in the promise of some Mark V. and Mark V. Star
tanks. Of the latter, 77 were handed over in November.
In Aug., at the instance of Gen. Foch, an Inter-Allied tank school
was opened in France. It was equipped with a staff of French and
British instructors and various types of British and French machines.
This school was for the interchange of views and the establishment
of a common basis for tactics and staff work concerned with tanks.
The reliance that had come to be placed on the Artillerie d'Assaut
can be gauged by the fact that in Oct. 1918 its actual strength
in the field amounted to 18,023 of all ranks.
Since the war the French have been continuing their development
of cross-country machines. The construction of a very heavy ar-
moured tank was in hand in 1921, while a much lighter machine,
the " Kegresse," of Russian invention, had been tried. It consists of
the substitution of small rubber tracks for the rear wheels of a motor-
car. It is light, cheap, can travel on the flat at a speed of 15 to 20 m.
per hour, and can cross any country over which cavalry can pass.
An amphibious tank propelled on land by tracks and on the water
by a screw has also been tried successfully.
AMERICAN TANKS
Though the tank had not accomplished much in the way of
results by the time that the Americans came into the war, in
April 1917, its military potentialities were at once appreciated
by them, while its mechanical side appealed to their national
genius. But hostilities did not continue long enough for them to
bring their vast resources to bear on its development. The
Americans lost no time in inquiring into the subject, and at once
requested information as to designs, etc. At this time there was
some doubt as to whether the tanks should not be taken up by the
American Marines, but the final decision was in favour of the
Army. In June the commander-designate of the American
Tank Corps, Col. Rockenbach, arrived in France, and an officer
was detailed to inquire into the technical aspect of the tank arm.
An Inter-Allied Tank Bureau was also established. In Sept. 'a
scheme for an American Tank Corps, to consist of five battalions
of heavy tanks and 20 of light tanks, was approved, and in Oct.
an expert technical officer reached England to consider further
the question of development.
The question of the .provision of machines and spare parts,
which had proved such a difficulty with the British and French,
was also taken up. It was realized that in matters of design, it
would be best for the Americans to profit by the experience of
the British and French, whilst relying, as far as possible, on
their own resources for materiel, and it was decided to adopt a
heavy tank of the British type, and a light tank of the French
Renault type. As a result of consultations between the British
and French Ministries of Munitions and the American command-
er-in-chief as to joint production, an Anglo-American commis-
sion was appointed in Dec. to deal with the question, and in Jan.
1918, an agreement was signed by the two Governments for the
manufacture of tanks in France. It contained, amongst others,
the following main provisions: that a factory capable of pro-
ducing 300 tanks a month, and of being extended to turn out up
to 1,200 a month, should be erected in France at the expense of
the two Governments; that 1,500 machines, or more if required,
should be made during 1918; that, in broad terms, in accord-
ance with national facilities for production all the machinery
should be of American and the structure and armament of Brit-
ish manufacture, the armour plate being of American steel, and
that the first 600 tanks should be allotted to the Americans, and
the remaining output as agreed upon, including sale to the French.
The type of machine was to be the " Liberty " or " Allied "
tank, which was the British Mark VIII. machine equipped with
the Liberty aero-engine. 1 It was decided during the summer that
an additional 1,300 of these tanks should be built in the United
States, as well as several thousands of Renault machines. The
scale of this programme shows what importance was attached to
this arm by the Americans. The site chosen for the factory was
Neuvy-Pailleux, near Chateauroux, and work was started there
in the spring. But the building was not completed till Nov., so
this scheme of joint production did not actually come to fruition,
1 The first Liberty tank of British structure and American mechan-
ism was assembled and successfully tried in America in Nov. 1918.
One machine was constructed in England by the end of 1918.
694
TANKS
and although preparations were made for a vast output of
machines in America, by the Armistice the manufacture had
only recently reached the stage of production and only twenty
odd American-built Renault machines had reached France. All
the tank operations in which the Americans took part were
therefore carried out with British or French machines.
As to personnel, in Feb. 1918, 500 volunteers from the American
army assembled at Bourg in France for instruction, and from the
next month onwards three companies of soldifcr mechanics assisted
at the repair depot at Bourron. The establishment of the American
Tank Corps was increased in May to 15 brigades (five per army),
each consisting of one heavy and two light battalions. Owing to the
lack of machines in America it was necessary to send the units of the
Tank Corps for training with the machines to England and France,
a camp being established at Bovington, in Dorset, the British tank-
training centre, for training the heavy tank units, and at Bourg for
that of the light tank units under French supervision. In addition to
25 instructional machines, with accessories and spares, previously
supplied, 144 Renault tanks, the complement of two light battalions,
were handed over in Aug. to the Americans. Two battalions were at
once mobilized and took part in the attack of the St. Mihiel salient
by the American I. Army on Sept. 12.
The entry into action of these units was somewhat disappointing.
The tanks had to travel far from their positions of assembly to the
battle, and on the first day they operated over such difficult ground
that they did not catch up with the infantry, who were able to move
forward rapidly owing to the comparatively feeble resistance of the
enemy. On the second day they were unable to obtain petrol, and
on the third day they did not have much fighting, but took a
number of prisoners. The machines were practically undamaged by
the action. Their next operations were with the French in the
Argonne, where they were of considerable assistance. From this
time until the middle of Oct., when they were re-formed into one
company, they were continually at the disposal of the infantry
commanders, but did not often take a cooperative part in action,
though they travelled miles, being used mostly for reconnaissance
and tor attacks against strong points which had checked the infan-
try. After that date they accompanied the American forces in the
advance right up to the end. One heavy tank battalion which had
been trained in England took the field on Sept. 29 with the American
II. Corps, in the attack on the Hindenburg line. On this occasion
ten tanks were destroyed by running into an old British minefield,
and the American infantry here suffered severely from the German
machine-guns. On Oct. 8, the battalion cooperated most usefully
with the American II. Corps, and again on Oct. 17, when the River
Selle was crossed. Finally they assisted the British on Oct. 23 in the
neighbourhood of Le Cateau. This ended the operations of the units
of the Tank Corps.
The chief characteristics of the action of the Americans in regard
to tanks was their quick appreciation of the value of the arm. But
the extent of the preparations made for a continuance of the struggle
in this as well as in some other directions prevented a greater part
Being played by the American tank forces in the field. Had the war
continued it would have come into play with overwhelming effect.
Since the Armistice the Americans have pressed on with the de-
velopment and application of the caterpillar track system for road
and cross-country transport generally. Most of their efforts in this
direction have been concentrated on the " motorization " of artil-
lery traction, and a considerable amount of literature has been pub-
lished foreshadowing the future ideal as elimination of the horse for
military transport purposes. Experiments have been and are being
carried out with different types of self-propelled vehicles on the
caterpillar track, and combined wheel and track principles. One
machine of the latter type recently covered 251 m. in 17 hours.
Of fighting tanks, the Mark VIII. of 35 tons is still the standard
heavy machine, but experiments are being made with modified
Renault and Ford light tanks, and a water-crossing machine. On
the whole the Americans seem to be greatly impressed with the part
that will be played by machines in the warfare of the future and have
made great steps in applying track propulsion to military uses.
GERMAN TANKS
In spite of rumours, the first appearance of the British tanks came
as a complete surprise to the Germans. In Dec. 1913, and again
toward the end of 1914, proposals had been made in Germany
for an armoured automobile on caterpillar tracks; and in the
summer of 1915 some experiments in this direction had been
carried out; but no steps were taken to proceed with the idea.
In Oct. 1916, after the appearance of the British tanks, of which
they temporarily captured one, the question of constructing
similar machines was taken in hand by a special commission, and
drawings were prepared. Construction, however, was postponed,
owing to the lack of coal and steel, and to the economic condi-
tions generally. H.Q. appears then to have become doubtful as
to the necessity for these weapons, and did not give this service
first priority of urgency. This was actually not done until the
summer of 1918. This lack of interest or apathy on the part of
the Germans came as a surprise to the Allies, for it was antici-
pated that so soon as the secret was out the enemy would use
every endeavour to copy and improve on the machine and press
on with mass production so as to make up if possible for the start
the Allies had gained. For a long time opinion in Germany
remained divided as to the value of the weapon, partly owing to
the mechanical imperfections of the original Allied machines
and partly owing to the manner in which they were first used,;
especially during the summer of 1917.
Nevertheless, manufacture of a tank, known as type A.7.V.,
apparently the result of the deliberations of the commission
already referred to, was commenced in the spring of 1917.
Only 10 of these machines were ready for the offensive in March;
1918, whilst not more than 20 were completed by the end of the:
war. Designs for a heavier type, also, were started about the!
same time, of which the first model was to have been ready ini
Dec. of that year, but it was still unfinished at the end of thel
war. Experimental construction of a small light tank was also;
commenced, and orders for these machines were placed in thei
summer of 1918, to be ready by the spring of 1919. This con-l
tract, also, was cancelled at the suspension of hostilities.
The French attack at La Malmaison in Oct. 1917, and then
the British attack at Cambrai somewhat changed the aspect of j
affairs. The British tanks captured by the Germans in their ,
counter-attack after the latter action were collected at Charlcroi ;
and repaired, and the question of production in quantity of a
German tank based on the British type was considered, only to
be dropped, owing to the shortage in man-power. In Jan. 1918, i
the first " Sturmpanzerkraftwagenabteilung " (Tank Section), I
of five German A.7.V. machines, was formed and brought with !
its auxiliary transport up to the western front for training. The I
captured tanks, also, were organized in sections of five machines.
The personnel establishment was on an extravagant scale, no
fewer than 1 76 of all ranks being allotted to a section of German
machines, and 140 to a section of captured British machines, as
against the British establishment for a similar section of 41 of all
ranks. In all, three sections, comprising 15 of their own tanks,
and six sections comprising 30 captured machines, were used
by the Germans in 1918. Some of the latter were re-armed with
5-7-cm. Russian guns.
FIG. II. German A-7.V. Tank.
The description of the A.7.V. machine (see fig. 1 1) is as follows:
weight, 32 tons; length, 7 metres; width, 3-2 metres; height, 3
metres; armament, 6 machine-guns and one 5'7-cm. gun ; protection,
armour 30 mm., 20 mm. and 15 mm. thick; crew, I officer, 15 other
ranks (mechanics, gunners, machine-gunners); power, two roo-H.P.
Daimler engines, each driving one track; climbing capacity, trenches
of 2-5 metres width. The German tank was a clumsy machine and
a bad climber, owing to the underhung tracks. It was powerfully
engined and its tracks were carried on spring bogies which enabled
it to cover 8 m. per hour on the flat. The thick armour was proof
against armour-piercing bullets at short range and also against light-
field-gun shells; but the joints between the thick plates rendered
the crew liable to bullet splashes, which was a serious defect.
TANKS
695
The Germans used their tanks on nine occasions in 1918,
commencing with their advance on March 21, the most success-
ful action being when they captured Villers-Bretonneaux on
April 24, 12 German machines coming into action on this occa-
sion. The result of the appearance against the British of hostile
tanks, especially on this date and later, on Oct. 8 in the Cambrai
sector, when 15 captured British machines were used, was suffi-
cient to confirm their great moral effect and the feeling of help-
lessness engendered in infantry by them. It showed that it was
not only the Germans who could not stand up against the attack
of these machines, for the British infantry fell back on the report
of the appearance of German tanks as did the German troops at
each appearance of the Allied machines, when the Allies were
pressing forward. The German tank tactics do not appear to
have been very thoroughly thought out, and consisted mostly of
" mopping up." This is probably due to the smallness of the
number possessed by them and the improvised nature of the
arm. Moreover, the belief in their own powers of the members
of the tank units must have been somewhat shaken by the
official propaganda campaign which had been carried out for
months by the High Command to discount the effect of the
British and French machines.
According to one authority, the reasons that the Germans did
not during 1917 whole-heartedly take up the organization of tanks
in large numbers for their great effort in the spring of 1918 were that
when they first became aware of their existence it was too late to
carry out the successive operations of design, experiment and manu-
facture in bulk ; and that owing to lack of raw material and shortness
of man-power the manufacture of the machines would have entailed
the cutting down of the production of other war materiel. There
does not seem to be much force in the first argument, if it be remem-
bered that 80 British tanks were ready equipped in the field within 13
months of the receipt of the specification by the designers, and this
without any existing machines to serve as patterns. All along, the
attitude of the German High Command seems to have been that of
the staff and not that of the troops; and great endeavours were made
to inspire the latter with the official views. Though official disbelief
was seriously shaken by the surprise of Cambrai, the success of the
German counter-attack 10 days later was used, illogically enough, to
discount the effect produced by the previous assault by tanks. There
was, however, a general and absolute revulsion of feeling after the
great French success on July 18 1918, and the British actions of
Aug. 8 and 21, which almost amounted to panic at H.Q., and con-
verted both critics and military authorities. There were numerous
articles in the German press during Sept. severely censuring the High
Command for having neglected to provide tanks for the German
forces and to undertake measures against the Allies' machines.
Popular opinion became so strong that a stormy debate on the sub-
ject took place in the Reichstag in the following month, when the
Minister of War made an apology for the neglect to equip the Ger-
man troops with this weapon. There is no doubt as to the opinion
of the German army and the nation on the subject of tanks from
then on to the end of the war. For months after the cessation of
hostilities the tank was called " Deulschland' s Tod" "the Death
of Germany."
ITALIAN TANKS
A great part of the theatre of war in which the Italians
were operating for so long was too mountainous for tank oper-
ations, and the question of the organization of a tank arm was
not taken up by Italy until 1918. Manufacture of tanks was
then started, and by the time the war came to an end one or
more Fiat machines were ready to take the field, but none was
actually used.
ANTI-TANK DEFENCE
The tanks used by the British and French during the war were
designed to be bullet-proof only, not being strictly speaking
" armoured," and were vulnerable to gunfire. The best active
defence against them since they were moving targets, was the
direct fire over the sights of as light a Q.F. piece as could insure
penetration. Any field gun in use during the war, or light Q.F.
guns of the " Pom-Pom " type, were sufficient. But as the
tanks were mobile and could attack at any spot, often by sur-
prise, to attempt to meet them with special or stationary guns
in position would have entailed the distribution and locking up
on the mere chance of attack of a prohibitive amount of artillery.
The alternative was the provision of suitable guns themselves
protected and capable of movement across country, so that
they could be concentrated speedily when and where required.
In other words, the correct reply to the tank was a type of male
tank capable of rapid movement. The Germans eventually
produced this reply in principle, in their own A.y.V. tanks, and
by re-arming the male British Mark IV. machines and those of
the French Schneider and St. Chamond (gunned) types which
they had captured. This took place, however, too late and on
too small a scale to influence the course of operations. Techni-
cally, also, the German machines failed in mobility across en-
trenched country. In order to effectively attack the German
tanks by gunfire armour-piercing shell was required, for they
were protected by hardened armour up to 30 mm. (1-2 in.) in
thickness.
As the Germans were forced by circumstances to develop anti-
tank defence, from which duty the Allies were almost entirely
spared, the measures they adopted are here reviewed. Their
action, which consisted for a long time largely of injunctions to
the infantry not to lose their heads in the event of a tank attack,
suffered from the continual inability or unwillingness of the High
Command to take this weapon seriously, in spite of the lesson
of Cambrai of Nov. 1917, till after the French attack on July 18
1918. In Sept. 1916 the Germans of course had no special means
of defence against the tanks, of the existence of which they were
ignorant, and these machines had an opportunity on their first
appearance never to be repeated. After the Somme battle
certain measures of anti-tank defence, seemingly based on a
misunderstanding of the nature of the machine, were undertaken,
mostly in the direction of obstacles, such as pits, etc., in roads,
and indirect artillery fire. After April 1917, it was discovered
that neither the British nor French tanks were proof against the
" K " armour-piercing bullet with which the troops had been
equipped for use against loop-hole shields, and considerable
reliance was placed on this fact. But this discovery did not help
the Germans much, the tanks (Mark IV.) used in the next action
by the British having had this to a great degree remedied.
During that year the value of gun defence against tanks was to
some extent realized, attention being mostly given to indirect fire
which of all kinds is least effective against moving targets. A
certain number of special direct-fire, anti-tank guns often in
concrete shelters, were emplaced along the front. But not much
attention was paid to the use of direct fire from field artillery
normally in the sector attacked. This was not so on the occa-
sion of the French attack on the Crayonne Plateau on April 1 5
1917, when the guns of the defence of all kinds did great execu-
tion among the French machines. At the battle of Cambrai
again, some of the German field artillery were most effective
against the British machines, one well-concealed gun served by
a German major putting 16 tanks out of action.
During the period of preparation for the 1918 offensive the anti-
tank rifle, which was a definite step forward, was evolved. This
was a heavy, single-loading rifle of 53o-mm. calibre, sJ ft. long,
weighing 36 lb., firing armour-piercing pointed bullets. The
bullets penetrated the tank plates, though they did not neces-
sarily place a tank out of action; but the weight of the weapon
and its recoil hampered free employment by the infantry.
It was after July 18 and Aug. 8 1918, that the German High
Command awoke to the danger threatening the German defen-
sive, and indeed issued almost panic instructions. Special anti-
tank defence officers were appointed to the different formations;
guns were brought up to the front line and emplaced for action
against tanks alone; and sections of reserve batteries were
allotted to this duty, whilst all batteries (including howitzers)
were to take up positions from which they could engage tanks
by direct fire. The most efficacious of these precautions was the
employment of the mobile guns of reserve batteries which were
not so likely to be knocked out by barrage fire as those in posi-
tions closer to the front. Tanks became a bugbear, all sorts of
precautions in the way of signals to notify their approach were
taken, such as the installation of rockets, syrens, Klaxon horns;
and permanent alarm posts were established. The passive forms
of defence employed were: obstacles in the roads and entrances
to villages, such as steel palisades, concrete blocks set sufficiently
696
TANKS
close together to prevent the passage of tanks and of sufficient
height to be unclimbable, and mine craters. In some cases elabo-
rate chevaux-de-frise were erected across stretches of the front;
" booby-traps " such as tank-pits were laid and certain areas
in the later stages of the operations were flooded. Mines were
employed to an increasing degree, sometimes in large minefields.
It does not require a great amount of explosive to damage a tank,
and the mines laid by the Germans were usually electro-contact,
or mechanical " tread " mines, which were fired by the weight
of a tank passing over them, the charge being a gun or trench-
mortar shell. But land mines have the drawback of being dan-
gerous to those who use them, and the greatest damage done to
tanks by mines during the war was to the British machines
manned by Americans in July 1918, by a British minefield pre-
pared during the retreat in March and forgotten. On the whole,
all these artificial obstacles proved a failure, for they could not
be continuous, and could be avoided by a cross-country vehicle.
The Germans finally took the obvious step of producing a
large-calibre, high-velocity machine-gun firing heavy armour-
piercing bullets. This weapon, if fairly mobile, would have been
an effective reply to the tank had it been introduced sooner. It
was known as the " Tuf " (Tank und Flieger), was of i3-mm.
calibre and could fire 200 bullets, said to be capable of piercing
30 mm. of hardened steel, a minute. Great efforts were made to
produce it quickly and to keep its manufacture secret. Six
thousand were to have been ready by April 1919, but by the
Armistice none was in the field.
The greatest physical obstacle to the advance of tanks one
form of defence experienced during the war was mud, and this
was intensified by the concentrated and prolonged artillery fire
which was generally carried out by both sides. In dry weather
this rendered the ground almost impossible to negotiate and in
wet weather made it absolutely impassable by any machine mov-
ing on the surface of the ground. This was well exemplified
during the third battle of Ypres in 1917, when the Germans
could not have arranged a better defence against tanks than the
morass created in the low-lying battlefield by the British guns.
Here the conditions were such as to render futile the employment
of tanks which was attempted. The best anti-tank defence
beyond this half-natural, half-artificial obstacle, is, as has been
said, the fire of suitable, mobile, light Q.F. artillery and carefully
disposed minefields. Inundations are likely to be rendered use-
less by the tank becoming an amphibious machine. ,
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
The tank was the one complete British innovation in the war
and a great one. The resurrection of an old weapon, it was
forced into a fresh existence during hostilities by the needs of the
war, and created for a special purpose. In essence it amounted
to the addition of bullet-proof plate and armament to an exist-
ing agricultural machine which possessed the quality of cross-
country mobility. Its immediate purpose was the destruction of
the machine-gun a weapon which, until the tank appeared, was
responsible during the war for the loss of more human life than
any other, and upon which the Germans at bay, on the defen-
sive, placed so much reliance. With the machine-gun in this
connexion is associated the wire obstacle. The combination of
the two was the disease for which the tank proved to be the
only cure; but, early as the disease was diagnosed, it had grown
to be the scourge of the Allies on the western front, whenever
they attempted to press forward as demanded by the strategic
situation, long before the cure was applied. The tank was the
great life-saver of the infantry. To it many thousands of the
soldiers of the Allies, principally French and British, owed their
lives infantrymen who but for the tanks would have had to
repeat, on a larger scale and possibly abortively, the bloody offen-
sives of 1915, 1916 and the first half of 1917. It took the place
of the old stereotyped and expensive artillery preparations, with
more certain results, and also reintroduced the surprise factor,
which the preliminary bombardment prevented, and which the
conditions of trench warfare otherwise rendered impossible
without the protection to the infantry afforded by it.
A remarkable feature about the introduction of the British
tanks was the fact that they were to a great extent forced on the
army by the action of certain enthusiastic individuals, of whom
one only was a serving soldier. Some of those, also, who were
responsible for the creation of the new weapon, from the begin-
ning formulated the tactics for its employment, which were
finally after an inexplicably long period put into practice in the
field. This was the case with the British and the French. The
British first used tanks in Sept. 1916, and first employed them
correctly on a large scale on Nov. 20 1917, 14 months later.
The French first used tanks in April 1917, and first employed
them correctly, on a large scale, on July 15 1918, also 14 months
later. And in .each case this happened in spite of the proper
method having been put forward, and its adaption urged. The
only explanation of this policy is that it was due to inherent
conservatism and lack of imagination, incredulity concerning
the attributes of the new weapon, failure to understand what
they implied, and initially lack of patience.
That the tanks achieved their object was shown by the prep-
arations made by Great Britain, France, the United States,
Italy and also Germany for the continuation of the struggle in
1919, and by the fact that their manufacture had begun to take
up a large proportion of the munition-producing capacity of
three at least of the combatants. In regard to results, it is only
necessary to recall one major fact, so far as the British were con-
cerned, i.e. that after the era of mechanical warfare, as it has
been termed, set in, on Aug. 8 1918, and between that date and
the Armistice, 59 British divisions were able to defeat 99 German
divisions, a reversal of the proportion usually considered to hold
between attackers and defenders. The offensive had at last
obtained the superiority; and strength could no longer be esti-
mated by the counting of heads. During the war the German
infantry confessed itself impotent against tanks. But since the
war not only have the infantry soldiers of other nations come to
the same conclusion, but admit that they are often helpless
without tanks to assist them. In certain circumstances they
demand the assistance of these machines; and they are right.
In regard to the influence of the new arm on the result of the war
amongst a mass of corroborative evidence, one statement in-
cludes and covers all others. On Oct. 2 1918, when the end was
fast approaching, the report to the heads of the Reichstag parties
made by the representatives of German military headquarters
began with the following words 1 :
"The Chief Army Command has been compelled to take a terribly
grave decision and declare that, according to human possibilities,
there is no longer any prospect of forcing peace on the enemy.
Above all two facts have been decisive for this issue. First, the
Tanks. . . "
Such an admission, wrung after four years from those who had
confidently started the World War, is sufficient.
In regard to the different ways in which tanks established
their military value, apart from the actual results achieved, some
instructive statistics have been prepared of their action from
the aspect of the "economics" of war. 2 In fighting man-power
a brigade of 144 tanks has a fire-power equivalent to that of 24
light batteries of six guns each, and nearly 200 more machine-
guns than are carried in a division. An infantry division accom-
panied by one battalion of tanks can attack three times the
frontage that can be attacked by a division unaccompanied by
tanks. The fighting infantry in three divisions is 21,000 men, of
one tank battalion 500. The saving in man-power is therefore
13,500, or 63%, and with equivalent fire-power the chances of
casualties are reduced. As to economy in infantry casualties,
the losses on the firs"t day at the battle of Cambrai (a tank
battle) were approximately 1,000 per division engaged; at the
battle of the Somme (an artillery battle) there were 3,000.
Between July and Nov. 1917, when tanks were used on impossi-
ble ground 258,000 casualties were sustained by the British;
between July and Nov. 1918, when tanks were used on possible
1 Report by Col. Bauer, Chief of the Artillery Department.
* The Gold Medal (Military) Prize Essay for 1919 by Brevet-Col.
J. F. C. Fuller (Journal of the Royal United Service Institution,
May 1920). These statistics refer to the experience of the British.
TANKS
697
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698
TANNENBERG TAUSSIG
ground, the Germans lost 284,000 prisoners alone. As to economy
in artillery personnel, at the third battle of Ypres 121,000 artil-
lery personnel, were used on a front of 17,000 yd., the maximum
penetration attained on July 31 (one day) being 3,300 yards.
At Cambrai 4,100 tank personnel carried out the work normally
done by the guns on a front of 13,000 yards. The maximum
penetration attained in one day was 9,500 yards. .As to economy
in cavalry personnel, the personnel of all ranks in a cavalry
division (without the Royal Horse Artillery) would suffice to
man and equip three brigades of Whippet tanks or 540 machines.
As to economy in ammunition, at the battle of Arras, on a front
of 17,000 yd., 2,007,534 shells, weighing 57,000 tons, were fired;
at the third battle of Ypres, on the same frontage, 3,107,363
shells, weighing 93,463 tons, were fired. At Cambrai, on a
13,000 yd. front, 293,149 shells, weighing 5,824 tons, were ex-
pended. It is shown that the use of tanks also leads to economy
in munition manufacturing man-power, in shipping and land
transport, in weight carried by the soldier, in labour on the
battlefields, in property damaged, in forage or food, in time and
in cost of production. In regard to the latter item the cost of
projectiles and explosives alone for 1918 was 329,860,344 and
for the undeveloped new arm, tanks, 9,587,960. This inevitably
leads to speculation as to what results might have been had
Mr. de Mole's suggestion made in 1912 been taken up and devel-
oped, even at the cost of 12 hours' conduct of the war in 1918.
The principle of mechanical warfare and the advantage of using
power-driven machines instead of human and animal muscle
having been established in one particular direction, there is
little doubt but that it will be applied in others. In future,
there will be larger and smaller fighting tanks developed from
those born in the World War. They will be speedier, more pow-
erful and have a far longer range of action. Some will also be
amphibious, and all will be less easy to stop than the present
somewhat embryonic machines. The principle of track propul-
sion will be applied to vehicles of all types and not confined to
fighting machines, and will to a great extent eliminate the neces-
sity of using roads or railway, and place the movement of armies
on a " two-dimensional " basis instead of being on a one-dimen-
sional basis as it has in the past. Future fighting tanks will in
certain theatres be able to replace cavalry and may against a
civilized enemy be able to carry out, with aeroplanes, those long-
distance raids against H.Q. and important points far behind the
fighting-line, which since the advent of the machine-gun cavalry
cannot execute, will give greater facility both for the release
of gas in large quantities, if gas is used, and also for obtaining
protection against gas. The fighting machines will be very
largely used in conjunction with action in the air, and the two
services will be complementary and mutually helpful. Large
tracts of roadless country which have to be held against an
uncivilized enemy, or a hostile population, will provide the
first opportunities for the development of this combination, on
account of the saving that will be effected in men and animals,
the most expensive and delicate parts in an armed force. In
killing-power, mobility, and endurance, one efficient mobile
machine with its crew and machine-guns will be able to take
the place of many infantry or cavalry soldiers and many horses,
and will cost less to maintain and feed. In the United States
the possibility of the " motorization " of all war transport and of
eliminating the horse was in 1921 being fully discussed, and if the
signs are read correctly this will be the general tendency, so that
the great wars on land of the future will be practically horseless
and conducted by far fewer men in the field and more men in the
factory and workshop than has been the case in the past.
Strength for war will not in the future be estimated by counting
heads, for, beyond the minimum necessary, the greater the
number of human beings in a force in the field the greater will
be its vulnerability. The introduction of the tank in 1916 up-
set all the existing values of field defences, and its natural and
inevitable evolution will cause a revolution in the methods of
war as great as that in tactics caused by its original appearance.
In the compilation of this article reference has been made to
the following works: Clough William-Ellis and A. William-Ellis,
The Tank Corps (1919); J. F. C. Fuller, Tanks in the Great War
(1920); D. G. Browne, The Tank in Action (1920); Dutil, Les'
Chars d'Assaut, leur creation et leur role pendant la guerre, 1915-1918
(1919) ; M. Schwarte, Die Militdrischen lehren des Grossen Krieges
(1920).
Figs. 1,9, 10 and II are from Tanks in the Great War by Col.
J. F. C. Fuller, D.S.O., by permission of the author and Mr. John
Murray. Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, from " British Tanks " by Sir
E. H. Tennyson d'Eyncourt, K.C.B., D.S.O., are reproduced on a
reduced scale by permission of the publishers of Engineering,
(E. D. S.)
TANNENBERG, a village of East Prussia, 10 m. S.W. of Hohen-
stein. It has given its name to two battles of great importance
in German history, the battle of July 15 1410, in which thei
Poles and Lithuanians destroyed the forces of the Teutonic i
Order (see 21.905), and that of Aug. 26-31 1914, in which the:
German VIII. Army under Gencral-Oberst von Hindenburg
destroyed the Russian II. Army commanded by General Samso-
nov. The latter is described in detail under the heading MASU-J
RIA, BATTLES IN. For a critical account of the former, the story
of which has been overlaid by a mass of legends, see Delbriick,
Gesch. der Kriegskunst, vol. iii., book iv., ch. 6.
TARKINGTON, [NEWTON] BOOTH (1869- ), American!
writer, was born in Indianapolis, Ind., July 29 1869. After study- 1
ing at Phillips Academy, Exeter, Mass., he entered Purdue j
University, Lafayette, Ind., but two years later transferred to
Princeton, where he graduated in 1893. At first he intended to'
follow a business career, but after a few years devoted his time :
to writing. He was elected to the Indiana House of Representa-
tives for the term 1902-3. In 1918 he received the degree of
Litt.D. from Princeton. In 1920 he was elected to the American
Academy of Arts and Letters. The same year he was engaged as
a writer of photo-plays by the Goldwyn Pictures Corporation.
His first story, The Gentleman from Indiana, was published in
1899, having appeared already as a serial in McClure's Magazine.
In 1900 his reputation was established by Monsieur Beaucaire,
which he successfully dramatized (with E. G. Sutherland) in
1901. In 1919 he was awarded the Pulitzer Prize by Columbia
University for his novel, The Magnificent Ambersons (1918).
His other stories include The Two Vanrevels (1902); Cherry
(1903); The Conquest of Canaan (1905); Guest of Quesnay (1908);
Beauty and the Jacobin: an Interlude of the French Revolution (1912);
Penrod (1914); Penrod and Sam (1916); Ramsey Milholland (1919);
Alice Adams (1921). His plays include Cameo Kirby (1907); Your
Humble Servant (1908); Mister Antonio (1916); The Country Cousin
(1917, with Julian Street); The Gibson Uprirhl and Up From No-
where (1919, both with Harry Leon Wilson) ; Clarence (1919).
TATA, SIR RATAN (1871-1918), Parsee financier and philan-
thropist, was born at Bombay Jan. 20 1871, the son of the famous
Parsee merchant Jamsetji Nasarwanji Tata (see 26.448). He
was educated at St. Xavier's College, Bombay, and afterwards
entered his father's firm. On the death of the elder Tata in 1904,
Ratan Tata and his brother Dorabji Jamsetji Tata (b. 1859)
inherited a very large fortune, much of which they devoted to
philanthropic works of a practical nature and to the establish-
ment of various industrial enterprises for developing the re-
sources of India. An Indian institute of scientific and medical
research was founded at Mysore in 1905, and in 1912 the Tata
Iron and Steel Co. began work at Sachi, in the Central Provinces,
with marked success. The most important of the Tata enter-
prises, however, was the storing of the water-power of the
Western Ghats (1915), which provided the city of Bombay with
an enormous amount of electrical power, and hence vastly in-
creased the productive capacity of the Bombay industries. Sir
Ratan Tata, who was knighted in 1916, did not confine his
benefactions to India. In England, where he had a permanent
residence at York House, Twickenham, he founded (1912) the
Ratan Tata department of social science and administration at
the London School of Economics, and in 1912 established a Ratan
Tata fund at the university of London for studying the con-
ditions of the poorer classes. He died at St. Ives, Cornwall,
Sept. 5 1918.
TAUSSIG, FRANK WILLIAM (1859- ), American econo-
mist (see 26.456), was during 1917-9 chairman of the U.S
Tariff Commission, which made a special study of commercial
TEISSERENG DE BORT TELEGRAPH
699
treaties and prepared much material for the American Peace
Commission in Paris. In March 1919 he was called to Paris to
advise in the adjustment of commercial treaties, and in Nov.,
on invitation of President Wilson, attended the second industrial
conference in Washington for promoting peace between capital
and labour. He was a strong supporter of the Covenant of the
League of Nations. He was the author of Principles of Eco-
nomics (1911; 2nd ed. 1915); Some Phases of the Tariff Question
(1915); Investors and Money-Makers (1915); and Free Trade,
the Tar if, and Reciprocity (1919).
TEISSERENC DE BORT, LEON PHILIPPE (1855-1913), French
meteorologist, was born in Paris Nov. 5 1855, the son of an
engineer. He began his scientific career in 1880, when he entered
the meteorological department of the Bureau Central Meteoro-
logique in Paris under E. E. W. Mascart. In 1883, 1885 and 1887
he made journeys to N. Africa to study geology and terrestrial
magnetism, and during this, period published some important
charts of the distribution of pressure at a height of 4,000 metres.
In 1892 he became chief meteorologist to the Bureau, but re-
signed in 1896 and founded a private meteorological observatory
at Trappes, near Versailles, where he carried out investigations
on clouds and the problems of the upper air. In 1898 he published
an important paper in Comptes Rendus detailing his researches
by means of balloons into the constitution of the atmosphere.
His discovery of the so-called isothermal layer, or stratosphere
as it is now generally called, will always stand out as one of the
most important events in the study of the upper atmosphere.
He also carried out investigations in Sweden and over the Zuider
! Zee, the Mediterranean and the tropical region of the Atlantic,
and fitted out a special vessel in order to study the currents above
j the trade-winds. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Meteorolog-
I ical Society in 1903, hon. member in 1909, and was awarded
; the Symons gold medal of the society in 1908. He collaborated
' with Hugo Hildebrandsson in Les bases de la meteorologie dyna-
. mique (1907). He died at Cannes Jan. 2 1913.
TELEGRAPH (see 26.510*). Apart from the advances in
Wireless Telegraphy (see WIRELESS) and Cable Telegraphy (see
SUBMARINE CABLE TELEGRAPHY), progress since 1910 has been
seen in various technical directions. The developments in
i the United Kingdom and in the United States in some respects
have differed, and this article therefore considers them in two
1 sections which differentiate not only certain technical and com-
mercial aspects of the subject but also certain distinctive points
of view.
UNITED KINGDOM
One of the most important developments in type-printing
telegraphy is the adaptation of the Baudot for duplex working
by A. C. Booth in 1905. This forms the basis 9f all modern
multiplex systems, and has led to a great increase in the output
and flexibility of such systems with a consequent considerable
extension of their use.
,,, flm/mt Kings
-. \\S Distributor
FIG. i.
Booth-Baudot. The underlying principle of the Booth-Baudot
will be understood by reference to fig. i. It will be seen that the
outgoing signals from the sending rings of the distributor at the home
station divide differentially at the line relay and therefore do not
affect the receiving apparatus which is connected in the local cir-
cuit via the receiving rings of the distributor. Installations ol
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
double, triple, quadruple, quintuple, and sextuple duplex have given
excellent results in the British Post Office service during a number of
years. The method of driving the mechanism of the Baudot dis-
tributors and receivers has been changed from weight driven gear,
to electric motor drive. In the case of the receivers, a small series
motor with belt drive is used, while the distributors are driven by
the La Cpur phonic motor. In both cases a considerable saving is
obtained in first cost and maintenance expenses with the advantages
of more satisfactory working and greater facility in changing ap-
paratus when necessary.
The Carpentier method of automatic transmission on Baudot
circuits has recently been reintroduced in the British Post Office,
but with several important improvements.
In offices where a large number of keyboard perforators are
used, each having its own particular lay-out, the change from one
instrument to another caused serious difficulty from an operating
standpoint. This difficulty was much felt with the original
Carpentier keyboard, in which, owing to the exigencies of the
Baudot code, the keys for the numerals were spread over the
keyboard instead of being arranged on the first row of letter keys
as in most typewriters. Carpentier sought to minimize this
difficulty by adding an extra row of keys for the numerals, and a
similar arrangement was adopted in the Morse keyboard perfo-
rators such as the Cell and the Kleinschmidt.
Messrs. A. C. Booth and A. S. Willmott have now invented a
device which enables the keyboard for any type of machine
telegraph, whatever the code used, to be arranged exactly as in
a typewriter, thus allowing the numerals to be placed in their
standard positions without the extra row of keys.
The Booth-Willmott-Baudot keyboard perforator punches the
5-unit code transversely on a paper tape which is of the same size
as that used in the Murray and Western Electric instrument
(see hereafter), enabling the transmitters of either of these in-
stallations to be used in conjunction with it. Switches are pro-
vided on the instrument tables so that any particular arm of
the multiplex may be worked automatically from a transmitter
fed by a Booth-Willmott perforator or by direct-sending from
an ordinary Baudot keyboard sender at will.
REFERENCES. A. C. Booth, " Telegraph Keyboard Perforators,"
I.P.O.E.E. Journal (vol. xiv., p. 72); A. C. Booth, The Baudot
Printing Telegraph System (1907), I.P.O.E.E. paper; H. W. Pendry,
The 'Baudot Printing Telegraph System; A. C. Booth, " The Baudot
Journal (vol. x., p. 25); E. Lakey, " Progress of Baudot Duplex,'
I.P.O.E.E. Journal (vol. xii., p. 216); Post Office Technical Pam-
phlet for Workmen, B6.
Murray Multiplex. The difficulty experienced by Baudot
operators in manipulating accurately the direct-sending keyboards
I
Feed*
Holes 3
4
5
FIG. 2.
in time with the cadence signal at speeds much in excess of 30
words per minute led Murray to adopt the Carpentier method of
automatic transmission in his multiplex system. The main
features of the Booth-Baudot system are utilized, but the
operators perform on perforators which have keyboards similar
to that of an ordinary typewriter and do not have to keep in time
with a cadence signal. Each key of the perforator, when de-
pressed, perforates in a paper tape, a particular combination of
holes in accordance with the arrangement of the five-unit code
adopted by Murray. The tape thus prepared has its perforations
across the slip and not longitudinally as in the case of the Murray
automatic system, the use of which has been abandoned, so that
a great saving in the cost of paper results.
Fig. 2 shows a portion of the Murray multiplex transmitting tape
perforated to represent the word " telegraph." From the perforator,
the tape passes directly into an automatic transmitter, which has
five selecting needles, each controlling a contact lever resting
yoo
TELEGRAPH
normally against a bus-bar connected to the spacing pole of the line
battery. When a needle passes into a hole in the tape the correspond-
ing contact lever moves over and makes contact with a bus-bar
connected to the marking pole of the line battery. The positions of
the contact levers are therefore determined by the perforations in
the tape and as each lever is connected to its own particular segment
on the sending ring of the distributor, the signals representing
a character are sent out to line, one after the other, as the brushes
pass over the segments. Immediately the brushes have passed over
the last of the segments allocated to a particular transmitter a cur-
rent impulse is sent from another ring of the distributor through a
" cadence " electromagnet in the transmitter, which when operated
withdraws the selecting needles that have entered perforations and
propels the tape forward sufficiently to bring the next group of per-
forations into position above the selecting needles. Provision is
made for preventing mutilation of the paper tape when the transmit-
ter overtakes the perforator, by arranging for the tightening of
the tape to actuate a lever situated between the two instruments.
When the lever is pulled down the armature of the cadence electro-
magnet is prevented from moving. As soon as the tape slackens the
lever rises and transmission is continued. For the reception of
signals Page printers are employed somewhat similar to those which
were used in the Murray automatic system, but differing from them
in that the five selecting combs, which determine the letter to be
printed, are positioned by electromagnets instead of by a perforated
tape. The normal speed of working of each arm of the Murray
multiplex is 40 words per minute, although speeds in excess of this
may be attained.
REFERENCES. D. Murray, Practical Aspects of Printing Teleg-
raphy, I.E.E. Paper (1911); latest edition of Herberts Telegraphy;
Post Office Technical Pamphlet for Workmen, B?.
The Western Electric Multiplex. This system is also based on
the Booth-Baudot duplex and came into use in 1914. The
adoption of a method of correction from the actual working
signals themselves, instead of utilizing special correcting signals
as in the Baudot and Murray systems, results in a saving -of line
time and therefore gives a greater output on difficult lines.
The transmitters and perforators are the modern developments of
Carpentier's but the printer used types the message in page form
instead of on a paper tape as in the Baudot system, from a type
wheel which rotates from character to character as may be re-
quired. This printer has not given entirely satisfactory results,
and is being superseded by one in which type bars are used in
place of a type drum and the paper is kept central instead of being
moved sidewise to and fro. The phonic wheel distributors are driven
by electrically vibrated tuning-forks, which possess an advantage
over vibrating-reeds in that they may be placed on the instrument
table instead of being fixed to a steady support as is required in
the case of reeds.
The Kleinschmidt Electric Co. of New York have recently
designed a very compact column printer which may be used on
Western Electric multiplex circuits. As in the Murray printer,
there are five selecting combs which are operated by electromag-
nets. When the combs have been positioned, during the reception
of a character, certain slots in the combs are thereby brought
into alignment allowing a pull-bar attached to one extremity of
the required type-bar lever to fall into them. Directly after the
combs have been moved and the type-bar lever selected, a
contact is closed mechanically, completing a circuit through a
printing magnet which, when it operates, causes the selected
pull-bar to be impelled forward, thus projecting the free end of
the corresponding type-bar lever against an ink ribbon and
printing the required character as in a typewriter.
REFERENCES. P. M. Rainey, " A New Printing Telegraph
System," Electrical World (April 3 1915) ; The Western Union Multi-
plex System; (Pamphlet printed by Telegraph and Telephone Age);
A. H. Roberts, " A New Type Printing Telegraph System," I.P.O.-
E.E. Journal (vol. viii., p. 193); Post Office Technical Pamphlet for
Workmen, 87.
The Siemens A utomatic System. The original Siemens automa-
tic system used an i i-unit code actuating a receiver which printed
the incoming signals in Roman characters on photographic paper.
The preparations required for the received slips, which had to be
developed chemically, impaired its usefulness for actual traffic,
and the system was superseded in 1912 by one using a 5-unit code
and a revolving type-wheel. The latter is now extensively
used in Germany and to a limited extent in other countries.
As in the case of the Creed and other automatic systems there are
several perforating operators and one transmitting operator at the
sending station. The prepared tape from the keyboard perforators
is passed through the transmitter over five selecting needles, con-
trolling their upward movement and determining the polarity of the
current impulses sent to line during each revolution of a brush over
the five segments of a distributor. The sending distributor brush arm
is driven by a shunt wound motor whose speed is kept steady by
means of a heavy flywheel mounted on the spindle. Unison with
the brush arm of the receiving distributor at the distant station
is maintained by the actual working signals. The receiving and
translating arrangements of the receiver are almost entirely elec-
trical, and printing is effected by the discharge of a condenser through
an electromagnet, the armature of which presses momentarily a
paper tape against a revolving type-wheel. This tape is afterwards
pasted on ordinary message forms as in the Baudot system. In
addition to the printing tape, the incoming signals can also actuate
a keyboard perforator to provide a perforated tape for retrans-
mission purposes. The system may be worked either simplex or 1
duplex and is capable of giving a maximum speed of 166 words per
minute in each direction.
REFERENCES. Herberts Telegraphy (latest ed.); Post Office Tech-
nical Pamphlet for Workmen, By. " The Siemens Automatic Fast-
Speed Printing Telegraph," Electrician (July u 1913).
The Morkntm Teletype. This is a single-line system of printing
telegraphy which has been recently developed by the Morkrum
Co. of Chicago, U.S.A. It may be duplexed, and is suitable for
short lines over which the traffic is not very heavy.
The apparatus comprises two units, a keyboard transmitter,
and a printer, which are mounted on one base to form a very
compact combined sending and receiving instrument. The
keyboard is arranged as for a standard typewriter, and is a direct-
sending instrument the keys of which when operated allow a cam- 1
shaft to revolve opening and closing the line circuit according to
the s-unit code. Starting and stopping impulses are sent over-
the line to start and stop the selecting mechanism of the printer
so that from transmission point of view the system has actually i
a 7-unit code. A feature of the system is the controlling and
selecting mechanism of the printer, which is an ingenious com- i
bination of the Hughes and Baudot printers. The received mes- j
sage is printed on tape in exactly the same way as in the Bau-
dot printer and afterwards gummed on ordinary message forms.
The maximum speed of operation of the keyboard is limited to
45 words per minute and a device is provided which is actuated ,
when this speed is exceeded and prevents the keys being de-
pressed too rapidly.
The Creed System. One of the principal drawbacks to the
original Creed system was the use of compressed air for working
the apparatus, which in a large number of offices necessitated the
installation of a special pneumatic plant. Moreover, the pneumatic
Creed printer had a maximum speed of only 120 words peri
minute, so that on lines where the working speed was much in
excess of this figure it was necessary to install two printers in
order to deal expeditiously with the traffic. The latest Creed
instruments, however, have been designed to work electrically;
they are much simpler in their construction and give speeds up
to 200 words per minute.
For the preparation of the transmitting tapes, Cell and Klein-
schmidt perforators are generally used, each of which has a keyboard
similar to that of an ordinary typewriter. The depression of a key '
selects, through a system of levers, the punches required to perforate
the holes in the tape for the corresponding signal, and closes a cir-
cuit through an electromagnet, the armature of which forces the
selected punches through the paper tape. As these perforators pre-
pare Wheatstone slip their mechanism is necessarily much more com-
plicated than that of keyboard perforators designed for a 5-unit '
code, in which all letters are of the same length, because in the former
a differential feed varying from two-tenths of an inch to over one inch
is required owing to the varying length of the letters. These machines
will work as fast as a typewriter, but 80 words per minute is regarded
as the limit for practical purposes.
REFERENCES. E. Lack, " The Creed Telegraph System,"
I.P.O.E.E. Journal (vol. vi., p. 249); "Description of New Creed
Apparatus," Electrician (Jan. 21 1921, vol. Ixxxvi., No. 4, p.
105) ; Post Office Technical Pamphlet for Workmen, 83.
Gulslad Relay. In 1898 Gulstad of Copenhagen invented a
modified form of polarized relay, known as a vibrating relay, the
use of which has enabled much greater speeds of working to be
attained on underground and submarine circuits, and in some
cases allowed repeaters to be dispensed with. In general con-
struction it is similar to the British Post Office standard relay,
but, in addition to the usual line coils, has two extra windings on
the same cores. These windings are connected to a local battery
TELEGRAPH
701
in such a manner that the relay tongue is caused to vibrate
between the contact points, when the current through the line
coils is insufficient to' maintain it on either of the contacts.
The principle of the relay may be understood by referring to fig. 3.
It will be seen that the ends of the local windings are joined to ter-
minals B and C and their centre to terminal A, which is joined through
an adjustable resistance Y to the relay tongue. This resistance is
for regulating the local current and keeping it below the value of the
steady current through the line coils. Terminal B is connected to
earth through a condenser K, while C has a resistance coil X in its
earth lead.
Assuming that there is no current in the line coils and that the
relay tongue has just reached the marking contact, there will then
be a momentary rush of current through the winding A,B to charge
the condenser K, in a direction to keep the tongue to the marking
side, thus preventing any tendency of the tongue to rebound. This
charging current dies away' rapidly, however, and directly its
strength falls below the steady current flowing through the winding
AC, the preponderance of the latter causes the tongue to move
toward the spacing contact. Immediately the tongue leaves the
marking contact, the condenser K discharges through both wind-
ings BA and AC in such a direction as to accelerate the movement
of the tongue, so that its transit time from one contact to the other
is thereby lessened.
When the tongue reaches the opposite contact the condenser K
is again charged, but this time from the other pole of the battery;
a similar cycle of effects therefore takes place on that side and the
Line Coi/s
FIG. 3.
tongue moves in the reverse direction. In this manner the relay
tongue is kept vibrating, at a speed depending on the values given
to the condenser and resistance. In practice the adjustments are
such that the rate of vibration of the tongue under the control of the
local current is approximately equal to the rate at which the trans-
mitter at the distant station sends reversals at working speed. When
this obtains, the signals passing through the line coils merely deter-
mine the length of time that the tongue remains in contact with
either stop, its movement therefrom being effected by the local
current through the local windings as soon as the strength of the
Hne current falls below that of the local current in the coil AC. It
is this effect combined with the action of the condenser in lessening
the time of transit of the tongue, that enables a higher speed of
working to be attained on long and difficult circuits than if ordinary
polarized relays were used.
In the original Gulstad relay the line coils were not differentially
wound; it could be used, therefore, only on Bridge duplex or simplex
circuits. To utilize the advantages of the Gulstad principal on
differential duplex circuits, the British Post Office has modified the
Post Office standard relay, by adding extra windings and terminals.
This modified instrument is known as a " G " relay and is equally
suitable for differential or bridge duplex working. The internal and
external connexions of this relay are shown in fig. 4, in which the
dotted lines indicate the extra coils. For the correct reception of the
incoming signals a Wheatstone receiver is connected to the relay
tongue.
REFERENCES. E. Lack, " The Gulstad Relay," I.P.O.E.E. Jour-
nal (vol. vii.,p. 183); Electrical Review (June 1898 and Aug. 1902);
Herberts Telegraphy (latest ed.) ; E. Lack, " Post Office Standard
Relay ' G'," I.P.O.E.E. Journal (vol. x., p. 34).
Tele-photographic Systems. In 1909 T. Thorne Baker read
a paper before the Royal Institution in London describing his
" telectrograph " process of transmitting pictures over long
distances. The method, which was used on a large scale by the
Daily Mirror between London and Paris, is based upon the
Bakewell copying telegraph.
V\W^-*\VNV\A* |l"
Receiver
FIG. 4.
Synchronously rotating metallic drums, driven by electric motors,
are employed one at each end of the telegraph line over which it is
desired to transmit, say, a picture. A half-tone photograph of the
picture is first printed upon thin sheet lead and subjected to a process
which breaks up the photograph into a number of dotted lines printed
in fish glue. This record is fixed round the transmitting drum,
which is traversed spirally by an iridium stylus. The contact of
the latter with the lead is interrupted every time one of the fish glue
dotted lines comes beneath it, for duration depending upon the width
of the line. The lead sheet is connected to the line, so that the trans-
mitting instrument sends a series of electric currents whose periods
of duration are determined by the width of the lines composing the
photograph. At the receiving station, the rotating drum carries a
piece of absorbent paper impregnated with a colourless solution,
which turns black or brown when decomposed by an electric cur-
rent. Every brief current through the paper causes a mark to appear,
having a width depending on the duration of the current. The
arriving currents are therefore arranged to pass through a platinum
stylus under which the receiving drum rotates, then through the
moistened paper resulting in the production of a number of marks
on the paper due to chemical decomposition. These marks gradually
combine to produce the picture at the transmitting station.
REFERENCES. T. Thorne Baker, " Telegraphy of Photographs,
Wireless and by Wire," Royal Institution Proc. 1908-10, vol. xix.
Foss and Petersen Method. In this system a high frequency
generator capable of producing sparks is used at the receiving
station. The sparks so produced are capable of puncturing a
paper wrapped round a metal drum which rotates in unison with
a similar drum at the sending station.
The line wire is arranged so that when the sending end is connected
to earth the generator is partly short-circuited, thus suppressing the
sparking. At the sending end the shunting of the generator is effected
by means of a contact pin passing over a cylinder on which the writ-
ing or illustrations are inscribed in insulating ink so that the shunt
circuit is cut out each time the pin passes part of the writing (see
Patent Specification No. 105,914, 1917). (W. No.)
UNITED STATES
Technical developments made after 1910 practically revolu-
tionized telegraphy as practised in the United States. These
include printing-telegraph arrangements applied to telephone as
well as to telegraph circuits, simultaneous telephone and tele-
graph operation for long small-gauge cable circuits, and the
use of alternating currents with resonant circuits in the so-called
carrier systems for multiplexing wire conductors.
Radical changes were also made in the arrangements for and
the methods of handling telegrams in large offices. Belt con-
veyers, typewriters, pneumatic tubes, automatic time-stamps and
other labour-saving devices came to be used to a large extent.
About 75% of all telegrams handled by the Western Union
Telegraph Co. over trunk circuits in 1921 were transmitted and
TELEGRAPH
To Line
Transmitters
A
B
Correcting Rings
Sending Rings
Printers Receiving Rings Printers
A
Receiving Rings
Correcting
Relay
Tungsten
Lamp
Driving Fork
FIG. 5. Simplified Terminal Circuit of Multiplex Printer System.
received by printing-telegraph apparatus. The introduction of
machine telegraphy took place after 1910.
Progress can be divided into two general classes: (i) that re-
lating to terminal equipment, such as printers; and (2) that
relating to the methods of working lines.
Printing Telegraphy
(a) Multiplex System. The multiplex system giving double-du-
plex, triple-duplex and quadruple-duplex service, as applied in
America, was that developed jointly by the Western Electric Co.
and the Western Union Telegraph Co. It uses the Baudot code and
a system of speed correction for rotating distributors in which
correcting impulses are generated from the character signals, thus
saving line time.
The fundamental features of one arrangement for quadruple-
duplex operation are shown in fig. 5. The sending, receiving and
correcting rings are parts of a distributor driven by a La Cour or
phonic-wheel motor. The common sending ring is connected to the
midpoint of a differentially wound line relay and the common
receiving ring to the armature of a printing relay included in the
local circuit of the line relay. This local circuit also includes an
Break
Relay
Release %
Sending
Distributor
Line
impulse relay, so arranged that short-current impulses are sent to
the common ring of the set of correcting rings when the line relay
armature moves from one contact to the other. These impulses
come at intervals determined by the signals transmitted by the
distant station. There are twice as many correcting segments as
sending segments, and these are alternately connected to the wind-
ings of a correcting relay. One distributor on a circuit sets the speed
for the other and if the corrected distributor is running too fast, the
operation of the correcting relay causes the driving fork for its motor
to be retarded in its rate of vibration. If, on the other hand, the
distributor is running too slowly, the fork is accelerated. It is essen-
tial to secure correcting impulses when all printing channels are
idle. This is done by reversing the polarity of the marking signals
of one or more channels. Various types of printer units have been
successfully used with this system. Speeds as high as 50 to 60 six-
character words per minute per channel are maintained by operators.
The multiplex printer system has thus greatly increased operators'
loads as well as the number of telegraph channels which can be
obtained from each line circuit. Means have been developed for
economically extending the single channels of a multiplex-printer
system from the multiplex terminal station to branch offices.
(b) Start-Stop Printer Systems. Successful systems giving single-
channel working, or two-channel working when operated duplex,
-To other Stations
Magnet
Station
Station
FIG. 6. Circuit of Start-Stop Printer System.
Receiving
Distributor
TELEGRAPH
FIG. 7. Selecting Circuit of Cipher System.
have been developed for inter-communicating purposes among a
group of stations. These systems have been used to a considerable
extent with telegraph circuits obtained from telephone circuits.
One of these systems employing motor-driven distributors at
each station is shown in fig. 6. The sending distributor at one
station and the receiving distributor at the other are indicated in
detail. The distributor brush arms driven through a friction clutch
are normally held stationary by a latch and make one rotation for
each character transmitted or received. A start impulse, usually the
opening of the line circuit for a brief interval, releases the receiving
start latches so that all receiving distributors start rotating. The
five impulses of the Baudot code which follow the start impulse are
distributed properly to the selecting magnets or elements of a
printer by the receiving distributors if their speeds coincide approx-
imately with that of the sending distributor. Close synchronism is
not required since all distributors are stopped and caused to start
from the same initial position for each character.
To
Cable
Circuit
Cable -i
Battery ;=:
JO volts
Transmittinq
Relay
Cable Receiving
Relay
FIG. 8. Terminal Arrangement for Metallic Telegraph Cable
Circuit.
An important feature is the method by which any receiving station
can interrupt the sending station and obtain control of the circuit.
As shown, this is accomplished if the line circuit is interrupted by
the break key during the time the sending brush is passing over the
sixth segment when a break relay at the sending station will be
energized to open the circuit of the magnet controlling the latch. The
release key will then have to be operated to permit further sending.
This printing system has been used to a considerable extent for
news distribution, where in many cases a number of sending and
receiving stations are connected to one circuit and means must be
provided to allow any station to obtain control of the circuit. Key-
board arrangements which may be used for perforating tape or for
sending directly to the line have been developed and found very
satisfactory for this kind of service. The Western Electric type-bar
printer has been found very satisfactory for news service. This is
provided with a stationary paper platen and a moving type-bar
basket. Books containing carbon paper for making a large number
703
of copies and forms holding wax stencil sheets may
be readily inserted into the machine. Means are
provided for adjusting the strength of the blow of
the type bars so that one to twenty copies can be
secured.
(c) Cipher Printing System. A. printing system
for rapidly ciphering and deciphering telegraph mes-
sages has been developed. It is thought that cipher
messages prepared by this system are absolutely un-
breakable. It was successfully applied by the U.S.
Army Signal Corps during the war and tests made
indicate that messages can be ciphered and deci-
phered by this means with greater accuracy and
many times faster than by other methods.
This system was developed by the engineers of
the American Telephone and Telegraph Company.
Its principles are illustrated in fig. 7. A message
prepared in perforated tape form by the ordinary
printer perforator passes through transmitter A.
This would ordinarily control the selecting mag-
nets of a printer or an automatic perforator. Key
tapes B and C, however, passing through ordinary
tape transmitters, control relays which interfere
with the normal operation of the selecting magnets
so that the resultant selection for any character of
the message may be any one of the characters of
the Baudot code. The characters of the key tapes
are selected at random and B is one unit less in
length than C. All tapes are stepped in unison.
Repetition in the resultant key will not occur until B
has revolved 1,000 times. The proper starting
position of the key tapes B and C for any message
may be indicated by six characters which may be
FIG. 9. Polar Relay for Cable Telegraph System.
704
TELEGRAPH
ciphered by an additional key. In deciphering the cipher message
tape is placed in transmitter A and the characters combined with
the proper key to obtain the original message.
Methods of Working Lines
(a) Simultaneous Telephone and Telegraph Working. Considerable
advance has been made in the technical knowledge of simultaneous
telephone and telegraph operation of line circuits. Hand telegraph
systems and single-channel printer systems usually operate at dot
speeds of 10 to 25 per second and it has been found that in order to
secure satisfactory service it is necessary to design line systems to
transmit a frequency band of about 100 cycles per second. Since
telephone frequencies range from about 250 to about 2,500 cycles per
second, it is possible to secure satisfactory telegraph operation
from telephone circuits by using frequencies below the lowest tele-
phone frequencies and frequencies above highest telephone fre-
quencies. More than 600,000 m. of telegraph circuits are obtained
from telephone circuits in the United States.
Permanent
Magnet
FIG. IO. Diagram of Polar Relay for Cable Telegraph System.
(V) Metallic Telegraph System. The increase in knowledge of the
fundamental requirements of simultaneous telephone and telegraph
operation has enabled a telegraph system to be developed for opera-
tion over long small-gauge telephone cable circuits. This system is
arranged for metallic circuit working using a relay operating with
a current of approximately 2 milliamperes. The general circuit
arrangements of this system are shown in fig. 8. The cable circuit
is divided by a composite set or filter into two branches, one for the
telephone and the other for the telegraph, the telegraph branch
absorbing frequencies below the telephone interval. All metallic
lines in a single office are supplied from a common battery. The type
of polar relay selected for this circuit is shown in fig. 9 and the
magnetic principle illustrated in fig. 10. The relay is provided
with a Gulstad vibrating circuit and the armature, a reed, is the
cross piece of a magnetic bridge. The line windings surround the
armature, and a current in one direction causes the armature to move
toward one pole while a current in the opposite direction causes it to
reverse, its motion. Chatter at the contacts is practically prevented
by cushioning contact springs attached to the armature. This
system has been designed for cables containing as many as 300 work-
ing circuits. A telegraph repeater is shown in fig. n. The
simultaneous operation of telephone and telegraph circuits has been
carefully worked out in connexion with the design of long interurban
cables and the equipment used in connexion with them.
(c) Carrier Current Multiplex System. One of the most interesting
telegraph developments is the so-called Carrier Current System in
which multiplex operation is secured by the use of a number of
alternating currents of different frequencies and of resonant circuits
for selecting them at the line terminals. This system uses vacuum
tubes for generating, amplifying and rectifying the alternating cur-
.0x3)
rents and represents a radical departure in telegraphy. The circuits
are of high signal quality, very stable in operation and free from the
duplex balance difficulties of direct current systems. This system has
enabled the following communication facilities to be obtained
commercially from a single
pair of open wires: Twen- Q
ty l-way carrier channels; g
four i-way direct current
channels; and one and one-
half telephone circuits in-
cluding the phantom. The
carrier telegraph circuit is
illustrated in fig. 12. The
terminal apparatus for one
2-way channel, which re-
peats between the carrier
circuit and the direct cur-
rent extension circuit, is
mounted upon a vertical
panel similar in appearance
to that of the metallic tele-
graph system. The same
sensitive relays are used in,
both systems.
(d) Rotary Repealers.
Success has been obtained
with the use of rotary re-
peaters in connexion with
telegraph circuits operated
by the multiplex printer sys-
tem. This type of repeater
restores distorted line sig-
nals to their original form
and has enabled printer cir-
cuits 3,000 m. in length to
be operated successfully at
high speeds.
(e) Fundamental Tele-
graph-Transmission Re-
search. Considerable atten-
tion has been given to the
telegraph-transmission
problem and improvements
have been made in the meth-
ods and means for measur-
ing distortion of telegraph
signals. The fundamental
transmission requirements
for different classes of service
have been more carefully
enumerated and advances
made in the design of artifi-
cial lines.
(/) Interference. Ad-
vances have been made in
minimizing interfering cur-
rents in telegraph circuits
both from high-tension power
lines and from neighbouring
telegraph circuits. Means
have been devised to over-
come the effect of differences
in ground potentials on
grounded telegraph circuits.
This arrangement introduces
a counter-electromotive
force which is automatically
adjusted to neutralize the
earth-potential difference
FIG. II. Telegraph Repeater for
Cable System.
between any two given
points.
(g) Codes and Sending
Machines. Codes, abbrevi- .
ations, typewriters and automatic sending machines are now widely
used by operators to increase the capacity of manually-operated
telegraph circuits. The automatic machine is merely a vibrating
reed mounted in a convenient and portable manner, adjusted to
vibrate at telegraph speeds and provided with contacts for con-
trolling the telegraph circuit. A movement of the controlling lever
in one direction causes the instrument to transmit a succession of
dots, the number depending on the length of time the lever is
thus held. A contrary movement sends a dash. This instrument
permits higher speeds than are otherwise possible to be maintained
with considerably less fatigue on the part of the operator. It may be
readily connected with any ordinary telegraph circuit.
Codes and abbreviations for shortening messages are used espe-
cially in distributing news. The Phillips Code is one that has been
generally adopted and an illustration of its use follows:
Transmitted message:
t potus wi ads cgs tsp q pip qsn.
TELEGRAPH
705
Oscillator
Jo other
Sending
Circuits
Subscribers
Apparatus
Carrier
Line
To other
Receiving
Circuits
FIG. 12. Terminal Circuit for Carrier Telegraph Channel.
This would be written by the receiving operator as follows:
The President of the United States will address Congress this
afternoon on the Philippine Question.
Many other schemes are used to save time and cost.
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. H. H. Harrison, The Historical Basis
Modern Printing. Telegraphy (IQIS); A. C. Booth. Machine
H. H? Ha
'ekgraphy (1914);
tarrison, The Story of the Keyboard
Perforators (1917); Maj. O'Meara, The Various Systems of Multiple
Telegraphy (1911); J. H. Bell, "Printing Telegraph Systems,"
American I. E. E. (Feb. 1920) ; H. H. Harrison, " The Principles of
Modern Printing Telegraphy," Inst. E.E. (1915); D. Murray,
" Press-the-Button-Telegraphy," Telegraph and Telephone Journal
(Nov. 1914-July 1915); E. H. Colpittsand O. B. Blackwell, " Carrier
Current Telephony and Telegraphy, " American I. E. E. (Feb. 1921).
MILES OF TELEGRAPH WIRE OF THE WORLD -JANUARY i 1910, 1914 AND 1920
(Some of the figures for the most part those for small places not shown separately are necessarily in part estimated.)
SINGLE WIRE
Jan. i 1910
3",942
8,048
379,888
388,412
126,505
13,120
40,171
16,336
826,730
Jan. i 1914
313,166
8,191
381,000
459,811
129,500
13,211
42,194
16,476
929,072
Jan. i 1920
3i8,759
8,500
715,468
486,714
208,210
16,195
53,300
19,085
930,000
Italy ....
Other countries in Europe
2,111,152
2,292,621
2,756,231
Japan
97-300
399,030
106,946
436,763
127,000
553,000
Total Asia
496,330
543,709
680,000
46,853
110,000
54,201
122,159
49,432
140,000
Total Africa
156,853
176,360
- 189,432
United States
1,480,000
153,000
78,000
1,615,000
193,277
86,805
1,700,000
214,629
95,000
Canada . . . . " "
Dther countries in North America
Total North America '
1,711,000
1,895,082
2,009,629
H3,590
251,990
333,632
92,909
20,188
14,700
108,931
25,892
19,319
147,276
29,700
24,100
Dther countries in Oceania
127,797
154,142
201,076
Total throughout world
4,746,722
5.313,904
6,170,000
NOTE: In the case of countries the boundaries of which have undergone change, the figures for each year represent the number of
les of telegraph wire within the boundaries of that year.
Telegraph wire used exclusively for railroad operation and not open to public use has been excluded wherever possible,
xxxii. 23
706
TELEPHONE
TELEPHONE (see 26.547). Various improvements were made
during 1910-21 in the mechanism and working of the telephone,
apart from the introduction of wireless telephony, which is
dealt with in the separate article under WIRELESS. Since oper-
ating practice and the application of recent inventions are not
always the same in the United States as in Great Britain, some
developments which are not common to both countries are
described in the section headed United States. At the end of
that section will be found a table showing the expansion of
telephone facilities during the years 1910-21 in all countries.
GREAT BRITAIN
Private Branch Exchanges. The increasing use of the tele-
phone as between one party and another was early followed by a
demand for the means of connecting different members of a
firm in the same building without the necessity for providing
each with a separate line to the public exchange. A further
development required that incoming calls for a large firm should
be dealt with at a central point in the initial stage so that after
ascertaining the business of the caller he could be placed in
communication with the particular department concerned. To
meet these needs switchboards similar in general principles to
those provided for main exchanges have come into use. The
call from a local extension or from the main exchange is
answered by the branch exchange operator, and the connexion
is completed by the medium of connecting cords, or, on small
systems, by circuits with which each line is associated by means
of a key. In the latter case the depression of any pair of keys
on a common connecting circuit places the two corresponding
lines into connexion with one another. On the smaller installa-
tions where it is probable that an operator is not always available
to give prompt attention to calling and clearing signals, the
extension stations signal the completion of their conversation
direct to the main exchange and simultaneously to the branch
exchange. This enables the main exchange to disconnect the
circuit promptly, releasing the main exchange circuit and any
junction circuits which may have been occupied by the connex-
ion. The prompt release of these circuits is of extreme impor-
tance in the economical working of the whole system. On larger
branch exchange systems where an operator is in continuous
attendance, the main exchange clearing signals are controlled by
the withdrawal of the cord connexion at the branch exchange.
The advantage to be gained under this scheme lies in the fact
that the extension station can call in the branch exchange opera-
tor during a conversation and get an established call from the
main exchange transferred to another extension station when
required. When a branch exchange is used in conjunction with
a common battery or automatic switching system, the current
for speaking purposes is fed over the main exchange lines on
exchange to extension station connexions, and by means of a
power lead from the main exchange in the case of extension to
extension connexions.
When associated with automatic switching systems the branch
exchange operator is provided with a calling dial, so that on each
exchange connexion she can dial the number required by any
extension station.
Trunk Line Working. Trunk or long distance working is
complicated by the necessity for recording the particulars of all
calls, and because instantaneous connexion cannot always be
effected owing to the prohibitive cost of providing lines with such
liberality as Would ensure a no-delay service at all times.
The system of the British Post Office is worked as follows: A
subscriber desiring a trunk connexion calls up his local exchange
and notifies his requirements. If circuits are available to the
town required on such a basis as to afford a no-delay service,
the connexion is effected at once and the signalling and control
arrangements are similar to those described for junction work-
ing. The operator records the particulars of the call on a ticket
which is used for future accounting purposes. Should a no-delay
service not be available, the operator records particulars of the
requirements herself, or, in cases where lines to the town re-
quired terminate at a separate trunk exchange, she extends the
subscriber's circuit to the trunk exchange and obtains a direct
connexion to a special record operator whose sole business it is
to note the particulars of the required trunk connexion. The
subscriber is informed that he will be called later and the con-
nexion is then severed. Meanwhile, the ticket is conveyed to the
switchboard position where the lines to the town wanted are
terminated. Calls at this point are dealt with in order of priority
as recorded by the time on the ticket when the demand was
initiated. Particulars of the connexion wanted are passed to the
distant operator, who extends the circuit direct to the line of the
" wanted " subscriber, when such lines terminate in the same
exchange, or extends the circuit to a junction, when the " wanted ";
subscriber is connected to another local exchange, and requests
the operator at that exchange to effect the connexion. The
trunk operator at the originating town simultaneously effects
the connexion direct, or where another local exchange is con-j
cerned, by the medium of a junction, to the initiating subscriber,;
and when both subscribers are on the line, she completes the:
connexion. The call is controlled by the trunk operators, thei
junction circuit being equipped in such a manner that the sub-
scriber's signals appear at the trunk exchanges, from which point
disconnecting signals are sent automatically to the local ex-
changes when the connexions between the trunk and the junction
circuits are removed.
Trunk exchanges are equipped with relays and lamps for!
signalling purposes. " Calculagraphs " are employed for stamp-]
ing the time of commencement and completion of conversation
on the tickets. There is also associated with each trunk connex-l
ion a device which lights a lamp as soon as the scheduled limit
of the period of conversation is reached.
Where the volume of traffic over any route is considerable, the
requirements to the distant town may be notified over a sepa-j
rate circuit reserved for the purpose, and the local connexions:
involving the use of junction circuits to other local exchanges
can be established in advance, thus minimizing the time of
occupation of the main circuits and securing the greatest possi-
ble effective use of the trunk lines.
Manual Exchanges. The main features of the manual tele-
phone system remained in 1921 what they were in 1910. Im-j
provements had been introduced to some extent, to diminish i
or eliminate altogether portions of the operator's work, but !
common battery transmission and signalling, connecting by
means of plugs, flexible cord conductors and jacks, lamp calling ;
and supervisory signals all these remained unaltered.
Among the improvements referred to may be mentioned:
Keyless ringing; automatic listening; secret service; ringing
tone; automatic ringing cut-off; traffic distribution; ancillary
answering jacks.
1. Keyless Ringing is the feature of a cord circuit which provides [
that the ringing of the required subscriber's bell commences auto-
matically on the operator connecting to his line and ceases auto-
matically on the removal of the receiver from its rest by this sub-
scriber. This renders unnecessary the provision of a key for ringing
purposes hence the term " keyless " ringing.
2. Automatic Listening is a feature which eliminates the listening
key. The operator's telephone is automatically connected to the
calling subscriber's line when the answering plug of the cord circuit
is inserted in the answering jack of that line. The operator's tele-
phone is later automatically disconnected when, after ascertaining
the number required by the calling subscriber, the operator connects
the calling plug to the line of the required subscriber.
3. Secret Service follows from 2. Automatic listening involves the
feature that while conditions suitable for conversation are established
the operator's telephone is disconnected and without the aid of a
listening key it is impossible for the operator to listen to a con-
versation.
4. Ringing Tone is a tone (distinctive from that intimating to a
calling subscriber that the line he requires is engaged) applied to the
calling subscriber's line while the bell of the called subscriber is being
rung. Hearing this tone, which intimates that the bell of the called
subscriber is being rung, and receiving no reply after a reasonable
period, the calling subscriber infers that his correspondent is not
available and restores his receiver. This facility reduces the time
spent on " no reply " calls, by both operator and subscriber.
5. Automatic Ringing Cut-Off provides that the ringing of the
required subscriber's bell automatically ceases when the calling
subscriber, receiving no reply, decides to abandon the call and
restores his receiver to its rest.
TELEPHONE
707
6. Traffic Distribution. By means of selecting mechanism the
line of a calling subscriber is automatically connected to a dis-
engaged operator's position. This avoids the overloading of any
operator and at the same time gives all operators a fair load during
busy periods.
7. Ancillary Jacks. Additional calling lamp signals and answer-
ing jacks associated therewith placed at different parts of the
switchboard. When a subscriber calls, signals are displayed at two
or more operators' positions, thus increasing the number of operators
who may answer. The object of the arrangement is to provide for
the more even distribution of traffic and thus to reduce the answering
time of the operators during the rush periods.
Automatic Systems. The idea of automatic telephony is to
substitute for the operator of the manual exchange an electro-
mechanical or other switching system, which, controlled in its
movement by the action of the subscriber, will automatically
select, connect and disconnect circuits as desired. The process
of machine switching consists of successive group selection.
Exchange switching machines are provided and are placed under
the control of subscribers or operators. Considering only the
former case, the machines are operated by impulses originating
m a subscriber's telephone. The standard impulse now in
general use is a disconnexion of the subscriber's loop (the loop
having been closed in the first instance by the lifting of the
subscriber's receiver). The train of impulses corresponds to the
digit signalled. For instance, the signalling of the digit 7 would
constitute a series of seven disconnexions of the subscriber's
telephone loop as indicated in fig. i. It will be seen that a com-
plete impulse is 57% of the total cycle.
ETC.
When the impulses are passing at the standard rate of 10 per
second, this gives an electrical condition at the exchange of
sufficient duration to effect reliable operation of the equipment.
On the base of the automatic telephone instrument a circular
device, known as the dial, is provided for transmitting the im-
pulses. Fig. 2 shows a full view of the face of a dial that has
FIG. 2.
designed for use in large cities. It will be seen that there
are 10 holes each of which corresponds to a digit, also that
eight of the holes contain letters. Dealing first with the digits,
1 the method of operation is for the subscriber to lift his receiver
Und then if he requires to call " 7146 " he will operate these
iigits in turn. To call 7 he will place his finger in the hole
corresponding to that digit, rotate the front plate of the dial
which is free to move in a clockwise direction until his finger
and the finger hole for 7 reach the finger stop shown on the right-
hand side of fig. 2. He will then withdraw his finger and the
free plate of the dial will return to normal under the influence of
a main spring, in doing which the mechanism of the dial will
disconnect the subscriber's telephone loop seven times. He will
now insert his finger in the hole corresponding to the digit i and
proceed as before. The impulses passing from the dial will, as
has been stated, be transmitted at the rate of 10 a second, and,
as will be seen from fig. i, the short current between the impulses,
is only 43 % of the cycle. An appreciable interval, by comparison,
must occur between the trains corresponding to each digit be-
cause the process of manipulating the dial cannot be performed
rapidly enough for it to be otherwise.
In practically all automatic systems the impulse circuit is as
indicated in fig. 3, from which it will be seen that the operation
Dial on Telephone
Subscribers Line
FIG. 3.
To Switching
Mechanism
of the switching mechanism is controlled by the falling back of a
relay armature at the exchange.
The mechanism at the exchange is so designed that by the
provision of a sluggish relay or equivalent device certain con-
trolling connexions remain unchanged throughout the whole of
the train of impulses, but the long current corresponding to the
period between two trains is utilized for effecting a change-over
so that each train operates a separate switching device. Briefly
the effect is to produce successive selection as already indicated.
The operation of the digit 7 in a typical case would operate the
mechanism so that an idle outgoing connecting line of the 7th
thousand is found. The following digit, i, will pick out an idle
outgoing connecting line to the ist hundred in the 7th thousand
being the 7ist hundred. At this point it is common practice to
give the subscriber connexion with a switch that can select any
one of the 100 lines in the group, so that the next two digits 4 and
6 will call line 46 in the 7ist hundred, viz. line 7146.
Automatic systems may in the main be roughly placed in two
classes: (a) direct impulse systems; (b) stored impulse systems.
In the direct impulse system may be placed the systems of The
Automatic Electric Co., Siemens Bros. & Co., The North Electric
Co., and The Relay Automatic Telephone Co. (including licensees of
the firms concerned).
The Automatic Electric Co. and Messrs. Siemens Bros. & Co.
manufacture what is known as the " Strowger " system, the switches
of which in operating utilize two motions, first, a vertical action in
which the brush is not making contact followed by a rotary action in
which the brush is either hunting for an idle connecting line in the
case of a preliminary switch or moving towards the contact of the
wanted subscriber's line in the case of a final switch. Two magnets
are involved in this operation. There is a third magnet used for
effecting the release at the end of the conversation, the operation of
release consisting in the restoration of the moving element to normal,
first in a rotary direction by means of a main spring and, secondly, in
a vertical direction under the influence of gravity.
Fig. 4 shows the elementary circuit connexions for one of these
systems. The calling subscriber on lifting his receiver operates relay
" LR " which in turn operates " RR." The impulses are received on
" LR " whose armature falls back for each impulse placing an earth
connexion intermittently on the circuit of " S " and " VM." Both
" RR " and " S " are sluggish relays that release slowly so that the
succession of " breaks " and " makes " from the impulses do not
affect them. When the long current between two trains of impulses
occurs the circuit of " S " is disconnected for a period which is long
enough for its operation, and " S " electromagnetically operates the
switch " SS " so that " VM " is thrown out of circuit and " RM " is
substituted. " VM " is the magnet which operates the vertical
stepping by means of a ratchet and pawl device. " RM " similarly
effects the rotary stepping. The next train of impulses will clearly
operate " RM " after which the change-over devices depending on
" S " are made to cut out the accessory mechanical apparatus, leav-
TELEPHONE
ing only the connexions suitable for giving the engaged signal,
ringing the subscriber, and talking. At the end of the conversation
the caller hangs up his receiver, the armature of " LR " falls back
permanently, " RR " is deenergized and the release magnet " REL "
is operated thus restoring the switch to normal : " REL " disengages
a detent which permits a coiled spring to restore the wipers or
brushes in a rotary direction after which gravity carries them
vertically to their home positions at which stage the " REL " circuit
is opened at " ON." The transmission system consists of two relays
" LR " and " LC " associated with two condensers as shown at the
top of fig. 4. This will be recognized as the " Stone " C. B. system
(tee 26.552).
To Calling
Line
1 _ *
Eo
To Winers
i 4
LR!
LC
VM
FlG. 4.
The North Electric Co. manufactures a switch operated by direct
impulses in which the motions are the reverse of the systems just
described. Rotary action, with the brush away from the contacts,
is followed by " trunk " hunting in a vertical direction. This per-
mits of vertical contacts which are less liable to the adverse influence
of dust than horizontal contacts, and would also permit of a jarger
number of trunks than ip, being placed in one group without seriously
interfering with the design of the equipment.
Both the Relay Automatic Telephone Co. and the North Electric
Co. manufacture automatic systems which do not use mechanism as
usually understood. The systems consist of aggregations of relays,
combined so as to provide a number of connecting or " trunking "
paths through the equipment. In the case of the Relay Automatic
Telephone Co.'s system the calling subscriber operates his dial in the
usual way and at the same time finds an " outgoing " trunk. His
impulses operate relay devices known as the " recorder " and the
" marker," which latter places an electrical condition on the called
subscriber's line so that it immediately operates somewhat like a
called line, and finds an idle " incoming " trunk which is placed in
communication with the outgoing trunk already seized by the calling
party. These two trunks are automatically placed in contact and
together form the connecting link for the conversation.
The earliest practical stored impulse system is the " Lorimer "
system as used at Hereford (England). In this case the dial as
already described is not used, but a lever device is associated with
each telephone. The levers are set in definite positions corresponding
to the number to be called, and the switches at the exchange are
set in motion by the subscriber operating a subsidiary crank that
forms part of the calling device. The operation of this crank also
winds up the mechanism of the calling device so that the operation
of the switches on the exchange can electromagnetically release the
calling device and run it down. The running down of the calling
device in conjunction with the operation of the exchange switches
controls the action of the latter by means of an electrical circuit
established through the setting of the levers so that the exchange
switches are made to trunk, hunt and find lines in a manner corre-
sponding to the lever setting. The mechanism at the exchange is
driven by a motor and can therefore be provided with robust con-
tacts. A subsidiary device known as a pilot switch can be made to
operate and alter the connexions between digits or at any other stage
of the call so as to control the sequence of switching operations.
The Western Electric Co.'s rotary and panel type systems possess
the obvious advantages to be derived from storing connexions and
the interpolation of controlling operations at any stage of a call.
In both these systems the subscriber's telephone is equipped with a
standard dial, and the impulses are taken up by the sender storing
device at the exchange. This device is set into position by the
impulses and subsequently controls the action of the selective
switches in a manner somewhat similar to that indicated for the
Lorimer system above mentioned. In the Western Electric Co.'s
systems banks of contacts for 200 and 500 lines respectively ar
employed, as against loo-line banks for direct-impulse systems, s<
that the number-storing device is also required to perform thi
functions of a numerical transformer changing the call record fron
the decimal system as dialled into whatever system is necessary fo
the correct operation of the switches. An additional feature asso
ciated with the panel system of the Western Electric Co. is th<
provision of a translator which consists of a cross-connecting device
so arranged that any number dialled can be converted from time t(
time into some other number. This is particularly desirable in th<
case of large cities in which the selection of exchanges is effected bj
means of a code. It will be seen on reference to fig. 2 that eight of thi
finger holes have in addition to the digits a group of three letters
These are arranged in alphabetical order from A to Y omitting Q
The use of these letters is to facilitate the calling of subscribers ir
areas where manual telephones coexist, and where in the ordinarj
course very cumbersome numbers would otherwise be involved. The
arrangement provides a means of facilitating the conversion of ar
existing manual area to automatic working. The number " Mayfaii
2148 " is printed in the directory " MAYfair 2148," and so long a;
any manual exchanges in the area exist the numbers would be passed
in the ordinary way, but as automatic exchanges are introduced the
subscriber will obtain connexion by dialling " MAY 2148." It will ol
course be recognized that to dial MAY is really to dial " 629," and
the switching equipment must be such that the dialling of this code
will give the subscriber connexion to an idle junction circuit outgoing
to the Mayfair exchange whether that exchange be an automatic or
a manual one. Owing to variations in traffic the size of the junction
groups to Mayfair will vary from time to time, and redistribution of
junction lines in the automatic equipment will be essential. The
translator mentioned provides the means whereby this can !><
effected, because the transformation by means of the " impulse
cross connexion field "will make it practicable for "MAY" to lir
reconverted into any combination of the 10 digits when taken three
at a time.
The traffic problem involved in the provision of connecting cir-
cuits or trunks at automatic exchanges is one of considerable interest
and importance, as is illustrated by the extent to which it figures in
the bibliography appended.
Wire Plant. If the distribution to the subscribers is under-
ground throughout, the main cables are now subdivided into
smaller units, bifurcated or multiple branching joints being made
between the main and subsidiary cables. The latter cables are
accessible in footway boxes, and are terminated in such a way
that one or more pairs of conductors can be led direct into any
adjacent premises by a small lead-covered paper-core cable.!
The end of the small cable in the subscriber's premises is ter-|
minated in such a manner as to prevent the ingress of moisture. |
If, however, the distribution is by means of aerial wires from
a pole which is erected to serve a small zone, the cable is continued '
to a point about 2 ft. below the lowest arm of the pole, and is
terminated in a solid or sealed joint from which separate lead- i
covered leads extend the pairs of conductors to insulators.
For long-distance service up to about 1910 the wires were
erected on pole lines along roads, railways and canals. The
hard-drawn copper wire of high conductivity (invented by T. B.
Doolittle in 1877) is invariably used; and wires weighing from
150 to 800 Ib. per mile have been employed. It was necessary
to carry the long-distance lines through underground cables in
the approaches to large English cities, but owing to the inef-
ficiency of cable wires as compared with aerial wires for speech
transmission, the length of underground cable sections was
kept down to a minimum. As the long distance service ex-
panded and the number of lines increased it became increasingly
difficult to find routes for new pole lines, especially near large
cities, and the need for improvement in the efficiency of cable
wires became a very pressing matter.
The disadvantages of the earlier types of underground cables as
compared with aerial lines were: (a) much greater attenuation and
distortion of telephonic currents; (6) inability to superpose a third
circuit, known as a " phantom," on each pair of physical circuits.
Towards the end of the igth century Oliver Heaviside had proved
mathematically that uniformly distributed inductance in a tele-
phone line would diminish both attenuation and distortion, and that
if the inductance were great enough and the dielectric conductance
not too high the circuit would be distortionless, while currents ofaU
frequencies would be equally attenuated. Following up this idea
Prof. M. I. Pupin showed that by placing inductance coils in circuit
at distances apart less than half the length of the shortest component
wave to be transmitted, a non-uniform conductor could be made
approximately equal to a uniform conductor.
Pupin's system of " loading " telephone conductors has been
applied in England mainly to underground cables, and many iffl-
TELEPHONE
709
provements have been made in recent years, so that it is now possible
to obtain the same transmission efficiency from an underground
telephone circuit as from an aerial circuit of equivalent gauge.
The difficulties encountered in working underground cable cir-
cuits were exhaustively investigated by the British Post Office in
the first decade of this century, and it was proved that the inability to
obtain phantom circuits was due primarily to want of balance
between the electrostatic capacity of conductors in respect to (a)
other conductors and (b) to earth. As a result of the earlier investiga-
tions the method of laying up the conductors in pairs to form a
complete cable was radically changed. A type of cable known as
the " quadruple pair " was introduced. In this type the conductors
are lapped with insulating paper twinned together in pairs, and are
arranged in " cores " each containing four twisted pairs laid up
together around a centre, usually of yarn, forming a "quadruple
pair " core. The cores are laid up together to the number required
Physical ' Circuit X
H
Phantom Circuit
Physical Circuit!!
FIG. 5.
; and sheathed with lead. This type of cable was a great improvement
i on the earlier " twin " cables, and permitted the formation of a
superposed "phantom" circuit on two physical circuits. Diagonal
pairs in the same core are selected for superposing.
In a later type of cable known as the " multiple twin cable " the
centre of yarn is dispensed with , and the cable consists of a number
1 of 4-wire cores made up of two 2-wire cores twinned together. The
i Manufacture of this type of cable has been greatly improved in
i recent years, and cables are now produced with very small out-of-
balance capacities between wire and wire, and between wire and
earth. It is still, however, necessary to balance the cables after
laying by a systematic method of jointing contiguous lengths,
whereby conductors are selected and jointed in such a manner as to
secure maximum uniformity of characteristics.
A method of loading the phantom circuit in telephone cables was
invented by G. A. Campbell and T. Shaw in the United States and
: patented in Great Britain in 1911. This method was applied to a
cable laid between London and Birmingham in 1914 and extended to
Liverpool in 1916.
The phantom circuit is obtained by means of specially wound
i transformers joined across the ends of the physical circuits. The
, cores of these transformers consist of a ring made up of very fine
soft iron wires. Fig. 5 illustrates the method of connecting.
Telephone Repeater. The art of long-distance telephony was
advanced a further and more important stage by the introduction
of a practicable type of telephone relay or repeater in 1913.
Output Transformer
Up Line
Balance I 4=
</WwWwv
Output Transformer
FIG. 6.
The conception of a repeater which could be inserted in a tele-
phone circuit and fulfil the same functions as a repeater in a telegraph
circuit is almost as old as the telephone itself. Early attempts at a
solution of the problem were invariably in the form of a sensitive
microphone attached to the reed or the diaphragm of a receiving
apparatus, but the fundamental defects of repeaters of this type,
due primarily to the inertia of moving mechanical parts, prevented
their successful application in commercial service. It was not
until the development of the 3-electrode thermionic tube had
reached the stage of commercial production for wireless telegraphy
purposes in 1913 that the problem of the telephone repeater could be
wived. Since that time progress has been so rapid as to cause almost
i complete revolution in long-distance telephony.
A modern telephone repeater for insertion at an intermediate point
in a long telephone line consists essentially of two thermionic tube
amplifiers, one for the up and one for the down side of the line
circuit, associated with apparatus for balancing the line circuits for
duplex working, the telephone circuit being necessarily a duplex
circuit. The general arrangement is shown in fig. 6.
The telephone repeater may be used to extend the range of speech
over existing lines, as for instance a London-Paris line may be
extended by a repeater at Paris to any distant city in direct com-
munication with Paris; a second repeater at the distant city may
relay the line again to a further point and so on. In fact it may be
said that telephonic speech is now possible over any length of wire
circuit. Speech through submarine cables is, however, still limited to
comparatively short distances.
The most important application of the telephone repeater, and one
in which the greatest economies are possible, is in the internal corar
munications of a country. For instance, in order to provide tele-
phonic communication between, say London and Manchester, Leeds,
Newcastle and Glasgow, it has hitherto been necessary to erect line
conductors weighing on the average 600 Ib. per circuit mile. A
London Newcastle line thus requires about 180,000 Ib. of copper. It
is now possible by using four telephone repeaters at intermediate
points between those two cities to provide equally good communica-
tion over conductors weighing only 80 Ib. per circuit mile, and these
conductors may be contained in an underground cable which will
carry 240 circuits. The combination of telephone repeaters with
underground cables affords a service of greater efficiency than can
be obtained from heavy aerial lines, and a service free from inter-
ruption by storms.
Fig. 7 is a plan illustrating a scheme for providing telephonic
communication between all the important towns of Great Britain
GREAT BRITAIN
MAIN UNDERGROUND
TELEPHONE CABLES
FIG. 7.
by means of underground cables and telephone repeaters. The con-
struction of this extensive system was well advanced in 1921 and was
due for completion in 1925.
A list of representative types of main underground telephone
cables in Great Britain is given in the table.
Submarine Telephone Cables. The problem of loading deep-sea
cables with inductance coils, and thus increasing the possible range
of speech transmission, was successfully solved in 1910, when Messrs.
Siemens Bros. & Co. manufactured and laid for the British Post Office
between Dover and Calais a 4-core submarine cable loaded with
inductance coils at intervals of one nautical mile. The transmission
efficiency of this cable was rather more than three times as good as
that of a similar cable without loading coils.
In 1911 Messrs. Siemens introduced a form of balata dielectric as
a substitute for gutta-percha in loaded submarine cables on account
of the greatly reduced leakance of the former as compared with the
710
TELEPHONE
Particulars of Representative Types of Loaded Main Underground British Cables.
Cable
Length
Number of Pairs
Weight per
Mile Single
Conductor
D. C. Constants of
Cable per Mile
Loop
A. C. Constants of Loaded Cable per
Mile Loop at 10 = 5,000
Inductance
of Loading
Coils
Average ;
Distance i
between
Loading
Coils ;
Resist-
ance, R
Capacity
Wire to
Wire, C
Induct-
ance, L
Attenua-
tion
Constant,
ft
Characteristic
Impedance,
Zo
Leeds-Hull
London-
Birmingham
Birmingham-
Liverpool
London-
Manchester
London-
Bristol
London-
Southampton
and
Portsmouth f
Miles
58-6
109-5
89-9
186-5
122
85
48
6
24
12
H
2
6
6
24
12
14
2
6
6
160
308
254
70
100 *
| IOO
I Ht
150
200
300
1 50 phantom
loo phantom
f IOO
jioo f
ISO
200
300
1 50 phantom
100 phantom
f 40
1 40 phantom
f 20
[ 20 phantom
f 20
[ 20 phantom
Ohms
28-7
18-95
18-38
I3-I3
9-62
6-55
6-56
9-5
17-9
17-32
12-44
9-19
6-28
6-22
8-95
D. C. Coi
Unloade
MF
0-065
0-0575
0-0568
0-0697
0-0654
0-0567
0-1056
0-0905
0-0579
0-0575
0-0685
0-0572
0-0545
0-10075
0-0864
istants of
d Cables
Henries
0-052
0-0535
0-053
0-0537
0-0536
0-0547
0-0345
0-0357
0-053
0-053
0-0537
0-0536
0-055
0-0345
0-0357
0-109
0-066
0-155
0-094
O-222
0-I38
0-0166
0-01092
0-01074
0-00884
0-00664
0-00408
0-00756
0-00926
0-01057
0-01014
0-00846
0-00618
0-00413
0-00682
0-00837
O-O2O8
0-1625
0-033
0-0255
0-0292
0-0235
Henries
0-133
0-133
0-133
0-133
0-133
0-133
0-0825
0-0825
0-133
0-133
0-133
0-133
0-133
0-0825
0-0825
0-175}
o-io6j
o-i75l
0-106 j
0-250}
o-iSSJ
Miles
2-55
2-5
2-5
1-6
1-125
1-125
897 \3 4'
905 /s 41'
891 /5 36'
864 /8 40'
860 /8 7'
959/13 7'
563 /6 48'
610 /8 55'
I 062 \i 4'
i 069 \2 57'
i 031 \i 4'
I 088 \ 5 45'
I 074 /2 26'
565 /l 18'
615 \2 II'
R
44
22
88
44
88
44
C
0-065
0-090
0-065
0-090
0-065
0-090
I 298 \2 35'
857 \2 II'
I 550 \3 3i'
I 023 \2 58'
I 855 \2 33'
I 240 \2 8'
* loo-lb. conductors used for telegraphs. f Not phantomed. J In course of construction.
latter. The effect was to reduce materially the attenuation constant
and increase the range of speech in loaded cables.
The improved dielectric was used in a cable laid in Aug. IQI2
between St. Margaret's Bay, Dover, and La Panne, Belgium. This
cable contained four copper conductors, each weighing 160 Ib. per
nautical mile and insulated by a dielectric weighing 150 Ib. per mile
(as compared with 300 Ib. per mile in the 1910 Anglo-French cable).
The variation of attenuation with frequency is much less in the 1912
cable than in the earlier one.
The Anglo-Belgian cable had another special feature, namely, the
provision of loading coils for a third circuit superposed on the two
physical circuits. The loading coils for all three circuits were placed
together at intervals of one nautical mile.
A similar cable with some further improvements in dielectric and
loading coils was laid across the Irish Sea between Nevin, Carnarvon-
shire, and Howth, co. Dublin, in 1913.
A submarine telephone cable of the continuously loaded type
was laid across the English Channel by the French Government
in 1912, between the same points as the 1910 coil-loaded cable. The
weight per nautical mile of dielectric is the same in both cables, but
each copper conductor of the former weighs 300 Ib. per mile as com-
pared with 160 Ib. per mile in the latter. The transmission efficiency
of the cables is practically equal, but the continuously loaded cable
provides an additional circuit by superposing. Experiments con-
ducted on this cable in 1914 proved the possibility of obtaining four
circuits from a continuously loaded 4-wire submarine cable by intro-
ducing an improved method of balancing the electrostatic capacity of
the conductors. The fourth circuit has not yet been successful in a
coil-loaded cable.
Several additional coil-loaded telephone cables were laid across
the English Channel during the war period. Details of these cables
are given in the Table.
With equal weights of conductor and dielectric, the relative trans-
mission efficiencies of (a) coil-loaded and (6) continuously loaded
4-wire submarine cables are as loo to 75, but the latter may provide
four circuits as compared with three in the former. Experience has
hown that the maintenance and repairs of coil-loaded cables are
attended by difficulties which are not met with in continuously
loaded cables.
The introduction of telephone relays has made it possible fre-
quently to use submarine cables of a less efficiency than the coil-
loaded cables previously required. Consequently, it is practicable
to increase the use of continuously loaded cables, and the modern
tendency is in that direction. (W. No.)
UNITED STATES
The more important improvements made in the United
States during 1910-21 are briefly described below.
Exchange Cables. Improvements in the design and the
methods of manufacture of cables for use in local exchanges
made it possible greatly to increase the number of wires of a
given size in a sheath of given size. By employing wires of
smaller diameter than those heretofore used the maximum
number was still further increased. Cables containing either !
900 wires No. 19 A.W.G. (-0359 in. diam.), 1,800 wires No. 22
A.W.G. (-0253 in. diam.), or 2,400 wires No. 24 A.W.G. (-0201
in. diam.) were extensively used in 1921. The improvements
which rendered practicable these cables of maximum diam. have
been employed also in cables of fewer pairs, thus enabling
their diams. to be decreased and their costs reduced. Cables
containing the smaller sizes of wire were used as extensively as
was justified by their economic balance in relation to other
portions of the plant. This resulted in the employment of con-
siderable amounts of No. 24 A.W.G. conductor cable.
For a long time cable sheaths were made of lead alloyed with
about 3% of tin, unalloyed lead not having the requisite strength ;
and resistance to corrosion. Extensive research, directed toward
finding a cheaper but no less effective alloy, resulted in 1912 in the
adoption of lead alloyed with a small amount of antimony.
Readjustments in the thicknesses of sheaths and in the composi-
tion of the insulating and binding paper produced still further
economies.
Loading Coils in Exchange Service. Many thousands of trunk
circuits in multi-office exchanges and circuits connecting large cities
with suburban points have been equipped with loading coils, pro-
TELEPHONE
British Submarine Telephone Cables.
711
Weight
per naut. m.
s
Alternating Current Constants
3
i. be
v
a|
b
In
4->
u
a
o
o
e3 a
en
H
U
2" ^
ijj.
'!
In .
Particulars of Cable
Length
u
"C
*-
s M
w
'3
"o
5 o
2*3
SE
0*3
Characteristic
o
1
o, S
o
.5
fli 3
c'S
><w
o
ll
Impedance
o
"o
*J
u
c
OS -a
*- C
jj g
S J-
M ,
(Zo)
U
3
O 3 *-*
3
Q
3
a
OJ
3 O.
a
rt
o
C
Q. S
^^
t i
U
4
g
<M
c
**
Naut.
Lb.
Lb.
Ohms.
Per
Ohms.
Henries
MF
Ohms.
m.
sec.
St. Margarets-La Panne \
III., 1911, coil loaded /
47-9
1 60
15
14-3
( Physical
I Phantom
800
800
n-5
4-6
O-IOO
0-050
0-157
0-314
12
12
0-0178
0-0181
800 \i 24'
400 \i 16'
Nevin-Howth I., 1913, \
coil loaded . . . /
Temple Patrick-Port Mora, 1
continuously loaded, 1921 /
63-3
22-0
1 60
169
150
195
14-3
13-5
r Physical
I Phantom
( Physical
\ Phantom
800
800
800
800
6-8
3-2
2-O
O-IOO
0-050
0-0245
0-166
0-320
0-195
15
15
20
0-0150
0-0150
0-025
O-O2S
690 \2 40'
446 \o 52'
356 \3 43'
Abbotscliff-Grisnez III., }
1910, coil loaded /
2I-O
1 60
300
14-3
Physical
750
6-0
0-095
0-186
I2O
J
0-0148
1,000
Abbotscliff-Grisnez IV., 1
1912, continuously loaded /
2I-O
300
300
7-6
f Physical
\ Phantom
1,000
1,000
0-0135
0-176
IO9
O-OI85
O-OI85
278 \2 59'
Dover-Sangatte I., 1917, \
20-8
coil loaded . . . J
Dover-Dunkirk I., 1917, \
coil loaded . . . /
41-6
310
200
7-4
r Physical
\ Phantom
800
800
5-2
2-5
0-080
0-040
0-189
0-378
20
2O
O-OII2
O-OII4
709 \i 50'
338 \i 40'
Dungeness-Audrecelles \
26-0
III., 1918, coil loaded /
Dover-Sangatte II., 1918, \
coil loaded . . . /
21-0
T fi.r\
( Physical
800
6-2
O-IOO
0-166
20
0-0145
776 \i T
Dungeness-Audrecelles \
II., 1918, coil loaded . /
27-6
loo
150
H'3
\ Phantom
800
3-o
0-050
0-320
2O
O-OI4O
395 \i 2'
viding transmission of such a grade as would require from 5 to 10
times as much copper in the cable circuits if loading were not
employed. Loading coils have been materially improved by con-
structing the cores of several rings, each of which is made by com-
pressing finely divided particles of iron with a binding material which
acts as insulation between the iron particles. There may be as many
as thirty thousand million of these particles in the core of a cable
loading coil. These cores are more uniform and stable than the wire
cores formerly used and are much less affected by excessive currents
which may accidentally come into the circuit.
Long-Distance Telephony Open Wire. At the beginning of the
decade 1910-20, the limits of telephone transmission were about
1,200 to 1,500 m. in open wire. These limits were extended rapidly
so that in 1921 practically all parts of the continental United States
were placed in communication with each other over distances of
4,000 m. and upwards, employing overhead wires no larger than those
used to give the restricted service of 1910. These improvements were
made with only slight changes in the lines and equipment and with
no change whatever in the subscriber's station apparatus. They
depended upon the development of satisfactory repeaters with
their associated apparatus and methods of use. The form of repeater
generally employed in 1921 was the 3-element thermionic tube.
Devised primarily for radio purposes, it was so adapted as to become
a remarkably effective repeater. This required that a large amount
of auxiliary apparatus be invented and developed and methods
devised for balancing the lines and making them suitable for the
operation of this apparatus. The amplifier or repeater receives the
minute attenuated telephone currents and sends out currents of
exactly the same form but greatly enlarged. The transmission gain
which may be obtained with vacuum-tube amplifiers in two-way
operation depends on the electrical conditions of the line in which
the amplifiers are used. This has a great effect on line design.
Transcontinental Telephony. By the development of methods by
which the loading coil could be applied to the heaviest gauge wires
and such wires, when equipped with loading coils, could be operated
on the phantom principle, it became practicable, in 1911, to provide
telephone service between New York City and Denver, Col., and
greatly to improve the transmission of speech between cities less
far apart. By the application of the phantom principle to such cir-
cuits the available facilities were largely increased so that_, between
the important telephone centres, notable improvements in service
were accomplished. On Jan. 25 1915, the transcontinental line of
the Bell System was formally opened for business and after that
timc,commercial service was given between the cities on the Atlantic
Coast and those on the Pacific Coast. The service in 1921 was
handled over a group of 4 non-loaded wires equipped with telephone
repeaters. By using the 2 side circuits and the phantom circuit
formed by these wires, 3 simultaneous transcontinental connexions
may be established. By means of the addition of compositing appa-
ratus to the circuits the 4 wires which carry 3 telephone circuits
also carry 4 telegraph circuits. These 4 telegraph circuits may be
arranged to transmit 8 simultaneous messages. The line from New
York City to San Francisco is 3,400 m. in length.
Long-Distance Telephony Cables. By 1906 a cable 90 m. long
was successfully operated between New York and Philadelphia, but,
in the then state of the art, that cable could not be used for con-
nexions extending beyond New York or Philadelphia. In 1911, an
underground cable was designed capable of giving a satisfactory
conversation between Washington and Boston. By 1912, a section
of this new cable was laid from Washington to Philadelphia, there
connecting with the earlier type of cable to New York. During 1913,
a section of the new cable was laid between New Haven and Provi-
dence, connecting at New Haven with an earlier type of cable extend-
ing to New York and connecting at Providence with an earlier type
extending to Boston. Although talking over the whole distance
from Boston to Washington was not possible so long as stretches of
cable of the older types had to be employed, yet by using the under-
ground in connexion with the overhead, the seaboard cities from
Washington to Boston could no longer be isolated by storms destroy-
ing the overhead lines. During 1913, the advances in the art of load-
ing and balancing underground circuits together with the repeater
developments made it possible to talk satisfactorily by underground
wires from Boston to Washington, a distance of 455 m. even though
47 % of the total cable in the line was of the types formerly suitable
for short-haul working only. In 1912, talking by underground wire
for the first time between New York and Washington represented
the longest distance achieved. By 1913, this distance had been
doubled. The Boston-Washington cable was several times longer
than any other in the world. There were in 1921 several cables
working along the Boston-Washington route. During 1919, the
extension of the toll cable system from Philadelphia to Harrisburg,
Pa., was completed. Taken in combination with the cables already
working between Boston and Washington, this gave a through toll
cable route from the important points on the eastern seaboard as
far west as Harrisburg. In 1921, this cable was extended from
Harrisburg as far W. as Pittsburgh, a distance of 192 m. from Harris-
burg and 304 m. from Philadelphia. For the greater portion of the
distance the cable was supported aerially on poles. The composition
of this cable was as follows :
Section Quads No. 16 A.W.G. Quads No. 19 A.W.G.
Harrisburg-Ligonier 16 125
Ligonier-Pittsburgh 19 120
712
TELEPHONE
At the intervals of about 60 m. substantial brick buildings were
erected for use as rtpeater stations to house the equipment, appa-
ratus, power plant and test boards that make up a modern repeater
station. General plans were completed for extending this cable from
Pittsburgh to Chicago.
The installation of these toll cables resulted in economies due not
only to the reduced annual charges on additional circuits as required
and less expense for routine maintenance, but also to the fact that the
losses resulting from storm damage to open wire were avoided, as
were also losses in revenue and reaction on the service during storm
periods. Much is thus done to stabilize the toll plant and reduce
expenditures as well as further to improve the service. By means of
the improvements which had been made it became possible to carry
on satisfactory talks over wires in cables more than 2,000 m. in
length (where commercial conditions justify such cables) and this
was accomplished with practically no more copper in each circuit
than had been used in the earliest forms of cable which, as lately
as 1882, caused serious interference with transmission when em-
ployed in lengths of only a fraction of a mile.
Repeater development reacted on the loading art, requiring the
development of loading coils of great magnetic stability and uniform-
ity. Such stability is also particularly important on long circuits
which are composited for telegraph operation in order to prevent
the telegraph from interfering with the telephone transmission.
Although these loading and repeater developments greatly extended
the use of cables for long-distance transmission they made it impera-
tive to keep open-wire circuits as free as possible from cable in order
to prevent the electrical irregularity thus introduced from reacting
on the repeater operation.
Submarine Cables. In 1921, telephone communication was estab-
lished with Cuba by means of submarine cables connecting Havana
with Key West. These cables brought all of the principal places in
the United States into telephonic communication with Havana and
other important places in Cuba. There were in 1921 3 cables, each
about 1 15 m. in length. Except at the terminating points, the cables
were laid some miles apart in order to minimize the danger of
simultaneous interruption as the result of accident. The average
depth was about 3,000 ft. and in some places depths of more than a
mile were reached. The main portion of each cable had a single
conductor, two conductors being employed in the shore ends. The
main conductor weighed 350 Ib. per m. and consisted of 7 strands
of copper wire. The conductor bore a wrapping of fine iron wire,
this being covered with gutta-percha enclosed in copper tape which
served as a return grounded conductor. By the use of multiplex
methods each cable handled simultaneously one telephone and two
telegraph messages. Each cable is expected ultimately to handle
two or more additional telegraph messages. The use of single
conductor cables, the telephone amplifiers, the terminal telegraph
apparatus, and the devices for permitting the telephone and tele-
graph to operate simultaneously, all differed from earlier practice.
The largest submarine cable equipped with loading coils in 1921
was that which crossed Raritan Bay from Staten Island to New
Jersey. It was upwards of 28,000 ft. in length, was loaded at 5 points
and contained 37 quads of No. 1 6 gauge wires and 12 pairs of No. 22
gauge test wires. Each loading pot was approximately 16 ft. long
and weighed 4 tons. The cable was laid in shallow water, the average
depth being 10 ft. at mean low tide.
Carrier Current Telephony, From the earliest days of the tele-
phone and telegraph there were many attempts to develop multi-
plex transmission of messages. It was while working on the problem
of multiplex telegraphy that Dr. Bell had his first conception of the
structure of the original telephone. The long series of inventors,
scientists and engineers who have contributed to the development
of the multiplex art includes Gray, Edison, Mercadier, Pupin,
Hutin, Leblanc, Stone, DeForest, Vreeland, Ruhmer, Squier, Wag-
ner and others. In 1918 research experts and engineers of the
Bell System completed the development of a commercial multiplex
telephone and telegraph system and put it into operation between
Baltimore and Pittsburgh. By means of this multiplex system, 4
telephone conversations may be had simultaneously over one pair of
wires in addition to the telephone conversation provided by the
ordinary methods. Thus, over a single pair of wires, 5 telephone
conversations are simultaneousjy operated, each giving service as
good as that provided by the circuit working in the ordinary way.
In telegraphy, as compared with the ordinary duplex telegraph
circuit, this multiplex system permits at least a tenfold increase in
messages. Although the commercial installations in use in 1921
provided only 4 additional conversations, the limitations as to num-
ber of telephone or telegraph messages on a single circuit were
determined entirely by economic considerations. The operation
may be considered to consist of combining the telephone cur-
rent with high frequency current, transmitting this combination
over a line wire, and, at the receiving end, removing the high
frequency current and leaving the telephone current. The high
frequency current serves as a " carrier " for the telephone current
over the line.
Simultaneous transmission of several telephone currents is accom-
plished by means of selective apparatus by which one particular
receiving channel is made easily receptive to one particular set of
high frequency currents and, at the same time, acts substantially as a
barrier to the currents of other high frequencies which are carrying
telephone conversations other than those which the channel in ques-
tion is designed to receive.
The operation involves the following steps: (i) Generation of
carrier current, (2) Modulation, (3) Demodulations, (4) Separation of
channels by selective circuits, (5) Repeaters for amplifying currents
of carrier frequency at intermediate points.
(1) Generation of Carrier Current. Carrier currents of various
frequencies are for convenience obtained from well-known forms of
vacuum-tube oscillators. In general the telephone multiplex fre-
quencies run about 10,000, 15,000, 20,000 and 25,000.
(2) Modulation. This term is applied to the process by which
carrier current, produced by an oscillator, is so combined with voice
currents from a telephone transmitter that the variations of the
latter are impressed upon the former. The carrier and voice frequen-
cies are applied together in the grid circuit of a vacuum-tube modu-
lator together with a steady battery voltage.
(3) Demodulation. This is a complementary process of modula-
tion. Modulation may be thought of as elevating the band of
essential speech frequencies to a position adjacent to the carrier
frequency, and demodulation may be regarded as restoring this band
to its normal position in the frequency scale.
(4) Separation of Channels by Selective Circuits. When a number 1
of channels, each employing a different carrier frequency, are oper-
ated simultaneously on a common line, each channel must be con-i
nected with the line through selective circuits which transmit only!
the range of frequencies assigned to that particular channel. Not!
only must the demodulator assigned to a given channel be pre-j
vented from receiving, from the line, currents of other channels, but]
the sending modulator must be prevented from putting on the line
currents or frequencies outside of its assigned band. The appur-i
tenances specially developed for accomplishing this selection in car-
rier current telephony are known as " band-pass electrical filters."
(5) Reaction on the Telephone Plant. Carrier currents have im-
posed new requirements as to transpositions and it has also beeni
necessary to develop new types of loading coils capable of trans- j
mitting the carrier frequencies, and also extremely uniform in
impedance over the whole frequency range.
Limitations. From the nature of the apparatus and methods
employed, the system is not practically advantageous on short lines.
In 1921 it was being applied to lines of 250 m. or more.
Carrier telephone systems were in commercial operation between
the following points: Baltimore and Pittsburgh, Harrisburg and I
Chicago, Harrisburg and Detroit, Boston and Bangor, San Francisco I
and Los Angeles.
Loud-Speaking Telephones. By the use of vacuum-tube amplifiers
in connexion with specially developed transmitters and receivers,
supplemented by large projecting horns, the human voice may be
magnified thousands of millions of times so that a public speaker can i
make himself heard by a vastly greater number of people than ever]
before. By the use of apparatus and methods of this kind developed
by the Bell Telephone System, President Harding's inaugural
address in 1921 was heard by over 100,000 listeners standing in an
open space of more than 10 ac. before the Capitol.
Radio Telephony. In 1915 the engineers 01 the Bell Telephone
System succeeded in transmitting speech from Arlington, Va., to the
Eiffel Tower in Paris, and, simultaneously, to the Hawaiian Islands
in the Pacific Ocean. Two experimental radio telephone transmit- '
ting and receiving stations were erected on the Atlantic Coast, one '
near Asbury Park, N.J., and the other near Plymouth, Mass. By i
means of these stations, radio telephone communication was main-
tained between the commercial telephone system and two ships
experimentally equipped, plying from Boston to southern ports on ,
the Atlantic Coast.
In July 1920 regular commercial radio telephone service was
established between Santa Catalina Is. about 30 m. from shore, and
the mainland near Los Angeles, Cal., at the latter point making
junction with the local and long-distance wires of the Bell System
throughout the United States.
The circuit is provided with through-line ringing of a type which
is free from interference and there is a superimposed telegraph !
circuit capable of forming a link in a duplex wire telegraph circuit.
The volume and quality of telephone transmission are so good that ;
the radio link is regularly connected, whenever required, with long- I
distance wire circuits. On several occasions conversations have been |
carried on between a steamship on the Atlantic and the Avalon office
at Catalina Is. in the Pacific, using the transcontinental wire tele- i
phone line as the connecting link overland.
Machine-Switching System. A retrospective examination of the
manually operated switchboard discloses the fact that the tendency
of development has been continuously in the direction of increasing
the number and extent of the operating functions which are per-
formed electro-mechanically and likewise decreasing the amount of
time required of the operator for the handling of the connexion.
When a point is reached where the operations performed manually
at the central office are eliminated, except in the case of certain
special classes of calls, the term " automatic " or " machine switch-
ing " is applied to the switching equipment.
There are two principal types of machine-switching equipment,
the " step-by-step " and the " panel " type. In both the apparatus
TELEPHONE
at the central office is set in motion and controlled by a dial, asso-
ciated with the substation set, and rotated by the subscriber. The
" step-by-step " type of equipment makes use of a series of selectors
in each of which contact is made by means of a central arm that can
be raised to any desired level and rotated, at that level, to the proper
one of a series of terminals arranged in the arc of a circle. This type
of equipment is mostly used in the smaller cities and for automatic
private branch exchanges. The " panel " type of equipment has been
developed to a point where it is now being installed on an extensive
scale in a number of the larger cities of the United States. On
account of its importance a brief description is given.
Panel Type System. The panel type equipment is so named be-
cause the multiple of the selectors is built in panels. The selectors
have, in general, capacity for 500 lines or trunks. The multiple of
these selectors consists of punched brass strips about 3 ft. long and
one in. wide piled one above the other with insulation between.
Since 3 connexions are necessary for each line or trunk, 1,500 of these
strips are provided. The strips are divided horizontally into 5 groups
or panels of 100 lines or trunks each and are mounted on frames
having capacity for 60 selectors each, 30 on each side. The selector
consists of a tube running vertically, close to the banks, the tube
being equipped with a set of brushes for each bank. The brushes
normally are held mechanically so that they do not engage the
terminals. At the bottom of the tube, a friction clutch is provided
which, by engaging constantly rotating shafts, can cause the tube to
be raised or lowered. The brushes are multipled together by wires
within the tube, these wires being attached at the top of the tube to
feeder brushes which move over insulated feeder strips. The process
of selection consists in first mechanically tripping the desired brush
into engagement with its multiple bank, next in moving the tube
carrying the brushes upward to choose the desired group within the
bank, and finally continuing the movement upward to choose the
desired subscriber's line or an idle trunk within the selected group.
The subscribers' lines appear on the multiple of panel type selectors
known as " line finders." The function of the line finder is to make
connexion with calling subscribers' lines. It corresponds to the "A"
operator's answering cord and the subscriber's answering jack in the .
manual system. The brushes of the line finder are attached to the
brushes of a panel type ' ' district selector ' ' and also to the brushes of
a small selector known as a " sender selector." As soon as a calling
subscriber's line has been picked up by a line finder, the sender selector
selects an idle " sender " out of a common group. When the calling
subscriber dials, the pulses are registered in the sender which controls
the setting-up of the connexion and is then freed. The sender may be
likened to the operator of the manual system. The sender causes the
district selector to choose a trunk to the desired office, or, if more
than 500 outgoing trunks from the office are required, causes the dis-
trict selector to pick out an idle " office selector " of the panel type
which selects the desired trunk. The trunk incoming to the full
mechanical office ends in the sender of an " incoming selector " of
the panel type whose function it is, under control of the sender, to
pick out an idle panel " connector " having access to the group of 500
lines in which the called subscriber's line may be found. Controlled
by the sender, the connector then selects the called line.
Calls from a machine-switching to a manual office are completed
over " call indicator trunks." As the calling subscriber dials his call,
the district or office selector picks out an idle trunk to the desired
office. This trunk ends in a plug before a " B," or incoming trunk
operator in the called office. When a call appears on that trunk, the
" B " operator depresses a display key associated with that trunk,
whereupon the number which is desired in that office is quickly
transferred by the sender to a bank of numbered lamps appearing
before the " B " operator, and the " B " operator thereupon plugs
the trunk into the desired subscriber's line.
For completing calls from a manual to a full mechanical office
" key indicator mechanism " is employed. This is a mechanism
which indicates to the " A " operator an idle trunk to the desired
office which ends at that office at an incoming selector. The " A "
operator by using a small lo-button key-set is enabled to control the
incoming selector to make connexion through the aid of connectors
with the called line desired.
Other Improvements. In the United States there is a large and
growing use of the telephone for communications essential to the
operation of both steam and electric railways. The problem of
minimizing the disturbing effect upon telephone circuits produced
by induction interference from electric light and power circuits has
resulted in careful, coordinated work by the power and telephone
engineers. Important improvements have also been made in local
and toll line operating efficiency.
Organized research has not only enabled the limits of telephony to
be greatly extended but, at the same time, improvements and
economies have been made in every department of the business.
Telephone Development of the World January i 1910, 1914 and 1920.
(Some of the figures for the most part those for small places not shown separately are necessarily in part estimated.)
Jan. I I
910
Jan. i I
914
Jan. i
1920
Number of
Telephones
Telephones
per 100
Population
Number of
Telephones
Telephones
per 100
Population
Number of
Telephones
Telephones
per loo
Population
Great Britain ....
Denmark . ....
France . ....
Germany . ....
; Italy . . ....
Norway . ....
Sweden . ....
Switzerland ....
Other countries in Europe
609,274
87,436
211,664
968,101
63,131
57,945
174,055
73,758
506,636
i-3
3'2
o-5
i'5
O-2
2-4
3'i
2-O
O-2
780,512
129,277
330,000
1,420,100
91,720
82,550
233,008
96,624
848,918
i-7
4-5
0-8
2-1
o-3
3-4
4-1
2-5
o-3
911,919
219,460
418,901
1,766,571
107,190
122,796
388,794
138,843
925,000
1-9
7-3
l-l
2-9
o-3
4-7
6-7
3-5
o-3
Total Europe
2,752,000
0-.6
4,012,709
0-8
4,999,474
I-O
Japan .
Other countries in Asia
109,780
44,220
O-2
O-OI
219,551
86,534
0-4
O-OI
298,000
150,000
o-5
O-O2
Total Asia
154,000
O-O2
306,085
0-04
448,000
0-05
Union of South Africa
Other countries in Africa .
13-650
18,000
O-2
O-O2
28,889
36,207
0-5
0-03
42,419
53,000
0-6
0-04
Total Africa
31,650
O'O2
65,096
0-05
95,419
0-07
United States
Canada
Other countries in North America .
6,995,692
239,000
38,900
7-6
3-3
O-I
9,542,017
499,774
79,157
9-7
6-5
o-3
12,668,474
785,108
110,000
I2-O
9-0
o-3
Total North America .
7,273,592
5-5
10,120,948
7-5
13,563,582
9-0
Total South America .
75,000
O-2
166,331
o-3
264,737
0-4
Australia
New Zealand
Other countries in Oceania
81,040
29,680
10,000
1-8
2'7
0-03
137,485
49,415
30,481
2-8
4-6
0-06
224,000
80,723
54,000
4'3
6-5
O-I
Total Oceania ....
120,720
o-3
217,381
0-4
358,723
0-6
Total throughout World
10,406,962
0-6
14,888,550
0-9
19,729,935
i-i
Note: In the case of countries the boundaries of which have undergone change, the figures for each year represent the number of tele-
ihones within the boundaries of that year.
714
TELPHERAGE
BIBLIOGRAPHY. MANUAL TELEPHONE SYSTEMS: J. Poole, The
Practical Telephone Handbook; K. B. Miller, American Telephone
Practice; W. Aitken, Manual of the Telephone; J. E. Kingsbury, Tele-
phone and Telephone Exchanges. AUTOMATIC TELEPHONE SYSTEMS :
Smith & Campbell, Auto. Telephony; R. Mordin, Strowger Auto.
Telephone; Professional Papers of the Institution of Post Office
Electrical Engineers: J. Hedley, W. E. Co.'s Semi-Auto. System;
B. O. Anson, W. E. Co.'s Auto. System; Papers from the
Journal of the Institution of Post Office Electrical Engineers:
H. W.D.," Dudley Auto. Tp. Exch." (Jan. 17) ;G. F. O., "Theo-
retical Principles of Traffic Capacity of Auto. Switches "
(Oct. 20) ; W. J. Bailey, " Lorimer Exch. at Hereford " (July 13) ;
W. J. Bailey, "Epsom Auto. Exch." (vol. 5, 1912); J. Hedley,
"Auto. Exch. Darlington" (vol. 7, 1914); R. L. Bell, "Auto.
Switches in Split Order Wire Wkg." (vol. 7, 1914) ; P. V. Christensen,
" No. of Selectors in Auto. Tp. Systems " (vol. 7, 1914); " Coin Box
and Call Meter for Auto. Exchanges" (vol. 8, 1915); J. Hedley,
"Developments in the Strowger Auto. System" (vol. 8, 1915);
A. K. Erlang, " Solution of Problems in Theory of Probabilities,
Auto. Exchs." (vol. 10, 1917); F. McMorrough, " Grimsby Exch."
(vol. 9, 1916); A. B. Eason, " Relay Auto. Tp. System " (vol. 13,
April 20 1920) ; G. F. O., " Comparisons of Auto. Exch. Systems "
(vol. 12, 1919) ; Proc. American I. E. E.: W. Lee Campbell, " Traffic
Studies in Auto. Switchboard Telephone Systems " (March 1914).
TELEPHONE TRANSMISSION : Prof. J. A. Fleming, The Propagation of
Electric Currents in Telegraph and Telephone Conductors; J. G. Hill,
Telephonic Transmission; Gherardi & Jewett, " Telephone Re-
peaters " (Journal of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers,
Oct. 1919); B. Cohen & J. G. Hill, "Long Distance and Cable
Telephony " (Journal of the Institute of Post Office Electrical Engi-
neers, 1916); H. W. Malcolm, The Theory of the Submarine Tele-
graph and Telephone Cable; A. E. Kennelly, The Application of
Hyperbolic Functions to Electrical Engineering Problems; Professional
Papers of the Institution of Post Office Electrical Engineers: A. W.
Martin, The Loading of Telephone Cable Circuits; A. G. Lee, Tele-
fhone Transmission; C. E. Hay, Alternating Current Measurements;
. G. Hill, The Loading of Aerial Lines; B. S. Cohen, Telephonometry;
A. B. Hart, Telephonic Repeaters; C. Robinson & R. M. Chamney,
Telephone Relays.
GENERAL REFERENCES TO PERIODICAL AND SOCIETY PUBLICA-
TIONS: Arnold, H. D., and Crandall, I. B., " The Thermophone as a
Precision Source of Sound," Physical Review (\. 10, July 1917);
Blackwell, O. B., and Colpitts, E. H., " Carrier Current Telephony
and Telegraphy " (A. I. E. E. Journ., April, May and June 1921);
Campbell, G. A., " Mutual Inductances of Circuits Composed of
Straight Wires," Physical Review (v. 5, June 1915); Carson, J. R.,
" On a General Expansion Theorem for the Transient Oscillations of
a Connected System," ibid. (v. 10, Sept. 1917); id., " Theory and
Calculation of Variable Electrical Systems," ibid. (v. 17, Feb. 1921);
id., " Propagation of Periodic Currents over Non-Uniform Lines "
(Electrician, March 4 1921); id., " Wave Propagation over Parallel
Wires: the Proximity Effect " (Phil. Mag., April 1921); Carson,
J. R. and Northrup, E. F., " The Skin Effect and Alternating Cur-
rent Resistance" (Franklin Inst. Jour., Feb. 1914); Carty, I. J.,
" The Telephone Art," ibid., July, 1916; Colpitts, E. H., and Craft,
E. B., " Radio Telephony ". Trans. Am. Inst. Elec. Eng. (p. 305,
1919); Fondiller, W., and Martin, W. H., " Hysteresis Effects with
Varying Superposed Magnetizing Forces " (A. I. E. E. Jour., Feb.
1921); Fry, T. C., "Thermionic Current Between Parallel Plane
Electrodes; Velocities of Emission Distributed According to Max-
well's Law, " Physical Review (v.17, April 1921); id., " The Solution
of Circuit Problems," ibid. (v. 14, Aug. 1919); Gherardi, B., " The
Commercial Loading of Telephone Circuits in the Bell System,"
Trans. Am. Inst. Elec. Eng. (p. 1743, 1911); id., " Joseph Henry's
Experiments in the Albany Academy, 1827-32, Interpreted in the
Light of the Present Day " (ijth Report of the Director of New York
State Museum, 1916) ; Gherardi, B., and Jewett, F. B., " Telephone
Repeaters," Trans. Am. Inst. Elec. Eng. (p. 1287, 1919) ; id., " Prog-
ress in the Art of Communication " (Electrical World, Jan. 24 1920) ;
Heising, R. A., " The Audion Oscillator," Physical Review (v. 16,
Sept. 1920) ; id., " The Audion Oscillator " (A. I. E. E. Jour., April
and May 1920); Jewett, F. B., " Industrial Research with Some
Notes Concerning its Scope in the Bell Telephone System," Trans.
Am. Inst. Elec. Eng. (p. 841, 1917); Kennelly, A. E., Laws, F. A.,
and Pierce, P. H., " Experimental Researches on Skin Effect in
Conductors," ibid. (p. 1953, 1915); Mills, J., "A General Method for
Periodic Currents" (Soc. Prom. Eng. Educ. Bull., v. 8, 1918);
Nichols, H. W., " Theory of Variable Dynamical-Electrical Sys-
tems," Physical Review (v. 10, Aug. 1917); id., " The Audion as a
Circuit Element," ibid. (v. 13, June 1919); Osborne, H. S., "The
Design of Transpositions for Parallel Power and Telephone Cir-
cuits," Trans. Am. Inst. Elec. Eng. (p. 897, 1918); Rhodes, F. L.,
" The Wiring of Large Buildings for Telephone Service," ibid. (p.
1367, 1912); Slaughter, N. H., " The Production of Vacuum Tubes
for Military Purposes," Physical Review (v. 14, Nov. 1919); Van der
Bijl, H.tJ., " Electron Relays as Amplifiers and Oscillators" (Pop.
Sci. Monthly, April, May and June 1920) ; Warren, H. S., " Inductive
Effects of Alternating Current Railroads on Communication Cir-
cuits," Trans. Am. Inst. Elec. Eng. (p. 503, 1918) ; Watson, T. A.,
" How Bell Invented the Telephone," ibid. (p. ion, 1915); Wente,
E. C., " A Condenser Transmitter as a Uniformly Sensitive Instru
ment for the Absolute Measurement of Sound Intensity," Physica,
Review (v. 10, July 1917).
TELPHERAGE (see 7.63). The World War saw, in the Ital
ian army, amazing use made of the system of telpher trans'
port for fighting on the Alps. When, after many years, snow
ice and avalanches will have all but cancelled every trace of the
epic deeds performed in those regions, tourists who climb to thf
crests of the Adamello, the Marmolata, the Tofana and a hundred
other peaks will hardly believe that thousands of men lived and
fought for years in the very spots that they have reached onlyj
with difficulty, with the help of ropes and ice-axes, and in favour-
able weather.
Before the war it was thought impossible to conduct military
operations on the high peaks. It was believed that the ordinary!
troops would be practically tied to the roads, that a company oij
" Alpini " with a few mountain guns would be the largest unit)
that could be used in places where only paths for mules existed,
and that the rocky peaks, the snows and the ice, would be reached
only by small groups belonging to specialist units, sent there
to keep an eye on the enemy.
But from the earliest days of the campaign there happened on
the Alpine front something very similar to what had occurred
in France after the battle of the Marne, when Germans and
French, in their common desire to outflank each other in the.
direction of the sea, finally reached the sea itself, thus forming
one uninterrupted line from the Vosges to the Channel. On the'
Alps, with the object of capturing or turning the Austrian de-
fensive lines, the Italians climbed higher and higher in ever-
increasing numbers, the Austrians doing likewise, until the veryi
tops of the mountains were reached and it became impossible to]
go farther. The most elevated points of the frontier having been
thus occupied, the Italians put themselves in a position to meet
enemy attacks as well as to face the inclemency of the climate:
a hard and relentless struggle which had to be started afresh
every time war operations involved a change of positions.
The first days of the war saw whole companies clinging hand
and foot to the rocky summits; battalions encamped and freezing
at a height of 3,000 metres. Field guns, drills, photo-electric
stations were taken to pieces and carried up bit by bit to giddy!
heights, and there put together again. Food, water, ammunition
were carried for many hours on mules, and thence transferred!
to columns of men who carried them for long hours more. Atj
times the wounded and the sick had to be removed by securing:
them with ropes and letting them slide down gullies, or by allow-
ing them to be jolted on stretchers along impossible paths.
Very often they had to be attended to on the spot, behind a rock,
because their condition did not allow of so painful a transport.
Numberless were the cases of men who, barefooted, with
daggers in their mouths, would climb up the most impracticable
summits during dark and stormy nights, and surprise the enemy
where the latter felt sure that the ravines and precipices which i
surrounded him were his surest guards. Many times whole j
supply columns were crushed and buried by avalanches and!
rocks. Avalanches claimed thousands of victims among the
troops on march, in hutments or in trenches. In certain places
and at certain periods the danger was so great that when the
men went out they were supplied with a long thin rope coloured
in red. The colour came off with the damp and stained the '
snow, thus facilitating the search for men buried underneath.
The colossal work done at such great heights originated un-
heard-of conditions of defence and of existence. In places where
until then a hurried visit with an experienced guide seemed a
bold feat, in regions where there was perhaps one isolated Alpine
hut in which it was considered an ordeal to spend one or two
nights, there were constructed hutments, telegraph and tele-
phone offices, infirmaries, workshops and stores. In such places, I
at a height of over 3,000 metres, tens of thousands of men spent
several winters. To prepare these encampments both for shelter
and for defence, it became necessary to excavate in the rock an
enormous quantity of vast caves. In some places an under-
ground city was cut in the rock with inter-communicating caves
TENNESSEE
lined with timber and provided with water-pipes, electric light
ing, etc. Galleries were excavated in the ice, between tht
Italian and Austrian trenches, leading under cover to advancec
posts or even well into the enemy's lines. Gigantic operations
with mines were also carried out. Cutting the rock was renderec
possible thanks to the great perfection of the compressed-air
drills. During the war the Italians turned out an admirable
type of motor-driven air-compressor, which met with success
also in the Allied armies. On the Italian front there were 20
large plants for fixed drills and about 4,000 groups of portable
drills of from 5 to 45 horse-power. The remarkable skill of the
Italian miners facilitated considerably the carrying out of most
important and difficult mining operations.
In road-making wonderful results were obtained. Once
operations were transferred to the highest and most inaccessible
points, where in many cases there was not even the narrowest
path, it became an absolute necessity to create means of com-
munication at once. Roads were constructed which allowed
heavy artillery and motor lorries to reach points where a few
months before only a mountain expert would have trod.
The total length of the roads laid down by the Italian army
was in round figures as follows:
1,600 km of roads for mules
' " carts
. of roads for motor lorries.
But the building of roads could not always meet the require-
ments of troops operating in Alpine districts. It happened very
often that the number of men detailed to a certain point did not
justify the building of a road on such difficult ground; or that
snow and avalanches in the winter prevented the safe use of
means of communication already existing; or that the enemy's
fire swept them; or, finally, that the occupation of new positions
made it necessary to send supplies out of proportion to the
available transport and before there was time to build a road.
The difficulty in such cases was skilfully overcome by means of
special mechanical transport. Wire railways or " telphers " were
provided, thus economizing time, labour and oil, and avoiding
congestion of roads. These telphers are a kind of suspension
railway. A double metal cable called " bearer " is extended on
trestles placed in a straight line at different distances on the
sides of the mountain. There are two stations, one at the start-
ing-point and the other at the end of the line. In one of these
stations there is a motor which works an endless cable (the
"drawer"), to which are fixed two or more small waggons. The
cable turns and draws the waggons supported by the "bearer"
cable by means of small wheels which run on it.
Different kinds of telpherage plants were used.
1. Telefpri. These were provisional lines moved by man power
and used in the most advanced zones to supply isolated posts or
trenches. Their average length was 500 metres and each could carry
about 50 quintals a day.
2. Dismountable Teleferiche. These were run by motors and
were put up in advanced zones. Their average length was from
1,000 to 2,000 metres, and each could carry from 10 to 20 quintals
an hour. They could be dismounted and were portable, and could
be installed even where there were no roads. These lines proved
most useful for the transport of supplies in newly occupied positions.
When in 1917 the troops of the II. Army crossed the Isonzo and
advanced on the Bainsizza (Bainitsa) plateau, they could not com-
municate with the lines in the rear except by means of the few and
bad mule-paths; but after only four days a few telphers were already
in working order, and on the tenth day there were no less than 12
doing service. Similar miracles of speed were performed in the
new mountain positions between the Brenta and the Piave.
3. Permanent Teleferiche. These were run by motors and were
fixed. They were employed at some distance from the lines, and
reached a maximum length of 8,000 metres. They could carry about
150 quintals per hour.
Some permanent teleferiche were already working before the war
jor the service of mountain fortresses, and some types of portable
elefericlie had been studied and estimates prepared. Oil and electric
motors were in use.
The telphers covered on an average a rise of 650 metres from the
starting-point to that of arrival ; but in some cases even 1,500. The
resiles were often at very great distances from one another and
laced on peaks, while the waggons ran over fearful abysses. In the
ighest regions the lines often ran at a height of 2,000 to 3,000 metres;
i few were installed even at 3,500 metres above sea-level.
On the eve of the retreat from Caporetto, in Oct. 1917, 380
telefori and 530 teleferiche were in working order. The former had a
total length of 190 km., the latter of 630. During the retreat about
550 teleferiche and telefori were lost or dismounted. At the date of
the Armistice there were 270 telefori and 460 teleferiche run by motors.
The former had a total length of 170 and the latter of 640 kilometres.
The telpherage lines laid on the Italian front transported in all
33,000,000 quintals, the load of 330,000 railway trucks.
The service was under a special central administration with a
competent staff drawn from the telpher transport companies (one for
each army). There was also a department for the supply and testing
of the material and a depot-school with construction and repairing
shops. The bulk of the material was built by private concerns, but
set up by the military.
The services rendered by the telpherage lines were invaluable.
It was only thanks to these lines that it was possible to main-
tain positions which the troops would otherwise have been com-
pelled to abandon for want of supplies. They allowed detach-
ments to be kept in almost impossible positions even during the
winter, as well as assuring an adequate supply of ammunition
for guns placed in the most inaccessible positions which men
could not have reached if laden with shells. Thousands of lives
were saved when their gently sliding waggons were used for the
transport of wounded and sick, who were thus spared a lengthy
and agonizing journey to hospital. (M. R.)
TENNESSEE (see 26.619). The pop. in 1920 was 2,337,885 as
against 2,184,789 in 1910, an increase of 153,096, or 7 % as against
8-1% in the preceding decade. The negro pop. during 1910-20
decreased numerically from 473,088 to 451,758, and decreased
proportionally from 21-7% of the total to 19-3%. The average
density of pop. in 1920 was 56-1 % per sq. m.;in 1910 it was 52-4,
The urban pop. (in places of 2,500 inhabitants or more) increased
from 20-2% of the total in 1910 to 26-1% in 1920. Only two
cities, Memphis and Nashville, had in 1920 more than 100,000
inhabitants; only two, Knoxville and Chattanooga, had between
50,000 and 100,000. The following table shows the pop. and
increase per cent, for the six cities exceeding 10,000 for the
decade 1910-20:
1920
1910
Increase
per cent
Memphis
Nashville
Knoxville
Chattanooga
Jackson
Johnson City
162,351
118,342
77,8i8
57,895
18,860
12,442
131,105
110,364
36,346
44,604
15,779
8,S02
23-8
7-2
114-1
29-8
19-5
46-3
Agriculture. During the decade 1910-20 the interests of the state
remained predominantly agricultural. Although the total land area
in farms decreased from 20,041,657 ac. to 19,510,856 ac., the im-
proved land increased from 10,890,484 ac. to 11,185,302 ac., and the
number of farms increased from 246,012 to 252,774. During the
same period the average acreage per farm decreased from 81-5 ac.
to 77-2 ac. ; but the average value per farm increased from $2,490 to
$4,953, a "d tne value of all farm property increased from $612,520,-
836 to $1,251,964,585. The average value of land per acre in 1920
was $41.40; in 1910 it was $18.53. Of the 252,774 farmers in 1920
214,592 were whites and 38,182 were negroes. Of all farmers 148,082
were owners; 103,885 tenants; and 807 managers. Of the total
11,374 were women. The total value of farm crops in 1919 was
$318,285,307, of which amount $144,778,157, or 45-5%, represented
cereals; the total value in 1909 was $i 1 1 ,133,210, cereals representing
49-8%. The cereal acreage in 1919 was 4,186,373 ac. as against
4,136,647 ac. in 1909, an increase of only 1-2 %. The following table
shows comparative acreage, production, and value of the important
crops for 1919 and 1909:
Acreage
Production
Value
Corn . . 1919
3,301,075
70,639,252 bus.
$127,150,649
1909
3,146,348
67,682,489 bus.
45,819,093
Oats . . 1919
162,417
2,413,409 bus.
2,534-082
1909
342,086
4,720,692 bus.
2,378,464
Wheat . 1919
684,497
6,362,357 bus.
14,506,174
1909
Hay and for-
619,861
6,516,539 bus.
6,913,335
T, age _,, ' I919
1,751,123
',907,345 tons
49,649,657
Hay and for-
age . . 1009
1,060,480
1,100,838 tons
12,784,783
Cotton . 1919
807,770
306,974 bales
48,808,866
. 1909
787,516
264,562 bales
17,966,517 .
Tobacco . 1919
138,561
"2,367,567 Ib.
24,720,869
. 1909
90,468
68,756.599 Ib.
5,661,681
7 i6
TENNESSEE
The value of vegetables sold in 1919 was $27,947,250 and of
fruits and nuts $7,888,912; the values respectively in 1909 were
$10,430,975 and $4,486,281. Of the chief domestic animals on farms
in 1920 and 1910 the number and value were as follows:
Number
Value
Horses .
1920
317,921
$35,582,960
"
1910
349,709
39,320,044 '
Mules .
1920
352-510
51,042,649
ii
1910
240,282
32,489,724
Cattle .
. . 1920
1,161,846
51,370,208
*'
1910
996,529
20,690,718
Sheep .
1920
364,196
4,021,678
it
1910
795,033
3,009,196
Swine .
1920
1,832,307
19,477-775
**
IQIO
1,387.938
7,329.622
In 1920 there were 11,835,303 fowls valued at $10,591,690, and
191,898 hives of bees valued at $698,258. In 1919 the reported milk
production was 1 15, 119,224 gal. ; the value of milk, cream, and butter
fat sold and of butter and cheese made was $20,640,849. The office
of inspector of apiaries was created in 1911. The Smoky Mountain
area (59,213 ac. in Blount and Sevier counties) and the White Top
area (33,619 ac. in Johnson and Sullivan counties and Washington
CO., Va.) were approved for purchase in 1912 by the National
Forest Reservation Commission under the Federal Act of March I
1911 to, preserve upland watersheds. In 1920 254,118 ac. of farm
land were reported as provided with drainage and 640,479 as needing
drainage. Capital invested in drainage enterprises, Dec. 31 1919,
totalled $2,925,944. On that date there were completed 777 m. of
open ditches and 42 m.of levees; there were under construction 135
m. of open ditches and 10 m. of levees. Most of these enterprises are
in the western division of the state, where the tributaries of the
Mississippi are utilized. The above figures do not include private
supplementary works installed by individual farmers.
Mineral Products. Tennessee produces most of the copper mined
in the southern states. Its entire product of copper, gold, and silver
comes from mines worked primarily for copper in Polk county.
Lead production, first reported in 1915 (1,660 lb.), amounted to
4,376,000 lb. in 1919. In the latter year gold was valued at $5,662.
The silver output was 98,288 oz. ; copper 15,623,589 lb. ; zinc 47,494,-
ooo lb. Because of strikes the coal amounted to only about 5,000,000
tons. The demands of the World War led to the working of known
manganese deposits in 16 counties. In 1916 oil was discovered in
Scott county, and later some producing wells were drilled. In 1919
the Bankers Petroleum Co., of New York, obtained large tracts of
land in Robertson and Dickson counties, a promising shallow-oil
field. In 1910 natural gas was found near Franklin. In 1919 the
production of phosphate rock was 473,985 tons.
Manufactures, The product of manufactures remains relatively
small, the value of 1914 being less than I % of the total for the United
States. Their growth between 1909 and 1914 was as follows:
1914
1909
Establishments .
Wage-earners
Capital ... . .
Salaries ... . .
Wages ... . .
Cost of materials
Value of product
Value added bv manufacture .
4-775
74-373
$211,423,167
11,828,691
33,082,987
123,430,135
212,071,489
88,641,354
4,609
73.840
$167,923,784
9,186,243
28,251,591
104,015,834
180,216,548
76,200,714
In 1914 lumber and timber products still led, having a value of
$31,430,208. Flour-mill and grist-mill products were valued at
$26,413,574; cottonseed oil and cake $11,414,243. There were nine
other industries each with a product valued at over $4,000,000;
food preparations; foundry and machine-shop products; general
shop construction and repairs by steam railway companies; printing
and publishing; hosiery and knit goods; cotton goods; patent medi-
cines and druggists' preparations; fertilizers; bakery products. In
1914 84-6% ofthe average number of wage-earners were males over
16 years old, 13-6% females, and 1-8% children under 16. In 1909
the respective figures were 85-3%, 11-3%, and 3-3%.
Transportation. On Jan. I 1919 the total railway mileage of the
state was 4,083 m., or 9-79 m. per 100 sq. m. of territory. The chief
railways were: Louisville and Nashville 952 m. ; Nashville, Chat-
tanooga and St. Louis 903 m. ; Southern railway 891 m.; Tennessee
Central 291 m. ; Illinois Central 143 miles.
Finance. The balance in the state Treasury Jan. I 1918 was
$368,818. Receipts for 1918 were $7,954,650 and disbursements
$7,481,756, leaving a balance, Dec. 20 1918, of $841,682. On the
same date the total bonded debt was $11,481,000. On Dec. 20 1912
the balance in the state Treasury was $317,270 and the bonded debt
$15,218,600. The number of all reporting banks, June 30 1920, was
546 ; aggregate resources $489, 162,000; capital stock paid in $35,041,-
900; individual deposits $312,222,000.
Education. By an Act of 1909 state normal schools were estab-
lished in Johnson City, Memphis, Murfreesboro, and (for negroes)
at Nashville. In Jan. 1911 Bruce R. Payne (b. 1874) was elected
president of the George Peabody College for teachers in Nashville.
Later in the year this college was moved from South Nashville to a
new site adjoining the campus of Vanderbilt University. Arrange-
ments were made for an interchange of courses of instruction
between the two institutions. In 1918 the total school pop. was 790,-
959. The enrolment in the public schools was 604,633 and the
average daily attendance 418,709 (368,888 in 1912). The number
of teachers was 11,880, of whom 8,375 were women. In 1919 the
compulsory school age was raised from 14 to 16 years.
History. In 1910 Benjamin W. Hooper (b. 1870) was elected;
governor, following a serious split in the Democratic party over
the prohibition question. He was the only Republican elected
to state office, and was the first Republican governor since;
1883. He took a strong stand for prohibition. The Democratic'
Legislature displayed much opposition to the governor, and his
inauguration was delayed through lack of a quorum until Jan. 25!
1911. The regular Democrats passed a bill depriving the gov-;
crnor of the power of appointing the state board of elections,
and raising the number of members from three to seven. The bill
was vetoed by the governor, and to prevent its passage over
the veto the Republicans and independent Democrats migrated)
to Alabama, where they remained until acquiescence in the veto;
was forced. The governor also vetoed a bill giving $500 addi-
tional salary to each member of the Legislature, but approved an
amended bill reducing the increase to $200. In 1911 the Legisla-
ture chose Luke Lea (b.i879) to succeed U.S. Senator James B. 1
Frazier. In 1912 Hooper was renominated for governor and was 1
reelected over Benton McMillin (b. 1845; governor 1899-1903),!
the Democratic candidate. Robert Love ("Bob") Taylor;
(b. 1850), U.S. Senator since 1907, died March 31 1912. He was '
a representative in Congress 1879-81, governor 1887-91 andi
1897-9, and unsuccessful candidate for governor 1910. He was:
long a picturesque figure in state politics and widely known as a \
popular lecturer. In the gubernatorial campaign in 1886 his
Republican opponent was his own brother Alfred Alexander j
(" Alf ") Taylor (see below). They stumped the state together,
Bob everywhere winning favour by his stories and folk songs and
his " fiddle." As his successor to the Senate the Legislature in
1913 chose John K. Shields (b. 1858), a member of the state ;
Supreme Court since 1902 and Chief Justice since 1910. Another >
prominent politician, James D. Porter (b. 1828), governor j
1875-9, died May 8 1912. In July 1915 the city of Nashville was I
placed in the hands of a receiver, as the result of the disappear-
ance of the city's cash books covering the period 1908-12, and in
1916 the mayor was removed from office for remissness of duty.
In Nov. 1915 the mayor of Memphis, the commissioner of fire
and police, and the judge of the municipal court were removed
from office for failure to enforce the prohibition law. In the
presidential election of 1916 Wilson received 152,955 votes and
Hughes 116,257. In 1920 Harding received 219,829 votes and
Cox 206,558. For the first time since 1868 the Republican
presidential candidate carried the state. A Republican governor
also was elected, " Alf " Taylor, brother of the former Demo-
cratic governor. Taylor received 229,463 votes as against
182,836 for A. H. Roberts, who had been renominated by the
Democrats.
Proposals made by the Legislature to call a constitutional
convention were defeated in 1916, 1917 and 1920. In Sept. 1916
a new bridge across the Mississippi at Memphis was opened.
An Act prohibiting the manufacture of intoxicating liquor in
the state became effective Jan. i 1910; in Oct. 1913 Gov. Hooper
called a special session of the Legislature and secured passage
of the so-called nuisance bill, intended to close every saloon in
the state, forbidding the sale of intoxicating liquor within four
miles of any school; in 1915 provision was made for removal from
office of state, county, or city officials who failed to enforce the
prohibition law; on Feb. 2 1917 Gov. Rye signed a bill forbidding
the importation of liquor into the state. The hours of labour for
women were reduced to 58 per week after Jan. i 1914 and to 57
after Jan. i 1915. In 1913 for the first time the reporting of
accidents was required, wherever persons were employed; pro-
vision was made for enforcing the installation of additional "fire
escapes in factories; and a department of workshop and factory
inspection was created. The same year an Act was passed
TENNIEL TETANUS
717
providing " that married women be and are hereby fully emanci-
pated from all disability on account of coverture, and the com-
mon law as to the disabilities of married women and its effect
on the rights of property of the wife is totally abrogated." On
April i 1913 the Legislature ratified the amendment to the
Federal Constitution for popular election of U.S. senators. In
1915 a law was passed providing for mothers' pensions. In 1917
the letting of prison labour to private contractors was prohibited,
and an Act was passed forbidding the limiting of the output of
coal for increasing the price. The same year a State Budget
Commission was created, having as its members the governor,
the comptroller, the treasurer, the secretary of state, and the
auditor. The wilful setting fire to any woods was made a felony.
On Aug. 1 8 1920 the House by 50 to 46 voted to concur in the
Senate resolution (adopted Aug. 13 by five to four), ratifying
the proposed amendment to the Federal Constitution, providing
for woman suffrage. As the 36th state (out of the 48 in the
American Union) to ratify, Tennessee brought the number up to
the requisite three-fourths. The contest among the legislators
was bitter, and there were attempts to rescind the House's
action on constitutional grounds. Governor Roberts, however,
on Aug. 24, sent certification of the state's ratification to Secre-
tary of State Colby, who on Aug. 26 proclaimed the Federal
amendment for woman suffrage to be in effect.
In the World War Tennessee furnished to the army, navy and
marine corps 91,386 men. Contributions to the various war
loans were as follows: First Liberty Loan $10,924,800; Second
$26,043,650; Third $33,783,250; Fourth $55,867,250; Victory
Loan $37,555,450-
Recent governors have been: Malcolm R. Patterson (Dem.),
1907-11; Benjamin W. Hooper (Rep.), 1911-5; Thomas C. Rye
(Dem.), 1915-9; A. H. Roberts (Dem.), 1919-21; Alfred A.
Taylor (Rep.), 1 92 1- . (G.C.S.)
TENNIEL, SIR JOHN (1820-1914), English artist (see 26.626),
died in London Feb. 25 1914.
TERMONDE (see 26.645). Pop. (1914) 10,138. The town, up
to 1906, was still considered one of the five " fortified places "
in Belgium, but as the fortifications had not been demolished at
the time of the German invasion in 1914 the Belgians decided to
defend it. In an early attempt to outflank Antwerp the Germans
bombarded and took Termonde, setting fire to it and destroying
three-fourths of the town, including the Hotel de Ville and the
spire and vaulting of the isth Century Gothic church of Notre
Dame. The Belgians reoccupied the town on Sept. 10 1914;
on Sept. 16 the Germans renewed the bombardment and com-
pleted its destruction. Von Beseler's army forced the passage
of the Scheldt here on Oct. 7.
Rebuilding was being actively carried on in 1921, together
with the reestablishment of its industries of rope making,
bleaching, wire drawing and cotton spinning. The old Butchers'
Hall has been transformed into a museum.
TERRY, EDWARD O'CONNOR (1844-1912), English actor
(see 26.660), died in London April 3 1912.
TERRY, ELLEN ALICIA (1848- ), English actress (see
26.660), appeared as Mistress Page in The Merry Wives of
Windsor at His Majesty's theatre, London, in 1911, on the
occasion of a special performance to celebrate the coronation
of King George V., and made her last regular stage appearance
as the Nurse in Romeo and Juliet, produced by Miss Doris Keane
at the Lyric theatre, London, in 1919. Her sister, MARION
TERRY (b. 1856), appeared in H. Vachell's Fishpingle at the
Haymarket theatre in 1916 and in Tolstoy's Reparation at the
St. James's theatre in 1919.
TETANUS or LOCKJAW (see 26.669). One of the chief triumphs
of preventive medicine during the World War was in the treat-
ment of this disease. The appearance of tetanus in the British
army during the early days of the retreat from Mons was so
terrifying a phenomenon that immediate steps were taken to cope
with it. It had been suggested that the disease might be prevented
if a dose of anti-tetanus serum was given as soon as a wound was
sustained, for, as is well known, some days elapse before the
bacilli, which remain in the wound, are able to secrete sufficient
poison to precipitate an attack. The suggestion was carried out
and was immediately successful. From that time every wound,
no matter how slight, was followed as soon as possible by a dose
of anti-tetanic serum. The War Office set up a committee for the
study of tetanus (1914-8) under Gen. Sir David Bruce.
Sir David Bruce later presented to the Research Defence
Society a paper dealing with the results of his labours. Out of
1,242,000 wounded men who were sent home to England 1,458
cases of tetanus arose, giving a ratio of rather more than i per
i ,000. How favourably this general figure compares with earlier
ones is shown by the fact that in Sept. 1914 the ratio of tetanus
cases to wounds was 9 per 1,000. In Oct. 1918 the ratio was
0-5 per 1,000. Thus the incidence of cases of tetanus in Sept.
1914 was 18 times as heavy as in the last month of the war.
A sudden fall in the incidence took place in Nov. 1914 when
preventive inoculation, which was introduced about the middle
of Oct. 1914, had begun to exercise its beneficial effects. The
following figures giving the number of cases of tetanus per 1000
wounded men make this clear:
Cases of
Tetanus
Sept. 1914 9
Oct. 1914
Nov. 1914
Dec. 1914
Jan. 1915
7'3
2-3
1-4
o-o
Feb. 1915
March 1915
April 1915
May 1915
June 1915
Cases of
Tetanus
i-i
0-4
O-8
O-2
The same experience was met with in the French and German
armies. As soon as preventive inoculation with anti-tetanic
UNPROTECTED
No Inoculation
PROTECTED
Inoculations
serum became a universal practice the incidence of tetanus
dropped sharply and remained small. Later in the war, June
1917, it was ordered that each wounded man should receive not
one inoculation as formerly but four, at intervals of a week.
This was on account of the fact that the minimizing effect of the
serum passes away rather quickly.
The effect is not always to prevent absolutely. But even in those
cases in which tetanus does supervene in spite of the inoculations the
incubation period is lengthened and
the death-rate is lowered. It is well
known that, other things being
equal, along incubation period tends
to result in a milder attack than a
short incubation period, thus any
circumstance prolonging the incu-
bation period will also tend to lower
the death-rate. The diagram, fig. I
(after Sir David Bruce) , shows clearly
how successful were the inocula-
tions in lengthening the incubation
period.
In other words only 26-9 % of the
inoculated are attacked during, the
first fortnight, whereas 68-9 % of the
uninoculated are attacked. Among
the protected 40-0 % have an incu-
bation period of more than 35
days; among the unprotected only Fit a.
6-5%. The average incubation
among inoculated is 45-5 days, among uninoculated 10-9 days.
7 i8
TEWFIK TEXAS
Indeed, in each year of the war the incubation period tended to
rise, as is shown in the diagram, fig. 2.
Further it was found that the inoculations tended to limit the
degree of tetanus, converting what would be generalized cases
into local or one-limb cases. The following table illustrates this:
Tetanus
type
Percentages
General
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
98-9
98-6
87-0
76-6
83-5
Local
i-i
1-4
13-0
23-4
16-5
Local tetanus tends to occur in the wounded or injured limb and
to be confined to that limb. It is much less severe and far less fatal
than the generalized type.
Naturally the death-rate reflected these successes. Among the
unprotected and unrecorded the death-rate per cent, was 53-5.
Among the protected it was 23-0. The " unrecorded " here undoubt-
edly include cases which had received a dose. This accounts, in
Sir David Bruce's opinion, for the fact that the death-rate is lower
than the old pre-serum rate of 85 %.
It is thus evident that the method employed during the war fully
justified the hopes which were entertained concerning it, and that
an immense amelioration of pain and distress was effected. Indeed,
when the terrible character of this disease is recalled it will be seen
that preventive inoculation did much to support the moral of troops
by assuring them of safety, or comparative safety, in the event of
exposure to the infection.
See Maj.-Gen. Sir David Bruce, K.C.B., F.R.S., The Prevention
of Tetanus During the Great War by the Use of Anti-tetanic Serum.
(Research Defence Society, Form Dz, July 1920.) (R. M. Wl.)
TEWFIK, AHMED, PASHA (1843- ), Turkish statesman,
was born in Constantinople in 1843, and in 1859 entered the
army. In 1870 he quitted the military service and was attached
to the translation bureau of the Sublime Porte. He entered the
diplomatic service and acted as political agent for the army of
the Danube and the Balkans during the Russo-Turkish War
(1877-8). He was subsequently attached to the Turkish lega-
tion at Athens, where he later became minister. In 1884 he was
appointed ambassador to Berlin, but in 1895 was recalled in or-
der to become Minister of Foreign Affairs. After the Young Turk
revolution he became grand vizier (1009), but the same year
was sent as ambassador to London. In 1912 he was again grand
vizier for a brief period. On the close of the World War (Nov.
1918), during which his sympathies were with the Entente, he
became grand vizier for the third time, and formed a Govern-
ment which excluded all members of the Committee of Union
and Progress. He resigned in March 1919, but again became
head of the Government on the resignation of Damad Fend
Pasha in Oct. 1920.
TEXAS (see 26.688). In 1920 the pop. was 4,663,228, as
against 3,896,542 in 1910, an increase of 766,686, or 19-7%,
as against 27-8% in the preceding decade. The urban pop.
(in places of 2,300 or more) was 1,512,689, or 32-4% of the total
as compared with 24-1% in 1910. The average number of in-
habitants per sq. m. increased from 14-8 in 1910 to 17-8 in 1920.
The following table shows the growth of the 10 cities in the
state having in 1920 a pop. of more than 30,000:
1920
1910
Increase
per cent.
San Antonio
161,379
96,614
67-0
Pallas .
158,976
92,104
72-6
Houston ....
138,276
78,800
75-4
Fort Worth
106,482
73,312
45-2
El Paso ....
77.560
39.279
97-4
Galveston ....
44.255
36,981
19-7
Beaumont . . . .
40,422
20,640
95-8
Wichita Falls .
40,079
8,200
388-8
Waco . . . .
38,500
26,425
45-7
Austin ....
34.876
29,860
16-8
Agriculture. The 1910 census gave Texas 417,770 farms, with a
total area of 112,435,067 ac., of which 27,360,666 ac. were improved.
Owing to the fact that in 1900 the large ranches in the western part
of the state were included under farm acreage, there was a decrease
in the farm acreage between 1900 and 1910 of 13,361,950 ac., but an
increase of 7,784,590 ac. in improved land. By 1910 much of this
land had been bought by speculators for sale in small farms and the
land was in their hands or in those of purchasers who had not yet
begun cultivation, and so was not included under farm acreage.
The value of all farm property in 1910 was $2,218,645,164. Advance
figures for the 1920 census, subject to correction, gave Texas 435,666
farms. The principal crops for 1920, in the order of acreage (accord-
ing to estimates of the U.S. Department of Agriculture), were cot-
ton, corn, oats, grain sorghums, wheat, hay, rice, peanuts, sweet
potatoes, cowpeas, potatoes, broom corn, barley, sorghum syrup, rye.
These crops covered 25,435,000 acres. Their farm value, partly es-
timated, was $610,787,000. In 1919, at the peak of post-war prices,
their value was $1,051,817,000. Texas is a large producer of fruits
and vegetables. Ranked according to value of the 22 principal crops
produced in the United States, Texas held first place in igigand 1920;
and first in the value of all crops 1914-20. The average annual yield
of corn 1911-9 was 126,600,000 bus.; of wheat 15,300,000 bus.;
of cotton 3,600,000 bales. Figures (partly estimates) of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture gave Texas Jan. I 1921 4,500,000 range
cattle and 1,184,000 milch cows of the combined value of $213,-
184,000; horses 1,187,000, valued at $89,000,000; mules just under
800,000, valued at $84,744,000; sheep 3,000,000, $19,335,000; and
swine 2,427,000, $28,639,000. In the total value of live stock in
1920 Texas ranked second, between Iowa and Illinois.
Minerals. The most important mineral products are oil, sulphur,
coal and lignite. The first oil in paying quantities was discovered at
Corsicana in the central part of the state, in 1894; but keen interest
was not aroused until the " Spindle Top " discovery near Beau-
mont in 1901. Since that time the surface of the state has been
covered with leases, and remarkable strikes have been made in a
number of places. At the beginning of 1921 production was con-
fined to two general sections the coast, including mainly Harris
and Brazoria counties (Jefferson, Hardin, and Matagorda counties
have in the past been good producers) ; and a region in the northern
and north-central part of the state, including chiefly Wichita,
Eastland, Comanche, and Stephens counties. The Humble field in
Harris county was opened in 1905, Goose Creek in 1911, and Blue
Ridge in 1919. The west Columbia field in Brazoria county was also
opened in 1919. The Burkburnett field in Wichita county first be-
came important in 1917, Ranger in Eastland county in 1917, and
Desdemona and Breckenridge in Comanche and Stephens coun-
ties respectively in 1918. Production dropped from 28,000,000 bar.
in 1904 to less than 9,000,000 in 1910; rose to 27,644,000 in 1916;
32,413,000 in 1917; 38,750,000 in 1918:85,312,000 in 1919; and
54,668,000 for the first three-quarters of 1920. Natural gas and
natural-gas gasoline were developed as by-products of the oil in-
dustry. The value of natural gas marketed in the state rose from
$127,000 in 1909 to $5,027,449 in 1918; and natural-gas gasoline
in 1918 amounted to 7,326,122 gal., giving Texas fifth rank in that
respect. Two sulphur plants in Texas and one in Louisiana were said
in 1920 to yield 98 % of all that produced by the United States. One
of the Texas plants is at Freeport, near the mouth of the Brazos river,
the other is near Matagorda, close to the mouth of the Colorado.
The Freeport plant began producing in substantial quantities in
1916, and the next year, under war pressure, delivered 500,000
tons. The Matagorda plant began operation in 1919, producing
about 500,000 tons a year. The sulphur lies about 1,000 ft. below
the surface and is extracted from wells by " forcing superheated
water (and steam) through pipes, dissolving and suspending the
sulphur and pumping it back.' Bituminous coal production from
1908 to 1918 remained practically stationary, varying from 1,010,-
ooo tons in 1910 to 1,259,000 tons (value $3,140,253) in 1917.
The yield in 1919 dropped to 793,000 tons. Lignite is mined
principally for state consumption, and the relative backwardness
of manufacturing and the competition of other fields keep down
the demand. More than 1,000,000 tons were delivered in each of the
years 1913-5 and 1917-8. The 1919 yield was 860,000 tons. The
value at the mine was slightly under $1 per ton. The original supply
was estimated in 1913 at 30,000,000,000 tons, of which about
9,000,000 tons had then been mined. Other minerals of fairly steady
yield are silver, worth about $500,000 a year for many years, quick-
silver, cement, and clay products. In quicksilver production the
Terlingua mine in Brewster county has for more than a decade made
Texas second to California only. The highest yield recorded was
10,791 75-lb. flasks in 1917, valued at $1,136,502. Cement produc-
tion in 1919 was 2,288,000 bar., value $4,176,000; clay products
(brick, tile, and pottery) in 1917 were valued at $3,451,806. Salt is
produced in fairly steady quantities, and in 1917 yielded 85,181 short
tons, with a value of $564,000.
Manufactures. In 1914 there were 5,084 manufacturing establish-
ments, capitalized at $283,544,000, employing 91,114 persons, and
producing an annual value of $361,279,000, of which $108,135,000
was value added by manufacture. The principal industries were
those concerned with lumber and timber, cotton-seed products,
printing and publishing, oil-refining and allied products, flour and
grist milling, and food preparations. The lumber production was
1,350,000,000 ft. for 1918, when Texas ranked sixth in this industry,
as it had done in 1910 and 1915.
Commerce. The noteworthy ports are Sabine, Port Arthur,
Orange, and Beaumont in the Sabine district, importing chiefly
crude oil, and exporting refined oil and oil products; and Houston,
Texas City, Freeport, and Galveston in the Galveston district, which
export cotton, .grain and sulphur. Houston is a new port, opened in
TEXAS
719
1915. Its access to the Gulf of Mexico is through the Houston Ship
Channel, formed, for the most part, by the widening and deepening
of Buffalo bayou. At the beginning of 1921 the controlling depth of
the channel was 25 ft. and the width at bottom varied from no to
260 feet. The distance from the municipal docks to the Gulf is 54
miles. Unofficial but reasonably dependable figures for 1920 fixed
the value of imports through Galveston, including the subsidiary
ports of the district, at $30,964,285, and the exports at 627,498,478,
making Galveston second to New York as an exporting port, a
position which it had held for some years. These figures did not
include coastwise traffic. During the year 1,233 vessels cleared for
foreign ports, of which 849 were American, 222 British, 29 Norwegian,
26 Italian and 18 Mexican. The bulk of their cargoes was made up of
2,126,717 bales of cotton and 44,726,000 bus. of wheat. Through the
cooperation of Galveston county and the Federal Government the
Galveston sea-wall was extended and completed in 1920 to a length
of 6-3 miles. The total cost of the wall (see 11.430) was $4,725,000.
The concrete causeway connecting the island with the mainland,
10,642 ft. long, was nearing completion in 1921. The cost was to be
$3,750,000, and was to be borne by the county and the railways
entering the city. The county and city of Galveston were permitted
by state Acts of 1901 and 1903 to apply their state taxes for 17 years
to storm defence improvements. In 1917 the privilege was extended
for 10 years; and subsequently the same authority was granted to
several other maritime counties.
Finance. The value of all property assessed for state taxation on
Aug. 31 1919 was $3,012,819,287. The ratio of assessed value to real
value varied from 66f% in some cities to 25% in some rural districts.
Total receipts of the state treasury for the year were $28,410,724,
and total expenditures $27,200,978. On Dec. 29 1920 there were
1,031 state banks, with capital, surplus and undivided profits of
$71,768,997. They had individual deposits subject to check of
$226,282,045, and time and savings deposits of 835,380,482. On
Nov. 15 1920 there were 561 national banks with capital, surplus
and undivided profits of $124,633,000; deposits subject to check of
$447,898,000; and time and savings deposits of $69,374,000. Of
the state banks 176 were members of the Federal Reserve system at
the beginning of 1921.
Education. For 1920 the school pop. (7 to 18 years of age) was
1,271,157; and the number of teachers employed in the public
schools was 30,158, of whom 3,515 were negroes. The public schools
are maintained by the income from the permanent school fund, by
state and local taxes, and by legislative appropriations. The per-
manent fund consists of lands and interest-bearing notes derived
originally from the sale of public lands. In Aug. 1920 it was slightly
less than $74,000,000. State taxes for school maintenance are a poll-
tax, one-fourth the proceeds of the occupation taxes, and an ad
valorem tax of 35 cents per $100. The practice of making legislative
appropriations to supplement the available school fund began in
1915 with $1,000,000 to aid rural schools. The practice continued,
and for the biennium 191921 $6,000,000 came from this source for
general maintenance. A constitutional amendment adopted in
Nov. 1920 removed the limit of 50 cents per $100 which rural districts
and unincorporated towns might appropriate for schools. The total
available state fund for the year ending Aug. 1921 was $18,564,-
507, to which should be added nearly $13,000,000 from local taxes.
A compulsory attendance law became effective in 1918, requiring,
with specified exceptions, the attendance of children between 8 and
14 for at least 100 days each year. The following year a free text-
book law went into effect. A law of April 3 1918 requires all
public-school work to be conducted in the English language, but
does not preclude the teaching of foreign languages.
Administration. The attorney-general, comptroller, treasurer,
and secretary of state head constitutional departments, and all are
elective except the last, who is appointed by the governor. The more
important statutory departments, in the order of their establish-
ment, are those of the adjutant-general, superintendent of public
instruction, state health officer, life insurance and banking com-
missioner, commissioner of agriculture, Railroad Commission,
Live-stock Sanitary Commission, Fire Insurance Commission, the
Industrial Accidents Board, the Board of Water Engineers, the
Highway Commission, and the Board of Control. All are appointive
directly or indirectly by the governor (with approval of the Senate),
except the superintendent of public instruction, the commissioner of
agriculture, and the Railroad Commission. Their terms vary from
two to six years. The Industrial Accidents Board was created in
19'3, primarily to administer the Employers' Liability Act. It
consists of three members, one of whom must be a wage-earner, one
an employer in some industry covered by the Act, and the third _a
practising attorney. The Board of Water Engineers was created in
1913 to regulate the use of public water for irrigation and all other
purposes. The Highway Commission, established in 1917, consists
of three members, and is charged with the administration of all
highway laws, including that for the registration of motor vehicles.
At the close of 1920 there had been completed under its supervision
976 m. of approved highways, costing $5,326,000, of which $ 1 ,308,000
was from Federal and 904,000 from state aid. The remainder was
paid by the local counties. At the same time contracts were in
progress for the construction of 2,039 m. of road at an estimated cost
of $23,277,000, of which $8,650,000 was to come from Federal and
$1,437,000 from state aid. Federal and state quotas are apportioned
in a certain ratio to local expenditure. The Commission reported the
registration during 1920 of 427,693 automobiles and trucks and 4,290
other motor vehicles. The state Board of Control, created in 1920,
represents an effort to consolidate administration and to coordinate
the state budget. It is composed of three members, holding office
for six years, one retiring every two years. Its budgets are subject
to review and amendment by the Legislature. Departments created
during the decade 191020, but showing signs of instability, are those
of markets and warehouses (including weights and measures) and an
Industrial Welfare Commission, created in 1917 and 1919 respec-
tively. The dwindling jurisdiction of the Railroad Commission,
suffering from the encroachments of the Interstate Commerce
Commission, was somewhat compensated by an Act of March 1919
placing pipe-lines and drilling regulations under its supervision, and
another of June 1920 giving it authority over natural-gas production.
The Commission reported in Dec. 1918 15,866 m. of railroad in
operation, an increase of 1,922 m. since 1910.
History. After about 1880 prohibition was perhaps the most
bitterly contested issue in state politics. A constitutional amend-
ment providing for state-wide prohibition was voted down in
1887 and again in 1911; but was carried in 1919. In the mean-
time prohibition by local option had made great progress, so
that by 1918 more than three-fourths of the area of the state,
including the cities of Dallas, Waco and Austin, was dry. The
Legislature in March 1918 ratified the Federal amendment, and
in April put into effect the "zone" law, prohibiting the sale of
liquors within 10 m. of a military, naval, or shipbuilding estab-
lishment. In June 1918 statutory state-wide prohibition was
established, and doubts of the constitutionality of the Act -were
ended by the amendment of the next year. The Dean law
(July 1919) is one of the most drastic of enforcement Acts.
A law of March 26 1918 permitted women to vote in party
primaries and nominating conventions; but a constitutional
amendment, submitted the next year, to enfranchise women in
regular elections, failed. The Legislature nevertheless ratified
the Federal Woman Suffrage amendment in July 1919. The
effect of the World War is seen in a law of April 2 1918, con-
fining the franchise in primary elections to citizens of the United
States; and in another of March 23 1918, amended a year later,
providing that assistance should be given at the polls only in
the English language and to persons physically unable to write
or to those past 60 years of age and unable to read. Aliens could
not be debarred from voting in final elections without amend-
ment of the constitution, but preponderance of the Democratic
party makes the primary election, in effect, definitive.
The total registration in Texas under the Selective Service
Act was 990,522. From the best figures available in July 1921,
there were 13,191 voluntary enlistments in the regular army,
and 18,573 m the National Guard (transferred to Federal Service
in the summer of 1917), and 127,531 inductions (not including
officers) under the draft law; while 13,599 men ar >d 6 women
served in the regular navy and 4,505 men and 107 women in the
naval reserve. The total number in both services, not including
all officers, was 177,512. The total losses (officers and men) were
2,722, of whom 1,164 were killed in action, 456 died of wounds,
942 of disease, and 160 from other causes. The wounded num-
bered 7,331. Figures for the Texan subscription to the First
Liberty Loan were not separately available. The eleventh
Federal Reserve district, in which the state is included, sub-
scribed $48,948,350. The Texan subscription to the four follow-
ing loans was $363,273,350. When the Armistice was signed the
Emergency Fleet Corp. had wooden ships under construction at
Beaumont, Orange and Rockport, and in the Houston Ship
Channel. Contracts had been let for 97 hulls and for 18 barges,
of which were completed 52 hulls with tonnage of 196,400; and
4 barges aggregating 9,000 tons. ,
The governors of Texas after 1910 were Oscar Branch Col-
quitt (Dem.) 1911-5; James E. Ferguson (Dem.) igi5-Sept.
1917; William P. Hobby (Dem.) 1917-21, and Pat M. Neff
(Dem.) 1921- . Mr. Ferguson was removed from office by im-
peachment and was succeeded, ex officio, by Lt.-Gov. Hobby,
who was subsequently elected for one term, 1919-21.
(E. C. BA.)-
72O
THAYER THERMIT, AND THERMIT WELDING
THAYER, ABBOTT HANDERSON (1849-1921), American
painter and naturalist (see 26.728), died at Dublin, N.H., May 29
1921. During the World War he worked in England on the de-
velopment of camouflage.
THAYER, WILLIAM ROSCOE (1850- ), American writer,
was born in Boston, Mass., Jan. 16 1859. He studied at St.
Mark's Academy, Concord, N.H., travelled with a private
tutor in Europe, and graduated from Harvard in 1881, in the
class with Theodore Roosevelt. For several years he was
assistant editor of the Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, then
returned to Harvard, receiving the degree of A.M. in 1886.
When the Harvard Graduates' Magazine was established in 1892
he was appointed editor, serving until 1915. In 1903, at the
International Historical Congress at Rome, he represented both
Harvard University and the American Historical Association,
and in 1906 was their representative at the Italian Historical
Congress in Milan. He was a member of the Harvard Board of
Overseers from 1913 to 1919. In 1902 he was made Knight of
the Order of the Crown of Italy, and in 1917 Knight of the
Order of Saints Maurizio and Lazaro. In 1918 he was elected
president of the American Historical Association. He was best
known for his works on Italian history, especially The Dawn of
Italian Independence 181.4 to 1840, 2 vols. (1893) ; A Short History
of Venice (1905), and The Life and Times ofCavour, 2 vols. (1911).
His other works include Italica (1908); The Life and Letters of
John Hay, 2 vols. (1915); Letters of John Holmes (1917); Theo-
dore Roosevelt An Intimate Biography (1918); Democracy:
Discipline: Peace (1919, lectures at Brown University); Volleys
From a N on-Combatant (1919); and The Art of Biography (1920,
lectures at the university of Virginia).
THEAL, GEORGE McCALL (1837-1919), British historiog-
rapher, was born in Canada, where his family had long been
settled. When 19 he went to Sierra Leone, removing two years
later to Cape Colony, where he became a schoolmaster. He
quickly developed an interest in the natives and in the history
of the country. In 1877, on behalf of the Government he settled
a dispute with the Gaika Kaffirs, and thereafter joined the Cape
Civil Service, being attached to the Native Department. Shortly
afterwards he was also appointed Keeper of the Archives, and
in 1891 was made Colonial Historiographer, which position he
held until 1905. Before joining the Civil Service he had pub-
lished in one volume a History of South Africa and the first
fruits of his Bantu studies were embodied in Kaffir Folk Lore
(1882). From the time he obtained access to the Cape archives
he devoted himself to research. In 1895 he was commissioned
by Cecil Rhodes, then Prime Minister of Cape Colony, to go
to Europe, where he stayed several years examining the Portu-
guese archives at Lisbon, the Dutch archives at The Hague
and the British in London. He constantly enlarged and re-
vised his History which in its final form was in eleven volumes,
the first dealing with ethnography and conditions up to 1505,
the others carrying on the story of S. Africa up to 1884. Theal
also published official Records of the Cape Colony, 1793-1827, in
36 slim volumes, Records of South East Africa in nine volumes,
and many other works, some in Dutch.
Theal's industry never flagged. He died at Wynberg, Cape
Province, on April 17 1919, in the act of correcting the proofs
of the last two volumes of his history. The founder of what
may be called the Dominions school of historians, he was himself
a chronicler rather than an historian. His passion for research
brought to light a mass of unknown or forgotten documents of
high value, but his narrative is overloaded with details, is essen-
tially domestic, and not always impartial. He lacked the wider
vision which sees events in their true perspective. Theal was
given the honorary degree of Litt.D. by the Cape University
in 1899; he had previously been made an hon. LL.D. of Queen's
University, Kingston, Canada.
THERMIT, AND THERMIT WELDING. Thermit is a mixture
of aluminium powder and iron oxide. On ignition the reaction,
8Al+3Fe3O4 = 9Fe+4Al2Oa, gives a temperature estimated to
be between 2,300 and 2,7ooC. The reaction, stated in weights,
means that 217 parts of aluminium plus 732 parts magnetite
(iron oxide) equals 540 parts steel plus 409 parts slag, or ap
proximately 3 parts of aluminium plus to parts of magnetite wil
produce, on combustion, 7 parts of steel. This steel represent:
about one-half of the original thermit by weight and one-thin
by volume.
Thermit was discovered by Dr. Hans Goldschmidt of Essen
Germany, in 1895, while trying to reduce chromium and man
ganese. Dr. Goldschmidt's principal discovery related to
simple and safe method of ignition, as the action of aluminium
when mixed with various oxides, sulphides, and chlorides was
well known. Fine aluminium will not burn below the tempera inn
of molten cast iron, and previous experimenters had resorted tc
heating their mixtures in a crucible. This made the initial tem-
perature so high at the moment of ignition that there was an
explosion. Dr. Goldschmidt obtained ignition of a cold mixture
by means of a barium-peroxide fuse, which was set off by a
storm match. Later magnesium powder or ribbon was used,
being set off in the same way. A red-hot iron rod may also bei
used to set off the magnesium, which in turn ignites the thermit.
Dr. Goldschmidt's original American patent No. 615,700 was
granted March 16 1897, and related principally to the use of
aluminium as a reducing agent for the production of carbon-j
free metals such as cobalt, chromium, magnesium, tungsten,
etc., by what is now known as the aluminothermic process.
Thermit is now used considerably in the foundry for purifying
iron and steel in the ladle. For this purpose the thermit is placed
in a can on the end of a rod and plunged to the bottom of the
molten metal. The intense heat generated tends to liberate
many impurities which are carried away in the slag. The prin-
cipal and better-known use, however, is in welding.
THERMIT WELDING. Two methods are employed, known as the
plastic and the fusion. The first is used for welding pipe and the
latter for solid or large sections. In the plastic method, in which the
FIG. I. Showing the action of Thermit when poured into a pipe
welding mould.
thermit is used merely for heating purposes, the ends of two pieces
of pipe are machined square and clamped in a cast-iron mould with
the ends butted together. This mould is in two parts, so arranged
that the pipe ends may be forced together when heated. The thermit
is placed in an open-top crucible lined with magnesia-tar, and ig-
nited. After the reaction takes place the slag rises to the top of the
molten metal, and is first poured into the mould as shown at the
TIG. 2. Tapping a crucible showing a partial sectional view.
left in fig. I. This slag forms a protective coating on the pipe and
on the inside of the mould, and keeps the thermit from melting or
burning through. At the right the thermit is shown flowing into the
THOMAS
721
mould and forcing put the bulk of the slag, but leaving a coating as
mentioned. When the pipe ends become plastic they are forced
together, completing the weld. After cooling the mould is easily
knocked off, since the slag coating prevents adhesion. To weld a pipe
.takes from f to ii minutes.
In fusion welding on solid sections, in which the thermit mixture
forms a casting holding the parts together, a special V-shaped mag-
nesia-tar-lined crucible, open at the bottom, is used. The hole in the
bottom is closed by a headed plug, covered with refractory sand,
which may be pushed upward. This crucible is placed over the
mould, as shown in fig. 2, the proper amount of thermit put in and
ignited. After the reaction, which takes about 35 seconds, the plug
in the bottom is pushed up and the molten thermit allowed to run
into the mould. In this method great care is taken to keep the slag
from contact with the surfaces to be welded, and consequently
enough thermit must be used to fill the mould before the slag on top
of the melted metal can enter.
I -FACING -JriRE SANO.jnpe CLAY. J GROUND FlftE eftlCIt
^YELLOW WAX ^ . MIXTURE OF f SHA.Rr SAND, 3 FIRE CLAV
Q IRON PUM Oft 3AND FLOUR COKE
FIG. 3. Sectional view of typical Thermit mould.
A typical mould for heavy sections is shown in fig. 3. In preparing
to weld, the surfaces to be joined should be cut or set so as to be |
in. or more apart. Yellow wax is then built up around the joint in
the same shape as the weld is to be. Next the mould box is placed
and sand rammed up round the wax, wooden patterns being placed
for the pouring gate, riser and preheating gate. The mould is vented,
the patterns withdrawn, and a gas or oil flame used to melt out the
wax. The heating is continued until the sections to be welded are
red-hot. This prevents chilling of the thermit, which is poured in
after the preheating gate has been plugged. The steps in making a
typical thermit weld on a locomotive frame are graphically shown in
A Fracture.
B Gap cut out for entrance
of Thermit Steel.
C Thermit weld before re-
moving riser and
pouring gate.
FIG. 4. Steps in making a Thermit locomotive frame weld.
fig. 4. Thermit welding is largely used in repairing broken rudder
frames, propeller shafts, locomotive frames, steel rolling-mill pinions
and other heavy sections, but it cannot be economically used for
welding thin sheet metal sections. Welds have been made where
from 3,000 to 4,000 Ib. of thermit were used.
For commercial purposes there are now produced three varieties
of thermit, known as plain thermit, railroad thermit and cast-iron
thermit. The plain thermit is simply a mixture of aluminium and
iron oxide, as already given. Railroad thermit is plain thermit with
the addition of f % nickel, I % manganese and 15 % mild steel punch-
ings. Cast-iron thermit is plain thermit with the addition of 3%
ferrosilicon and 20% mild steel punchings. The names of these
mixtures indicate their principal uses. (E. Vl.)
THOMAS, AUGUSTUS (1859- ), American playwright,
was born in St. Louis, Mo., Jan. 8 1859. He was educated in
the public schools, for several years worked in railway freight
offices, and, after serving as special correspondent for various
newspapers, became in 1889 editor and proprietor of the Kansas
City (Mo.) Mirror. As a youth he had been a member of local
amateur dramatic companies and had tried his hand at dramatic
composition. One of these early pieces, Editha's Burglar, based
on Mrs. Burnett's story of the same name, was enlarged to a
four-act play and presented with great success at the Madison
Square theatre in New York in 1889. This led him a little later
to devote all his attention to the drama. His play Alabama
(1891), depicting the old-time South, contributed to the removal
of sectional prejudice resulting from the Civil War. His numer-
ous dramas include In Mizzoura (1893); The Hoosier Doctor
(1898, by many considered his best); Oliver Goldsmith (1900);
Soldiers of Fortune (1902) ; The Earl of Pawtucket (1903, highly
successful in England) ; M rs, Leffingwell's Boots (1905); De Lan-
cey (1905) ; The Embassy Ball (1905) ; The Witching Hour (1909) ;
As a ManThinks(igi 2) ; M ere M an (1912) ; Indian Summerligi 2) .
THOMAS, JAMES HENRY (1878- ), English Labour poli-
tician, was born at Newport (Mon.), of working-class parents,
Oct. 3 1878, and was educated in the board schools. He started
at nine years' old as an errand boy, but he soon passed into the
service of the Great Western Railway Co., first as engine-cleaner,
afterwards becoming fireman and engine-driver. He was elected
town councillor of the famous Great Western railway centre,
Swindon, and became chairman of the Finance Committee and
of the Electricity and Tramways Committee. At an early date
he associated himself with the development of the policy of
unions among the railway servants. He became president of the
A.S.R.S. in 1910, and for many years was secretary of the National
Union of Railwaymen, and the most powerful voice in deciding
their policy. He was elected to Parliament in the Labour interest
for the great Midland railway centre, Derby, in 1910. For
some years he took no very prominent part in Parliamentary life,
being actively engaged outside in the interests of his railwaymen,
who, besides many smaller disputes, came out in a body in the
great strike of 1911. Another matter of vast importance in which
he was deeply involved, was the organization of the so-called
" Triple Alliance " between the unions representing coal-miners,
transport workers, and railwaymen. When the war came, he
took his stand, with the bulk of the Labour leaders, on the
national and patriotic side; but, like many of them, deprecated
the introduction of compulsory service, until it should be clear
that the necessary men could be got in no other way. In Sept.
1915 he declared in Parliament that trade unionists were ab-
solutely against conscription, that to introduce it might provoke
revolution. Nearly every branch of his own railwaymen's
organization, he said, had not only passed resolutions against
the policy, but had threatened on its introduction to stop work.
There were many who questioned at the time the justice of his
estimate of the workmen's feelings; and, though he renewed
his vehement protest against the first Military Service bill in
Jan. 1916, and though the Labour party in conference condemned
the measure, there was no difficulty in applying it and no agita-
tion arose for its repeal. Even against the stronger measure of
the following April only nine Labour members were found to go
into the lobby on the second reading. Throughout the war
Mr. Thomas, while securing large advances of wages for the
railway servants, used his unique influence with them in com-
posing disputes and preventing any stoppage which should inter-
fere with national interests; and for this considerable service he
was made a privy councillor in 1917. It was a bitter blow to him
when in Sept. 1918 the rank and file disregarded an agreement
which the executive, of the National Union of Railwaymen had
come to with the Government for an advance of 55. for adults
and 2s.6d. for boys. In spite of this, there was a general strike
of railwaymen in S. Wales, and the disturbance spread partially
to London and elsewhere ; but the courts, on the application of
the Board of Trade, prohibited the Union from paying strike pay,
and the movement collapsed. In disgust at his advice being
disregarded, Mr. Thomas resigned the secretaryship of the
Union, but was eventually persuaded, on promises of better dis-
cipline, to resume office. He approved of the subsequent decision
of the Labour party to sever itself from the Coalition, and to
appeal to the electorate in Dec. 1918 for independent support,
announcing as his own battle-cry " No more war." He was
once more returned at the head of the poll for Derby, and by a
huge majority. After the war he became a more prominent
figure both in Parliament and in the national life. He made a
strong speech in support of the Labour amendment to the Ad-
dress in 1919, stating that he stood both against Bolshevists and
against profiteers. He called upon the Government to deal with
722
THOMPSON THORODDSEN
the reactionaries in Labour disputes as they would with Bol-
shevists, and upon the employers to recognize that the working
classes could no longer be treated by them as hewers of wood and
drawers of water. He welcomed both the bill establishing a
Ministry of Health and that establishing a Ministry of Trans-
port; but he warned the House of Commons not to expect
cheaper passenger fares and freight charges; the railwaymen
would not allow themselves to be sweated for the benefit of the
travelling public. But, once again, his real activity was outside.
In the disputes in March 1919, between the railwaymen and the
Government, he was the chief leader of the men, and at a mo-
ment of crisis he flew across to Paris to discuss the question with
Mr. Lloyd George, then in attendance at the Peace Conference.
The terms which he finally arranged with the Government,
involving an approximate addition of over 10,000,000 per
annum to the railway expenditure, included a standard week of
48 hours, and a standard wage for that week; for the fixing of
the new standard rates of wages negotiations were to be con-
tinued. In the last week of Sept. he suddenly announced that a
crisis had arisen in these negotiations, and after a futile confer-
ence with the Government on Sept. 25, a strike began without
further notice on Sept. 26. Neither the community nor the
Government was intimidated; and Mr. Thomas used his power
for peace, and for a settlement, after ten days, on terms not
materially different from what the men might have had at first.
His efforts for the men had already, it was calculated, amounted
to a permanent annual increase in the railway wage bill of
65,000,000, and an increase of 50% which in Aug. 1920 be-
came 75% in passenger fares, and more than 50% in goods
rates. In 1920 he and his executive were faced by the difficult
problem of the refusal of Irish railwaymen to handle munitions
of war; and the only solution he and they could suggest was that
the Government should cease to send such munitions and that
the Labour party should make an appeal to the Irish people a
solution which ministers, of course, could not accept. His own
policy for Ireland was the gift of Dominion Home Rule. During
this year he published a book When Labour Rules, in which he,
speaking, of course, only for himself, depicted the kind of policy
which Labour in power would favour -such as the right to work,
development of nationalization, better homes, shorter hours,
state endowment of motherhood, great extension of university
facilities and a national theatre and opera.
THOMPSON, SILVANUS PHILLIPS (1851-1916), English
physicist, was born at York June 19 1851, and educated at a
school in Yorkshire belonging to the Society of Friends, of which
body he was a lifelong member. He went later to the Royal
School of Mines, having previously received a B.A. at London
University when he was only eighteen. He obtained a B.Sc. from
London University in 1875 with high honours and a D.Sc. in
1878, when he became professor of experimental physics in Uni-
versity College, Bristol. There he began his lectures on electrical
science which brought him invitations to lecture all over the
United Kingdom and made him a power in both the scientific
and industrial worlds. In 1881 appeared his Elementary Lessons
in Electricity and Magnetism, twice reprinted in 1882 and 16
times in the ensuing 12 years. A new edition was called for even
as late as 1914. Two other courses of lectures were published
in volume form, Dynamo- Electric Machinery (1882), and The
Electro-magnet and Electromagnetic Mechanism (1891). By
that time he had removed to London, becoming professor of
Physics in the City and Guilds of London Technical College,
Finsbury, in 1885 and subsequently its principal. He was elected
a fellow of the "Royal Society in 1889. In his desire to bring
science home to the imperfectly educated he published anony-
mously Calculus made Easy by " F.R.S." (1910), written in
colloquial style. His deep interest in religion, which led to his
recognition in 1903 as a minister of the Society of Friends, in-
spired The Quest of Truth (1915) and a posthumous work A Not
Impossible Religion (1918). He also published biographies of
Reis, Faraday and Kelvin. He died in London June 12 1916.
See Silvanus Phillips Thompson, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., by his
wife and daughter (1920).
THOMSON, SIR JOSEPH JOHN (1856- ), British physicist,
was born near Manchester Dec. 18 1856 and was educated at
Owens College, Manchester, and subsequently at Trinity College, \
Cambridge, where in 1880 he graduated as second wrangler. In I
the same year he was elected a fellow of Trinity College, and |
became second Smith's prizeman. In 1883 he was appointed
lecturer in Trinity College, and in the following year Cavendish i
professor of experimental physics in the university of Cambridge, I
a position he occupied until his resignation in 1918. He developed i
a great research laboratory of experimental physics, attracting
numerous workers from many countries and colonies; advances
were made in the investigation of the conduction of electricity
through gases, in the determination of the charge and mass of the
electron and in the development of analysis by means of positive
rays. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1884, be-
came president of the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1894,
president of Section A of the British Association in 1896, and
president of the Royal Society in 1915- In 1905 he held the
professorship of physics in the Royal Institution, London, in
addition to his Cambridge professorship. He was knighted in
1908 and awarded the O.M. in 1912. He was the recipient of
many British and foreign awards and honours, amongst these
being the Royal and Hughes medals of the Royal Society in 1894
and 1902 respectively, the Hodgkins medal of the Smithsonian
Institute of Washington in 1902, the Nobel Prize for physics in
1906, enrolment as honorary graduate of many universities,
and as honorary fellow of numerous American and continental
scientific academies. During the World War he presided over
several research committees and he assisted various Govern-
ment departments in an advisory capacity. In 1918 he was
appointed master of Trinity College, Cambridge, and in the
following year was elected to a newly established professorship
of physics in the Cavendish Laboratory, where he continued to
prosecute his researches. In addition to a large number of
publications in the Proceedings of the Royal Society and the
Philosophical Magazine, he has published A Treatise on Hie
Motion of Vortex Rings (1884); The Application of Dynamics to
Phvsics and Chemistry (1886); Recent Researches in Electricity
and Magnetism (1892); Elements of the Mathematical Theory of
Electricity and Magnetism (1895, 5th ed. 1921); The Discharge
of Electricity through Gases (1897); The Conduction of Electricity
through Gases (1903); and, with Prof. Poynting, a number of
text-books upon physics.
THORNE, WILL (1857- ), British Labour politician, was
born at Birmingham Oct. 8 1857. He started work at the age
of seven in a ropeworks, attending the wheel of a rope-spinner
for ten hours a day, and on Saturday afternoons and Sunday
mornings toiled in a barber's shop. He afterwards became a gas-
worker, and in 1889 he helped to found the National Union of
Gas Workers and General Labourers, becoming its general
secretary. This union (under the title of the National Union of
General Workers) had in 1921 a membership of over 600,000.
He became a member of the parliamentary committee of the
Trades Union Congress in 1894. He was chairman of the Con-
gress in 1912. In 1900 he contested West Ham unsuccessfully
in the Labour interest, but in 1906 was elected to Parliament
and came to the front as an active and energetic member of his
party. At the general election of 1918 he was returned with a
majority of 11,505. From 1800 he was a member of the West
Ham town council, being elected mayor in 1917. He had been a
member of the Social Democratic Federation since 1883.
THORNYCROFT, SIR WILLIAM HAMO (1850- ), English
sculptor (see 26.881), was knighted in 1917. His more recent
works include the King Edward memorial at Karachi (1915)
and " The Kiss" (1916), now at the Tate Gallery.
TH6RODDSEN, PORVALDR (1855- ), Icelandic geographer,
was born on the isl. of Flatey, in Breidifjordr, Iceland, June 6
1855, the son of Jon Thoroddsen (see 26.881), the poet and
novelist. His father's death in 1868 left the family in poor
circumstances, but the boy went to school at Reykjavik and in
1875 to the university of Copenhagen, where he studied natural
science and geography. In 1876 he was sent to Iceland by the
THURINGIA TIBET
723
Danish Government with Prof. Johnstrup to investigate the
causes of the eruption which had occurred the previous year at
Askja in Dyngjufjoll, and this proved the beginning of a long
series of Icelandic explorations. In 1880 he was appointed master
at the school of Mpdruvellir in northern Iceland, and in 1882,
1883 and 1884 made extensive explorations in the interior.
From 1884-6 he travelled in England and on the Continent, and
in 1886 was appointed master of the school at Reykjavik. Until
1898 he made a journey of exploration nearly every year, the
later expeditions being undertaken from Gopenhagen, where he
settled in 1805. Reports on his work appeared from time to time
in the Danish Geografisk Tidskrift, but he also produced various
important works, including Oversigt over de islandske Vulkaners
Historic (1882); Vulcane im nordostlichen Island (1891) and
Landfraedissaga Islands (1892), a monumental work for which
he collected material from the beginning of his career. Thorodd-
sen received many honours from universities and learned so-
cieties, and was awarded the gold medal of the Swedish and
the La Roquette medal of the Paris Geographical Society.
THURINGIA (see 26.901), a Territory and Free State of the
German Reich. Pop. 1,508,025. Area 11,763 sq. kilometres.
On April 30 1920 the union of the Territories Saxe- Weimar-
Eisenach, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Gotha, Reuss,
Sch warzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, in one
Territory " Thuringia," was recognized by a law of the German
Reich, on the basis of article 18, section 2, of the Constitution of
the Reich. The consequence was thereby drawn from the aboli-
tion of the dynasties, whose policy of dynastic interests had in
former centuries caused the disintegration of central Germany
into small states. The removal of these dynasties had been effect-
ed in the Thuringian States, as in the Empire in Nov. 1918, by
the method of revolution. A noteworthy exception was Schwarz-
burg-Rudolstadt, where the republic was established by a law
enacted conjointly by the sovereign (the Prince of Schwarz-
burg-Rudolstadt) and the Diet.
The unification of the Thuringian States in one single State
was preceded by the union of the two principalities of Reuss into
one democratic State of Reuss. On the other hand the personal
union of the two States of Coburg and Gotha was dissolved,
and each of them went its own way. In all the States of Thu-
ringia elections were instituted after the revolution by the revo-
lutionary Governments for Constituent Assemblies to vote new
constitutions. Only in Gotha was the meeting of the new State
Assembly delayed. The Council of Workmen and Soldiers in
that Territory was subject to Communist influence and en-
deavoured to establish a Councils (Soviet) Republic. Gotha had
to be occupied in Feb. 1919 by detachments of the Reichswehr
(regular army of the Reich). The workmen replied by a general
strike which lasted more than a month. When the Assembly met,
the Government of Gotha, which was composed of Independent
Socialists, submitted the draft of a constitution which attempted
to maintain the system of Councils (Soviets). The work of
framing constitutions in all the Thuringian States had mean-
while been anticipated by the movement for forming a unified
single State of Thuringia.
Steps in the direction of a union had been taken in some of the
States of Thuringia before the revolution, but it was only by
the revolution that the path was cleared. All the Thuringian
States, with the exception of Saxe-Meiningen and Saxe-Coburg,
concluded a " treaty of community " (Gemeinschaftsvertrag) in
order to prepare for their amalgamation. They formed a kind
of federated state with an organ of legislation, the Volksrat
(Council of the People), and an organ of administration, the
Staatsrat (State Council). Saxe-Meiningen subsequently joined
this Community of States; in Saxe-Coburg a great majority of
the citizens decided on Nov. 30 1919 for union with Bavaria,
which was ratified by a law of the Reich on April 30 1920. on
the basis of article 20 of the Constitution.
The Volksrat of Thuringia passed a law on Jan. 28 1920, by
which it assumed the right to include within its competence the
enactment of a constitution for the State of Thuringia. Never-
theless, there was to be reserved ,for the first Diet (Landtag) of
the new State, which was to be elected on the basis of this con-
stitution, the right of making alterations in the constitution
within a period of three months by ordinary legislation. On
May 12 1920 the provisional constitution voted by the Volksrat
(Council of the People) was promulgated. On March u 1921
the newly elected Diet (Landtag) ratified this provisional con-
stitution with certain amendments. The birth of the new State
dates from May i 1920, the day on which its establishment was
voted by a law of the Reich. While the Thuringian Community
of States (see above) was organized on the lines of a confederation,
what was in contemplation is a single, unified State. For the
period of transition, however, the separate Thuringian States
continued to exist as communities or territorial regions (Gebiete)
their former constitutions remained in force as regional regulations
(Gebietssatzungeri). If any disputes should arise between the
Territory of Thuringia and the former Thuringian States, the
Court of Jurisdiction for State affairs (Staatsgerichtshof) was to
decide them; for the settlement of financial differences a court
of arbitration, half of whose members were to be elected by the
Thuringian Diet and half by the popular representative as-
semblies of the former States concerned, was to be set up.
In accordance with the Constitution of the Reich, Thuringia
is a republic with parliamentary government. The Diet, as in
the other Territories, consists of a single Chamber elected on a
system of proportional representation. It can be dissolved by a
popular vote ( Volksenlscheid) . The peculiarity of the Thuringian
Constitution is that the committees of the Diet may call in
experts to supplement their membership. The executive power
is in the hands of the Ministry, which is formed on the principle of
equal colleagues (Kollegialprinzip) and consists partly of mem-
bers who hold office and partly of members who hold no office
and who are designated State Councillors (Staatsriite) . The mem-
bers of the Ministry are appointed by the Diet. The president
of the Ministry is chosen by the Ministry and is merely its
chairman. The Thuringian constitution does not provide for
any President of the State. The legislative prerogatives of the
Diet are limited, as in the other German Territories, by the
right of the people themselves to vote laws; the people can be
invited to give their vote (referendum) upon a law which has
already been passed and may likewise by their own initiative
cause the expression, in a vote, of their will (Volksbegehren).
(W. v. B.)
THURSTON, ERNEST TEMPLE (1879- ), English novelist,
was born at Halesworth, Suffolk, Sept. 23 1879. At the age of 16
he published two volumes of verse. Two years later he published
his first novel, The Apple of Eden(i&gi, republished 1905), fol-
io wed by Traffic (1906); The Evolution of Kalherine (1907); The
Realist (1907) ; and two widely differing but very successful novels,
Sally Bishop (1908) and the City of Beautiful Nonsense (1909).
His later work includes, on the realistic side, The Antagonists
(191 2) and Richard Furlong (1913); and on the sentimental side
The Greatest Wish in the W 'arid (1910); The Garden of Resurrection
(1911); Enchantment (1917) and The World of Wonderful Reality
(1920). He dramatized his wife's novel, John Chilcote, M.P.
and one or two of his own, and wrote also, as original plays,
Driven and The Cost (1914), and The Wandering Jew (1920).
His wife, KATHERINE CECIL THURSTON (d. 1911), was born at
Cork, the daughter of Mr. Paul Madden. She married Mr.
Thurston in 1901, but in 1910 her marriage was dissolved on her
own petition. She was well known as a writer of novels, notably
The Circle (1903) ; John Chilcote, M.P. (1904) ; The Gambler (1906)
and The Fly on the Wheel (1908). The second of these, a study
of dual personality, created a considerable stir, both as a novel
and as a play. She died at Cork Sept. 6 1911.
TIBET (see 26.916). In Feb. 1910, at the approach of a small
Chinese force, which had invaded Tibet under Gen. Chun Ling
from Szechuen, the Dalai Lama fled to India and was deposed
by imperial decree. In exile at Darjeeling, he appealed for
British intervention at Peking, but the British Government de-
clined to dispute the authority of the de facto Government in
Tibet. At the same time, H.M, Government took occasion to
draw the attention of, the Government at Peking to the necessity
724
TIDES
for strict adherence to the terms of the treaty concluded in April
1906, and particularly to the inviolability of the frontiers of
Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim. The last two years of the Manchu
dynasty witnessed the restoration of China's effective suzer-
ainty in Tibet from the border marshes to Lhasa, a result chiefly
due to the energetic and capable administration directed by
Chao Erh-feng, viceroy of Szechuen.
But the province of Szechuen was among the first to be reduced
to anarchy by the upheaval of the revolution of 1911, and after
the assassination of Chao Erh-feng, the authority of China as
suzerain power in Tibet was speedily challenged and overthrown.
When the news of the revolution reached Lhasa, the Chinese
garrison hastened to throw off its allegiance and following the
example of the troops in China, indulged in lawlessness and
looting at the expense of the civil population. The latter, led
by the ever-restless lamas, took up arms against the invaders and
the Chinese garrison found itself cut off from its base and be-
sieged. Desultory fighting continued until the return of the Dalai
Lama from India; peace was then (Aug. 1912) locally concluded,
under an agreement by which all Chinese troops (with the ex-
ception of the Chinese resident's body guard) evacuated the
country, departing via India after depositing their arms at
Lhasa. By this time China's garrisons had been expelled and
her authority overthrown in eastern Tibet by the semi-inde-
pendent chieftains of that region. The Government of the
republic at Peking, desiring to recover the prestige thus lost,
authorized the despatch of a punitive expedition, consisting of
forces raised by the military governors of Szechuen and Yunnan.
The expedition started from Chengtu in July 191 2 ; it had reached
and captured Batang in Aug., when, as the result of representa-
tions made by Great Britain at Peking (Aug. 19), its advance was
stopped and the project subsequently abandoned.
The British Government, in requesting China to abstain from
these military operations in Tibet, took the ground that such
action constituted a violation of the treaty of 1906. While
China's suzerainty was not disputed, the Government could not
consent to the forcible assertion of full sovereignty over a State
which had established independent treaty relations with Great
Britain. The Chinese Government was therefore invited to
negotiate a new tripartite agreement defining the status of Tibet.
To this communication China replied on Dec. 23 ; meanwhile the
expedition had been countermanded, but desultory fighting con-
tinued between Szechuen troops and the Tibetans of the border
marshes. The Chinese Government's reply justified its military
operations, on the ground that the Tibetan trade regulations of
1906 gave them the right to police the trade marts and protect
lines of communication. The republic, it declared, had restored
the Dalai Lama to his former position and titles and had no
intention of making Tibet a Chinese province, but would scrupu-
lously respect the traditional system of Tibetan Government.
Reference was made to the Indian Government's unfriendly
act in preventing communication between China and Tibet, via
India, and the hope was expressed that this policy might be
reconsidered; but the Chinese Government saw no reason for
negotiating a new treaty. Before the end of the year, the last
of the Chinese forces had been driven out of Tibet, and on Jan.
ii 1913 the Dalai Lama proclaimed the independence of the
country by concluding a treaty with the Living Buddha (Hutu-
khtu) of Urga (Outer Mongolia). In April, hostilities were re-
sumed by the military governor of Szechuen; at the same time
negotiations with the Dalai Lama were opened by President
Yuan Shih-k'ai, who sent a delegate to Chamdo to discuss terms
of peace. In May the British Government renewed its proposal
for a tripartite conference, which was ultimately accepted. The
conference opened at Simla on Oct. 13; Great Britain was repre-
sented by Lt.-Col. Sir A. H. M'Mahon, China by Mr. Ivan Chen,
and Tibet by her prime minister, Long Chen Shatra.
China's position at this conference was generally negative;
while promising not to convert Tibet into a Chinese province,
the Peking Government asked that Great Britain should respect
China's position as suzerain and undertake not to annex any
portion of the country. Great Britain proposed the creation of an
Inner and an Outer Tibet, the former to enjoy autonomy, the.
latter under Chinese control. The Tibetan representative asked i
for complete independence and frontier rectifications. The 1
result of the subsequent negotiations, which continued till July
1914, was a draft treaty, which the Chinese Government declined i
to ratify. It provided for Tibetan autonomy and recognized
China's position as suzerain power, while limiting the representa- !
tion of that power to a Resident with a suitable guard at Lhasa, j
It differentiated between the complete autonomy of Inner and ;
the semi-autonomy of Outer Tibet. China's refusal to ratify |
this treaty was not due to any definite objection to its specific
conditions, but to her unwillingness to accept the geographical !
definition of the frontiers of Outer Tibet, as proposed at Simla. I
After the break-up of the conference, the Chinese Govern-
ment agreed to the suspension of all hostilities against Tibet
pending a renewal of negotiations, and for the next three years
a state of armed vigilance was maintained on the Szechuen
border. In July 1917, however, a fresh cause of strife occurred
in the arrest of two Tibetans by Chinese troops near Chamdo.
The Kalong Lama's request for negotiations on the subject was
refused, and the armistice was broken by the Chinese general
commanding in the marshes, without reference to Peking. In
the fighting which ensued, the Tibetans proved victorious; by
Feb. 1918 the Chinese garrison at Chamdo was surrounded,
and the whole country to the eastward, as far as the right bank
of the Yangtse, in the hands of the Tibetans. Chamdo sur-
rendered in April, and the Chinese proposed to negotiate for
peace. In July an armistice was arranged, at the instance of
Mr. Teichman, the British vice-consul; this was followed by a
peace conference at Chamdo, at which it was agreed to suspend
hostilities for a year, the Tibetans retiring within the boundary
of Derge and the Chinese to Kansue. In Sept. 1919 the Chinese
Government at Peking proposed a renewal of the negotiations
abandoned at Simla in 1914 and gave evidence of its desire to
put an end to hostilities; on the Tibetan side there were also
indications of a desire for peace. The situation, however, was
(and remained) complicated and difficult by reason of the fact
that the authority of the Peking Government was ignored by
the usurping provincial satraps of Yunnan and Szechuen, and
also because the delimitations of any permanently satisfactory
frontier for Outer Tibet presented serious problems, ethnological
as well as strategic and political.
See Blue Book on Anglo-Tibetan Relations (1910); Sven Hcclin,
Trans-Himalaya (1913) ; Reginald Farrer, On the Eaves of the World
(1917); The China Year Book (1919). (J. O. P. B.)
TIDES (see 26.938). The present century has seen a marked
increase in the interest taken among foreign scientists in the
study of the tides, while in Great Britain the subject again
received much attention after the close of the World War.
Observation. The automatic tide gauges which are distributed
along the coasts (in Great Britain very irregularly and chiefly ac-
cording to the needs or caprices of harbour authorities) require
much more attention than it has been the custom to pay to them.
The errors in both elevation and time of their elevation-time graphs
should be determined by independent observation at least once a day,
as such errors very easily attain serious dimensions.
But the outstanding scientific need of the present time is for off-
shore observations. Not only do the great tidal movements of the
ocean remain practically unobserved, but in the middle of the Irish
Sea, for example, there is a discrepancy of 40 m. between the co-
tidal lines of different authoritative charts.
Off-shore elevations have been recorded by personal soundings
(at the Dutch lightships, for example) but a number of attempts
have been made to construct a self-registering gauge which, when
placed on the bottom of the sea, will give a continuous pressure-time
record. From such a record it is of course easy to pass to an elevation-
time relation. Up to 1921 the gauge which appeared to have met
with most success was that of M. Pave 1 , of the French Marine, and
even this had not worked in water of depth greater than 200 metres.
Continuous current observations are required at all depths.
A knowledge of currents is of immense importance both commer-
cially and scientifically, and the effect of currents on mines during
the World War caused much attention to be paid to them by naval
authorities. Tidal currents are oscillatory, but observed currents
have, as a rule, a residual drift which is of particular importance in
general oceanographical or fishery research.
Surface currents have been measured by floating logs (as for most
of the data published by the British Admiralty) but series of ob-
TIENTSIN
725
servations at frequent intervals, especially of currents below the
surface, are usually made by current meters. One of the commonest
of these the Ekman meter registers the mean speed and direc-
tion of the current during the interval of time it is in operation, the
former by a small propeller actuating a revolution counting appa-
ratus and the latter by a vane attached to an apparatus dropping
shot into sectorial boxes on a compass card. It has thus to be
hauled up to the surface for each reading. Continuous recording
instruments are much needed and though some have been invented
they do not appear to have been much used. Owing chiefly to the
trouble of keeping a meter fixed relatively to the bottom, the accu-
rate measurement of currents is a matter of great difficulty. Other
data for residual currents or drifts are given by observations of
weighted bottles or other forms of floating bodies, or by instru-
ments so contrived as to float near the sea bottom.
General Distribution of Off-shore Tides. Much attention is now
paid to the " amphidromic points," at which there is no rise and fall
of the water and out from which the co-tidal lines radiate. Harris'
charts of co-tidal lines contain a number of these points and so
does the new chart of R. Sterneck (Sitzb. d. Akad. Wissensch., Wien,
129, 1920), which is based on all available data.
All recent charts of co-tidal lines for the North Sea agree in placing
an amphidromic point in the southern region, and one of the serv-
ices of the Fav6 gauge has been to give fresh observational veri-
fication of its existence (Comptes Rendus, 151, p. 803, 1910).
Dynamical Theory of the Tides. As regards the tidal dynamics
of completely defined bodies of water, the only basins which had
yielded to mathematical treatment up to 1914 were those of a flat
circular sea, the depth of which was a function only of the distance
from the centre, and an ocean covering the whole globe with the
depth a function only of the latitude. The details for zonal basins of
uniform depth have since been worked out by G. R. Goldsbrough
(Proc. London Math. Soc., 14, 1914; 15, 1915).
Two attempts have been made, however, to bring some of the
latest results of pure mathematics to bear on the general problem.
In 1910 Poincard published his transformation of the dynamical
equations from the differential to the integral form (Lemons de
Mecanique Celeste, t. 3). The theory of integral equations has grown
up almost entirely since 1900; its results are perfectly general and
are stated explicitly in terms of direct operations. But in the case of
tidal problems the arithmetical labour necessary to carry out these
operations is so prodigious as to prove quite prohibitive even for the
reproduction of known solutions: nevertheless, the theory is valu-
able for the establishment of existences.
Utilizing these existence-theorems J. Proudman (Proc. London
Math. Soc., 18, 1917) has been able to specify the tidal state of an
ocean by means of an infinite number of coordinates of the Lagran-
gian type, and then to transform the differential equations into an
infinite set of linear algebraic equations. This has afforded a real
prospect that the number of geometrically simple basins for which
the tidal dynamics is completely known, may be increased.
The explanation, on dynamical principles, of the observed fea-
tures of tides in small seas has been considerably advanced, chiefly
by A. Defant and R. Sterneck. See Denkschr. d. Akad. Wissensch.,
Wien, 96 (1919). Sitzungsberichte, 123 (1914), 124 (1915), 129 (1902).
The method of treatment only applies to elongated bodies of water
and applications have been made to the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf,
the English Channel, the Irish Sea and the Adriatic Sea. The motion
is assumed to consist of a longitudinal oscillation sustained chiefly
by the tides outside, with a transverse surface gradient sustained
by the longitudinal current through the earth's rotation.
Other parts of the dynamical theory which have undergone
development are those relating to slowly rotating seas and oceans,
limiting forms of long period tides and the diffraction of tidal waves.
See Rayleigh, Proc. Roy. Soc. (A) 82 (1909); J. Proudman, Proc.
London Math. Soc., 12 (1913), 13 (1913), 14 (1914)- In tms con -
nexion it may be mentioned that there is an erroneous statement in
26 -957 34, to the effect that the existence in the ocean of continen-
tal barriers would have the same effect as that attributed by Laplace
to friction. In the actual oceans limiting forms of long period tides
are possible which do not take the " equilibrium " values.
Harmonic Analysis. From 1883 up to the present time the stand-
ard harmonic development of the generating potential has been that
of G. H. Darwin. Quite recently A. T. Doodson .has made a new
development, working to a much higher order of approximation than
Darwin, and has found that there is a very large number of other
constituents which, while certainly being smaller than those of
Darwin, are not very much smaller, and in their aggregate may be
important. In other words, the convergence of the series of con-
stituents is not so rapid as has been assumed.
A corresponding state of affairs exists with regard to over tides
and compound tides. For certain British stations A. T. Doodson,
being led by dynamical principles, has found it possible to obtain a
practically complete representation of the quarter diurnal tides, but
it involves many more harmonic constituents than have ever been
sought for by the customary methods. This representation is sus-
ceptible of very simple algebraic statement and numerical applica-
tion but cannot be used on the existing predicting machines.
The present state of analysis is not satisfactory. The harmonic
constants do not represent completely the records analysed: for
certain British stations the discrepancy may have a quarter-diurnal
range of one foot and a semidiurnal range of one foot.
J. Proudman (British Assoc. Report, 1920, p. 323) has given an
account of British work on harmonic analysis with a bibliography
and lists of analyses made.
Tide Tables cannot be regarded as satisfactory even for such prac-
tical purposes as docking large vessels or navigating over shallows,
while for a hopeful study of meteorological effects they are almost
useless. The main deficiency appears to be one of analysis of records ;
for others, see A. T. Doodson, Brit. Assoc. Report, 1920, p. 321.
When the astronomical tides can be predicted with the same
degree of accuracy as the resultant tides can be observed, there
appears to be no reason why short date predictions of meteorological
tides obviously of great importance should not be attempted.
Atmospheric Pressure and Wind. The effects of meteorological
influences on the tides have been much studied, especially by the
Scandinavians. As regards the relative importance of atmospheric
pressure and wind, a general conclusion appears to be that at a
station in the immediate neighbourhood of a wide expanse of deep
ocean, the direct pressure effect predominates, whereas at a station
in a landlocked and shallow sea, the wind effect predominates. The
detailed study of these effects is rendered very difficult by the un-
certainties in the predictions of astronomical tides, and most inves-
tigations have dealt with mean effects over long intervals of time.
There is much literature on the subject : see for example D. la Cour,
Danske Meteorologiske Institut, Meddelelser, I (1913), 4 (1917); R-
Witting, Fennia 39, 5 (Helsingfors 1918). The 1917 memoir of la
Cour is a detailed study of the effects of a storm.
Friction. If tidal motion were everywhere non-turbulent then
the amount of friction in the oceans would be quite insufficient to
account for the outstanding discrepancy between theory and obser-
vation in the motion of the moon. See R. O. Street, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(A) 93 (1917). But the motion associated with large tides in shallow
seas is undoubtedly turbulent and though this has long been rec-
ognized it is only recently that numerical estimates of its amount
have been made. See G. I. Taylor, Phil. Trans. (A), 220 (1920).
H. Jeffreys, ibid 221 (1920), concludes that the total amount of
friction is just about sufficient to account for the discrepancy men-
tioned. He takes the chief contributing areas to be Bering Sea, the
Yellow Sea, Malacca Strait and the American N.W. Passage.
History and Bibliography. To the list of outstanding names in
the history of the theory of the tides should be added those of G. H.
Darwin and H. Lamb. The chief contributions of the former were
his elaboration of the methods of harmonic analysis and his far-
reaching cosmogonical deductions as to the consequences of tidal
friction. The chief contribution of the latter is in connexion with
steady motions and the discrimination of free oscillations in the
general dynamical theory. Additions to the list of books on tides are
R. A. Harris, Manual of Tides v. (1907); H. Poincare, Legons de
Mecanique Celeste, t. 3 (1910) and O. Kriimmel, Handbuch der Ozeano-
graphie, B. 2, C. 3 foil). (J. P.*)
TIENTSIN, China (see 26.963). After the Chinese revolution
of 1911 the political and social importance of Tientsin consider-
ably increased, inasmuch as it became an unofficial place of
residence, and often of refuge, for high Chinese officials in times
of trouble, and a neutral ground convenient for the conferences'
of the northern military governors. The number of Chinese
residents in the Foreign Concessions steadily increased after
1912 and building operations continued unabated. The World
War naturally led to a greatly increased demand in most branches
of the port's export trade, so that, in spite of floods, famines and
brigandage, business was very prosperous after 1915- Local
industrial enterprise was stimulated by the curtailment of
imports from Europe and a lack of shipping facilities. In 1919
it received a fresh impetus from the boycott of Japanese goods,
with the result that many new factories were established for the
manufacture of goods heretofore imported.
The city produces cotton yarn in steadily increasing quantities,
seed and groundnut oils, canvas, leather, soap, candles and numerous
articles for domestic consumption; its chief exports during the war
were furs and skins, wool, bristles, strawbraid, carpets and prepared
eggs. The value of the export trade in 1919 was 71 million taels,
as against 51 millions in 1918, and 42 millions in 1917. Tientsin's
prosperous growth was indicated by the opening of four new Chinese
banks in 1919. The coal trade, from the Kailan Mines in Chihli
and the Peking Syndicates in Honan, has greatly increased since the
adoption of the system of Anglo-Chinese cooperative working.
In Sept. 1917 the Foreign Concessions and the trade of the port
suffered severely from floods, which burst the banks of the Grand
Canal and inundated all the plain surrounding the city. Before
normal conditions could be restored in the British, French and Japa-
nese Concessions, the municipal councils were compelled to surround
them with dikes and pump out the water. This flood also produced
a shoaling of the river bar at Taku, with results seriously prejudicial
to the trade of the port. With a view to preventive and remedial
726
TILAK TIME
measures, a Joint Commission for the improvement of waterways
in Chihli was formed in 1918, upon the recommendation of the
Haiho Conservancy Board, under the presidency of Hsiung Hsi-ling,
with the assistance of European engineers and experts; in addition
to the local work of river conservancy, this Board is charged to
report on ways and means for restoring the navigability of the Grand
Canal between Tientsin and the Yellow river, which has been for
many years impracticable at certain seasons.
The foreign garrisons (American, British, French, German,
Japanese and Russian) stationed at and around Tientsin under the
terms of the Peace Protocol of 1901, for the protection of railway
communication between Peking and the sea, were considerably
increased after the outbreak of the revolution in 1911. At the end of
1913 their combined forces at Tientsin amounted to 6,000 men; but
in the autumn of 1914 most of those belonging to the belligerent
Powers were withdrawn. In March 1917 the Chinese Government
took over charge of the German Concession ; on Aug. 14 the Austrians
were similarly dispossessed. Since then, both Concessions have been
administered, in accordance with preexisting municipal regulations,
by the Chinese authorities. (J. O. P. B.)
TILAK, BAL GANGADHAR (1856-1920), Indian nationalist
leaVier and orientalist, was born July 23 1856, at Ratnagiri,
where his father, a Chitpavan Brahman, was an educational
officer. At the Deccan College, Poona, he graduated in arts with
honours in 1876,. and took the LL.B. degree in 1879. In the
following year he took the lead in providing secondary and higher
education in Poona under Indian direction by founding an
English school and the famous Fergusson College. Tilak con-
ducted law classes till 1890, by which time he had become the
sole proprietor as well as the editor of the two weekly papers, the
Mahratta (in English) and the Kesari (" Lion " in Mahratti)
which he and his friends had founded in 1880. These were the
chief printed media of his anti-Government propaganda; but he
took every advantage of public activities, such as membership
of the local municipality and the organizing of Shivaji and Gan-
pati celebrations, to work upon the prejudices and passions both
of the masses and of the educated minority. Identifying himself
with Brahmanical orthodoxy he bitterly opposed social reforms.
His violent condemnation in 1897 of the plague prevention
regulations was followed by the assassination of the local plague
commissioner (Mr. Rand) and a young British officer driving with
him at the time. Convicted of sedition, he was sentenced to 18
months' rigorous imprisonment, but he was released within a year
under pledges of good behaviour. In prison he pursued the
Vedic studies which had already given him a place in oriental
scholarship. His elaborate paper on " The Orion, or Researches
into the Antiquity of the Vedas," read at the International
Congress of Orientalists, London 1892 (published at Poona, -
1893), was followed in 1903 by his " Arctic Home in the Vedas "
expounding a theory of extremely remote Aryan origins which
has failed to secure the acceptance of other scholars. Tilak was
twice elected to the Bombay Legislature for triennial terms.
Again indicted for sedition in June 1908, he was sentenced by a
Parsi judge (Mr. Justice Davar) to six years' transportation,
afterwards commuted on account of age and health to simple
imprisonment at Mandalay. On release in 1914 he actively
promoted the home-rule campaign, and at last succeeded, after
the death in 1915 of G. K. Gokhale, in his prolonged struggle
to secure for his party control of the Indian National Congress.
A libel suit he instituted in London against Sir Valentine Chirol
for statements made in Indian Unrest (1910) ended in a verdict
for the defendant with costs (Feb. 21 1919). On returning to
India he refrained from definite association with the non-co-
operation cult. His death in Bombay, Aug. i 1920, was followed
by demonstrations of mourning throughout India, showing his
remarkable hold on the popular mind.
Tilak's formative part in the cult of Indian unrest is shown in the
Report of the Rowlatt Sedition Committee, 1918. His speeches are
collected with an appreciation by Aurobinda Ghose in Lokamanaya
B. G. Tilak, Madras, 2nd edition, 1920. (F. H. BR.)
TILLETT, BENJAMIN (1860- ), British Labour politician,
was born at Bristol, Sept. n 1860. He started work in a brick-
yard at eight years and was a " Risley " boy for two years. At
1 2 years he served for six months on a fishing smack, was after-
wards apprenticed to a bootmaker and then joined the Royal
Navy. He was invalided out of the navy and made several
voyages in merchant ships. He then settled at the London |
Docks, and organized the Dockers' Union of which he became '
general secretary in June 1887, taking a prominent part in the
dock strike of 1889. He was subsequently one of the pioneer i
organizers of the General Federation of Trades, National Trans- I
port Workers' Federation, National Federation of General
Workers, International Transport Federation, and the Labour
party. For many years he was an alderman on the L.C.C.
After standing for Parliament unsuccessfully four times, he was
elected in 1917 as Labour member for N. Salford. In 1910 he
published A Brief History of the Dockers' Union, commemorating
the 1889 dockers' strike, and in 1911 A History of the London
Transport Workers' Strike.
TIME (see 26.983). The progress of wireless telegraphy has
greatly simplified accurate determination of Greenwich time
and consequently of longitude.
_ Determination of Time. The chief difficulty in determining local
time from observations of the altitudes of celestial objects is that of
getting a satisfactory horizon. In the case of airships the view of the
horizon is much interfered with by cloud, and the dip of the horizon
is a more important and uncertain factor than in ordinary naviga-
tion at sea. When the airship R34 crossed the Atlantic in 1919
observations were made from a " cloud horizon " the height of which
could not be known with accuracy. During the World War several
sextants were designed in which the use of a pendulum or level
enables the altitude of celestial objects to be determined without
reference to the horizon, but they have not come into general use. '
For the determination of Greenwich time at sea astronomical
methods have been practically abandoned, and extreme accuracy in
chronometers is no longer necessary. Signals are sent out daily at
specific instants of Greenwich mean time from such stations as the
Eiffel Tower, Lyons, Nauen, Annapolis, Darien, Honolulu and (";t[>e
Town, and it should be possible to pick up one or more of these
signals at any point on the earth's surface. The time shown by a
chronometer can, therefore, be checked by wireless at least once a
day, and since the astronomical observations made by a navigator
for ascertaining local time are accurate only to i' of arc, corre-
sponding to 4 sec. of time, a chronometer which can be relied on to
within 4 sec. a day is sufficient. This is far within the limit of
modern chronometers.
A new method of determining positions on the earth's surface,
independently of time altogetherj has recently become possible,
although it is still far short of attaining the desired degree of accu-
racy. The direction of a wireless transmitting station can now be
determined by the receiving station to within about 3, and if the
directions of two transmitting stations are known the position of the
receiver can be found. Accuracy is of course greatest where the two
transmitting stations subtend a wide angle, and the best results are
obtained when the wireless waves can be sent out from the point,
the position of which is to be determined and the directions found
by two land stations. The method promises to be of great service in
aerial navigation, and for ships near the coast m foggy weather. In
the beginning of 1921 nine wireless direction stations in the British
Isles, sixteen in France, four in Germany and one in Italy were
available for navigational purposes.
The position of buoys in the North Sea has been determined by the
time required by sound to reach special receiving apparatus at fixed
points on the coast. This method was introduced soon after the
Armistice in Nov. 1918, but its application is limited to distances of
loo or at most 200 miles.
Accurate Determinations of Time and Longitude. The precision
of time observations has been greatly increased by the use of the
self-registering micrometer in observing transits. With this microm-
eter the personality of different observers is reduced to o!oi to O?O2,
so that the exchange of observers for longitude determinations is
only necessary in work of the very highest accuracy. The sending
and receiving of rhythmic wireless time signals has reached such a
degree of accuracy that the clocks at distant stations can be com-
pared toofoi or less. It should therefore be a simple matter to>
make accurate longitude determinations. The value of the new
methods was fully established in the determination of the difference
of longitude between Paris and Washington in 19134, when the
result obtained was 5 h l7 m 36!653 ^003.
Standard Time. The use of a system of zones of standard time
has been considerably extended.
Greenwich time is now (1921) adopted in the British Isles, Spain,
Portugal, Belgium, France and the Faroe Islands. Mid-European
time (i h. fast on Greenwich) is used in Germany, Denmark, Italy, .
Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, Austria and the western parts of the
Balkan peninsula ; and E. European time (2 h. fast on Greenwich) in
the eastern parts of the Balkan peninsula, including Greece. Time in-
Iceland is I h. slow on Greenwich. Russia still adheres to Pulkovo
(Pulkowa) time, 2 h. I min. fast on Greenwich. Divisions of lesa
TINAYRE TIRE
727
than an hour are used in several British colonies. Standard time in
the E. African Protectorate is 2 h. 30 min., in India 5 h. 30 min., in
Inclo-China 6 h. 30 min., in S. Australia 9 h. 30 min., in New Zealand
II h. 30 min. fast; in British Guiana 3 h. 45 min., the Sandwich Is. 10
h. 30 min., Samoa n h. 30 min. slow. In all other countries adopting
standard time the most suitable whole hour is employed. The
standard zones in Brazil are from 2 to 5 h. slow on Greenwich.
Uruguay, the Argentine Republic and Siam adopted standard time
in 1920.
In the United States in 1918 to the four zones already established
(1883) was added a fifth for Alaska alone. Standard time for this
zone is based on 150 W. longitude. Standard time in the four other
zones is based, as from the beginning, on the 75th, goth, tosth, and
I2oth meridians. The marking of the limits of the various zones lies
with the Interstate Commerce Commission, and they may be
changed at its discretion. The first four zones differ from each other
I h. in standard time; the fifth differs from the fourth by 2 hours.
The first zone is 5 h. slow on Greenwich.
Until recently no definite time system was employed at sea, each
ship adopting the local time corresponding to its position at a
certain instant, usually noon. In 1919 a system of hour zones similar
to that used on land, previously adopted in the French and Italian
navies, came into official use in the British navy, a change which will
greatly facilitate the interpretation of entries in ships' logs. The
" zone description " of each zone is denoted by a positive or negative
number equal to the number of hours slow or fast on Greenwich.
The central zone or Zone O lies between long. 75 E. and long.
7jW. : the zones to E. of this are numbered I, 2 . . .12,
and those to W. +1, +2. . . + 12. Zone 12 is divided cen-
trally by the iSoth meridian (the date line) and the + or prefixes
are used in its two halves. Near land the boundaries between the
zones are modified so as to agree with the time used ashore.
Civil and Astronomical Times. The civil day reckoned from mean
midnight, instead of the astronomical day reckoned from mean noon,
is to be adopted in the Nautical Almanac in 1925, and a similar
change has been decided on for the Connaissance de Temps and the
American Ephemeris. The same course will probably be followed by
astronomers, but some confusion may arise if the old expression
" Greenwich Mean Time " is employed in a new sense.
TINAYRE, [MARGUERITE SUZANNE] MARCELLE (1872-
), French novelist, was born at Tulle, Correze, in 1872.
She was educated at Bordeaux and Paris, and in 1889 married
the painter Julien Tinayre. Her earliest novel was Avani V
Amour (1897); but the one by which she is best known is La
Maison du Peche (1902). Her later works include La Rebelle
(1905); La Consolatrice (1907); Madeleine au Miroir (1912);
L'Ornbre de I' Amour (1910); La Douceur de Vivre (1911); and
Le Depart; Adut, 1914 (1915). She also published in 1910 a book
of travels, Notes d'une Voyageuse en Turquie.
TIRE (see 26.10x36). The modern motor vehicle (see MOTOR
VEHICLES) would not be possible without some cushioning or
shock-absorbing medium at the periphery of its wheels. India
rubber, properly fashioned and fabricated with metals and fab-
rics into tires, plays an essential part in providing this necessary
cushion. Structurally, tires are divided into two main classes :
solid rubber and pneumatic. The cushioning properties of solid
SW
FIG. i.
tires are due to the elasticity of the rubber and the design of the
tread, while in the pneumatic type compressed air is the cushion-
ing medium; the rubber tire in this case serving as a flexible,
yielding container for the compressed air. In both classes the
various types are made in a progression of sizes, varying in out-
side diameter to give the proper road clearance, and in width
to accommodate properly the weight the tires have to support.
History from 1910 to 1911. This period opened with the
motor vehicle industry served by clincher or beaded edge pneu-
matic tires (fig. i) of square woven fabric not larger than 55 in.
in section, suitable for use on passenger cars only, and giving
3,000 to 4,000 m. service. The trend of tire development had only
recently settled on this clincher type as the most logical of the
many inventions, and the shortcomings of the product were
varied and numerous. Americans, following British design,
were especially unfortunate in having a great deal of premature
failure due to " rim cutting." This clincher type was also difficult
to apply to the rims in the larger sizes, and troublesome security
bolts were necessary to keep the tire from creeping around the
rim. Progress in tire development has been influenced by three
considerations: first, the method of attachment to the rim;
second, increase in the durability of the tire; and third, the
development of new types of tires for new fields of usefulness.
The principle of the Dunlop-Welch wired-on bicycle tire had
been tried experimentally in motor vehicle tires by using a bulky
inextensible wire bead fastened to the wheel rim with " straight-
side " bolted-on flanges. This straight-side tire idea first became
practical for motor vehicle use in 1907 when an American manu-
facturer offered to the American public in perfected form his
''SSR
" detachable " straight-side rim and tire. Its progress was slow
because of competitive hindrances, but by 1910 the detachable
rim had become so much appreciated that the clincher tire
manufacturers were obliged to furnish some sort of a detachable
tire. The result was the " quick-detachable " (Q.D. clincher),
a tire fitting a detachable clincher rim and having its beads
shaped like the regular soft bead clincher but with an inexten-
sible wire bead core like the straight-side tire. During this
period of development the Q.D. clincher served admirably as
a transition type.
The merits of the straight-side (fig. 2), however, gradually
made it more popular than the Q.D. clincher, with the result that
the last Q.D. clincher rims were made in 1916. In the meantime
the European demand continued to be for the clincher type
exclusively, while except in the Ford sizes, they were discontinued
in American production. American army vehicles and motor
vehicles exported on straight-side tires have recently opened a
market for straight-side in other countries. The year 1921 found
the situation as follows: bicycles were fitted with single tube
tires in America and wired-on tires in Europe.
728
TIRE
Motorcycles were fitted with clincher tires both in America and
Europe, and aeroplanes with either clinchers (fig. 3) or wired-on
according to the demand. Passenger cars were fitted with Euro-
pean Standard clincher tires for European productions. Amer-
FIG. 3.
ican small cars took 3i-5n. American Standard clincher tires,
while cars using larger than 3^-in. took American Standard
straight-side tires. All American " motor trucks " using pneu-
matics operated on straight-side tires, and for solid tire equip-
ment took pressed-on, channel base tires (fig. 4).
BB
FIG. 4.
European " lorries " were fitted with the typical English band
tire (fig. 5). Progress in details of design, materials, and methods
of manufacture was very gradual, the general idea being always
to build a " balanced " tire, that is, one in which all parts were .
equally durable. There are practically no formulae or theories on
tire design (except the rubber compound formulae) of value to
T -
FIG. 5.
the tire manufacturer; whatever good qualities any particular
make of tire embodies are the result of persistent and constant
experimentation, combined with the policy of the individual
company controlling the standard of quality which it desires to
offer to the public. The square woven tires of 1920 averaged
5,000 to 6,000 m. of service. There was one outstanding develop-
ment during the period 1910-20, namely, the "cord construc-
tion." The cord idea was old, having been used in bicycle tires
in the 'nineties, but the " square woven tire duck " appeared to
be more practical for motor vehicle tires.
About .1912 electric automobiles in America created a demand
for " power saver " tires to which the tire makers responded by
offering special casings of cord fabric structure for which excep-
tional resiliency and lack of internal friction were claimed. Not
at all durable at first, as they were gradually perfected the
leaders of the industry became convinced that this was to be the
quality tire of the future (fig. 6).
BF
w ;
FIG. 6.
Ply separation and fabric breaks in cord tires are effectively
prevented because the cords, being completely insulated from
each other, provide a flexibility of the " carcass " without chafing,
TIRE
729
that greatly reduces injury from under-inflation and overloading.
Development in the two-ply " cable " cord construction and the
" multi-ply " construction paralleled each other. In 1920 the
merits of the multi-ply construction had prevailed to such an
extent that the " cable " cord was no longer made. After the
World War European tire manufacturers began to duplicate
American multi-ply cord construction in their millimeter beaded
edge sizes. The cord tires of 1920 averaged 7,000 to 8,000 m.
of service. Durability was also materially improved by increasing
the cross-section size of the tires. In 1920 practically all American
straight-side cord tires were made 10% over the nominal size.
Also the tire manufactures gradually succeeded by persistent
educational work, in getting car manufacturers to fit tires ade-
quate for the loads to be carried. During this decade a new use
was developed for pneumatic tires, namely their application to
motor trucks up to 35 tons capacity. The movement made very
little progress from 1910 to 1915. "Dual" (or twin), square-
woven fabric tires in passenger car sizes were first tried. Then
square- woven fabric tires of 8-in. and g-in. sections were employed
with results encouraging enough to justify putting a limited
number on the market. By 1916 automobile cord tire construc-
tion had been mastered sufficiently for trial in the truck sizes.
Success with 6-in., y-in. and 8-in. sections immediately demon-
strated the superiority of the cord construction and was followed
by regular demand from the public. The g-in. and lo-in. sections
were used to some extent but their future was in 1921 uncertain.
The typical solid tire of 1910 was the British " pressed-on "
band tire then in use in Europe and soon to be duplicated in
America. These tires were fitted to the wheels by simply forcing
or pressing on with a special press, but in the absence of con-
veniently located tire presses, some American manufacturers
adapted the metal base idea to a " bolted-on " design (called
" Demountable "), having bevels on the inside edges of the steel
band so arranged that hoop-shaped " wedges " could be fitted
to mount the tire, the whole assembly being bolted in place with
" side flanges." Early metal base tires in America failed pre-
maturely from fracture of the exposed hard rubber at the edge
of the base band due to rough streets. To remedy this the band
was made in " channel " form and the hard rubber protected
by the side of the channel. In 1913 as an experiment, a "channel
base " tire made to press directly on the S.A.E. (Society of
Automotive Engineers) standard wheel without traction plate
or staples, previously considered necessary, was tried. The
experiment was successful, and this new type was so much
simpler and less expensive that it rapidly superseded all other
types in America. In 1915 wide single solid tires were intro-
duced in America (8 in., 10 in., 12 in. and 14 in. wide) on the rear
of heavy trucks in place of dual or twin tires. In 1920 wide
singles and duals were almost equal in popularity.
The growth of pneumatic tire production in the United States
is shown by the following figures, those for 1913, 1914, 1915,
1918 and 1919 being estimates:
1913 6,588,000 1917 . . 25,845,656
21,000,000
35,000,000
32,400,000
1914 . . . 8,983,000 1918
1915 . . . 12,840,000 1919
1916 . . . 18,564,957 1920
Structure, Materials and Manufacturing. Solid tire structure is
clearly shown in figs. 4 and 5. The tire maker's problem is to attach
the tread rubber, which must be of highest quality, to the wheel.
This necessitates a steel foundation band, a thin layer of hard rubber
specially compounded to adhere to the steel, to which the tread rub-
ber will also adhere. No practical way of making the tread rubber
adhere to the steel is known. The component parts of the straight-
side pneumatic tire are indicated in figs. 2 and 6. The bead portion
has imbedded in it a circular inextensible wire core, usually of many
strands in the form of braid, cables, or coils (to give a certain amount
of flexibility). This wire anchors the tire to the rim, prevents it from
blowing off, and gives rigidity enough so as to prevent the tire from
creeping on the rim when inflated. The body or " --" " ~ f * t -~
1 carcass " of the
pneumatic tire consists of bias " plies " of cotton fabric impregnated
with adhesive rubber " friction," insulated from each other by a
thin " skim coat " of the rubber, and having the edg^es of the plies
folded or " tied in " alternately over and round the wire bead core.
(See fig. 7 showing detail of a typical bead " tie-in.")
Since the function of the carcass is to serve as a strong yet
flexible container for the inner tube with its charge of compressed air,
the specifications covering the fabric call for great strength, uni-
formity of weight, freedom from grit, and particular grades of long
staple cotton (Arizona, Sea Island, Egyptian, Sacalarides, Pealer,
etc.). The two general classifications are: first, " square-woven "
fabric, weighing 17$ oz. per sq. yd., woven from warp and filling,
twisted of 1 1 strands of No. 23' yarn and having a tensile strength
TP
SSR
FIG. 7.
of 425 Ib. per in. of width (both warp and filling) for the best
fabric. The number of plies used are 3^-in. 4-ply, 4-in. 5-ply, 4j-in. 6-
ply, 5-in. 7-ply. Second, "Cord" ply-fabric, which is primarily a
warp composed of parallel cords of combed Arizona or Sea I.
cotton resembling fish line and weighs 14 oz. per sq. yard. The
parallel cords would get snarled up in the tire building processes, so
for handling purposes it is necessary to weave a single light filling
thread into the cord, 2j picks per inch. Each cord, (((23)s)3)
cabled yarn, has a tensile strength of 20 Ib. In cord tires the
cords of each ply must cross those adjacent, consequently the direc-
tion of the bias is reversed in the successive plies, which number
as follows: 3j-in. 4 plies, 4-in. 6 plies, 4-in. 6 or 8 plies, 5-in. 8
plies, 6-in. 8 or 10 plies, 7-in. 10 plies, 8-in. 12 plies, g-in. 14 plies, and
lo-in. 16 plies. As mentioned above, the tire plies are " tied in"
round the wire bead core. To make a bead proof against rim cutting,
etc., the most improved designs include narrow reinforcing strips
of frictioned fabric (see figs. I and 7). The outermost of these is
named the " chafing" strip. The outside of the carcass is entirely
covered with rubber; the sides with a " sidewall " layer, i^-in. thick,
and at the tread portion with " cushion stock," " breaker fabric,"
" undertread," and " tread." The tread is the thick, tough, firm,
wear-resisting face of the tire which is in contact with the road sur-
face. The forces and stresses of vehicle operation are so severe in
their tendency to tear the tread from the carcass that tire makers
have found it impracticable to attach the tread directly to the car-
cass, and have had to resort to the interposition of the soft elastic
adhesive " cushion " and open mesh " breaker fabric " to taper off
the severity of the shearing stresses that would loosen the tread.
Another very important function of the cushion and breaker is to
prevent fabric rupture of the carcass by softening and spreading
the intensity of impact of rough roads. The design and quality of
the tread rubber must be worked out to wear at least as long as any
other part of a balanced tire. The simplest smooth tread is a thin
crescent in cross section ; and in the case of non-skid designs they are
generally crescent cross section with geometrical depressions or
protuberances. The physical properties most desired are toughness,
to resist cutting and chipping, and attrition resistance to provide
against abrasion from road surface friction.
There are no particular differences of design for the inner tubes;
nearly all makes resemble each other very closely. Highest quality
rubber with little or no compounding except sulphur is used for
grey tubes. The best red tubes are compounded with antimony
sulphide. To be satisfactory the tube must hold air; not crack nor
check in storage; not stretch out of shape; not stick to the casing;
not split nor tear easily; not be affected by heating; and must be
repaired easily. " Flaps," made of inexpensive rubberized fabric,
are used in straight-side tires to prevent the tube from being pinched
or nipped under the edge of the bead, and to keep water and rim
rust away from the tube.
Only general ideas of manufacturing can be mentioned. First,
there is " stock preparation" ; the rubber and " compounds " are
mixed, the fabrics " frictioned " and " skimcoated " with rubber,
gauged to a very exact thickness, the frictioned fabrics cut to proper
widths on a machine called the " bias cutter," the cushion, under-
tread, and sidewall stocks are sheeted out and cut to width on the
calender, the tread rubber is prepared either on the calender or the
730
TIROL TIRPITZ
" tubing " machine, and the bead wires are padded with rubber and
frictioned fabric and cold pressed into shape. (See RUBBER for stock
preparation.) " Building " the tire is the next step. A " core " in
shape and size like the inside of a finished tire used as a building form,
is mounted on a stand which permits the core to revolve. The tire
plies are drawn taut around the core and rolled down smooth one
after another, and at the proper time the bead is put in position.
After the last ply is in place the tie-in at the bead is made; the
building is finished by adding the sidewall, cushion, breaker strip and
tread. During the decade 1910-20 tire building changed from all
hand work to a combination of hand and machine building. In
addition to saving labour, the machines turn out more perfect work.
The final step is the vulcanizing or " curing." Fundamentally this is
simply the processes of subjecting the " uncured " tire to a definite
degree of heat for a definite length of time while the tire is confined
under pressure in a strong iron " mould " (with an iron " curing
core " or inflated " air bag " inside the tire). The heat effects chem-
ical changes in the rubber compounds just as in cooking. Quality in a
tire is very dependent on the curing. Not only must there be an
optimum cure but the mould pressure must not disturb the fabric
lest " buckles " or " mould pinches " be formed. This last is so
important that many manufacturers resort to the more expensive
double cure process the carcass is semi-cured to " set " the rubbers
and fabrics with much less danger of fabric displacement, after which
the tread is cemented in place and the cure finished.
Tire Troubles. For the purpose of general analysis in pneumatic
tire service, five major tire troubles are recognized. They are: (i)
unsatisfactory tread wear; (2) separation either (a) between plies
of fabric or (6) of tread from carcass; (3) fabric ruptures; (4) bead
troubles; and (5) tube troubles. In each case it is possjble to
classify pretty completely the origins of the mischief. Of course,
many instances of premature tire failure are due to defects of design,
materials or manufacture; on the other hand, by far the more
frequent cause of tire trouble is abuse in the hands of the user as
outlined below:
Abrasion
Wheels out of alignment
Too much power
Improper use of brakes
Skidding
Abrasive road surfaces
Under-inflation
Sharp stones cutting tread
Deterioration from oil
Excessive flexing
Riding under-inflated
Riding car tracks
Overloading
Riding flat
Abuse of rough roads
Cuts
Heating from speeding
Water-soaked fabric
Overload
Over-inflation
Under-inflation
Stone bruises
Premature ply separation
Cuts
Exposed fabric water-soaked
Speeding on rough roads
( Bent rims
\ Under-inflation
Unsatisfactory
Tread Wear
Separation
(a) between plies
of fabric
(6) of tread
from carcass
Fabric
Ruptures
Bead
Troubles
caused by
caused by
caused by
caused by
Riding flat
Leaky valves
Puncture
Tube Troubles \ caused by Heating from speeding
Pinching under bead
Tears from rough handling
Neglect of spare tube
Solid tire troubles are confined to premature wear in the form of
cutting, chipping, and breaking large chunks out of the tread; dis-
integration in the heart of the tire due to the accumulation of the
heat of internal friction on long trips (rubber is such a poor conductor
that heat is not adequately dissipated by windage) ; and separation
of the whole mass of the tread rubber from the steel base-band. This
last is a defect in materials or manufacture except in cases where
external abuse fractures the hard rubber. In order to cushion a
specific load properly a tire must not have too high air pressure; on
the other hand, under-inflation results in excessive flexing which in
turn brings on premature ply separation and fabric breaks. Ex-
perience has demonstrated that a pneumatic tire should not flex more
than 11% (for large tires) to 15% (for small tires) of the section
diameter of the tire. Recommendations designed to advise vehicle
manufacturers and users as to the proper conditions under "which
the tires should be used are given in their "carrying capacity"
schedules, as indicated in the following table.
Carrying Capacities and Inflation Pressures of Pneumatic Tires
S.A.E. Standard. /
For passenger cars
For commercial
vehicles
Tire
Size
Fabric tires
Cord tires
Cord tires
Max'm
load
per tire
Ib.
Air
pressure
Ib. per
sq. in.
Max'm
load
per tire
Ib.
Air
pressure
Ib. per
sq. in.
Max'm
load
per tire
Ib.
Air
pressure
Ib. per
sq. in.
il
ti
1
9
10
375
570
815
1,100
1,500
45
55
65
75
85
400
600
850
1,200
1,700
40
5
60
70
80
850
1,200
1,700
2,200
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
"
70
75
80
90
100
IIO
I2O
130
(J. E. HA.)
TIROL (see 26.1010), an Austrian Territory, divided by the
Treaty of Peace of St. Germain into two separate parts
Northern Tirol and the district of Lienz. Northern Tirol is
bounded on the E. by Salzburg, on the N. by Bavaria, on the W.
by Vorarlberg and Switzerland and on the S. by Italy (German
Southern Tirol). It lies mostly in the valley of the Inn, the
northern part in the Kalk-Alpen and the southern in the schists
and the central zone of the eastern Alps. The southern frontier
almost coincides with the watershed between the Inn and the
Adige. In the N., Tirol extends into the basins of the Lech
and the Isar. The " Fohnstrasse " of the Brenner renders the
cultivation of maize possible in some parts of the Inn valley.
The new Territory has an area of about 4,787 sq. m. and its
pop. was in 1910, 304,713, in 1920, 306,156 (64 per sq. mile).
The area of the Lienz district is about 763 sq. m.; pop. in
1910 about 29,000.
The population is almost entirely German and Roman Catholic
(1910, 98-9%). The proportion of males to females in 1910 was as
1,000 to 981 but in 1920, 1,000 to 1,053.
For administrative purposes Northern Tirol is divided into seven
districts and the autonomous city of Innsbruck, the capital (pop.
in 1920 55,659). Lienz is a district of itself. Other important places
besides Innsbruck are Holting bei Innsbruck (pop. 9,503), Schwaz
(pop. 7,385), Hall (pop. 6,984), Kufstein (pop. 6,662), Lienz (pop.
5,756), Worgl (pop. 4,030), Landcck (pop. 3,919).
Agriculture and Forestry. In 1910, 23-7 % of the present Tirol was
unproductive. Of the productive areas (1910), 5-9% was arable,
0-2% gardens, 7-4% meadows, 41-5% pasturage (almost entirely
high summer grazing lands) and 44-9% forest.
Cattle-raising ana farming on the high lands are well-developed
industries, although less care is bestowed on them than in Switzer-
land. But in 1918 there were only 159,398 head of cattle (of which
91,219 were cows) and 24,421 swine. The Tirolean breeds of cattle
are highly esteemed. Forestry also holds an important place among
the industries of this Territory.
Minerals. The salt mines yielded 15,000 tons in 1915 (9% of the
whole Austrian output) at Hall bei Innsbruck. The production of
jignite, 40,000 tons in 1915 (scarcely 2% of the Austrian output),
is chiefly from Haring in the Unter-Innthal. Copper, lead, zinc,
antimony and sulphur and asphalt are also mined.
Manufactures. Industry is still little developed although the use
of the abundant water power is rapidly increasing; there are electrical
stations at Innsbruck and elsewhere. Mention should be made of
the wood, iron, textile, earthenware and glass industries. Innsbruck
is as yet hardly an industrial city but has commercial importance
and is visited by great numbers of tourists.
Communications. Mountain railways from Innsbruck to the
Stubai-Thal and to Mittenwald, the junction for Munich, have led
to a great development of tourist traffic and are of marked impor-
tance for trade and industry.
REFERENCES. Norbert Krebs, Landerkunde der oslerreichischen
Alpen (1913); Jos. Blaas, Geologischer Fiihrer durch die Tiroler und
Vorarlberger Alpen (1902); H. v. Fickcr, Klimatographie von Tirol
und Vorarlberg (1909) ; Widmann, Geschichte von Tirol; The Unity
of Tirol (Memorandum of the Academic Senate of the university of
Innsbruck, 1919).
TIRPITZ, ALFRED VON (1840- ), German admiral and
politician, was born at Kiistrin March 19 1849. He entered the
Prussian navy in 1865, and by 1890 had risen to be chief-of-staff
of the Baltic station in the Imperial navy. In 1892 he was in
TISZ A "TITANIC" DISASTER
73i
charge of the work of the chief -of -staff in the higher command of
the navy. He was promoted to be rear-admiral in 1895, and in
1896 and 1897 he was in command of the cruiser division in east
Asiatic waters. In 1899 he reached the rank of vice-admiral and
in 1903 that of admiral. For the long period of 19 years, from
1897 to 1916, he was Secretary of State for the Imperial navy,
and in this capacity advocated the navy bills of 1898, 1900, 1907
and 1912 for increasing the German fleet and successfully carried
them through the Reichstag. In 1911 he received the rank of
grand-admiral, and he retired in 1916.
The best account of Adml. von Tirpitz's naval achievements
and political activities is contained in the book which he pub-
lished in 1919 under the title of Erinnerungen. In that book he
shows how gigantic was the task of creating the new German
navy with which Great Britain had to reckon at the outbreak of
the World War. Not only had a whole array of subsidiary in-
dustries to be established and supplies of raw materials secured;
thousands of skilled workmen and hundreds of directing person-
alities of strong character and exceptional ability had to be found
and trained. It has been customary to attribute the creation of
the German navy to the Kaiser William II., and it is true that in
large part the initiative for successive increases, and the dema-
gogic appeals by which they were supported, originated with the
Emperor. On the other hand, it was Tirpitz who not only con-
ducted the practical advocacy of these schemes in the Reichstag,
but also organized the service of propaganda in the German press
and on the platform, putting popular pressure on the parliamen-
tary representatives of the nation and constraining them to agree
to the enormous expenditure which these schemes entailed. Wil-
liam II. was often a hindrance as well as a help, and Tirpitz gives
instances in which the work of the construction departments and
even that of the Secretary of State were interrupted or hampered
by wild-cat Imperial projects for the construction of architectur-
ally impossible vessels or of mechanically impossible machinery.
One of these projects, on which an elaborate report had actually
to be submitted to the Emperor, was a device for which it was
claimed that it had solved the problem of perpetual motion. In
the conduct of the naval war the official role of Tirpitz was con-
fined to reporting and advising at general headquarters, the ac-
tual conduct and initiative in operations being in the hands of
the higher command of the navy at Wilhelmshaven, subject to
the Emperor's approval or veto. Tirpitz advances two conten-
tions; first, that he would have sent the navy into decisive action
at an earlier stage of the war; secondly, that he would have made
an earlier and more ruthless use of the German U-boats; but his
opponents traverse both these claims, and in particular assert
that as Secretary of State he had neglected the construction of
submarines, so that Germany entered the war with a compara-
tively small supply of these vessels.
In the political sphere Tirpitz was a bitter opponent of Beth-
mann Hollweg, whom he charged with indecision, half-hearted-
ness and nebulous conceptions of the necessities of German policy.
His own experiences in the, Reichstag, and the close contact with
the political parties which his advocacy of successive naval bills
had involved, made him a master of political intrigue. During
the years which immediately preceded the war, as well as during
the first 18 months of the conflict, he was himself a candidate for the
office of Imperial Chancellor, in the sense that many of the reac-
tionary Conservatives and of those who advocated a ruthless con-
ception of policy in peace and war regarded him as their political
hope. Lord Haldane, in his book Before the War (1920), records
his impression of Tirpitz when he visited Berlin in Feb. 1912 in
order to make tentative proposals for an agreement regarding the
limitation of new construction. Bethmann Hollweg, Lord Hal-
dane thought, was willing to entertain the British suggestions;
it was Tirpitz who behind the scenes offered a most strenuous
opposition to any restrictions. Tirpitz himself maintains that
his naval aspirations were directed not towards a war with Great
Britain, but to the creation of a state of naval equilibrium or of
German superiority, which would have enabled Germany to in-
sist upon the unreserved cooperation of British policy in her
world aims. It was probably true that Germany's policy was
directed rather towards being so strong at sea as to make Eng-
land unwilling to fight her unless absolutely necessary, than
towards actually challenging British naval supremacy. But
this policy was, in any case, bound to make England peculiarly
sensitive to provocation by Germany, a point which was
ignored by the champions of a great German navy. Tirpitz's
book, in so far as his statements may be trusted, throws much
light upon the circumstances in which German policy was
directed or drifted in July 1914 into paths which inevitably led to
war. He enlarges in particular upon what he considers the folly
of the declaration of war upon Russia (see BETHMANN HOLLWEG).
He is naturally influenced to some extent in what he says by
his poor opinion of Bethmann Hollweg's capacities and by his
own thorough knowledge of the Emperor's fickle and impetuous
character.
His resignation in 1916, and the stages of his relations with the
Emperor and the Higher Naval Command which led to it, are
described in his Erinnerungen with almost tragic vividness. Tir-
pitz remained a leading figure in the political agitation against
the Chancellor's policy and was selected as president of the " Va-
terlandspartei," a political association started in Sept. 1917 un-
der reactionary auspices to combat all attempts at peace by com-
promise, and to advocate the prosecution of the U-boat warfare
with extreme ruthlessness. This association offered a vigorous
opposition to the movement, which succeeded only when it was
too late, for obtaining alterations in the constitution limiting the
power of the Emperor and laying the foundations of real par-
liamentary government in the Empire and in Prussia.
After the revolution Tirpitz was one of those against whom
German popular animosity was chiefly directed as being the in-
spirer of the naval and world policy which led to the war, and
also the most powerful influence in prolonging it. He was one
of those who found it inadvisable to remain in Germany, and
he departed to find a refuge in Switzerland. After the republican
Government seemed fairly established, and the reign of law and
order was being restored, he returned; but, possibly on account
of his advanced age, did not appear during 1921 to be taking any
further part in political. intrigue or agitation. (G. S.)
TISZA, STEPHEN, COUNT (1861-1918), Hungarian statesman
(see 26.1017). During the Coalition Ministry (1906) Tisza re-
tired into private life on his estate of Geszt. It was only in the
House of Magnates that he expressed his views against the
extension of the franchise. When Count Khuen-Hedervary took
office in 1910, Tisza was his most earnest and effective oppo-
nent in the country. His return to the political arena took place
during a period of obstruction. In 1912 he became president of
the House of Deputies, and on July 10 1913 again returned to
power as prime minister. When the World War broke out a
truce was arranged between Tisza and the Opposition, but it did
not last long, and in 1917 he was compelled to resign. Though
hitherto he had been the most zealous adherent of Dualism
and the partnership with Austria, he declared for the scheme of
personal union after the manifesto of King Charles on Oct. 17
1918, the Pragmatic Sanction to hold good on the question of
national defence, but with a separate Hungarian army and
separate diplomatic representation abroad. When he saw no
prospect of winning the war he pleaded for a peace in common
with Germany on the basis of President Wilson's Fourteen
Points. On Oct. 31 he was assassinated in his villa by men in
military uniform, said to have been worn as a disguise.
Tisza had a power over Austria and Hungary such as had
hardly ever been exercised before by an adviser of the Crown.
He was distinguished by his determination and inflexible con-
victions, and was opposed to any policy involving weak conces-
sions. In the newspapers Magyar Figyelo (Hungarian Observer)
and Ignazmondd (Truth), he published articles on many sub-
jects; in addition he published the historical study Von Sadowa
bis Sedan (in Hungarian and German).
See the biography by Karl Szaz (Hungarian); and David Angyal,
In Memory of Stephen Tisza (Hungarian). (E. v. W.)
"TITANIC " DISASTER, 1912. No single event in 1912 could
compare, in the intensity of its universal appeal to human
732
TITTONI TOBACCO
emotion, with the awful disaster to the British steamship " Ti-
tanic." At. 2:20 A.M. on April 15, that great White Star liner,
the largest afloat, on her maiden voyage, went to the bottom of
the Atlantic in lat. 41 46' N., long. 50 14' W., about 2j h.
after striking at full speed on an iceberg, with a loss of 1,513
souls put of 2,224 on board. 1 It had been supposed that
such a vessel was unsinkable, and the tragedy raised numerous
questions as to methods of ship construction, and additional
provision of life-saving equipment. The " Titanic " had nomin-
ally boat accommodation for double the number saved, and the
20 boats launched were meant to hold 1,178 persons instead of
the 652 they actually contained when they left the ship; more-
over, the disaster occurred under exceptional conditions for
getting people safely off, in the way of smooth water and fine
weather. The most salutary lessons seemed to lie in the follow-
ing directions: first, improved design and construction so as to
provide a really unsinkable ship; secondly, greater precautions
in navigation and look-out for the " Titanic " was going at
18 knots (according to Lord Mersey an " excessive speed "),
though it was known that icebergs were exceptionally numerous
on the course; thirdly, better and more regular organization on
shipboard by boat drill (there had been none on the " Titanic ")
and otherwise, for the emergency of having to abandon ship; and
fourthly, a compulsory service of wireless on all liners, working
day and night for it was one of the most lamentable incidents
in the whole terrible story that the " Titanic's " wireless call
for help, picked up all over the ocean and nobly responded to
by the " Carpathia." (Capt. Rostron), 70 m. off, fell on deaf ears
on the " Californian " only 8 or 10 m. away. 2 The full record
of the disaster is contained in the reports of the inquiries held
at once in America by a committee of Congress under Senator
Smith, and later in London by a special commission presided
over by Lord Mersey (report issued July 30). Painful and dif-
ficult though it was to distribute blame in such a case, there could
be little doubt that the loss of life 817 passengers out of 1,316,
and 696 out of a crew of 908 was much greater than ought to
have been possible. Capt. E. J. Smith (b. 1853), a highly ex-
perienced seaman, who had been for 38 years in the service of
the White Star Co. and who now went down with his ship, seems
to have been averse from taking steps at first which might cause a
panic on board; otherwise there should have been time, if ade-
quate means of organization and of commanding discipline had
existed, not only to get more people into the boats but to im-
provise rafts. In naval circles the opinion was strongly held
that this should have been done, since the injuries received by
the ship made it certain that she would sink in a given time.
If so, there was a weakness in the higher command, or the means
provided for exercising it in the organization of the crew on
the " Titanic," for which no merely material equipment could
compensate. A natural expectation of security had been en-
gendered, alike among the owners, officers and passengers of
these magnificently appointed liners, which, until a crisis actually
came, had made it almost unthinkable that it could come in that
way; but the fact remains that responsibility for the lives of
passengers rests with those who control the ship. In this case,
it was not the inadequacy of the physical means of escape that
accounted for the large proportion of the lost who remained on
board; it was the inadequate organization for purposes of using
them, and inadequate information as to the necessity. Apart
from that, both Great Britain and America could mingle sorrow
and pride over many fine incidents of the tragedy, with its long
death roll of prominent people from both sides of the Atlantic.
When it came to the sending away of the boats, the order was
1 The exact figures remained doubtful, but those given are from
Lord Mersey's report.
2 Apart from the " Californian's " wireless operator having gone
to bed, however, Lord Mersey was satisfied that if her captain had
realized the situation properly she could have saved "many, if not
all, of the lives that were lost"; for evidence showed that distress
rockets sent up on the " Titanic " were actually seen from the
" Californian," though no action was taken in response to them.
The incredibility of such a disaster appears, in that case, to have
paralysed the capacity for interference.
" women and children first." The figures of the 711 saved by the
" Carpathia ' (including about 60 who were picked up in the
boats after the ship went down) speak for themselves: Women:
first class, 140 out of 144; second class, 80 out of 93; third class,
76 out of 165; crew, 20 out of 23. Children: first class, 6 out of 6;
second class, 24 out of 24; third class, 27 out of 79. Men: first
class, 57 out of 175; second class, 14 out of 168; third class, 75
out of 462; crew 192 out of 885. Altogether the percentage of
women saved was 74-35, of children 52-29, of men 20-27. The
comparatively small proportion of third-class passengers saved
was shown to be purely accidental and not due to any preference
being deliberately given to others; they were handicapped, how-
ever, by their quarters being remote from the boat deck, and by
so many of them being unable to speak or understand English.
TITTONI, TOMMASO (1855- ), Italian statesman, was
born in Rome 1855. His father, Vincenzo, a tenant farmer on
a large scale at^La Manziana, had taken part in the defence of
the Roman Republic under Garibaldi in 1849, was exiled by
Pius IX., and reentered Rome in 1870 through the breach of
Porta Pia. Tommaso Tittoni was educated first at Naples, and
subsequently at Oxford and Liege. He began his parliamentary
career as deputy for Civitavecchia in 1886, sitting on the Right,
but he resigned his seat in 1897, having been appointed pre-
fect of Perugia; three years later he went to Naples in a simi-
lar capacity, and in 1902 he was raised to the Senate. When
Giolitti became premier for the second time in 1903, Tittoni
became his Foreign Minister. He aimed at improving rela-
tions with Austria, and also tried to bring about a reconciliation
with France; it was in fact under his auspices that President
Loubet visited Rome. On the resignation of Giolitti in March
1905 Tittoni became interim premier for a few days and remained
in the Fortis Cabinet as Foreign Minister. His proposal to
reduce the duty on Spanish wines in connexion with an Italo-
Spanish commercial treaty aroused -a storm of indignation among
the agricultural classes and caused the fall of the Cabinet on
Dec. 24 1905; and although Fortis composed a new administra-
tion, Tittoni did not enter it. A few months later he was
appointed ambassador in London (March 1906), but in May,
on the fall of the Sonnino Cabinet and the return of Giolitti
to power, he was again summoned to the Consulla. He con-
tinued the policy of improving relations with Austria, which did
not contribute to his popularity; after the annexation of Bosnia
and the Herzegovina his imprudently worded speech at Carate
created the illusion that Italy was to be compensated, perhaps
by the cession of the Trentino, and the disappointment when
nothing of the kind materialized greatly weakened his prestige.
He remained in office until the fall of Giolitti in Dec. 1909. In
April of the following year he was appointed ambassador in
Paris. When the World War broke out, in spite of his Triplicist
policy he openly expressed himself in favour of Italian neutrality,
and on Italy's entry into the war he was careful not to com-
promise himself with Giolitti's attitude. But he was not at his
ease in the French capital and in Nov. 1916 he resigned from
the Paris embassy. On the fall of the Orlando Cabinet in June
1919, the new Premier Nitti chose Tittoni as Foreign Minister
and first delegate at the Peace Conference, but the severe strain
of the work told on his health and he was forced to resign in
November. He was chosen president of the Senate in Dec.,
and soon after was appointed Italian delegate on the Council
and Assembly of the League of Nations, but ill-health again
forced him to relinquish both appointments. In 1910 he had
published a volume of speeches, which was translated into
English, and in 1919 he brought out a work on political conflicts
and constitutional reform.
TOBACCO (see 26.1035). In 1913 the quantity of tobacco re-
tained for home consumption in the United Kingdom was: un-
manufactured 94,079,343 lb., and manufactured i ,896,668 Ib. The
year 1914 showed the beginning of the abnormal business in the
factories. In that year, apart from tobacco sent to H.M. forces
through the bonded factories, the quantity retained for home
consumption was: unmanufactured 99,415,786 lb., and manufac-
tured 1,585,411 pounds. In 1915 the amount of unmanufactured
TOBACCO
tobacco retained for home consumption rose to 106,516,337 lb.,
> the following year it was 101,719,199 lb.; and then from 1917','
when the total was 104,501,452 lb., the amount went to 106,566,-
: 549 lb. in 1918 and toneless than 142,826,314 lb. in 1919. With
imported manufactured tobacco, including cigars, cigarettes and
snuff, the total consumed in 1919 was 145,344,604 lb. In 1914
the amount of unmanufactured tobacco which went through the
1 factories and was consumed represented a consumption per head
' of population of 2-16 lb.; in 1919 it was 3-09 lb. per head.
The imports of tobacco into the United Kingdom by no means
follow in the same ratio as the figures of consumption. When the
World War broke out, thanks to the tradition of the trade and the
, prudent foresight of manufacturers, there were large stocks in the
; country. In view of the heavy requirements, fresh importations
of raw tobacco were secured as before, but when the submarine
activity added to the already urgent call upon shipping, imports
dropped off very considerably and tonnage was only allowed spar-
jngly for tobacco freights. The import of unmanufactured tobacco
in 1913 was 162,365,925 lb.; in 1914 it was 158,692,857 lb.; 1915
. 202,650,863 lb.; 1916 164,265,861 lb.; 1917 46,543,000 lb.; 1918
I7I.639.3.I3 lb. and in 1919 348,906,624 lb. It will be seen that the
curve of imports drops in 1916 and is much lower still in 1917, and
. that so soon as shipping became available the depleted stocks of
manufacturers were promptly renewed. Manufacturers had been
' purchasing but shipment had been held up. In addition to the
manufactured tobacco imported in 1919, the following manu-
1 factured products were also brought into the country in that year:
cigars, 1 ,670,735 lb. ; cigarettes, 4,460,535 lb. ; other tobacco, including
snuff, 1,755,447 lb.
Before examining the Control Board's activities and retail prices
1 in England it is interesting to note how the Treasury got on in the
matter of revenue and under the influence of taxation which was
several times heavily increased. The net receipts of British Govern-
ment revenue in each year ended March 31 were as follows: 19134
18,263,479; I9H-5 19.272,007; 1915-6 25,743,149; 1916-7
27,342,339; 1917-8 33,285,107; 1918-9 46,231,430; 1919-20
60,857,917. This crescendo of revenue gains was the result of two
principles working together: the war impetus given to the use of
tobacco, including the fact that ladies were in many cases smoking
as well as men, and secondly the increased tax. The rate of un-
stripped tobacco leaf containing 10 % or more of moisture, which was
33. 8d. per Ib.in 1914, was raised to 53. 6d. per lb. from Sept. 22 1915,
and this rate lasted till May 1917, other duties such as that on
manufactured tobacco being correspondingly increased. On May 3
1917 the duty was increased from 55. 6d. per lb. to 73. 4d. but out of
deference to the working-classes this increase of is. lod. was reduced
on July 15 to an increase of nd. only, which brought the tax down
to 6s. 5d. per lb., at which it remained from July 16 1917 to April 22
1918. The yield kept on the up-grade, notwithstanding the duty,
and on April 23 1918 the duty was raised to 8s. 2d. per lb. at which
it remained, the 1921 budget having left the main tax unaffected.
There were, however, some specialties in English taxation of
distinct note apart from the ordinary tobacco duties. These special
features consisted in the application of preferential treatment to
empire-grown tobacco and in a surtax on imported cigars. On and
after Sept. 1919 the ordinary duties were reduced by one-sixth in the
case of tobacco consigned from, and grown, produced or manufac-
tured in, the British Empire. On and after April 1920 an additional
duty of 50 % ad valorem was imposed on imported cigars, reduced by
one-third in the case of cigars entitled to preferential rate of duty.
This surtax was abolished as from May 10 1921.
War Supplies. -In examining the actual consumption of tobacco
i one has not merely to consider the imports and revenue figures.
There was the large quantity of duty-free cigarettes, cigars and to-
, bacco supplied to H.M. forces, whether in the form of rations or
sent out duty free from manufacturers' premises, on orders obtained
through tobacconists and from other sources. The dimensions of
this most essential portion of the tobacco consumption can be gauged
; by several indications beyond the broad fact that every soldier or
sailor who desired to smoke was well supplied. For instance the
British Government chemist in his report for 1916 announced that
the samples of tobacco exported on drawback numbered 32,004 or
appreciably more than double the highest number examined in any
previous year since the introduction of the drawback regulations in
1863. The number of laboratory certificates issued in connexion
with samples was 81,889, an increase of no less than 48,179 over the
corresponding number for the previous year. This was due to the
dispatch of tobacco for the Expeditionary Force. The most direct
indication however is afforded by the customs and excise report.
This document for 1917-8 records the fact that, apart from ships'
stores, the following were in that year the weights of cigarettes, etc.,
sent to the British Expeditionary forces and on which drawback
was granted: tobacco, 123,256 lb. ; cigarettes, 7,080,449 lb. ; cut,
roll, cake or other manufactured tobacco, 5,877,968 lb. ; snuff, 525
lb. These figures include the large quantities of cigarettes supplied
through tobacconists sending customers' orders to the manufacturers
for sending out duty-free tobacco, and also orders sent from firms
and other organizations who specialized in soldiers' parcels. They
733
do not include the considerable number of parcels of cigarettes
bought from a tobacconist's duty-paid stock and forwarded in a
composite parcel by the soldier's friends. At a Navy and Army
Canteen surplus stock sale in Aug. 1920 over 8p million cigarettes
and 100 tons of tobacco were disposed of, 60 million of the cigarettes
and the tobacco being sold for export only. The cigars for disposal
were for the most part replaced into trade channels.
The British Tobacco Control. The control of food in the United
Kingdom, for war purposes, was followed by that of tobacco.
The form of control was defined in two orders issued under the
Defence of the Realm Regulations. One was called the Tobacco
Restriction Order (No. l) 1917, dated May 24 1917, and made by
the Board of Trade under Regulations 2F and 2JJ, and the other
the Tobacco Restriction Order (No. 2) 1917, dated July n 1917.
These two orders between them put the grip of the Board of Trade
firmly upon every shred of tobacco which entered the country or was
in stock, and controlled its movements, sale and price. The powers
given were so full that an immoderate use of them could have
paralysed the industry. The fact was that the control was a com-
plete success, alike from the military or munition point of view, from
the public point of view, and, greatest feat of all, from the trade
point of view. The control lasted from its inception by the Restric-
tion Orders named down to Jan. II 1919 when the Board of Trade
revoked the Orders, stating that "the effect of this revocation is
that from the date named all powers exercised by the tobacco con-
trol board in regard to the control, importation and distribution and
prices of tobacco will be abolished." During the period of control
the board had systematized powers in regard to production, manu-
facture, treatment, use, consumption, transport, storage, distri-
bution, supply, sale or purchase of or dealing in tobacco ; they had
power to place stocks at the disposal of the Board of Trade; any
person delivering tobacco had to keep a record of the quantities
delivered; tobacco sold by manufacturers, importers and wholesale
dealers was ordered to be as nearly as possible of the same descrip-
tion and was to be sold in similar quantities and under like condi-
tions and to the same customers as in the year 1916. In view of the
shortage of shipping and the consequent necessity of economizing
the available supplies of tobacco in Britain, an order was made
bringing under control the stocks of manufactured and unmanu-
factured tobacco (of the latter a census was taken) and prohibiting
the owners of stocks from dealing with them otherwise than as
authorized by the Board of Trade. The order also provided for the
regulation of the prices at which tobacco might be sold as from June I
1917. No restrictions were imposed on the supply of tobacco to
H.M. forces overseas. The Control Board at first consisted of the
following: Mr. Lancelot Hugh Smith (chairman), Major F. Tpwle
(quartermaster-general's .department), and Mr. Gerald Be'van.
They were assisted by an advisory committee, representative of
all sections of the tobacco trade. The work of the Control Board was
arduous; they were called upon to make numerous decisions and the
way in which they exercised their powers helped the trade to keep
going, guaranteed fair prices to the public and gave general satis-
faction. A retail price schedule was issued, and one of these had to
be exhibited prominently by every dealer in tobacco. Non-compli-
ance rendered the tobacconist liable to a fine.
The Control Board's issue of Restriction Orders was to conserve
supplies, but as time went on, owing to the large requirements of
H.M. forces and the continued heavy demand at home, it became
evident that the supply to the army might be jeopardized and a
rationing system rendered necessary unless additional importations
were allowed. The diminution of stocks in the bonded warehouses
rendered some step advisable. The Control Board, therefore, though
originally formed to restrict, now appeared in a new r61e, that of
encouraging supplies, and in Jan. 1918 it was reported that the board
were asking that tobacco should, with food and ammunition, be given
priority of importation. From March 12 1917 there had been a
restriction of clearances. The daily amount of tobacco allowed to be
delivered out of warehouse or ship's side was restricted to the daily
average quantity for the year ended Dec. 31 1916. But now that
more tobacco was needed the question of further imports became
urgent. Eventually an arrangement was made by which the British-
American Tobacco Co., who had chartered the steamers of the
Garland line, should bring in a supply for what became known in
control circles and in the trade as " necessitous manufacturers."
The result was that all were able to carry on.
Germany and France. The difficulties of war-time conditions were
:hus successfully grappled with by the British Control Board.
France, under its State Regie, did not do so well. It was reported in
Dec. 1917 that under the stress of prolonged war the tobacco regie
lad practically broken down. It became well-nigh impossible to buy
either tobacco or cigarettes in France. It was stated that owing to
the intensification of consumption, due in part to women smoking,
:he monopoly administration had been taken unawares. Whatever
the explanation, the State control did not produce the good results
which control of an industry founded on private enterprise brought
about in Great Britain. Still France was not so badly off as Germany
and Austria. In Oct. 1917 permission was given by the German
Government for the manufacture of tobacco-like substances without
:he employment of tobacco. These substitutes were allowed to be
introduced into the trade and were made subject to the tobacco tax.
734
TOGOLAND
A schedule of permissible substances was drawn up. What the sub-
stances were was made evident to the trade in England by the pho-
tographic reproduction in the English trade paper Tobacco of ad-
vertisements from the Siiddeutsche Tabakzeitung. One of these
advertisements read: " Beech, Chestnut, Lime, Maple, Plane, and
Vine leaves in withered and quite dry condition, sound and cleanly
sorted in sacks for instant delivery, against banker's security will be
purchased. Samples asked for." Another advertiser offered for sale
" Cherry leaves, tobacco brown, can be promptly delivered."
Meanwhile the proportion of German-grown tobacco in cigars had
increased until they were hardly fit to smoke. Large consignments of
tobacco acquired by the manufacturers of Bremen, Hamburg, and
Dresden from the Balkans were destined for the army, the civil
population having to rely upon the substitutes. A similar shortage
was experienced in Austria. In both countries drastic control
regulations were enforced.
United States. In accordance with an Act of Congress, approved
April 30 1912, the Bureau of the Census collects and publishes
(quarterly since 1916) statistics of leaf tobacco held throughout the
country. The statistics deal with all manufacturers who during the
preceding calendar year produced more than 50,000 Ib. of tobacco,
250,000 cigars, or 1,000,000 cigarettes; and dealers who had on an
average more than 50,000 Ib. of leaf tobacco in stock; included also
is the imported leaf tobacco held in bonded warehouses and bonded
manufacturing warehouses. No account is taken of smaller establish-
ments or of amounts held by growers.
On Oct. i 1912 (first official report) there were on hand 1,047,404,-
560 Ib. ; on April I 1921 1,818,781,268 pounds. In every case the
April report was the largest, as by that time the gathered crop has
been sold. The largest production is " Bright yellow," from Georgia,
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia (571,148,382 Ib. held
April I 1921); " Burley," from Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio (399,-
001,690 Ib.); and "Dark fired," from Kentucky and Tennessee
(178,847,170). Of "Cigar" types the "Pennsylvania" usually
ranks first (93,918,626 Ib. held April I 1921); other important types
are " New England," " Ohio," and " Wisconsin." A census of the
tobacco crop was taken every 10 years after 1839 and of acreage
after 1879. The peak of production was reached in 1920 with
1,508,064,000 Ib., estimated; the largest producing states were
Kentucky (467,500,000 Ib., 550,000 ac.), North Carolina (384,120,-
ooo Ib., 582,000 ac.), and Virginia (177,390,000 Ib., 240,000 ac.).
Since 1869 Kentucky has been the leading state. For 1920 the
estimated average yield per acre for the United States was 796 Ib.,
as against 894 in 1911, the record year; the variation of production
among the states is remarkable, ranging from 600 Ib. per ac. in
Georgia to 1,510 in Pennsylvania. Of the two recognized classes of
tobacco " Cigar " and " Chewing, Smoking, Snuff and Export "
the former constitutes only one-sixth of the production.
The peak of average prices was reached in 1919. That year the
farmers sold 1,440,979,349 Ib., ranging from 17 cents in Pennsylvania
to 65 cents in Louisiana. The averages for these states in 1911 were
9^ and 31 cents respectively; in 1920 20 and 40 cents. In the latter
year Alabama led with 55 cents.
Although the United States surpasses all other countries in tobacco
production, there are large imports of leaf for cigars and cigarettes.
In 1920 imports were 82,231,396 Ib., of which 18,856,091 Ib. came
from Asiatic Turkey, chiefly for cigarettes. Cuba furnished 23,616,-
999 Ib., Porto Rico 14,728,645 Ib., and the Philippine Is. 1,842,613;
the Netherlands 7,720,255 Ib. and the Dutch East Indies 2,102,664
pounds. Imported cigars and cheroots come chiefly from the
Philippines (over 5,000,000 in 1920). Over five-sixths of tobacco
imports enter through the district of New York.
Exports of domestic tobacco and tobacco products from the
United States amounted in 1920 to $288,693,799 as against 8306,-
861,519 in 1919. Of cigarettes there were exported 15,833,870,000,
valued at $35,977,374; of these over 8,500,000,000 went to China,
over 2,000,600,000 to Italy, and over 1,000,000,000 each to British
India and the Straits Settlements. Most of the tobacco exports pass
through the district of New York.
On Jan. I 1920 there were in the United States 13,591 tobacco
factories, of which 11,483 produced cigars, 1,871 tobacco and snuff,
and 237 cigarettes; of bonded manufacturing warehouses there were
13 producing cigars, 2 cigarettes and tobacco, and one tobacco.
New York has the greatest number of establishments. The tax
on tobacco is an important source of Government revenue. The
amount collected rose from 83,097,620 in 1863 to $88,063,948 in
1916. Revenue in 1917 was $103,201,592; in 1918 $155,757,278; in
1919 $204,982,560; in 1920 $294,267,609.
The war period in America has been reviewed in a report of the
U.S. War Industries Board. Herein it is stated that men in service
used on an average from 60% to 70% more tobacco than they did in
civil life. The civil population, due probably to increased prosperity,
the cutting down of alcoholic beverages and the sentiment developed
by the various campaigns for supplying " smokes " to soldiers, used
15 to 2O% more tobacco. No important control beyond some
conservation in methods of packing was found necessary, though a
price-fixing plan was under consideration when the war was closed.
The demand from Europe, it was pointed out, as well as from the
U.S. manufacturers, continued to increase, and when producers
saw in the autumn of 1917 that they could successfully increase the
price of their manufactured articles, even in face of the increase
revenue taxes, very high prices for leaf were assured. It was nc
until the middle of 1917 that the price of finished products In
to rise. The advance was steady and rapid, reaching, 200 % c
normal on many products by Sept. 1918. The tax on tobacco wa
increased in Oct. 1917 and Feb. 1919, but these increases formed .
relatively small part of the increase in prices.
Leaf Prices. The unprecedented consumption of tobacco product
both in America and Europe reacted on the growers, who plante<
large crops which they sold under favourable conditions. Prices o
the raw material steadily mounted owing to the competition. A
really accurate estimate of the effects of war conditions on the pric
of raw tobacco would detail the various grades and growths am
show the alteration as it affected each. The bright cigarette to
baccos of Virginia and the Carolinas were among those whicl
commanded very greatly increased prices, but perhaps the best wa;
of dealing with the question is to take the average prices from KH
to 1919. The statistical abstract for the United Kingdom give
these average prices in pence per Ib. for unmanufactured tobacco a
follows: 1913 9-92; 1914 9-75; 1915 8-92; 1916 9-44; 1917 15-47
1918 21-93; '919 26-29. Thus it is seen that manufacturers wen
paying more and more for leaf tobacco, but prices later bccann
more moderate. The cost of eastern leaf from Macedonia and ot he
oriental countries was somewhat high in 1921, but was likely to ge
lower with increased production.
Waves of Fashion. Long before 1914 the cigarette had alreach
grown so in public favour that it was rapidly supplanting the pipi
and cigar. The war intensified the process. Up to 1914 the
esteemed cigarettes were of the finest Turkish or of bright Virgin!;
tobacco. If anything, the Turkish cigarette was the more used li\
the fastidious smoker. War conditions caused the cigaretti o
Turkish or Macedonian tobacco gradually to diminish and the
British forces did their arduous work for the most part (and
cially after the stocks of the better class Turkish cigarettes hat
become scarce) on cigarettes of American tobacco. Cigars were ol
course in request in officers' messes and among certain peop
home. Pipes were used by comparatively few. After the Armistin
both the cigarette and the cigar, but mostly the latter, seemed to In
yielding ground to the pipe. Great Britain has for many year^
the home of smoking mixtures in which various kinds of tobacco an
blended to make a satisfactory pipe mixture. These mixture
much appreciated too in America, to which country there is a fail
export trade. The British-made briar pipe also sells well in the
United States. An influence towards making pipe smoking once;
more the fashion was the imposition in 1920 by the British chamvllui
of the exchequer of the ad valorem surtax of 50 % on imported < i
This made imported cigars too dear and gave the impression to the
public that all cigars were dear. When Mr. Austen Chamberlain
subsequently stated, on April 25 1921, in the House of Commons,
that " the surtax has lowered the revenue instead of raising it and
has entirely failed to justify itself. Let others learn by the mistake 1
committed," he might have added that the surtax had temporarily,
killed the cigar trade.
British Empire Tobacco. A new prospect was opened in the
nomic history of tobacco by the institution of the principle of:
preferential fiscal treatment of tobacco grown, produced, or manu-
factured in the British Empire. A reduction in the tax of one-sixth!
is acting as a stimulus to the young tobacco-growing industry ofj
British Africa from Cape Colony to Rhodesia, of Canada^ and of:
some other portions of the empire. Growers in the United Kingdom
and Ireland have also been encouraged by an allowance. This pref-
erential taxation will probably be found of greater significance to
the tobacco manufacturing industry and to the smoker than is even j
the attainment of the laudable object of helping the tobacco farmers
of the empire. A quasi-monopoly such as that possessed by the
United States and the Balkans does not economically suit the direct
buyer (the manufacturer) or the eventual buyer, the smoker. A
widening and multiplication of the sources of supply must have a
steadying effect on prices. The lesson of the war was that, quite
justifiably under the new conditions, very heavy prices had to be
paid for all tobacco, whether from America, Nyasaland or elsewhere. ,
For many years the Imperial Tobacco Co. have been large buyers of
African tobacco. Their headquarters in Africa are at Blantyre, i
where they have encouraged the grower. Tobacco grown in Ireland j
and also in England has been put on the market with some success.
In the British system of taxation a rebate of one-third of the excise
duty was allowed on tobacco grown in Ireland for experimental
purposes prior to 1909, and on tobacco grown in Great Britain up
to 1913 inclusive. From those dates arrangements have been made
under which certain grants sanctioned by the Treasury are applied
in encouragement of the industry. In 1918 the following quantities
were grown: England and Wales, 31,844 Ib.; Ireland, 77,978
total, 109,822 Ib. ; net receipt of duty, 34,482. In 1919: England
and Wales, 78,825 Ib.; Ireland, 77,837 Ib.; total, 156,662 Ib.; net
receipt of duty, 60,785.
TOGOLAND (see 26.1046). This German protectorate in
W. Africa was conquered by Anglo-French forces in 1914, and
German sovereignty was renounced by the Peace Treaty.
TOKUGAWA, YOSHINOBU
735
For some years preceding 1914 efforts had been made to
reconcile the natives to German rule. This process began in the
schools, where the children were taught to sing the German
national anthem and to wave German flags; the teaching of
English formerly common in the mission schools was abandoned.
But the emigration of natives to the Gold Coast, which had
resulted from the harsh methods of Herr W. Horn (governor
1902-5) and other officials was still marked in 1913, while on
the east there was a similar attraction to Dahomey. Herr Horn
had been dismissed for misconduct; his successor, Count J.
von Zech, was more conciliatory to the natives and gave much
attention to the development of railways and trade. In 1912
Germany made a departure in its colonial appointments by
sending out as governor a member of one of the reigning families,
Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg, who was known as leader
of an expedition which had crossed Africa. The duke was on
leave when the World War broke out. He had, however, seen the
linking up of Togoland to Germany by submarine cable (Jan.
1913), the extension of agriculture and an expansion of exports.
Maj. von Doring, the acting governor, had the advantage
in the critical days of July igr4 of direct communication with
Berlin by a wireless station at Kamina, which had just been
erected. He made preparations to invade Dahomey, on the
assumption that Great Britain would not enter the war. When
this supposition was proved to be wrong Maj. von Doring
received instructions from Berlin to propose that Togoland and
the adjacent French and British colonies should remain neutral.
The offer was made to the local authorities concerned but was
rejected, in the case of the British by order of the Colonial
secretary in London. The chief concern of Berlin in regard to
Togoland was to preserve the use of the Kamina wireless station,
through which they could communicate with all the other German
colonies in Africa, and when the neutrality offer failed, orders
were issued for the defence of Kamina. Von Doring made no
attempt to defend the coast region: Senegalese Tirailleurs from
Dahomey under Capt. A. Castaing occupied Little Popo (Anecho)
on Aug. 6 and Togo on Aug. 8. Meanwhile an officer, Capt.
E. B. Barker, had been sent under a flag of truce by the acting
governor of the Gold Coast to Lome on Aug. 6 to demand the
surrender of Togoland to the British. Twenty-four hours' delay
was given; on Capt. Barker's return on the yth he found that
the German troops and Maj. von Doring had retired and that
the official left behind had instructions to surrender the colony
is far as a line drawn 120 km. N. of Lome. The next day co-
Dperation between the French and British forces was arranged
| and the chief command given to Capt. F. C. Bryant, senior officer
sn the spot on the Gold Coast. 1
Capt. (tempt. Lt.-Col.) Bryant reached Lome, by sea, with
two companies of the Gold Coast Regt., on Aug. 12 a total
itrength of 57 Europeans and 535 natives with 2,000 carriers.
He marched N. along the railway towards Kamina, being joined
)y Capt. Castaing's French contingent (three Europeans and
155 natives) on Aug. 18. The enemy had blown up the railway
>ridge over the Chra river and strongly entrenched a position
n dense bush N. of the stream. This position was attacked on
Vug. 22, but was not carried. The German force consisted of 60
Europeans and 400 native soldiers, and they had three machine-
;uns which were used to good purpose. The German losses were
light, the Allies' casualties were 73 (including 23 killed) or 17%
if the force engaged. During the night the Germans evacuated
heir position and fell back on Kamina. Maj. von Doring had
irobably learned that a separate French column from Dahomey
/as within two days' march of Kamina and that a second British
olumn was also approaching that place from the west. While
-ol. Bryant was preparing to attack Kamina, the Germans, on
he night of Aug. 24-5, blew up the wireless station and o^Aug.
I 6 after vain efforts to obtain terms, von Doring surrendered
! nconditionally. There were found to be 206 Europeans in
Lamina. In the previous fighting five Germans had been killed
1 It may be noted that the Colonial Office attempted to direct the
lovement of troops on the Gold Coast from London. Capt. Bryant,
owever, " did not see fit " to modify his plan of operations.
and 32 taken prisoner. Thus southern Togoland was in the hands
of the Allies; in the northern part Yendi surrendered to a British
force of one officer and eight men on Aug. 18, while a French
column of 630 rifles under Capt. Bouchez, coming from Upper
Senegal, covered 310 m. in 20 days in the height of the rainy
season and occupied Sansanne Mango and the rest of Togoland
with little opposition. Many of the German native troops de-
serted to the French. Some 200,000 rounds of soft-nosed bullets
issued by the German authorities were captured. The conquest
of Togoland a region the size of Ireland was notable not only
for its rapidity and neatness of execution, but for the fact that
the operations were conducted entirely by the local authorities
and by the troops on the spot when the war began in this
respect the little campaign was unique. After the conquest the
country was divided for administrative purposes into British and
French zones, the British occupying the western part, including
Lome. The natives settled down rapidly under their new masters.
By decision of the Supreme Council May 7 1919, the mandate to
administer Togoland was given to Great Britain and France. An
agreement of July 10 1919 divided the country into areas to be
administered by Britain and France respectively. This agreement,
which left the port and district of Lome to Britain, caused some
dissatisfaction in French colonial circles and was amended by a
convention of Sept. 30 1920 when in exchange for an enlarged area in
the interior Lome and the whole of the seaboard but 32 m. went
to France. The formal transfer of Lome to France followed in Oct.
1920. In the N. the area acquired by Britain included Yendi and
adjoining districts, thus bringing the whole of the Dagomba country
under British control. Of the total area of the German colony 13,500
sq. m. came under the British mandate and 20,200 sq. m. under the
French mandate. Of the pop., estimated (1920) at 1,250,000, some
850,000 lived in the French area. Europeans, mostly British and
French officials and traders, numbered about 500. There was also
an energetic colony of Syrian traders.
The railways fell within the French area. They consisted (1921)
of a line from Lome N.E. to Atakpame, completed in 1911 and 102
m. long ; from Lome along the coast to Anecho (27 m.) and from Lome
N.W. to Palime (74 m.). They are all of metre gauge. The principal
articles of commerce are products of the oil and coconut palms, cot-
ton, maize, cocoa, live stock, rubber, sisal and other fibres. Of these
the most important are palm oil and kernels. There is a considerable
transit trade between the Gold Coast and Lome and between
Anecho and Dahomey. In 1910 exports were valued at 360,000,
and imports at 570,000. In 1913, the last full year of German rule,
exports were valued at 455,000 and imports at 530,000. Cotton
yarns, textiles, hardware and building material were the chief im-
ports. In 1913 Germany took 60% of the exports and supplied 42 %
of the imports. After the Allied occupation trade for several years
was mainly with neighbouring countries and the United Kingdom.
In 1918 the value of exports from Lome reached 434,000, and the
value of imports 385,000. In 1919 the figures were: exports 880,-
ooo, imports 680,000. After 1914 the cultivation of maize, cotton,
sisal and cocoa increased the cocoa exported in 1919 was worth
140,000, the cotton 120,000.
Togoland was the only German protectorate in Africa which had
become self-supporting, revenue rising from 132,000 in 1909 ta
169,000 in 1913. The Germans levied a poll tax of 6 marks on the
natives; on the Allied occupation direct taxation was abolished.
Under the British and French the respective portions of Togoland
continued to be self-supporting. The British portion was attached
to the Gold Coast Colony, the French portion to Dahomey. Local
autonomy was preserved. In Aug. 1920 the French established in
their area an administrative council, on which non-officials, includ-
ing one native, had seats, with a consultative voice in drawing ur>
the budget.
See Togoland (1920) a British Foreign Office handbook, with
bibliography, and for the 1914 campaign the British White Paper
Correspondence relating to the military operations in Togoland (Cd.
7872, 1915). See also A. F. Calvert Togoland (1918). (F. R. C.)
TOKUGAWA, YOSHINOBU [KEIKI], PRINCE (1837-1913),
Japanese statesman, was the last Shogun of the Tokugawa
Government (see 26.1047), succeeding the i4th Shogun, lemochi,
in 1866. At that time already a man of matured intellect and
high capacities, although his succession had been obtained by the
conservatives, he soon displayed an advocacy of liberal progress.
He showed great diplomatic tact in the solution of the feuds
between the Satsuma and Chosu, and also in opposing the anti-
foreign agitation supported by the latter. Realizing after a year's
time that the proper government of the country was impossible
if continued on the lines of feudalism, which was a bar to all
progress and a source of continual internal strife, the Shogun
handed in his resignation to the Emperor on Oct. 14 1867. This
736
TORONTO TORPEDO
act of sacrifice was the prelude to the dawn of the enlightened
Meiji era at the beginning of 1868. The anti-foreign agitation
ceased, the Emperor received and treated as honoured guests the
representatives of foreign Powers, and Japan was thrown open
to the world. Tokugawa, having renounced his shogunate
rights, retired to a strictly private life from which he never
emerged. He even renounced the succession to his title for his
direct heir in favour of a collateral branch of the family. The
Emperor Meiji accepted that renunciation, but he gave him
another title of prince to be bequeathed to his own son.
TORONTO (see 27.52), the chief city of Ontario, Canada, is the
second city in size in the Dominion. In 1911 its pop. was 376,538;
in 1921 the estimated pop. was nearly 600,000. Canada's great-
est manufacturing district centres about Toronto. The city
contained in 1921 about 1,400 factories employing 85,000 hands
and producing goods annually to the value of $300,000,000.
The bank clearings in 1920 amounted to $5,410,214,802, Montreal
being the only Canadian city that surpassed Toronto in this
respect. Fourteen of the chartered banks of Canada had their
headquarters in Toronto in 1921.
Buildings erected since 1911 include St. Paul's Anglican Church,
a fine edifice in the early English Gothic style, seating 3,000 persons ;
the Timothy Eaton Memorial Church, the greatest architectural
ornament of Canadian Methodism, erected by the Eaton family at a
cost of nearly $1,000,000; a 2O-storey office building by the Royal
Bank of Canada ; a similar building by the Canadian Pacific railway,
and several buildings for the university of Toronto. For several
years preceding 1921 a large new Union station was under con-
struction, and in that year was close to completion.
The Toronto hydro-electric system is one of the largest municipal
supply undertakings on the continent of America. The manage-
ment of the distributing system of the city was vested in 1911 in a
board of three commissioners. The history of the enterprise has been
one of phenomenal growth. Over 171,000,000 k.w. hours were sold
during 1917 with a connected load of over 169,000 H.P.
The total assessed property in the city in 1919 was $642,816,090,
an increase of 900 % since 1885. A project was under way in ui2i
for the building of a 63 m. boulevard driveway by the municipality.
The main boulevard which would be 33 m. long and from 100 to 500
ft. wide would completely encircle the city. Toronto took over its
own street railways from a private company in 1921, and has since
operated them for the benefit of the municipality. The Toronto
Exhibition, the largest annual exhibition held on the continent of
North America, drew 1,201,000 visitors in 1919. The construction
of the Welland Ship Canal, which was in hand in 1921, was expected
to make the port of Toronto accessible to the larger vessels plying
on the Upper Lakes. A scheme for the development of the harbour,
which had been begun previous to 1917, was well under way in
1921. The project included the reclaiming of Ashbridge's Bay,
known now as the Harbour Terminal Industrial District, the improv-
ing of the waterfront, the deepening of the harbour, and the con-
struction of permanent breakwaters and concrete piers.
Toronto University has benefited greatly by large gifts from Sir
John and Lady Eaton, Sir Edmund Osier and Sir Joseph Flavelle.
In connexion with it a School of Engineering Research was founded
in 1917 and a Faculty of Music was inaugurated the same year. A
department of Social Service was founded, and in war time the
university established courses for the training of masseuses that
drew students from all over Canada. Hart House, a magnificent
building in the Gothic style, was built by the university during the
war and housed a number of war activities. It contains quarters for
both the students' and Faculty unions, a dining hall, a gymnasium,
a theatre and extensive offices for undergraduates' use. Dormitory
residences were secured for students in the departments of Political
Science and Medicine, and new residences were opened for woman
students. An Electrical Engineering building, to cost 8350,000,
was under construction in 1921, and a University Press was also
being built. The attendance at Toronto University in 1921 was well
over 5,000, the highest university attendance in the British Empire.
TORPEDO (see 27.53). In the World War of 1914-8 the tor-
pedo played a most important part, especially as employed by
the German submarines during the " ruthless " submarine cam-
paign, which reached its height in April 1917, when enormous
losses were caused by it to British and Allied merchantmen and
fishing vessels. The total losses of British merchant ships due to
submarines during the period Aug. 1914 to Nov. 1918 amounted
to over six and a half million tons, and a very large proportion
of this can be ascribed to torpedoes. In addition, British naval
losses by torpedo over the same period included: 6 battleships,
5 cruisers, 3 light cruisers, 10 leaders, T.B.D's and T.B's, 4 sub-
marines and 36 miscellaneous craft. Among these were H.M.S.
" Goliath," a battleship of 12,950 tons, sunk by a Turkish T.B.D.
in May 1915 in the Dardanelles. That the torpedo menace
largely influenced Adml. Jellicoe's tactics at the Battle of Jut-i
land is plain from his own book (The Grand Fleet, 1914-1916).
At Jutland the Germans on their side sustained considerable
loss or damage from torpedoes; the battleship " Pommern ")
and the light cruisers " Frauenlob," " Wiesbaden " and " Ros-
tock " were sunk in this way, and 10 other ships were hit, three
of which subsequently sank from other causes. The Germans
fired between 60 and 70 torpedoes during the action and obtained
two hits, one on the " Marlborough " and one on the " Shark ";
the latter ship was sunk.
Apart from their use of the torpedo by larger ships, torpedo-
boats and destroyers, the World War saw them also made the
weapon of the coastal motor boat (C.M.B.), the development!
of which in 1916 had been made possible by the installation of the
internal combustion engine. The first operation on record
carried out by British C.M.B's armed with torpedoes was an
attack on German T.B.D's off Ostend, several destroyers being
sunk. These C.M.B's operated from Dunkirk. Subsequently!
C.M.B's were extensively used off the Belgian coast, and played
a most important part in the blocking operations at Zcebrugge.
They were also largely used in the Baltic (notably at Kronstadt)
and Caspian Seas, and also at Murmansk.
-
FIG. 2. Discharge of torpedo from aeroplane.
A more novel use was the discharge of torpedoes from aero-
planes (see figs, i and 2). It is claimed that this was first accom-
plished in 1911 by an Italian, one Capt. Guidoni, who released
a 35o-lb. torpedo from an 8o-H.P. Farman machine. In the
same year the matter was taken up by various British naval
experts who realized the possibilities of this form of attack from
the air. Notable amongst these was Comm. (later Adml.) Murray
Sueter. Adml. Fiske of the U.S. navy was also writing on the
subject as early as 1912. By the end of 1913, the first British
flight was carried out with a Sopwith seaplane carrying a i4-in.
torpedo off Calshot, Southampton, and special machines were
subsequently ordered by the British Admiralty. During 1914
experiments were proceeded with using " Short " seaplanes, and a
TORPEDO
737
1 specially light torpedo was designed for aircraft purposes. When
the World War broke out, it was realized that means would have
to be provided to carry the torpedo planes into proximity to their
objectives, and H.M.S. " Engadine " and " Riviera " were fitted
; out for North Sea operations. Later, in May 1915, H.M.S.
" Ben-my-Chree " was sent out to the Dardanelles as an air-
craft carrier. She carried two torpedo seaplanes, in addition to
reconnaissance aircraft. In 1916-7 the first torpedo planes were
[ produced capable of flying off a ship's deck. About this time
British naval authorities became convinced of the value of
: torpedo aircraft, and a large number were ordered. Delivery
commenced in 1918 concurrently with special training of tor-
pedo plane pilots, and in Oct. H.M.S. " Argus " embarked the
first completed squadron of torpedo planes. In the first instance,
experimental work was concentrated at Felixstowe in 1916,
and in 1917 a torpedo seaplane school was established at Scapa
Flow, which latter station was closed down after the Armistice.
A torpedo seaplane school was also opened at Gosport, and ex-
perimental work and training is now carried out from here,
pilots being embarked from time to time on board the aircraft
carriers attached to the fleet.
In Aug. 1915 an attack was made on a s,ooo-ton merchant
1 ship by a short torpedo seaplane from H.M.S. " Ben-my-Chree "
in the Dardanelles. A hit was obtained amidships, and spray
and flying fragments observed. A few days later three Turkish
ships at anchor were attacked, one being hit and subsequently
gutted by fire, though the hull was salved. In the early part of
1017, the Germans, who had a squadron of torpedo planes at
, Zeebrugge, made several attacks on British merchant ships in
the Downs. Three were sunk and one enemy aircraft shot down.
Construction. In the British service the l8-in. and 2i-in. torpedoes
are the only sizes now made ; the former are supplied for use in sub-
marines, C.M.B.'s and aircraft, and the latter in capital ships,
\ light cruisers and destroyers.
_ Constructed of steel plating, except for the air chamber, and of
i circular cross section, the profile of the torpedo is cigar-shaped, with
.a blunt-shaped head, a parallel portion and a fine run aft to the tail.
i Commencing from the forward end, the torpedo is divided into six
compartments: the head, the air vessel, the balance chamber, the
engine room, the buoyancy chamber, the tail. These may be
'described as follows, (i) The Head. There are two types, the War-
head containing the explosive and the Collision-head used for
practice. The former carries a charge of T.N.T. which is detonated on
contact by a device known as the pistol, through the medium of a de-
tonator of fulminate of mercury and a suitable priming charge. The
pistol itself consists of a metal body which is screwed into the War-head
and carries a striker which has externally projecting arms. On one
of these arms, coming into contact with any object, the striker is
forced in against the resistance of a shearing pin (which is provided
for safety), and the detonator is struck. This in turn detonates the
" primer " and the main charge. In the case of the " net cutter,"
used when attacking ships protected by nets, the action is similar,
but ^the cutter is provided in addition with sheering devices for
:utting through the meshes and opening up a hole sufficiently large
to enable the torpedo to pass through. Nets are not now carried by
modern capital ships of any nation, but the net cutter might be
if use against net-defended bases. The Collision-head, used for prac-
tice, is a_ steel shell partially filled with cork to insure buoyancy in
:ase of impact with a target ship. It is brought up to approximately
War-head weight by filling it with water before practice running,
ind is so constructed that, on hitting, the fore part collapses, thereby
essening the blow on the plating of the ship and the shock on the
:orpedo itself. To facilitate recovery, an indicating light is fitted
n a pocket in the Collision-head, consisting of phosphide of calcium
n a tin container. On coming in contact with water this chemical
us the property of spontaneously bursting into flame, which shows
}n the surface, thereby indicating the position of the torpedo.
[2) The Air Vessel. This consists of a special nickel-steel forging
xmtaining the compressed air which provides the motive power of
:he torpedo. It is closed at either end by special dome-shaped
nieces, screwed and sweated into place. To the sides of the vessel
ire secured the lugs or brackets which take the weight of the torpedo
n the case of above- water discharges and the stresses on the torpedo
)n discharge from submerged tubes. (3) The Balance Chamber is
ivetted and sweated on to the after end of the air vessel, and forms a
vatertight compartment which contains the depth-keeping mechan-
sm, the heater apparatus and the supply of fuel (either alcohol or
letroleum in some form) in a special flask. In this compartment is
ilso situated the charging valve and the stop valve in the main air
)ipe, which enables pressure to be isolated when it is necessary to
emove the after part of the torpedo for examination of engines, etc.
The depth-keeping mechanism, Mr. Whitehead's secret, consists of a
xxxn. 24
pendulum weight and a hydrostatically operated valve, linked
together by rods in such a manner that the weight corrects depart-
ures from the horizontal trim of the torpedo, whilst the valve keeps
the torpedo at its set depth. Their joint action operates the hori-
zontal rudders of the torpedo through the medium of a small air
engine termed the servomotor. (4) The Engine Room is the next
compartment abaft the balance chamber. It is not watertight, and
together with the "buoyancy chamber," to which it is rivetted and
sweated, forms what is known as the " afterbody." This portion of
the torpedo is secured to the " air vessel balance chamber " por-
tion by a number of screwed bolts, which allows of the torpedo being
easily " parted " for examination of the mechanism in the engine
room. This mechanism consists of: (a) the engines, which are of
the single-acting four-cylinder Brotherhood type; (6) the steering
engine or servomotor; (c) the starting valve and counter gear;
(d) the reducing valve, which maintains a constant reduced working
pressure at the engines, irrespective of the air-vessel pressure, thus
insuring an approximately constant speed throughout the set range;
(e) oil Dottles for lubricating various working parts. The starting
valve is operated by an air-lever which projects through the shell of
the torpedo and is thrown aft by a downward projecting bolt in the
torpedo tube on discharge. In addition to opening the starting
valves, the air-lever in its backward movement presses against a
rod which releases the gyroscope. The counter gear,, which is
mounted on the starting valve casing is a piece of mechanism
driven off the engines for stopping the torpedo at a pre-determined
range. Off the counter is also driven the ignition gear, whose func-
tion is to fire the cordite igniters in the " heater " arrangement at a
pre-determined moment, and start the combustion of the air and
fuel. In the earlier torpedoes, the counter also operated the " sink-
ing gear." This gear can be set to " float " for practice or " sink "
for action and when set for the latter adjustment a small valve is
lifted at the end of the run and water is admitted into the buoyancy
chamber, thus sinking the torpedo, which might otherwise remain a
dangerous floating mine. (5) The Buoyancy Chamber provides a large
proportion of buoyancy of the torpedo, and consists of a thin sheet-
steel shell, strengthened up by internal angle rings, to enable it to
withstand external pressure, due either to immersion at great depths
or to impulse pressures on discharge. To the foremost bulkhead of
this compartment are secured the engines. Two watertight tubes
run through it, one centrally carrying the propeller shaft, and the
other to one side carrying the rod connecting the servomotor or
steering engine, and the horizontal rudders. The sinking valve is on
this bulkhead. The remaining fittings in this compartment consist of
the gyroscope which is fixed to suitable brackets secured to the shell,
and the gyroscope rudder rod, which passes through a watertight
gland in the after bulkhead. A watertight removable door is also
fitted at the bottom of the chamber to obtain access to the gyroscope.
This piece of apparatus consists of a comparatively heavy bronze
wheel, delicately mounted in ball bearings in an inner horizontal
gymbal. This in turn is mounted in an outer vertical gymbal
capable of rotational movement within the framework of the in-
strument. The wheel is initially spun at a high rate of revolution
about its axis in the inner gymbal, due to the release of a strong
spiral spring in torsion. This release takes place when the air-lever is
thrown aft on discharge, after which the whole system of wheel and
gymbals is freed from external constraint. The design is such that all
axes of rotation of wheel and gymbals meet in a common point at the
centre of gravity of the wheel. Consequently, in theory, if the instru-
ment is in adjustment there are no external forces acting on the wheel
or system except friction and windage, and, following the well-known
dynamical laws of rotating bodies, the spinning axis tends to main-
tain its direction in space no matter how the apparatus is moved
bodily. Practically, of course, slight errors do creep in, due to minute
manufacturing differences, etc., but if the gyroscope is in good condi-
tion, the effect of these is barely noticeable until the initial wheel
speed has dropped considerably. It will therefore be seen that the
axis of the spinning wheel provides a datum line, the direction of
which is the direction of the gyro wheel on release, i.e. in the longitu-
dinal axis of the tube and torpedo. Subsequent deviations of the
torpedo from the correct line in a horizontal plane, cause relative
movement of the spinning axis, and fore and aft line of the torpedo.
These relative movements are communicated to a delicate rotary
valve through the medium of a small pin mounted on the outer
gymbal. This rotary valve controls the air supply to a small steering
engine which operates rudders on the vertical fins, so bringing the
torpedo back to its original direction. (6) The Tail is a non-water-
tight conical steel shell carrying the horizontal and vertical fins and
rudders. The fins are fixed to the tail and the rudders are carried in
suitable brackets on their after edges. This portion of the torpedo
also contains the gearing which enables the two four-bladed pro-
pellers to be driven in opposite directions off the same engine. The
provision of two propellers is necessary in order that the torpedo
shall remain upright during the run, andjthese are so shaped that the
turning effect of one is balanced by-that of the other.
The Director. The name of " director " is given to the sight by
means of which the firing officer is enabled to fire the torpedo at the
correct moment. This he does by pressing a key which completes
the circuit of the electrical portion of the firing gear at the tube.
There are a number of types of sight extant, each of which has been
738
TOSTI TRACTORS
designed to suit special conditions, chiefly as regards environment,
e.g. the director on an above- water tube in a torpedo-boat destroyer,
the director in the conning tower of a capital ship, etc. The same
underlying principle obtains in every case. Suppose, a torpedo be
discharged (see fig. 3) from A so as to hit a ship steaming in the
direction BC at C. B is the position of the enemy ship at the mo-
ment of firing. Completing the triangle on a convenient scale, clearly
FIG. 3. Diagram illustrating the principle of the Director Sight
(A) on own ship at moment of firing, (B) target ship at moment of
firing, (C) position of target when torpedo hits.
AC is to BC as " speed of torpedo " is to " speed of sailing " ; and
AB is the line of sight, its length and direction representing the
velocity and direction of the torpedo relative to the target. Alter-
natively AC is to BC as the " running range of torpedo to hit "
is to the " distance the target moves during time of flight of torpedo,"
and the length of AB is a measure of the firing range. In addition, if
AC is taken to represent the maximum running range of the torpedo,
the length AB is a measure of the maximum possible shot " range
under a given set of conditions as regards enemy speed and course.
If the range-finder range when the sights come on is greater than that
represented by the length AB, the torpedo will not reach its objec-
tive. It is obvious that a set of three bars, arranged so as to be
capable of sliding and pivoting over each other, provide a torpedo
sight which can be graduated so that the possible shot range can be
read off direct after the sight is adjusted and torpedo fire withheld if
necessary. Earlier types actually took this form, a foresight being
fitted at the B end of the bar AB and a backsight at A.
It will be seen that the chances of obtaining hits with torpedoes are
almost entirely dependent on the correct estimation of the enemy's
course and speed, and the officer handling the instrument has to be
a highly skilled specialist in these duties. It will also be seen that
the effect of errors in estimation will vary in direct proportion to the
number of ships comprising the target, and to the running range to
obtain a hit, and are inversely proportional to the speed of the tor-
pedo, for any particular speed of enemy. It is therefore clear that
attacks on single ships under way are not likely to be successful un-
less carried out at short range, and that to insure success against an
enemy fleet at long range, it is necessary to fire a large number of
torpedoes. A large proportion of these will be wasted, but a torpedo-
infested zone will result, which the enemy will find difficult to avoid,
unless he is prepared to make large alterations of course, and these
will undoubtedly affect the efficiency of his gunfire very seriously.
The most obvious way of producing these torpedo-infested zones
is to employ large numbers of torpedo-boat destroyers against the
enemy, but this must not be considered to be an argument for the
abolition of torpedo tubes in big ships, the mere fact that torpedoes
are carried by opposing capital ships having a considerable bearing
on the tactics employed and the ranges at which the action is
fought. (W. M. M. R.)
TOSTI, SIR FRANCESCO PAOLO (1846-1916), composer and
teacher of singing, was born at Ortona, Abruzzi, April 9 1846.
He began his musical studies at Naples at the age of 14. In 1876
he paid his first visit to England ; five years later he was appointed
teacher of singing to the Royal family and settled in England.
He published many songs, which from the first had a wide
success, the most famous being " Goodbye," " Ask Me No
More," and " For Ever." He was knighted in 1908. He died
at Rome Dec. 2 1916.
TOURNEUX, JEAN MAURICE (1849-1916), French man of
letters (see 27.107), died in Paris Jan. 13 1916.
TOWNSEND, MEREDITH WHITE (1831-1911), English journal-
ist, was born at Bures, Suffolk, April i 1831, and educated at
Ipswich grammar school. In 1848 he went out to India, and
four years later became editor of the Friend of India, acting also
for some years as Times correspondent. In 1860 he returned to
England and purchased the weekly Spectator (see 19.562). With
R. H. Hutton he was joint-editor until 1898, and he was largely'
instrumental in making it an established success, writing most
of the political articles and the opening paragraphs every week. [
His two chief publications were The Great Governing Families*
of England (1865), written in conjunction with Langton Sanford,
and Asia and Europe (1901). He died at Little Bookham,
Surrey, Oct. 21 1911.
TOWNSHEND, SIR CHARLES VERB FERRERS (1861- ),
British general, was born Feb. 21 1861, and joined the Royal
Marines in 1881. He served at Suakin in 1884, and in the
Nile expedition of the following year. He joined the Indian
army in 1892 and was present in the Hunza-Nagar operations
of that year. He greatly distinguished himself by his gallant
defence of the Chitral fort during its prolonged siege in 1895, ;
for which he was rewarded with the C.B. and a brevet majority. I
Then, in 1897-8, he served with the Egyptian army in the
reconquest of the Sudan and won the D.S.O., shortly after I
which he was transferred to British Infantry. He served for '
some months in the field during the S. African War, was pro-
moted colonel in 1904, was for some time on the staff in India, i
afterwards commanded a district in S. Africa, and was promoted j
major-general in 1911. He was then for some months in charge :
of a Territorial division at home, after which he went to India
to command a brigade.
In April 1915 he was sent to Mesopotamia to take over com-
mand of the 6th (Indian) Division in that theatre of war. Aided :
by some other troops his division worked its way up the Tigris,
driving the Turks out of more than one fortified position, and ;
on Sept. 28 Townshend signally defeated the enemy near Kut-
el-Amara and occupied the town, while detachments pursued
the enemy halfway to Baghdad; shortly afterwards he was in- I
structed to advance and occupy that city. On the move being
made, he encountered the enemy in superior numbers at Ctesi-
phon, and after severe fighting was obliged to effect a retreat
of 120 m. to Kut, and there he and his force were speedily
hemmed in. A skilful and resolute defence was made, lasting
143 days till the end of April 1916 but then, supplies being ex- j
hausted and all efforts at relief having failed, he was obliged
to capitulate. He was rewarded with the K.C.B. for his services.
He remained a prisoner of war near Constantinople until Oct.
1918, when he acted as intermediary between the Porte and the
Allies in adjusting the Armistice. He retired from the army
in 1920, and entered Parliament as member for the Wrekin |
division of Shropshire.
TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL (1836-1919), American Hebrew
scholar (see 27.114), died in Cambridge, Mass., May 12 1919.
In 1913 he published Introduction to the History of Religions.
TRACTORS. The petrol tractor for agricultural and kindred :
purposes is a development of the steam traction engine, widely
used for operating grain threshers and to a small extent for plough-
ing. Steam ploughs were used toward the end of the igth j
century on the large ranches of the north-western section of the
United States, in Canada and in Egypt. Their usefulness was
limited, however, owing to their great weight, which resulted
in the packing of the soil and in rather inefficient operation.
When the weight of the petrol engine was greatly reduced by
motor-car engineers, about 1900, the idea of substituting that
type for the heavy steam plant naturally suggested itself.
TRACTORS
739
The first petrol tractors seem to have been those built by the
Huber Mfg. Co., of Marion, O., in 1898. These were not
successful and only 30 were completed. In 1901 the Hart-Parr
Mfg. Co., of Charles City, la., engaged in the manufacture of
petrol tractors, and, although this company met with many
difficulties, it was successful and, after 19 years of continuous
manufacture, produced in 1920 5,000 tractors. There are two
general types of agricultural tractor, the wheeled and the crawler,
or caterpillar, types. The crawler type, in which the weight is
spread over a large supporting surface on the ground, can pass
over marshy land where the wheeled tractor would be mired, and
when used for pulling barrows, seeders and other implements
over ploughed ground, does not pack the soil as a wheeled
tractor would. Early technical development was chiefly to-
ward large tractors, designed to operate from 6 to 12 plough
bottoms, because the only farmers who then took an interest
in tractors were the owners of large ranches in western America.
The largest producers of petrol tractors in the United States
between 1905 and 1913 were manufacturers whose main line
was general agricultural machinery and steam traction engines,
such as the International Harvester Co., the J. I. Case T. M.
Co., and Emerson-Brantingham Co. The large petrol tractors
of that period were crude in design and very heavy; their frames
were built up of heavy rolled channels, and they had driving
wheels of enormous diameter. Their great weight naturally
rendered them inefficient, for a large proportion of the engine
power was consumed in moving the tractor itself. The oil-pull
tractor shown in fig. i is characteristic of tractors of that period.
FIG. i.
Agricultural Tractors. Tractors are usually rated in terms of the
number of 14-in. plough bottoms which they will pull. In 1920, of
loo models on the American market capable of pulling two or more
' bottoms, 20 were two-plough tractors; 42 three-plough; 17 four-
' plough and the rest were capable of pulling five or more ploughs.
Table I shows the production of tractors in the United States each
year from 1909 to 1920.
Table I. Tractor Production in the United States.
1909
. . . 2,270
1915 .
21,900
1910
4,500
1916
29,670
1911
7,400
1917 .
62,742
1912
11,400
1918 .
. 132,697
1913
7,450
1919 .
136,162
1914
10,400
1920
. 203,300
According to a statement issued by the Ministry of Transport, there
'were 10,161 agricultural tractors in the United Kingdom in 1921.
Of the tractors produced in the United States 14,854 were exported
in 1917, 36,351 in 1918, 19,693 in 1919, and 29,143 (valued at
830,850,000) in 1920. It will be seen from the above table that a
slump in tractor production occurred in 1913. It was in 1912 that
the business in the large tractors of 6-to 12-plough capacities reached
its zenith, and thereafter it declined rapidly. The first popular
small tractor, the Bull, was brought out the following year, and in
1914, no fewer than 3,000 tractors of this make were sold. Although
smaller, it was still of the same crude design as the larger machines,
with exposed gears, plain bearings and similar features. About
1916 a number of engineers with motor-car experience entered the
tractor field, and as a result of their efforts tractor design was
greatly improved. Before 1920 many farm tractors were designed
to use paraffin as fuel, because paraffin was considerably cheaper
than petrol, and the conditions of engine operation on a tractor
(constant speed and steady, heavy load) made it comparatively
easy to burn paraffin with a moderate degree of success. Petrol,
however, proved much more satisfactory in the average engine,
and when in 1919 the price of paraffin advanced sharply, tractor
users generally turned to petrol. The consumption of petrol in gal-
lons per acre is less, there is less difficulty in cold weather and the
oil in the crank case does not lose its lubricating value so quickly.
For the sake of economical manufacture many of the earlier small
tractors were made with only three wheels, but the buying public
did not approve of this feature of construction, and the typical
1920 wheeled tractor had four wheels, two in front steering and two
in the rear for driving. The Twin City 12-20 H.P. tractor shown
FIG. 2.
in fig. 2 is a good example of the lighter tractors based on motor-
car practice. The following is a composite description of a 1920
model three-plough tractor, the features mentioned being those
found on the greatest number of models of this capacity; there was
a four-cylinder, four-stroke vertical engine at the front, of about
4f-in. bore by 6-in. stroke, adapted to burn either petrol or paraffin.
Ignition was by a high-tension magneto with impulse starter.
(The latter device consisted of a spring attachment for magnetos
specially developed for use on tractors, which made it unnecessary
to " spin " the heavy engines in order to generate a spark in the
magneto.) The carburetor was fitted with an air cleaner, which
prevented gritty dust from getting into the engine and rapidly
wearing out the cylinder barrels. These air cleaners usually acted
on the centrifugal principle, but in the lava-ash districts on the
Pacific coast it was necessary to employ air washers, owing to the
lightness of the dust. Behind the engine there was a friction clutch,
and then came the change-speed gear, which gave two forward
speeds and one reverse. The higher forward speed was for regular
use in ploughing and the lower for emergencies, for ploughing up
steep inclines, in heavy soil, etc. Then there was a further reduc-
tion by gears to the rear axle. The engine speed was limited by a
governor to about 800 revolutions per minute, and as the ploughing
speed was about 2f m.p.h.; with 48-in. driving wheels, a reduction
of roughly 40 to I had to be provided between engine crankshaft
and rear axle or rear wheels. In the early tractors the final drive
was through exposed bull gears directly on the driving wheels, but
the typical 1920 tractor had all its gearing enclosed and protected
from dust and mud, which is an important feature in a machine
FIG. 3.
operating in the fields during the wet season as well as when the
soil is dry and dusty. The wheelbase of the tractor was 96 in. and
its weight about 5,000 pounds. The wheels were built up of rolled
rims and flat spokes riveted to the hubs and rims. The driving
wheels were provided with angle-iron lugs to increase the traction,
and the front wheels with central skid rings to make the steering
more positive. The front axle was swivelled to the frame at the
middle, to permit the wheels to accommodate themselves to uneven
ground. In addition to the pivot joint a spring could be used between
the axle and the frame at the front to relieve shocks. These 1920
tractors were provided with a belt pulley for operating threshing
740
TRACTORS
machines, wood saws, silo fillers, etc. It was customary to apply
a double horse-power rating; for instance, a three-plough tractor
was often rated as a 12-25 H.P. machine. This signified that the
tractor could develop 25 H.P. on the belt and 12 H.P. on the draw-
bar, the difference of 13 H.P. being required for moving the tractor
itself over the field. In 1917 the Society of Automotive Engineers
standardized tractor belt speed at 2,600 ft. p.m. and the drawbar
height at 17 inches. Another class of wheeled tractor, having only
two wheels, is exemplified by the Moline Universal illustrated in
fig. 3. This is intended for cultivating as well as for ploughing and
similar work, and has the necessary clearance to pass over plants
2 ft. or more high. Another feature is that, by means of an exten-
sion to the control apparatus, it can be operated from the imple-
ment drawn, thus dispensing with the need for an extra man in
operating a self-binder, for instance. The crawling tractor had one
or two continuous-chain tracks on which it ran and which it car-
ried with it. That portion of the chain track in contact with the
ground had transverse projecting bars or depressions which caused
it to grip the ground firmly, while the upper side of the lower por-
tion of the chain formed a smooth track on which rolled idler wheels
carried on the frame of the tractor. The power from the engine was
transmitted through a suitable reduction gear to a pair of toothed
wheels which engaged with teeth or rollers on the inner side of the
track and, when power was applied by letting in the clutch, the
tractor rolled ahead on the track and the track at the same time
rolled forward. The power was applied to the two chain wheels
through a differential gear, and in order to steer a tractor of this
kind, one track was held stationary by means of a brake on the
shaft of its chain wheel, while all the power was applied to the
other chain wheel. The Cletrack tractor shown in fig. 4 was one of
FIG. 4.
the smallest tractors of this type. Much of the development work
in connexion with crawler tractors was done in California, where
the Holt, the Best and the Yuba, all tractors made in large sizes,
originated. The Holt, which is called a Caterpillar, became the
prototype for the " tanks " which played such an important part
in the World War. In 1920 many of these large crawler tractors
were used for other than agricultural purposes for example, in
oil-fields, in lumbering and in road-building; and the city of New
York that year purchased a large number for use in clearing the
streets of snow. The lumbering or logging work done was mainly
in swampy districts where previously it had been impossible to
work with horses except in winter when the ground was frozen,
whereas the crawler tractor made logging in such districts possible
the year round. The weight on the track of a crawler tractor of the
1920 type was as low as 5 Ib. per sq. in., and such a tractor could
go into boggy places where no wheeled vehicle could follow.
In 1919 the Legislature of the state of Nebraska passed a law
providing that thereafter no tractor should be sold in that state
until the manufacturer had first submitted a sample tractor for
trial to the Agricultural Engineering Department of the university
of Nebraska and the tractor had satisfactorily met the test required.
The manufacturer must also satisfy the state authorities that he is
maintaining an adequate supply of repair parts within the state.
This legislation was the result of complaints of farmers that manu-
facturers were overrating their tractors. The result was that,
during a period when 66 tractors were tested, the makers of 8 were
compelled to increase their rated engine speed, 13 lowered their
horse-power rating, 14 changed some part and 4 withdrew.
Cost of Tractor Ploughing. The three chief items of cost in trac-
tor ploughing are fuel, depreciation and labour. At the tractor
trials held at Lincoln, England, in the autumn of 1919, the fuel
consumption per ac. averaged almost exactly 4 imp. gal. for plough-
ing in heavy clay soil, and 3 gal. for ploughing on cliff lands. In the
corn belt of the United States, where the soil is comparatively light,
it has been customary to reckon on a fuel consumption (cither
petrol or paraffin) of 2-5 U.S. gal. (2 imp. gal.) per acre. On the
other hand, in a bulletin of the U.S. Department of Agriculture on
The Gas Tractor in Eastern Farming," a fuel consumption of 3%
U.S. gal. per ac. is made the basis of cost calculations of the eastern
section, and in the tractor trials held at Harrisburg, Pa., in 1919
the average fuel consumption of all tractors using paraffin worked
out at 3-28 U.S. gal. (2-62 imp. gal.) per acre. The fuel consump-
tion in tractor ploughing varies both with the character and condi-
tion of the soil and with the depth of ploughing. The average
depth of ploughing at Lincoln was sf inches. The resistance of the
soil (drawbar pull) averaged 11-5 Ib. per sq. in. for the heavy clay
soil and 9 Ib. per sq. in. for the cliff land. In the corn belt of the
United States the soil resistance generally varies between 5-5 and
7 Ib. per sq. in., and this explains the low fuel consumption in
ploughing there. The estimate here given of the cost of ploughing
one acre is based on the results of an inquiry by the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture among 400 tractor farmers in the Dakotas con-
cerning their experiences in 1917 and 1918. Only one change isi
made from the estimate of the department, namely, the assump-
tion of a tractor life of seven instead of nine years, which latteri
figure is admittedly too high. The answers to the questionnaire
yielded the averages shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Average Cost and Performance of Tractor Ploughing
in the Dakotas.
Two-plough
Tracton
Three-plough
Tractors
Four-plough |
Tractors
First cost .
Full working days
per year.
Acres ploughed per
lo-hr. day
$1,050
45
6-3
$1,460
52
8-5
$2,000
64
10-9
Other factors on which the estimate is based are the following:
Cost of petrol, $.276 per U.S. gal. ; paraffin, 8.152 per gal. ; lubricat-
ing oil, 8.50 per gal.; grease S.io per Ib. ; repairs, 4 % of first cost per j
year; depreciation on a 7-year basis; man labour at $4.00 per day;
interest at 6% on the average investment (one-half of total invest-
ment). Such items as housing, insurance and taxes are neglected.
Table j. Cost of Tractor Ploughing in the Dakotas ipif-S.
(Dollars per acre)
Size of Tractor
Total Cost of
Ploughing
Fuel
Oil
Petrol
Tractor
Paraffin
Tractor
Petrol
Paraffin
Two-plough .
Three-plough
Four-plough .
2-21
1-975
1-757
I-9I5
1-68
1-462
0-69
0-69
0-69
0-395
0-395
0-395
0-075
0-075
0-075
Other Items
Grease
Re-
pairs
Depre-
ciation
Man
Labour
Inter-
est
Two-plough .
Three-plough
Four-plough .
O-O2
O-O2
O-O2
0-15
0-13
O-II
o-53
o-49
0-409
0-635
0-47
0-368
o-n
O-IO
0-085
With the data here indicated it is possible to make a close esti-
mate of the cost of tractor ploughing under different conditions, as
all the basic costs are given. The average soil resistance in the
Dakotas may be assumed to be 8 Ib. per sq. inch. In heavier soils
the area ploughed per day will be less in substanjially the inverse j
ratio of the soil resistance (provided the latter is not excessive).
This is borne out by estimates of the ploughing capacities of the l
tractors which competed in the Lincoln trials of 1919, made by the |
judges of the event. Averaging the estimates for heavy clay soil
(soil resistance 11-5 Ib. per sq. in.), and reckoning on the basis of a j
lo-hr. instead of an 8-hr, day, the following results are obtained:
Two-plough tractor, 4^ ac., three-plough tractor, 5! ac., four-plough
tractor, 6 acres.
To the American and Canadian farmer the advantage of the trac-
tor is not so much that it reduces the cost of ploughing as compared
with horses, as that it enables one man to work a much greater
acreage. Approximately one-third of several hundred tractor
farmers in Illinois circularized by the U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture had increased their acreage by purchasing tractors. Anothe
great advantage is that the tractor permits work to be done quickly
when the weather is favourable. For instance, a southern Illinois
farmer estimates that in his neighbourhood the yield of Indian con
is reduced by I bus. per acre for every day that planting is delayei
after May 8. In 1920 the spring was so wet that he was able to won
in the field only the first day and the last day of April, not a day in
between ; but when the weather turned he was able, owing to hi
tractors, to get his crop in quickly.
TRACY TRADE BOARDS
74i
Power farming has proved particularly advantageous in the
wheat belt of Kansas: For the best yield the land must be ploughed
in Aug., when the temperature is often above 100 F. in the shade
and very little work can be accomplished with horses. The tractor
works as efficiently at this temperature as in winter. Moreover,
the tractor can be used also for threshing, and the old practice of
contract threshing has been largely superseded by the plan of four
or five farmers owning a small threshing machine cooperatively and
helping each other thresh their grain, each using his own tractor as
the motive power. A three-plough tractor is generally recommended
for a 20x36 in. grain separator. Sometimes it is necessary to get a
crop into the ground very quickly, and, with a double shift of opera-
tors, tractors can then be operated continuously day and night.
Interest in farm tractors increased greatly in Europe during and
following the World War. In 1919 and 1920 tractor trials were held
at Lincoln, England, the first under the auspices of the Society of
Motor Manufacturers and Traders and the second under that of the
Royal Agricultural Society. The French Government in 1920 paid
a bonus of 25 % on the purchase price of tractors of domestic manu-
facture and 10% on tractors of foreign manufacture. During the
war the British, French and Italian Governments contracted for
lar^e numbers of farm tractors in the United States. In 1919 there
was an international tractor demonstration and test at Sabyholm,
Denmark, in which Danish, Swedish, German, British and Ameri-
can tractors were entered. Several demonstrations were also held
in France in the years immediately following the World War;
French engineers paid particular attention to tractors for use in
vineyards, which must be very narrow. Those for use in orchards,
on which a number of American manufacturers specialize, must be
very low. A somewhat distinct type is the garden tractor for the
cultivation of row crops and general work in market gardening.
The Beenian, the first model of this type, was put on the market in
1915, and in 1919 about half a dozen other .tractors of this type
were brought out. For rubber-tired road tractors, see MOTOR
VEHICLES; for artillery tractors, see ARTILLERY.
BIHLIOGRAPHY. Barsch, Motorpfluge (1919); Page 1 , The Modern
Gas Tractor (1917); Sherwood, Tlie Farm Tractor Handbook (1919);
Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders, Report on the Tractor
Trials held at Lincoln (London, 1919, 1920); U.S. Department of
Agriculture, The Gas Tractor in Eastern Farming (1918), Tractor
Exlvrience in Illinois (1918) and The Farm Tractor in the Dakotas
(1919)- (P. M. H.)
TRACY, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1830-1915), American
soldier (see 27.127), died in New York City Aug. 6 1915.
TRADE BOARDS. An important factor in the regulation of
wages in England is now represented by the functioning of the
trade boards. The Trade Boards Act of 1909 was passed, as a
result of considerable agitation on behalf of workers who were
employed under " sweated " conditions, with a view to providing
machinery by which their wages might be raised to a more
satisfactory level.
This Act applied at once to four trades, namely: (i) readymade
and wholesale bespoke tailoring and any other branch of tailoring
in which the board of trade considered the system of manufacture
was generally similar to that prevailing in the wholesale trade;
(2) the making of boxes or parts thereof made wholly or partially of
cardboard, chip, or similar material; (3) machine-made lace and net
finishing and the mending or darning operations of lace curtains
and lace finishing; (4) hammered and dollied or tommied chain-
making. Provision was further made that the Act should be applied
to other trades by Provisional Order if the board of trade was
satisfied that the rate of wages prevailing in any branch of those
trades was exceptionally low as compared with that in other em-
ployments. These Provisional Orders required confirmation by
Parliament.
In addition to the trades originally specified four trades were
1 subsequently added under the Provisional Order procedure, making
1 a total of eight. The small number of trades to which the Act of
1909 was applied was due partly to the fact that the procedure by
Provisional Order was necessarily a slow and cumbrous process, and
: partly to the severe limits imposed by the provision that a board
1 could only be established where wages were exceptionally low.
In 1918 an amending Act largely extended the scope of the
previous Act. During the World War the whole basis of the
payment of wages to women had been altered by the Orders
made by the Minister of Munitions under Section 6 of the
Munitions Act of 1916; and, for a number of women largely in
excess of a million, the provisional rate at the conclusion of the
war was in the neighbourhood of ?d. to 8d. per hour. It was
recognized that if upon the return of peace the protection offered
by the Munitions Acts was suddenly withdrawn a reduction of
wages of a very disturbing character might ensue, and that it was
desirable that the large number of persons, both men and women,
in the unorganized trades, should have a similar measure of
protection to that which had been already offered by the Trade
Boards Act to those whom it covered.
The new Act made two amendments of a far-reaching character:
(a) The minister was empowered to apply it to any specified
trade " if he is of opinion that no adequate machinery exists for the
effective regulation of wages throughout the trade, and that accord-
ingly, having regard to the rates of wages prevailing in the trade, or
any part of the trade, it is expedient that the Act should apply to
that trade."
(6) In place of the procedure for application of the Acts by
Provisional Order, provision was made for the making of a special
Administrative Order, the latter a shorter process than the former,
although revision of the minister's proposals by Parliament is still
provided for.
Further amendments made by the new Act extended the powers
of trade boards with regard to the classes of rates of wages which
they could fix, and gave them also the right of requiring Government
departments to consider any proposal concerning the conditions in
their trade which they might care to make.
The effect of the new Act was to make the Acts applicable to a
much larger area of industry and to render legislation no longer
a means of protection for sweated trades only. This extension
of the scope of the Trade Boards Acts, apart from its desirability,
having regard to the special conditions likely to prevail during
the reconstruction period, was recommended also by the Com-
mittee on the Relations between Employers and Employed,
presided over by Mr. J. H. Whitley, M.P. This Committee
subsequently recommended that, while joint industrial councils
should be established for trades which were sufficiently organized
to control their own wage matters, it was equally desirable that
trade boards should be established for trades which had not yet
reached that degree of organization on both sides which would
make possible the complete observance of agreements arrived
at between organizations. It was made clear that there was no
conflict between the two forms of joint organization, and that
each was adapted to and intended for a different degree of or-
ganization in the trades concerned. In practice the principle
indicated by the Whitley Committee was the guiding principle
in the establishment of joint industrial councils and trade boards.
A rapid extension of existing trade boards followed, with the
result that, at the end of 1920, 49 additional trade boards for
England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland had been set up in the
following trades, covering about 33- million persons:
Dressmaking and women's light
clothing.
Grocery and provisions.
Hat, cap and millinery.
Milk distributive.
Great Britain.
Boot and shoe repairing.
Brush and broom.
Button making.
Coffin furniture and cerement
making.
Corset.
Cotton waste.
Flax and hemp spinning and
weaving.
Fur.
General waste.
Hair, bass and fibre.
Jute spinning and weaving.
Laundry.
Linen and cotton handkerchief,
etc.
Made-up textiles.
Paper bag.
Perambulator and invalid
carriage.
Pin, hook and eye and snap
fastener.
1 I Retail bespoke tailoring,
j Readymade and wholesale be-
[ spoke tailoring.
Rope, twine and net.
Stamped or pressed metal wares.
Tobacco.
Toy.
Wholesale mantle and costume.
England and Wales.
Aerated waters.
Scotland.
Aerated waters.
Dressmaking and women's light
clothing.
Hat, cap and millinery.
Milk distributive.
Grocery and provisions.
Ireland.
Aerated waters.
Boot and shoe repairing.
Brush and broom.
Dressmaking and women's light
clothing.
Flax and hemp spinning and
weaving.
General waste.
Hat, cap and millinery.
Laundry.
Linen and cotton handkerchief,
etc.
Milk distributive.
1 I Retail bespoke tailoring,
j Readymade and wholesale
{ bespoke tailoring.
Rope, twine and net.
Tobacco.
Wholesale mantle and costume.
1 Previously the Readymade Tailoring Trade Board (1909).
1919 two new boards were constituted.
In
742
TRADE UNIONS
The Trade Boards Acts provide for the appointment of joint
bodies, consisting of an equal number of employers' and work-
ers' representatives, together with a minority, usually three or
five, independent members known as appointed members. In
trades in which women are employed one of the appointed
members is a woman. The members of trade boards are all
appointed by the Minister of Labour (originally the president
of the Board of Trade), who, in the appointment of the employ-
ers' and workers' representatives, is bound to consult the organ-
izations on each side respectively. The appointed members
are impartial persons of standing nominated by the minister.
The procedure of the boards is regulated by statutory regula-
tions made by the Minister of Labour. Such regulations usu-
ally make provisions for a method of voting, and the regu-
lar reconstitution of the board; in all cases it is provided that
no new appointment shall be made to the board by the minister
until the board has had an opportunity of being heard. The
boards are provided with secretarial assistance by the Ministry
of Labour. They have power to form district committees for
such areas as they may consider to be necessary, the members
of which, like the members of the boards themselves, are ap-
pointed by the Ministry of Labour.
The boards are compelled, unless the Minister of Labour relieves
them of the duty, to fix a general minimum time-rate for the workers
engaged in the trades concerned. A trade board must also in certain
cases fix special minimum piece-rates on the application of an em-
ployer. A board has power also, if it so desires, to fix general mini-
mum piece-rates, guaranteed minimum time-rates, overtime-rates,
rates for special classes of workers, rates for special areas, rates for
special processes, rates for any class of work in any special process or
in any special area and piece-work basis time-rates. Rates may be
fixed so as to come into operation successively on the expiration of
specified periods, or to be valid during a specified period. For the
purposes of fixing overtime-rates a trade board may declare what
are the normal number of hours in the trade during which ordinary
rates of wages are payable, but they have no power to limit the
number of hours worked.
In fixing a minimum rate so as to apply to any; class of workers in a
trade, a board may attach to the fixing of the minimum rate a condi-
tion that workers who are members of a class must be holders of a
certificate from the trade board, or, if the persons are learners, such
conditions as the trade board considers necessary for the instruction
of these persons in the trade.
Decisions of trade boards come into obligatory operation by con-
firming order of the Minister of Labour, and the determinations of
trade boards have no force until so confirmed. A board's proposals
must be published for two months, during which time employers or
workers may lodge objections. On the expiration of the two months
the board may proceed to fix the rates. If, in the light of objections,
they wish to make substantial alterations, they must issue new
proposals. The rates when fixed are sent to the Minister of Labour,
who must forthwith take them into consideration and, except in
special circumstances, either make an order within a month making
the rates obligatory or refer them to the board for reconsideration.
By this procedure all those engaged in the trade are fully informed
as to the proposals, and are given full opportunity of making observa-
tions on them, and, further, Parliament, through the Minister of
Labour, can be assured that conditions harmful to the general
interests of the community are not made binding by statutory rates.
If district committees have been established, a trade board, before
proposing rates, is compelled to give the district committee con-
cerned an opportunity of being heard on the subject.
The Minister of Labour may at any time direct a trade board to
reconsider rates of wages which may be in operation, although he
has no power himself to fix rates of wages.
When rates of wages have been made operative they are enforced
by inspectors appointed by the Ministry of Labour, and penalties
for offences, such as non-payment of rates of wages, failure to post
such rates, or keep records, are punishable by fine or imprisonment.
A trade board has power to exempt employers from the payment of
minimum rates of wages in respect of workers who, through age or
infirmity, are rendered incapable of earning the minimum time-rate,
provided that the cases cannot suitably be met in the opinion of the
board by employing the worker on piece-work.
Apart from the fixing of minimum rates of wages, the certification
of learners and statutory and wage-fixing duties, the trade boards
also act as joint consultative bodies for their trades, and have been
so recognized by the Government for the purpose of advising them as
to the training of disabled men, the training of apprentices, the settle-
ment of disputes and other important matters.
In Sept. 1921 a Committee of Inquiry into the working of the
Trade Boards (which was being severely criticized in various quarters)
was appointed by the Ministry of Labour, under the chairmanship
(H. WF.)
of Viscount Cave.
TRADE UNIONS (see 27.140*). The history of Trade Unionism
in the United Kingdom and in the United States, during 1911-
21, is dealt with in detail, in separate sections, below; and in
the various articles under country headings information regard-
ing foreign countries will be found. The industrial unrest of the
years immediately preceding the World War was not by "any
means confined to Great Britain, and in the chief industrial
countries notable developments took place in the growth of trade
unionism. Trade unions in such countries as France, Germany,
Belgium and Austria, where the movement was of comparatively
early growth, received large accessions of membership, and
trade unions arose in other countries where any form of labour
association had been hitherto unknown. Even before the war,
however, there were certain notable exceptions. In Russia and
Japan, for example, every form of trade union was illegal, and
persons participating in trade union organizations did so at
the risk of death or imprisonment. Trade unions, therefore,
in those countries, either were secret associations working
underground, or masqueraded under the guise of friendly
societies or other bodies of a similar character. The war had
many diverse effects on the various trade union movements.
In the Central European countries the privations of the last two
years of the war were reflected in a great falling-off in trade union
membership. In Germany this was more than compensated for
by the reliance of the Republican governments which followed
the Armistice upon the help of the trade unions. This brought
to the trade unions a great number of new members, with the
result that in 1920 the German trade union movement was
actually the largest in the world. In Hungary, on the other hand,
the " White " government of the regent Horthy, which suc-
ceeded the short-lived Soviet republic of 1919, put down Trade
Unionism with the utmost severity, some 70% of the leaders
being executed. In the new States created by the Treaty of
Versailles, trade unionism was in 1921 generally weak, owing to
the existence of strong nationalist movements which absorbed
the energies of the population; but in some, such as Czecho-
slovakia, having a large industrial element, there was a trade
union movement of some size. In Russia, on the other hand,
the trade unions were an integral part of the Soviet Government,
and hence the inducement to the average workman to become a
trade unionist was greater than in any other country.
International Trade Union Associations. The chief inter-
national trade union body is the International Federation of
Trade Unions, to which most of the chief national trade union
bodies are affiliated. Its headquarters are in Amsterdam, and
in 1921 it had a membership of just under 24 millions. There
was an International Federation of Trade Unions in existence
before the World War, to which 19 countries were affiliated, with
a membership of about seven and a half millions. The structure
of this Federation was extremely loose; its activities included
the issue of statistics and reports, the passing of resolutions on
social legislation, the promotion of unity within the national
movements, and the arrangement of international appeals for
funds; but as a whole it was of little importance. For instance,
the British Trade Union Congress was not affiliated, Great
Britain's representative on the International being the General
Federation of Trade Unions. Its centre was at Berlin. During the
war this Federation fell to pieces, and a new one, the present
Federation was founded in 1919. Twenty-four countries were
affiliated in 1921, the most important exception being the
American Federation of Labor.
The structure of the International Federation of Trade Unions
remains very loose. It endeavours to promote the interests of
the affiliated bodies and of trade unionism in countries not
affiliated, to prevent international blacklegging, to provide funds
for purposes laid down in the rules and to promote combined
action on questions of trade union interest. In 1920 the
Federation attempted, in pursuit of the last object, to carry out
a blockade of the White Government in Hungary by international
action, but the blockade was unsuccessful. The Federation
makes no attempt to interfere with the policy or organization of
its affiliated membership. In contrast, the International Council
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
TRADE UNIONS
743
of Trade and Industrial Unions (the " Red " Trade Union
Membership of Trade Unions (Continued).
International) was found to act, in its own words, as a "militant
Membership
international committee for the reorganization of the trade union
Central Organization
No. of Trade
Unionists
of Interna-
ional Feder-
movement." Its headquarters in 1921 were at Moscow and it
Affiliated
ation July
was dominated by the ideals and influence of the Russian
Communist party. It would only accept as members trade
1921
Holland (continued)
General Trade Union
Federation (non-
unions or minorities of trade unions which it recognized as
.political) .
SO.OOO
revolutionary bodies. Besides these two general groupings, there
were in 1921 a number of international federations of workers in
different trades, of ever varying membership and importance.
Hungary (1920) .
Iceland .
Ireland (1920)
Jngarlandischer
Gewerkschaftsrat
"our Trade Unions
rish Trades Union
2I5,OOO
Not
152,441
cnown
A list of these, with their membership, where known, and head-
Congress and Labour
quarters, is given in the table on page 744.
Party ....
300,000
A table is also given showing comprehensively the membership
Membership of Ulster
of trade unions in different countries after the war. This table
Italy (1920) .
Unions . .
Confederazione Gene-
4OjOoo
does not take into account some minor associations and trade
rale del Lavoro.
2,000,000
2,055,773
unions which are not for various reasons affiliated to any of
Jnione Sindacale Ita-
the important central bodies. Nor does it include overlapping
liana ....
150,000
membership, e.g. in Great Britain the General Federation of
jeneral secretariat 01
Professional Unions
Trade Unions, whose members are also affiliated to the Trades
(Catholic) .
100,000
Union Congress. In such countries as Brazil, Armenia, Lithuania,
Latvia .
....
25,000
30,000
Turkey, Ukraine, China, the state of organization is not sufficient
to include them. In some countries which have been included
Luxemburg (1920)
Norway (1920)
Commission Syndicale
de Luxembourg
National Trade Union
27,000
27,000
the figures of membership given are approximate only. This is
Federation
150,000
150,000
naturally the case where trade unionism is subject to severe
repression, or where a particular organization, such as the
Industrial Workers of the World in the United States, has come
Poland (1920)
Portugal (1919) .
Rumania (1920) .
Trade Union Congress
^onfederajao General
do Trabalho
Trade Union Wing of
948,000
100,000
403,138
under the ban of the executive.
Social - Democratic
Labour Party .
200,000
Membership of Trade Unions in Different Countries after the War.
Russia (1920)
All-Russian Congress
of Trade Unions
5,222,000
^o. of Trade
Membership
Spain (1920)
Zonfederacion General
Central Organization.
Unionists
ional Feder-
del Trabajo
800,000
240,113
Affiliated
ation July
Jnion General de Tra-
IQ2I
bajadores .
300,000
Sweden (1920)
National Federation of
E UROPE:
Trade Unions .
280,987
277,242
Austria (1919)
Trade Union Commis-
Switzerland (1920)
federation of Trade
sion ....
928,146
I,OOO,OOO
Unions
225,000
223,558
Belgium (1920) .
industrial Branch of
Yugoslavia (1920)
"entraluo Radmitchko
Parti Ouvrier Beige.
670,000
718,410
Sindikalno Vetche .
250,000
25,000
Bulgaria (1920) .
General Federation of
AMERICA:
Trade Unions (Social
United States
Democratic)
28,OOO
4,000
(1920)
American Federation
Czechoslovakia
of Labor .
4,079,740
f t
(1920)
"ederation of Czecho-
Industrial Workers of
slovakia Trade Uni-
the World (1919) .
about
ons ....
352,000
740,000
70,000
federation of German
Canada (1919)
Dominion Trades and
Trade Unions .
360,000
g ,
Labour Congress
173,463
26O,OOO
Denmark (1919) .
federation of Trade
Total Trade Unionists
Unions
277,392
279-255
in Canada .
378,047
. .
Association of Free
' One Big Union "
Trade Unions (Syn-
(1920) about
40,000
dicalist)
8o,OOO
Argentina (1920) .
Federacion Obrera Re-
Esthonia (1919) .
Trade Union Congress
3O,OOO
gional Argentina
70,000
749,518
Finland (1920) .
Trade Union Federa-
Other Unions and Fed-
tion ....
55,000
erations
40,000
. .
France (1920)
Confederation Gn6-
Chile (1920) .
No Central Authority.
C.2O,OOO
1
rale du Travail .
1,500,000
1,500,000
Mexico (1921)
Regional Confederation
; Germany (1919) .
Allgemeiner Deutscher
8,000,000
of Labour .
C.SOO.OOQ
Gewerkschaftsbund .
7,338,132
Syndicalist and Com-
Hirsch-Duncker Trade
munist Federation .
. .
r f
Unions . . .
102,108
Peru
Federation of Artizans
Federatipn of German
and General Federa-
Trade Associations .
1,700,000
tion of Workers
C.25,000
25,000
I ndependent Unions
ASIA:
(1918)
214,360
India
Indian Trades Union
i
Alliance of Clerical anc
Congress .
unknown
. .
Technical Employees
(1018).
270,000
Japan
Japanese Federation
of Trade Unions
unknown
Great Britain
\* 7 ' '
Federation of Trade
(1920)
Trade Union Congress
6,505,482
6,600,000
Unions of Western
Greece (1920)
General Confederation
Japan.
unknown
. .
of Labour .
60,000
170,000
AFRICA:
Holland (1920)
Federation of Trade
South Africa
Unions
250,000
216,581
(1920)
South African Indus-
National Labour Sec-
trial Federation
60,000
6o,OOO
retariat (Syndica-
'AUSTRALASIA-.
list) . .
50,000
Australia (1919) .
No Central Body.
627,685
Christian Trade Unior
New Zealand
Federation .
70,000
(1920) .
New Zealand Workers
Roman Catholic Trade
Union and Alliance
Union Bureau .
150,000
of Workers
82,553
744
TRADE UNIONS
International Trade Union Federations and Estimated Membership,
Industry
Member-
ship
Headquarters
Agriculture
2 1^^ 8^S
Holland
Baking
_
Switzerland
Bookbinding
249,667
Switzerland
Boot, Shoe, and Leather Trades
Germany
Building Trades
800,000
Germany
Carpenters
Germany
Commercial and Clerical Employment
1,000,000
Holland
Diamond Workers ....
27,000
Belgium
Factory Industry
2,417,300
Holland
Food and Drink Trades
331.374
Switzerland
Fur Trade
Germany
Glass Trades
Germany
Hairdressing
Germany
iHat Trades
Germany
Hotels and Restaurants
200,000
Holland
Lithographic Printing ....
Belgium
^ 200,000
Switzerland
2,606,215
Great Britain
Painters
74.470
Germany
Paviors
Germany
Post Office
520,000
Austria
Pottery Trades
Germany
Printing Trades
Switzerland
Saddlers
Germany
Mercantile Marine ....
Belgium
State and Municipal Employment .
Holland
Stonemasons
155.350
Switzerland
Tailoring Trades
Holland
Textile Trades
Great Britain
Tobacco Trades
Holland
Transport (excluding Railways and
Mercantile Marine) ....
2,560,000
Holland
Woodworking Trades ...
800,000
Holland
UNITED KINGDOM
The history of British trade unionism in 1911-21 was one
of almost continuous and unparalleled expansion. Not only did
the percentage of trade unionists in all trades materially
increase, and the trades and industries in which trade unionism
was previously almost unknown reach a comparatively well-
organized condition, but the status of trade unions enormously
increased and their programmes and policy were canvassed in
quarters where before 1910 they met with no attention.
In numbers alone the growth is sufficiently remarkable. At
the end of 1910 the Board of Trade reckoned the total number of
trade unionists as 2,435,704; at the end of 1919 the official
figure was 8,023,761. At the annual Trades Union Congress of
1910 the number of trade unionists represented was 1,639,853;
in 1921, it was 6,389,123. This increase was not, of course,
evenly distributed between the several industries, though all
received a certain share. It was most remarkable on the railways
and in agriculture, among employees of the State, such as postal
workers and civil servants, among semi-skilled and unskilled
workers and women, in several minor industries, particularly
those affected by the Trade Boards Acts, and in the later years
among professionals and "salary-earners." Draughtsmen, fore-
men, architects, professional engineers, actors, law clerks and
commercial travellers are only a few of the classes in which
trade unionism found a new foothold, while in professions such
as teaching and journalism it gained a great deal of ground.
The causes of this great increase are many, some operating
generally and some in particular cases only. Undoubtedly a very
potent factor in all cases was good trade. Trade unions have
always, throughout their history, tended to flourish in times of
good trade and to decline in trade depressions, when unemploy-
ment makes the weekly contribution a serious drain on their
members' pockets, and unemployed benefit uses up the central
funds. The years from 1910 to 1914 were years of comparatively
good trade, and, after the first shock of war was over, they were
followed by such a trade boom as had never been known. With
five millions of workers withdrawn to the colours, needing to be
clothed and provisioned and supplied with munitions, the
demand for the services of those who remained was enormous.
There was practically no unemployment during the war, and,
although wages did not begin to rise until many months after
the war started, they yet rose much more rapidly than trade
union contributions, so that the worker found the burden of
contributing to a trade union relatively light. The boom con-
tinued long after the Armistice, and it was not until 1920-1921
that the subsequent depression began to be heavily felt.
The factor of good trade would reflect favourably upon trade
union membership whether in war or peace; but the war years
gave an impetus of another kind to organization on trade union
lines. From the Treasury Agreement (March 1915) onwards, the
Government recognized the trade unions in essential industries
as part of the economic and political structure of the country.
They were called in to assist in the production of munitions, to
share in the running of Government controls, in such cases as
the Cotton and Wool Control Boards, and particularly to
cooperate in the selection of men for the army. In many cases
the trade unions succeeded in gaining exemption for men
engaged upon certain occupations, and at one time certain
unions were even empowered to issue Trade Cards to their
members, protecting them from military service. They were also
of necessity consulted in the " dilution " and " substitution "
of labour, and they entered into a very large number of agree-
ments fixing the conditions upon which dilutees should be
employed, the wages they were to receive, and the restoration
of normal practices at the end of the war.
At the same time the cost of living was rising rapidly, and the
trade unions were the bodies concerned with demanding com-
mensurate increases in wages. Thus the average worker found
that whether he wished to preserve his standard of life, to retain
his exemption from the army, or to secure his job against his
return, the best way was to become a member of his trade
union; and the Government, which preferred in general to
negotiate with representative bodies, whether of workmen or
employers, contributed in no small degree to their growth.
Again, certain legislative enactments played a large part in
increasing trade union membership. Of these, undoubtedly
the most important was the National Insurance Act of 1911, with
its subsequent amendments. The Act of 1911 was divided into
two parts, Health and Unemployment Insurance, and these
parts were subsequently amended by separate Acts. Under the
Act dealing with Health Insurance, State benefit payable to
insured persons who fell ill is administered by Approved Societies,
and a number of trade unions, in order to secure closer contact
with the workmen in their industries, decided to form Trade
Union Approved Societies for the purpose of administering
Health Insurance. Many trade unions thus gained a number
of members who joined for health insurance and became full
trade unionists, as in most cases they were not allowed to join
the Approved Society only.
Unemployment Insurance was originally a much smaller
experiment, covered by Part II. of the 1911 Act; but it gained
considerably in importance when the Government in 1920
compulsorily included under unemployment insurance all the
industries of the country in which there was any appreciable-
amount of unemployment. Under the new Act, trade unions
which ordinarily paid unemployed benefit were allowed, subject
to certain conditions, to administer the State benefit to their
members, an allowance being made to them, under certain
conditions, for administration costs, and a considerable number
of them availed themselves of these provisions. Some trade
unions, particularly those catering for skilled workers, also act
as labour exchanges for their trades, notifying vacancies and
supplying workers, where they are wanted.
Two further enactments, the Trade Boards Act of 1909
(amended and widened in 1918), and the Corn Production Act
of 1917, which set up Agricultural Wages Boards with power to
fix binding rates of wages, did much to increase the membership
of trade unions, particularly in lowly paid industries. It is a
commonplace of trade union organization that very low wages
make labour difficult to organize, and the Trade Boards and the
Agricultural Wages Boards, by raising the rates of the lowest
paid classes, enabled them for the first time to afford trade union
TRADE UNIONS
745
contributions. The results of this can be seen from the agricultural
industry, whose trade union membership rose to approximately
300,000 in the summer of 1921, when the repeal of the Corn
Production Acts abolished the Agricultural Wages Boards.
Something of the same result was achieved by the fixing of rates
of wages under the Munitions of War Acts for women and
unskilled workers in the munitions trades, and their subsequent
stabilization for a year and a half after the Armistice.
The last of the causes contributing to trade union growth is
impossible to estimate in terms of figures. From 1910 onwards
the working classes showed a diminished faith in political action,
and a belief in industrial action, strikes and the power of large
industrial organization. The theories of French Syndicalists and
American Industrial Unionists, and later of English Guild
Socialists, began to gain ground, and these all stressed the
importance of strong trade unions, and the necessity for
" blackleg-proof " organizations. All these tendencies combined
to drive the workman into his trade union, and to induce him
to canvass among his fellows, and the assumption that a worker
must be a trade unionist steadily gained ground.
Nearly every trade union showed an actual increase of
membership in the decade. But beside this, there was a marked
tendency towards larger industrial groupings. A large majority
of the trade unions known to the Ministry of Labour are small
local societies, survivals of an earlier period, having in many
cases no more than a hundred or two hundred members, and of
no practical importance. Even in 1910 practically the whole
effective force of the trade union movement was confined to
about a hundred societies, and further amalgamations, speeded
up by the Trade Union Amalgamation Act of 1917, which lessened
the restrictions upon amalgamation, had by 1921 reduced the
number to something like fifty. Thus, large national associations
have come into existence on the railways, in road and water
transport, in the Post Office, the iron and steel trades, the
building trades and the woodworking trades, and the distributive
industry; the various unions of general workers are now united
in a single federation, and many other schemes of union were in
1921 either in process or under discussion. The movement
towards federation is no less important than the amalgamation
movement proper. In many cases, where the existence of many
trade unions on differing financial bases render amalgamation
difficult, there are often formed strong federations which fulfil
many of the functions of a single organization. Of this kind are
the federations in the building, printing and transport industries,
i and among general workers. In contrast to this unitary tendency
must be mentioned the newer unions of non-manual workers,
who are in most cases organized separately from their manual
fellows, but even here the tendency to federate or in other ways
to ally themselves with the unions of manual workers is evident.
This tendency towards large aggregations must be set down
partly to the increased integration of capital since the beginning
of the century, and partly to the theories of workers' control and
industrial unionism, which have been making rapid headway.
The day of the small master, and even of the single firm, is all
but over, and the tendency of workers in the employ of one
employer or of one company to unite in a single union is a
natural sequel. The influence of the movement towards workers'
control is equally obvious. Where trade unions were content to
be " continuous associations of wage-earners for the purpose
JD! maintaining or improving the conditions of their employ-
ment" (S. & B. Webb, History of Trade Unionism, 1892
edition), the " craft " or " kindred craft " union, which organ-
zed together workers employed on a single process or on
processes nearly related, was a sufficient instrument. But as
:he plans of the Syndicalists, the Guild Socialists, and others
or the " control of each industry by the workers engaged
herein " gained ground, the old craft union was regarded as
neffective, and plans were made on all sides for the absorption
)f all workers engaged in a single industry into one organization.
Uany of the important amalgamations mentioned above are
lue to this idea, though it must not be assumed that the whole
ir even the major part of the British trade union movement
is organized on industrial lines. Craft unions and "kindred
craft " unions continue to exist in a number of trades; many
amalgamations are directed merely to the abolition of competing
craft unions, as in the printing industry; and there is the further
complication of the General Labour unions, which, beginning
by enrolling the real " general labourer," the man whose skill
is in the strength of his muscles, and who shifts from industry to
industry as he finds an opening, have gone on to organize the
mass of semi-skilled workers which machine industry requires,
and even in certain cases to compete with the skilled unions on
their own ground. There is thus no clearly defined principle
governing the whole of British trade unionism, and bitter
disputes over membership have not by any means ceased to
occur; but the tendency to unite, by differing means in differing
cases, the trade unionists of a single industry with one another,
and even, as in the case of the Triple Industrial Alliance of
miners, railwaymen, and transport workers, to unite several
separate industries, made very great progress during the decade.
Apart from increase in membership, the trade union move-
ment as a whole gained considerably in consideration and impor-
tance after 1910. This was shown in two ways. The trade unions
secured, by general public consent, a much larger place in the
mechanism of society than they had hitherto held, and at the
same time they steadily turned their attention to new fields of
activity. Before the passing of the Trade Disputes Act in 1906,
the trade unions were hardly recognized as a political factor
of importance. Even in 1910, though their importance had
greatly increased and they were known to be the main support
of the Labour party, that support had in many people's opinion
been knocked away by the Osborne Judgment; and both before
and after the Trade Union Act of 1913 enabled trade unions to
take a direct part in politics, the view was openly expressed in
many quarters that trade unionism was a dangerous growth,
unwisely fostered by the legislature, which would be well advised
to sweep it away at the first favourable opportunity. Dismissal
of workmen for belonging to a trade union was comparatively
frequent, and many strikes were fought on the question of the
right of a trade union to negotiate on behalf of its members.
The great Dublin strikes of 1913, the most considerable industrial
upheaval before the war, arose out of Mr. W. M. Murphy's
refusal to recognize the Irish Transport Workers' Union as a
body competent to negotiate with him on behalf of his employees.
Similarly, up to and during the war the three unions of railway
workers were engaged in a struggle to obtain recognition from
the general managers of railway companies, who, during the
war, formed the Railway Executive Committee for administering
the railways under Government control. The position was
entirely changed by 1921. The Government itself had con-
tributed to raise the status of the trade unions during the war,
offering them a semi-partnership on many industrial questions,
and both the Government and the larger employers found that
they preferred on the whole to negotiate with organized than
with unorganized bodies of workmen. During the war, for
instance, the practice gradually grew up of appointing a rep-
resentative of organized labour to any committee whose subject
was of importance to the working classes, and such representa-
tives were generally chosen from the trade unions. Recognition
given at headquarters could not be denied locally; trade
unionists qua trade unionists were appointed to Local War
Pensions Committees, Food Advisory Committees, and the
like, and were generally recognized as qualified to speak on
behalf of their fellow-members. The result was to raise the trade
union movement to a position such as it enjoyed in no other
country save Germany or revolutionary Russia. Although cases
might still be known where workmen were discharged because
their individual trade union activities were not approved by
their employers, the " victimization " of a man simply for
being a member of a trade union was no longer likely to occur.
Discrimination is, however, occasionally exercised both by
public and private employers against a particular union's
claim to organize a particular section. Thus the Railway
Clerks' Association was long forbidden to speak on behalf of
746
TRADE UNIONS
station masters. The most important instance of this is the
Government's refusal to permit members of the police forces to
belong to the Police and Prison Officers' Union.
All this growth has naturally led trade unions to expand
their activities, and in many cases to amend their internal
administration. The constitutions of some unions in 1921
dated back 50, 60 and 70 years, and were obviously inadequate
to the changed situation, so that many experiments in altering
them had come under discussion. One particular point of
contention, the " shop branch " versus " residence branch "
controversy, is dealt with below. Other difficulties centre
mainly round the representation, in a large union, of the in-
terests of different crafts and sexes, the method of electing the
governing body, the relative power to be assigned to the govern-
ing body, to the officers, and to the members themselves, the
amount of local autonomy, financial and otherwise, to be
granted, and so on. Different unions adopt different solutions.
The executive committee or council, for example, is generally
elected by vote of the members, either by districts (as in the
Iron and Steel Trades Association), or by departments (as in
the National Union of Railwaymen) ; but it may also be elected
by general vote of the whole union. Only two important unions,
the Amalgamated Engineering Union, and the United Society
of Boilermakers, have adopted the principle of an executive
committee in permanent session. In some unions the executive
committee is theoretically the final governing body, though in
such cases the practice of taking a referendum upon most
questions of importance really leaves the decision in the hands
of the members; others have a general council or delegate
meeting sitting for some time which has power to override the
decisions of the executive committee on certain subjects; most,
though not all, held at fixed intervals a conference or meeting of
representatives to receive the report of the executive com-
mittee and to discuss policy. The merits of delegate and other
representative conferences and of ballot, secret or otherwise, in
ascertaining the will of the membership is one of the problems
most frequently -canvassed among the trade unions. In some
cases the general secretary and other officers are appointed and
paid by the executive committee, in others they are elected
by vote of the members. It will readily be understood that
the latter method gives in effect much more power to the
secretary than the former, and the position of a trade union
secretary and the extent to which he is able to speak for his
union and to conclude binding arrangements on its behalf is
another problem claiming much discussion.
Differences of practice also exist with regard to the autonomy
of branches and sections of trade unions, and the method of
declaring or calling off a strike. Some societies allow great
freedom of action to their branches and district committees or
councils; others, such as the Iron, Steel and Kindred Trades
Association, retain all contributions in the hands of the head
office, and only allow money to be spent by branches or districts
for purposes specifically approved by the central organization.
Between these two extremes there is room for a large variety of
different methods. Some unions specifically provide in their
constitutions that a ballot of the membership must be taken
before a strike is declared. In many other cases this is secured
by the general practice; and some unions, such as the Miners'
Federation insist further that a two-thirds majority in favour
of a strike must be secured. The National Union of Railwaymen,
on the other hand, allows a strike to be declared by the executive
committee, without prescribing any consultation of the member-
ship. Local strikes may in some cases be declared by the local
committee, but in most cases, since the strike pay is centrally
administered, the sanction of the central office is necessary for
a local strike, and the central executive has also power to order
the men back to work. All these problems of administration
require the services of trained men, and the position and educa-
tion of the trade union official has begun to receive considera-
tion. The trade unions have been slowly coming to the opinion
that the work of a trade union official is specialized and requires
special training; salaries have been raised, and classes and
summer-schools for trade union officials and organizers are
regularly held. Specialization, however, upon organizing and
routine work often tends to remove the trade union official
from contact with and understanding of the problems of the
members whom he serves, and this difficulty has not yet been
satisfactorily solved.
Trade unions have gradually extended their activities in
many new directions, of which the principal are politics, educa-
tion, and the control of industry. The political Labour party
in its origin rested upon the support of the trade unions; but
in 1909 their political activities appeared to have received a
check. This was removed by the passing of the Trade Union
Act in 1913, which enabled every trade union, after the pre-
scribed ballot had been taken, to collect contributions for
political purposes. By 1921 almost every trade union had its
political fund, lists of Labour candidates backed by trade
union money appeared, and locally the trade union branches
played a regular part in the activities of local Labour parties
and supported Labour candidates at local elections. Trade
unions also began to show considerable interest in the education
of their members. During these years the movement towards
adult working-class education experienced a great revival. The
Workers' Educational Association, a body which in connexion with
the universities ran a large number of evening courses and
summer-schools for working-class students, was supported by the
trade unions, some of which became actual partners in its
work. The Central Labour College now the Labour College
a residential college for students of Marxian economics, founded
in 1909 by a secession of students from Ruskin College, and
subsequently supported by the National Union of Railwaymen
and the South Wales Miners' Federation, extended its activities;
and class-centres called Labour colleges, on more or less Marx-
ian lines, were set up in Manchester, Glasgow and elsewhere.
Trade unions provided a number of scholarships for their
members at the Labour colleges and at Ruskin College, Oxford;
and in 1921, when the General Council of the Trades Union
Congress was set up, a resolution was carried to provide for
the unification of working-class education under it.
Trade union interest, however, has not been confined to
education proper. The Daily Herald, a newspaper founded
during a printers' strike in 1912 by the London Society of
Compositors, was supported by Labour and trade union funds,
and became an important political force, although it was
forced temporarily to become a weekly soon after the outbreak
of war. Later, in 1913, the trade unions revived an ancient
project of running their own newspapers, and the Daily Citizen
appeared as the first daily newspaper entirely owned and con-
ducted by the British trade union movement. This paper had a
short career, and ceased publication in 1915, mainly owing to
war conditions, but the trade unions played a large part in the
reissue of the Daily Herald as a Labour daily, early in 1919.
Besides the daily papers, there are a number of local weeklies and
monthlies to which trade unions contribute, and some of them
also run papers and printing presses of their own. The Labour
Research Department, which in 1916 became a federal body
composed of trade unions and other Labour bodies contributing
to the endowment of research into the history and problems of
the Labour movement, shows the increasing interest of the
trade unions in specialized research work.
The inclusion of the phrase " control of industry " (see
GUILD SOCIALISM) in the aims of the trade unions has played a
considerable part in forming their policy, although it has not
been generally translated into fact. In the early years of the
century, most trade unions, like the Labour party and the
Socialists, were assumed to be in favour of the transference of
the important industries of the country to the ownership and
control of the State. The experience of workers in State-owned
industries, notably in the Post Office, suggested that this was
inadequate to fulfil trade union aspirations, and between 191 1
and 1921 most of them altered it to a demand for " national-
ization of industry, with control by the workers engaged therein,"
amounting in some cases to a demand for a National Guild
TRADE UNIONS
747
(see NATIONALIZATION). The establishment of a National Guild
was part of the official programme of the Union of Post Office
Workers (founded in 1920). Perhaps the fullest exposition of the
new demand was made by the Miners' Federation in its pro-
gramme presented to the Coal Commission in 1919, but by the
autumn of 1921 it had only been translated into action in the
building industry. The unprecedented shortage of houses
following the war encouraged the Building Trade Unionists of
Manchester to form a Building Guild, which offered to produce
houses at cost price for the City Council, themselves controlling
and providing the labour, guaranteeing full pay in sickness and
bad weather to all members of the Guild, and relying upon the
credit of the municipality to obtain the necessary materials.
The example proved infectious, and after many experiments had
been made in different towns, the National Building Guild was
formed in 1921, with a number of branches, prepared to under-
take work upon the same terms for local authorities or private
companies or persons. In every case the Guild was initiated by
the local branches of the Building Trade Unions, and none but
! trade unionists were admitted to membership.
Pre-war Developments. Trade union history from 1910-1921
falls into three well-marked periods: the period of industrial unrest
which had already begun by 1910 and which increased in intensity
right up to the outbreak of war, the war period, and the revival of
i activity immediately following the Armistice. The two latter, as
has been observed, coincided with great trade union prosperity,
which continued unbroken for some months after the Armistice, and
gradually came to an end, as the slump in trade became more
pronounced, from 1920-1921. It may be said that the miners'
strike, in the summer of the latter year, and the subsequent accept-
i ance by the miners of heavy reductions in wages, brought to an end
the first post-war period in trade union history (see STRIKES).
The years 1910 to 1914 were years of growing industrial unrest.
The chief factor underlying this was the steady rise in prices after
the year 1906, which more than offset the slight increase in money
wages, and produced a feeling in the workman's mind that his real
wages were imperceptibly disappearing. Retail prices in London,
which in 1906 stood at 2 % above the figure for 1900, had reached,
1 in 1911, 9~4%and in 1914, i6-8%above that figure.
Four of the industrial disputes which occurred during those years
were of importance in trade union history the railway and
transport strikes of 1911, the miners' strike of 1912, the Dublin
strikes of 1913 and 1914, and the London building lock-out of 1914.
The principal interest of the first series of strikes lies in the fact that
the railwaymen's unions succeeded in paralysing for some days the
greater part of the railway system of the United Kingdom, and
thereby brought home to many who had not previously realized
it, the potential power of trade unionism. The actual disputes,
though partly connected with wage-rates, centred mainly around
the question of recognition by the employers of the unions of
shipping and railway workers. In the former case the owners agreed
after some time to negotiate with the trade union representatives,
and a settlement was eventually reached; in the latter, a Royal Com-
mission was set up to investigate the working of the Conciliation
Board, established in 1907, which had given rise to many com-
plaints, and the Commission's report was accepted by both sides in
conference, although the point of " recognition " of the trade
unions was never conceded by the railway companies, and re-
mained in dispute until the end of the war. An important result of
these strikes was the consolidation of the railwaymen's trade
unions. The existence of several separate unions was felt to be a
i weakness, and in 1913 three of them united to form the National
Union of Railwaymen, which enrolled members rapidly and became
by far the largest trade union representing railwaymen.
The coal dispute of 1912 brought to the forefront one of the_most
important principles of trade unionism, that of the legal minimum
wage. In the case of " sweated " industries, this had been recognized
in the Trade Boards Act of 1909 but had not yet been applied to
comparatively highly-paid workers, although in many industries,
minimum rates, established by agreements between both sides, but
not enforceable at law, were in existence. These rates varied gener-
ally from district to district. The principle of a legal minimum, it
should be stated, does not necessarily demand that the minimum
should be national in its scope, though many trade unions, espe-
cially during the war, demanded national minima, and even a na-
tional minimum wage for all workers. The Miners' Federation first
claimed that miners working in abnormally unfavourable places
should be guaranteed a minimum daily rate, and, when this was
refused by the coal-owners, extended their demand to cover all
men and boys working in coal-mines, and further put forward a
schedule of minimum district rates for the various coal-fields. _ The
strike was terminated by both sides' acceptance of the Miners'
Minimum Wage Act. This Act provided that rates should be
fixed by joint boards, representative equally of mine-owners and
mine-workers, in each of 22 specified areas. If the two sides of any
board failed to agree upon a rate, the rate should be fixed by the
chairman. The Miners Federation thus secured the principle of a
minimum, but failed to get their schedule generally adopted. They
were very unwilling to accept this position, but the ballot having
failed to disclose a two-third majority in favour of continuing the
strike, it was declared at an end.
The Dublin dispute raised the question of " recognition " in a
more acute form, and also provided many examples of " sympa-
thetic " strike action. The employers in Dublin, as a protest
against the aggressive trade union policy of the Irish Transport
Workers' Union, discharged its members in their employment, bound
themselves not to employ in future members of the union, and
in many cases insisted that applicants for work should sign a form
undertaking'to have no dealings with the union. This action roused
a great deal of feeling both in Ireland and Great Britain ; sympathetic
strikes occurred, and in British ports dockers and railivaymen
refused to handle goods loaded in Dublin by non-union labour.
The imprisonment of James Larkin on a charge of sedition greatly
increased the upheaval. Dublin shipping was practically paralysed
by a general strike of dock labourers, and large contributions in
money and in kind were sent to the Irish Transport Union by
English trade unions and the Cooperative Wholesale Society.
The points in dispute were never definitely settled, but the strike
petered out gradually in the early months of 1914.
Two important pieces of legislation, the National Insurance
Act of 1911 and the Trade Union Act of 1913, were passed during
this period.
The War Period. On the outbreak of war, a general truce between
Capital and Labour was immediately arranged. Outstanding dis-
putes, such as the building lock-out, were settled by one side giving
way, or by compromise. Trade unions such as the National Union
of Railwaymen, which had prepared a national programme of de-
mands, delayed its presentation indefinitely, and the number of
industrial disputes dropped from 682 in the first seven months of
1914 to 107 in the last five. For some time trade union history was
in abeyance, until the rapid rise in prices and the necessity for in-
creased production, in the munitions trades in particular, turned
public attention to it again. The natural concern of most of the
unions, as soon as the cost of living began seriously to rise, was with
negotiating increases of wages. Other developments of interest took
place mainly in two directions, of which the first was the abrogation
of trade union conditions and the establishment, over a large
number of trades, of compulsory arbitration under the Munitions
of War Acts, and the effect of these two upon trade union govern-
ment; and the second, the tendency, already mentioned, of the
Government and the employers' association to admit the trade
unions to a quasi-partnership on certain questions a partnership
which endured, as a rule, only as long as rising prices made in-
creased wages both possible and inevitable (see LABOUR SUPPLY).
The necessity for greater production, particularly of munitions
and other stores required for the army, early began to be felt, and a
series of strikes upon the Clyde brought the question to the fore.
The Committee on Production, appointed by the Government in
Feb. 1915, reported that one great difficulty in the way of increased
production lay in the existence of certain rules and customs of
the trade unions. These " trade union conditions " became, of
considerable importance during the war. Every trade union of any
size had before the war certain regulations, some written, but
mostly unwritten, under which its members were allowed to work.
These regulations related mainly to the class of labour which was
permitted to perform any particular job, to the length and character
of apprenticeship required, the rates to be paid, and the conditions
under which work was to be done. Thus, certain jobs were reserved
to fully-skilled craftsmen, had to be paid at the craftsmen's rate, and
might only be performed by men who had received a certain train-
ing, which in some cases occupied several years. The demand for
munitions in large quantities, and the loss of many thousands of
skilled men to the army, made it inevitable, in the first place, that
semi-skilled and unskilled workmen should be " upgraded " on to
skilled work, in order that the necessary increase in the amount of
skilled work performed should take place, and secondly, that a
great number of new workers should be introduced into the muni-
tions industries, many of whom would only be able to receive a
comparatively short training. The Government therefore, in March
1915, invitee! a number of the leading trade unions in the industries
concerned with war production to the famous Treasury Conference,
attended by all the unions invited with the exception of the Miners'
Federation, at which it was agreed (a) that strikes and lock-outs in
the munitions industries should cease for the period of the war,
wage disputes being settled under a system of compulsory arbitra-
tion; (b) that the trade unions would relax for the period of the
war such of their customs as were necessary for the purpose of
accelerating war output, it being understood that all such customs
should be restored at the end of the war, and that, where labour of a
lower degree of skill (such as women's labour) was introduced on
work hitherto performed by skilled men, the rate of wages previously
paid should not be reduced; (c) that the Government would limit
the profits of owners in the munitions industries. The latter clause
was made a condition of cooperation by the Amalgamated Society of
748
TRADE UNIONS
Engineers and was put into force under the Munitions of War
Acts. Profits in other industries were dealt with by means of the
Excess Profits Duty. The Treasury Agreements were given legisla-
tive force for the trades concerned with the supply of munitions
under the Munitions of War Act of 1915. The Act reaffirmed the
Treasury Agreements with regard to establishments " controlled "
by the Minister of Munitions: it set up machinery for compulsory
arbitration in wage disputes, limited the profits of controlled estab-
lishments to one-fifth in excess of their pre-war standard, forbade
munition workers to leave their employment without permission
from a munitions tribunal, ordered all customs restricting production
or employment to be suspended for the period of the war only, and
provided that " the relaxation of existing demarcation restrictions
or admission of semi-skilled or female labour shall not affect ad-
versely the rates customarily paid for the job." In practice, disputes
arising out of the last clause claimed an enormous proportion of
trade union attention during the war. In 1916 the Minister of
Munitions found it necessary to take powers, in an amending Act,
to fix general minimum rates for women employed in the munitions
industries, but the Government was freely accused of breaking its
pledges to the trade unions in the matter of wages to be paid to
substituted labour, and as dilution proceeded apace during the war
the controversy became more and more bitter.
The clauses in the Act dealing with restoration of the suspended
customs were also the subject of dispute. These clauses merely stated
that the suspension should be for the war period only, and made
no explicit provision for their restoration. The trade unions con-
tended that the Government was pledged to bringing a Bill for their
restoration, and negotiations on this subject continued throughout
the war period. Eventually, nearly a year after the Armistice, the
Restoration of Pre-War Practices Act was passed, which provided
that, where the existence of a pre-war practice could be proved,
it should be incumbent upon the employer to allow its restoration.
The institution of compulsory arbitration in the munitions in-
dustries had one remarkable effect in the government of trade
unions. As the trade unions concerned had practically pledged
themselves not to strike for the period of the war, and as drastic
penalties were provided under the Munitions Acts for any workman
who struck, it followed that any strikes which did take place in the
munitions industries must be unofficial, that is, conducted without
authorization, or dispute pay, from trade union leaders. It was not
to be expected that disputes would not arise, but these disputes fell
to be conducted in the main, not by recognized trade union officials,
but by unofficial committees elected from the workmen in a par-
ticular shop or factory, and known generally as Shop Stewards' or
Workers' Committees. This had relation to an interesting problem
of trade union organization.
Shop Stewards. Originally, nearly all trade unions were built
up of local branches, composed of all the men working at a particular
trade who lived in a particular district. In the early days of machine
industry, when towns and factories were comparatively small, this
seemed the natural arrangement. Men working in a particular
factory generally tended to be in the same residential branch, which
thus achieved a trade as well as a neighbourhood unity. But as
factories increased in size, and large urban aggregations became the
rule, this unity disappeared. Workmen residing in a particular
London suburb might be spending their working life in any one of a
dozen widely separated and entirely different establishments, and
might be faced with quite different industrial problems. This re-
sulted in a stagnation of trade union branch life, which was re-
flected in a meagre attendance at branch meetings, and created one
of the greatest problems of the trade unions. The favourite solution
of the difficulty, advocated particularly by the Industrial Unionists,
Guild Socialists and latterly by the Communists, was the break-up
of the old residential branches, and the reformation of the trade
unions in branches composed of all members who worked together
in a single establishment, the several trade union branches in such
establishments then to join their forces to make a single industrial
unit for the whole. Certain steps in that direction had already been
taken before the war. The Miners' Federation, for example, had
always based its organization upon branches composed of all the
men working at a single pit or group of pits, the printers' trade
unions had in every printing works committees of very ancient
establishment, known as chapels, and the engineering trade unions
had in most cases officials, called " shop stewards,' who were re-
sponsible for the inspection of the contribution cards of members
at their place of work in order to see that they were " genuine
trade unionists" and for various other minor duties. These shop
stewards, both those officially recognized by the trade unions, and
Others unofficially appointed by the trade unionists in a particular
works, enjoyed during the war a great access of importance. They
included, in a majority of cases, the most active members of the
trade unions, and those most imbued with the policy of "workers'
control," and though general advances in wages and the broad
principles of dilution and substitution were negotiated by the
national bodies, all the concrete details of both the latter processes
and the application of wage advances had to be dealt with on the
spot, and an active man who was not deterred by possible fines and
imprisonment under the Munitions Act, could wield real power in
big engineering centres. Practically all the important munitions
strikes of the war period were conducted by the shop stewards, two
of those which excited great public attention being the Clyde strikes
of 1916, which resulted in the temporary deportation from the
Clyde area of a number of the leading shop stewards, and the wide-
spread engineering strikes of May 1917, caused by the proposal to
extend dilution and substitution from the production of munitions
of war to ordinary commercial work. These strikes succeeded
in their object, and throughout the war dilution was confined to
public work.
The shop-stewards' movement attained its greatest importance
in the engineering industry, because of the existence of compulsory
arbitration, the enormous increase in engineering work, and be-
cause, owing to the multiplicity of trade unions catering for skilled
and unskilled engineers, common action in the localities had been
hitherto difficult to secure, and the appearance of a single flexible
instrument uniting all sections resulted naturally in a great in-
crease of activity. Parallel movements did, however, exist in in-
dustries connected with the production of munitions, and in other
industries such as shipbuilding, cotton and woollen textiles. The
shop stewards in these industries occasionally made common cause
with the engineering shop stewards on questions of policy, but
except in shipbuilding they were of very much less importance.
The shop-stewards' movement during the war contained a large
revolutionary element which was hostile to the employing class
and in many cases to official trade unionism, and aimed at securing
workers' control of industry. The existence of this element led ill-
informed observers to conclude that the shop stewards as a whole
were a revolutionary force, and to attack them as dangerous and
unpatriotic. In fact, even in the centres such as the Clyde, in which
the revolutionary element was strong and vocal, and inclined to
defy the executives of the trade unions on principle, there were
throughout the war many shop stewards who aimed at no more than
the recognized trade unions' objects of wages, hours and conditions
of employment and had no concern with industrial theories. Shop
stewards were in fact a recognized feature of trade unionism before
the war. The Amalgamated Society of Engineers, in particular,
demanded that shop stewards should be recognized as official
spokesmen of the union on certain matters, and succeeded in
carrying their point after lengthy negotiations. This agreement
applied, of course, only to official stewards, who are now recognized
by the Employers' Federation in the engineering trade as part of the
official trade union machinery. At the end of the war, with the
stoppage of work on munitions and the discharge of large numbers of
workpeople, the importance of the unofficial element of the shop-
stewards movement declined rapidly, and public attention was there-
fore almost entirely diverted. The official trade unions resumed
control of policy and disputes, the revolutionary elements among
the shop stewards became part of the general Communist movement,
and the rest returned to ordinary trade union activities, such
as those laid down in the shop-stewards' agreements of 1918 and
1919. The influence of the movement on trade union government
remained, however, and may be seen in various proposals for
remodelling trade unions on a " workshop branch " basis.
Trade Union Action under War Conditions. Compulsory arbitra-
tion had always been heartily disliked by the British trade union
movement, and, but for the war, it is exceedingly doubtful whether
it would ever have been accepted. The acceptance by the trade
unions of war conditions, however, made its introduction possible,
and although it did not by any means prevent the occurrence of a
strike, when a dispute reached a certain point of bitterness, a large
number of disputes, particularly in the munitions industries, which
under other circumstances would have resulted in strikes, were
settled under compulsory arbitration. The clauses, however, which
enabled a dispute in a non-munitions industry to be " proclaimed "
under the Munitions Act, and thereby rendered illegal, were less
successful, and their unsuccess can be readily understood from a
single instance that of the South Wales mining strike of 1915.
The Miners' Federation, which had not been a party to the
Treasury Agreements, had never abrogated its right to strike, and
the South Wales Miners' Federation, its largest constituent, was the
first body to challenge the Munitions Act. In the summer of 1915
the South Wales miners threatened to strike for the purpose of en-
forcing a revision of a wage agreement under which they had worked
for five years, and though the dispute had been " proclaimed " under
the Munitions of War Act, the strike nevertheless took place. It was
clearly impossible to apply the penal clauses of the Act to a body of
200,000 miners, and after some discussion a settlement was reached
which conceded to the miners the majority of their demands. ( >t her
important disputes, such as the strike of employees of the Coopera-
tive Wholesale Society in 1918, were also " proclaimed " under the
Munitions Act, but in every case the number of men who left work
was sufficient to enable them to defy the proclamation.
Consideration of the miners' case leads us to the second important
branch of trade union activity during the war, namely that of
securing wage advances to their members. For some time this
activity was practically in abeyance, unions having agreed, at the
beginning of the war, to hold over their demands for an advance in
their members' standard of life. Only certain sections, such as the
railwaymen, to whom an advance was known to be overdue, ob-
tained any additions to their wages during the first six months ot
TRADE UNIONS
749
g
A
the war. This, however, was partly due to the assumption that the
war would be of short duration; and when it appeared that this was
not to be the case, and further that food prices and employers'
profits, particularly at first in the shipping trade, were rising very
rapidly, the trade unions changed their policy, and by the spring
of 1915 it may be said that as far as wage claims were concerned, the
industrial truce had come to an end. All trade unions began to
put forward claims for increased wages, these claims, for the most
part, being based on the rise in the cost of living; and although in the
first two years it was not invariably held to be a sufficient ground and
wages rose comparatively slowly, by 1917 it was .generally accepted,
and arbitrators and Government tribunals were usually willing to
consider claims based upon it.
Very early in the war the system of granting wage advances in
the form of " war bonuses " was introduced, the railwaymen being
the first to accept it. A " war bonus " was an advance explicitly
granted owing to " the abnormal conditions arising out of the war,"
and it was argued, though not stated in any award, that " war
bonuses" ought 'therefore to lapse automatically when these con-
ditions were removed. The trade unions never accepted this in-
terpretation, and both during and after the war negotiations were
continually in progress for converting war bonuses into permanent
wages. Certain permanent advances were in fact granted, usually in
the early stages of the war, before the system of war bonuses had
become general, but subsequently it became the rule for all wage ad-
vances in the majority of trades to be granted in the form of war
bonuses, which amounted to anything from 20 to 40 shillings a
week in the skilled trades. War bonuses were generally granted
nationally to all members of the particular trade concerned, on a
flat rate. This conceded an important point in trade union prin-
ciple. It had always been the object of most trade unions, partic-
ularly those whose members are paid by time, to establish a national
minimum wage or guaranteed rate for their trade. Before the war,
national minima, legal or otherwise, were rare; in the better organized
trades, distinct minima had been secured, but in many cases there
was no standard at all, and individual wages had to be negotiated
with individual employers. The war, particularly in its later stages,
ave the trade unions an opportunity for standardizing wages.
ctual national minima were not secured in many instances, but in a
number of trades, notably in building, printing, baking, tramways,
gas and electricity supply, several area rates were fixed which
between them covered the whole country, and in far more the prin-
ciple of national advances or war bonuses, applying equally to every
worker in the industry, was secured. This was the case, for example,
with all subsequent advances to miners, all advances to railwaymen,
and practically all advances in the munitions industries. The
volume of wage negotiations undertaken by trade unions during
the war was naturally enormous, but most of it was detailed negotia-
tion for separate trades or branches of a trade. Towards the end of
the war there was a movement to consolidate all war advances in
the permanent wage rates, and to establish new minima for each
industry; but the trade slump which began in 1920 strengthened the
1 resistance of the employers to the principle, and many set-backs
'. were recorded.
From 1915 onwards the Government began to make more and
, more use of the trade unions both in political and industrial ques-
j tions. The general course of events was for the Government to initi-
ate a particular piece of legislation without the cooperation of the
trade unions, and then to amend its administration in order to ad-
mit the trade unions as partners. Thus the recruiting _of men for
the army was originally entrusted entirely to the administration of
the staffs of the War Office, but it was found that this led to the
crippling of essential industries by the sudden withdrawal of large
bodies of skilled men, and also gave rise to a great deal of industrial
unrest. Accordingly, trade unionists were invited to sit on the im-
portant committees dealing with recruitment, and in most of the
chief industries the Government adopted the method of discussing
; recruitment with the representative bodies of employers and work-
| men. The mines, in particular, were practically excluded from the
I operations of the Military Service Acts, special colliery recruiting
I courts, composed of representatives of miners. and mine-owners,
with a Government chairman, being set up under the authority of
the Home Office, to deal with the recruitment of miners for the
army. In the munitions industries a scheme was put into operation
in 1917 under which certain trade unions catering for skilled workers
were allowed to issue " trade cards " to their members protecting
them from military service, but this scheme met with a great deal
of opposition from other trade unions as well as from the em-
ployers, and was dropped. In addition to participating in recruiting,
trade unions during the war acted as the defenders of members
whom they believed to be unjustly taken into the army, and con-
cerned themselves with other cognate questions, such as the securing
of civil rights to enlisted men.
_ In the case of Government control of industry, the same progres-
sion is visible. The early cases of Government control were ad-
ministered by civil servants, without official cooperation either by
trade unions or employers' associations. Later the Government
adopted the principle of consultation of the trades concerned_through
associations of employers, and many industries were administered
under Government control by boards consisting of civil servants and
representatives of commercial interests. This was the most frequent
form of control; but in two important industries, cotton and woollen
textiles, the trade unions were taken into partnership. The Wool
Control Board was set up in the autumn of 1917, after several
experiments had failed, and consisted of eleven representatives
each of the employers, the trade unions, and the War Office Con-
tracts Department. It had a free hand in organizing the civilian
trade in wool and in allocating supplies of wool bought by the
Government to the various firms. The Cotton Control Board, set
up a short time previously, was composed in a somewhat similar
way. It administered the Raw Cotton Order, prohibiting the
purchase of cotton except under licence, restricted the amount of
machinery which was allowed to run upon work other than Govern-
ment orders, and when the supplies of cotton were insufficient to keep
all members of the industry in employment, the Board levied the
firms which were working full time in order to pay allowances to
unemployed workmen, thus putting into practice a principle on
which many trade unions insist, namely that each industry should
provide for the maintenance of its own reserve of labour. The Food
Ministry, again, when reorganized by Lord Rhondda, set up a
Consumers' Advisory Council, on which the trade unions were
officially represented, and Food Vigilance Committees and War
Pensions Committees were among the local bodies to which they
regularly sent delegates.
These experiences of partnership with the trade unions, and the
existence of the control of industry propaganda, induced the Govern-
ment, when in the spring of 1917 industrial relations appeared to be
very much embittered, to appoint a committee to consider means of
improving the relations between employers and employed. The
report of this committee known as the Whitley Report recom-
mended that in each of the well-organized industries joint standing
industrial councils, representative of employers' associations and
trade unions, should be set up to discuss all matters affecting the
industry. The Government officially adopted the report (though for
some considerable time it refused to set up Whitley Councils in the
Civil Service, the Post Office, and other Government establishments)
and between 1917 and 1919 50 or 60 such councils were set up, but
they did not produce much permanent result. For trade unionism,
their chief importance lies in the fact that they brought large ac-
cessions of membership to some unions (since no workman could be
represented on an industrial council, save through a trade union),
and that they facilitated the fixing of national and area minimum
rates. They were also used by the Government as the regular chan-
nels for disseminating information and receiving advice from the
trades concerned. The trade unions, however, showed no great
enthusiasm, discerning in them possible taints of profit-sharing and
compulsory arbitration, to both of which trade union policy is
definitely opposed, and were inclined to be definitely favourable to
them only in State-owned industries. So long as wages and profits
continued to rise no very serious disputes occurred, but as soon as the
fall began several councils were abandoned owing to disagreements
on wage questions (see INDUSTRIAL COUNCILS).
A few months after the issue of the Whitley Report, the passage
of the Corn Production Act led to a great revival of trade unionism
among the agricultural labourers, who since the failure of Joseph
Arch in the 'seventies had been almost untouched by trade unions.
The Corn Production Act guaranteed a minimum price to the farm
and a minimum wage to the farm- workers; and boards, representa-
tive of the employers and the three trade unions organizing farm-
workers, the National Union of Agricultural Labourers, the Workers'
Union and the Scottish Farm Servants' Union, were appointed to
determine what the minimum should be in the different counties.
The work done by these trade unions in forcing up the minimum
rates and in assisting their members to claim arrears of pay due to
them under the Act, brought them in a large number of new mem-
bers up to the time of the repeal of the Act and the disbandment
of the wages boards in the autumn of 1921. The Trade Boards Act
was also drastically amended in the following year, with the result of
extending legal minimum rates, fixed by tribunals representing em-
ployers and workers, to between 50 and 60 new trades and stimulat-
ing trade union organization within these trades.
The only other development of importance to the trade union
movement during the war was the revision, early in 1918, of the
constitution of the political Labour party, which led to an extension
of the political activities of the trade unions. Under the new con-
stitution the trade unions were, as before, the main constituents
of the national Labour party, but more attention than before was
given to the organization of local parties in the constituencies, and
a number of trade unions took part in the formation of local Labour
parties or in adding a political wing to the activities of trade
councils. Nearly every trade union had by this time taken a ballot
of its members enabling it to establish a fund for political action,
arid the results of this were seen in the increased contributions, local
and national, of trade unions to the Labour party, and the number
of Labour candidates, supported largely by trade union funds, who
stood in the general election of 1918. No trade union which has
set up a political fund has applied that fund to the assistance of
any other party than the Labour party.
After the Armistice. Up to the end of the war no further develop-
ment of special importance took place. The trade unions were
750
TRADE UNIONS
chiefly occupied with enrolling new members, negotiating wage
advances, dealing with fresh proposals for the " combing-put "
of industrial workers for the army, and in other activities mentioned
above. With the Armistice, however, a revival took place, and every
trade union formulated a programme of advance. The programmes
differed in individual cases. All included shortening of hours, con-
solidation of war advances into permanent wages, and the establish-
ment of national or area minimum rates; and some added national-
ization with workers' control, and full maintenance, by the industry
or the State, for workers out of employment. The movement for
shorter hours first took shape. During the war, the working hours in
many industries had been reduced, generally to 48 or 50, and re-
searches made under Government auspices had established the fact
that long hours of work did not result in greater production. The
Factory Acts, however, and other legal enactments governing the
hours of work remained unaltered, and there was a general demand
for the enactment of a universal 48-hour minimum for all labour,
when, in Jan. 1919,3 series of strikes in favour of a 40- or 44-hour week
broke out in many of the industrial centres. These were suppressed,
but almost immediately the trade unions began to put forward their
programmes, of which the most complete was that of the Miners'
Federation, which included a national advance of wages, a shorter
working week, and a full scheme for the nationalization of the mines
and their administration under boards composed of representatives
of the Miners' Federation and of the Government. On this pro-
gramme a national mining strike was threatened. There was also
grave unrest on the railways and in the engineering industry, and a
great industrial upheaval was generally predicted. To prevent this,
the Government appointed the royal commission on the coal in-
dustry (the Sankey Commission) and also called together a large
national industrial conference, representative of employers' associa-
tions and trade unions, to discuss necessary changes in the laws
governing industrial conditions. The Committee elected by the
conference (on which the unions in the Triple Industrial Alliance
refused to serve), after long discussion, agreed upon changes relative
to hours, wages, and the relief of unemployment. It had been under-
stood that proposals agreed upon by both sides of the conference
would be translated into legislation, and upon this basis the dis-
cussions had been held ; but when the time for legislation came, fresh
difficulties were discovered, and the legislation was never introduced.
Finally in 1921 both sides of the conference, finding their efforts
useless, tendered their resignations. Individual reductions in the
hours of labour, however, continued to take place during 1919, but
these had no legislative force. The Coal Commission sat in session
for a long time, taking evidence from widely differing sources, and
creating a great public sensation by the appearance for the first
time of trade union advocates cross-examining the leading owners
of mines and mining royalties. An advance of wages and a short-
ening of hours was recommended and became law in the summer.
On the question of nationalization the Commission was divided;
the members appointed by the Miners' Federation recommending
the acceptance of the miners' programme, while the mine-owners'
representatives declined to accept it. The chairman's report,
recommending nationalization with a measure of workers' control,
but conceding only a part of the miners' demands, was presented
to the Government, which after some deliberation declined to
accept it. The miners thereupon threatened a strike, and brought
the matter up before the meeting of the Trade Union Congress in
the autumn, but failing to obtain adequate promise of support from
their fellow trade unionists by March, they decided to accept the
situation. The Coal Commission was the first instanceof a tribunal,
equally representative of employers and trade unions, being set up
under Government auspices to pronounce upon a particular dispute,
and considerable disappointment was expressed in trade union
circles at the Government's refusal to carry out its findings. The
precedent was, however, followed in the Industrial Courts Act of
the same year, under which the Minister of Labour was empowered
to refer any dispute to an industrial tribunal similarly constituted.
This Act was used by the trade unions in several instances, notably
in the case of disputes at the docks and on the tramways, to obtain
a public hearing of their claims. When the trade depression came,
however, the Industrial Courts Act was not used. The employers
preferred to present their demands for wage reductions direct to the
trade unions, and the attempts of the latter to invoke the assistance
of the Act were uniformly unsuccessful. During the year the trade
unions continued to press forward claims for shorter hours, wage
advances, and consolidation of war wages, and in most cases met
with some meed of success. The exception was a strike of policemen
in London and some other large centres for an increase of wages,
which was met by the immediate dismissal of all policemen on
strike, the disbandment of the National Union of Police and Prison
Officials, and its replacement by a Police Federation under official
auspices and prescribed in an Act of Parliament. The disbanded
union, however, continued to exist as a rallying ground for the
dismissed policemen. This is the sole occasion in Great Britain in
recent years when membership in a trade union has been made
illegal.
The railway strike of the autumn, whjch arose out of a wage
dispute, was remarkable for the extensive counter-preparations
made by the Government. The Government, as well as adopting
for the first time the practice of inserting advertisements of its
offers and arguments in the public press a practice which was
followed by the National Union of Railwaymen organized an
extensive system of road motor transport, and arranged for the
enrolment of volunteers prepared to work on the railways. These
preparations were repeated on a more extended scale in the spring
of 1921, when a strike of the three unions composing the Triple
Alliance was feared, and the Emergency Powers Act of 1920 very
considerably strengthened the hands of the executive in dealing
with a strike in an " essential industry." The establishment of the
principle that the Government was immediately concerned in the
case of strikes in "essential industries" to see that necessary serv-
ices were carried on materially affected the position of the trade
unions in those industries. The railway strike ended in a com-
promise under which the National Union of Railwaymen accepted
rates of wages which rose and fell automatically with the rise and
fall in the Government figure of the cost of living, a means of adjust-
ing wages which had already been accepted in a number of other
trades (see STRIKES).
Early in 1920 the unparalleled shortage of working-class houses
led to the remarkable development known as the Building Guild
movement. This was the most direct application yet seen of the
industrial theories of the Guild Socialists (see GUILD SOCIALISM).
A Government committee had previously estimated the shortage of
working-class houses at five hundred thousand, but owing to the
very high cost of building and materials, the dearness of credit, and
the difficulty of recalling to the building industry the many opera-
tives who had left it in the depression prior to the war, hardly any
building was in progress. Under these circumstances, led by Mr.
S. C. Hobson, a Manchester Guild Socialist, the building trade
unionists of Manchester formed themselves into a Building Guild,
and offered to build houses for the Manchester Corporation and
other local authorities in Lancashire at cost price plus a percentage
to cover office expenditure, incidental charges, and the cost of
maintaining every member of the Guild at full wages in sickness,
bad weather, or unemployment, thus putting into practice the
principle, advocated by many trade unionists, that , each industry
should be responsible for the full maintenance of all its workers,
whether or not there was work available for them at any particular
moment. No profits of any kind went to members of the Guild.
The credit of the local authority was to suffice for the purchase of
plant and materials, many of which were in the first instance bought
with the assistance of the Cooperative Wholesale Society. The
tenders of the Manchester Guild were accepted in a number of
instances, though the limitation placed by the Government on the
total number of Guild contracts which could be placed by local au-
thorities considerably restricted their field, and the example of
Manchester was followed by over a hundred bodies of trade union-
ists in various parts of the country, including London, which in the
following year united to form a single National Building Guild. The
Government's restriction of their work upon public contracts led
the Guilds to solicit work from private companies and persons,
which in a number of instances was secured. Trade Union Guild
Councils, formed for the purpose of inducing other industries to
take up the idea, were set up in several districts, and the furnishing
trade was among the first to follow suit. The particular interest of
the Building Guilds, distinguishing them from other experiments
in industrial self-government by the working-classes, lies first in the
absence of profits, secondly in the principle of industrial maintenance
of all workers, thirdly in its limitation to trade unionists, and
fourthly in the cooperation of technical as well as manual workers,
representatives of architects and surveyors being given a place on the
Guild committees.
With all these various developments trade unions had attained an
important place in social life by the end of 1920. But in that year
the trade prosperity came to an end. The trades producing for ex-
port had been gradually losing practically the whole of their
European markets owing to the financial collapse of a great part of
Europe, and their workmen were discharged in large numbers. This
in its turn reacted upon the home market ; there was a sharp fall in
wholesale prices, a general and rapid decline in trade, resulting in
the total unemployment of between one and two million work-
people in the summer of 1921. As soon as the trade depression be-
came apparent, there was a general move to reduce wages. The
legislation confirming war rates of wages for a time had expired dur-
ing the previous year, and the way was therefore clear for immediate
reductions. In many of the minor trades, where trade unionism
was weak, these were enforced immediately, the widespread un-
employment inclining the workers to accept any reduction rather
than run the risk of losing their employment; the well-organized
trades were faced during 1921 with demands for wage reductions,
of which that presented to the miners was the most important.
Council of Action. One event of this period needs describing in
some detail, because it was the most successful attempt of the trade
union movement to intervene in foreign politics. The events in
Russia, since the revolution of 1917 and the establishment of the
Bolshevik Government in Nov. of that year, had been followed with
great interest by trade unionists. More from sympathy with anti-
capitalist Governments in general than because any but a few of its
members were in agreement with Bolshevik theories, the Labour
TRADE UNIONS
75i
movement had for long opposed Allied intervention in Russia, and
isolated protests, such as that of the dock-workers who refused to
load a ship with munitions intended for use against the Bolshevik
Government, had been made from time to time. When in the
summer of 1920 it appeared that Poland, then at war with Russia,
was likely to receive active help from the French and British Govern-
ments, the Itrade union movement rose in protest. The members
of the Parliamentary Committee of the Trade Union Congress
and the Executive Committee of the Labour party formed them-
selves into a Council of Action, called a conference of the governing
bodies of all the important trade unions, and this conference an-
nounced to the Government that a general strike would be called if
Great Britain were to enter the Polish war. It was obvious that the
general feeling among trade unionists was entirely in agreement
with this declaration, and the protest was successful. No active
assistance was given to the Polish Government. After the emergency
was over, the Council of Action, despite attempts to place it on a
permanent basis, gradually ceased to function. During the crisis
local Councils of Action, consisting generally of the trade unions
affiliated to the local Trade Councils, or Labour party, were formed
in most of the large towns. These also gradually lapsed after the
crisis was passed (see SYNDICALISM) .
Post-war Problems. The Miners' Federation, during the previous
year, after the failure of an attempt to force a reduction in the selling-
price of coal the first important instance of a trade union trying
to interfere with the price of its product had accepted a settlement
under which wages varied nationally with the quantity of coal pro-
duced. As a result of this settlement, during the following months
the quantity of coal produced was considerably above what could
be disposed of at a profit. The Government then announced the
termination of their control of the coal industry which had been
exercised during the war, and of the subsidy which had been previ-
ously paid. The mine-owners therefore gave notice of a series of
heavy reductions in wages, varying in the different coal-fields and
amounting in some cases to 40 and 50%, and when the Miners'
Federation refused to accept these reductions, locked the members
out. A " sympathetic " strike of the other members of the Triple
Industrial Alliance was announced, and the Government made
extensive preparations, including the calling up of the army reserve
and the enrolment of a national Defence Force under military
discipline, for coping with it ; but at the last moment the sympathetic
strike was cancelled. The Miners' Federation, after a long struggle,
was forced to come to terms, and to submit to large reductions in
wages, varying from district to district, and thus their object of
securing national minimum rates for mine-workers received, for
the time at least, a severe set-back. The issue of the miners' case
seemed to settle the fate of other industries. Few trade unions
pursued their resistance to wage reductions to the length of ceasing
work; and in fact wages in all industries were considerably lowered
during the year. Nor were reductions confined to cases in which the
rates were a matter of mutual agreement only; the Agricultural
Wages Boards, which fixed the rates for the poorly-paid agricultural
industry, were swept away on the repeal of the Corn Production
Acts, and an attempt was even made to abolish the Trade Boards.
The result of this was to turn the attention of the trade unions
from offensive to defensive action, from advancing wages and
shortening hours, to holding as much as they could of what they had
already gained, particularly in the matter of shorter hours, and from
enrolling thousands of new members to keeping those they already
had. It was to be expected that some of these would lapse ; and there
was a distinct fall in membership, particularly among the unions of
unskilled workers and women, towards the end of the year. But
the fall was considerably less in proportion than had been experi-
enced in any previous period of bad trade, and in the newer unions
of non-manual workers, whose members were less affected by un-
employment, it was comparatively slight. There was also, of
course, a depletion in the large reserve funds which had been built up
during the war, when unemployment benefit and strike benefit were
both at their lowest level. The new activities of trade unionism,
however, were not curtailed as might have been expected. Trade
unions continued to find money to pay the election expenses of
Labour candidates; they continued to show interest in research and
education, and one of the most important schemes, that for unifying
working-class education under the Trade Union Congress, was ac-
tually passed during the first year of the depression.
Organization in 1921. British trade unionism in 1921 presented
a picture which at first sight appears exceedingly confused. There
were upwards of a thousand trade unions, varying in membership
from a score to several hundred thousand, and organized upon all
manner of different bases, from the pure craft union to the " all-
grades " union enrolling everyone, skilled or unskilled, in any
industry; and these unions were united in many different federa-
tions and cross-federations. Only two or three hundred of these
unions were of national importance, the rest being mainly survivals
from an earlier date, or local societies organizing localized industries.
Even among the larger unions, however, there were important
diversities of scope and structure. The largest single unit, the
Miners' Federation, was industrial in its character, embracing most
of the workers in or about the mines. The Miners' Federation was
also the most important instance of a trade union basing its branch
membership upon the place of work of its members, most other
trade unions, except the postal unions, adhering to the " locality "
branch. Another large trade union on an industrial basis was the
National Union of Railwaymen, though in this case two other bodies
of some size, the Railway Clerks' Association and the Associated
Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen, also organized
certain classes of railway employees. Other industries in which
industrial unions of this kind existed were the iron and steel trades,
the transport trades, other than railways, the distributive trades,
the agricultural industry, and the Post Office, though in all these
cases there existed rival societies of considerable importance, in
some cases claiming a section of the industry, such as in the case of
transport, the sailors and firemen of the merchant service, in some
cases such as the Workers' Union in agriculture, ready to embrace
the whole. On the other hand, the second largest group, the Workers'
Union, was an " all-grades " union open to any workman of any
trade, and this form of organization was to be seen, in a somewhat
less all-embracing form, in the other general labour unions, which
were allied with the Workers' Union in the National Federation of
General Workers. The third largest group, the Amalgamated En-
gineering Union, had yet another basis, being formed by a fusion of
kindred craft unions in the engineering trades, open to skilled
engineers in all_ industries, and making little claim upon the un-
skilled workers in the engineering industry proper. The same prin-
ciple was to be noticed in the chief trade union of woodmakers and
in the clerks' trade union. The confusion was, however, less than
would at first sight appear, owing to the existence of federation.
Thus the transport trade union was united with other trade unions
in the transport industry, by means of the Transport Workers'
Federation, a printing federation included the various trade
unions in the printing industry, the textile federation most of those
in the cotton industry, an engineering and shipbuilding federation
those in the engineering and shipbuilding trades, whether they ca-
tered for skilled or unskilled workers and so on. Certain bitter
disputes continued to exist, of which the chief raged between the
National Union of Railwaymen and the engineering and wood-
working trade unions over the workers employed in railway
shops; but, speaking generally, most of the trade unions con-
cerned with a single class of workers or a single industry, whatever
their private disputes, were all represented in the particular federa-
tion, and had a means of acting together in case of emergency.
This applied for the most part only to the manual workers' unions.
The trade unions representing professional, technical and ad-
ministrative workers were only in a few cases affiliated to the man-
ual workers' federation. They had, however, federations of their
own which occasionally entered into cooperation, and individual
unions had sometimes close ties with those of the manual workers-
Larger groupings also existed. Of these by far the greatest con-
tinued to be the Trade Union Congress, to which all the important
trade unions of manual workers and a few of the unions of brain-
workers were affiliated. In 1921 an attempt was made to provide out
of the Trade Union Congress a more efficient governing machine for
the trade union movement by electing its General Council from vari-
ous industrial groups, instead of, as heretofore, electing it by general
ballot vote of the whole Congress. The experience of the Council of
Action and of the miners' strike of 1921 had convinced many of
the need for a central executive and direction. Trade unions, how-
ever, are slow to surrender their individual autonomy, and little but
general powers were given to the new General Council at first, though
an increase in affiliation fees provided it with additional funds.
It was instructed to work in cooperation with the political Labour
party in order to arrange for a separation of function between the
industrial and political sides of the Labour movement, and for their
cooperation in policy. Such separation and cooperation were long
overdue. Owing to the much greater age of the Trade Union Con-
gress, it had formed the habit of dealing with political questions
long before the Labour party was founded, and continued to do so.
It thus happened that the same items, both industrial and political,
would appear for discussion both at the Trade Union Congress and
at the Conference of the Labour Party, and this led to a great deal
of useless overlapping, even apart from cases, such as the miners'
demand for nationalization, which might be considered both in-
dustrial and political. At the same time the machinery for consulta-
tion between the two bodies was very inadequate, and it often hap-
pened that they would take opposite lines of policy. The new scheme
of cooperation was intended to remedy these defects. An alliance
between the trade unions, the Labour party, and the working-class
cooperative movement was also frequently proposed, but was never
consummated except on specific occasions, though the cooperative
societies frequently rendered assistance to members of trade unions
in disputes. There were also other general groupings of less impor-
tance. The General Federation of Trade Unions, once regarded
a body almost coequal with the Trade Union Congress, had
gradually declined in power to the position of a strike insurance
society covering about one-sixth of the trade union movement. The
Triple Industrial Alliance was founded in 1915 by the Miners'
Federation, the National Union of Railwaymen, and the Transport
Workers' Federation, avowedly for the purpose of securing united
action by those three bodies on industrial questions. At the time of
its formation it excited a great deal of interest, and had it ever
752
TRADE UNIONS
succeeded in functioning effectively it would undoubtedly have
wielded immense power ; but owing principally to lack of coordina-
tion between its three constituents, it never took effective action
upon an important question, and its last failure to act in the miners'
strike of 1921 destroyed much of its prestige among the trade
unions. Locally the branches of trade unions were united in Trade
Councils, which in some cases were separate from and in other cases
united with the local Labour party. These Trade Councils, _of
which there were several hundreds in the United Kingdom, varied
greatly in size and importance. In large towns where the Trade
Council could often trace its history as far back as the eighteen-
sixties it sometimes wielded important industrial and political
influence, while in remote places it was little more than a rallying
ground for a few trade union branches to discuss matters of com-
mon interest. The Trade Councils for the most part, being com-
posed of trade union branches with little money to spare, suffered
from a lack of funds, though in times of crisis these could be partly
increased by means of local levies. Their functions were not gen-
erally defined. This meant in practice that they were limited by
opportunity, and might include many types of activity, from the
providing of a hall for local meetings or a local Labour weekly
paper, to the temporary control of the whole life of a town during a
general strike.
Ireland. Irish trade unionism, in its later stages, needs separate
treatment. Originally trade unionism in Ireland was a weak copy
of the British model ; but in the first decade of the twentieth century,
it became imbued with ideas derived from the American Industrial
Workers of the World. Under the leadership of James Larkin and of
Connolly (executed after the Easter Rebellion of 1916) militant
industrial unionism attained to great power. Its strongest exponent
was the Irish Transport and General Workers' Union, which was the
leader in the Dublin strikes of 1913, and subsequently went through a
period of severe repression. It survived, however, and in 1921 was
by far the largest constituent element in the Irish Trade Union
Congress and Labour Party. The latter body, which adopted polit-
ical as well as industrial functions in 1912, acts far more as a central
executive for its affiliated societies than does the British Trade
Union Congress. Affiliated to it are all the important Irish trade
unions, with the exception of some located in Ulster, which are kept
apart from it by political and religious differences. There are also
affiliated a large number of Trade Councils (including the Trade
Council of Belfast), which in weakly-organized districts serve as
organizing centres, workers being invited to join the Trade Council
until a branch of the appropriate trade union can be founded. This
is an important respect in which the Irish Trade Councils differ
from those of Great Britain. The Irish movement was strongly re-
publican in its political policy, and had close relations with Dail
Eireann on the one hand, and with the Irish agricultural cooperative
movement on the other. Most of the Irish industries are organized
in the Irish Transport and General Workers' Union, though in
certain cases British trade unions have a large Irish membership.
The most important Of these are the railway and postal employees
(organized respectively by the National Union of Railwaymen, the
Railway Clerks' Association, and the Union of Post Office Workers,
though a purely Irish Postal Trade Union also exists), the engineering,
shipbuilding and woodworking employees in Belfast and Dublin
and some other large towns, and some women workers, mainly in
the east and north, who are organized in the National Union of
General Workers. There are also separate Ulster unions, principally
jn the textile industries, but trade unionism in Ulster, especially
in Belfast, is liable to be rent asunder from time to time by political
and religious upheavals.
Legal Status. There were few changes during 1911-21 in the laws
relating to trade unionism. The most important of these was the
Trades Disputes Act of 1913, which partially undid the effect of the
Osborne Judgment. It provided that any trade union might take a
ballot of its membership on the question of establishing a fund for
political purposes. If a majority of the members is in favour of its
establishment, contributions for political purposes may be levied,
but no member can be forced to contribute to the political fund who
does not wish to do so. In cases where there is a composite sub-
scription, covering all purposes of the trade union, any member can
reclaim that part of his subscription which would be devoted to
political purposes. The political fund must in all cases be separately!
administered from the general funds. The Trade Union Amalgama-
tion Act, passed in 1917, removed some of the previous legal restric-
tions on the amalgamation of trade unions by providing that, where'
a ballot is taken upon the question of amalgamation, it will be
sufficient if fifty per cent of the membership votes, aTid if of those
voting a majority of twenty per cent is in favour of it. Despite 1
this Act, a number of amalgamations have failed owing to an in-
sufficient total of votes having been recorded, and various devices
have been adopted for getting round the difficulty.
Finance. The finance of trade unions showed little change dur-
ing the decade. Most trade unions slightly raised their subscrip-
tions during the war, in about the same proportions, so that the
unions of skilled workers have still a far higher subscription and
provide on the average a larger number of benefits to their members i
than the unions of the unskilled. Again, most trade unions built
up fairly large reserve funds during the war which were consider-
ably depleted during 1920-1, but here again the increase was
greater in the case of the skilled unions. All trade unions made
large use of the levy, which is one of the most important elements of
trade union finance. It is obvious that strike and unemployment
funds, particularly strike funds, cannot be put upon an actually
sound oasis, so that in most trade unions the method is adopted,
when a particular fund seems to be in low water, or some special
object demands that an immediate sum of money be available, of
imposing, generally after a ballot vote, a levy upon the whole mem-
bership. Thus, a trade union may levy itself to provide assistance
to a particular branch or strike, or to another trade union, or to
finance the Daily Herald, or for any other of a variety of purposes,
and the practice of imposing levies frequently renders the obligation
of a member to his trade union very much greater than would ap-
pear from the subscription rates laid down in the rule book.
AUTHORITIES. The volume of publications on British trade
unionism has increased very rapidly. Official statistics are to be
found in the Labour Gazette, published by the Ministry of Labour,
in the reports of trade unionism issued by the Board of Trade
(not since the war), and in the reports of the Chief Registrar of
Friendly Societies. Most of the available information will be found
collected in the Labour Year Book. For the history, organization
and theories of trade unions the standard works are The History
of Trade Unionism (new edition, 1920) and Industrial Democracy
(new edition, 1920) by Sidney and Beatrice Webb; Trade Unionism
by C. M. Lloyd (revised edition, 1921); and An Introduction to Trade
Unionism (1918) by G. D. H. Cole. All these contain full bibli-
ographies. _ There are also special studies of trade unionism in
particular industries. Of these may be mentioned Trade Unionism
on the Railways (1917) by G. D. H. Cole and R. P. Arnot ; Village
Trade Unions (1920) by Ernest Selley; and Women in Trade Unions
by Barbara Drake (1920). The standard work on trade union law
is The Legal Position of Trade Unions, by H. H. Slesscr and W.
Smith Clark, and a smaller work by H. H. Slesser, The Law Relat-
The Progress of British Trade Unionism, IQIO-Q.
Industry
I'lIO
I9II
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
Building and
156,985
173-182
203,773
247,685
236,524
234,000
231,000
259,000
324,000
437,000
Woodworking
66.OOO
69,000
83,000
96,000
125,000
Mining and Quarrying
731-370
752,527
757,351
914,989
912,577
844,000
884,000
944,000
992,000
1,069,000
Metal, Engineering and
Shipbuilding .
370,093
414,896
479,308
538,751
557,741
641,000
699,000
849,000
952,000
1,074,000
Textiles and
380,541
437,856
479,266
518,871
498,232
449,000
457,000
543,000
616,000
706,000
Dyeing, etc. .
64,000
75,000
87,000
91,000
104,000
Clothing and
67,124
74-423
91,832
105,975
102,318
65,000
51,000
78,000
120,000
156,000
Boots and Shoes
49,000
72,000
81,000
91,000
107,000
Railways ....
116,214
185,513
202,329
326,192
336,671
385,000
425,000
499,000
530,000
624,000
Other Transport
(land and water) .
129,009
328,023
312,345
374-588
379,016
304,000
313,000
326,000
376,000
528,000
Printing ....
74-275
77,252
76,949
84,429
92,055
98,000
99,000
113,000
143,000
192,000
Agriculture and
69,171
176,211
187,831
331,234
366,539
26,OOO
29,000
59,000
130,000
203,000
General Labour
523,000
589,000
815,000
1,205,000
1,491,000
Others, including Pottery,
*
Glass and Chemical
24,000
32,000
42,000
55,ooo
65,000
Food, Drink, etc.
Clerks, Shop Assistants, etc.
303,039
349,154
434,515
485.477
488,190
36,000
III.OOO
35,000
120,000
36,000
150,000
46,000
193,000
63,000
267,000
Teachers ....
I29,OOO
134,000
143,000
167,000
183,000
Public Authorities
244,000
251,000
310,000
353,000
390,000
Miscellaneous Trades
96,000
104,000
123,000
163,000
260,000
Total number of members
2,397,821
2,969,037
3,225,499
3,928,191
3,959,863
4,388,000
4,669,000
5,540,000
6,64-5,000
8,044,000
TRADE UNIONS
ing to Trade Unions (1921). For Irish trade unionism see The
Irish Labour Movement by VV. P. Ryan (1920).
By far the most important up-to-date source of information,
statistical and historical, for other countries is the Labour Inter-
i national Handbook. See also G. D. H. Cole, The World of Labour.
. For Germany see Trade Unionism in Germany by W. Stephen
Sanders (1916). For Russia see A. Losovsky, etc., Trade Unions
in Soviet Russia (1920). (M. I. C.)
UNITED STATES
From 1898 to 1904 craft unions in the United States grew in
importance, and made substantial gains by aggressive action.
In 1905 with a slackening of business prosperity came a loss of
faith in trade unionism as the one sure solution of the problems
of the working class. The American Federation of Labor had
organized the skilled trades but the unskilled had been practically
i neglected. The crafts seemed unable to cope with the trusts and
with an open-shop campaign which drew employers together.
Attempts were made to capture the American labour movement
1 for a more radical class struggle. In 1905 the Industrial Workers
of the World were organized. A movement to organize the
building trades into an industrial union was resisted by the
American Federation of Labor, but resulted in the establishment
in 1908 of the Building Trades Department of the Federation.
In 1909 the United Mine Workers announced their championship
of the principle of collective ownership of the means of produc-
tion. In 1911 the machinists followed. From 1903 we find
increasing tendency toward concerted movements of the railway
crafts. In 1908 the Railway Employees' Department was formed
; in the American Federation of Labor to include all the railway
; unions affiliated with the Federation. In 1916 the four railway
brotherhoods, not affiliated with the Federation, acted together
, to demand the eight-hour day. In 1912 the national convention
of the Federation voted down the minority report of the Com-
mittee on Education in favour of the principle of industrial
unionism, 72 for and 264 against; voting strength, 5,929 f r
and 10,983 against. The two miners' unions voted solidly in
favour of the change. Others in favour were the bakers and
confectioners, iron, steel and tin workers, printing pressmen,
railway carmen and journeymen tailors. In 1912 labour was
weak economically but strong politically, due to its support of
. the Democratic party, then coming into power. Public hearings
before the United States Commission on Industrial Relations in
1914 brought industrial conditions into the light of public opin-
ion; for the first time a commission representing the Govern-
i meat not only pronounced the trade union movement harmless
to the best interests of the country, but gave its unqualified
approval to labour organization as an institution indispensable
in a democracy. The return of business prosperity in 1916,
coincident with the sudden decrease of immigration, gave labour
a new economic advantage. In 1917 the Government asked and
won cooperation of organized labour in producing military
supplies. Organized labour was given recognition on Government
committees, and the policy of boards which represented the
Government in its relations with its employees was to recognize
trade union standards of working conditions. The leadership
of the American Federation of Labor was strengthened by the
attitude of the Government; possibly it was weakened by the
fact that the War Labor Board dealt with groups of disaffected
workers in the local unions rather than with the national officers,
and so made for decentralized control in the unions. After the
Armistice labour was again on the defensive, and the increasing
number of the unemployed were more ready than they had been
to listen to the philosophy of the radical, who can always
promise a steady job and a pay envelope every week in the
Utopian state. The membership in the relatively conservative
American Federation of Labor increased nearly threefold be-
:ween 1910 and 1920. In 1910 there was a paid-up membership
)f 1,562,112; in 1915 1,946,347; and 1920 4,078,740. If we
nclude also the membership of organizations suspended from
;he Federation, the total for 1920 was 4,509,213. Outside the
federation are the four brotherhoods of railway employees with
i membership of over 400,000, the Amalgamated Clothing
Workers, 200,000, the Amalgamated Textile Workers, 40,000;
753
and other smaller independent organizations. There are five
industrial departments in the American Federation of Labor
building trades, metal trades, railway employees, union label
trades, and mining. The six largest of the affiliated unions are
the United Mine Workers', the Carpenters' and Joiners', the
Machinists', Electrical Workers', Railway Carmen, and the
Ladies' Garment Workers.
The National Women's Trade Union League of America was
founded in 1903 for the purpose of investigating and giving
publicity to conditions of women in industry, and to undertake
educational work for wage-earning women, to promote labour
legislation and improved labour standards, and to aid trade unions
in organizing women. The League stands also for the eight-hour
day and the 44-hour week, for a living wage, and for equal pay
for equal work regardless of sex. The League is indorsed by
the American Federation of Labor and the Canadian Trades
and Labour Congress and is represented at their conventions
by fraternal delegates. It claims 600,000 trade union women,
and has also a large membership of men. It publishes Life
and Labor, and maintains a training school for organizers. Its
headquarters are in Chicago.
The decade 1910-20 saw a movement deveiop to unionize the
teachers as a trade group. The first teachers' union was organized
in Chicago in 1902, following the failure of the Teachers' Fed-
eration to gain consideration from the school board. As the
board insisted that it had no money to pay a " living wage,"
the teachers investigated city finances, and found that many
wealthy corporations had been evading taxes due to the city.
In the struggle to force the payment of taxes the teachers received
aid from organized labour. Then, at the invitation of the Chicago
Federation of Labor, the teachers affiliated with that body.
In 1916 the Board of Education dismissed those teachers who
had been prominent in trade union activity. In order that these
teachers might be reappointed, the union withdrew from the city
Federation of Labor. In 1914 the teachers of Cleveland voted
to affiliate with the American Federation of Labor, but were
prevented by the Board of Education. In 1916 teachers' unions
in a number of cities united to form the American Federation
of Teachers and affiliated with the American Federation of Labor,
but forbade recourse to strikes. The official publication is the
American Teacher. The first trade union of librarians in the
United States was formed in New York City, in 1917, to demand
salary increases and a regular system of promotions. In 1918
the Boston Library Employees' Union was organized and affil-
iated with the American Federation of Labor. Union organ-
izers were active without success at the 1919 and 1020 conven-
tions of the American Librarians' Association.
Trade Agreements. The economic strength of trade unions is
crystallized in trade agreements. Such expression of a joint partner-
ship of Capital and Labour to stabilize industry on the basis of an
accepted law is typical of the American labour movement. The
earliest national agreement in the United States was that of the iron
puddlers in 1866. A national agreement of the stove moulders estab-
lished in 1891, providing for peaceful adjustment of disputes which
might arise, continues in force. In 1897 a general strike in the central
competitive district of the bituminous coal-mining industry led to
an agreement between the operators and the United Mine Workers'
Union. In 1902 the president of the union refused to join in a
sympathetic strike on behalf of the anthracite strikers because
such action would be disloyal to the agreement. For more than
20 years the International Typographical Union had been arbitrating
disputes with the publishers of newspapers. At the convention of
the National Publishers' Association in 1900, three publishers were
chosen as a committee to deal with labour, to represent, however, not
the whole convention, but only those employers who had favoured
the measure. Contracts between individual employers and the
union had been made prior to this time. This committee effected
an agreement with the Typographical Union, to be in force from May
1901 to May 1902, which provided for local boards of three persons,
one to represent the publisher, one the union, and the third to be
chosen by these two. The board was to decide all disputes in its
territory, the status quo to prevail until an award should be made.
If either party should be dissatisfied with the decision, appeal
might be taken to a national board, composed of the publishers'
labour committee and the president of the Typographical Union.
If they failed to agree, an impartial person was called in. A majority
decision was then binding on both parties. In 1902 the agreement
was renewed for a five-year period, and again in 1907, revised to
754
TRADE UNIONS
eliminate the impartial person from the adjustment boards, and to
reorganize the final arbitration board to consist of three members of
the employers' committee and three from the executive council of
the union. By the end of 1912 the American Newspaper Pub-
lishers' Association had in operation a total of 416 individual arbi-
tration contracts: 217 with the Typographical Union, 108 with
stenographers' unions, 47 with mailers' unions and 44 with photo-
engravers' unions. A fourth national agreement, 1912-7, made
local settlements compulsory, since the business of the national
board had been impeded by the number of the cases. In 1917 the
agreement was renewed until 1922. '
In the book and job printing industry the development of central
government in .1919 added new features. Cooperating to preserve
industrial peace there are four groups of closed-shop employers,
united in a national association, and five trade unions, centralized
for concerted action in the International Allied Printing Trades
Association. In Feb. 1919 representatives of both sides met to dis-
cuss cooperation. In April they agreed upon a draft of an Inter-
national Joint Conference Council, international since Canadian
publishing companies were included. The Council was composed of
four trade unionists and eight employers; each union representative
had two votes. There was no impartial member, two joint chairmen
sitting together a trade-union president and an employer. Meet-
ings were to be held usually every other month, in different places.
Resolutions were to be passed unanimously by the _ Council and
accepted by all the organizations represented, after which they were
to become law for all member shops in the United States and Canada.
Enforcement was left to the executives of the individual organiza-
tions. The Council drafted an arbitration code to be used by the
members. The Council itself did not settle disputes. Its work has
been to give its approval to a general labour policy, expressed as
" five cardinal points." It adopted for its slogan " Stabilization and
Standardization." The agreement provided that wages should be
reviewed semi-annually, should be based on the cost of living and
the economic conditions of the industry, to provide at least a living
wage; also that employers should introduce a uniform system of
cost-keeping, and that voluntary agreements should take the place
of strikes and lock-outs. Economic conditions in the industry and cost
of living having been determined by scientific investigation, the
actual fixing of wages was left to bargaining between the two parties.
The unions agreed not to work for employers who did not operate
their business under the standard cost-keeping clause, and the
employers agreed to employ only union labour. In March 1921 em-
ploying printers not members of the Joint Conference Council
formed the 48-Hour League of America and called for the abolition
of the Council.
Perhaps the most remarkable change brought into any industry
by trade union efforts is in the clothing industry, where sweated '
workers have been able to build up a system of industrial govern-
ment respected by their employers. In Nov. 1909 discrimination
against union members by employers led to a general strike of the
shirt-waist makers of New York. More than 25,000 girls walked out.
Other grievances were: the long overtime worked in the rush sea-
sons, followed by_ long periods of unemployment ; low wages, fines,
and subcontracting. The employers formed themselves into a
Mutual Protective Association. The police prevented picketing.
This aroused public interest in favour of the strikers. The em-
ployers individually came to settlement with the girls. The workers
gained better conditions, and the principle was inaugurated of ad-
justment of grievances between employer and representatives of the
workers. During the same month, Feb. 1910, which marked the
conclusion of this strike, 7,000 shirt-waist makers in Philadelphia
struck for concessions similar to those secured in New York. The
strike was short ; the chief result was a plan for settlement of diffi-
culties by adjustment in the shop, or by appeal to a permanent
arbitration board of representatives of the union, the employer and
the general public, and a promise not to discriminate against union
members. The wage scale was to be fixed for each shop by a com-
mittee of that shop.
In July 1910 the cloak and suit makers struck in New York
City, 45,000 strong. Their grievances were low wages, the system of
subcontracting by which a few of the employees received wages
from the employer directly, and engaged their own helpers, whom
they " sweated " for a pittance. The strikers also demanded a 49-
hour week with double pay for overtime, the installation of power
sewing machines, and the closed shop. This last point was the most
strongly contested by the employers. Finally a conference was held,
with Louis D. Brandeis as chairman. He urged that the strikers
modify their demand for the closed shop to one for the " preferential
union shop." After some further dispute an agreement on this
basis was signed in Sept., which also pronounced in favour of the
abolition of home work and subcontracting. But the most notable
feature of the agreement was the provision known as the " pro-
tocol," which established three joint boards to administer labour
conditions in the future. The Board of Grievances, of two repre-
sentatives from each side, was to take up differences of opinion
between employers and employees, and to settle any disputes which
might arise. Disputes which could not be settled in this way were to
be carried to the Arbitration Board, made up of one representative
from each side and an impartial member. The Board of Sanitary
Control consisted of two representatives of the employers, two of the
union and one for the public, this impartial member to be appointed
by counsel for the two sides. This Board determined a standard of
sanitation for the shops. " Health strikes " to enforce the findings
of the Board were permitted in shops remaining in any condition
condemned. These three boards were financed jointly by the em-
ployers and the union.
In Oct. of the same year (1910) the men's clothing workers struck
in Chicago, to demand shorter hours and higher wages and some
method of adjusting grievances. After 19 weeks the strikers, beaten,
went back to work but the important firm of clothing manufacturers,
Hart, Schaffner & Marx, made an agreement with their employees
which established a permanent arbitration board of one representa-
tive from each side. There was no impartial member until one year
later, when a Trade Board of II members was instituted to settls
the minor matters which were impeding the work of the Arbitration
Board. The impartial chairman of the new board also presided at the
old. A third part of the machinery was composed of the individual
shop committees which met with the labour managers (employers'
representatives) to try to smooth out grievances before bringing
them to the Trade Board. In 1913, when the agreement was re-
newed, provision for the preferential union shop was added.
In Jan. 1913 several trades of the ladies' garment workers struck
and secured an extension of the protocol plan to cover a larger
number of the trades. A strike in Boston led to its introduction there.
The Joint Board of Sanitary Control was extended to cover other
ladies' garment workers and also the fur workers of New York.
Medical supervision features were added, with individual examina-
tions and preventive work. Early in Jan. the men's garment workers j
of New York also struck. The president of the United Garment
Workers' Union submitted the dispute to arbitration. Many of the
members were dissatisfied, and a plan was made to put a new union
leader in office at the next national election. When the convention
met in 1914, many of the more aggressive delegates found them-
selves debarred by the committee on credentials. The insurgents
retired to another building, held a rival convention and elected
officers. The union membership throughout the country was divided
in its allegiance to the two groups of national officers, the overall
and union label shops clinging to the old leadership, but the mass
of the men's and boys' clothing workers acknowledging the new,
although for this they were branded as " secessionists " by the
American Federation of Labor. During a strike at this time in
Baltimore the cutters remained subordinate to the old leaders, the
tailors were led by the new, who managed to continue the strike to I
victory, although without strike funds. The new leaders then or-
ganized their forces throughout the country under the new name
Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America. This organization,
while retaining the craft divisions, adopted industrial unionism as
its working principle. The preamble stressed the aggressive character i
of the new union and the part it hoped to play in the " class strug-
gle " ; also the importance of education of the members.
In 1915 the new organization carried on and won two general
strikes: a short one in New York, and one of four months' duration i
in Chicago, which cost the union over $40,000, and was finally lost
through exhaustion. But the spirit of the workers was not broken.
The year 1916 was marked by disputes in the clothing trades through-
out the country. In New York the Manufacturers' Association
abrogated the protocol in the cloak and suit trade. After a two
months' lock-out and a general strike of 60,000 workers an agree-
ment was made according to which grievances were to be adjusted
by direct negotiation between union and employer. The Joint Board ,
of Sanitary Control continued through the period of the strike.
Protocols were established in the garment trades in Boston and
Philadelphia. The Board of Standards of the dress and waist trade
opened a test shop to time and standardize the operations.
In 1917 the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America led other
unions in establishing the 48-hour week by strikes in the different ;
clothing centres. In 1918 they led with the 44-hour week. At the
same time the industry in New York adopted an agreement for
industrial government similar to that which had been introduced by
Hart, Schaffner & Marx in 1910. In Feb. an impartial chairman took
up his post. Studies were undertaken by both the union and the
employers' association to ascertain the changes in the cost of living
relative to wage increases, and an award was made of wage increases
varying from 10% to 12-5%. Introduction of the 44-hour week
followed in the other clothing centres. The financing of the New
York strike by the union, except for contributions of $11,000, was
viewed as a notable achievement for workers who until recently had
been " sweated " and ill paid. Other firms in Chicago followed the
example of Hart, Schaffner & Marx, and similar arbitration agree-
ments were introduced also in the clothing centres of Baltimore,
Boston, Rochester, Montreal and Toronto. An attempt of the
A.C.W.A. to organize Cincinnati was as bitterly opposed by the old
union as by the employers. In Rochester and Chicago, where the
work is done in factories, the agreements still held in May 1921.
But in New York and Boston, where most of the work is let out to
contractors, the impartial machinery broke down in the autumn
of 1920; it could not weather the period of industrial depression. The
union in New York then went on strike to force the reinstatement
of arbitration machinery. By the end of March 1921 the locals of
TRADE UNIONS
755
the A.C.W.A. had raised $930,244.54 toward the strike fund. The
arbitration plan was renewed July 1921.
In the spring of 1919 during a strike in Lawrence, Mass., the
: Amalgamated Textile Workers of America were organized. A
resolution of the executive board in April 1920 to affiliate with the
' Amalgamated Clothing Workers was favourably received by the
latter in their convention in May. The constitutions of the two
: organizations are similar. The membership of the A.T.W. in Jan.
1921 was 40,000; that of the A.C.W.A. 200,000. In 1920 the Amal-
gamated Clothing Workers and the Ladies' Garment Workers
1 were drawing together and affiliation was discussed.
Shop Unions. In recent years some employers have offered
substitutes for trade agreements with organized labour. The
' Colorado Fuel & Iron Co. recognized committees of its employees
as a part of the welfare plan of 1915. In 1918 the Standard Oil Co.
: introduced a system of conferences with representatives elected by
the employees. Committees on health, safety, sanitation and
housing were formed, and individuals might present grievances
through their representatives. By the summer of 1919, 160 com-
panies in the United States had shop committees in their plants. In
some plants elaborate industrial governments have been developed ;
the best known are those in the Filene store in Boston and the
Leitch plan named after its originator, John Leitch of Philadelphia,
; and modelled on the checks and balances of the U.S. Government.
Some employers associate the workers with themselves by profit-
, sharing and bonus plans. Others offer a " forum " in which workers
] may meet with the managers to discuss the problems of the business.
: One firm expressed the hope that the purchase of stock by employees
1 would save it from the dictatorship of absentee financial control.
In 1918 the attention of managers was called to the high cost of
! the labour turnover. Employment departments were instituted.
In the course of placing and training the worker and securing his
' honest effort in production, and in organizing the working force
for the safety movement, the science of personal management has
| been evolving. Persuasion takes the place of coercion or bargaining.
The old " scientific management " introduced in 1911 by Frederick
W. Taylor, an engineer connected with the Midvale and later
with the Bethlehem Steel Co., looked upon the individual worker
as a producing machine; effort to increase earning power was the
only human reaction expected from him. The new scientific man-
agement obtains production through group action, by a general
consensus of opinion in the shop. The labour problem is no longer
left solely to the production engineer, who has been trained to deal
with the forces of nature, but is given to a new official, a psycholo-
gist, the labour manager. The labour department is not responsible
for getting out the product, but for building up a permanent and
dependable labour force.
Criminal Unionists. On Oct. I 1910 the office of the Los Angeles
Times was blown up and 21 people were killed. On the same night
bombs were found in the homes of the publisher of the Times and
of the secretary of the Merchants' and Manufacturers' Association.
On Dec. 25 the Llewellyn Iron-Works, also at Los Angeles, were
dynamited. In May 1911 William J. Burns, a detective, secured
the arrest, in Indianapolis, of John McNamara, secretary of the
International Association of Bridge and Structural .Iron Work-
ers, his brother James, and Ortie McManigal. The men were
taken to Los Angeles, where they were found to be responsible for
these and other dynamite outrages in various parts of the country.
McManigal confessed to dynamite plots involving also the Mc-
Namaras and others, and the brothers pleaded guilty to blowing up
the Times building and the iron-works. The criminals were formally
repudiated by the American Federation of Labor. An investigation
by a Federal grand jury of the dynamite plots led to the indictment
of 54 men, many of them officers of the Bridge and Structural Iron
Workers. They were tried and 38 were found guilty. Burns was
arrested for kidnapping, but acquitted. In June 1916 14 business
agents of the Painters' and Electrical Workers' unions of Chicago
were found guilty of extortion. The evidence showed that contrac-
tors and merchants had been compelled to pay sums ranging from
50 to $200 under the threat of damage to their property. In Nov.
1920 an investigation into the high cost of building in New York
City brought to light a conspiracy among dealers in material,
puilding contractors, bankers and labour bosses to keep up the bids
:or construction work. The labour leader implicated and convicted
A-as President Brindell of the Building Trades Council.
The Industrial Workers of the World, commonly spoken of as the
I.W.W., were organized in June 1905 at a convention in Chicago of
203 persons, representing over 40 groups in the working classes.
\mong the sponsors were the leaders of the Western Federation of
Miners, the remnants of the American Labor Union (made up of
workers from different industries, but chiefly raihvaymen), and the
socialist 1 rade and Labor Alliance, known to be the economic arm
)f the Socialist Labor party. The originators of the new association
'elt that a labour union based on craft autonomy, such as the
American Federation of Labor, could not succeed in the struggle of
:he workers against capital. For success, " one big union," the m-
lustrial workers massed in a single army, was felt to be necessary.
Moreover, it was thought advisable to get the working class organ-
zed beforehand and accustomed to working together in " the same
jroups and departments and industries that the workers would
assume in the working-class administration of the Cooperative Com-
monwealth." The aim of the new organization, as intended by the
founders, was first to provide a new central body in which the existing
trade unions, consolidated into industrial unions, could be associated ;
and second, to organize and add to this nucleus the great mass of the
unorganized, unskilled and migratory labourers. The philosophy of
the movement, as expressed in the constitution adopted, was that
" the working class and the employing class have nothing in com-
mon ; there can be no peace so long as hunger and want are found
among millions of working people and the few who make up the
employing class have all the good things of life "; the wages system
must be abolished, and the capitalistic form of society must become
extinct. This was to be accomplished by direct action; the final
solution of the class struggle would be by the " social general
strike," when the toilers would " take and hold " that which they
produce by their labour. " There is but one bargain that the I.W.W.
will make with the employing class complete surrender of all con-
trol of industry to the organized workers." Some of the leaders
insisted that political action should be discouraged as useless. This
led to the split, in 1908, between the western, or direct-action faction,
known as the Chicago branch, and the parliamentarian or doctrinaire
group, represented by the Socialist Trade and Labor Alliance, led
by Daniel De Leon of New York, which became known as the " De-
troit Branch," until in 1915 it took the name of Workers' Interna-
tional Industrial Union. Its official publications are The Weekly
People, Industrial Union News, and The Socialist. The Chicago di-
rect-action branch, exclusively claiming the name Industrial Workers
of the World, was led by W. D. Haywood. After being sentenced to
prison (see below) Haywood fled to Russia in April 1921, leaving the
office in Chicago in charge of Roy Brown. Their organs are One Big
Union Monthly, New Solidarity, both published in Chicago, and
The Industrial Worker, Seattle. Before 1917 they published seven
papers in foreign languages. After the war the organization issued
19 publications in 13 languages. The I.W.W. have amended their
original constitution to omit the clause calling for political action.
At its origin the I.W.W. spoke hopefully of sweeping the working
class into its ranks; at the end of its first year it had a paid-up
membership of 14,000; in 1907, before the split, of less than half that
number; in 1912 the Chicago branch reported 18,387; in 1913
14,851; in Jan. 1917 60,000; on Oct. I 1919 100,000. The general
office had issued 500,000 membership cards to that date. One de-
partment, the Agricultural Workers Union, reported 18,000 mem-
bers enrolled between April 1915 and Nov. 1916. The turnover
between 1905 and 1915 was very high, both as regards members and
local unions. In 1915 7-5 % of the enrolment had remained in active
membership. By 1918 only one-fifth of the number of locals which
had been chartered were in existence. The greatest loss was in 1907
when the Western Federation of Miners left the I.W.W. In 1911 it
affiliated with the American Federation of Labor, and in 1916 became
the Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers' International Union.
The I.W.W. claimed leadership in the McKees Rocks, Pa.,
strike in 1909, and in the " free speech fights " at Spokane, Wash.,
and Fresno, Cal., in 1909, San Diego, Cal., in 1910, and Everett,
Wash., in 1916. In 1907 the leaders Haywood, Moyer and Pettibone
were accused of the murder of the ex-governor of Idaho; they were
arrested in Colorado without warrant, carried to Idaho, imprisoned
and finally tried. They were acquitted. In 1912 the I.W.W. leaders
helped carry on strikes at Lawrence, Mass., and at Paterson, N.J.
(see STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS). They were active among the lumber-
men in Louisiana. In 1914 they organized the migratory labourers
in the harvest-fields, lumber workers, miners and construction
workers. In the spring of 1917 the lumbermen of the extreme
north-west struck; soldiers rounded up the pickets and threw them
into a stockade. By July 50,000 lumbermen were on strike, demand-
ing an eight-hour day and better housing. The I.W.W. were con-
sidered responsible for trouble among the miners in Arizona in the
summer of 1917 (see STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS). On Sept. 5 1917
I.W.W. offices throughout the country were raided by the Depart-
ment of Justice, and their property seized. A few days later most
of the officials were arrested. The grand jury in Chicago indicted
166 members for conspiracy to interfere with the nation s war pro-
gramme. Over 1 ,000 members were arrested ; aliens among them were
held for deportation. At the trial in Chicago in Aug. 1918 97 of the
accused were industrial workers, four were journalists and organizers.
Ninety-eight were pronounced guilty, and 93 were sentenced to
imprisonment of from 10 days to 20 years. Haywood received 20
years' imprisonment and a fine of $10,000. He appealed, and was
released on bail. The sentence was confirmed by the U.S. Supreme
Court in April 1921, but, as stated, Haywood had escaped to Russia.
At about the same time 46 reputed members of the I.W.W. were
arrested in California under the Espionage Act. Others were
added to their number. The indictment was added to six times. The
defendants believed that the trial was a mere formality, and sat
silent throughout the proceedings without offering a defence. They
were found guilty and severe sentences were passed. Five of the
defendants died in jail. In 1917 the lumber workers substituted
" sabotage " for strikes. They would work for eight hours and then
quit in a body. If anyone was discharged the whole crew quit. In
Nov. 1917 the Construction Workers, an international union of the
I.W.W., attempted to hold a convention in Omaha; all attending
756
TRAINING CAMPS, MILITARY
delegates were arrested and held in prison some time before they
were indicted. In Dec. 1918 those who had not been released were
allowed to give bond. In the winter of 1917-8 local secretaries ol
the I.W.W. at various places were tarred and feathered. In Tulsa,
Okla., II members had this treatment. At Red Lodge, Mont.,
two members were tortured in the basement of the courthouse.
As organized in 1905 the I.W.W. had 13 industrial divisions, each
composed of a group of allied industries grouped together for ad-
ministrative purposes; also certain locals of mixed occupation.
Boundaries of jurisdiction are by industry, not craft. The organiza-
tion is centralized in a General Executive Board, with power to call
strikes and a referendum on agreements between local unions and
employers. All acts of the Board may be appealed to the General
Convention, and decisions of the Convention are subject to a refer-
endum of the general membership. Local matters are to be settled
locally. As amended at the tenth convention, in 1916, the unit of
organization became the industrial union instead of the local union;
each industrial union to have its own by-laws. Five or more branches
in any locality form an industrial union district council. Industrial
departments are also provided for by the constitution. There is also
the general recruiting union, which takes in the workers from any
industry not yet sufficiently organized to have its own industrial
union. The only national officers provided by the constitution are
the general secretary-treasurer and a general executive board of
seven members. Each industrial union has a secretary-treasurer
and an executive board of five members. Only wage-earners are
eligible to membership in the unions. No officer of the I.W.W. may
run for political office without a referendum vote of the entire
membership. Since 1919 no officer may hold his position for two
consecutive years, but must return to his industrial work after one
year of office.
AUTHORITIES. P. F. Brissenden, Tlte I.W.W. (1919); Budish
and Soule, The New Unionism (1920); J. H. Cohen, Law and Order
in Industry (1916); J. R. Commons, Trade Unionism and Labor
Problems (Second Series, 1921); S. Gompers, Labor in Europe and
America (1910); G. G. Groat, Organized Labor in America (1916);
R. F. Hoxie, Trade Unionism in the United States (1917) ; William R.
Bassett, When the Workmen Help You Manage (1920); Daniel
Bloomfield, Labor Maintenance (1920); H. L. Gantt, Industrial
Leadership (1916); Carleton Parker, The Casual Laborer and Other
Essays (1920) ; Sumner Slichter, The Turnover of Factory Labor
(1919); Ordway Tead, Personnel Administration (1920); U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review; U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics, Bulletins; American Labor Year-Book (Rand
School) ; Government reports, especially that of Industrial Rela-
tions Commission, 1914-6. (J. R. Co.)
TRAINING CAMPS, MILITARY. I. UNITED KINGDOM One
of the lessons learnt from the Crimean War was the necessity
for having troops of all arms quartered in close proximity to
one another, and to some open area of ground where they could
be trained, both separately and in combination, in military
exercises. Two such training centres were then chosen, one at
Aldershot in England, the other at the Curragh (Kildare) in
Ireland. At these two places in 1855 arrangements were started
for the construction of training camps. At Aldershot a scheme
was also carried out for permanent barracks for one cavalry
brigade, one infantry brigade (of three battalions) and for three
batteries each of horse and field artillery. These barracks were
afterwards known as Wellington Lines. Besides these per-
manent barracks, the scheme provided for two hutted camps,
known as North and South Camps, accommodating each four
battalions or their equivalent. The total accommodation,
therefore, in the Aldershot of the period was one cavalry and
three infantry brigades, with a proportionate number of artillery,
engineers and departmental corps, about 10,000 men at most.
The work begun in 1855 was finished in 1858-9.
At the Curragh the camp was designed for 10,000 men in 10
squares, each intended at first for two battalions of 500 each.
The squares each consisted of a double row of huts grouped
round a common parade ground, the men's quarters being at
the sides in huts holding 25 men each, the officers being
quartered at a third side in huts holding eight officers in each,
and the fourth side of the square being taken up with regi-
mental accessory buildings. This was the original plan, but it
was very soon found that it would be better to have each
square allotted to a whole battalion and to use the spare
huts as married soldiers' quarters, and for increased accessory
accommodation. The quartering of two regiments together
in the same square, especially if these were of Irish militia, for
even a short period of training, was not entirely free from
disciplinary trouble.
There was a good deal of misgiving at the time as to the
wisdom of providing temporary huts such as these and not
permanent barracks. The embodiment of the militia, during
the Crimean War, pressed for a larger amount of accommodation
than the barracks existing in the country could provide, and the
need of training units of troops together was also an urgent
matter. Tents, no doubt, were thought of, but the view pre-
vailed that these would be insufficient to provide shelter in the
climate of the British Isles for any lengthy period. The difficulty
of obtaining materials of a permanent nature, and of getting!
the quarters erected with sufficient rapidity, except by the use
of temporary materials, were, no doubt, the military considera-!
tions which led to the decision to build huts, and these coincided i
with the natural desire on the part of the Treasury authorities <
to get the work done cheaply. At the time, it was not expected !
that the huts would last for more than a few years, though as a
matter of fact some > were in occupation 50 years afterwards.
There were other similar -hutments on a small scale at Shorn-
cliffe and Colchester, on exactly the same lines as those at the
Curragh and Aldershot.
The huts themselves were built of wooden framing, resting ;
upon dwarf walls of brick, longitudinally and transversely, j
They were roofed with boarding, covered with tarred felt.
The walls were of wooden weather boarding painted, and the
lining of the huts was plain boarding, or (in the case of officers'
huts) rough canvas papered. The lighting was by windows, !
much smaller than would now be considered sanitary, and after !
dark oil lamps were used. Small stoves burning coal were
used to heat the buildings, the stovepipes passing through the
felted roofs. The water supply, in the case of the Curragh, and
of the South Camp at Aldershot, was obtained from wells and i
reservoirs on War Department land. It was led to open ablution [
sheds, and as these were fairly near the barracks, the men had i
no greater difficulty than in a tented camp, in their ablutions.
But anything in the shape of baths or hot water was unknown.
The latrines were at first on the bucket principle, but very
soon after the camps were taken into use, trough latrines with
water flushing were adopted. The sewage was treated in a
sewage farm at a little distance from the camp, both at Aider-
shot and the Curragh, the drains leading to it being brick cul-
verts of a type now condemned.
It is of course very easy with our modern knowledge to
criticize all this, but the main points of the policy were sound,
viz., proximity to open manoeuvre ground, and to rifle ranges,
the grouping of units and the accommodation of those units
in small buildings, both because a small building is more easily
adapted to some other use than a large one, (when change of
policy necessitates reappropriation) and also because it is more
easily isolated in case of fire or infectious disease. In this
respect the same policy was continued in the great hutting
programme of 1914-6 in England, as opposed to the American
plan of having large two-storey huts containing each up-
wards of 100 men.
No hutted camps were built in England again until the S.
African War of 1899-1902. Some demands came from S. Africa
for hutting material, and huts of corrugated iron roofs and
walls, lined with boarding, were accordingly designed and sent
to that country. Similar huts were built at several of the new
stations at home, which had come into being with the increases
to the army authorized in 1899, e.g. Deepcut, Blackdown,
Bordon, Longmoor and Ewshott in the Aldershot area, Bulford
on Salisbury Plain, Kildare in Ireland, and regular summer
camps such as Okehampton, Glen Imaal, Kilbride, etc.
When the World War broke out in 1914, a demand arose
once more for training centres, and the problem of hutments
had again to be dealt with. The types of huts adopted are
described in the article BARRACKS AND HUTMENTS: it is here
proposed to deal with (A) the principles on which sites were
selected; (B) the system of grouping the typical designs so as to
form suitable unit hutments; (C) the grouping together of
various unit hutments, and (D) the accessory services incidental
to such groups of hutments.
TRAINING CAMPS, MILITARY
(A) Selection of Sites. During the war it was laid down by the
General Staff that no sites for important training centres in Great
; Britain should be situated within 50 m. of the E. coast. As the
whole of E. Anglia comes within this limit, this excluded a useful
part of England which otherwise might have been utilized. The
: same objection applied to certain parts of Yorks. and Lincolnshire.
i It was also desirable not to choose sites near the main lines of rail-
way leading to the principal ports, which had already important
and increasing traffic, dealing with supplies and munitions. Conse-
quently, the more westerly parts of England were mainly examined
: for suitable _sites, the most important being in VV. Yorks., Staffs.
; and Shropshire. There were also one or two large camps in Wales.
From the training point of view it was imperative that there
should be open ground available at all times of year, for manoeuvring
and field works, and suitable positions for rifle ranges, for bombing
i practice, entrenchments and other similar instruction. From the
'. medical point of view it was desirable that the soil should be gravel
or chalk (though clay was not an insuperable objection), that there
should be good drainage, and generally healthy surroundings, that
the water supply should be ample and either pure or capable of
being purified. Prom the supply point of view, besides the obvious
importance of being able to issue supplies easily, it was essential
that there should be ample means of communication by rail or
water or both ; that while the site should not be on a main line of
railway so as to impede other movements, it should not be far
away from existing railways. From the engineer's point of view,
besides traffic facilities, it was desirable that materials should be
; easily procured, water abundant, labour not unreasonably difficult
to obtain and supervise, and, if possible, some already established
local system of waterworks, drainage works, or electrical power in
'which, by agreement, the camp might be a partaker.
These requisites are given in the order of importance, but in
making the actual selection, perhaps less attention than was wise
. svas paid to the third section, in some instances. Thus Salisbury
Plain is an excellent training ground, but it was in the autumn of
1914 already congested with troops, and to initiate the construc-
tion of an additional large cantonment there was courting trouble.
22
4-30' O'
(
PARADE GROUND
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300 350 *00 430 SOOFT.
F I G. I
The Wylye Valley near Salisbury had a number of good sites for
nail tented camps, and it was situated close to good training
round, besides being healthy and easily drained, but not one of
lese camping grounds could take more than a brigade, and conse-
uently the two divisions which were quartered there had to be
i scattered groups along a line some eight miles in extent, with
reat subsequent trouble in providing supplies and in administra-
757
tion generally. The above experience indicated that (a) divisional
camps were the most satisfactory, if the requisite space could be
found for them; (6) camps of two divisions were possible and good,
but a larger number made the problem of administration unwieldy;
(c) it was best not to construct the huts upon the actual train-
ing ground (as the area of such a cantonment absorbed too much of
the useful training space available), but that they should be as
22
J
PARADE GROUND
100 SO O
100 150 100 25O 30O 330 4OO ADO SCO FT.
F I G. 2
I. Officers' Mess. 2. Officers' Quarters. 3. Officers' Latrines.
4. Barrack Block. 5. Ablution, Latrines and Urinals. 6. Cook-house.
7. Wash-up. 8. Dining-room. 9. Bath House. 10. Drying-room,
it. Guard House and Offices. 12. Stores. 13. Spare. 14. Coal
Yard. 15. Horse Shelter. 16. Harness and Saddle Rooms and
Forage Stores. 17. Vehicle Shed. 18. Mobilization Equipment
Stores. 19. Dung Pit. 20. Water Trough. 21. Sergeants' Mess.
22. Regimental Institute.
near to the edge of the training land as possible, so as to minimize
the time lost in marching from barracks to training ground and
home. As regards engineering materials, there was little actual
difficulty in obtaining what was requisite, but the presence or
absence of an adjacent market made a very notable difference in
the cost of the work, an important factor.
(B) System of Grouping. The grouping together of huts to
form a hutted camp for an infantry battalion at war strength is
shown on fig. I. To provide for such a unit, sixteen different designs
of huts are needed, but the same designs grouped otherwise can be
arranged for most of the similar units of other arms. It will be
seen from the plan that the area occupied, 1,100 ft. by 500 ft.,
has on its centre line the principal buildings, viz. officers' and
sergeants' messes, the shower baths, dining-rooms and cook-house,
drying-room for wet clothing, and the canteens and recreation
rooms ; while on either side are the living huts, for officers on either
side of the officers' mess and for men, two rows of huts on each
side with four groups of ablution-rooms, latrines and urinals. This
plan was originally designed with the view of providing at first
only the huts other than living accommodation, which it was
thought might be given in tents. The very short time available in
1914 between the declaration of war and the approach of winter
(only three months at most) would only suffice for the messes, and
dining-rooms, etc., to be built, giving a reasonable amount of
758
TRAINING CAMPS, MILITARY
comfort and shelter during the waking hours, while for sleeping
purposes it was thought that, even in winter, tents would be
sufficient, leaving the sleeping huts to be built at leisure. Had
this scheme been carried out (and afterwards it was found that
tents, in winter, for sleeping would not have been impracticable)
it might have been quite possible to have housed with a fair amount
of comfort the large armies then being raised, taking into account
the limited time and materials and labour available. Unfortunately,
as it turned out, this compromise was not sanctioned. The rapidity
with which the first large hutted camp was erected may have raised
a hope that the same rate of progress would have been maintained;
but that first camp had, of course, very special advantages in that
large supplies of material, especially corrugated steel sheets, were
available, and labour difficulties were negligible, factors which
later were not to be relied upon. Accordingly, orders were issued to
construct living huts as well as the others, and the attempt to do
this in the short season available was a failure. Nevertheless, in
some of the first camps it was accomplished. At Belton Park at
Grantham, a camp for 12,000 infantry, begun on Aug. 24 1914, was
occupied on Nov. 3, less than three months from the start, a result
which may be compared with the case of the Curragh in 1855-7
where three years were required for a less number of troops.
Reverting again to the typical plan, it will be seen that the
officers' quarters and mess are divided from the men's huts by a
small parade ground, flanked on either side by administrative
buildings. Also that among the central accessory buildings are
dining-rooms, baths, and drying-rooms, with a large " regimental
institute." These are features which were unknown in the early
hutted camps, and are the result of greater civilization and atten-
tion to the soldier's improved position. Baths are, moreover, a
hygienic necessity and the value of these was insisted upon from
the outset. In some of the later hutted camps the dining-rooms were
omitted, but the saving effected was hardly commensurate with the
disadvantages. Drying-rooms were very useful, for frequently the
men's clothing got soaked by rain, but there were difficulties in
the practical use of them, and they were not always repeated. Fig. 2
shows an alternative arrangement for an infantry battalion camp.
Fig. 3 shows the grouping of typical huts in the case of a field artillery
unit. Other units are designed on generally similar lines.
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i. Officers' Mess, etc. 2. Officers' Quarters. 3. Barrack Block.
4. Sergeants' Mess. 5. Regimental Institute. 6. Cook-house.
7. Dining-rooms. 8. Wash-ups. 9. Guard House and Offices.
10. Battery Stores, Brigade Bread and Meat Stores, and Spare
Hut. II. Mobilization Equipment Store. 12. Forage Barn.
13. Granary. 14. Forge. 15. Shoeing Shed. 16. Expense For-
age Store. 17. Horse Shelter. 18. Harness and Saddle Rooms.
19. Vehicle Sheds. 20. Baths (32). 21. Ablution. 22. Latrines
and Urinals. 23. Drying-rooms. 24. Coal Yard, Dung Pits,
Water Troughs.
(C) Grouping of Unit Hutments. The grouping of such unit
hutments as have just been described, into a divisional camp or
cantonment, can but be considered in taking an actual case, viz
that of Hipswell camp, the northerly half of the large cantonmem
of Catterick, near Richmond in Yorkshire. The site was not selectee
until Dec. 1914; some experience had, therefore, been gained in th<
matter of grouping. In examining this plan (fig. 4) it must bi
borne in mind that immediately to the S.E. of it lies another divi
sional camp. Thus the hospital, post-office, power station, armj
ordnance store sheds, banks, etc., which in the plan appear to be al
one corner, are really in the centre between the two divisions
There are 12 infantry battalion hutments, marked A to L. In the
actual lay-out there is some irregularity owing to the ground, nr
attempt being made to preserve a rigid formality of plan which
would only be symmetrical on paper, but would necessitate great
extra expense in foundations, etc. Yet in each case the broad prin-
ciples enunciated above as to general grouping have been main-
tained. It will be observed that branch lines of railway approach
each hutment, and each has access to a main road. The engineers
and pioneers are near the outer flank of the cantonment, close t<
ground used for field entrenchments. Between them and the first
infantry brigade (A to C) are the field artillery brigades, while the
administrative troops are on the extreme N.W. flank. It may be
added that the main training ground, rifle ranges, etc., lie on the
W. side of the camp. The general slope of the land is from N. to S.
towards the brook passing the power station and hospital.
(D) Accessory Services. The accessory services are (i.) Hospi-
tal, (ii.) Roads and Railways, (iii.) Water Supply, (iv.) Lighting,
(v.) Refuse Disposal and Sewage.
(i.) Hospital. For a large cantonment, a hospital of 600 beds,
with an isolation hospital for infectious complaints, is needed.
In the theatre of war, this number was of course largely exceeded,
and there the unit of each general hospital was 1,000 beds, base
hospitals being frequently groups of 10 or more such units. The
principles of design, however, are the same, and although in mat-
ters of construction detail there may be differences, the following
general description is of universal application. Fig. 5 shows the
RA.M.C PERSONNEL
200 FT
i. Mortuary, etc. 2. Pack Store. 3. Disinfecting Block. 4. Hos-
pital Supply Department. 5. Dining-room. 6. Kitchen Block.
7. Operation Block. 8. Administration Block.
lay-out of a camp hospital, considered as a type. In front on one
side are the mess and officers' quarters, on the other side the accom-
modation for the nursing sisters. Both these are arranged so as to
be separate from the hospital itself, though sufficiently near for all
practical purposes. It was subsequently found desirable to sur-
round the nurses' quarters with a high fence on the hospital side so
as to ensure greater privacy. In front of the main hospital enclosure
is the administration block and behind it the operation room. In
some of the field hospitals this building was the centre of a series of
wards radiating out from it. Groups of wards, in the type figure,
are on either side, and in most hutted camps, in England, these
were connected with the operating rooms and administration block
by covered passages. The kitchen and dining-rooms and supply
stores occupy a central position behind the operating room, and the
quarters of the hospital orderlies are beyond. The isolation wards
are in any convenient position not too far away from the main
buildings.
At the later stages of the war, when the number of sick and
wounded increased, it was found that 24 or 25 beds were too few,
and much larger wards were designed, but the same general arrange-
ment was continued.
(ii.) Roads and Railways. The ordinary roads of the country
where a large hutted camp is situated, will soon be found inade-
quate for the constant heavy traffic entailed by the occupation, and
additional roads will be necessitated. This will be evident from the
plan of Hipswell Camp. Consequently early steps must be taken
to provide roads of the best construction, preferably concrete 20 ft.
TRAINING GAMPS, MILITARY
759
A-L Lines of 12
Infantry batfa >1 v I
M Div: AmmCol:?'
N Engineers
O Pioneer batLa. \
P Armu Service \
Corps. ,. J^ ti |l ^H 3
Q-T four brigades o/Vj'i'iViiii-?-;
Field Artiller. " ""'
Army Ordnance. \
Relrtjious Institutes.
Miniature Rifle Ranges.
C Barrack Expense Stores
Q Bank branches and
Post Office.
CATTERICK CAMP
(HIPSWELL DIVISION)
to 30 ft. wide with asphalt surface. Many small bridges will have to
be reconstructed. Maintenance of such roads will have to be kept
in view. In each unit camp plank paths (" duck boards ") will be
necessary from the very first, from every hut, otherwise the whole
place will become a quagmire.
Railway lines should be laid into every group of hutments (see
plan of Hipswell Camp, fig. 4) and there should be a branch leading
to a main line. The gradients should not exceed I in 50 and the
curves 600' radius at a minimum. The construction of these camp
lines was, in some cases where the sites had been hurriedly chosen, a
matter of very serious difficulty.
(iii.) Water Supply. At Catterick Camp the water was obtained
from the river Swale in a valley with steep banks about a mile above
Richmond. It was conducted by gravity from a deep pool in the
river to a pumping station where, after settling in suitable tanks, it
was pumped up to two tanks holding in all one million gallons, where
the water was chlorinated. From this position, which is sufficiently
jlevated from the general level of the cantonment to command all
parts by gravity, a 10 in. main leads along the main line of railway,
ind branches are taken off to each unit eamp. A subsidiary storage
tank of 100,000 gals, at the S.E. end of the cantonment, about two
ind a half miles from the main tanks, provides against any incon-
| renience caused by a temporary breakdown.
(iv.) Lighting. This subject was very carefully considered in
the early days of the war and it was decided that electric light would
')e the safest and best, and by using aerial transmission lines sup-
ported on simple poles, it would be as inexpensive as any other form.
] \ scale of lighting for various buildings was then carefully drawn up,
apon which the whole system for any grouping of units was easily
:alculated. In almost every case of a large hutted camp the installa-
, 'ion had to be provided de novo, for municipal supply was insufficient
:o enable the current to be brought from the local installation of
iome adjacent town. A power station was then designed at some
:entral spot and preferably near a stream where water for boilers
ind for construction tanks could be easily obtained. From this
central station transmission lines radiated to various hutments.
Dccasionally, and especially in camps (those for 1,000 men or less),
jas from an adjacent town supply was used.
(v.) Refuse Disposal and Sewage. This subject presented diffi-
:ulty owing to faulty selection of sites in some cases. For compara-
:ively small camps the removal of solid matter was possible by cart-
ige and incineration; there being several patterns of destructor in
:he market, it was only a. question of erecting one or more in suit-
ible places, and arranging for a regular system of conservancy. But
rtith large bodies of men, 20,000 and upwards, this became very
, difficult, and in the larger cantonments a regular system of water-
borne sewage was adopted. Here, again, cooperation with local
bodies was tried as far as possible, but generally the task was too
great for town sewers (e.g. at Ripon, a town of 9,000 pop., the addi-
tion of 42,000 men and 10,000 horses was far too great for the effi-
cient use of the town sewers, and a separate purification plant had
to be devised for the camp with an elaborate network of sewers).
The sewerage system for the Hipswell Camp is indicated on the
plan (fig. 4), as far as the hospital, beyond which point the main
sewer is joined by the sewer from the other division (Scotton) and
together the main sewer, now 18" in diameter, proceeds some two
miles to the disposal works.
In any case some disposal works are necessary in every camp for
the treatment of liquid sullage from lavatories, kitchens, etc. This
sullage_ water is often very foul and had to be carefully filtered
either in primary and secondary contact filter beds, or according to
some other recognized method of sanitary engineering.
Other refuse from the camps can be dealt with by some simple
form of refuse destructor.
Organization of Constructing Hulled Camps. The system of organ-
ization in America is that each department of engineering has a
separate and independent charge, one department doing all the sur-
veys, another the building, another the water supply, and so on.
In England the system was that, while the War Office technical
staff supplied the type plans, the authorized rules for quantities of
water, electric light, etc., the general approval of the order of urgency
and of lay-out, and the selection of the contractor who executed the
work, the whole of the local work was entrusted to an experienced
senior Engineer officer. He had sub-departments under him for
roads, railways, water, electricity, sewage, but he was entirely re-
sponsible for coordinating their work and for the local application of
materials. The actual execution was almost invariably in the hands
of a large firm of contractors who worked on a system of cost plus
percentage (which has- certain defects but which can be worked
well on a competitive system). The superintending officer had
authority to give instructions to the contractor, and was responsible
for the supervision of his work and for regular and periodical pay-
ment. The system worked well and expeditiously.
As regards materials, although some of the earlier camps had
their walls built of corrugated steel on wooden framing, this material
was rapidly exhausted, and the subsequent substitution of timber
boarding caused such a famine of all sorts of scantlings and planks
that every effort was made to use some other method. Light steel
framing filled in with concrete vertical slabs was used with success,
and framework with expanded metal plastered over was also used.
Both these methods had the advantage of giving employment to
such trades as bricklayers and plasterers, and thus not being so
entirely dependent on carpenters.
Roofs were for the most part covered with one or another of the
many waterproof felts in the market. In some cases corrugated
steel sheets were used and a few hutted hospitals were roofed with
760
TRAINING CAMPS, MILITARY
slates. Floors were in most cases of planking, tongued and grooved,
or otherwise rendered impervious to air from below, though in some
camps this precaution was omitted, to the great discomfort of the
men. In some camps concrete and asphalt floors were used with
good result. The interior fittings of the huts, such as pegs and
shelves, were very few. Fire buckets and screens to surround and
isolate a burning hut were provided, but as a matter of fact, fires
were remarkably few, notwithstanding the fact that the huts were
heated by stoves. Ventilation was given by large louvred openings
in each gable of the hut, and strict orders were issued that two of
the windows also should be kept open at all times when the hut
was in full occupation.
The cost of the camps amounted to between 20 and 30 per
man, all building and engineering services whatsoever being included.
The average may be taken at 23. After the war most of the mate-
rials were disposed of, in some cases at a profit. Many of the huts
were easily adapted at small expense into comfortable cottages of
four or five rooms.
Miscellaneous Hutments other than for Troops. In addition to the
hutted camps for brigades, divisions, etc., as above described, there
were similar cantonments for (i.) Remount depots, (ii.) Ordnance
stores, (iii.) Munition workers, and (iv.) Aerodromes, which deserve
some brief description. The broad principles of lay-out and details
of construction are of course similar.
(i.) Remount depots to accommodate from 5,000 to 10,000
horses were constructed in England at or near important seaports.
The personnel amounted to 1,500 to 2,000 of all ranks whose accom-
modation was, of course, on the same lines as that already described.
The other buildings were stables, offices, forage barns, granaries,
veterinary hospitals, as well as power-house, water supply, etc.
The stables were open shelters with a longitudinal central wall
fitted with mangers on either side and with hanging bails 5 ft. apart,
supported on the outer side on pillars which carried the roof. It was
most desirable to have mangers, bails, posts, etc., all of iron, as the
animals were continually gnawing anything of wood. The best
floors were of concrete, with a slight slope to the rear but in France,
where there were many remount depots, rough planking, sleepers or
half logs made very satisfactory flooring. A very essential matter
was the prevention of cold draughts, and for this purpose either the
stables were built close together to shelter each other (fig. 6) or a
wind screen was erected outside (fig. 7). In the early days of the
i
FIG. 6
war the S. African plan of having about an acre of land fenced in
round each group of stables for 50 horses, was tried, but it was found
that in the moist climate of the British Isles the ground soon became
a quagmire, and the area required was enormous. Later, therefore,
the stables were built in parallel lines near one another, a better
arrangement for administration and good enough for exercising the
animals. The veterinary stables were on much the same principle
as the ordinary ones, but there were some loose boxes provided with
slings for special cases. A horse bath, i.e. a narrow concrete tank
with a sudden drop under water at the entering side and a ramp
out on the far side, was a most useful adjunct in the veterinary
lines, and indispensable in the case of skin complaints.
(ii.) Ordnance Store Depots were numerous on lines of communi-
cation in France, and in connexion with munition collecting centres
in England. The largest of these was at Didcot, close to a railway
junction. The depot was divided into two main sections, one for
ammunition, the other for ordinary stores. The former had to be
at some distance from other buildings, was fenced in and guarded
by sentries, and the interior space was divided up so that certain
buildings were allotted to different classes of ammunition (shells,
small arms, cartridges, etc.) under magazine regulations. The
buildings were of a fairly substantial character, well ventilated and
lighted, and where necessary, furnished with transporting gear am
lifting tackle. The ordinary store buildings consisted of a doubli
line of large steel framed and walled sheds, 400 ft. by 40 ft. in eacl
case, spaced sufficiently far apart to admit between them laterally ;
double line of rails, so that wagons could be unloaded at one shed
while the other line was open, and on the side of the sheds fan hcsi
from the rails there was a metalled road for heavy motor lorries
The floor of each shed should be on a level with the floor of rail\va\
trucks, and there should be an outside verandah to the shed, so thai
lWi^"w&^&^^^^^^^^
FIG. 7
trucks can be unloaded under shelter. The distance between sheds |
longitudinally should be sufficient to allow for cross-over lines from ;
one railway line to the other. As protection from fire is of urgent.
importance there should be a girdle of fire mains all round the sheds,
and an ample supply of water. There are a few other groups of
buildings, e.g. offices, workshops and open vehicle sheds, but these
require no special description.
(iii.) Hutments for Munition Workers. For male workmen and
employees the general lines of provision are the same as for soldiers,
but with the coming of women into the field of labour, special pro-
vision was needed. One of the best arranged works had its women's
colony situated on attractive and healthy ground about two miles
from the works, the workers being sent to and fro by a light railway,
and the special provision at the actual works being limited todining- j
rooms and lavatories. At the colony headquarters the huts, which
were made as attractive as possible with furniture well chosen, with
flower beds and grass lawns surrounding them, consisted of two
main groups, viz. the dormitories and the recreation huts. The
former were double-storied wooden huts, about 25 ft. span, with a
central passage, from which opened on either side little cubicles, ;
about 8 ft. square, the partitions being about 7 ft. high. At the i
end of the central corridor were the lavatories and baths. Outside
were water-closets. The number of women in each block was i
about 60. The recreation blocks consisted of dining rooms and
kitchens in one block and a recreation and games room in the other,
where also were the rooms of the lady superintendent.
(iv.) Aerodromes. The accommodation for officers and men
corresponded to that of infantry. The aerodrome sheds were sited
at the end of the landing ground, a certain portion near the sheds
being paved with concrete, asphalt or, in some cases in France,
with rough planking. At first, the doors of the aeroplane sheds
opened at the sides of the shed, a structural defect which became
more accentuated as the demand for wider opening became greater.
A fresh design of aeroplane shed, therefore, which gave doors at
each end of a large shed, the span in some cases being as much as
100 ft., and the height of the shed 30 ft. to 35 ft., was made out, and
all the later aeroplane sheds were built accordingly. Behind the
aeroplane sheds were small workshops for minor repairs, and a cellar
for the boilers required to heat the piping for maintaining a tempera-
ture in winter suitable for the various aeroplanes. Adjacent to the
great sheds, but on the other side of a metalled road (for motor
lorries) were workshops, lorry sheds, stores for spare parts, ordinary
store nouses, and power plant. Of these the only special one was
for doping aeroplane wings, the poisonous fumes from which necessi-
tated very special ventilation by means of fans. All the above were
required in ordinary cases, but special designs had to be made in
certain aerodromes used for experimental or other purposes; these
however need not be detailed here.
Generally speaking it may be said that the requirements of avia-
tion gave rise to a number of new constructive problems in con-
nexion with hutting, but none of these proved to be insurmountable. [
Although the arrangements in the theatre of war followed the
above in general design, there were obvious local modifications.
In the case of ammunition dumps, for instance, the buildings con-
tained limited quantities of different classes of ammunition, and
TRAINING CAMPS, MILITARY
were constructed with very strong roofs, covered with sand bags or
earth, and concealed as much as possible from aerial observation
The following brief statistics of the Catterick Camp (Hipswell
and Scotton divisions) may give an idea of the magnitude of such a
task: The total number of buildings for the two divisions was
2,700, and 240,000 tons of concrete were used. About three-quarters
of the huts were of concrete slabs with steel framing, the remainder
i of frame work and expanded metal plastered. The central power
station was of i,oookw. Overhead mains transmitted 3-phase cur-
. rent at 3,000 volts to transformers at each battalion hutment, hospi-
tal, etc. The lighting of each battalion was arranged in three sepa-
rate circuits at 200 volts; there were about 12,500 lights and 300 H.P.
of motors installed. The total length of high-tension main was
about 15 m. and of low-tension circuit 50 miles. The water supply
from the Swale was pumped 400 ft. from the river to the chlorin-
I ating tanks by electrically driven 120 H.P. centrifugal pumps, one
of which could supply water for the whole camp for one day in six
hours. The main pipes were 10 in. diminishing to 6 in. and were
I eight m. in length. There were 40 m. of branch pipes. The sewage
outfall drains from 18 in. to 24 in. diameter were taken six miles to
the treatment works. There was a complete system of surface
drainage independent of the sewage system. The main camp roads
totalled 22 m. and there were 70 m. of pathways. The average cost
| of each hut was 200 and of this 40 % was for labour and 60 % mate-
rial. The total cost, including railways, electric installations, etc.,
was 1,250,000. (G. K. S. M.)
II. UNITED STATES
The presidents of the United States since Washington, almost
without exception, had pointed out the need of a certain degree
of preparedness in the way of a trained citizenry, arms and
equipment, not only as an instrumentality for carrying out
national policy at home but as a means of ensuring peace with
other nations. Most of them recognized that lack of prepared-
ness for national defence was in itself a temptation to aggressive
and predatory nations. They also recognized that unorganized,
unequipped, untrained, the United States could not hope to
'exercise that weight in the world's councils or in maintaining
peace and international fair dealing, to which its position and
importance entitled it. American politicians had often de-
liberately misled the people as to what could be done. The
result was that, at the time when a world crisis was approaching
which was in the end certain to involve the people of the United
States, they were, in everything which related to preparedness
for defence or to playing their part in the struggle for civiliza-
tion, asleep. Lord Roberts had already sounded the clear note
of warning to England, Kitchener had planned organized de-
fences for the British colonies, but America, warlike yet un-
military, was doing nothing to prepare for the storm. Impelled
jy an appreciation of the utter unpreparedness of the United
States to meet promptly any military emergency arising from
:onflict with a first-class Power and by the general lack, not
)nly of knowledge but of interest in the question of national
preparedness on the part of the general public, and realizing
:hat such interest could best be built up through the youth
)f the country, Maj.-Gen. Leonard Wood took up in 1913, as
:hief of staff of the army, with the Secretary of War, Lindley
VI. Garrison, the project of establishing certain training camps
or duly qualified youth, and obtained his approval. This was
he beginning of the Plattsburg idea. It was pushed forward
>y Gen. Wood in the following three years.
The 1913 camps were held at Gettysburg, Pa., and Monterey,
^al., and were made up principally of college students. The
otal number in camps was 244. They were known as Students'
Military Instruction Camps. The young men who came were
n unusually intelligent and earnest lot. Those at Gettysburg
ormed a permanent organization, which became known as the
National Reserve Corps and had for its purpose the building
p of a corps of reserve officers. The shield of the corps bore
he words " Ready-Organized-Prepared " and its motto was
Striving for Peace but Ready for War." The results at
Gettysburg and Monterey were such that these first camps
ttracted immediate and favourable recognition, and were the
ieds from which sprang the Plattsburg camps. The question
ien presented itself, " Why should not the college and high-
:hool students receive a training for national defence and learn
iat equality of privilege implies equality of obligation?"
resident Drinker of Lehigh University and Gen. Wood sent
761
out circular letters to the presidents of many American uni-
versities, inviting them to membership in an advisory committee.
Those who at first joined the committee were President Drinker,
and President Hibben of Princeton, who were respectively presi-
dent and secretary of the committee; President Lowell of
Harvard; Hadley of Yale; Hutchins of Michigan; Benjamin
Ide Wheeler of California; Schurman of Cornell; James of the
university of Illinois; as well as John J. Finley, commissioner
of education, state of New York; and to these were added later
the president of Williams College, the president of the university
of Alabama, the rector of the Catholic University, Washington,
D.C., and a number of others.
The following year, 1914, camps were established at Fort
Ethan Allen; Burlington, Vt.; Asheville, N.C.; Ludington,
Mich. ; and Monterey, Cal. The total number in the different
camps was 667. These aroused a gradually growing interest
and the Department of War determined that four such camps
should be established during the summer of 1915, at Chicka-
mauga Park, Ga.; Plattsburg, N.Y.; Ludington, Mich.; and
at the Presidio, San Francisco, Cal. These camps were even
more successful than those which preceded them, and the
number in attendance was very much larger. Three successful
camps in three consecutive months were held at Plattsburg,
and camps of a month each at the other designated training
points. The total number of men who passed through the
camps during this year was 3,406. The camps were no longer
limited to students from colleges and high schools but were
open to business men and to men from all walks of life who had
the necessary physical qualifications. The educational qualifi-
cations were moderate, and lack of education was compensated
for by initiative, as shown by success in life, the position the
applicant held in his community, etc. ; in other words, anything
which showed sound qualities of leadership. Interest grew
apace. There were recruiting committees at the various uni-
versities. The World War had broken out, and to all who
looked ahead it was evident that America would sooner or later
be drawn into the struggle. In 1916 over 16,000 men were
passed through the camps. The Advisory Committee and the
Students' Recruiting Committees of the various universities
were influencing the general public, and the Military Training
Association of the United States was formed for the purpose
of increasing the attendance. As Plattsburg was the largest
training centre, the camps, wherever held, began to be called
" Plattsburg Camps," the idea of this intensive training being
spoken of as the " Plattsburg Idea."
In 1917, applicants for the camps numbered about 130,0x30,
and had the United States not gone into the war in the spring,
well over 100,000 men would have been trained in these volun-
teer training camps. The men who came to these camps were
from every walk of life: bishops, priests, clergymen, rabbis, men
from the labour unions, farmers, policemen from neighbouring
cities, business and professional men, youths from the colleges.
The outbreak of the World War in 1914 stimulated interest
in the training. It must be remembered that the second series
of camps, those of 1914, were coming to a close just before the
war began. During the winters of 1915-6 and 1916-7 courses
were opened in Boston, New York, Providence, Detroit, Pitts-
burg, Philadelphia and other cities for the instruction and
examination of applicants for reserve commissions, and through
them were developed a large number of officers who played an
important, indeed a vital, part in the training of the great war
levies. Speaking of these camps, the chief of staff of the army,
in his Annual Report for 1915, said:
" The military camps of instruction for students of educational
institutions which were held in 1913 and 1914 have been continued
this year. As there were no funds- available to meet any expenses
incident to the establishment of these camps, it was necessary to
have them at military posts where the ordinary utilities of the post
could be used, or, if at a place other than a military post, the citi-
zens had to incur the necessary expenses in constructing the camps.
. . . The reports show that the results have fully justified the estab-
lishment of these camps. In addition to camps for students, camps
have been authorized at Plattsburg, N.Y., Fort Sheridan, 111., and
San Francisco, Cal., for business men whose interest in the prepared-
7 62
TRANSJORDANIA
ness of the country for defense prompted them to request that oppor-
tunity be given them to prepare themselves so as to perform more
efficiently their duties in case the country should unfortunately be
involved in war. . . . Aside from the military instructions given
these students and business men, I feel that the interest in prepared-
ness which leads these men not only to give their time to the Govern-
ment, but to incur the expenses of buying uniforms and paying for
transportation to the camps, is of great value to the country and
should be encouraged by the war department. These camps have
passed the experimental stage and there can hardly be any question
as to the advisability of continuing them and extending them where
the conditions of service of regular troops are such as to permit
the department to send troops and instructors to the camps. Men
with means probably do not object to paying the necessary funds to
get the military training which the Government expects to use in
case of need. This, however, does not make it right. Men who are
not so fortunately fixed financially should be permitted to show
their patriotism and interest in preparing the country for war.
If these camps are of value, which undoubtedly they are, and are
to be continued, certain necessary expenses of the men willing to
give their time should be met by the Government."
In 1916 a series of four camps, each for a month, was held at
Plattsburg, N.Y. , a camp of one month's duration for boys at Fort
Terry, N.Y., and a series of six camps of two weeks' intensive
training at Wadsworth, N.Y., for the police of New York City;
and a series of three camps, each for a month, at Oglethorpe, Ga.
When the United States entered the World War these has-
tily but intensively trained enthusiastic men were invaluable.
They furnished the nucleus of civilian officers with which to
begin the great work of developing 200,000 officers, and added a
valuable and indispensable force to the scanty number of regular
officers and national guard officers available for the training of
the men. In the spring of 1917 the Federal Government took
over the whole task and established a series of camps for the
training of officers for the war. Under authority of Section 54,
National Defense Act 1916, the Secretary of War directed the
establishment of 16 Citizens' Training Camps throughout the
United States at the following points:
NAME
Plattsburg Barracks,
N.Y. (x)
Plattsburg Barracks,
N.Y. (2)
Madison Barracks. N.Y.
Fort Niagara, N. Y.
Fort Myer, Va.
Fort Oglethorpe, Ga.
Fort McPherson, Ga.
Ft. Benjamin Harrison,
Ind. (i)
Ft. Benjamin Harrison,
Ind. (2)
Fort Sheridan, 111. (i)
Fort Sheridan, 111. (2)
Ft. Logan H. Roots, Ark.
Fort Snelling, Minn.
Fort Riley, Kans.
Leon Springs, Tex.
Presidio of San Francisco,
Cal.
FOR CANDIDATES FROM
Long I., New York City and adja-
cent territory.
Long I., New York City and adja-
cent territory.
Balance of State of New York and
part of Pennsylvania.
Balance of Pennsylvania.
New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland,
District of Columbia and Virginia.
N.Carolina, S.Carolina and Ten-
nessee.
Georgia, Alabama and Florida.
Ohio and W. Virginia.
Indiana and Kentucky.
Illinois.
Michigan and Wisconsin.
Arkansas, Mississippi and Louisiana.
Minnesota, Iowa, N. Dakota, S. Da-
kota and Nebraska.
Missouri, Kansas and Colorado.
Oklahoma and Texas.
Montana, Idaho, Washington, Ore-
gon, California, Nevada, Utah,
Wyoming, Arizona and New Mex-
The training camps for officers were ordered to be ready for
the reception of reserve officers about May 8, for candidates for
commission May 14, and the course of instruction was to begin
on May 15, 1917. Minimum age for attendance was 20 years
and 9 months; maximum age 44 years. In addition to the
foregoing, General Order 119, War Department 1917, established
a training camp at Fort Winfield Scott, Cal., for the training
of members of the Coast Artillery section of the Officers' Reserve
Corps residing within the territorial limits of the Western
Department, and a similar camp at Fort Monroe, Va., for the
balance of the Coast Artillery Reserve Corps officers. These
training camps began operation on Sept. 22 1917. A medical
officers' training camp was also established in 1917 at Camp
Greenleaf, Fort Oglethorpe, Ga. Other camps for officers were
established at the headquarters of the various divisions, the
courses being essentially the same as those at the former officers'
camps. The period allotted for the development of an officer
at the Government training camps was three months. The
work was intensive and hard. It was an attempt, in the rush
and confusion of war, to produce officers in the minimum period
of time. The purpose was to turn out the largest possible
number of platoon leaders and a limited number of company
commanders and officers of field grade. The same general
plan was carried out at the training camps for officers in the
Quartermaster Corps, Medical Corps and other staff corps.
The courses involved much hard work and were necessarily
defective in some particulars, but they served to turn out many
tens of thousands of officers with elementary training which was
later supplemented by their work with the divisional organiza-
tions to which they were assigned.
Theodore Roosevelt gave the full support of his great prestige
and influence in the upbuilding of the camps and never lost
an opportunity to impress upon the public their importance and
to push forward their development. Men too numerous to
mention, men who are leaders in every walk of life, cooperated
to the limit of their ability in the upbuilding of these camps and
in waking the country to an appreciation of the gravity of the
situation and the need of preparation. The camps were al
great force in firing the public conscience and rousing the people
to a realization of their obligation to prepare the country for
defence and to do their part in the great struggle then threaten-
ing the world. (L. Wo.)
TRANSJORDANIA, EMIRATE OF, sometimes called Kerak, a
dominion extending some 200 m. S. from the Yarmuk and from
the Jordan eastwards to the desert. It comprises Gilead,
Amman, Moab and part of Edom of the Old Testament, and
El Belqa, the southern portion of the former Turkish vilayet of
Damascus. After forming the independent kingdom of Ghassan
under a succession of Arab dynasties from A.D. 165 onwards
it was conquered by the Moslems during the joint reigns of
Amr IV. and Jabala V. and VI. in 637, and under the name of
Kerak became one of the six kingdoms into which Syria was
divided under the khalifs of Bagdad and the Seljuk Turks.
As the Emirate of Kerak it was a separate State during the
Middle Ages and again became an independent principality in
1920 with its capital at Amman (pop. 2,300). The other
principal towns are Kerak (pop. 2,500), Madeba (pop. 2,000),
Es Salt (pop. 8,000), Ma'an (pop. 3,000), Jerash (pop. 1,500).
Its inhabitants possibly number 180,000, varying according
to- the season and the movements of the nomads; they are
partly settled Arabs many of whom are Christians with
some colonies of Circassian Moslems and a number of nomads.
It contains many interesting classical and mediaeval ruins.
The physical features, flora and fauna are similar to those of
southern Syria.
During the Crusades Kerak (see 15.753) was the capital of
the great fief of the Oultrejourdain and, of its Christian lords,
the most notable were Philip de Milly (1161-8), formerly lord
of Nablus (1142-61), who surrendered the fief in order to join
the Templars, subsequently becoming their Grand Master, and
Reginald de Chatillon (1177-87), a former Prince of Antioch
(1153-60), who was beheaded by Saladin after the battle of
Hattin (1187). Saladin's brother El Adil (" saphadin ")
took Kerak in 1188 and was its emir until he became Sultan
of Egypt (1200). His grandson En Nasr Da'ud, after being
deposed from the throne of Damascus (1229), reigned in Kerak
for 20 years and recaptured Jerusalem from the Christians in
1239. When the Ayyubid dynasty was overthrown in Egypt,
his nephew El Mugith, a prisoner of the new Sultan Aibek, was
released by his gaolers in Shobek and placed on the throne of
Kerak (1250). He was deposed in 1262 (and later strangled)
by Sultan Baibars of Egypt whose own son was glad to find a
throne at Kerak after losing that of Egypt (1279). Berekeh's
brother Ma'sud, who succeeded him in Kerak, was in turn
deposed (1286) and another fugitive Sultan of Egypt, En Nasr,
reigned in Kerak (1294-9) until his restoration to power in
TRANSPORT
763
Cairo, only to return to Kerak (1308-10) after a fresh deposition
while awaiting a second and final restoration. For many years
Kerak, which was the treasure-city of the Mameluke sultans
in 1355, slipped out of history, and during much of the Ottoman
period (1517-1918) enjoyed an uneasy if obscure independence,
only coming under direct Turkish civil administration after the
construction of the Hejaz railway.
Kerak was captured by the Emir Faisal on April 7 1918.
General Allenby's troops operated in Transjordania in the
spring of 1918 and the retreating Turkish garrison of Ma'an,
forming part of the IV. Army, surrendered to Gen. Chaytor
with the Australian Light Horse at Qastal on Sept. 29 1918
which marked the end of the Ottoman period. Transjordania
formed part of the Emir Faisal's dominions, even after he lost
Damascus, until the spring of 1921, when it was transferred to
his brother the Emir 'Abdalla. (H. P.-G.)
TRANSPORT. Among new economic conceptions resulting
from 20th-century progress, the rise of a definite " science and
; art " of Transport is of outstanding interest.
The Function of Transport. The function of transport may be
described as the transference of persons and things, as and when
required by mankind, from one part of the earth to another in
a minimum of time and at a minimum of cost, these two factors
being closely connected with each other. The axiom of political
economy that exchange enables wealth which would otherwise
remain unutilized to be used to the best advantage implies
, displacement. Such displacement or transportation is an essen-
tial characteristic of that form of exchange which we recognize
under the name of commerce, and hence the history of commerce
is to a great extent the history of the development of transport.
The transport problem is an ever-recurring one which can never
, be finally disposed of. Only in recent years have its complexities
been systematically studied, although the problem must have
arisen when the first man had any belongings to move.
The factors governing the development of transport are
intrinsic and extrinsic, the former including the nature and
quantity of matter to be conveyed, the distance and character
of the earth's surface between the two points of carriage, and
the apparatus available for bringing the movement into effect.
These intrinsic factors are governed and often impeded by cer-
tain extrinsic factors, which are mainly political, economic,
strategic, and, lastly, the ever-existing element of human nature.
During recent years the importance of efficient transport to
, civilization has been more and more realized by the leading
men in the world of commerce and politics; various schemes have
been formulated and put into operation with a view to removing
obstructions, and in order that a more comprehensive grasp of
the whole subject might be obtained. These include the forma-
tion of schools of economics at the universities and elsewhere,
which treat the subject as a branch deserving accurate study and
scientific inquiry. A definite advance has also been signalized
by the formation in the United Kingdom of a Ministry of Trans-
port and of an Institute of Transport; also by the publication of
various journals which deal exclusively with the subject.
Those who are intimately connected with the present-day
efforts towards a solution of the problem are forced to realize
:he all-embracing scope of the subject and the difficulties attend-
ing its every phase. On the latter aspect of the problem it is
nteresting to note that as transport becomes more completely
>rganized, it more surely provokes increasing controversy.
Many obstacles have already to a great extent been overcome,
md those dealing with the nature of the commodities carried may
>e instanced as an example. The difficulties attending upon
.he bulk, fragility, delicacy, and the preservation of certain
:ommodities which in early times formed an unsurmountable
ibstacle to their carriage, have been solved, and as a result,
in increasing traffic in these commodities has taken place. This
n turn increased the demand for these commodities, the wants
if man having become less elemental and more artificial as the
rorld has become more civilized. Of the extrinsic factors
.fleeting the development of transportation we may instance
he colonizers of the Early and Middle Ages, the growth of over-
seas trade dating from the I2th century, the wonderful impulse
given by the " Industrial Revolution " of .modern times, and,
lastly, military exigencies in war-time.
Generally speaking, the development of transport brings
about a tendency to a surplus of wealth. Unless a country pro-
duces a surplus of wealth it is unable to reduce poverty to a
minimum or to insure that all its inhabitants have a sufficiency
of food, clothing and warmth, without which contentment is an
impossibility. The cheapening of transport reduces the cost of
the necessities of life and thus enables a person to live at a higher
standard than would be possible if the whole of his earnings
were taken up in obtaining the bare necessities of life. The
prosperity of most modern countries has directly followed the
improvement of their transport system. Instances of this may
be quoted in the case of Great Britain, with its internal system
of railways and its vast organized overseas communication of
shipping; of America, France and Germany, with their railways
and internal waterways. On the other hand, China may be
quoted as a country with vast resources and possibilities, but
which for the want of transport facilities is not yet developed
in proportion to her territory or population. It would not be
too much to say that the development of the wealth of any
country in the world has been brought about from time im-
memorial chiefly by the improvement in its transport system.
The development of transport acts upon, and in its turn is in-
fluenced by, the progress of mankind in the continuance and im-
provement of the civilization of the world. It affects and pro-
motes the intercourse between different peoples and continents,
and it creates opportunities for employing the forces of Nature
for the use of mankind by the advancement of science.
In general terms, modern-day transport may be classified
into human, animal, and mechanical. In its various forms the
latter is carried on by land, road, sea, river, canal, inland water,
railway, air and aerial ropeways: these in turn are actuated by
the motive powers of gravity, steam, electricity, combustion
engines, wind, and water. All these motive powers originate
in some form or another in the use and application of the stored-up
energy of the elements, and the object of mankind has always
been to use these elements to give the best results with a -min-
imum of cost. The progress of mankind has probably lain in
this direction more than in any other, and advancement has been
made during the past century which would before that period
have seemed impossible of attainment.
The History of Transport. At different periods of their
existence the various communities of the world have passed
through somewhat similar stages of transport development.
We read that canals were constructed in Egypt 3000 B.C., that
the Phoenicians crossed the inland seas in ships propelled by
oar and wind and carrying 500 men, and that King Solomon
drew a portion of his revenue from the caravans which jour-
neyed through his territory. We learn that Babylonian caravans
travelled into Phoenicia, Arabia, Syria, and Persia, and that the
Egyptians sold chariots in neighbouring countries at an equiv-
alent value of 50, while chariots are first noted in the annals
of Britain in 300 B.C. The Greeks, before 1000 B.C., were con-
structing roads, and providing their harbours with walls and
jetties, whereas roads, as such, were practically unknown in
Britain nine centuries later.
The first mode of transport undoubtedly was the carrying of
commodities on the human form. This mode is still exclusively used
among the primitive tribes and to a certain extent even among the
most civilized nations. Primitive man, however, early realized the
value of waterways as a means of transport, and at first utilized a
raft of tree trunks lashed together, a cumbersome method, both in
E reparation and in use. This raft he guided by means of a stick or
ranch, the forerunner of our punt pole. He also discovered that
skins would float, and, by supporting the skin of an ox or a horse
with a light wicker frame, he produced the coracle, a boat which he
could propel on the water and carry on his back overland. Later,
two or more skins were sewn together to form the shell of the boat,
the seams being " caulked " with a resinous substance. The coracle
is still in use on certain of the western rivers of Britain. It was an
easy stage to build up the raft into a sort of box by using planks for
the sides, the planks being sewn together. Here we have the origin
of our present-day flat-bottomed boats. Vet again, by the use of
764
TRANSPORT
fire, early man made a primitive boat by hollowing out the trunk of
a tree, which, being shaped as experience has taught, formed the
first point in the evolution of the ship. To harness the wind was a
further stage, and the gaining of the art of navigation furthered the
development of the sailing vessel.
On land, the animals natural to a country the horse, fhe camel,
the ass have been employed as beasts of burden from early days.
Chariots were in existence thousands of years before the Christian
era, but the absence of good roads resulted in a very slow develop-
ment of land transport.
Coming to Britain in the Middle Ages, we find water transport as
the most important means of conveying goods; what little transport
was effected on land was by means of pack-horses. Travellers and
traders combined in armed companies for protection against maraud-
ing bands, and we see long lines of laden horses slowly progressing
over tracks so narrow that the animals could seldom -pass two
abreast. The rolling of a log is supposed to have inspired the idea
of the early waggon for transporting materials, and in the 1 6th
century a heavy waggon with broad wheels on a rotating axle, and
fixed front wheels, came into use. Its sphere of action was limited to
local markets. Such organization as there was lay in the hands of
the lord of the manor, who could call upon his tenants for the
services of a specified number of waggons and waggoners. Better
roads were required. Although the Romans, with their knowledge
gained from the Etruscans, did construct many and great roads,
organized road-making was practically non-existent from their
time until the l6th century, when counties were made respon-
sible for the upkeep of bridges, and parishes were ordered to
appoint two road surveyors, who were assisted by compulsory
labour. Passenger carriages came into vogue in 1550, but, being
springless, had little pretension to comfort.
In 1634 the Sedan chair came into use, and in the same year the
first hackney carriages were licensed. In 1650 waggons completed
the journey from London to Dover in three or four days. About the
same time, springless stagecoaches carrying passengers inside at a
charge of five m. for is., and luggage at the back, were introduced.
By reason of the condition of the roads their rate of travel was only
four to five m. an hour; they seldom travelled in winter. In 1658 a
coach made the journey from London to Edinburgh at a cost of 4
per passenger, and was more than a fortnight on the way. The
post-chaise system was now established. Wealthy people were able
to hire horses for their carriages in relays at the various inns, or
both the chaise and the horses. A journey from London to Scotland
in this manner cost at least 30.
At the beginning of the l8th century, waggons were journey-
ing with goods from London to Bristol, and we read that in 1776
waggons travelled from London to Edinburgh and back in six weeks
with a load of four tons, whereas a sailing vessel made a similar
journey in the same time, carrying some 200 tons and requiring
only four times as many men as a waggon. In 1763 a monthly coach
service between the same two towns was instituted, completing the
journey in 14 days, and about the same time services to Bath, York,
Glasgow, Exeter, and other towns were inaugurated. Coaches with
springs appear to have been in use by 1760. Particular attention
was now being paid to roads. The famous road engineers, Telford,
Macadam and Metcalfe, were at work, and in the 14 years follow-
ing 1760 some 450 Acts of Parliament authorizing road construction
and tolls were passed. The experimental mail coaches of 1784 gave
an impetus to road transport. Their speed of six m. per hour was
soon increased to 12. Outside passengers were charged about 5d. a
m., and those inside, 3d.
Canals had long existed in Holland, and were introduced into
France in the 1 7th century, but although two canals were con-
structed in Britain by the Romans, one of which, the Fosse Dyke, is
still in use, it was not until the l8th century that canal development
began in this country. The first important canal was constructed
from Worsley to Manchester, at the instance of the Duke of Bridg-
water, and was opened for traffic in 1761. It was found that the cost
of transport by canal was about one-quarter of that for carriage by
pack-horse or waggon for the same distance, and the price of coal in
Manchester was immediately reduced by 50 per cent. In 1772 pas-
senger boats, charging is. for 20 m., were established on the canal.
In 1777 the Grand Trunk Canal, between the Mersey and the
Trent, 96 m. in length, was completed, and in 70 years 3,000 m. of
canals were constructed in the British Isles by the Companies of
Proprietors. Since 1830, with the exception of the Manchester Ship
Canal, there has been but little expansion of Britain's canal system.
So far as England and Wales are concerned, practically all the
canals were constructed by private enterprise without any State
financial assistance, but this does not apply to Ireland or Scotland.
Towards the end of the l8th century, experiments with steam-
driven vessels were in progress, and in 1788 a small steam-boat
was tried in Scotland. Trains hauled by horses over parallel logs
of wood had been in use for colliery purposes in the 1 7th cen-
tury. Later, the wood was covered with metal plates, and in 1767,
cast-iron rails were brought into use.
The coming of the igth century was heralded by the authorization
by Parliament in 1801 of the first public railway from Crpydon to
the Thames. Traders paid tolls to the company for the privilege of
horse-hauling their own waggons over the line. In 1804 Trevithick's
locomotive hauled 70 passengers and 10 tons of goods near Merthyi
Tydvil, but the first use of locomotives on public railways was on th(
Stockton and Darlington line (now part of the North Eastern rail
way), which was opened in 1825. The first train carried 500 pas
sengers and made the journey of 8| m. in 65 minutes. For SOUK
years, steam traction was employed for the haulage of goods ant
mineral traffic only, passengers being conveyed in horse-drawr
coaches. The company soon learned that it was impracticable' ic
allow individuals to run their own waggons at will over the line, and
as a solution the system of company-owned traction and waggons de-
veloped. In 1829 George Stephenson made certain the future ol
railways by producing his famous " Rocket " type of engine, which
attained a speed of 29 m. an hour at its trials. By 1840 there was a
regular service between London and Birmingham, the journey
occupying from 5 to 6 hours, and Glasgow was brought within a 24-
hours' journey. There was also a quarter-hourly service between
London and Greenwich. In 1845 over 1,200 railway bills were pre-
sented to Parliament, but only a tenth of them received sanction.
Similar progress was made with steamships. In 1807 the " ( ler-
mont," constructed by Robert Fulton, began to ply on the Hudson
river between New York and Albany. In 1818 the " Rob Roy,")
a wooden paddle-steamer, travelled from Dover to Calais, ami in
1819 the Savannah," a sailing vessel with auxiliary steam and
removable paddles, crossed the Atlantic from Savannah to Liver-
pool in 25 days. In 1838 two vessels crossed the Atlantic tinder
steam-power only, and the screw propeller, which was inventrd in
1836, was used on ocean-going craft in 1850.
In 1820 was started the Paris cabriolet, which word was Liter
contracted to " cab," and the " Dandy-horse," the forerunner ofj
the bicycle, and in 1829 the first omnibus made its appearance on
the streets of London.
The advent of the " Industrial Revolution " saw in Britain a num-
ber of self-contained communities, each more or less dependent on its
own resources for necessary commodities, and a transport sy^ii-m
which has been described as probably the worst in Europe. The
means of transport were limited to river transport, supplemented
by teams of pack-horses and waggons, and, in mining districts, by
horse tramways. The comparatively bad condition of the roads, and
the small amount that could be carried, made conveyance by horsej
and waggon slow and costly, while transportation by river had only a
limited sphere, and even then it was unreliable.
The application of steam as the motive power of machinery
cheapened and speeded up production, but labour, iron for the
machinery itself, and coal as fuel, were needed. There followed a
rapid development of the British coal industry, not only where there
were river and sea facilities, but far inland. The iron industry
moved its base northward, and there was a speedy growth of 1
factory areas, with increasing numbers of workers. The w<>
required food and domestic supplies, the factories required raw
materials and coal, and these must needs be obtained from mine
areas. Improvements in the iron industry gave belter and cheaper
agricultural implements, and a development in agriculture
greater supplies of produce ready for moving to the industrial a
Industry had now reached a stage where production had outstripped
its necessary adjunct, transport, and there was a crying need for
more efficient and economical methods of transport. For this,
capital was necessary, and the increasing wealth which aci nm-
panied the industrial development provided it. At first, canals, and,
later, railways, played their part in providing the factory di- 1
with raw materials, fuel, and food, and, in addition, along with
steam-boats, made possible the distribution of the manufactured
articles to an ever-widening range of markets.
Modern Development. The modern development of transport
may be said to date from the "Industrial Revolution," and from
that time it has been generally recognized that, where advantages
have been granted by the State to various forms of carriers, the
rates of charges and the provisions for the safety of the public
should be controlled to a certain extent by the State. This has
been chiefly in evidence in the case of the railways, which were
given compulsory powers by legislation for the acquisition of
land and other advantages. In other words, it has been recog-
nized that, as the carriers existed to a large extent for the bene-
fit of the public, it was necessary that individuals should be
compelled to sacrifice their private interests for the good of the
public generally. On the other hand, it has also been recognized
that, the carriers having been given these advantages, the State
should protect the public in certain respects.
In Great Britain practically the whole of the transport under-
takings have been initiated and carried on by private enterprise,
the primary object of the companies from their point of view
being the earning of money. For this reason the various com-
panies have of necessity vied with each other in making as much
money as possible, and one of the most obvious ways of doing
this was by increasing the amount of traffic carried. Induce-
TRANSPORT
765
ments were therefore held out of giving facilities to traders in
various ways, the chief of which has been the cheapening of the
rates. This, however, has taken place as a rule only when there
has been competition, and the rate-cutting between the railways
at certain periods has reached such a stage that it is very doubt-
ful whether the companies have benefited by it or not. In the
case of the railways, which are at the present time the most im-
portant of the overland carrying factors of Great Britain, the
return on the capital expended has not been very great.
From time to time there have been amalgamations of the
railways to a limited degree, and these as a rule have benefited
both the railway companies and the public by cheapening the
cost of working the undertakings.
A brief summary of each system of transport, with its influ-
ence as a factor of transportation, is given below.
Railways. The evolution of the railway and the invention of the
locomotive, with its successful application to railway traction in 1804,
inaugurated a new system of transport. Designed primarily to re-
duce the cost of transport of coal by road and to compete success-
fully with transport by canal, railways have developed from the
isolated small sections in various parts of Great Britain to be at the
moment the predominating factor in the world's transport. Indeed
the mileage of railway in a country may safely be taken as a criterion
of its industrial development.
Railways spread rapidly in Great Britain after their inception,
and numerous companies promoted the new mode of transport.
The carriage of coal and other minerals proving immediately suc-
cessful, the transport of the travelling public became naturally the
next development. The first passenger coaches consisted of open
trucks with neither roof nor seats, but the discomfort of these led to
the evolution of covered coaches, which were provided for ist- and
2nd-class passengers only. The ^rd-class coach was still roofless, but
fitted with benches. The luxurious coaches of to-day, with facili-
ties for dining, sleeping, and, in some cases, baths, are material
proofs of the great progress made in this branch of transport.
Locomotives and freight rolling-stock have also developed in
accordance with the requirements of the age. Waggons constructed
to carry 120 tons and locomotives weighing 244 tons are in use on
two or three railways in the United States; but the waggon com-
monly used has a capacity of only 50 short tons, while the usual
weight of locomotives is between 175 and 220 short tons.
The electrification of railways is the latest stage of their develop-
ment. Applied to the transport of the masses of people congregated
in large cities, it has gone far to solve one of the most difficult
problems of the present day.
For long-distance travel, electricity has now passed the experi-
mental stage, and no doubt the progress of time will see the displace-
ment of steam by electricity as the motive power for all railways.
Water Transport. The development of this system has been
chiefly confined to sea-borne transport. Although a steamer was
first used on a canal, the Forth and Clyde, in 1802, it soon reached
salt water, and the s.s. " Comet, " built on the Clyde in 1812, marked
| the commencement of the ocean steamer transport era.
The first form of propulsion, viz. by paddles, was superseded by
the screw propeller, which has been found more efficient and suitable
for rough waters. Improvements were also effected in the engine
room. Simple and compound engines were successfully followed by
triple and quadruple expansion engines. These in turn gave way
to the steam turbine. Coal is being displaced by oil fuel for steam
raising, and we have also the internal combustion engine.
: Other important features of development are refrigeration and
tireless telegraphy. The former has increased the availability of the
ood supplies of the world.
In this sea-borne system of transport, competition has resulted in
ate-cutting wars, which have not been so evident in the other
systems. In cargo rates and passenger fares, competition has at
:imes been very keen, and quotations have reached figures far below
in economic level, as for instance at the time when passengers were
arried from Liverpool to New York for 2.
Mechanical Road Transport. This form of transport, although
'generally believed to be an invention of recent years, was also
I naugurated at the beginning of the igth century, but development
vas hampered by the excessive road tolls and statutory restrictions,
im example being the British regulation which required a man with
l red flag to precede every mechanically propelled vehicle. These
estrictions operated until 1896, when greater liberty was afforded
)y the Locomotives on Highways Act of that year. Further freedom
! las been given by the Motor Car Order, 1904, and the utility of
:his system has now been fully established.
The earlier types of mechanical road vehicles were steam pro-
Jelled, but the invention of the internal combustion engine and its
ipplication to road transport, associated with rubber-tired wheels,
! :reated a revolution, and is responsible for the rapid development of
( he last generation. Mechanical road transport commenced and
>perated solely as a passenger transport system until recent years,
out in conjunction with the general improvement of roads it has,
for distances up to 75-100 m., developed into a form of freight trans-
port in competition with railways, except in the case of long-dis-
tance mineral traffic.
Passenger road transport is generally provided by petrol-propelled
vehicles, and examples of these are found in high-powered private
motor-cars and in public motor-buses carrying 54 passengers.
In the transport of merchandise by road, all three types petrol,
steam and electric vehicles are used, their respective spheres being
dependent upon distance, nature of traffic, regularity of service, etc.
In the development of mechanical road transport may be included
the improvements effected in tram-car services. The horse vehicle
has been displaced by the electric vehicle, obtaining power through
overhead or underground conductors, and this form of transport has
contributed very largely to the expansion of the areas of large cities.
Aerial Transport. -This system commenced with the 2Oth cen-
tury, but so rapid has its progress been, principally through military
stimulus, that by 1921 its success was assured.
The development of the internal combustion engine provided the
means of securing adequate power with a minimum of weight which
had long been sought in connexion with aerial navigation. France,
Great Britain, and the United States joined in the development and
while the first decade of aerial navigation was a period of experiment,
transport by heavier-than-air machines was sufficiently advanced to
be put to practical use at the commencement of the World War in
1914. The potentialities of aircraft in warfare were immediately
manifest, with the result that the progress achieved in the develop-
ment of the air machine was infinitely greater than would otherwise
have been the case. This applied equally to the airship or lighter?
than-air machine. The internal combustion engine converted the
ordinary balloon into a dirigible, and this development continued
until the cessation of hostilities in 1918.
Economic Effects. The consequences of the development of
the various systems of transport upon nations and peoples are
incalculable. The growth and consolidation of the British Em-
pire may well be attributed to the fact that during the greater
part of the igth century the initiation and supply of transport
was provided by Great Britain. She became the carrier of
almost all the world's traffic, which, of course, involved the
maintenance of the freedom of the seas.
In the United States it is not too much to say that the rapid
development of its transport system has enabled the growth of
the whole country to develop simultaneously and thus evolve a
" United " States instead of a second "divided" Europe.
Viewed from a different angle, we find the conclusions of those
political economists who advance the argument that over-pop-
ulation would inevitably lead to starvation have been negatived
by the development of transport which, coupled with the use
of modern methods of refrigeration, has increased the availability
of the world's harvests. The periodical famines in those coun-
tries where transport in its modern developments is practically
unknown is direct evidence on this point.
The mobility of labour, the importance of which can hardly
be exaggerated, had also been increased by transport develop-
ment to an enormous degree. Its effect on the social condition
of mankind is clearly demonstrated when it is observed that,
where transport is developed most highly, there also is the social
standard highest.
Military and naval operations have been considerably in-
fluenced by modern transport. At the battle of Waterloo about
75,000 men were engaged on each side. One hundred years
later in the World War 50 million men were engaged in the
armed forces of the combatants from start to finish. New rail-
ways and roads for mechanical road transport made possible the
movements of armies, guns, munitions and necessary supplies.
The heavy guns were moved by rail or mechanical road trans-
port, and as if to emphasize the part which transport took in
the war, the negotiations for the Armistice were conducted in a
railway carriage.
On the naval side, steamer transport was the forerunner of the
modern battleship. It was many years after the building of the
first steamship when sailing ships of war were discarded, and
practically all developments in ocean transport have been
adapted to the needs of the navy.
During this wonderful development the Governments of the
world generally took little interest in transport beyond enacting
restrictive legislation. Prussia was the one exception ; for almost
from the commencement of railways in that country, the State
took an active part in their construction and operation, and
766
TRANSPORT
after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1 adopted the policy
of acquiring all the German lines. This was entirely for mil-
itary reasons, and was accomplished in two decades. There
was also Government cooperation in the United States. Vari-
ous states assisted the railways by land grants and other sub-
sidies, while the Union Pacific the first American transconti-
nental railway was made possible by financial aid from the
Federal Government.
The World War of 1914-8 was destined to have far-reaching
influences on transport. Until then, except for the fixing of
rates and for the ensuring of public safety, the British Govern-
ment did not interfere with the working of the railways. At
the outbreak of the war, however, it became apparent that it
would be necessary for the Government to take control of the
whole of the British railways, and, as a direct result of former
amalgamations, this was done with admirable results. Rolling-
stock was pooled, engines being loaned where necessary. The
success which followed justified the action taken, and valuable
lessons were learned which have proved of great assistance in
the consideration of the direction of future development. Sim-
ilar action was taken in the United States.
The early part of the 2oth century was marked by a tendency
towards large combinations of capital and labour, one acting
and reacting upon the other. This movement, perhaps first de-
veloped in the United States as to capital and in Great Brit-
ain as to labour, has been gradually increasing, and the state
of affairs is now such as to render difficult the existence of any
small concern, either of capital or labour, which is not protected
by some form of combination with other similar bodies. With
other concerns, transport has been largely affected by the Trust
movement, and to this cause the Railways Bill of 1921 which
amalgamated the railways of Great Britain into four groups
was largely due. This arrangement in reality has been a develop-
ment of the Trust movement.
If modern transport is to develop on economic lines and
properly fulfil its functions, the tendency of the future will be
toward the standardization of the various forms of transport
all over the world. The lessons of the war have emphasized
this very strongly, and though the progress may be slow, the
future prosperity of the world largely depends upon its being
brought into effect.
Operation Principles. Transport operation deals with the
actual movement of passengers and goods, and the methods of
operation are dictated by the requirements of both classes of
traffic. Any passenger service must be so designed as to satisfy
public requirements in respect of safety, convenient times of
departure and arrival, connexions for through services, speed,
and comfort. Attention must be given in the first instance to
what are the main channels of traffic, and these are dictated by
the requirements of both commerce and pleasure in other
words, " necessary " and " luxury " travelling.
With goods traffic the conditions are different. One essential
difference between passenger and goods traffic is that whilst
passenger traffic must conform in some measure to the require-
ments of the public, goods traffic can, generally speaking, be run
more or less at the transport company's convenience, attention
being paid at the same time to the needs of the commercial
community. The question of safety is not so important here,
as evidenced by the more lax regulations governing goods traffic,
as compared with passenger traffic, both on land and sea. In
the United States, however, safety laws apply to freight trains
and passenger trains alike. (See RAILWAYS: United States.)
Recent developments in block and automatic signalling have
made railway operation where automatic train-stops are in
use as safe as is humanly possible, while shipping is now con-
trolled by adequate safety regulations. If safety in the air
were assured, such means of transport would compete more se-
verely with rail and sea services; already the safety and com-
fort of road transport have opposed to the railways a keen rival.
Another factor in transport operation is speed. In all forms
of transport, other things being equal, the demand is for the
quickest route.
As to goods traffic in particular, it is probable that the tramf
steamer will continue to carry commodities which do not requin
quick delivery, and the " slow " as distinct from the " fast '
goods train will always have its particular use, while a futun
generation will doubtless use aircraft for the conveyance of good:
where the quickest delivery is the main consideration. Th<
speed and convenience of road transport is attracting a consid
erable volume of traffic formerly borne by rail.
High speed is one of the primary considerations in all form:
of transport. The aeroplane attains a speed of 100 m. per hour
the express train 60 m. per hour, the liner 24 knots, and while
road motor vehicles can attain the speed of railway trains, othc:
considerations limit their speed on public highways. One of the
reasons why canals have fallen almost into disuse in Englanc
is that barge traffic is exceedingly slow. In France, the seriou:
competition of the railways was recognized a generation ago
and although the canals were then equipped to furnish eflicicir
service, and steam and motor traffic has to a large extent super
seded the slow horse-drawn barge system which in England ii
still very general, the average speed seldom exceeds four or fivi
m. an hour.
The methods of loading of ordinary goods traffic vary. A
well-equipped goods depot has various mechanical appli
for lifting and loading goods on to waggons, but a considerabk
amount of waggon-loading is still performed by hand. Smal
parcels require a large amount of manual labour. Oil-loading ir
bulk is on the other hand a mechanical process. Then again dif-
ferent classes of goods require different vehicles, such as refriger
ator vans for meat, fruit and other perishable commodities, van;
for explosives, and mineral waggons. Ships, too, are adapted foi
carrying special classes of goods; grain ships, meat ships, oi
tankers, as their names imply, are constructed for conveying
particular commodities.
In the United Kingdom goods waggons have a limited loading
capacity of ten to twenty tons, with mineral waggons up to fortjj
tons, although two or three railways of the United States use a
I2o-ton coal waggon. It is obvious that the work involved it
loading a goods train is far greater owing to break of bulk thar
that involved in placing the same load in the hold of a ship.
A very large tanker, for example, can load or discharge about
11,000 tons of oil in 12 hours. Loading the same quantity foi
conveyance by rail is a much longer process, as at present each
oil tank waggon has a limited capacity of about 10 tons. The
question of transport in bulk by ships applies not only to oil but
to every class of commodity. Docks and harbours are generally
well-equipped with cranes and warehouses, and with special ap-
pliances such as grain elevators and oil pumps.
Much time and labour are expended at tranship points.;
Goods are brought to ports by rail for shipment, and the accumu-
lation of cargo for any particular vessel usually commences
long before the vessel's arrival. This predicates the necessity
for goods warehouses and sheds, so that commodities are properly
protected against pilferage, wind and weather, while awaiting
shipment. When the vessel arrives, there must be adequate
facilities for removing and dispatching her inward cargo before
the outward freight is dealt with. Rail facilities on the quay-
side, as at Manchester*, Southampton, and all modern ports,
obviously make the process of transhipment much simpler than
as at some of the older docks, where, when goods are taken from
the ship's hold, they must first be loaded on road vehicles, and
thus dispatched to the rail terminus.
The transhipment difficulty is also to be met where through-
running facilities for trains do not exist, due to break of gauge,
for example. This difficulty has been very acutely felt on the
mainland of Australia, where the states have varying gauges,
so that inter-state traffic involves transfer or change at several
of the boundaries. The importance of the subject has resulted
in the appointment in 1920 by the Australian Government of a
commission to report on the possible unification of the railway
gauge throughout Australia.
The most usual method of local collection and distribution of
goods from a dock, station, or goods depot is by means of motor
TRANSPORT
767
lorries. These have largely superseded horse traffic. In Great
Britain, the railway companies perform a certain amount of
carting, but many private traders have their own collection and
delivery vans, and special carrier companies also assist in this
very essential service. The use of motor vehicles for the local
conveyance of goods has been so far extended that regular goods
and passenger services now operate over long distances through-
out the country. For the transport of perishable goods the
motor lorry is particularly well suited. It has the advantage of
offering door-to-door facilities with one handling at each end.
The publication of the first " road Bradshaw " in Great Britain
is an indication of the extent to which road traffic now operates.
The haulage of empty stock from one point to another is
dearly necessary whenever a centre receives more or fewer
waggons with loads than it requires for its own outward traffic.
Very few centres receive the same number of loaded waggons as
':hey require for forwarding goods. There must therefore always
De a considerable movement of empty waggons. Statistics pub-
ished by the Ministry of Transport in England show that in that
xmntry, at the commencement of 1921, about 30% of waggon
nileage was " empty " running. Similar conditions prevailed
n the United States. A large proportion of " empty " run-
ling is in connexion with mineral traffic. A mining area
>ffers a considerable volume of outward traffic, with very little
nward. Occasionally, however, loads can be obtained in both
lirections. A good example is seen in the case of iron-ore car-
ied from Tyne dock to Consett for use at the iron-works there.
The waggons are then used to convey coal from the collieries in
he neighbourhood of the iron-works to Tyne dock for shipment,
iut this case is exceptional. The number of mineral waggons
phich run empty, or the ineffective dead load, can be reduced by
he introduction of higher capacity waggons with a larger propor-
ion of live to dead load.
This question of " empty " running is of equal importance in
onnexion with shipping. A well-organized shipping company
/ill have its agencies so well distributed to secure return cargoes
hat loss through running ships in ballast is reduced to a minimum.
One great difference exists between the operation of railways
nd that of all other forms of transport. Railways operate
n their own tracks, property which they must maintain and
;hich has to be adequately staffed and attended. Ships have
he advantage of the trackless ocean; aeroplanes and airships,
ifinite space; rpad vehicles, the public highway. Canals in Great
iritain are different again; the waterways themselves are as
rule owned by various authorities, but the barges and other
anal craft are usually owned by separate transport compa-
ies and private traders.
It is thus apparent that a railway undertaking must have pro-
ortionately a much larger operating staff than any other trans-
ort service. This introduces the question of management. The
Dmbination of the several factors of transport efficiency is the
ey to efficiency in operation. For the efficient handling and
se of these factors an executive management is required, a
lanagement that should not only have full knowledge of the
Sencies, means and methods required for the particular type
E transport operation with which it is concerned, but should
Iso possess ability for the correlation and control of the many
isources at its command. Indeed, the whole system of oper-
tion depends upon the body of management.
As to what is the best organization for management of a rail-
ay there are such wide differences of opinion that it is not pos-
ble to suggest that any given or particular plan is the correct
ae. In England at the head of a railway organization are
le directors, presided over by their chairman, who are responsi-
le to the shareholders for the efficient conduct of the undertak-
ig. All questions of policy are settled by the Board of Directors,
id the administrative staff, which is controlled by the general
anager, who is directly responsible to the Board of Directors,
responsible for the actual carrying out of the work. The gen-
al manager cannot actually attend to all the details of operation
a railway: he can however see that the policy of the directors
carried out by the various heads of the departments. The
chief executive officers are the chief engineer, mechanical engi-
neer, traffic and goods managers, secretary, legal adviser, and
accountant. In America, where one company is responsible for
perhaps 5,000 m. of permanent way, the " divisional organiza-
tion," which decentralizes the management, is more extensively
resorted to than in other countries, having less track mileage.
A comprehensive view of the whole system is necessary to any
manager or body of managers. The American railways recog-
nized at an early stage that they could obtain a proper survey
of the working of the whole system only by the collection and
collation of statistics relating to every branch and section of the
industry, and the Interstate Commerce Commission in a recent
report stated that the successful operation of American railways
is highly dependent upon statistics. The value of statistics is
now better appreciated in England than formerly, and statistics
relating to railway operation, on the general lines of those in
use on the North Eastern railway for many years past, are now
officially collected and issued. These have the effect of reflecting
the operating efficiency of the various lines. They enable a
number of units of efficiency to be arrived at, as, for example, the
ton mileage, the train mileage, the waggon mileage, the average
waggon load, the net ton miles of freight moved per hour, the
percentage of time a locomotive spends in effective work, the
proportion of standing and running time, and the proportion of
time a waggon is moving. The ultimate object of statistics is to
enable railways by comparison to find out the weak points and
thus to be operated in the most economical and efficient manner.
As regards shipping, the Board of Directors is again responsible
to the shareholders, but the managing staff is much smaller in
proportion than in the case of railways. Each department has,
however, its executive head, viz. marine superintendent, super-
intending engineer, freight superintendent, victualling super-
intendent, etc. The operating staff is also much smaller than is
the case with railways, and the larger part of a ship's crew is
engaged temporarily for a voyage, and when a vessel returns
to a home port and the crew is discharged, only a nucleus staff
remains. Then again, most shipping companies send their ves-
sels for overhaul to shipbuilders and only carry out minor repairs
themselves, unlike the railways, who do most of the repairs to
their stock in their own shops.
Economics of Transportation. The business of transport,
whether by land or water or air, is subject, like any other industry,
to those economic laws which govern the production, distribution
and consumption of the commodities and services required for
the satisfaction of the needs of humanity. From the economic
standpoint, therefore, it is essential that the cost of the " pro-
duction and distribution " of transport services and the price
at which these services are placed at the disposal of the con-
sumer shall be so related as to yield a reasonable margin of profit
to the undertakings concerned. Where transport services are
provided and operated by private enterprise, the applicability
of this principle is naturally more obvious than in those instances
where the enterprise is undertaken by a municipality or State:
but even in this latter case the assumption should be that the
benefits derived directly or indirectly by the community con-
cerned are sufficiently great to warrant the expenditure which
the provision of the service involves.
Railways. In their efforts to attract traffic, railways have to
compete not only with other railways but also with transport services
carried on by road, river and canal. In certain circumstances an
additional element of competition is to be found in coastwise ship-
ping, and the competitive influence of air transport agencies still
remains to be measured. Railway undertakings differ from road
service undertakings in that the former ordinarily bear the whole
cost of constructing and maintaining the " way ' upon which the
traffic is carried, whilst the cost of roadways is usually borne, wholly
or in part, out of public funds. In the case of inland waterway serv-
ices also, the expenditure on " way and works " is frequently de-
frayed out of State resources in countries other than Great Britain;
but against this advantage must be set the slowness of inland water
transport and the much greater vehicular capacity which railways
can offer. The competition of coastwise shipping on the other hand
is frequently severe, the cost of carriage by sea being relatively low,
whilst in the conveyance of non-perishable goods, rapidity of service
may be a matter of little moment.
768
TRANSPORT
In the promotion of any new railway the selection of the route
to be followed is of the first importance. Upon this depends the
expenditure involved in overcoming the physical difficulties to be
encountered in the course of construction, and the location of-the line
should be such as to secure the maximum amount of traffic available.
The cost of future operation also depends, in great measure, upon
the route adopted.
By the exercise of engineering skill and experience, the total
mileage of track may be reduced, and difficult gradients and curves
may be avoided, and by these means the subsequent cost of haulage
is obviously affected. At the same time savings may be effected in
capital expenditure on earthworks, tunnels, bridges and other special
works of a costly character.
The location of the line and of the stations, goods depots and
sidings in relation to the centres of population, trade and industry,
determines to a great extent the amount of traffic and consequently
the earnings which will be secured ; and the number and position of
these stations, etc., will in turn affect both the capital cost of the
undertaking and the annual expenditure involved for staff and main-
tenance. Moreover, as distance is one of the prime factors to be
considered in the fixing of rates and fares, it is manifestly desirable
that, ceterls paribus, the route selected to connect the various traffic
points to be reached should be as short as possible. This principle is
obviously of particular importance in competitive areas.
In determining the location of the line the question of curvature
and gradients calls for special attention. Curves are introduced with
a view to avoiding undue expenditure on special works, such as
tunnels, bridges, embankments and cuttings, but as a set-off against
this, if the curves are anything but flat ones (i.e. curves of large ra-
dius), there is the resultant increase of wear and tear upon the rails
and rolling-stock and increase in the mileage of track, whilst reduc-
tions of speed and a greater consumption of fuel may also be involved.
The influence of gradients upon working costs is still more marked.
Where they are numerous and severe it may be necessary to employ
engines of a heavier and less economical type, with the result that
when running on the level sections or on the down-grades there is an
appreciable waste of power, whilst the use of brakes is accompanied
by an increase of the wear and tear of the rolling-stock of permanent
Way. In extreme cases it is usually necessary to employ additional
(" banking") engines on the up-grades. In some instances the length
and weight of trains have to be reduced and the cost of working the
line is thus inevitably increased.
In considering the " earnings " of railway companies, or the
"price" at which they place their services at the disposal of the
consumer, it must be remembered that the undertakings themselves,
being quasi-monopolistic in character, are usually subject to regula-
tions imposed by the State. Consequently, in railway working, the
economic tendencies which usually determine the price of commod-
ities or services do not operate with entire freedom. At the same
time even railway rates and charges, as a whole, must bear some
relation to the cost of production.
Railway expenditure, apart from taxes, falls under two main
heads: (a) working expenses, which include salaries and wages,
maintenance and renewal of way and works and of rolling-stock,
and also fuel and stores; and (6) fixed charges, including interest
on capital and also rentals and other similar charges.
The aggregate earnings or gross receipts of a railway under-
taking which is run on a purely commercial basis must be sufficient
to cover both the working expenses and the fixed charges. The suc-
cess of the undertaking depends ultimately upon the amount of the
gross receipts and upon the proportion of this amount which is
absorbed in the payment of working expenses. The volume of the
traffic is therefore a matter of fundamental moment. If it be small
and incapable of further development, and if the working expenses
are already at the minimum compatible with efficiency of service, it
may be necessary to charge high rates in order to cover both working
expenses and the fixed charges. An increase of rates, to be effective,
must, however, be such as to produce an amount which will more
than compensate for the loss of traffic which such an increase tends
to produce. Successful railway transportation therefore rests upon
the following factors: (a) "economy in the cost of construction and
other items by which the magnitude of the fixed charges is deter-
mined, requiring engineering skill ; (b) the maximum development
of the traffic available, requiring business capacity; and (c) economy
in working expenses, which is a matter for a railway expert.
In the fixing of freight charges, account is taken not only of the
weight and bulk of the goods conveyed and of the distance for which
they are carried, but also of terminal services, such as the loading
and unloading of waggons. This charge varies in accordance with the
services rendered and the class of goods dealt with. It is also irre-
spective of the distance the goods are carried. The maximum rates
chargeable for goods traffic are fixed by Statute, but on British rail-
ways these rates are not necessarily the same in every case. This is
not due to any ascertainment of the cost of " production " per unit
of service in each case, but to a consideration of the general circum-
stances of each line concerned. The amount of the fixed charges
being known, the density and regularity of the traffic is taken into
account. Where the traffic is dense and regular and where fuel is
obtainable at a comparatively low cost, there is obviously some
ground for establishing lower maxima than would be appropriate
for lines in agricultural areas having a light or intermittent traffic.
Nevertheless, such differentiation is less common abroad than it is in
the United Kingdom.
Service charges and mileage rates differ also according to the
varying values of the commodities carried, the differences being
determined by an elaborate system of classification. It is extremely
difficult to say what proportion of the fixed charges or working
expenses of a railway is attributable to the handling of a particular
quantity of any particular kind of traffic, because a large part
of such expenditures is "joint costs." Consequently railway
charges are based very largely upon the consideration of the value
of the commodities offered for conveyance. On general economic
principles the amount which any commodity can pay for carriage to
the market for which it is intended depends upon the amount by
which its value in the market exceeds that which it possessed at the
point of despatch. The difference between the value of a commodity
at the point of despatch and its value in the market is naturally
greater in the case of a costly article, and it therefore can bear a
higher actual charge without sensibly diminishing the percentage
available for profit. The apparently heavy charge payable for the
transport of a valuable commodity may increase the cost of that
commodity by only a small percentage, whilst in the case of mer-
chandise of low value a similar charge would add a large percentage
to the cost of the goods and possibly render them unmarketable.
Thus the traffic is usually made to pay " what it will bear " and so
long as the aggregate return to the undertaking is adequate, the
railway manager is content to carry much traffic at rates which are
below the average. This he can usually afford to do, not only
because he obtains super-average rates for higher-grade traffic, but
also because the additional expenditure incurred by the company
in carrying a given quantity of additional traffic is rarely proportion-
ate to the volume of such additional traffic. In the majority of rases
the acceptance of additional traffic is accompanied by little addition
to the fixed charges which have to be met, and can usually be handled
without any proportionate increase in working expenses.
With regard to distance, the rates per mile quoted for freight t raffic
usually decrease as the distance to be covered increases, for although
the cost per ton-mile (or per passenger-mile) for journeys of varying
lengths can hardly be gauged with accuracy, it is recognized that
long-distance freights are more profitable. Apart from the fact that
a long-distance journey may be regarded as having a " wholesale "
as distinct from a " retail " character, it enables the railway under-
taking to make a fuller use of its plant, whilst the amount of terminal
and other work involved is not affected by the greater distance for
which the goods are conveyed.
In British practice, railway passenger fares are of three kinds:
(a) ordinary fares at scheduled rates, (b) season-ticket rates, and
(c) special fares.
Ordinary passenger fares were originally fixed in a somewhat
empirical fashion, being arrived at by under-cutting the rates quoted
by the other passenger transport agencies which were in operation
prior to the advent of the railway era. Nevertheless, the rates which
were thus fixed proved to be remunerative without being immoder-
ately so, and it is no doubt because of this that they have usually
been recognized as reasonable by the travelling public and the
companies concerned.
Similarly, the differentiation which exists between the fares
charged to first-class and third-class passengers rests upon an j
arbitrary basis and is not measured by the actual difference in the
cost of the accommodation and haulage. Arbitrary, however, as the
method of fixing passenger fares has been, it is the general experi-
ence of railway companies that passenger traffic is, on the whole,
less remunerative than freight traffic.
Season-ticket traffic being chiefly confined to large urban areas
involves heavy expenditure on the construction of lines and stations
in districts where the value of land and property is naturally greatest,
and where competitive influences are strongest. Another charac-
teristic of season-ticket traffic is that the bulk of it has to be carried
within the limits of the morning and evening rush-hour periods,
and to meet the requirements of these "peak" hour periods
(where trains can get full loads in one direction only), it is nec-
essary to provide a large quantity, of rolling-stock which must
perforce remain idle during the slack hours of the business day.
Against this must be set the fact that the traffic is regular and provides
full train-loads with a minimum attention on the part of the station
staffs. On the whole, however, the question whether season-ticket
traffic is remunerative is debatable, whilst with regard to the low
rates chargeable under the system of " workmen's fares " it may
safely be said that political and not economic considerations have
been the principal determining factor.
" Special " passenger fares are mainly confined to holiday and
pleasure traffic. This traffic is naturally mobile and tends to pass
readily from one line to another according as the advantages offered
by each to the passenger vary in attractiveness. Consequently the
traffic is usually secured by purely competitive methods, e.g. \
advertisement and by the quotation of special fares. The cost of
working pleasure traffic is high in proportion to the revenue earned,
but good train-loadings are usually obtained, and as much of ti
traffic is genuinely " additional " it is doubtless a source of appre-
ciable profit.
TRANSPORT
769
Apart from the charges for freight and passenger transport to
which reference has been made above, railways commonly quote
" special rates " for goods traffic which has to be obtained by active
competition with other transport agencies. These special rates
represent departures from the ordinary schedule, and in Great
Britain and the United States a great part of the total weight of
goods conveyed by rail is charged for on the special-rate system.
The institution of these rates may in certain cases be due to the
presence of waterway or other railway competition. The cost of
transport by waterway is normally low and the competition for the
carriage of goods of low intrinsic value is therefore severe; and where
the competition arises from the presence of another railway, the
competing line which possesses the shortest route naturally has an
advantage over its competitor. In other cases the competitive
influence may be exerted by a road motor service; but from what-
ever source it springs the question whether the quotation of special
ailway rates as a means of securing the traffic is justified is one
vhich can only be determined by a consideration of the particular
ircumstances of each case.
Water Transport. The expenses of transportation by water, like
:hose of rail transport , fall under two main heads : (a) the fixed charges,
vhich do not vary very much with fluctuations of traffic; and (b) the
vorking expenses, including the costs involved in the actual move-
nent of goods and passengers, the terminal charges which depend
ipon the volume of the traffic and not upon the distances for which it
, conveyed, and lastly, the general expenses which vary very little
,-ith increase or diminution of business. As in railway management,
he gross receipts must be sufficient to cover both the fixed charges
nd the working expenses, and provide a reasonable return upon the
apital invested.
With regard to fixed and general charges, water transport services
iffer somewhat from railways. In the case of transport by sea, there
re no considerable general charges for maintenance of way nor any
xed charges consequent upon the construction of such way. Con-
duction is limited to wharves, docks and vessels with this equip-
lent, and can be proportioned more or less directly to the amount of
affic to be carried. There is therefore less likelihood of excess in
jst of construction and less necessity to accept additional items of
affic at less than average rates merely in order to make a fuller use
? the plant provided.
In the case of canals, or of other waterways on the adaptation of
hich considerable sums have been invested, the conditions with
gard to fixed and general charges obviously present a closer
semblance to those which obtain on railways.
The ownership of wharves on inland waterways is ordinarily dis-
1 net from that of the vessels which use them ; and wharf charges
ould be such as to yield in the aggregate a normal return on the
pital invested in the purchase of land and in the work of construe-
in, i.e. the equivalent of a fair rent for the land occupied, plus a
asonable rate of interest on construction cost.
In water transport competitive influences operate more freely
an on railways, and, in the case of ocean services, the choice of
ute is determined mainly by physical and economic considerations.
'teris paribus, the choice is determined by the location of the
ntres to be served, and the route taken will follow the shortest
IBS between them.
In the case of inland navigation the course of a river will itself
termine the route to be taken, whilst in the location of a canal the
inciples which operate are similar to those which determine the
ation of railroads.
Transport on natural waterways, and especially by sea, is less
mopolistic in character than railway transport, the " sea road "
ing open to all competitors ; and at terminals also such water trans-
rt is more subject to competitive forces then is usually the case
. :h railways.
| With regard to rates for freight, the general principle is that, on
IE whole, these rates should bear some resemblance to the cost of
I 'riage, whilst with regard to particular articles discrimination
; y be made according to their character and value. There is,
; ffever, one case in which rates for water transport may be far
ow cost, namely, in those cases where certain goods may be used
i ballast. On a particular route, for example, the demand for cargo
.ce for shipments in one direction may be considerable, whilst in
other direction the demand may be very much weaker. In such
:; ase cargoes may be accepted for the return journey at very low
i 2s, apart from the fact that they may prove useful as ballast.
toad Transport. The principal factor in the modern development
< oad transport is the advent of the mechanically propelled vehicle,
1 use of which is rapidly extending. In road motor services, as in
t case of other transport agencies, the question of return on capital
< enditure is important. The amounts expended upon the purchase
< 'ehicles and upon the purchase of land and the erection of garages
( lere these are not rented) must be taken into account. Where
1 i and garages are rented, the annual charges thus created must
t covered by the gross receipts. Depreciation, repairs and renewals,
f , and wages must also be provided for.
'he responsibility of road motor undertakings for a proportion of
t cost of maintaining the roadways which they use is now coming
t >e recognized, but they still escape the heavy capital expenditure
s i as the provision of railway way and works involves. In the
case of these road undertakings, therefore, the fixed charges are of
less importance, and such capital charges as they do incur (e.g. in
the purchase of vehicles or in the provision of garage accommoda-
tion) can be more easily proportioned to the amount of traffic.
The gross receipts, and therefore the rates for freight and passen-
gers, must be such as to cover both the fixed charges and working
expenses, and must therefore bear some relation to the costs involved ;
but in the stage through which road motor transport is now passing
there can be no doubt that, in the fixing of rates, the necessity for
competing-with railway services (especially for short-distance traffic)
and with other road motor services is a governing factor.
Air Transport. The possibilities of transport by air remain to
be revealed, but it is significant that, already, regular mail and
passenger services have been instituted and that, to a limited extent,
the aeroplane is being utilized for the carriage of goods in small
parcels. The general economic principles governing this form of
transport are similar to those which operate with regard to those
other transport agencies which use a way provided by nature and
escape the construction and maintenance charges which the provision
of an artificial permanent way would involve.
Ownership and Control. The question whether the ownership
and/or control of transport undertakings should be vested in the
State, in municipal bodies, or should be in private hands, was
in 1921 still the subject of considerable controversy. In some
countries State ownership and, with it, State control of railways
are accomplished facts, and even the working of the lines is
undertaken by the State. In other cases, State ownership is
accompanied by a strict control whilst the actual working of the
lines is leased to private companies. In yet other instances State
control goes hand in hand with private ownership and manage-
ment, whilst in some cases (as in the United Kingdom prior to
the war, and in the United States) railways are privately
owned and managed, and are subject only to State " regula-
tion," particularly in respect of matters concerning public
safety and the like.
Many tramways are municipally owned and worked, being
subject to State regulation in respect of public safety, whilst in
the case of water transport State interference is usually limited
to the grant of subsidies, coupled with a relative measure of con-
trol and with regulations for safety. In most cases, however,
transport by sea is subject to safety regulations alone.
The advocates of private enterprise contend that the economic
development and operation of transport is best achieved when
public interference is absent or is limited to such matters as
concern the public safety. They urge that, as public ownership
or control involves official management, the great incentive to
make a profit which is the mainspring of private enterprise
and stimulates efficiency is removed. They urge that in the
absence of this spur to efficiency, management tends to become
slack and wasteful, that the element of political pressure is
present, and that the vigorous enterprise which is essential to
development and progress is seldom forthcoming. Experience
has shown that these contentions are very largely correct.
On the other hand, the advocates of State ownership and con-
trol contend that as transport services possess the character of
public utilities, they are proper subjects for public ownership
and control, that they should be operated in the public interest
alone, and that any profits which may result from such oper-
ation should properly accrue to the State or to the municipality
as the case may be. They argue also that by the centralization
of management of which public ownership and control admit,
large economies in administrative and overhead charges can be
effected, and that the wasteful competition and duplication of
services can be avoided.
In weighing up the contentions of these two factions, it should
be borne in mind that, whereas private ownership must of neces-
sity be worked on an economic basis in order to exist at all, in
the case of State ownership it is impossible to say definitely
whether a service is being worked efficiently or economically.
Government Regulation. The extent and nature of the regula-
tion of transport by Government has varied very considerably
at various times and in different countries. Where, as in many
countries, the railways and canals have been built or acquired,
and similarly the roads, to a varying extent, built and main-
tained, by the State, the extent of Governmental regulation
is naturally great. In other cases notably in Great Britain and
770
TRANSPORT
the United States transport has been traditionally regarded as
a matter for private enterprise and initiative, and only such
measure of control provided as might be necessary in the inter-
ests of public safety and general national policy. The present
tendency has in all cases been towards a greater measure of con-
trol of transport services by the State, due to the increasing
realization of the importance of transport in the economic life
of a nation.
As regards roads and rivers the latter having formed the
principal channel of communication for many centuries, the
State exercised but little control in Great Britain. Roads were
regarded essentially as of local interest, the local authorities or
private individuals being responsible for such construction and
maintenance work as was undertaken. During the eighteenth
century considerable improvement of the road system in many
parts of England was made by the Turnpike Trusts set up by
Private Acts of Parliament, and subsequently by the work of
Macadam and Telford. In 1835 the Highways Act abolished
the compulsory Statute labour on roads and empowered each
parish to levy a rate for road maintenance, and in 1888 the care
of the main roads outside urban areas was transferred to the
County Councils. During the whole period the general policy
adopted had been that of adapting traffic to road conditions
rather than vice versa, with consequent restriction of weight
of load, and stipulations as to breadth of wheels, and the fixing
of conditions for the licensing of public vehicles; but a great
step forward, mainly due to the extended use of mechanical road
transport, has been the passing of the Roads Act of 1920, which
initiated a Road Fund financed by the excise duties on mechan-
ically propelled vehicles, from which grants can be made by the
State for the construction, maintenance and improvement of
roads, and which provided also for a greater measure of control
over vehicukr traffic.
As regards rivers, State action was mainly directed to the
prevention of obstructions and abuses; and when authorizing
the construction of canals which during the latter part of the
1 8th and the beginning of the ipth century became the system
of transport on which Industrial England mainly depended
these private undertakings, as later in the case of railways, were
given compulsory powers to acquire land, and in return Parlia-
ment laid down the maximum charges which they might levy.
In spite of the variety in the gauge and depth of the different
canals, the canal system developed into a virtual private mo-
nopoly earning at one time very large profits, and the charges
gave rise to much discontent among traders.
The railways suffered from this discontent, not only in the
early stages of their development, but for many years after-
wards, since the principal care of Parliament for a long time was
to avoid the creating of another monopoly. It was at first
thought that competition would be assured by the different
carriers owning their locomotives and waggons, the railway com-
panies owning only the lines. This was soon found to be im-
practicable, and reliance was then placed in competition between
different undertakings; and it was many years before it was
realized to be in the interest of the State that the various com-
panies should work together.
Hitherto Government control in England has been mainly
restricted to matters concerning the safety of the public and
railway-workers, and to the charges made by the railway com-
panies for the carriage of passengers and goods. The super-
visory authority was placed by Parliament with the Board of
Trade, a separate railway department being formed subse-
quently in the Board to deal with all railway matters. Officers
of this department inspected all lines before they were opened
for traffic, being given power to delay the opening where neces-
sary, and were required to inquire into the causes of all acci-
dents. They had no power to order work to be carried out in
any special way, but if their requirements or recommendations
were not given effect to, they had the power of refusing to sanc-
tion the use of the lines for passenger traffic for which fares
were charged. In the case of goods lines and alterations to
existing lines, the interests of the public were protected by the
fact that if an accident occurred and the Board of Trade regu
lations had not been complied with, juries would deal very s^
verely with the offenders. In practice, wherever railways hav
been constructed or operated, the Board of Trade regulation
have always been complied with.
The Board of Trade was empowered to act as conciliator t>
settle, amicably if possible, differences between individuals an
the railway companies, and, with a view to giving traders -
specially qualified tribunal for complaints against the companies
the Railway and Canal Commission was set up in 1888.
The outbreak of war in Aug. 1914 brought about a remark
able extension in the control of transport service by Govern 1
ment. In Great Britain the Government at once took possessioi
of the railways under the Regulation of the Forces Act, 1871
and during the whole period of the war these were worked ot
behalf of the Government by the Railway Executive Committee
a standing body formed from among general managers of the prin
cipal railway companies. Certain canals were taken over by th<
Canal Control Committee, and during the period of the war th'
greater part of the shipping was worked under the direction o
the Ministry of Shipping. In 1919 further progress in contro
was made by the Ministry of Transport Act. This Act broughj
into being the Ministry of Transport, and placed under thj
minister the existing powers (with certain exceptions) of other
Government departments in relation to railways, light rail'
ways, tramways, canals, waterways and inland navigations
roads, bridges and ferries, and vehicles and traffic thereon]
harbours, docks and piers. By this Act the minister was chargec
with the initiation and formulation of a policy for dealing will:
transportation, and in order to allow time for this and to permil
of development in the meantime, he was authorized to retail
for a period of two years control of those undertakings whicl
were already in Government possession, and if necessary tc
take possession similarly of any other undertakings. Very wide
powers were given to the minister in regard to these undertakings
He might give directions as to the rates and fares to be charged!
and the salaries and wages of employees were under his control
He might order the working or discontinuance of working of ai
undertaking, or any part thereof, and take steps to see tha
alterations and improvements were carried out and cob'perativi
working effected which would result in greater efficiency o
more economical working. The minister was also empowered tc
establish and work, directly or indirectly, transport services b>
land or water. During the period of two years it was thought
that the undertakings would be able to make considerable
progress, as these powers would enable the minister to author-
ize the companies to carry out alterations and improvernni!
and to acquire land without the delay and expense involvt
the ordinary procedure.
In addition to the above temporary powers, the minister was
authorized to make grants and loans for the construction, im-
provement or maintenance of the various classes of transport
services and for the promotion of such services by existing
companies, and he was also given powers in regard to the
sification of roads, the through running of tramcars, omnibus
routes, and the purchase of privately owned railway waggons.
The British Ministry of Transport was formed in Aug. 1919
Sir Eric Geddes being the first minister. It comprised depart-
ments dealing with civil engineering, mechanical engineering,
development, traffic, finance and statistics, public safety, roads,
secretarial and legal. A separate branch was formed to deal
with Irish transport questions. In July 1920, the ministry
issued a memorandum containing proposals for the future organ-
ization of transport undertakings in Great Britain. These pro-
vided for the grouping of existing railway companies into seven
groups, each of these groups being under the control of a Board
of Management composed of representatives of the shareholders
and employees; for the fixing of rates to a certain standard
revenue, a proportion of any surplus being allocated to a devel-
opment fund to assist backward districts to develop light rail-
ways and other appropriate purposes; for the setting up of
permanent machinery for settling railway wages and working
TRANSPORT
771
conditions. It was .also stated in this memorandum that it
was intended to confer powers upon the State in relation to the
railways (a) for the protection of the public, (b) for the eco-
nomical working of the railway systems of the country, and
(c) to safeguard national interests.
These proposals led to considerable criticism, and as a result
of discussion with the railway companies, trading interests, and
trades unions concerned, various alterations were agreed upon
and embodied in the Railways bill introduced by the Govern-
ment in the House of Commons in May 1921. This bill was
designed to sweep up masses of legislation which had accumulated
in the years since railways were first sanctioned by Parliament,
. and to simplify the relations between the State, the railway
companies and the users.
The bill provided for the grouping of railways in four groups,
; which grouping was to take effect on Jan. i 1923, and also for
a variation of the grouping, provided that the Minister of Trans-
port was satisfied that the variation was not incompatible with
the efficient and economic working of the railway system of the
: country: the machinery by which the amalgamation of the com-
panies in each group was to be effected was laid down in detail,
and the scheme when agreed upon by the companies had to be
submitted to the Amalgamation Tribunal established by the
bill. If the companies were unable to agree upon a scheme, one
would be settled by the Tribunal. The Board of Management
of each group would be elected by the shareholders, but the
proposal that the employees should be represented was aban-
doned. Elaborate machinery was provided for the fixing and
periodical review of rates and fares. It was proposed to set up
for this purpose a new court, called the Railway Rates Tribunal
and consisting of three members, one a lawyer, one a commercial
expert, and one a railway expert. An entirely new system was
to be adopted, and the fixed charges would be actual and not
maximum charges, that is to say, that except in certain speci-
fied cases the railway companies would not be at liberty to
charge for any traffic a rate other than that fixed. The proposal
to set up a development fund was abandoned, and in order that
the railway companies might have every incentive to efficient
md economical management, the bill provided that in the event
)f a company earning a surplus above the standard revenue,
20% of such surplus should go to the company and 80% to the
;rading community in the shape of reduction of rates.
It was proposed that the Minister of Transport should have
lower to require any two or more railway companies to conform
jradually to measures of general standardization of ways, plant
tnd equipment (including methods of electrical operation, type,
requency and pressure of current), and to adopt schemes for
ooperative working or common use of rolling-stock, workshops,
nanufactories, plant, and other facilities; also, the railway com-
lanies might be required, on a proper complaint being made, to
fford reasonable services, facilities and conveniences, and the
aachinery for obtaining authority to construct a light railway
'as simplified.
In other countries the war has similarly brought about a
reater measure of Governmental control. In the United States
he railways were taken over by the Government in Jan. 1918,
nd worked by a director-general of railroads until March i 1920,
'hen they were handed back to their owners. In the meantime
ae Transportation Act had been passed, of which the two car-
' inal features were : (a) the continuance of private ownership
'ad operation as a national policy, and (b) the recognition of
ublic interest and duty in respect to the adequacy and efficiency
: transportation facilities. The powers and responsibilities of the
iterstate Commerce Commissioners have been largely increased
! y this Act, particularly in relation to the settlement of rates,
le economical provision of adequate facilities, the regulation of
Jeration of the railways in times of emergency, and the certi-
:ation of loans to transport undertakings to enable them to
nder effective service during the period of transition which
llowcd immediately upon the termination of Federal control.
In Germany the pre-war individual State administrations
i ive been replaced by a central commonwealth administra-
tion under a Ministry of Transport established in 1919; and in
most other European countries there has been considerable
strengthening of the departments dealing with transportation,
due to the increasing appreciation of the importance of this
factor in the economic life of the State.
International Aspect. A further question needs consideration,
i.e. the international aspect of an effective international trans-
port council. Roads, waterways and railroads originally were
built for communication between neighbouring towns or dis-
tricts, and to serve the needs of traffic within each nation, and
not as routes from one State to another. Apart from custom and
policy, to which must be attributed in earlier times the relatively
small amount of commerce between the various European
countries, there were great difficulties arising from customs dues,
physical obstacles, differences in gauge and plant, and in load-
ing regulations. These difficulties had such serious results that
as the need for the interchange of goods became appreciated,
endeavours were made to overcome them at various interna-
tional conventions. Of these, the best known is the Berne
Convention, formulated in 1893 as a result of arrangements
initiated at a conference of representatives of various Govern-
ments held at Berne in 1878. This convention, which has been
embodied in the laws of the adhering States, settled many diffi-
culties. It abolished customs dues in intermediate countries on
through traffic, specified the rights, liabilities and responsi-
bilities of shipper, carrier and railway company, and provided for
the establishment of a permanent association to facilitate settle-
ments between the railways governed by the Convention and
for the diffusion among them of information relating to the
matters covered by the Convention. Further agreements have
been subsequently reached on other important matters, but the
need of a fresh and thorough review of the subject from all
points of view became increasingly apparent during the first
decade of this century. Very little was, however, done until the
peace negotiations at Paris in 1919. A strong commission of
experts of the Allies was formed to advise on questions concern-
ing transit which arose during the negotiations; and the Cove-
nant of the League of Nations included a declaration that mem-
bers of the League will make provision to secure and maintain
freedom of communications and of transit for the commerce of
all members of the League. The expert commission in question
continued to work until March 1920, when it was taken over by
the Council of the League of Nations and instructed to arrange
the Conference on Communications and Transit, which was
held at Barcelona in March and April 1921, under the presidency
of M. Gabriel Hanotaux. One of the results of this confer-
ence, which may have very far-reaching importance, was the
creation of a permanent international body, to be known as the
Technical and Advisory Commission, to watch the international
traffic situation. The Commission will consist of sixteen mem-
bers and will function as part of the League of Nations organiza-
tion at Geneva. It will meet at frequent intervals and will
arrange for a full assembly of all the members of the Confer-
ence or for regional conferences as circumstances may require.
It will have duties of advice, initiation and administration, and
will also serve as a council of conciliation in the event of a
dispute on a traffic. question between signatories of the Barce-
lona Convention. The latter function may lead to the gradual
creation of a recognized and authoritative body of international
law on traffic questions, which will prove a considerable advance
on existing conditions. The Commission will have, as a basis
for its decisions, conventions and recommendations agreed upon
at the Barcelona Conference, which, however, require to be rati-
fied by the several Governments. The more important of these
deal with freedom of transit, waterways of international interest,
and international railways. The convention on freedom of
transit lays it down that the parties shall facilitate the free
transit of persons, goods, vessels, coaching and goods stock or
other means of transport by the routes most convenient for
international transit. No distinction whatever is to be made
as to the nationality of persons, the flag flown by vessels, the
origin, points of departure, entry, exit, destination, or the owner-
772
TRANSVAAL TRENCHARD
ship of the goods; no special transit dues are to be levied beyond
what is necessary to defray the cost of actual services rendered,
and they are to involve no discriminations as regards nationality
or ownership. It is expected that many States will act on the
recommendations, which declare that the Powers represented at
the Barcelona Conference recognize that " any one of these
States is entitled on the railways under the sovereignty or
authority of any other State to all reasonable facilities for pro-
moting and encouraging the flow of international traffic to and
from its territory," and proceed to lay down detailed regulations
for the application of these principles. (A. Gi.)
TRANSVAAL (see 27.186), since 1910 a province of the Union
of South Africa. At the 1911 census the inhabitants numbered
1,686,212, compared with 1,269,951 in 1904, an increase of
32-78%. Whites numbered 420,562 (as against 297,277 in 1904),
coloured 1,265,650. Women outnumbered men, the proportion
being for all races 89-71 males to 100 females. Of the whites
92-55%and of the coloured 24-3o%were returned as Christians.
Asiatics numbered 11,072 (9,018 males); of these 10,048 were
British Indians, 3,065 having been born in the Transvaal.
In 1918 the whites numbered 499,347, of whom 303,050 lived
in urban areas. At the 1921 census the total white pop. was
543,481 (males 284,952, females 258,529). Thus between 1904
and 1921 the whites had almost doubled in number, the increase
being principally due to the development of the gold and coal
mines. The growth of the white population gave the Transvaal
at the 1920 election 13 more seats in the Union Parliament than
the province had in 1910.
The chief towns are Johannesburg (total pop. 1911, 237,104,
whites only, 1918, 137,166) and Pretoria (total pop. 1911, 57,674,
whites only, 1918, 41,690). Besides Johannesburg there were on
the Witwatersrand the municipalities of Krugersdorp, Germiston,
Boksburg, Benoni, Roodepoort and Brakpan (the last named the
centre of the Far East Rand, being created a municpality in 1919),
approximately half the inhabitants of the province being concen-
trated on the Rand.
The chief executive officer is styled administrator, and provincial
government is in the hands of a provincial council, the system
being the same for all the provinces of the Union (for particulars
see CAPE PROVINCE). In the five years 1913-4 to 1917-8 the revenue
collected for provincial purposes rose from 602,000 to 815,000,
native pass fees providing half or more of the receipts. The Union
subsidy in the same period rose from 620,000 to 695,000. The
two main heads of expenditure were education and roads, bridges,
works. The sum spent on education was 665,000 in 1913-4 and
1,143,000 in 1917-8. In 1920 there were 1,040 State schools with
109,700 scholars. There were also 389 State-aided native schools
with 26,900 scholars. There was keen controversy over the language
question in the schools for white children. By an ordinance of 191 1,
which came into operation on Jan. I 1912, instruction up to stand-
ard IV. was to be in and through the " home language of the child" ;
a second medium might then be used if the parents so desired.
This arrangement ended an attempt to enforce bi-lingualism and
worked very fairly. In other respects the Transvaal was noted for
its many educational experiments.
Gold mining retained its position as the chief industry, the
Transvaal producing nearly half the world's output. There was a
notable increase in the output of coal, and with the provision of
railway communication to the Messina mines (situated in the
extreme N. by the Limpopo) the production of copper ore rapidly
increased. The output of tin from the Bushveld was also note-
worthy. Manufacturing industries were developed on the Rand.
The province retained its importance as a stock-raising country,
and there was a marked increase in the cultivation of maize and
tobacco (for statistics see SOUTH AFRICA).
Politics and parties in South Africa cut across provincial
boundaries, and the history of the Transvaal since 1910 is part of
that of the Union. The province presented in its social life many
extremes, the conservatism of the back-veld Boer contrasting
strongly with the progressive and democratic spirit of the dwellers
on the Rand. But both these elements had their counterparts
in other provinces. Party feeling was, however, more strongly
expressed in the Transvaal than elsewhere, and this led to the
introduction of politics into the provincial council, in which, at
the election of 1914, the Labour party gained a majority of one.
This election followed a great industrial upheaval on the Rand,
leading to serious riots and bloodshed. The white workmen on
the Rand formed the main strength of the Labour party, though
it had also a considerable following in Durban and Cape Town.
A considerable number of Boers in the western Transvaal tool
part in the rebellion of 1914, but the influence of Generals Both;
and Smuts kept many Boers loyal to the British connexion, a
was shown at subsequent general elections. At the 1920 electioi
the Nationalists, or Separatist party, gained 13, and at the 192
election 15 out of the 49 Transvaal seats how evenly the Dutcl
vote was divided was shown by the narrow majorities obtained ii
1921 in the rural areas, while in two constituencies the votin;
resulted in a tie. The 1920 election had been notable for tb
success of Labour candidates on the Rand; the election of 192:
saw the Labour representation of the province reduced from ij
to 5 members. Labour organizations were not confined to tin
whites, but extended to the natives, who showed unexpectcc
powers of combination and arranged strikes on customar
European lines. But neither this industrial movement amoni
the natives, nor their demands for political rights, was confinec
to the Transvaal.
The first administrator was Mr. Johann F. B. Rissik (Ministei
of Lands and of Native Affairs in the Transvaal as a self-govern
ing colony). He was reappointcd for a second term but resigneo
in 1917 to become a member of the Railways and Harbour Boarc
of the Union, being succeeded as administrator by Mr. A. G
Robertson, who had represented Wakkerstroom in the provincial
council. (F. R. C.) 1
TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853-1917), Englisf
actor and manager (see 27.234), died in London July 2 1917
The chief Shakespearean productions of his later years wen
Macbeth in 1911 and Othello in 1912. In 1912 he also producec
Louis N. Parker's Drake and in 1913 his biblical play Jose.pt
and his Brethren. In 1914 he produced Mr. Bernard Shaw":
Pygmalion. During the World War he was active in propagand;
work, organizing lectures at His Majesty's theatre and speaking
himself frequently in America during his theatrical tours. Hi
published a volume of Thoughts and Afterthoughts (1913) a IK
other occasional papers. His sudden death, after a comparative!}
slight operation, at the age of 63, was felt as a great loss to th(
contemporary English stage.
See Herbert Beeroohm Tree: some Memories of him, collected b>
Max Beerbohm (1920).
TRENCH, FREDERICK HERBERT (1865- ), British poei
and playwright, was born at Avoncore, co. Cork, Nov. 12 1865
Educated at Haileybury and Keble College, Oxford, he wa:
elected a fellow of All Souls' College, and in 1891, after some yean
spent in travelling, was appointed an examiner in the Board oi
Education. This appointment he gave up in 1908 in order tc
devote himself to literary work. In 1908 he also became directoi
of the Haymarket theatre, London, and during a short tenure o
this position he staged King Lear and Maeterlinck's Blue Bird
During the World War he worked in Florence for the establish
ment of a better understanding between Great Britain and Italy
From his school days he had been a writer of verse, and his first
volume of poems, Deirdre Wedded, appeared in 1901. It was
followed by further poems, notably " Apollo and the Seaman,'
included in New Poems (1907), and Lyrics and Narrative Poem
(1911). Among his later publications were an Ode from Italy in
Time of War (1915); Poems with Fables in Prose (1917); and
a poetic play Napoleon (1918), which was produced in Londoi
by the Stage Society in 1919.
TRENCHARD, SIR HUGH MONTAGUE, BART. (1873-
British air marshal, was born Feb. 3 1873 and joined the array,
in 1893. He served through the S. African War, was danger^
ously wounded, and was promoted brevet major. He was
then for seven years with the W. African Frontier Force andj
during that time took part in three campaigns, receiving the
D.S.O. in 1906. After returning home in 1910 he joined the
Royal Flying Corps and he became assistant commandant a
Upavon in 1912. On the outbreak of war in 1914 he was at
first left in charge of the central depot at Farnborough, but
before the end of the year he was summoned to the front and he
shortly afterwards became head of the military wing of the
air forces under Sir J. French; this appointment he filled will
signal success for nearly three years. He was promoted brevet
TRENCH FEVER TRENCH ORDNANCE
773
lieutenant-colonel and brevet colonel in 1915, and advanced to
the rank of major-general at the beginning of 1917. On the
formation of the Air Ministry at the end of that year he was
brought home to become chief of the staff, but he resigned the
position in the following April; he was however a few weeks
later given command of the " Independent Force," which
carried out extensive raids into German territory during the
closing months of the struggle. He had been made a K.C.B.
in 1918, and on the final distribution of honours for the war he
was given a baronetcy and received a grant of 10,000. He
was gazetted air vice-marshal on the introduction of the new
designations of rank in the air service, and in 1919 he was pro-
moted air marshal and became chief of the air staff.
TRENCH FEVER. Early during the World War, in 1913,
it was noticed that a large number of soldiers in France and
Flanders were falling victim to a disease the nature of which
was not clearly understood. It was an infectious disease be-
cause men were affected who shared the same tents, huts or
billets. It bore some resemblance to rheumatism in that pain
in muscles and bones was a prominent symptom. It was also
rather like influenza except for an absence of nasal catarrh.
The disease at first was given many names. Thus cases
were called " P.U.O.," an army term meaning " pyrexia of
uncertain origin." They were also called " rheumatism " and
"influenza" and "myelitis" and "lumbago." If the cases
were seen at a late date when palpitation and brea,thlessness
had become prominent, they were often called " cardiac neu-
rasthenia " or " disordered action of the heart " (" D.A.H.").
Soon, however, it was felt that these diagnoses were inaccurate
ind a serious attempt was made to study the disease. The
:arliest contributions to its literature were made by Dr. J. W.
McNee, and others who worked with him. Afterwards several
French Fever Committees were formed by the British medical
tuthorities. One of these worked in connexion with the Ameri-
can Red Cross; another, known as the "War Office Trench
7 ever Committee," had a hospital in Hampstead. This
Tcmmittee was presided over by Sir David Bruce; the director
)f its research work was Col. William Byam. Both Com-
nittees infected volunteers and the conclusions reached, though
hey differed on points of detail, were substantially the same.
Trench fever is a louse-borne disease. The lice do not be-
ome infectious at once after feeding on a trench-fever patient;
here is a latent period of some 8-12 days before they are danger-
us to other people. Thereafter the excreta of the lice, rather
ban their bites, are infective. If these infective excreta be
ubbed into a scratch or scarification trench fever develops
i about eight days. The importance of this discovery about
he excreta lies in the fact that persons may contract the con-
ition who have never had lice upon them. The excreta is a
ry powder, easily blown about, and so apt to reach the clothes,
t remains infective for long periods and even when exposed
5 sunlight. Water on the other hand seems to diminish its
ifectivity quickly.
The blood of trench-fever patients is infective to other patients
hen injected into their veins. Thus the parasite circulates in
ic blood. The parasite is also in the louse excreta. It has
ot, however, so far been positively identified, though there is
certain amount of evidence, that it is one of the so-called
ickettsia bodies. In this connexion the names of Dr. G. A.
> rkwright and Prof. A. W. Bacot must be mentioned,
i The disease is protean in its manifestations. A proportion of the
ises begin suddenly with great muscular weakness and exhaustion,
:adache, furred tongue and blood-shot eyes. Other cases come on
adually, the above symptoms increasing daily in intensity. The
: itient feels very ill and usually develops a temperature-rise to
I )2F. or 103 F. Various types of temperature have been described,
i some instances there is but one wave lasting two or three days;
other instances a " saddle-back " curve is shown, the tempera-
re falling slightly and then rising again. Some patients relapse
finitely on the fifth day, others about the eleventh day. Others
ain relapse at irregular intervals for long periods, each relapse
k"ing a " spike " of temperature of short duration.
I In a few cases there is no rise of temperature. Thus three volun-
' ers were infected with the same batch of louse excreta. All of the
ree developed symptoms of trench fever but in one instance the
temperature remained normal. Yet lice, subsequently fed on this
patient, were able to transmit the disease to other volunteers all of
whom developed rises of temperature. (For similar disease-carry-
ing by body-lice see TYPHUS FEVER.)
The skin pains of trench fever are characteristic. They do not
as a rule appear until a few days after the onset. They are of a
boring, gnawing character and may be so violent that the patient
cannot even bear the weight of the bed clothes. Again they may be
very slight or absent.
The diagnosis is easy in early cases but the disease tends to run a
very chronic course. In one case a patient labelled as a " neuras-
thenic " was found to infect lice four years after his initial attack.
A percentage of patients become chronic invalids, others develop
symptoms of functional heart trouble, others have nervous symp-
toms. It is probable that all these patients remain infected. The
most reliable signs on which a diagnosis can be founded jn the
chronic stage are: (i) the patient's history, especially the state of
his health before and after the initial attack; (2) .the nature of his
relapses; (3) the tenderness commonly met with on gently pinching
the skin of the front of the leg (over the tibiae) ; (4) the presence
of heart or nervous complications, e.g. breathlessness on exertion,
pain, palpitation, gross tremor, etc.
The treatment is very unsatisfactory. At present no drug is
known which will end the condition as quinine will end malaria.
Thus it is necessary to attempt to build up the patient's strength
against his infection. He should if possible lead an open-air life,
he should have exercise, good plain food and cheerful surroundings.
Some authorities lay stress on the value of thyroid, gr. 2 daily, in
these cases. Others believe in iron tonics. Recent observations
have suggested that the muscular weakness which follows the
disease prevents the proper opening of the chest in respiration and
so interferes with the suction action of the opening chest on the
great veins. On this account the wearing of an abdominal belt
has been recommended. It causes the patient to breathe with his
chest and so tends to the restoration of thoracic movement. The
disease is very disabling and its marked tendency to relapse makes
it very distressing to the victim, who can never count on his health.
Change of weather and wet weather seem specially to conduce to
relapses. (R. M. Wl.)
TRENCH ORDNANCE. The need of some form of easily trans-
portable weapon for bombarding an enemy's works or his men
from trenches immediately facing them, instead of from a dis-
tant artillery position, has made itself felt throughout the his-
tory of siege warfare. The use, in the trenches, of small mor-
tars (known as " cohorns'," from the Dutch engineer Coehoorn
who designed them) was habitual in the sieges of the i8th cen-
tury, and the great Carnot early in the igth century proposed
their use on a very large scale for the purpose of attacking per-
sonnel protected from direct fire by breastworks. The introduc-
tion of rifled ordnance, and the consequent modifications in siege
methods, led to the disappearance of these cohorns. Neverthe-
less the need of a trench-mortar was felt in both of the two great
sieges of modern times Vicksburg and Port Arthur in which,
before the World War, trench fighting was close and prolonged.
In these cases mortars of wood and hoop-iron, strong enough to
bear the strain of throwing small bombs a short distance, were
improvised by the troops themselves. After the experience of
Port Arthur, however, European designers took up the question,
and several types were worked out, of which three, the Belgian
Aasen, the German official " Military Engineering Committee's "
design, and the Krupp, initiated progress along three different
lines which were followed up in the World War. The first named,
which was used in action even before the World War at the
siege of Adrianople, 1913 was the prototype of the light trench-
mortars; the second, with few important modifications, remained
in service throughout the WorldWar, and represents the adapta-
tion of standard artillery ideas and elements to the new problem,
while the third introduced the principle of the " stick-bomb,"
fired from a small-bore high-pressure cannon. The Aasen, be-
sides opening the series of light trench-mortars, introduced the
principle, opposite to that of the Krupp, of low pressure.
The history of trench-mortars in the World War is a record,
first of a continually increasing demand which the supply au-
thorities in the various belligerent countries could not meet;
then of a period, coinciding with the full development of position-
warfare methods of tactics, in which well-designed weapons with
ample ammunition supply played an increasingly important
part; and lastly of a period in which, under pressure of new
tactical needs, the " trench " mortar strives to become a gun of
774
TRENCH ORDNANCE
" accompaniment." The tactical employment of trench ordnance,
whether in its designed r61e or as accompanying artillery, is dealt
with under ARTILLERY: the present article is concerned with the
weapons themselves.
The German trench-mortars handled not by artillerymen
but by engineers in their capacity as the technicians of the siege
trenches were used with great effect in the attack of certain
of the Liege forts, and a little later at Maubeuge and Antwerp.
In this they were carrying out the special duties for which they
were designed, and at that stage of the war it was not foreseen
that weapons of this class would be required for the equipment
of a trench-front hundreds of miles in length. Consequently
very few were available when the western front became stabilized,
and the demand was made simultaneously from all quarters for
some short-range trench weapon capable of curved fire, by which
alone the covered enemy could be attacked from covered posi-
tions. For the time being, it was impossible for any belligerent
to do more than provide stop-gaps in the form either of mechani-
cal throwers (see BOMBTHROWERS) or small mortars mounted on
wooden beds, which were in fact either artillery shell sawn off at
the neck and bored with a vent or clsecohorn and other mortars
of the smooth-bore era, unearthed from arsenals or museums.
But while the troops made shift with these, inventors and de-
signers were producing experimental models which, when ap-
proved, were brought out in enormous numbers, with little
difficulty from the point of view of manufacture since the designs
were deliberately kept simple so as to be serviceable in the rough-
est conditions.
Setting aside, for the present, direct-fire trench-guns, of which
various types came into use for combating machine-gun cm-
placements, and, later, tanks trench ordnance for curved fire
is classified either according to weight, as light, medium or
heavy, or according to the principle of design, as high-pressure
or low-pressure. The latter basis of classification is taken here;
and it is desirable at once to indicate the specific differences
which mark off trench ordnance from normal artillery weapons,
applying equally to high-pressure and to low-pressure types.
The most important difference is in range. Although by the
end of the World War some remarkable results had been ob-
tained by progressive experiments in the direction of increased
range, the trench-mortar remained essentially a weapon of less
than 2,000 yd. effective range. In the earlier models save a
few the limit was about 500 yd., while many were incapable of
exceeding 250. Even this last range sufficed in some cases, owing
to the short distances separating the opposed front lines, and
during the period of position-warfare most of the work of light
and medium trench-mortars was done at ranges of 400 to 600
yards. The main motive for increasing range was not the desire
to reach a more distant target from the front line, but the desire
to emplace the trench-mortar at such a distance behind one's
own front-line troops that premature explosions specially liable
to occur with improvised ordnance t and ammunition would not
affect them. An almost equally cogent motive was the desire to
avoid drawing the enemy's reprisal-fire, time after time, upon
the same body of friendly infantry. Another motive was the
desirability of withdrawing the trench-mortar itself from the
effects of fire directed upon the front line, and preventing too
close observation of its position by the enemy.
The next point is weight. For use in or near the front trenches
the trench-mortar must be portable, either as a single unit (as
in the case of light mortars) or in parts which severally do not
exceed certain limits fixed by experience, either in point of weight
or in point of dimensions. For the heavier trench-mortars, having
greater range, the limits imposed on those which have to be
taken close up to the front line are somewhat relaxed; indeed,
the very heaviest, used only in very favourable conditions, is de-
signed for a concrete bed and light-railway transport.
A third point is simplicity, or better, in the French phrase,
" rusticity." The trench-mortar is by hypothesis subjected to
the worst conditions of exposure and handling. From birth it
lacks the mechanical finish of standard artillery; it is required
in great numbers at a time when all engineering shops for high-
class ordnance works are fully occupied and take the pick of the
available metal. Then, on service, it is handled in the main by a
hastily trained personnel, not all of whom possess the gunner's
respect for his gun or the mechanic's pride in his machine. More-
over, the medium and heavy models are in most cases taken
down and assembled frequently, and the parts are transported
by hand through winding, muddy trenches, or across broken
country in the dark. Save perhaps a detachable sight (which is
carried by a non-commissioned officer or gunlayer), none of the
customary adjuncts of modern ordnance is admissible.
Lastly, the ammunition, even of rifled trench-mortars, differs
considerably from that of standard artillery. In most cases itsi
design is special to the particular design of mortar, and there is
no intcrchangcability such as that of 6-in. gun and howitzer
ammunition. But in all cases, not being exposed to the bore
pressures which standard artillery ammunition must endure, it
has much thinner walls and a far greater explosive content.
These specific differences will be best realized by comparing a
standard heavy trench-mortar with a heavy howitzer of the
ordinary kind. The trench-mortar here taken is the Batignolle;
24-mm. used by the French, British and Italian armies; the;
howitzer the German 2i-cm., 1910 model, with a somewhat thick-i
walled shell.
Trench-mortar
Howitzer .
Shell
kgm.
89
Weight
of gun
exclu-
sive of
mount-
ing
kgm.
220
2,625
Pro-
pellant
Charge
Sinn.
720
3.200
Burst-
ing
Charge
kgm.
45
%of
Burst-
er to
weight
of
filled
shell
o
/o
56
9'7
Range
in
Metres
1,040
9,100
Here the trench-mortar shows roughly one-fifth the propel-
lant charge and one-ninth the range, but one-twelfth the weight
of gun and six times the shell "efficiency" of the howitzer.
All trench-mortars fire at super-angles; that is, they use eleva-
tions of about 47 for their longest range and highest elevations
up to 75 or more for the shorter ranges. This enables them to be
used from deep and narrow trenches.
The design may now be considered under the three headings of
high-pressure smooth-bore, low-pressure smooth-bore, and rilled.
I. High-Pressure Smooth-Bore Trench- Mortars.
The prototype is the Krupp bomb-gun of 1912. This, and all
the types presently to be described have " stick-bombs." The
stick-bomb is a large-bodied explosive container sometimes spheri-
cal ("football " bomb), as in the case of the Krupp and the British
2-in. T.M., sometimes formed; to overcome air resistance, as in the
Dume'zil types. In either case, attached to the base of the pro-
jectile is a rod which fits closely into the bore of the mortar like
the rod of a rifle-grenade and^ may or may not be fitted with a
gas-check disc at its end. The gun itself is either a solidly forged
small cannon or a long stout tube, trunnioned at its breech end, and
its mounting is supported on a wooden bed. It is fired either by
friction tube or percussion lock like an ordinary piece of ordnance,
or by the primitive device of lighting a length of match placed in a
vent or touchhole. As the base or gas-check of the rod is in con-
tact with the bag containing the propellant charge, the pressures
developed in the bore are comparable to those in a regular howitzer,
and it is necessary not only for the gun to be stout but for the seat-
ing of the rod in the bomb base to be solid and cup-shaped, lest (as
sometimes happened) the shock of discharge should drive the rod
into the bomb before the inertia of the latter has been overcome.
All stick-bombs, owing to the air-drag of the stick, and in the Duin<5-
zils and some others to the steadying effect of external vanes, fly
nose first, and can be used with ordinary percussion or instantaneous
fuzes provided the arming resistance of these is adjusted. Of this
class, the most widely used was the Dumdzil; designed by General
Dum6zil, in substantially its final form, as early as June 1915, and
subsequently used by the French, Italian, Russian (in a modified
form) and American armies, though declined by the British. The
" Dume'zil No. 2," here described was the standard medium trench-
mortar of the French army throughout the last three years of the
war. It is simple and easily transported and assembled by unskilled
personnel.
The mortar (fig. l) is a stout cannon of forged steel (i) with
simple vent-firing and rear trunnions. The maximum pressure with
the heaviest bomb is 16 tons to the sq. in. The trunnions (2) are
massive and bored through transversely to take a carrying bar or
TRENCH ORDNANCE
775
axle. It rests, when assembled for firing, in trunnion seatings
formed in the inner parts of two cheek-pieces (4), which are heavy
castings with accurately fitting inner faces. The foreparts of these
are moulded upward to form elevating arcs forming a collar (3) on
FIG. I
the gun slide, the gun being secured at the desired angle of eleva-
tion by screwing home the clamping screws. The cheeks (4) carry-
ing the gun rest in a trough (5), attached to the back of which is a
curved plate. This curved plate butts against a similar curved
plate (10), which is jammed firmly against the back wall of the
trench or emplacement. The mortar can thus be laid for direction
by sliding the back-plate of the trough (5) along this back-plate (10).
The bed, in which the system rests
without being attached, consists of
three planks (8, 8, 9). The system
may be moved without being taken
down, by means of wooden truck wheels
attached to the axle (6) which is passed
through to the sides of the trough, the
cheeks and the bored trunnion. These
accessories were, however, not much
used in practice, as only 4 to 5 min-
utes are required to bring up and re-
assemble parts in a new position, ya-
rious methods of indirect laying for line
were employed, as well as direct lay-
ing by periscope (excluding axle and
wheels). The weights of the various
parts are as follows: mortar, trun-
nions and elevating collar 165 ib. ; two
cheek pieces, 1435 Ib. each ; trough 132
Ib. ; wall back-plate 1 06 Ib.; three
planks 128 Ib. Total weight in action
818 Ib.
The stick-bombs vary in weight from
35 Ib. (burster 13! Ib.) 1099 Ib. (bur-
ster 50! Ib.). The earlier types, as in
the 99-lb. bomb of fig. 2, had three
vanes; later, as in the 4O-lb. bomb of
fig. 3, six were fitted. Some types had
considerably more elongated bodies
than those illustrated. With a charge
of 4 oz., the 35-lb. bomb ranges to
715 yd. at an angle of elevation of 45,
the muzzle velocity being 263 f.s., and
nth a charge of 4! oz. a 68-lb. bomb, m.v. 220 f.s., ranges at the
ame angle of elevation to 490 yards. (C. F. A.)
II. Low-Pressure Smooth-Bore Trench-Mortars.
Trench-mortars of this class are characterized by the fact that
he pressure of the propellant gas is reduced by being allowed to
xpand into an " expansion chamber " of one form or another before
eginning to take effect on the projectile. This device enables a
hm-walled gun-tube to be used (instead of a true cannon such as
he Dumezil above described) with considerable saving of weight.
n some types, the firing of the charge was arranged to take place
FIG. 2
in a separate chamber which communicated by a channel with
the expansion chamber, i.e. the breech portion of the gun-tube in
which the projectile is seated. Such were the Aasen, the Sutton-
Armstrong, which was employed as a naval " bombthrower " (see
ORDNANCE: section Naval), and the Temple. The last-named was
distinguished by possessing a silencer attachment, which was con-
sidered by some authorities as a desirable addition in the period of
short ranges and very advanced emplacements.
Of more importance in the history of
the World War are those types in which
the strong-walled "combustion chamber"
does not form a separate component, but
is included either in the base of the gun-
tube (as in the Batignolles type) or the
base of the shell (as in the Stokes). In
both of these, the " expansion chamber "
is formed automatically by the fact that
only certain projections from the shell-
base, and not the base itself, rest on the
bottom of the bore or chamber-shoulders
when in the loaded position.
The principal representatives of the
class are the French Batignolles heavy
trench-mortar, used also by the British,
Italians and Americans, and copied, with
modifications, in certain German patterns,
and the British light Stokes mortar, which,
with its derivative the medium Stokes-
Newtpn, were used by the British and
American armies. The Stokes Mortar, in-
vented by Sir Wilfred Stokes early in 1915,
was considerably improved in the course
of the war as the result of experience with
the weapon itself and with trench-mortars
generally. It was first used in battle at
Loos, Sept. 25 1915, when a few 4-in.
tubes on bipod mountings, with straw-
board-bodied shell, improvised at short
notice, were employed for firing smoke
FIG. 3
shell; but by the battle of the Spmme (July I 1916) both 3-in. and
4-in. mortars (the latter specialized for gas and smoke projectiles)
had been issued in large numbers. Thereafter, to the last phase of
the war, in which its lightness enabled it to do useful service as an
" accompanying " piece, it satisfied all expectations. Each British
infantry brigade of 4 or 3 battalions included a battery of 3-in.
Stokes. Their principal characteristic was automatic ignition.
Although it is believed that the first record of automatic ignition
in trench-mortars, where the projectile carried its own propelling
charge and igniter attached to the base of the bomb, existed in an
early patent taken out in Germany by Messrs. Krupp, no practical
use seems to have been made of this, and the first application of the
theory of dropping a bomb of this nature down the bore of a mor-
tar, so as to fire the charge and eject the bomb upon impact with
the base, was that put forward by Sir Wilfred Stokes. The bomb in
its first service form (fig. 4) had a container screwed on to the base,
and this took a 12-bore sporting cartridge, the percussion cap of
which, after the bomb had slid rapidly down the bore, impinged
upon a striker fixed in the base of the mortar. In the 6-in. medium
mortar (Stokes-Newton), developed later in
the war, the principle of the fixed striker was
adhered to, but both the mounting and the
projectile differed entirely in design.
The barrel of the 3-in. Stokes mortar (fig.
5) consists of a light seamless steel tube (A)
drawn down at the base end, which is bumped
into a semicircular form having a slight projec-
tion in the centre of the axis of the bore. This
projection is drilled and threaded to take the
striker (H), which, when screwed home, projects
into the bore ; the size of the combustion cham-
ber is regulated by the extent to which the
striker protrudes into the barrel or bore of the
mortar. A cap (G) is screwed over the out-
side of the projection to take the set-back of
firing. This cap, which is made of steel, rests
in a small depression in the base-plate (C),
which is fixed in the ground approximately fac-
ing the objective, and at a convenient angle,
and has several such depressions placed in an
arc to provide for changes of direction. The thin tube or barrel
of the mortar has a smooth bore ; it is supported above the centre
of gravity by a pair of folding legs (B), between the apex of which
(when open) and the barrel are the elevating and traverse gears, the
latter being attached to the barrel by means of a steel band (see
There is no attempt to take up or absorb mechanically the set-
back on firing, or the recoil, as the low combustion pressure renders
this unnecessary at the ranges used.
As already noted, the 3-in. Stokes was in the British service set
apart for the firing of high-explosive bombs (although smoke-pro-
TRENCH ORDNANCE
ducing bombs were added later), while the 4-in. mortar was reserved
for gas, smoke and incendiary projectiles. The weight of the 3-in.
bomb was given at 10 lb., and of the 4-in. at 25 pounds. The design
of the mortar, as between the two types, was only varied in so far
as the difference in size rendered this necessary, and the same is
substantially true of the design of the bomb. Steel is used in the
3-in. and both steel and cast iron bodies in the 4-inch.
PNMt
The first service patterns of bomb, and all subsequent ones up
to the introduction of the vaned bomb in the last days of the war,
have a cylindrical body, which is provided with 2 bands or " guides "
as far apart as the wall of the bomb permits, preferably one at each
end of this (fig. 7). The object of these guides is to ensure that the
percussion cap falls accurately upon the striker after the bomb has
travelled down the inside of barrel. The guides also eliminate fric-
tion during the descent of the bomb; windage has to be allowed for
(i.e. sufficient space to permit the air compressed by the bomb in
Penscope screw
Strap
Strap nut
Traversing screw
Nut of elevating
screw
Yoke
Large bevel-
Gear cover
Trunnion standar
Set pins
Linchpin Traversing
handle
Gear cover set screw
Small bevel
Bevel pin
Elevating handle
its descent to escape between the guides and the wall of the barrel).
The windage provides an escape for the surplus air and ensures that
the acceleration due to gravitation will drive the percussion cap with
sufficient force on to the striker to cause ignition. In the 3-in. and
4-in. service designs the working chamber pressure is limited to
2 tons per square inch. At this pressure a range of 1,250 yd. is
obtainable with the cylindrical bomb, when using the full propelling
charge. This charge is obtained by placing rings of cordite round
the exterior of the cartridge container, the container being per-
forated with a number of small holes, through which the gas fro
the cartridge escapes into the chamber, thus igniting the cordi 1
rings in passing.
The steel bomb is made up of ordinary commercial lap-welde
steel tubing, cut to the desired length, and of the forged steel hea
and base which carry the guides and the cartridge container.
As this mortar is not rifled, the bombs (except in the vaned pa
terns developed later) turn over and over in flight. If then, a burj
or impact is desired, fuzes of the ordinary type which require nos>
first impact will not serve. A type of fuze was, however, designe<
known as the Aflways fuze (see AMMUNITION: section Fuzes), \vhic
operates whatever the direction of fall. When time fuzes are required
either for air burst or for delay-action after impact, or because d
Allways fuze is available (as was the case for a considerable perid
in the war), the arrangement most commonly adopted is that see
in fig. 7, viz. a " pistol," which is practically identical with tl]
ignition device of the Mills grenade (see GRENADE). The control c
the bomber's hand over the lever is here replaced by that of a pil
which secures it till the moment of discharge, when the pin get
back and the lever is free to fly up.
Bombs with vanes have been designed
to obtain greater range and accuracy. As
these fly straight, head on, air resistance is
diminished. These bombs are stream-lined
as far as is possible, while allowing for the
guides to be sufficiently far apart for accu-
racy in impinging upon the striker. An addi-
tional margin of inaccuracy in descent down
the bore of the mortar is provided for by
fitting a cap which holds the needle point
over the end of the cartridge, so that, no
matter where this hits the striker, the
needle will ignite the percussion cap. Safe-
ty against accidental dropping is provided
by designing the vanes to extend slightly
beyond this cover. With vaned bombs, of
course, normal types of fuze can be used.
Generally speaking, high-explosive, smoke
and gas bombs are all designed to explode
upon impact, while incendiary bombs are
designed to function in the air as nearly over
the objective as possible.
The Stokes-Newton 6-in, T.M. is similar,
so far as the barrel is concerned, to the
Stokes 3-in. and 4-in. A much stronger
bedplate, however, is required owing to the
increased weight of the projectile and the
greater range, and the mounting is quite
unlike that of the smaller weapons. Both
direction and stability are obtained by
means of lugs set radially round the outside
of barrel, about midway, and attached to
rings in the bedplate. These lugs can be
FIG. 7
1111^3 III Lilt L/l.VJLJlctll~ A MW lll^.i l^ull lyv.
lengthened or shortened by means of turnbucklcs in the centre, I lin
obtaining elevation or depression and traverse at the same I inn
This method is slower than that used in the 3-in. and 4-in., but ha
the advantage of tying the mortar well down to the bedplate ;m<
ensuring stability. A somewhat similar device, providing for eld
vation only, is found in certain German and Russian trench-mortars
The projectile of the Stokes-Newton is similar to the cast-iro:
vaned bomb of the smaller weapons. It has steel vanes whli
placed in the mould and become part of the casting. The propellin
charge is guncotton, and this is ignited by a shortened service rill
cartridge, instead of the 12-bore cartridge which is used in th
Stokes cylindrical bomb. This bomb is an adaptation of that o
the French 24O-mm. described below.
The Batignolles 24O-mm. (p-45-tn.) Heavy T.M. is perhaps th
most elaborate of those trench-mortars which stood the test of war
It was brought out in 1915 by the Batignolles Company of Paris
and first used in a great battle in the Champagne offensive o
Sept. 25 1915. The model described is the earlier trench
Later, the piece was lengthened and provided with less primiii\
firing arrangements. The model finally adopted in 1916 by th
British War Office as the standard heavy trench-mortar also ha(
different firing arrangements and a periscopic dial-sight.
The 240 court de trancltee, as this model is officially styled, con
sists of four main parts, the piece, the carriage, the baseplate, am
the platform (fig. 8). The piece consists of two sections screwec
together; the lower section, which has very thick walls, contains thi
chamber proper, in which the propellant charge is housed, and (u
this model) an aerial vent to take the 12-secs. length of Bickfon
fuze which communicates the flame from the gunner's port I ;
the powder primer of the charge. The upper or front end of th(
chamber is not " choked " but on the contrary opened out so a
to impede the rush of gas into the broader " expansion chain
or lower part of the thin-walled tube. This thin-walled tub"
tains the vaned bomb (fig. 9), which unlike those previous;
scribed in connexion with the Dumczil trench-mortar, has its foui
vanes exactly in prolongation of the body. This arrangemn
only enables the whole of the projectile to enter the bore, but ensure:
TRENCH ORDNANCE
777
the maintenance of a free expansion chamber as the tips of the vanes,
and not the base of the bomb, rest on the curved shoulders of the
chamber proper. The bomb is of steel, thin-walled, and its body is
built up from three pieces by autogenous welding, the cruciform
vanes being secured to the body in the same way after being riveted
Fia.'S
to each other. A delay-action fuze only is used. With this, the pow-
erful bomb, weighing 192 lb., of which 101 Ib. are high explosives,
will demolish thirty linear feet of trench work, break down all but
heavily protected dugouts, and make a crater in compact clayey
earth 10 ft. deep and 30 ft. across.
The piece is rear-trunnioned, the trunnions
being firmly held in their seatings in the base of
,the carriage by a locking device. The carriage
'consists oT a bottom-plate which contains the
pivot-seating and the trunnion-seatings, and two
side-brackets which are formed at their top edges
as arcs for giving elevation. These arcs are
,toothed, and into them gear small pinions on a
^cross-shaft secured to a collar on the piece. Be-
, low this cross-shaft, and similarly secured to the
:ollar, is another cross-shaft, the ends of which
,;ngage in slots in the side brackets of the car-
jriage and carry the clamping arrangements by
.vliich the piece is secured rigidly to the car-
'iage when the arc-and-pinion gear have brought
j t to the desired elevation. The elevation limits
ire 54 (with certain precautions 45) for maxi-
num range, 75 for minimum. On its underside
he bottom-plate of the carriage has an ingen-
ous arrangement of locking sectors which, when
he carriage is placed over the pivot on the
.>aseplate_ and given a partial turn, engage in a
!ocking-ring on the face of the baseplate. (The
ing originally admitted of all-round traverse,
.mt this was later restricted to one of 18 each
ide of the mid-line, so as to avoid slantwise strain
n the platform.) The baseplate is almost square
nd has on its upper side the locking-ring and
livot above mentioned. From its underside six
ertical flanges project downwards. The plat-
jrm is made up of five heavy square baulks,
on-shod and fitted with distance pieces so that,
s they lie in position in the shallow, levelled ia. 9
it, the four inner flanges of the baseplate can
nter between them, while the two outer flanges fit oyer the
uter baulks. Latches on both ends of each baulk engage with pro-
acting tongues on the baseplate. Thus baseplate and baulks
Jgether form a steady unit in firing. The unit is further steadied
gainst the horizontal component of the thrust by being wedged,
ack and front, against end-boards placed against the walls of the
. The piece is laid for direction by an auxiliary aiming point,
ny suitable dial-sight being adaptable to the mounting-means of
ne or another form of dial-sight, a clamp on the bottom-plate of
ie carriage binding the latter in the desired position of traverse.
All the parts are equipped with sockets for lighting-handspikes,
except the piece itself which is carried by two staves passed through
the two parts of carrying rings seen in the drawing. But movement
in the trenches is as a rule by means of iron barrows pushed by hand.
One barrow takes the mortar upright, another the carriage, a third
the baseplate and accessories, while the baulks and end-boards are
, carried by hand.
The weights of the short 24O-mm. are as follows : mortar 485 lb.,
carriage 425 lb., baseplate 510 lb., platform baulks 132 lb. each.
Total weight in action (exclusive of wedges, steadying pickets, etc.)
2,080 lb. The loaded weight of the heaviest barrow (baseplate, etc.)
i is 943 lb. The maximum range of the ig2-lb. bomb with a propellant
charge of I lb. 9! oz., is 1,125 yd. at 45 elevation and 1,045 at
553o'. The maximum pressure in the bore is slightly less than
I ton per sq. in. (150 kgm. per sq. cm.). The lengthened 24O-mm.
(breech-loading and percussion-fired) ranged with a 179-lb. bomb to
2,265 yd. (m.v. 476 f.s., maximum pressure 3,700 lb. per sq. in.),
I using a charge of 2 lb. 13 oz., but it required a heavier and more
< elaborate platform. A still more powerful weapon of the same
class was the 34O-mm. (i3'4-in.), which required a concrete bed and
a light-railway track for supply. This carried a 43O-lb. shell (high
explosive burster 205* lb.) to a distance of 2,250 yards.
Pneumatic guns, as possessing a high-pressure reservoir and a low-
pressure gun chamber, should also be included amongst the low-
pressure class of trench ordnance. Owing to their silence and invisi-
bility in action, they possessed marked advantages over the earlier
forms of trench-mortar using explosive propellants. But their low
power, their complication and liability to get out of order, and as
regards some models, their entire dependence on a special form of
supply (air or carbon-dioxide bottles) disappointed expectation ;
and of many ingenious designs put forward in the different belliger-
ent countries, one only was consistently employed in the field. This
was the French Brandt, classed as a light trench-mortar, which
could obtain its pressure either from a bottle or from a motor-car
pump. Its first model, which had a tripod mounting, weighed 48^
lb. for the gun, 35^ lb. for the tripod, and 705 lb. for the box of
accessories and pumps. A later model, firing to a fixed angle only,
was much lighter. It threw a li-lb. bomb, or rather grenade, very
accurately to a distance of 250 yd. but, although much greater
ranges were obtainable, the accuracy fell off rapidly beyond that
figure. (C. F. A.)
III. Rifled Trench-Mortars.
The Germans were the first to produce an officially designed
model of trench-mortar (Minenwerfer) , and these weapons were
used in the earliest sieges of the war. Although this gave German
designers a long start in the competition, it did not save the German
army from passing through the same phase of crude improvisations,
which the French and British armies had to traverse. Bored-out
shell mounted on blocks, old bronze siege mortars, experimental
pneumatic mortars, and various smooth-bore types all figured in
the armament of the German trenches for the first years of the war,
and it is not till 1916 that the standard types are found in very large
numbers. Thereafter, with the sole exception of a minenwerfer
copied in principle from the Batignolles 24O-mm., the standard
types alone were used for general battle and trench service. The
older types, so far as they survived, were practically reserved for
throwing gas-bombs and other special projectiles. All the standard
types of light, medium and heavy minenwerfer are rifled, and are
derived from the pre-war service weapon. Modifications during
the war were few, and did not affect the main elements of the design.
They were principally two the lengthening of the barrel in all
three classes, and the adaptation of the light type to a direct-fire
carriage, which enabled it to be used with conspicuous success as an
" accompanying gun_" in the semi-open warfare of 1918. The models
selected for description here are the original model of " medium,"
the new or 1916 model of " heavy " and the light type with and with-
out direct-fire carriage. Rifled trench-mortars were not used in any
of the Entente armies.
The characteristic of the German rifled trench-mortar in all forms
is that, unlike the stick-bomb weapons and the low-pressure
weapons which are radical departures from ordinary artillery prac-
tice, they are designed essentially as siege howitzers of reduced
weight and power. Recoil-gear is provided, but of a simpler kind
than the intricate combinations of elements necessary in a howitzer
of high velocity and recoil energy; similarly, to ease the strain of dis-
charge, by reducing the power necessary to propel the projectile,
the driving band of the shell is " engraved " in advance. But the
arrangement of piece, cradle and buffer, and the form of the shell,
is in accordance with the conventional artillery practice.
The "old" model medium trench-mortar (fig. 10) is a short, thin-
walled howitzer of 17-cm. (6-6g-in.) calibre, rifled with 6 shallow
grooves of uniform twist, I turn in 265 calibres. The length of the
rifling is 3-3 calibres. It is muzzle-loading and has percussion-firing
gear placed axially on the breech. It is mounted in a ring-cradle
which carries, above and below, a combined buffer and spring
recuperator of simple type. The piece slides back and forth in the
cradle and has the pistons attached to horns above and below the
breech. The cradle is centre-trunnioned and the trunnions rest in
seatings in a top-carriage of the usual form. The left trunnion car-
778
TRENCH ORDNANCE
ties an elevating arc actuated by a worm-shaft and handwheel on
the carriage. This trunnion also carries a panoramic sight (not
shown in the illustration), mounted so as to slide on an arc which
renders its position independent of the gun elevation. The base-
plate, which is of steel, has longitudinal and transverse spades
or flanges to enable the mounting firmly to be bedded on the ground.
In the forepart, the baseplate has a vertical pivot and in the rear
part an arc, which enables the top carriage to be traversed 12}
either way from the centre line by means of the handwheel seen in
the illustration. As in all German rifled trench-mortars care is taken
to house in gearing and mechanism so as to keep out mud and dirt.
The weight of the whole system in action is 1 ,064 Ib. and the maxi-
mum range, with a log-lb. shell (burster 241 Ib.), is 980 yards. For
transport, wooden wheels are fitted to axles on the bedplate and a
handspike with a socket formed at the back of the same. The
"new" model of medium minenwerfer is slightly longer (3-8 cali-
bres rifled length), weighs 1,232 Ib. in action, and ranges to 1,250
yd. with the same shell.
The heavy minenwerfer, new model, shown in fig. II, is similar in al
essentials of design to the above, but like other new models longei
than the original model of its class. The details, such as the sighi
and the traversing gear seen in the illustration, and the elevating
gear, etc., seen in fig. 10, are common to old and new models of medi
um and heavy. The new model heavy has a calibre of 245 nun
in.) and has a rifled length of 4-54 calibres. It weighs in action 1,69^
Ib. and with a 2lo-lb. shell (lO3-lb. burster) ranges to 990 yards
The old model has a rifled length of 3-1 calibres and weighs ii
action 1,362 Ib. ; with the above shell it ranges to 612 yd. only.
In the light minenwerfer, 7-6-cm. (2-9-in.) calibre, of which th<
" new " model is shown in fig. 12 and the direct-fire carriage in tig
13, the piece, buffer and recuperator system and bedplate are similai
in general to those of the medium and heavy types. But the top--
' carriage design is entirely different. The ring-cradle (which carrir;
the buffer system as in the other types) is continued on each side
to form arms which at their extremities are traversed by an axh ,
or through trunnion-bar, a few inches above the baseplate level.
This bar rests in seatings in a very small intermediate carriage
which traverses (through a circle) round a pivot in the bedplate.
In the forepart of this intermediate carriage is another cross-axle'
which at its middle is formed as a socket, taking the foot of a stout,
elevating screw. This elevating screw (which is cased in leather to,
protect it from dirt) is clearly seen in fig. 13. It supports the weight
of the cradle and piece, to which it is jointed, and elevation is
by screwing up or down.
The weight in action of this model is 312 Ib., the rifled length of
bore 5-2 calibres, and the high-explosive shell weighs only 9 Ib.,
and, comparing these proportions to those of the heavy and medium!
shell, it is not surprising to find that it ranges to 1 ,422 yards. The
" old " model was somewhat shorter and lighter, and ranged to|
1,150 yd. with the g-lb. shell.
The light minenwerfer, which is also known as the " Ehrhanh.
was a very successful weapon, and every German infantry bad
had by 1917 a " light minenwerfer section," consisting of 4 ol " i '
pieces and a number of the " granatwerfer " described under BOMI;
THROWERS.
In 1918, in preparation for the expected resumption of " open "
warfare, the Germans on the western front adapted the light tninrn-
werfer for service as a direct-fire short-range gun of accompaniment
for use against undisclosed machine-gun nests and other defem
that might be met with in the course of a deep advance. For this
purpose the bedplate, already provided with axles, was fitted with
higher (29-in.) wheels, and a trail with trail spade was bolted to tl:<
small intermediate carriage described above. This trail is pecu-
liarly arranged in the forepart. The cross-axle, or through trunnion-
bar, which, in the trench-service mounting, connects the ends of the
cradle arms to the intermediate carriage, is, in the direct-fire mount-
ing, connected to a framework in the trail which can be raised or
lowered, thus enabling the cradle and mortar, always supported
in front by the elevating screw, to assume either the horizontal or
slightly elevated position with trunnion-bar high, or the quasi-vertical
loading position (shown by dotted lines) with the trunnion-bar low.
The motion of the framework in question is about a transverse
axis contained in the trail and is controlled by a shifting level.
TREVELYAN TRIPOLI
779
Traversing is still about the piyot in the bedplate, and is managed
by moving the point of the trail (by means of a small lever) along
the broad arc-shaped spade member. The limits of this traverse,
viz. with spade bedded, are 11-8 either way from the middle-line.
The maximum range with the 9-lb. shell in the direct-fire position
high-trunnioned (elevation 38) is 995 yd., but all angles between 34
and 75 may be obtained by transferring the trunnion-bar to the
Loading position
Rear sieht leaf
Shifting lever Loading position
Fiat trajectory
fire position
Large traversing Small traversing
handspike
Trail spade
low position and proceeding as its high-angle platform fire. Both
platform-fire and fire from wheels is possible in the high and low
positions alike. In movement, the system is either man-drawn or
limbered up to a two-wheeled cart drawn by one horse.
IV. Direct- Fire Trench Ordnance
In spite of the great defensive powers revealed by the machine-
gun in trench warfare, certain local-defence needs made themselves
felt in that type of warfare which the machine-gun of rifle calibre
could not satisfy. In consequence, a variety of trench-guns were
designed or adapted for emplacing as "forward" guns, or " infan-
try " guns. It cannot be said that this class of trench ordnance
possesses any generic characters. A few were specially designed
but the majority were field or small naval guns cut down and
mounted on low carriages. Captured guns were frequently adapted
for this service, when a large enough supply of ammunition and
pieces was available, and also hooded quick-firing guns of the 57-mm.
class taken from fortress armaments, in which formerly they had
figured largely as a standard close-defence armament. Later on,
these forward guns were sometimes made mobile again for use as
guns of accompaniment. None of these converted types, however,
need be dealt with here, and it will suffice to mention more particu-
larly the 37-mm. gun (of French origin, but used also by other
armies), not so much because it is representative of a class which
is too miscellaneous for any member of it to be regarded as such
as because it was used on a large scale in the war. It is a direct-fire
quick-firing weapon, short in barrel length, mounted on a low-
wheeled carriage and provided, as is a field gun, with a shield.
It was laid over open sights and fired small, high-explosive shells
with percussion fuzes similar to those of the " pompom," which
were effective against machine-guns, etc., under light cover. The
dimensions and weights of the Russian model of the 37-mm. (which
is provided with the recoil-absorbing rubber discs commonly found
in Russian designs) are as follows: calibre 37 mm.; weight of the
system in action 396 Ib. ; of the gun, breech and lock alone 86 j Ib. ;
and of the pointed shell with base-fuze and burster i-l Ib. ; m.v.
1,450 f.s. ; max. range on the sights 3,500 yards.
In their later evolution, many of these miscellaneous trench-guns
became anti-tank guns. (C. F. A.)
TREVELYAN, SIR GEORGE OTTO, 2ND BART. (1838- ),
English author and statesman (see 27.255), who received Ihe
O.M. in 1911, published in 1912 the first volume of his work
George III, and Charles Fox, and the second in 1914.
His eldest son, CHARLES PHILIPS TREVELYAN (b. 1870), re-
signed his post at the Board of Education in 1914 as a protest
against the policy which involved Great Britain in the war.
He lost his seat in Parliament at the general election of 1918.
His third son, GEORGE MACAULAY TREVELYAN (b. 1876),
was during the World War commandant of the first British
ambulance unit on the Italian front, and received in 1915 the
Italian silver medal for valour. He published Garibaldi and the
Making of Italy (1911); Life of John Bright (1913); Clio, a Muse,
and other Essays (1913); Scenes from Italy's War (1919). He
married in 1904 Janet Penrose, elder daughter of Mrs. Hum-
phry Ward. She published in 1920 A Short History of the
Italian People.
TRIPOLI (see 27.288). As the result of the war of 1911-2
between Italy and Turkey, the vilayet of Tripoli, together with
that of Bengazi (Cyrenaica), passed from Ottoman to Italian
rule. The newly acquired territories were jointly styled Libya
Italiana, but Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were organized as dis-
tinct entities with separate administrations and governors.
History. The war of 1911-2 (see ITALO-TURKISH WAR) ended
without any formal acknowledgment of Italian sovereignty by
the Porte. At an early period of the conflict, on Nov. n 1911,
when the Italians held little more than the town of Tripoli, a
royal decree declared that both vilayets were placed " under the
full and complete sovereignty of the kingdom of Italy." This
was a political move, confirmed (in Feb. 1912) by the Italian
Parliament, taken to make plain Italy's intentions to Germany
and Austria, her partners in the Triple Alliance (see AFRICA:
History). When, in view of the situation in the Balkans, the
Turkish Government opened peace negotiations neither Tripoli
nor Cyrenaica had been conquered, and the negotiators came to
an unsatisfactory " face-saving " arrangement. By an agree-
ment signed at Lausanne on Oct. 15 the Ottoman Government
bound itself to issue, within three days, a firman renouncing
Turkish sovereignty; the form used made the Sultan declare " I
concede to you (the inhabitants of Tripoli and Cyrenaica) full
and complete autonomy." But at the same time the Sultan was
to nominate not only an official to protect Ottoman interests
but a religious chief, while the Sultan's name, as Caliph, was to
continue to be pronounced in public prayer by the Moslems.
The formal treaty of peace signed at Lausanne three days later
(Oct. 18 1912) made no mention of the Italian annexation, but
provided for the evacuation of the vilayets by Turkey. France
was the first Power formally to recognize the new position created ;
by a declaration signed at Paris on Oct. 28 the two Governments
agreed not to put any obstacles in the way of measures which
they should judge opportune in Libya and Morocco respectively.
This was in fulfilment of a Franco-Italian agreement reached in
1902, an agreement in which Great Britain acquiesced.
In Tripolitania the article of the Treaty of Lausanne requiring
the immediate recall of the Turkish troops was carried out.
Neshat Pasha and his force of 2,500 regulars embarked for
Constantinople, while the garrisons in the interior, largely com-
posed of natives (Arabs and Berbers), disbanded, or joined the
Turks and Senussites in Cyrenaica. The Italians then took in
hand the pacification of the interior. The tribes of the Jefera
(coast zone) submitted with little difficulty, but there was stout
opposition from the Berbers of the adjacent hill region. Suleiman
'el Baruni, the powerful Berber chief of the Jebel Nefusa, was the
principal opponent of the Italians. He had represented Tripoli
in the Turkish Parliament, had been created a pasha, was an
ardent supporter of the Pan-Islamic movement, and now set up
a kingdom in the hills. After having maintained his independ-
ence for the greater part of 1913 Suleiman was beaten. He fled
to Europe to reappear at a more convenient season. The
occupation of the rest of the province by the Italians presented
little difficulty. Murzuk, the capital of Fezzan, was entered
unopposed on March 3 1914 by a column under Col. Miani.
With the occupation of the oasis and town of Ghat by Col.
Giannini on Aug. 12 following, every place of importance in the
province was garrisoned by the Italians. In these operations,
besides battalions from Italy, troops from Eritrea and native
partisans (Arab and Berber) were employed.
Meanwhile, as soon as the coast region had been pacified, the
Italians set to work with great energy to improve harbours,
make roads, build railways, found schools, open hospitals,
organize sanitary and police services and encourage agriculture
and trade. By the middle of 1915, when the work had to be
abandoned temporarily, a good deal had been accomplished.
National feeling had been highly gratified by the acquisition of
what was looked upon as the " natural heritage " of Italy, and
money and men were forthcoming for the task of regeneration.
Many Italians were anxious to settle in the country as agri-
culturists but this movement the administration wisely dis-
couraged. Towards the Arabs and Berbers a policy of trust and
confidence was adopted, a policy which might have succeeded
but for the situation in Cyrenaica. In that province the Treaty of
Lausanne had not brought about peace, and Turkish troops aided
780
TRIPOLI
the Senussites to continue the conflict (see SENUSSI). At the
beginning of 1914 the Italians held in Cyrenaica only a strip
along the coast. The Senussites were masters in the interior,
and thus in a position powerfully to influence the tribes of Tri-
politania. Many of the Fezzani were of the Senussi fraternity.
Such was the position when in Aug. 1914 the World War
began, Italy however at that time remaining neutral. Towards
the end of the next month (Sept. 1914) the Fezzani instigated
by emissaries from the Senussi Sheikh suddenly rose in revolt
and attacked several small garrisons between Murzuk and the
coast. By the end of Nov. the rising had assumed large propor-
tion. The Italian Government then ordered that Fezzan should
be evacuated, and Col. Miani and his troops fought their way
back to the coast. As soon as the Italians had left Murzuk
Mahommed el 'Abid, a brother of the Senussi Sheikh, took over
control there and declared himself governor of Fezzan. Miani's
withdrawal from Fezzan left the Italian garrison at Ghat 600 m.
from the coast isolated, while the garrison of Ghadames, farther
N., was also in danger. Both places adjoined the French frontier,
and at the invitation of the French Government the garrison of
Ghat marched across the desert to Fort Flattere (a distance of
200 m.), while that of Ghadames withdrew into the Tunisian
Sahara. General Tassoni, then governor of Tripoli, whose forces
were increased by 6,500 fresh troops, directed the reoccupation of
both oases. After hard fighting Col. Giannini retook Ghat on
Feb. 18 1915, and shortly afterwards Ghadames was also re-
garrisoned. But on the eastern side of Tripoli fortune went
against the Italians. In an engagement with the rebels between
Sokna and the coast on April 29, the Libyan auxiliaries of the
Italians went over to the enemy on the field of battle, and the
Italian and Eritrean troops were only saved from complete dis-
aster by a skilful retreat to the coast. Turkish, German and
Senussi propaganda was very active throughout Tripolitania,
and the Italian declaration of war upon Austria (May 23 1913)
was the signal for a general rising. In these circumstances the
Italians decided to abandon the interior. The withdrawal of the
garrisons was not effected without serious losses. In June the
troops at 'Aziziya, 40 m. S. of Tripoli city, closely besieged and
having exhausted their food, broke out and attempted to reach
the coast. Nearly all were killed. The last place evacuated was
Ghadames, the garrison on July 19 again crossing into Tunisia.
The only places retained by the Italians were the seaports of
Tripoli and Horns (Khoms). In this month (on July 15) Gen.
Ameglio, governor of Cyrenaica, was also named governor of
Tripoli, for the better conduct of the defensive operations. The
hostile forces which gathered in the neighbourhood of Tripoli
city in the summer of 1915 were beaten back.
The success of the revolt induced the Turkish and German
agents in the country, of whom there were a considerable number,
to endeavour to bring about revolts in Tunisia and Algeria also.
In Algeria they failed, but in the Tunisian Sahara some tribes,
aided by forces from Fezzan led by Turkish officers, attacked the
French outposts. Sharp fighting in Sept. and Oct. 1915 ended in
the reestablishment of order along the frontier by the French
forces. At this time, however, the chief effort of the Turks was
in Cyrenaica, where Sidi Ahmad, the Senussi Sheikh, was induced
to invade Egypt. The only development of note in Tripolitania
until after the defeat of Sidi Ahmad by the British was the
reoccupation of the seaport of Zuara by the Italians in Aug. 1916.
In Sept. 1916 Suleiman el Baruni reappeared. He landed at
Misurata on the 251)1 of that month accompanied by German and
Turkish officers and in possession of a firman from the Sultan,
appointing him governor-general of the vilayets of Tripoli, Tunis
and Algiers. 1 He was joined at Misurata by Ramadhan el Shtewi,
the most powerful local chieftain, an ambitious man who
proved a doubtful ally and whose real aim was independence of
all other parties. He now, however, helped El Baruni, as did
also Nuri Bey. Together they organized a fighting force of 6,000
to 7,000 men, with which all through 1917 El Baruni harassed
the Italians, whom he boasted he would drive into the sea.
1 To soothe his wounded feelings Sidi Ahmad was in Nov. 1916
given by the Turks the title of " Viceroy of Africa."
Though he was defeated in four separate engagements the Italian;
could not follow up their successes. While this fighting was going
on Sidi Ahmad's expulsion from Egypt weakened Senussi pres-
tige in Tripoli, and in the summer of 1917 the pro-Turkish part}
in Fezzan expelled Sidi Ahmad's brother Mahommed el 'Abid
from Fezzan.
Nothwithstanding the failure of El Baruni's efforts against
Tripoli city, the close of 1917 saw the supporters of Turkish
designs apparently masters of the country. In reality, the Arab
and Berber chiefs were split into factions. El Shtewi had estab-
lished a so-called republic of Tripoli and ruled at Misurata; the
Senussi were divided among themselves, and one party of them,
under Sidi Idris, had, as early as April 1917, come to terms with
the Italians and British. The impossibility of getting the tribes
to act together caused Nuri Bey to leave Tripolitania early in
1918. He was succeeded by Ishaq Pasha, who proved a harsh
and unpopular commander. The Turkish Government, however;
still believed that it would be possible to expel the Italians from
Tripoli, and they sent thither Prince Osman Fuad (a grandson)
of Sultan Murad V.). The prince, who arrived at Misurata by
submarine in April 1918, tried to compose the quarrels among
the tribes, but did not succeed. The tribes were as jealous one of
another as were the Highland clans in the " 45," and powerful
chiefs exercised independent authority, El Baruni and El Shtewi
being the most important. They combined on occasion, and on'
occasion quarrelled. Such was the position when the World War
ended in Nov. 1918.
The task of pacifying the country and restoring Italian
authority was more difficult in Tripoli than in Cyrenaica. Sidi
Ahmad had fled and Sidi Idris having consolidated his authority
over the Senussi fraternity, it was possible to make with him air
arrangement which bound the tribes of Cyrenaica. In Tripoli
there were a dozen or more chieftains with whom to deal, and the
Italians were not prepared to undertake extensive military opera-
tions. They extended their direct authority along the coast and
entered into negotiations with El Baruni and the chiefs of otheri
tribes. The result was seen in the issue of a royal decree in June
1919 in which natives of Tripoli were given " complete local
citizenship," and in the creation of an elective assembly to deal
with legislation and direct taxation. The immediately effective
part of the decree was that the country should be governed as
far as possible through native chiefs, to whom were attached
political officers. El Shtewi was the last chief to agree to this
arrangement; he became mutcssarif of Misurata. As token of !
reestablished amity the Italian flag was rehoisted at the ksar 1
of 'Aziziya on June 12 1919. InAug.Sig. Vittorio Menzinger was |
appointed governor of Tripoli to carry out the new policy of!
ruling through a local Parliament, but the chiefs cared little for
such an assembly, being more concerned in consolidating their
own authority. El Shtewi, particularly, gave much trouble, and in
the first half of 1920 he seized and detained for weeks the com-
mander of the troops at Horns and other Italian officers and men.
He aroused the hostility of Ahmad Murad, the chief of the
Tarhuna tribe, and in the fighting which followed the Italians
did not interfere. A new governor, Sig. Luigi Mercatelli, was
sent out in July 1920, and gradually the situation improved.
The complete accord reached in Cyrenaica with the Senussi
(Nov. 1920) had a tranquillizing effect. As marking the period of
calm which then prevailed, the young Crown Prince Humbert
in Sept. 1921 visited Tripoli and Bengazi, receiving assurances
of loyalty from many chiefs.
In Sept. 1919 an agreement was reached with France rectifying
the Tripolitan-Tunisian frontier, which was made to sweep in a
semi-circle from the coast, so as to leave to Tripoli the direct j
routes between Ghat, Ghadames and Tunis. Italy also obtained :
economic concessions in Tunisia and an agreement as to a com-
mon railway policy (see AFRICA: History).
Economic Conditions, etc. The number of inhabitants is
unknown; for Tripolitania and Cyrenaica combined it may reach
4,000,000. Tripoli city had (1920) a pop. of about 73,000, and
Bengazi 35,000. Europeans, mainly Italians and Maltese, num-
ber some 10,000. Most of the country is desert and there are no
TROTSKY, LEV
781
(perennial rivers, but there are numerous fertile oases and grazing
grounds. The chief crop is barley; the date palm, the olive and
the fig tree flourish. There are large supplies of esparto grass, and
saffron and henna are grown. The people possess large numbers
of cattle, sheep and goats, and camels, and there are good possi-
bilities of developing the country's pastoral resources. Salt is the
only mineral exploited. There are valuable sponge " fisheries "
valued roughly at 50,000 yearly.
Both pastoral and agricultural development depend largely
on irrigation works. As it is, neglect of cultivation (caused by
constant tribal wars, overtaxation and the stoppage of the slave
trade) has notably enlarged the desert area; this is obviously the
case in Fezzan, where much might still be done to reclaim lands
recently fertile. There is little prospect of any great revival of
the trade between the central Sudan and Tripoli and Bengazi
ostrich feathers, ivory, and embroidered leather goods are,
however, still brought across the Sahara by camel caravans.
The value of exports (Tripoli and Cyrenaica combined) was
213,000 in 1914, sunk to 93,000 in 1916, and had risen to
300,000 in 1918. The chief exports were skins, henna, ostrich
feathers and sponges.
The figures of imports in these war years bore little relation to
1 normal trading, imports being largely for Government services.
The imports in 1914 were valued at 1,638,000, in 1918 at 3,039,000.
I Since 1912 the bulk of the trade has been with Italy. Colonial
revenue, some 600,000 in 1914, was estimated at 1,000,000 in
I 1920-1. Expenses considerably exceed revenue; in 1914 the budget
was balanced at 2,835,000, in 1920-1 at 5,080,000. Large sums
were spent on public works, still larger sums on defence, military
' expenditure in 1920-1 being put at 1,650,000. In that year 1,030
1 officers and 25,000 men were stationed in Tripoli (16,000 being
i Italians). In Cyrenaica there were 540 officers and 17,000 men
. (6,800 Italians). The non-white troops are principally Abyssinians
; from Eritrea.
In 1920 there were 157 m. of railway; the principal lines were
I along the coast westward from Tripoli city to Zuara and south-
ward from Tripoli by 'Aziziya to beyond Gharian. Submarine
cables were laid in 1912 between Syracuse and Tripoli and Ben-
gazi ; several wireless stations were also erected. Shipping is mainly
in Italian hands.
See A Handbook of Libya, a British Admiralty publication (1920),
: and Italian Libya (1920), a British Foreign, Office handbook, with
bibliography; the Rivista Coloniale of Rome, and the Bolletino of
the Italian Geographical Society. (F. R. C.)
TROTSKY, LEV (1877- ), Russian Communist leader, of
Jewish origin, originally named Leiba Bronstein and often
described as Leon Trotsky, was born in 1877, near Elisavet-
, grad, in the province of Kherson, S. Russia. He studied in a
; public school at Odessa and afterwards in the university there.
He soon joined the left wing of the Social-Democratic party,
took part in students' disorders, and was expelled from the
university. In 1898 he was arrested for his activity as a
member of the " League of Workmen of South Russia," and
three years later he was deported to Ust-Kut, on the Lena
river, in Siberia. He arrived at the place of his exile at the
beginning of 1902, but immediately escaped, and made his
| way to Geneva, where he took a prominent part in the work of
the Russian Social-Democratic group. He collaborated in the
hkra, a paper which was founded in 1901 by Lenin, Plekhanov,
Martov and others. A follower of the extreme Marxian doctrine,
and an irreconcilable enemy of the Liberals, Trotsky tried to
create a unified Socialist party in Russia, and he spent his time
. till the revolution of 1905 in constant travels to and from Russia.
At that time he was already well known in Russian revolutionary
circles. The events of the revolution of 1905 found him in Russia,
where he was publishing the paper Borba (" The Struggle ").
He took a leading part in the direction of the revolutionary
movement, and was one of the organizers of the " Soviet of
Workmen of Petrograd "; he became a member of the executive
committee and later on vice-president of that body. He was
arrested on Dec. 5 1905, with other members of .the Soviet, by
order of Count Witte's Government. After a year of solitary
confinement, he was tried and condemned to perpetual deporta-
tion to Siberia. At the beginning of 1907 he arrived at Obdorsk,
on the shore of the Arctic Ocean, but he escaped again, took
residence at Vienna, and became a constant contributor to the
Arbeiferzeitung. In 1907 he was present at the International
Socialist Conference at Stuttgart, and in 1910 at that of Copen-
hagen. In 1910 he attended the Pan-Slavonic Congress at Sofia,
where amid general consternation he delivered a vehement
speech against the union of the Slavonic nations. In 1912 he
was one of the organizers of the secret conference held at Troppau
by the Russian revolutionary organizations abroad.
At the beginning of the World War, Trotsky as a Russian
subject was obliged to leave Vienna, and he established himself
first at Zurich and later in Paris, where he collaborated in the
Russian paper Golos (afterwards Nashe Slow). He strongly
criticized the Socialist parties of Germany and of the Entente
Powers for supporting their Governments in the war and voting
for the war credits. He was one of the organizers of the Zimmer-
wald Conference, but, together with Lenin, he refused to sign
the Zimmerwald manifesto, which he considered to be too
moderate. In Sept. 1916 the publication of Nashe Slovo was
suspended by order of the French Government, in consequence of
a rebellion among the Russian troops at Marseilles, which was
traced to the anti-militarist propaganda of that paper. Trotsky
was arrested and ordered to leave France. Switzerland refused
to receive him, and he was deported to Spain, but he was arrested
again by the Spanish Government almost on the day of his arrival
at Madrid. At the beginning of 1917 he sailed for the United
States and took part in New York City in the publication of the
Russian paper Navy Mir.
After the revolution of March 1917 Trotsky immediately
started for Russia, but was arrested by order of the British
Government and interned in a prisoners' camp at Halifax. He
was released by a special intercession of Milyukov, who was at
that time Russian Minister for Foreign Affairs. He arrived in
Russia in May, and developed the greatest activity in Petrograd
as one of the leading members of the Bolshevist party. He was
one of the organizers of the Bolshevist rising on July 16 and 17,
and was arrested at the beginning of Aug. for " organizing and
participating in armed rebellion," but soon released by order of
Kerensky. On Oct. 8 he was elected president of the Petrograd
Soviet, and after the Oct. revolution he took the portfolio of
Foreign Affairs and later that of War in the Council of the Com-
missaries of the People. He took a leading part in the political
activity of the Soviet Government, representing the extreme
left wing of the Communist party, and, as such, often opposed
the more moderate programme of Lenin. He signed the peace of
Brest Litovsk, and, in spite of his former anti-militarist declara-
tions, became the organizer and the commander-in-chief of the
Red Army. He introduced again an " iron discipline," more
relentless than that practised under the Tsarist regirrie; deserters
and disobedient soldiers were shot; a system of extensive espion-
age kept officers and men in constant terror; mercenary corps of
Letts, Chinese, Kirghizes and Burials were formed for the purpose
of coercing and destroying the Russian elements. Particular
attention was paid to the formation of specially trained de-
tachments of cadets, devoted to the Communist regime and
ready to serve it on every occasion, like the Janissaries of old
Turkey. Trotsky and his friends did not shrink before a plan of
a general militarization of industry. In a speech delivered at a
meeting of the Third Conference of the Soviets in Moscow, he
said: " All artisans will be sent into the works and transferred
from one place to another, according to the indication of the
Government. We will have no pity for the peasants; we will
make labour armies of them, with military discipline and Com-
munists as their chiefs. These armies will go forth among the
peasants to gather corn, meat, and fish that the work of the
workmen may be assured." A Moscow wireless reported that in
another speech (The Times, March 4 1920) he declared that
" The First Army of Labour so far includes 240,000 Red Army
men, 7,000 civilians and employees, 7,000 military horses and
1 56,000 private horses." In a review of the First Army of Labour
he wrote: " The Red Army detachments make a formidable
labour force, certainly more efficient than, for example, those
civilian detachments mobilized for the clearing of snow. The
military detachments have all the advantages of proper organize-
782
TSCHAIKOVSKY TUBERCULOSIS
tion and the precise order of stern discipline. The fundamental
condition of the productivity of Labour Red Army men, and of
workmen in the Soviet economy in general, is the arousing of the
spirit of emulation. The organization of this spirit is the most
important problem of economic reconstruction, and without this
subjective force nothing will help, neither peat, nor coal, nor
petrol, nor the removal of the blockade. It is necessary to take
all measures to foster the feeling of labour conscience, both
in the cooperative institutions and in the individual." At a
congress of the Soviets at Moscow a resolution was passed
on April 4 in favour of his proposal that labour should be or-
ganized on the principle of military conscription and obligatory
work; also that the inspection of labour should be confided to
special inspectors, instead of local Soviets.
Within the Soviet Government organization, as it still held
power in 1921, Trotsky, Dzerjinsky and Bukharin were the
leaders of the extreme left of the Communist party, and, as such,
had repeatedly opposed Lenin when the latter was inclined to
conciliatory measures; but the outside world generally associated
the names of Lenin and Trotsky together as the embodiments
of Russian Bolshevist rule. (P. Vi.)
TSCHAIKOVSKY, NICHOLAS VASILIEVICH (1850- ),
Russian revolutionary politician, was born in 1850, at Viatka.
He spent the first part of his life on his mother's estate, and
studied at a public school at Viatka and later on in St. Petersburg.
In 1868 he entered the St. Petersburg University and got his
degree in chemistry in 1872. He took part in the " Narodniki "
(populist) movement, and became one of its leaders, working
for the creation of a system of societies for self-education. These
societies organized lectures and provided their members with
cheap and well-selected books. They had a considerable in-
fluence on the moral and political development of a whole genera-
tion of the Russian " intelligentsia."
But under the political regime of Russia in the 'seventies no
public body or society could act freely if its activity was not
fully approved by the Government. Every kind of repression
was used against the promoters of the " narodniki " movement;
and Tschaikovsky was twice arrested. Under these conditions
the new party soon lost its educational character and became
a revolutionary and terrorist association. Tschaikovsky did
not approve of this new tendency and joined the social-religious
group, which received the name of " God-men " because its
members tried to find in themselves a reflection of God.
In 1874 Tschaikovsky left Russia, and a year later he went
to the United States with a small party of men and women who
shared his political views and religious feelings. They founded
a communistic settlement at " Cedar Vale," near Wichita, in
the state of Kansas, and tried to work out their new religious
and social teaching. The experiment proved a failure. After
two years of hard experience, Tschaikovsky and his friends were
obliged to recognize that mankind was not yet ready for the
communistic life which they believed to be an imminent develop-
ment of the future. They regarded communistic life as senseless
without a constant feeling of the presence of God in the case
of each member of the community, and this essential condition
could not be achieved. Therefore they returned to the " old
world of antagonism." The awakening was especially hard for
Tschaikovsky, who not only found it necessary to reconstruct
his conception of the world, but had a family to keep and no
means of livelihood. He worked for some time as an ordinary
workman in a shipbuilding yard and in a sugar factory near
Philadelphia. His health broke down and with his family he
joined the religious community of the Shakers, where he re-
mained for a year.
In 1879 he returned to Europe, and in 1880 took up his resi-
dence in England, renewing his active participation in the Rus-
sian revolutionary organizations abroad; he was a member of the
" Red Cross of the Narodnaia Volia," and organized the supply
of revolutionary literature to Russia. During the first Russian
revolution of 1903-6 he made a tour of America, lecturing on the
subject and collecting funds for the struggle against the Imperial
regime. In 1907 he returned to Russia. There he was arrested on
a charge of conspiracy against the Government and spent ir
months in the St. Peter and St. Paul Fortress at St. Petersburg.
He was released on bail, 5,000 having been collected by his
friends, chiefly in England and America. In 1910 he was
brought to trial and discharged for lack of proof. He remained
in Russia and took a great interest in the work of cooperative
organizations.
During the World War he was very active under the flag of
the Russian Red Cross, supplying food'to the population of the
fighting area. After the revolution of 1917, he was elected mem-
ber of the Council of Soldiers, Workmen and Peasants, formed
at Petrograd, where he used his influence to fight the Bolshevist
propaganda. He was also elected member of the Constituent
Assembly. After the Bolshevist revolution, as a member of the
" Committee for the Salvation of the Motherland and of the
Revolution," and of the " Committee for the Defence of the
Constituent Assembly," he helped to organize the struggle
against the Bolshevists.
In 1918 he was one of the founders of the "Union of the
reconstruction of Russia," an anti-Bolshevist organization of
the left parties of Moscow. He was also elected member of the
Ufa Directorate. On his way to Siberia, he came to Viatka,
where he took the lead in an insurrection against the Bolshevists
and entered into negotiations with the Allied force at Archangel.
He took part in the coup d'etat of Aug. 2 at Archangel and be-
came president of the Supreme Administrative Board of the
North Region. After the break-up of a conspiracy of monarchist
officers, he organized the Provisional Government of the North
Region under his own leadership. Tschaikovsky was sent by his
Government to Paris, where he represented the interests of the
North Region before the Peace Conference. He was a member
of the " Russian Political Delegation " in Paris till its dissolution
in Feb. 1921. (P. Vi.)
TUBERCULOSIS (see 27.354*). Since the bacillus tuberculosis
was discovered by Koch in 1882, the various forms of disease
caused by its invasion have been in the forefront of medical
research. The disease is known to have existed amongst the
earliest civilizations. Bony tuberculous lesions have been de-
scribed in Egyptian mummies, and in the Nubian collection
of bones in the Royal College of Surgeons, London, are two
specimens, respectively of the dates of about 3,000 and 2,000
B.C., presenting all the characteristics of tuberculous disease
of the spine. Tuberculous disease of the lungs is known to
have existed in very early times. The old Greek Hippocrates
(born 460 B.C.) first applied the term " phthisis," and a descrip-
tion of its clinical manifestations may be found in his writings
and those of Celsus, Aretaeus and Galen. Before the discovery
of the bacillus its effects in different parts of the body were
classified as distinct diseases, receiving different names:
" consumption " or phthisis for pulmonary tuberculosis, struma
or scrofula for bone or gland tuberculosis, lupus for tuberculosis
of the skin, and tabes mesenterica of the intestinal glands.
Pathology. Affected tissues invaded by the tubercle bacillus
undergo typical changes, become inflamed, break down and
perish. By the irritation which the bacilli excite, epitheloid
cells are proliferated from the normal cells of the tissues, form-
ing a tubercle, in which is usually present a " giant " cell sur-
rounded by smaller epitheloid cells encompassed by a zone of
leucocytes. Scattered amongst these cells tubercle bacilli may
be found. Later the tubercles undergo degenerative changes
(caseation) proceeding further to abscess formation. Repair may
take place by cicatricial formation of fibrous tissue, these fibrous
nodules sometimes undergoing calcareous degeneration. Bayle,
in the latter part of the i8th century, first described' the tuber-
cular nodule, and its distributions in other organs than the lungs.
One organ or part of the patient attacked is generally the seat
of these tubercular nodules, some of which may become con-
fluent, but the" disease may take the form of an acute specific
fever, clinically somewhat resembling typhoid fever, with wide-
spread dissemination of the infection. In this form the disease
is so severe and rapid, that many of the tubercles have not
time to get beyond the initial stages of their development
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
TUBERCULOSIS
783
before death occurs. Such a manifestation is termed acute
miliary tuberculosis. The intra-cellular or extra-cellular toxins
produced by the tubercle bacillus in the course of its develop-
ment are the cause of many of the pathological features associ-
ated with the disease the bacillus produces.
The tubercle bacillus is a minute rod-like, often slightly curved,
organism, i-SM ~ 3'SM in length and 0-3/1 in breadth. It may
stain uniformly or present a beaded appearance, the unstained
beads being regarded by Koch as spores. Metchnikoff ad-
vanced the view that the bacillus as ordinarily met with is but
a stage in the developmental cycle of a filamentous fungus. The
: organism is regarded by many as a member of the streptothrix
group belonging to the hyphomycetes or mould fungi. It
stains with difficulty but retains its stain, once received, with
remarkable tenacity, resisting decolorization by strong acids
and hence called acid-fast.
Exposed to direct sunlight or ultra-violet radiation it is
rapidly slain but is of retentive vitality under certain conditions.
Dr. Stenhouse Williams has shown that it remains viable and
virulent in cow-dung on pasture land for at least five months,
and in dung stored in the dark for twelve months, a discovery
of great importance and significance in veterinary practice. It
retains its virulence and capacity for development for six weeks
or longer in decomposing sputum and for six months in dried
sputum. The thermal death point varies between 65C. and
ooC. and Swithinbank has shown that it will survive a tempera-
ture of i86C. for 42 days.
Certain antiseptics are fatal to the tubercle bacillus, 5%
carbolic acid will slay it in less than a minute, and endeavours
have been made to destroy the organism in living tissues by
the administration of drugs, but hitherto without demonstrable
success. Methylene-blue and certain copper salts injected into
guinea-pigs infected with tuberculosis, can be demonstrated
in their tubercle, bacilli, and a fascinating, but hitherto unfruit-
ful line of chemotherapeutic research has thus been opened up,
aiming at the destruction of the tubercle bacilli while parasitic
in their host.
The tubercle bacillus is widely parasitic through the animal
world, but different animals show widely varying degrees of
susceptibility. Generally, domesticated animals are more liable
to infection than wild, and captive wild animals than those
in their natural state. Domestic cattle are particularly prone.
Much controversy has arisen as to the communicability of
tuberculosis from animals to man. After Koch had thrown
doubt on its probability at the British Congress on Tubercu-
losis in 1901, the British Government appointed a Royal Com-
mission to enquire into the relationship of human and animal
tuberculosis. In the second interim report of the Commission,
issued in 1907, the conclusions arrived at were: " That there
seems to be no valid reason for doubting the opinion, never
seriously doubted before 1901, that human and bovine bacilli
belong to the same family. On this view, the answer to the
question Can the bovine bacillus affect man? is obviously
in the affirmative. The same answer must also be given to
; those who hold the theory that human and bovine tubercle
: bacilli are different in kind, since the ' bovine kind ' are readily
to be found as the causal agents of many fatal cases of human
1 tuberculosis." In later years the investigation has been further
pursued. Pulmonary tuberculosis is rarely bovine in origin,
: md non-pulmonary tuberculosis does not appear to be so
! commonly bovine as previously supposed, the latest researches
! (up to 1921) in England going to show that probably approxi-
mately some 30% of cases of non-pulmonary tuberculosis are
af bovine and 70% of human origin. While cows are the
:ommonest domesticated animals infected, tuberculosis occurs
pigs, less commonly in dogs, cats, and but rarely in horses
ind sheep. Tuberculosis in rats has been demonstrated. In
'domestic fowls another variety of the tubercle bacillus, the
ivian, is found. Even reptiles, fishes and invertebrate creatures
such as worms may be infected. While bovine bacilli are
:apable of infecting the human subject, especially in childhood,
ivian bacilli are of little human pathogenic significance.
In the evolution of pulmonary tuberculosis, human or, very
rarely, bovine bacilli may be detected in the sputum, and usually
are demonstrable in tuberculous pus derived from any focus.
The bacilli may also sometimes be found in the blood or stools
of infected subjects.
Channels of Infection. Congenital origin, though rare, has been
proved to exist. By Cobbett it has been regarded as commoner
than usually supposed. Tubercle may be introduced by direct inocu-
lation. Much more commonly the infection is produced by inhala-
tion of dried sputum as dust into the lungs, or by the ingestion of
tuberculous material into the alimentary canal. Cornet has esti-
mated that as many as 7,200,000,000 bacilli may be expectorated
by a consumptive patient in the course of a day, and it requires
little consideration to show what a ready means is thus presented of
infection. Recognition of this fact is of importance in prophylaxis.
The vehicle of infection by ingestion is commonly tuberculous milk
or butter. The portal of entry, carious teeth, tonsils or some por-
tion of the intestine. Fatal bovine infection, though rare in adults,
is not uncommon in children. Dr. Cobbett has calculated that
about one-third of all fatal cases of tuberculosis in children under
five is attributable to a bovine source, a matter of great importance
to farming interests and preventive medicine. There is reason to
believe that the relative incidence of bovine or human infection
may_vary according to locality. Thus in Scotland, bovine infec-
tion is probably relatively commoner than in England.
Contagiousness of Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is not contagious
in the sense that such diseases as measles and other of the exanthe-
mata are. The danger of infection of healthy subjects where reason-
able precautions are taken, as in institutions for the tuberculous,
is extremely _remote. But under conditions due to overcrowding,
bad hygiene, imperfect nutrition, when lowered resistance is encount-
ered, where massive doses of bacilli are absorbed and contact is
intimate and prolonged, the danger of infection is very real. The
vexed question of marital or conjugal tuberculosis has been much
discussed of late and should not be neglected.
Predisposing Causes of Infection. In discussing infection, atten-
tion should be drawn to the " soil " of the patient as well as to the
" seed " sown. There is variation in both individual and racial
susceptibility. Thus the Irish are said to be relatively susceptible,
the Jews immune. " It has been learned of late years that the
number of individuals who can be shown by radiography, tuberculin
tests, and autopsy findings to have some focus of tuberculosis is
enormously in excess of those who are usually classed as tubercu-
lous " (Bushnell). Tuberculous infection amongst civilized com-
munities is well-nigh universal. The tubercle bacillus may remain
latent in the individual for indefinite periods, may rapidly and in
varying degrees give rise to local lesions or generalized dissemina-
tion. _ Its innocuousness depends both on the good health of the
individual attacked, his immunity inherited or acquired, and the
absence of conditions calculated to break down that immunity.
Amongst the more important factors likely to facilitate morbid
infection are heredity, a constitutional liability to the disease, gen-
eral debility due to various circumstances ; poverty and its associated
conditions; overcrowding, insanitary surroundings, bad hygiene,
insufficient or unsuitable food, exposure, trauma, alcoholic excess,
insanity, syphilis and other diseases; unfavourable climatic influ-
ences, occupations, etc. Dr. Browning has shown that the common
age-period of phthisis may vary in different localities. Thus, it is
earlier in the Shetland Is. than in London. The age of maximum
mortality appears to be increasing. In the middle of the igth cen-
tury it was 25 to 35 years; in 1921 it was 45 to 55 in males, 35 to
45 in females.
Control and Eradication of Tuberculosis. With the discovery of
the causal factor of this disease and an ever-extending acquaint-
ance with the conditions favouring its pathogenicity, it became
possible to initiate, investigate and undertake scientific methods
for its control and eradication. The problem, however, is of
infinite complexity. Up to 1921, no certain method of im-
munization against infection had actually been discovered, and
no specific treatment comparable to that employed in dealing
with syphilis had been devised. Till the uninfected popula-
tion can be safely immunized against tuberculosis and the
infected population cured by specific measures, the laborious
and often complicated methods now employed, constantly im-
proved and elaborated, will constitute both our means of
prophylaxis and of attempted cure. Tuberculosis is protean
in its manifestations and the methods directed against the dis-
ease are of corresponding variety. Certain general principles in
treatment may, however, be laid down. These comprise the
adoption of all those measures calculated to increase the patient's
power of resistance and preserve and restore the part or parts
attacked. Life in the open air under suitable climatic and
7 8 4
TUBERCULOSIS
good hygienic conditions, with ample and easily assimilated
food, rest while the disease is acute, absence of worry or fatigue,
graduated exercise later, and education in the mode of life to
be followed are details of first importance. Drugs are chiefly
of value in the treatment of symptoms and complications.
The introduction of tuberculin by Koch raised vast hopes
which have not been fulfilled. Numerous varieties of tuberculin
have since been manufactured and employed which still fall
short of the anticipations of their originators. Sir Almroth
Wright placed tuberculin therapy on a more scientific basis:
his opsonic theory giving promise of a means of scientific ad-
ministration and control. In 1887 Sir Robert Philip introduced
the scheme known as the Edinburgh system for the coordination
of efforts, applicable to all phases of the tuberculosis problem.
It has the tuberculosis dispensary as the centre of its activities,
with trained physicians and nurses for educating, treating and
directing the patient, examination of contacts, distribution of
patients requiring institutional care to the tuberculosis hospital
or sanatorium where advanced cases can be segregated, and early
cases receive curative treatment. Later, facilities are given for
continued aftercare or treatment and training in a farm colony.
The scheme is a practical and comprehensive one and has been
the pioneer of other analogous efforts elsewhere. The value of
this coordination of methods cannot be sufficiently emphasized.
Marcus Paterson by graduated exercise has shown how
much may be safely and advantageously done by auto-inocula-
tion of the patient by his own tuberculin. Varrier-Jones at
Papworth has demonstrated the value of the tuberculous colony
with facilities for treatment of pulmonary tubercle in all stages
of the disease, and where prolonged segregation in village
settlements is encouraged under reasonable conditions. The
patient is trained and his labour subsidized. The value of
rest in the treatment of all forms of acute tuberculous disease
has inspired surgical interference for securing more complete
rest to the diseased and damaged lung in the hope of procuring
cure. Forlanini demonstrated the feasibility of introducing by
injection gas into the chest to secure the collapse and rest of a
tuberculous lung. This manoeuvre, introduced into Great Britain
by Lillingston and others, has proved of considerable value in
carefully selected cases. This method of treatment is known as
the induction of artificial pneumothorax and has proved of
dramatic value in the treatment of many patients who were in
an apparently hopeless condition.
In non-pulmonary conditions such as tuberculous disease of
the bones, joints and glands, for long the condition was regarded
as a local disease, comparable to a malignant tumour. This
" tuberculome " conception, aided by the discovery of anaes-
thetics and antiseptics led often to extensive operations being
undertaken with a view to the extirpation of infected tissues.
The results in the more severe conditions were frequently
unsatisfactory, the mortality both direct and indirect high,
deplorable orthopaedic results frequent, sinus formation and
subsequent secondary infection common. The present trend
of surgical opinion is avoidance where possible of severe radical
measures and the adoption of conservative treatment. While
the disease is acute the patient is kept at rest, the part affected
immobilized, orthopaedic measures are employed to prevent
or correct the severe deformities which are frequent in tuber-
culous lesions of the bones and joints, tuberculous abscesses
are evacuated, preferably by aspiration. Later, when ambulatory
treatment is permissible the lesions are suitably immobilized
in appropriate splints. Institutions for these cases should be
specially designed and staffed and situated in suitable localities
at the seaside or in the country. Auxiliary methods of treatment
such as heliotherapy (sun treatment), X-ray treatment, etc.,
play an important part. As treatment is necessarily lengthy it
should be associated with education for children, technical
training for adolescents, and occupation for adults. In this way
the monotony of long enforced recumbency is relieved and the
moral of the patient preserved. The value and low mortality of
such treatment may be illustrated by Table i. showing the
results achieved at the Treloar Cripples' Hospital, at Alton.
TABLE i. Analysis of results of treatment of patients suffering froi
surgical tuberculosis at the Lord Mayor Treloar Cripples'
Hospital, Alton, Hants., from the opening of the
Hospital in Sept. 1908 to Jan. 31 IQ2I.
T
P
7
<n
J
1
0>T3
(ft O
S to
1
o
1
s
"S
rtj"*
Lesion
6
* &
ss
c
a
_g
*s
>^z
is
s
||t
>
H
(0
Spine .
920
810
674
22
24
68
27
503-2
Hip .
880
768
710
18
2
25
13
413-1
Knee .
333
34
282
7
II
7
334-7
Other .
354
315
265
16
5
19
9
259-8
2487
2197
1931
63
3i
123
56
382-5
During the decade 1910-20 greatly increased public interesi
was manifested in serious and organized endeavours to dea
with the tuberculosis problem. In England and Wales prioi
to the passing of the National Insurance Act, 1911, it wa;
competent to sanitary authorities, under the powers of sectior
131 of the Public Health Act, 1875, to provide dispensaries am
residential institutions for the treatment of persons suffer in;;
from tuberculosis, and some authorities had initiated a campaign
of prevention and treatment. At the beginning of 1912, 1,500
beds in institutions had thus been provided by British sanitary
authorities for treatment of tuberculosis; 57 sanitary authorities
also had contracted for use of beds in private sanatoria; 30
tuberculosis dispensaries had been established by local author-
ities; and 50 by voluntary effort. The need for a national
campaign assisted by. contributions from the British Exchequer
became evident. This heed was recognized by the National!
Insurance Act, 1911, which included provision for " sanatorium
benefit " of insured persons. Under this Act and the Financei
Act, 1911, a capital sum of 1,500,000 was made available ini
the United Kingdom for the treatment of tuberculosis. After:
the passing of the National Insurance Act ' a departmental
committee on tuberculosis was appointed to report upon the
consideration of the problem in its preventive, curative and
other aspects. The recommendations of this committee had
an important influence on subsequent policy. Compulsory
notification of pulmonary tuberculosis was enforced in 1912,
and of all forms the following year. In July 1912 domiciliary
treatment of insured patients suffering from tuberculosis was
approved by the Local Government Board. Schemes for the
institutional treatment of tuberculosis became gradually formu-j
lated. The extent to which official schemes had been brought
into operation in England and Wales may be gathered from the
following figures. On April i 1921, the number of approved;
dispensaries was 41 1 ; officers and assistant officers for tubercu-
losis, 341; residential institutions, 418; the number of beds
available in these institutions was 17,352; the total gross main-
tenance cost of tuberculosis schemes for 1919-20 was i,953)99 2 -
The amount of Government grant for 1919-20 was 619,941.
All this was accomplished notwithstanding the severe setback
to anti-tuberculosis endeavour which was an inseparable effect
of the World War.
On July I 1919 the powers of the Local Government Board in rela-
tion to the tuberculosis schemes of local public-health authorities
and of the Insurance Commissioners in relation to the administra-
tion by the Insurance Committees of the sanatorium benefit of
insured persons under the National Insurance Act 1911 devolved
upon the Minister of Health, and one central department was made
responsible for the guidance and supervision of the work of the two
classes of local bodies principally concerned (apart from Poor L
authorities) in the conduct of measures for the prevention and treat-
ment of tuberculosis. The National Health Insurance Act, 1920,
was further designed to simplify administration by providing for
the discontinuance of sanatorium benefit within 12 months of the
passing of the Act, and insurance patients needing institution
treatment for tuberculosis may obtain it at the hands of the local
authorities under the schemes undertaken for the provision of such
treatment for the population generally of their respective areas.
This transfer of authority came into force on May I 1921. .
Tuberculosis Act 1921 carried this legislation a step further by
enabling local authorities to provide approved schemes for t
treatment of all patients suffering from all forms of tuberculosis,
and on their failing to do so empowered the Ministry of Health to
deal with the matter, debiting the cost to the authorities concerned.
TUBERCULOSIS
785
TABLE 2. Mortality in England and Wales from Tuberculosis (all forms] Per Million Poi>. 1012-4. JO/7, and 1018
Males
Females
Persons
1912
to
1914
1917
(Civilians
only)
1918
(Civilians
only)
1912
to
1914
1917
1918
1912
to
1914
1917
(Civilians
only)
1918
(Civilians
only)
All crude ages standardized
j L569
I 1,546
2,072
2,334
2,153
2,518
1,167
1,168
1,303
l,3H
1,373
1,378
1,361
1.347
1,624
1,801
1,694
1,924
o . . .
5
2,063
566
1,915
662
1,741
632
1,701
572
1,631
694
1,417'
682
1,883
569
1.774
678
1,580
657
JO . .
442
573
611
685
892
920
564
733
766
15 . . .
927
?
?
1,214
,719
1,789
1,071
?
?
20 . . .
1,478
?
?
1,326
,643
1,888
1,398
?
?
25 . .
1,774
?
?
1,369
,489
1,723
1,561
?
?
35
2,233
?
?
1.405
>523
1,613
1,804
?
?
15-45
1, 68 1
3,240
3, 68 1
1,342
,570
1.733
1.505
2,104
2,328
45
2,437
2,590
2,592
1,208
,249
1,321
1,798
1,892
1,924
55
2,283
2,316
2,192
1,004
,018
1,050
' I, 608
1,649
1,604
65 . .
1,421
1,540
1,484
767
798
1,057
1,129
791
1,057
1,129
1,102
75
85 and upwards .
'649
260
649
527
740
295
496
246
490
218
464
233
558
251
554
328
574
255
Provisional death-rate per million living from ( i.) all causes 1920
(ii.) all forms of tuberculosis 1920
12,360
1,128
In April 1919 an important inter-departmental committee was
appointed jointly by the Local Government Board and Ministry
of Pensions, " to consider and report upon the immediate practical
steps which should be taken for the provision of residential treat-
ment for discharged soldiers and sailors suffering from tuberculosis
and for their reintroduction into employment, especially on the
land." The report of the committee laid stress on the fact that
"the problem of the tuberculous ex-soldier or sailor is only one
aspect of the national problem of dealing with tuberculosis," and
considered that " the best interests, both of the country and of the
ex-service man, will be served first by making the best possible use
of all existing means of treatment, and then by expanding, improv-
ing, and increasing these means as rapidly as possible." It reported
that existing accommodation was most seriously inadequate in
quantity, and advocated in addition to the development of schemes
for the institutional treatment of tuberculosis, provision of facilities
for the training, both occupational and vocational, of sanatorium
patients in suitable industrial and other occupations, and also for
their permanent settlement, after training, in village communities
where they could earn a livelihood under sheltered conditions.
Owing to considerations of economy, the recommendations of this
committee as to developments on the lines of training colonies,
village and industrial settlements, were temporarily hampered, but
doubtless are destined to fructify as economic conditions improve.
Valuable information as to the development of Public Health
schemes for the treatment of tuberculosis is in the annual reports
of the Chief Medical Officer of the Ministry of Health and other
Government publications.
While the above records official encouragement and exhortation
in the measures calculated to assist in the eradication and treatment
of tuberculosis, tribute should be paid to philanthropic and other
agencies which have been at work, and which have afforded valuable
information on the lines on which policy should be directed. By
progressive legislation voluntary work has tended to become more
and more subsidized by the state. An instance of such combined
activity on a large scale is afforded by the King Edward VII. Welsh
National Memorial Association, which was founded in 1910 for the
prevention and eradication of tuberculosis and other diseases in
Wales. For the furtherance of this aim Wales (with Monmouth-
shire) is divided into 14 dispensary areas with a tuberculosis physi-
:ian having a central dispensary in each area. In each area there
ire a number of visiting stations at which patients are seen and
:xamined at frequent intervals. There were 90 of such visiting
stations in 1921. In addition, hospital beds and sanatoria are pro-
vide 1 for the treatment of all forms of tuberculosis. From its incep-
i ;ion up to 1921 the association's officers had examined 76,500 patients.
i Df these 7,800 were treated at sanatoria and 14,200 at its hospitals.
i FABLE 3. Notification of Tuberculosis in England and Wales (from
the 1920 Report of the chief medical officer of the
Ministry of Health, Cmd. 1.307).
Pulmonary
Non-pulmonary
Total All forms
Notifi-
cations
Cases
Notifi-
cations
Cases
Notifi-
cations
Cases
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
91,866
86,081
73,359
75,796
76,183
79,025
67,123
63,732
80,788
76,109
68,309
68,109
68,801
71,631
61,154
57,844
38,583
25,237
22,573
24,521
22,514
20,215
17-775
16,694
36,351
23,388
22,283
22,799
20,884
18,942
16,357
15,488
130,449
111,318
95,932
100,317
98,697
99,240
84,898
80,426
177-139
99,497
90,592
90,908
89,685
90,573
77,616
73,332
TABLE 4. Mortality from Tuberculosis (England and Wales).
Deaths from Pulmonary
Deaths from other forms
Tuberculosis
of Tuberculosis
Males
Females
Total
Males
Females
Total
1911
21,985
17,247
39,232
7,242
6,646
13,888
1912
21,568
16,515
38,083
6,238
5,730
1 1 ,968
1913
21,034
16,021
37,055
6,623
5,798
12,421
1914
21,812
16,825
38,637
6,264
5,397
11,661
1915
23,630
18,046
41,676
6,715
5,904
12,619
1916
23,238
18,307
41,545
6,488
5,825
12,313
1917
23,670
19,443
43,H3
6,689
6,132
12,821
1918
24,756
21,321
46,077
6,271
5,725
1 1 ,996
1919
I9,58l
17,081
36,662
4,969
4,681
9,650
1920
18,184
15,285
33,469
4,734
4,342
9,076
Tables 2 (by courtesy of the Ministry of Health), 3 and 4 give
details as to the incidence of tuberculosis in. Great Britain. Com-
menting on these tables, Sir George Newman remarks on the con-
siderable decline in the number of new cases, of both pulmonary and
non-pulmonary tuberculosis in 1919; in 1920 there were 3,310 fewer
new cases of pulmonary tuberculosis than in 1919. Regarding
Table 3 he states that the causes of increase of tuberculosis mor-
tality during the war are generally ascribed to underfeeding or lack
of particular varieties of food materials, greater industrial employ-
ment of women (often in unfavourable conditions and under much
stress and strain), exposure and fatigue, and the great outbreak of
influenza. Similar increases were observed in other countries, both
neutral and those directly engaged in the war. It is significant that
the increase during the war was particularly great in lunatic asylums
and among women aged 20-25 years many of whom were employed
in munition works. Sir George Newman further adds: " The past
history of the decline of tuberculosis is full of instruction as to the
future." He suggests that we should (i) fortify the powers of
resistance of the individual to disease; (ii) prevent the spread of
infection; (iii) undertake all the general health reform which is
necessary; (iv) educate and lastly we must revise and apply in a
proper and effectual way the particular methods with which we have
made a substantial beginning notification, domiciliary and dispen-
sary treatment, the sanatorium, the training colony, the village set-
tlement and the proper means of after-care. The local administra-
tion of these matters should be unified under the local authority and
its medical officer of health.
REFERENCES. Sir R. D. Powell and P. H. Hartley, Diseases of
the Lungs and Pleurae (6th ed., 1921); Sir W. Osier, Principles,
Practice of Medicine (gth ed., 1920) ; Sir T. Clifford Allbutt, System
of Medicine (1905-11); G. E. Bushnell, Epidemiology of Tubercu-
losis (1920); Louis Cobbett, Causes of Tuberculosis (Public Health
Series, 1913); a series of international studies by many authors,
The Control and Eradication of Tuberculosis (1911); also various
official publications from the Ministry of Health and elsewhere.
(H. J. G.)
UNITED STATES
An extraordinary decline in the mortality from tuberculosis
in the United States decreased the rate for the whole .country
from 202 per 100,000 inhabitants in IQOO to 160 in 1910, 21%
less, and to 114 in 1920, 29% less than in IQIO and 43-5% less
than in 1900. In New York City the decline was even more
notable, the rate being 280 for 1900, 210 for 1910 and 126 for
1920; this was a fall of 25% between 1900 and 1910, 40% be-
786
TUBERCULOSIS
tween 1910 and 1920 and 55% between 1900 and 1920. In 1900
the New York City rate was 29% in excess of the rate for the
United States; in 1910 it was 24% higher; but by 1920 conditions
had so improved that it was only 9 % higher. The chance of dy-
ing from tuberculosis in New York City in 1920 was about one-
third that in 1900 and a little more than half that in 1910. Such
a remarkable improvement in so crowded a city is unparalleled
in the history of tuberculosis.
During the decade 1910-20 the fall in the death-rate was by
no means uniform. Between 1912 and 1915 the mortality from
tuberculosis throughout the country was almost stationary (150
in 1912 and 146 in 1915), while between 1916 and 1918, the pe-
riod of the World War and the epidemic of influenza, the rate rose
from 142 to 150. Virtually the same conditions obtained in New
York City (201 in 1912, 196 in 1915, 182 in 1916 and 188 in
1917). The greatest decline was after 1918: from 184 in 1918 to
126 in 1920 for New York City and, during the same period,
from 150 to 114 for the United States.
TUBERCULOSIS* DEATH-RATE OF NEW YORK CITY
AND OF THE UNITED STATESf I9OO TO 1920
ISO
100
New York City 280 264 243 246 250 240 246 238 227 214 210 210 201 199 200 196 112 188 184 152 126
United States 202 197 185 189 201 192 180 179 168 161 160 159 150 148 147 146 142 147 150 126 114
N.r.RateEcess78 67 58 57 49 48 66 59 59 53 50 51 51 51 53 50 40 41 34 26 12
Pet Cent Excess 39 34 31 30 24 25 37 33 35 33 31 32 34 35 36 34 23 28 23 17 11
* All forms of tuberculosis, f U.S. Registration area which in 1020 included 82% of
the population or 87,486,713 inhabitants. G. J. DROLET, Statistician
New York Tuberculosis Association.
The registration of deaths became more exact and complete.
A consideration of the conditions described on page 358 of Vol.
XXVII. as being widespread late in the igth century shows
how much registration had been needed. Registration, the
creation of state, not Federal, legislation was provided for only
gradually by the necessary state laws. In 1910 the Registra-
tion Area of the United States covered 58-3% of the popu-
lation; by 1920 nearly three-fourths of the states, with about
80% of the population of the country. The fact, therefore, that
the tuberculosis death-rate shows a marked decline at the same
time that the reporting of deaths has come under better control
accentuates the great improvement. As has always been the
case, pulmonary tuberculosis accounts for about seven-eighths of
the deaths from tuberculosis of all forms. In 1920 the rate
(pulmonary tuberculosis) for large cities ranged from 54 per
100,000 for Portland, Oregon, to 281 for Denver, to which city
many tuberculosis patients have resorted. Chicago's rate was
83 and Philadelphia's 121; Boston's was 126, the same as that of
New York City.
The decline in mortality was due to many factors, which in
1921 could not be formulated and estimated. The influenza epi-
demic played its part, but in a manner not definitely understood.
The great wave of this disease swept the country in the autumn
of 1918. It is significant that for the first time on record there
was in that year a marked autumnal increase of tuberculosis
deaths above the normal. For example, in Oct. 1917, the deaths
from tuberculosis in New York State were 1,089, a rate of 122-2.
This was an average incidence which had been maintained for
years. In Oct. 1918, the month of the influenza epidemic, 1,520
deaths from tuberculosis were reported an increase of about
50%. Oct. 1919 showed only 813 deaths, and Oct. 1920 726
deaths. It is conceivable that influenza carried off thousands of
consumptives who would have contributed to the tuberculosis
mortality later; and, that these potential deaths for later years,
thus compressed into 1918, reduced the rate during the succeed-
ing years. Nevertheless, influenza can have been only one of
several or many factors. Economic and social movements
played their part. It seems certain that tuberculosis to no
small extent has yielded to the remarkable organized efforts!
directed against it in the United States.
The keynote of the American struggle against the disease has
been organization. Founded in 1904, the National Tuberculosis;
Association developed into probably the most effective public
health body in the United States. With its subsidiary state andi
local societies it reaches into every hamlet. Few men and women,'
interested actively in tuberculosis, are working otherwise thaw
in connexion with the National Association. Perhaps its great-'
est achievement is that it calls the attention of a vast proportion!
of the population to tuberculosis and educates them in it through'
its unique way of raising funds tp carry on its work. Every year.j
during the month of Dec. its subsidiary societies sell, at one cent 1
each, stamps called Christmas seals, which may be used (not as]
postage) to fasten and embellish envelopes. Their sale in 192 1 had!
reached the enormous yearly total of more than 500,000,000 and!
yielded more than $4,000,000 for the work of the Association.!
Treatment. The elements of the routine treatment of tuber-
culosis changed but little during 1910-20, but therapeutic re4
sources expanded greatly. In 1920 there were more than 6ooi
sanatoria for the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis in the!
United States. These were maintained by states, cities, counties,
private individuals and corporations, and by endowments.
Under N.Y. State law every county must erect and maintain an
institution for the care of its tuberculous population. Some
trade unions and fraternal organizations established sanatoria
for their members. The Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. of
New York built for its employees one of the best sanatoria in
the country. The trend away from sanatorium treatment which
is to be observed on the continent of Europe has not been mani-
fest in the United States. Artificial pneumothorax is the only
surgical measure which has gained anything like a vogue: Amer-
ican observers are unanimous as to its usefulness in selected cases.
Heliotherapy and phototherapy for surgical tuberculosis were
used, but only sporadically, and very few reports as to their
results appeared in American medical literature. Chemotherapy
was under extensive experimentation at the Phipps Institute in
Philadelphia and at the University of Chicago: results have not
warranted its application to human tuberculosis. Tuberculin
treatment is practised with more discrimination than formerly.
The decade was notable for the use and development of the
X-ray in the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. As an aid to!
diagnosis it became indispensable in routine tuberculosis prac-
tice. It is the better American opinion that the roentgenologist
must work hand in hand with the practitioner and that good
diagnostic judgment is attained only by the proper analysis and!
evaluation of information yielded by physical examination, lab- !
oratory procedures and X-ray observation together: no single)
one of these will alone suffice in routine diagnosis. Diagnosis of I
tuberculosis by tuberculin was practically abandoned, few cases ;
having proved amenable to this method.
The practitioner of 1920 regarded tuberculosis from a point
of view quite different from that of 1910. The relatively recent
disclosure that tuberculosis exists as a latent infection in almost
all people and that infection confers a measure of specific immu-
nity to reinfection gave rise to the almost necessary presumption
that adult pulmonary tuberculosis develops from infection ac-
quired in childhood and that the adult is insusceptible to expo-
sure to infection from without. By 1915 this opinion had become
almost a dogma. But during 1918-20 opinion became less posi-
tive; an increasing number of studies by American authorities
showed that conditions are only relative. Although early infec-
tion and immunity therefrom are conceded, it is maintained that
infection is capable of complete healing and that immunity may
greatly diminish or even disappear; and that, therefore, there is
'every likelihood that reinfections and active disease from them
are possible at any period of life.
TUNISIA TURBINES, STEAM
787
The study of tuberculosis and medical education in connexion |
with it received a great impetus from several directions. The Phipps
Institute at Philadelphia was established at the opening of the dec-
ade; a tuberculosis research laboratory at Johns Hopkins University
in 1916; and one in connexion with the National Jewish Hospital for
Consumptives at Denver in 1918. Edward L. Trudeau, the recog-
i nized pioneer and leader of tuberculosis activities in the United
States, died in 1915. During the last year of his life there was
planned the Trudeau School of Tuberculosis, the first of its kind, to
; give systematic instruction to physicians. This held its first session
at Saranac Lake, N.Y., in 1916, and was so successful that several
others were established in other parts of the country. As a me-
morial to Trudeau, funds were raised to establish the Edward L. Tru-
1 deau Foundation, which aims to carry on research work and the
Trudeau School and assist in the administration of the Trudeau
Sanatorium. In 1916 The American Review of Tuberculosis, a monthly
scientific periodical, was founded by the National Tuberculosis
Association. It was in 1921 the only tuberculosis journal in the
Tin ted States and had done much to stimulate the study and
; investigation of the subject.
Perhaps the most significant and unique achievement of the
period was the Framingham (Mass.) Health and Tuberculosis Dem-
onstration. Supported by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Com-
pany and the National Tuberculosis Association, this agency under-
took a tuberculosis survey of a community of 15,000 people, to
intend through six years. The work began in 1916. By 1920 the
greater part of the population had been studied in its medical, eco-
nomic and sociological relations. The survey established many
facts, which seemed likely to serve as important data upon which
future campaigns against tuberculosis might be based. Between
: 1916 and 1920 the tuberculosis death-rate of the community fell
from 121-5 to 64-5 per 100,000. At the same time it was shown
that the ratio of active cases to deaths was 9 or 10 to I, instead of
3 to I, the ratio which records of the community had previously
shown. The survey supplied standards of diagnosis and treatment,
of case detection, of school, factory and home control, of necessary
expenditures against tuberculosis, etc., which promised to be of
service not only to the whole nation but to the world at large.
(A. K. K.)
TUNISIA (see 27.393). The pop., according to the 1911 census,
consisted of 1,739,744 natives; 11,300 Maltese and 50,477 Jews.
There are but few Arabs, the majority of the population being
I \rabic-speaking Mussulman Berbers. The chief feature of the
. European population is the presence of large numbers of Italians,
. ,vho compete with the French in influence, and who have certain
privileges with regard to language and education. According
the 1921 census the European pop. amounted to 156,125, of
, vhom 54,477 were French, 84,819 Italian, and 13,509 Maltese.
These figures show an increase of 8,000 in the French inhabitants
ince the census of 1911, and augur well for the further develop-
ncnt of French immigration to the protectorate.
j Since 1905 Tunis has had a Consulting Conference formed by
.5 French members chosen by universal suffrage, and 16 natives,
ne of whom is Jewish, nominated from among the notables by
he Government. This body expresses its views on all financial
, natters of interest to Tunis, whenever any fresh reforms place
urther burdens on the country.
c The country is essentially agricultural, and cereals are raised on a
in,<e scale. In 1919, 514,861 hectares were under wheat, and pro-
' uced 1,450,000 quintals. Vines are grown intensively over 23,246
"ectares, and in 1919, 444,157 hectolitres of wine were produced.
i>live trees cover a section of the country, and produced 191,836
uintals in 1919. The export of olives has a promising future. Fish-
ig and the sponge industry occupy quite a number of the population,
ron and zinc are another resource, 360,453 tons of iron were extracted
1 1919, their value being 14,500,000 francs. The chief mineral
realth of the protectorate lies in the immense phosphate deposits,
hich are worked on a big scale. In 1919, 815,385 tons were ex-
| 'acted, of a value of 36,692,325 francs ; this is a considerable drop, for
i 1915 the tonnage figure was 1,075,214 tons. There are valuable
uarries and mineral springs. General trade in 1919 amounted to
^7,789,000 francs, of which 285,761,000 francs represented imports.
;'he share of France in the imports was 92,309,893 and of Great
,'ritain 67,106,084 francs. Of the exports France absorbed 129,932,-
X>, and Great Britain 15,670,000. In 1918 the total general trade
mounted to 436,990,000 francs, 207,442,000 francs of which were
nports. In the last normal year before the World War, the figure
as 322,918,000, of which 144,256,000 francs were imports.
TUPPER, SIR CHARLES, BART. (1821-1915), Canadian states-
lan (see 27.410), died Oct. 30 1915.
TURBINES, STEAM (see 25.823 and 842). The progress of
ie steam turbine during 1910-21 was very marked both as
:gards size and efficiency. The pure Curtis type, in which
velocity compounding exists at every pressure stage, has been
abandoned, except possibly for very small powers, and the
design of impulse turbines now follows generally along the lines
first laid down by Rateau, and developed principally by Rateau
and Zoelly. A single Curtis wheel is frequently used to absorb
the velocity due to the expansion of the steam in the first stage,
as this practice permits of a greater heat drop in that stage,
so that the pressure and superheat are considerably reduced
before the steam is admitted to the body of the turbine. Velocity
compounding is recognized as less efficient than the abstraction
of the energy of the steam by single impulse blading, but the
practical advantage of obtaining a large heat drop in the first
stage is often considered to outweigh a slight loss of efficiency.
The typical impulse turbine of to-day consists of a horizontal
shaft carrying a number of disc wheels, each furnished with a
single row of blades around its circumference, and running in its
own separate compartment. The diaphragms which separate
the compartments contain nozzles which are so proportioned
that the steam expanding in them from the pressure which exists
in one compartment to that in the next acquires just the velocity
which can be efficiently absorbed by the wheel in the second
compartment. The description later of a modern impulse turbine
will make clear its construction and principles of action.
The reaction machine still maintains its position as regards
efficiency and, like the impulse machine, is employed for very
large powers. In modern machines, although the thermodynamic
principles are identical with those of the earlier machines, there
has been a considerable change in details of construction. The
modern reaction turbine is frequently fitted with a velocity
compounded impulse wheel, upon which the steam acts before
passing to the reaction blading, the reason for this being the
advantage of reducing the temperature and pressure of the steam
before it is admitted to the body casing. It is not unusual to
design the impulse wheel so that it absorbs about one quarter of
the available energy of the steam, with the result that the drum
may be materially shortened, the number of rows of reaction
blading greatly reduced, and the cost of the turbine lessened.
Other features which are. typical of modern reaction machines
are the great care taken to eliminate causes of distortion in the
casing, by avoiding ports and irregularities of the metal. The
casing is always made as symmetrical as possible.
The Reaction Steam Turbine. Enormous progress has been
made with the reaction turbine invented by Sir Charles Parsons,
both as regards size and efficiency, and corresponding mechanical
developments have taken place in the design. Land turbines of
more than about 10,000 K.W. capacity are usually constructed in
two or more parts, each part being a complete turbine, but
utilizing only a portion of the total pressure drop of the steam.
Sometimes the parts are placed side by side, each driving an
independent electric generator, but otherwise they are arranged
in tandem on a continuation of the same shaft.
This latter arrangement is illustrated in fig. I, which shows a
section through a large modern two-cylinder machine constructed
by Messrs. C. A. Parsons & Co. Ltd. The steam passes from left
to right through the blading of the high-pressure cylinder, and is
then conducted by means of the circular external pipe to the centre
of the low-pressure cylinder. Here it divides, flowing axially in
each direction through the blading to the exhaust branches whence
it passes to the condenser beneath. The low-pressure cylinder
is built on the " double flow " principle in order to avoid the exces-
sive length of blades and size of exhaust branch which would other-
wise be required. In turbines of the reaction type there is a differ-
ence of pressure between the two sides of every row of blades, and
there is thus a corresponding tendency for the steam to leak past
the row without passing through the blading. This leakage was a
source of considerable inefficiency, and to minimize it, the custom
was to employ the smallest practicable radial clearance between the
tips of the blading and the opposing surface of the drum or casing.
These fine clearances were a source of weakness, as in the event of a
slight distortion of the parts by straining or uneven heating, or in
case of vibration occurring, there was always a chance of contact
occurring, and the danger of this resulting in a stripping of the
blades. In order to avoid the fine radial clearances with their
attendant danger, Messrs. Parsons introduced the system of end-
tightened blading, which now represents their standard practice
for the high-pressure end of the turbine where the density of the
steam makes fine clearances essential. This is illustrated in fig. 2.
788
TURBINES, STEAM
It will be noted that the spacing pieces at the roots of each row of
blades project above the surfaces of the rotor and cylinder, as the
case may be, and form a continuous barrier. There is a thin brass
shrouding strip rivetted to the free ends of the blades, which pro-
jects over the side of the blades and is almost in contact with the
barrier of the next row. The space between the projecting edge
of the shrouding strip and the adjacent barrier forms the actual
working clearance which can be adjusted to any desired amount
while the machine is running. The radial clearances between the
shrouding and the surfaces of the rotor and casing are never less
than tV in., so that contact is out of the question. Considerably
greater economy is said to be obtainable with this type of blading.
CYUNBl. -
The modern type of blading is illustrated in fig. 3. The blades,
made of drawn brass strip, are assembled in units, complete with
spacing pieces and shrouding. The blades and spacing pieces are
brazed solidly together at the roots, and circumferential serrations
are then cut in the solid part as shown.
The following table gives the results actually obtained with
certain large turbo alternators of the Parsons Company :
Installation
Chicago
Carville
Lots Road
Dunstan
Date of test
Nov. 1918
Nov. 1919
June 1916
Mar. 1921
K.W. Economical
rating
20,000
10,000
15,000
12,000
K.W. Output .
21,227
9-991
15-047
11,967
Speed, r.p.m.
75"
2,442
1,000
2,400
Gauge pressure at
stop valve, Ib.
202-4
251
176-5
175-7
Temperature at stop
valve, deg. F.
548-7
687
524-3
607-1
Superheat, deg. F. .
159-8
281
146-1
229-2
Vacuum, ins. Hg.
1-13
0-96
0-97
1-02
Heat drop, B.Th.U.
per Ib. .
408
459-4
402-8
421-2
Steam consump. per
K.W.H. .
10-84
10-04
11-82
10-80
Efficiency ratio .
77-4
73-98
71-80
75-20
Thermodynamic effi-
ciency
25-31
25-7
23-35
24-70
Length of time tur-
bine had been work-
ing . . . .
5 years.
2 1 years.
3 years.
4 years.
In all cases the instruments used were calibrated before and aftci
the tests, and the steam consumption was obtained by weighing th(
condensate, so that a very high degree of accuracy was obtained
The tests go to show, incidentally, that reaction machines <i<
fall off in efficiency after several years' operation under commercia
conditions of service.
FIG. 3
The Impulse Steam Turbine. The Rateau steam turbine is a,
typical modern multistage impulse turbine. Fig. 4 shows a longi-
tudinal section through a machine of this type constructed in 1919;
by the Metropolitan Vickers Electrical Co. for the Dalmarnock;
power station, the machine in question having a maximum continu-
ous rating of 18,750 K.W. at a speed of 1,500 revs, per minute.
The shaft carries altogether 15 wheels keyed upon it, each wheel
running in a separate compartment. The diaphragms dividing tn
compartments from each other are fitted with nozzles, in which the
steam undergoes successive partial expansions in its progress through
the turbine, and from which it emerges with a velocity due to the
drop in pressure which it has undergone. This velocity is abstracted;
by the action of the blading which the steam enters after issuing
from each set of nozzles, the steam being brought more or less to
rest and the energy due to its partial expansion appearing as use-
ful mechanical work on the shaft.
In all large machines of this type, especially when they are work
ing with a high vacuum, the volume of the steam %t the low-pres-
sure end becomes so great that the length of the turbine blades at
this part tends to become excessive. In the machine in question a
part of the steam, after having passed through 10 wheels, being!
then at a pressure of about 4 Ib. abs. is passed out of the casing and
used to heat the boiler feed water, the feed heater for this purpose
being shown in section in the illustration. This practice diminishes,
TURBINES, STEAM
789
to a certain extent, the volume of the steam which passes through
the remaining wheels, but in the machine illustrated, the makers
have employed a special device to permit a reduction of the length
of the last row of blades. The steam which enters the last wheel
but one, is divided into two parts, that which acts on the outer
annulus of the blade ring passing away directly to the condenser,
and only that which acts on the inner annulus being afterwards
conducted to the final wheel. The blading on the last wheel there-
fore only deals with about half the weight of steam which passes
through the preceding wheel, and it can handle this amount at a
very reduced pressure.
A rigid coupling is fitted to connect the turbine shaft with the
shaft of the alternator, and the turbine shaft is located axially by
means of an adjustable thrust block of the Michell type which
j takes care of any unbalanced end pressure along the shaft.
The mean diameter of the blading of this machine is 84 in. and
the length of the last row of blades is 24 inches. The mean circum-
ferential velocity of the blading is 550 ft. per second, the tip velocity
of the longest blades being 708 ft. per second. The turbine is designed
to work with a stop- valve pressure of 250 Ib. per sq. in., a tempera-
ture of 650 F. and a vacuum of 0-9 in. of mercury, thus having an
available heat drop of 455-2 B.Th.U. per Ib. of steam. Under
these conditions the guaranteed steam consumpion is 10-2 Ib.
'per K.W.H., this figure being the same for both I5,OOO-K.W. and
18,750-KAV. load.
FIG.5
The Ljungstrom Steam Turbine. In the early days of the reac-
on turbine, a number of machines were built by the Hon. C. A.
arsons in which the steam passed radially outwards between two
scs carrying rings of blades projecting axially from their opposed
ces, one_ disc being stationary and the other driving the shaft of
i electric generator. Mechanical difficulties were experienced,
'incipally due to the distortion of the discs by uneven heating,
id the design was soon completely abandoned in favour of the
:ial flow type. In the year 1910 Messrs. Birger and Frederic
Ljungstrom of Stockholm built an entirely new type of radial flow
reaction machine which was conspicuous not only for its mechanical
merits but for its great efficiency. The Ljungstrom turbine is now
being developed in sizes up to 30,000 K.W. capacity, and is manu-
factured in Great Britain by the Brush Electrical Engineering Co.
and in the United States by the General Electric Company. The
steam is admitted between two discs and in its passage from their
center to their circumference it passes through concentric blading
rings mounted alternately on the faces of the discs. The discs
revolve at equal speeds in opposite directions, so that the relative
blade speed is twice as great as in an ordinary machine of the same
Fl C. 6
FIG. 7
revolutions and diameter, with the consequence that for equal
efficiency the number of blade rings is only one quarter as great.
Each disc is fastened to the end of a separate alternator shaft, and
as the turbine comes up to speed, the alternators come automatically
into synchronism and operate in parallel so that they act virtually
as a single machine.
87 fO.
FIG. 8
The mechanical construction of the Ljungstrom turbine is unique.
Fig. 5 shows a section through a machine to develop 5,000 K.W.
at 3,000 revs, per minute, the illustration including the two ends
of the alternator shafts, upon which the turbine discs are mounted.
The construction will be better understood by reference to figs. 6
10 which show the most important details to a larger scale. The
steam enters the turbine through the branched pipe shown in fig. 5
and thence passes to the centre of each disc through the holes
marked 2 in figs. 6 and 7, which illustrate the disc alone. It will be
seen that the face of the disc contains a number of circumferential
grooves. Each groove carries a blade ring, shown to a larger scale
in fig. 8, in which I represents the disc; 2 a seating ring; 3 a caulk-
ing strip; 4 an expansion ring; 5 and 6 rolling edges; 7 steam pack-
ing strips; 8 caulking strips; 9 strengthening ring; 10 dovetail profile
ring; II the blade itself. These blade rings are interleaved as they
project alternately from the discs, and steam leakage is checked by
the thin fins 7. The blades are made from drawn steel strip and
are welded solidly into the strengthening rings 10.
The conical steel expansion ring, 4, is a particularly important
feature of the blading system, and similar rings will be seen at I in
fig. 7, where they serve to connect the three parts of which the disc
is composed. The ring of holes shown at 3 in fig. 7 is to admit the
extra steam necessary for overload conditions, the inner rings of
blading being then short circuited. The pressure of steam in the
blading naturally tends to thrust the discs apart. It is therefore
balanced by an arrangement of " dummies," or labyrinth discs, as
shown in fig. 5. A detail of the labyrinth, to a larger scale, is given
in fig. 9. To prevent the high-pressure steam leaking along the
shafts, these are fitted with labyrinth packings, a portion of one of
these packings being illustrated in fig. 10. The whole packing con-
sists of a number of rings keyed alternately to the shaft and to the
housing and having deep grooves turned circumferentially in the
790
TURBINES, STEAM
sides. The rings interleave in the manner shown, the edges of the
grooves being bent down so as practically to make contact with the
walls of the grooves in the adjacent rings. An extremely effective
and compact labyrinth is thus formed.
The efficiency of the Ljungstrom turbine is remarkably high for
machines of moderate capacity. Independent tests of a I.5OO-K.W.
machine, after 15 months' service, have shown a steam consump-
tion of 1 1-95 lb. per K.W.H., with steam at 208 Ib. per sq. in. abs.
and 569 F. temperature, and a vacuum of 1-29 in. Hg. The no-load
consumption of the same machine was only 1340 lb. per hour, or
7'5 % of the full-load consumption.
The appearance of a complete Brush-Ljungstrom turbo-alternator
is shown in fig. II.
FIG. 9
Steam Conditions in Turbines. The steam consumption of a tur-
bine depends not only upon the excellence of its mechanical design
but upon the amount of heat in every pound of steam delivered to
the turbine which is available for conversion into work. The avail-
able heat may be increased by increasing the pressure and tempera-
ture of the entering steam and by lowering the pressure at which it
is exhausted. Progress in these directions is limited by construc-
tional difficulties, but nevertheless striking advances have been
made. The best practice of the time may be exemplified by the
lo,ooo-K.W. machine installed in 1910 at the Carville station of the
Newcastle Electric Supply Co., which operated with steam at
190 lb. per sq. in. .gauge pressure and a superheat of 150 F. at the
stop valve, and a vacuum of one in. of mercury. Under these con-
ditions there was an available heat drop of 407-2 B.Th.U. per lb. of
steam. In 1916 a machine of n,ooo-K.VV. was installed in the same
station with a stop-valve pressure of 250 lb. gauge, a superheat of
244 F. and a vacuum of one in. of mercury. This change in steam
conditions increased the heat drop to 450-2 B.Th.U. per Ib. of
steam. In 1921, a machine having an economical rating of 25,000
K.W., installed at Manchester, utilized a stop-valve pressure of 350
lb. gauge, a superheat of 264 F. and a vacuum of 0-9 in. of mer-
cury, thus working with an available heat drop of 484-7 B.Th.U.
per lb. of steam. It may be taken that modern practice sanctions
steam pressures up to 350 lb. per sq. in., temperatures up to 700 F.
and vacua as high as 29-1 in., with the barometer at 30 inches. Nc
commercial reciprocating engine could work under such steam con-
ditions with anything like the efficiency a turbine would show in
similar circumstances.
Speeds of Turbines. The principal use' of steam turbines on land
being to drive electric generators, the speed at which these can bi
run controls to a large extent the speeds for which turbines can be
designed. Continuous current turbo generators are comparatively
small in size and few in numbers, and as these are almost exclusively
driven through reduction gearing on account of the difficulties o'l
commutation at high speeds, their characteristics do not materially
affect the design of the turbines. All large land type turbines arc
directly coupled to alternators and as the frequency of alternation ia
FIG. 10
standardized in Great Britain at 50 and 25 cycles per second, and in
the United States and Canada at 60 cycles per second, the speeds
of turbines have to be correspondingly standardized. If F denotesj
the frequency, and N the number of pairs of poles of the alternator,
then =^ denotes the only possible speed, in revolutions per
minute, at which the turbine can be run. In Great Britain the
standard turbine speeds are therefore 3,000, 1,500, 1,000 and 750
revs, per minute, while for 60 cycles they are 3,600, 1,800, 1, 200 and |
900 revs, per minute. It is naturally desirable to build any turbine
for the highest speed at which the desired output can be economically ;
obtained. Considerations of stress limit the dimensions for a jjiven
speed, and the dimensions limit the volume of steam which can be >
TURBINES, STEAM
efficiently utilized, so that in practice a fairly definite limit of power
corresponding to each speed is obtained.
Turbo alternators have been satisfactorily built, having a maxi-
mum continuous rating of over 6,000 K.W. at 3,600 revs., the limit
of economical rating for this speed being at the present time about
5,000 K.W. At 3,000 revs, per minute the maximum continuous
rating is about !3,75oK.W., the economical output being 1 2 ,500 K.W.,
the machine built in 1921 for the Liverpool corporation being of this
size. There are several turbines with a maximum continuous rating
of 30,000 K.W. running at 1,800 revs, per minute, and at 1,500 revs,
per minute, a continuous rating of 35,000 K.W. appears to be about
the present limit, both for impulse and reaction machines. Machines
of this size and speed were installed in Chicago in 1918, and in
Paris in 1921. In machines of 30,000 K.W., and over it is not uncom-
monly the practice to use two or more generators, the whole unit
really consisting of mechanically independent high- and low-pressure
turbines. Certain units built by the Westinghouse Co. in the
United States have a maximum rated output of even 60,000 K.W.,
but these in fact consist of three independent turbo generators,
through which the steam passes in series. This multiplication of
cylinders and shafts is of course the usual custom in connexion with
marine turbines.
The practice of dividing a turbine into two parts, namely a high-
and a low-pressure cylinder arranged in tandem, was first intro-
duced many years ago and the design has been standardized for
the larger machines of the reaction type. It has the advantage
that the separate casings are shorter and less liable to distortion
than an equivalent single casing, while by .making the low : pressure
drum of larger diameter and of the double flow type, the requisite
area for the enormous volume of the low-pressure steam is conveni-
ently provided for. The importance of this will be realized from the
fact that in a modern turbine the ratio of expansion of the steam
may be over 800- 1. Fig. I shows a section through a two-cylinder
tandem turbine as constructed by the Parsons Co., and fig. 12 illus-
trates the appearance of a two-cylinder side by side arrangement
as used with gearing for marine purposes.
Governing of Steam Turbines. The speed regulation of turbines is
effected by a centrifugal governor driven by worm gearing from the
main shaft, which acts in the case of all reaction machines by con-
trolling the pressure at which steam is admitted to the casing.
In machines constructed either wholly or partially on the impulse
principle, the governor may open up successively extra nozzles or
groups of nozzles as the load increases. Loads in excess of the
maximum economical load are sometimes provided for by admitting
steam to the turbine at some intermediate point, thus raising the
pressure there above the normal full load pressure and enabling the
turbine to do more work, although at a somewhat reduced efficiency.
The by-pass valves for this purpose may be hand operated, but as a
rule they are under the control of the governor and are thus auto-
matically opened when the extra steam is required to maintain the
speed. In view of the close governing required on turbo generators
and of the size and weight of the valves which have to be operated,
it is the universal practice to employ a relay arrangement on all
but the smallest machines, the governor merely controlling the
position of a small balanced piston valve which admits oil under
pressure to one side or the other of a piston which does the actual
ivork of operating the valves. The pressure oil is supplied from the
ubrication system of the turbine.
Bearings and Lubrication. The old sleeve bearing, originally
levised by Sir Charles Parsons and employed on his earlier machines,
las been entirely superseded and turbine bearings are now con-
itructed on ordinary lines, differing only from slow-speed bearings
n their proportions and in the provision necessary for their proper
ubrication. The bearings are made in two halves, split horizontally,
he interior working surfaces being of white metal cast and anchored
nto the " steps " which are of cast iron or bronze. These are usually
itted with shimplates to provide a fine vertical and lateral adjust-
nent, and are frequently supported in spherical seatings to permit
>f a certain amount of self-alignment. Safety strips, often of bronze,
vhich normally lie slightly below the surface of the white bearing
netal, are usually provided. These are intended to carry the weight
>f the shaft safely in the event of the white metal being melted out,
.nd thus prevent injury to the blading until the machine can be
topped. In all turbine bearings the important thing is to insure a
opious supply of lubricating oil, not so much for lubrication as to
arry off the heat generated by friction and to maintain the bear-
ngs at a reasonable working temperature. Water-cooled bearings
ave been used by some makers, but the most approved practice is
rely on the flow of oil through the bearing to keep its tempera-
ure down. Oil is usually delivered to the bearings at a pressure of
bout 15 Ib. per sq. in., a gauge being provided on each bearing to
idicale whether the pressure is being maintained. On modern
urbines an automatic device operated by the oil pressure is fitted,
:'hich shuts the machine down in case of any failure of the oil supply.
Bearings up to 8-in. diameter are usually bored larger than the
baft to the extent of about 0-004 m - f r every in. of shaft diame-
:r. In larger bearings the clearance is proportionately less. This
.Dmewhat large clearance enables the heat to be carried away by
le continuous wash of fresh cool oil. The shaft, when running, is
1 ept out of metallic contact with the bearing by a thin film of oil
791
continually dragged underneath it by its rotation. It is this film
which supports the shaft, and the pressure of the latter on the bear-
ing must therefore not be greater than the film can stand. Theory
and experiment both indicate that the greater the surface velocity
of the shaft, the more effectively is the film established, and the
greater therefore the permissible load on the bearing. But the fact
that bearings have to start from rest, when the film is imperfect,
imposes a practical limit to the load which can be imposed.
A formula connecting permissible pressure with velocity, given
by Mr. F. H. Clough, is P = 17 V V, in which P denotes the pressure
in pounds per sq. in. of projected area, and V = velocity of surface
of shaft in ft. per second. This is said to be applicable to bearings of
normal design in which the length is from twice to three times the
diameter. Many designers, however, use the rule that PXV must
not exceed 5,600, a simple rule which gives good results in prac-
tice, and probably has a considerable margin of safety when the
speeds are high and when there is no vibration. One large manu-
facturing firm is said to take the permissible pressure per sq. in.
of projected area as ranging from 167 to 235 when the velocity
ranges from 20 to 73-5 ft. per second. Modern practice is to give P
a value not exceeding 150 Ib. in bearings where the velocity is not
greater than 30 to 35 ft. per second, and the temperature compara-
tively low, say, 100 to 1 10 F. Such conditions would apply to low
speed marine turbine bearings. The bearings of land turbines
usually work at temperatures from 120 F. to 160 F., but the latter
temperature should not be exceeded, as not only is the oil injured,
but its viscosity is so low that the supporting film is thinned and the
margin of safety becomes low.
For the heat generated in a turbine bearing Stoney gives the
formula B.Th.U. per hour =
190 /. d. v
'32
in which / and d are
respectively the length and diameter of the bearing expressed in in.,
v is the velocity of the surface of the shaft in ft. per second, and t
is the temperature on the Fahrenheit scale. The same authority
quotes the following formula as often used in slow-speed marine
practice: B.Th.U. per hour = IXdXv 1 ' 3 *. Treating the heat which
escapes by radiation and conduction as negligible, these formulae
give the heat which has to be carried away by the oil and extracted
by the oil cooler. This heat of course is the equivalent of the work
lost by friction in the bearing. The increase of temperature of the
oil passing through the bearing should not exceed 10 to 20 F., and
if the specific heat of oil be taken at 0-31 the minimum quantity of
oil required for each bearing may be readily calculated. In practice
it is advisable to increase this calculated fig. by from 30 to 50%,
to allow a margin for steam heat travelling along the shaft and other
contingencies.
Mechanical Gearing of Turbines. The De Laval steam turbine,
consisting of a single impulse wheel running at a speed of 30,000 to
10,000 revolutions per minute according to the size, has always
contained reduction gearing as an integral part of the machine
because such speeds are far too high for driving ordinary machinery.
Turbines of this type have, however, only been built for powers up
to a few hundred horse-power, and although the use of reduction
gear may be dated from the introduction of the Laval turbine in
1886, it never became a recognized practice for large powers until it
was developed by Sir Charles A. Parsons as the solution of the prob-
lem of marine propulsion. De Laval had shown that it was possible
to transmit power satisfactorily through mechanical gearing running
with a circumferential velocity of over 100 ft. per second. The gears
he used were of the double helical type with a spiral angle of 45
degrees. The reduction ratio was usually about 10:1, and the pitch
of the teeth varied from 0-15 in. to 0-26 in., according to the power
of the turbine. The De Laval gear embodied all the features which
have been found! necessary to the successful performance of modern
gears transmitting several thousand horse-power through a single
pinion. The double helical form of tooth of comparatively fine pitch
has been retained, as this design eliminated end thrust and insured
silent running by reason'of the number of teeth simultaneously in
contact. Ample lubrication of the teeth by means of oil jets was also
employed by De Laval, who succeeded in producing durable and
satisfactory gears which had an efficiency of about 97 per cent.
These gears are used up to about 600 H.P. which is the commercial
limit of the type of turbine for which they are designed.
Steam turbines of any type, designed with due regard to efficiency
and cost of manufacture, require to run at a far higher speed of
revolution than is practicable for screw propellers, especially when
the latter are employed to drive ships of moderate speed. The
coupling of a turbine, therefore, directly to a propeller shaft involves
a compromise in design, in which the speed is greater than desirable
for the propeller yet so low as to require the turbine to be of greater
size and weight and of lower efficiency than it would otherwise be.
In the case of high-speed vessels direct coupling afforded a commer-
cially acceptable solution of the problem of turbine propulsion,
and for vessels of eighteen knots speed and over, such as warships,
passenger liners and cross-channel boats, the direct coupled turbine
soon became the recognized driving power. But ordinary cargo
vessels andtramp steamers, with an average speed of 10 or 12 knots,
were outside the practical field of the steam turbine until speed
reduction gearing was available to couple a high-speed turbine with
792
a slow moving propeller. It was really the problem of the slow
speed ship which brought about the development of marine tur-
bine gearing, and now that the mechanical difficulties have been
overcome, the direct coupled marine turbine is likely to be largely
displaced by the geared turbine in all classes of vessels.
The first example of marine turbine reduction gearing appears
to have been in 1897, in connexion with a twin screw launch, in
which the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Co. fitted a IO-H.P. tur-
bine driving the two shafts by means of helical gearing having a
speed ratio of 14:1. The result appears to have been entirely satis-
factory. Other experiments followed, and in 1909, the " Vespa-
sian," a cargo vessel of 4,350 tons displacement, was fitted 1 with
geared turbines driving a single propeller. This vessel had pre-
viously been equipped with triple expansion reciprocating engines
of the usual type, and before these were removed they were put
into perfect order, and very careful tests were made to determine the
efficiency and performance of the vessel. The geared turbines drove
the same shaft and propeller as the engines had done and were sup-
plied with steam from the same boilers. The power developed was
about 1,000 H.P. and the shaft ran at 70 revs, per minute, the gear
reduction ratio being 19-9:1. The installation of the turbines
resulted in an increase of about one knot in speed for the same coal
consumption, and the results of the trials were highly satisfactory
in every respect, and convincing as to the advantages of geared
turbines over reciprocating engines. After the " Vespasian " had
run 18,000 m. in regular service, the pinion was examined and found
to be in perfect condition, the wear not exceeding 0-002 inches.
(See Trans. I.N.A. 1910 and 1911.)
The success of the " Vespasian " led to rapid developments. In
1910 the British Admiralty adopted gearing, the torpedo boats
" Badger " and " Beaver " being the first warships to be equipped
with geared turbines. In these vessels each L.P. turbine drove its
shaft directly, but the H.P. and cruising turbines were geared to a
forward extension of the turbine spindles. At full load about 3,000
H.P. were transmitted through each set of gearing. Six years later
complete gear drives had become the standard practice for British
war vessels of all types and by 1920 some 652 gears, transmitting
an aggregate of 7,280,000 shaft H.P., were fitted, or on order for
the royal navy (Tostevin, Trans. I.N.A. 1920).
The appended particulars of H.M. battle cruiser " Hood," of
144,000 shaft H.P., which was completed in 1920, will indicate the
development of gearing for turbines and will at the same time indi-
cate the proportions which have been adopted.
Gearing, of H. M.S. "Hood."
Horse-power of H.P. turbine
Horse-power of L.P. turbine .
Revs, per minute H.P. turbine
Revs, per minute L.P. turbine
Revs, per minute propellers .
Diameter of pitch circle, in H.P. pinion
Diameter of pitch circle, in L.P. pinion
Diameter of pitch circle, in gear wheel
Number of teeth H.P. pinion
Number of teeth L.P. pinion.
Number of teeth gear wheel ....
Circular pitch, in
Normal pitch, in
Helical angle of teeth
Effective width of pinion face, in. .
Number of teeth engaging ....
Total length of tooth contact, in H.P. pinion
Total length of tooth contact, in L.P. pinion
Load in Ib. per in. on total \ H.P.
Width of tooth face ( = P) / L.P. .
Value of K in formula P = K VP.D. \ H.P.
Value of K in formula P = K ^p.D. / L.P.
Velocity of pitch line ft. per second
TURBINES, STEAM
17-500
18,500
1,497
1,098
2IO
20-174
27-5I
I43-787
55
75
392
I-I533
0-9985
29 '57'
73-25
36-6
128-8
132-9
965
1030
196
132
The earliest practice with regard to marine, gearing was to use a
helical angle of 23 in conjunction with a normal pitch of 0-75
inches. Subsequently a helical angle of 45 which had been found
successful in the De Laval gears was adopted with the idea of securing
quieter running, but modern practice favours an angle of about
30, as teeth cut at this angle will run silently, while their less inclina-
tion to the axis of the shaft results in increased efficiency and greater
effective strength. The usual angle of obliquity is 145 ', and the
normal pitch except for the very largest gears is nearly always
0-583 inches. The permissible pressure in Ib. per in. of axial length
of the pinion is determined by the formula P = KVD in which D is
the pitch diameter of the pinion in in. and K is a constant which
has a value usually between the limits of 160 and 230. This formula
represents the practice of the Parsons Co., who have a preponder-
ating experience on these gears. There is reason for believing, how-
ever, that the pressure might be made more directly 'proportional
to the pitch diameter. A circumferential velocity of 150 ft. per
second on the pitch line has been successfully employed, and it is
possible that this might be exceeded with safety.
For turbine gearing the British Admiralty specify that the pin-
ion shall be made of oil-hardened nickel steel, containing not less
than 3-5% of nickel and from 0-30 to 0-35% of carbon, with an
ultimate tensile strength of 40 to 45 tons. The gear wheels are to
be of steel of 31 to 35 tons ultimate tensile strength with 26%
elongation in two inches.
It is essential that the teeth of turbine gearing shall be very
effectively lubricated, and to insure this, oil under a pressure of
from 5 to 10 Ib. per sq. in. issues in jets which flood the teeth imme-
diately before they come into engagement. A further point of pri-
mary importance is that the fitting and alignment of the gears
must be as perfect as possible and great care must be taken to main-
tain and insure these conditions. In America the practice has been
adopted of carrying the pinion on a floating frame with the object
of permitting a certain amount of self-alignment, but the required
correction is of such a very small order of magnitude that the ad-
vantages of the system are doubted by many engineers.
Gearing of British naval turbines is exclusively of the single
reduction type, but double reduction gearing has been largely intro- 1
duced into cargo vessels during recent years, with the object of
efficiently using turbine machinery for ships of comparatively low!
speed without involving too large a reduction ratio for a single pair
of gears. The general design follows mutatis mutandis that of
single reduction gear.
Numerous tests have been carried out to determine the mechani-
cal efficiency of gears of the kind described. The mechanical effi-
ciency of a single reduction gear at full load should be over 98 %,
and 98-5% has been recorded. With double reduction gear the
efficiency is about 97-0%. These figures include bearing friction.
No method of obtaining speed reduction by hydraulic or electrical
methods has yet been devised which will approach the efficiency
obtainable with mechanical gearing.
Fig. 12 gives a good idea of the shafts of the Cunard liner " Tran-
sylvania." built by Scotts Shipbuilding & Engineering Co. Ltd.
An exactly similar set of machinery was fitted to drive the other
shaft. The " Transylvania " was the first Atlantic liner to be fitted
with geared turbines. The vessel had a length of 548 ft. and a gross!
tonnage of 14,500. Each set of turbines and gearing was designed
to develop and transmit 5,500 shaft H.P. and they drove the vessel
at 16-75 knots. The turbines ran at 1,500 revs, per minute and 1
drove the propellers at 120 revs, per minute, the ratio of the gear- 1
ing being therefore 12-5:1. In the illustration the pinion in the
foreground is driven by the high-pressure turbine, the steam from
which operates the low-pressure turbine on the other side of the
gear wheel. The astern turbine, consisting of an impulse wheel
followed by a comparatively few rows of reaction blading, is seen i
on the forward end of the low-pressure turbine. The size of the
machinery is indicated by the fact that the gear wheel is 10 ft. <
in diameter and 5 ft. wide.
THEORY OF THE STEAM TURBINE
Throughout the ensuing section, heat is expressed in foot
pound centigrade units, and the symbols employed have the
following meanings:
H =Total heat in one Ib. of steam.
H w = Total heat in one Ib. of steam at the supersaturation limit or
Wilson line.
= Total heat in one Ib. of steam at the saturation line.
= Volume of one Ib. of steam in cub. ft.
= Volume of one Ib. of steam in cub. ft. at the Wilson line.
= Volume of one Ib. of steam in cub. ft. at the saturation line.
V<t> =Volume of one Ib. of steam in cub. ft. after an isentropic
expansion.
p = Absolute pressure in Ib. per sq. in.
t, = Saturation temperature (centigrade).
t = Efficiency ratio.
r\ = Hydraulic efficiency.
=Thermodynamic head expended in isentropic expansion.
U =Thermodynamic head expended in a practicable expansion,
y = Index for adiabatic expansion.
X = Index for an expansion at constant efficiency.
H.
V
V.
V,
TURBINES, STEAM
= Flow of steam in. Ib. per second.
= Number of pressure stages in an ideal turbine.
= Number of pressure stages in a practicable turbine.
= Blade height of an ideal turbine, in in.
= Blade height of a practicable turbine in in.
=Mean diameter in in. of a row of blades.
= Drum diameter of a reaction turbine.
=Joules equivalent.
(j \ 2 /RPM\ 2
) (_~7^Ty moving rows only being included in the
summation.
From the standpoint of hydraulics there is a somewhat close anal-
ogy between a steam turbine and one operated by water. An
| essential feature in both cases is that the potential energy which a
, fluid possesses in virtue of its pressure is utilized to maintain a flow
, through a set of nozzles or guide vanes. In the ideal case of fric-
tionless flow the energy possessed by unit mass of the fluid is the
same whether it be at rest in the reservoir or whether it forms part
of the jet and has accordingly a kinetic energy due to its velocity.
The theoretical velocity of efflux of a gas can accordingly be deter-
mined by equating the kinetic energy to the work which the same
mass of fluid could perform were it allowed to expand, behind the
piston of an ideal engine, from the pressure of the reservoir down to
that of the receiver into which the discharge takes place. In thus
expanding behind a piston, W, the theoretical work done per Ib. of
; the fluid is given by the equation
[-(if]
where W denotes the work in foot pounds, p and pi the initial
and final pressures, respectively, expressed in Ib. per sq. in., while
Vo represents the original volume of the fluid in cub. ft. at pressure
po and j is the index of adiabatic expansion, on the assumption that
the relationship between the volume and the pressure during such
an expansion can be represented by the formula
i
p y V = constant.
By the principle already stated, the theoretical velocity of efflux
will be obtained by writing
r s j, ^ -. ,1
(i)
M-om this expression it appears that as pi becomes smaller and
smaller becomes greater and greater. When, however, the velocity
)f efflux becomes equal to the velocity of sound in the escaping
luid, any further reduction in pi occasions no increase in the weight
lischarged from the nozzle per second. This follows because the
velocity at which any impulse is transmitted through a medium is
he same as that of sound in the medium. Hence, if, starting from
'in equality of pressure in reservoir and receiver, the receiver pres-
sure is progressively reduced, "news " of each successive, reduction
is transmitted back along the jet into the reservoir at the speed of
' ound, and as a consequence the pressure gradients there undergo a
eadjustment and_the flow into the. nozzle is increased. Once, how-
' ver, the speed of issue exceeds that of sound, no " news " as to any
;urther reduction in the external pressure can reach the interior of
i he reservoir. The pressure gradients therein consequently remain
Unaltered, and the weight of fluid fed to nozzle per second remains
nchanged. This reasoning, which originated with Osborne Rey-
.olds, applies to all cases of the efflux of fluids, although in the case
f a liquid such as water it has no practical significance, as the head
ecessary to generate a velocity equal to that of sound in water
;ould be many miles in height.
In the case of superheated or supersaturated steam, the speed of
Dund is attained when the ratio of the lower pressure pi to the
pper pressure po is equal to 0-5457. No further reduction of the
>wer pressure will increase the weight of steam flowing per second,
ut final velocities of efflux greatly exceeding the velocity of sound
an be attained by making use of a nozzle converging first to the
.iroat and then slowly diverging again. The theoretical velocities
nder such conditions can be calculated from equation (i).
In practice the actual velocity of efflux is less than the theoretical
n account of losses due to nozzle friction. The maximum weight
hich can be discharged per second from a convergent-divergent
ozzle is fixed by the area of the throat. In the case of steam, for
ich sq. in. of throat area the maximum weight which can be passed
er second is
here p a denotes the absolute pressure of supply in Ib. per sq. in.
ad Vo the corresponding specific volume of the steam in cub. ft.
3r Ib. This equation holds whether the steam is superheated or wet.
In equation (i) above, the work due from one Ib. weight of steam
ader pressure po is expressed in ft. Ib., but in steam turbine prac-
793
tice it is generally more conveniently expressed in heat units, and
i_
the convenience is the greater because the equation p y V= con-
stant, is an inexact representation of the relationship between pres-
sure and volume in the adiabatic expansion of steam. By working
in heat units this difficulty is avoided.
If Ib.-centigrade heat units be adopted, the theoretical velocity
of efflux is given by the relation z) = 300-2 V where u denotes the
adiabatic heat drop and is conveniently measured from a Mollier
chart, of which many have been published. A diagrammatic chart
of this kind is reproduced in fig. 13, in which the ordinates represent
entropy, and the abscissae are total heats of steam (see 25.827).
The curves drawn on the chart represent lines of constant pressure,
constant temperature or constant wetness. The use of the chart
is best illustrated by an example. To find the velocity of efflux
from a nozzle supplied with steam at an absolute pressure of 200 Ib.
per sq. in. and at a temperature of 300 C., which is discharging into
a receiver maintained at an absolute pressure of 120 Ib. per sq. in.,
the point A is marked on the chart at a position corresponding to
the initial conditions and a straight line is drawn horizontally (i.e.
with constant entropy) to cut the i2O-lb. pressure line at B. The
length AB, as measured by the scale of total heats, represents 30-6
Ib. centigrade heat units. The theoretical velocity is therefore
3OO-2V3O-6 = l,66o ft. per second nearly.
Owing to nozzle friction the actual velocity will be less than this
figure, which has accordingly to be multiplied by a coefficient, the
value of which is commonly taken to be 0-95 or 0-96. With conver-
gent-divergent nozzles the loss is much greater. The function of the
moving wheel of an impulse turbine is to convert the kinetic energy
of the jet into useful work on the shaft. The method of drawing a
velocity diagram and estimating therefrom the probable efficiency
of conversion is explained in the earlier article on STEAM ENGINE
(25.843). With impulse steam turbines a stage efficiency of about
0-80 can be realized if the blade velocity be sufficiently high. To
obtain such an efficiency the ratio of blade speed to steam speed
should be about 0-47. For commercial reasons this figure is seldom
obtained, but if S represents the actual ratio of blade speed to
steam speed, and 81 the ratio corresponding to maximum efficiency
ili, then the efficiency i\ corresponding to d can be obtained from
the equation
[25 S
IT
A steam impulse turbine generally consists of a series of elemen-
tary turbines or stages arranged in succession on the same shaft.
Suppose the first of the series has unit efficiency and expands the
steam from a pressure of say 200 Ib. per sq. in. and a temperature
of 300 C. to a pressure of 120 Ib. per sq. inch. Then, as shown
above, in the absence of frictional losses, the state of the steam as
delivered to the next elementary turbine would be represented by
the point B on the chart, fig. 13, where the pressure is 120 Ib. per
sq. in. and the total heat 698-2 Ib. centigrade heat units. The
whole of the 30-6 units due in an adiabatic expansion from the
initial conditions to a final pressure of 120 Ib. per sq. in., would in
the assumed case of a perfect turbine be converted into useful work
on the shaft. In practice, rfowever, only a part of this adiabatic heat
drop will be usefully converted, the remainder being wasted in fric-
tion and added as heat to the steam, before it is delivered to the
next elementary turbine, or stage. If the efficiency of conversion
is 0-7, the heat which would be added to the steam in the above
example will be 0-3 X3O-6, or 9-18 Ib. centigrade units, thus making
the total heat of the steam on delivery to the second-stage 698-2 +
9-18 = 707-4 nearly. This gives point C on the chart.
If it be assumed that the second stage expands the steam down to
80 Ib. per sq. in., the adiabatic heat drop will be found as before
by drawing a horizontal line from C to cut the curve for 8o-lb. pres-
sure at D. The length of this line as measured on the scale of total
heats is 22-8 Ib. centigrade heat units. If, as before, we assume that
but 0-7 of this is converted into useful work, the remainder being
added to the steam as heat, the total heat of the steam as delivered
to the third stage will be 707-4 0-7X22-8=691-5 heat units, giving
794
TURBINES, STEAM
us the point E on the chart as representing the condition of the
steam as supplied to the third stage. Proceeding in this way, a
series of " state points " can be marked on the chart, each of which
represents the condition of the steam as supplied to the next ele-
mentary turbine of the series.
So long as the steam is superheated or supersaturated its volume
can be determined, when the pressure and total heat are known,
by Callendar's equation
V= 2-2436
- + 0-0123.
The relation between the volume, pressure and temperature under
the same condition is
i -0706 T /373-
(V-o-oi6)= 0-4213 I JJT-
in which T denotes the absolute temperature on the centigrade scale.
With wet steam expanding in a condition of thermal equilibrium
the volume of the steam is equal to the volume of dry saturated
steam at tHe same pressure, multiplied by the dryness fraction as
read from the chart. Since the steam in passing through a turbine
never does expand in a condition of thermal equilibrium, this case
is of no practical importance.
If MI denotes the adiabatic heat drop for the first stage of the
series, MJ that for the second stage, and so on, then the aggregate
of these values of u for the whole series will be greater, the greater
the number of stages into which the whole turbine is divided. The
ratio of the aggregate to the value of u obtained when the whole
of the expansion is effected in a single stage, is known as the " re-
heat factor " R. In the case of a reaction turbine the number of
stages is so great that the expansion may, for practical purposes,
be considered as effected continuously instead of in a series of
steps. In this case the reheat factor for superheated or supersat-
urated steam can be read off from the diagram fig. 14, which is
reproduced from Martin's New Theory of the Steam Turbine.
most trustworthy experimental data. Callendar's formula for thi
adiabatic expansion of superheated or supersaturated steam is
_I3
p 3 T = constant
where T denotes the absolute temperature.
In a continuous expansion of superheated or supersaturated stean
effected with a hydraulic efficiency i), the relation between volume
and pressure during the expansion is represented accurately by thj
expression
f V 0-016 j = constant-
-(2)
where r- =
1-0-230773.
A closely approximate expression has been given by Callendar ir
the form
(H 464) p S3 =constant-
-(3)-
F I C. 14
The " efficiency ratio " of a turbine is denoted by , and is denned
as the ratio which the useful work W actually done by the steam
bears to that which would be performed by a turbine of unit effi-
ciency, so that W = e. The hydraulic efficiency, denoted by T), is
defined as the ratio of the work done to the total effective thermo-
dynamic head, which head, as pointed out above, is always greater
than u in the case of a multistage turbine, as it is the sum of the
values of u for each stage. We thus have
W = 7,U = i;Rtt, so that R = -.
1
The hydraulic efficiency 77 of a turbine is a much more fundamental
property than- the efficiency ratio , and remains unaltered what-
ever the number of elementary turbines or stages, into which the
whole turbine is divided, or whatever be the total ratio of expansion.
In the ideal limiting case in which the expansion is carried down
to zero pressure the efficiency ratio is always unity, whatever the
hydraulic efficiency may be.
Where the heat drop per stage of a turbine is small, it cannot
be measured with accuracy from a chart but must be calculated
from formulas or derived from steam tables, of which Callendar's
are the most reliable and self-consistent, and accord best with the
In practice in equation (2) may be taken as unity withou
involving serious error; and since, along the saturation line, the rela
tion between pressure and volume is represented very approxim,
by the equation
0-9406 log p + log (V-o-oi6) =2-5252,
the point at which the saturation line is crossed in a continuous
expansion, effected with an efficiency n, can be found approximate!)
by combining this equation with (2), which gives:
j^-log p + log (V-o-oi6)=-^log p a + log (V<.-o-oi6).
The pressure thus obtained can be plotted on the steam chart as
at M (fig. 13). A single additional point representing the state ol
the steam at some intermediate pressure gives the "condition
line " in the superheated field with sufficient accuracy as the
curvature of this line is always very slight. The condition
line for wet steam expanding in thermal equilibrium i>
obtained from the chart. To this end a horizontal line is
drawn from M to cut the exhaust pressure line at S. Th<
length MS then represents, on the scale of total heats, tin
adiabatic heat drop for an expansion from M in a condition
of thermal equilibrium. Denoting this by u, the corrcs]
ing useful work done is eu, and the heat wasted in friction
is (l )..
If we add this wasted energy to the total heat corresponding
to the point S we get ] as the state point representtn
condition of the steam as finally discharged. A similar pro-
cedure gives us the state point K at some intermediate pn-s-
sure, and the three points M, K, J suffice to fix with practical
accuracy the condition line for wet steam expanding from
M to S in thermaj equilibrium.
From a condition line the total heat of the steam corres-l
ponding to any pressure can be read off, and the correspoi
volume then obtained as already described. The condition
line for steam expanding beyond the saturation line in a w-
dition of thermal equilibrium, has, as already mentioned, no
practical significance in steam turbine work. Once tin
uratipn line is passed the expansion never proceeds in tin
equilibrium. This discovery renders obsolete the theory of
the steam turbine working with non-superheated steam, as un-
derstood up to the end of 1912, at which time attention was
directed anew to certain remarkable anomalies observed in
experiments on the discharge of non-superheated steam from
nozzles. Numerous careful experiments had shown that the
weight discharged was often in excess of what the then ac-'
cepted theory declared to be possible. In discussing these re-
sults in Engineering, Jan. 10 1913, Martin pointed out thatthe
experiments of Aitken and Wilson on the sudden expansion of dust
free vapour afforded conclusive evidence that in expanding through .
a nozzle, the steam must be in the supersaturated condition and
not in thermal equilibrium, so that the accepted theory was based
on a fundamental error. Stodola succeeded in confirming this com ln-
sion by direct experiment. He studied, under very strong illumination,
the appearance of jets of steam discharged from a nozzle and found
that the steam exhibited no signs of condensation occurring until
the pressure had been reduced far below the saturation point. Finally,
in 1915, Callendar, in a paper published in the Proceedings of the I nst.
Mech. Engineers, gave an exhaustive study of the whole question
and showed that the anomalies observed in nozzle experiments
entirely disappeared if the steam were considered to remain in a
supersaturated condition up to a point beyond the throat of the
nozzles. Moreover, under such an assumption, the computed fric-
tional losses became in good accord with those observed in experi-
ments with air. There is however, of course, a point beyond which
steam cannot be expanded without condensation occurring, from
experiments of C. T. R. Wilson, H. M. Martin calculated the follow-
ing table giving the properties of steam at the supersaturation limit,
or the " Wilson line " as he called it (" A New Theory of the Steam
Turbine," Engineering 1913) :
TURBINES, STEAM
TABLE I. Properties of Steam at the Wilson Line.
4J
0) C
a
tj|
SZ "
S
si
S"
o'o
a
C3 '5
.2 ^
.5 aj
'o
"On
QJ PH
*^" t^
u p
P~!p
2 c
Sc
3 C
C
u: <u
3
o c
(U O
D. *
tfl O
CJ t/3
o
O ui
si
"3
'3 o
II
fif
n
cr c
W
c
t,.
pw
t'w
Hw
^ s
yV,
"tw
Ib. per
cub. ft.
cub. ft.
deg. C.
sq. in.
per Ib.
F.P.C.
deg. C.
per Ib.
o
0-9888
295-30
593-79
38-52
325-85
9098
10
1-739
173-33
598-28
49-41
191-50
8641
20
2-935
106-11
602-64
60-33
116-91
8220
3
4-764
67-339
606-85
71-19
74-218
7825
40
7-478
44-091
610-90
82-13
48-474
7476
5
n-39
29-732
6I4-75
93-00
32-666
7141
60
16-86
20-566
618-36
103-89
22-575
6830
7
24-36
I4-53I
621-70
114-80
15-957
6537
80
34-41
10-506
624-56
125-66
"537
6261
90
47-60
7-720
627-47
136-57
8-638
5998
IOO
64-64
5-778
630-01
147-48
6-353
5748
no
86-28
632-10
158-40
4-832
5508
I2O
"3-37
3-376
633-89
169-48
3-713
1-5278
Along the Wilson line the relation between pressure and volume is
*iven with considerable accuracy by the equation
0-9401 log pi + log (V 0-016) = 2-4651.
At the supersaturation limit moisture is formed and settles out in
:he form of minute droplets.
To proportion rationally the blading of a steam turbine it is
lecessary to know the relationship between the pressure and the
volume, or between the pressure and the total heat of the steam
puring the expansion. The discovery that wet steam does not
ixpand through a turbine in a condition of thermal equilibrium,
vhilst affording an explanation of certain anomalies experienced in
>ractice, has raised new difficulties, since we are no longer in a
losilion to determine with certainty the volume of wet steam at
lifferent points of the expansion. So long as the expansion is not
arried beyond the supersaturation limit, or the " Wilson line,"
he behaviour of the steam is in accord with the equations given
hove. At the supersaturation limit, however, an overdue change
bruptly occurs, and it is a matter of general experience that when a
umlition of unstable equilibrium is suddenly upset the subsequent
ihenomena are commonly incalculable. In such cases there is fre-
uently found to be a period of transition during which " repeat "
xperiments fail to give consistent results. Once, however, the transi-
ion is fairly effected, a new steady state is generally established.
n the case of steam, this steady state appears to be obtained if the
xpansion is continued considerably beyond the supersaturation
mit. In this steady state, such evidence as is available goes to show
iat the water of condensation which remains suspended in the
m in the form of minute droplets, has a temperature approxi-
lating to that of saturated steam of the same pressure, whilst the
aseous portion of the steam has a temperature corresponding to
iat of steam just on the point of condensing at the supersaturation
mit. The dryness fraction of the exhaust steam from a turbine is
icrefore given approximately by the relation
H w -t,
i here H, denotes the total heat in one Ib. of the exhaust steam,
j the temperature corresponding .to saturation at the same pres-
I ire while H w is the total heat of one Ib. of dry steam at the exhaust
'.ressure but at the limit of supersaturation, as given in table I
iX>ve for various pressures. The volume V, of the exhaust steam
; equal to yV w where V w is taken from a table similar to table_l.
, In general, engineers express exhaust pressures as so many in. of
, .ercury. The standard barometric height is taken as 30 in. of mer-
iry, and a vacuum of 29 in. of mercury, corresponds therefore to
i absolute pressure of one in. of mercury, or 0-491 Ibs. per sq. inch.
. alues of Hu,, V w , and t w for different vacua are tabulated below :
TABLE 2.
Vacuum
Jin. of mercury).
tw
(C).
Hto
Ib. centigrade
units.
Vu,
cub. ft.
per Ib.
29
28
27
26
-"37
- 0-15
+ 6-98
+ 12-21
588-59
593-67
596-92
599-22
569-3
296-3
202-5
154-5
will be seen that the determination of V, depends" upon a
lowledge of H e , whilst H, = Hi indicated work done.
The indicated work done in the expansion of wet steam can only
s matters stand to-day) be found as the result of experience with
tual turbines, and our knowledge is accordingly empirical in
795
character. If we take steam expanding from the saturation line to
ordinary exhaust pressures, the following rule for the effective ther-
modynamic head V, engendered is in good accord with experience
U, = ^M S . Where u, denotes the adiabatic heat drop, assuming
the expansion from the initial to the final pressure to be effected
under condition of thermal equilibrium, whilst
^=1-1070+0-02212 ~ 1(0-1638 + 0-0286)
In this expression x denotes the ratio of the initial pressure to the
exhaust pressure and i\ is the hydraulic efficiency, which is taken
to be the same as if the turbine were operated with steam in a super-
heated condition throughout the whole range of expansion.
The coefficients in this formula for <// have been selected so as
to make the indicated work done the same as if computed by Bau-
mann's empirical rule (Inst. E. E. 1921), but the relatively small
amount of work done by expansion below the saturation line is
attributed to the effective thermodynamic head being less than if
the expansion had been effected under conditions of thermal equi-
librium. Baumann's empirical rule on the other hand assumes that
the efficiency decreases by I % for every I % of moisture in the
steam, the latter being assumed to expand in thermal equilibrium.
From the above expression for U, we can find H, from the gen-
eral relation H e = H]. ?jU; and from this we can calculate V. as
already explained.
To determine the volume of the steam at other points of the
expansion it is perhaps sufficient in the present state of our knowledge
to use an interpolation formula which shall give correctly the initial
and final volumes at the saturation line and at the exhaust, and which
shall also give correctly the work done between these two limits.
No doubt there is force in the argument that as we know accurately
the relation between the volume and the pressure of the steam in
expanding down to the Wilson line, it would be more logical not to
make use of an interpolation formula until the necessity actually
arose by this line being crossed, but in the present state of pur
knowledge the simpler procedure seems adequate for practical
needs. It is certainly nearer the truth than the assumption hitherto
adopted, that the steam expands in thermal equilibrium.
Callendar has devised a very simple and easily applied interpola-
tion formula which satisfies the required conditions. It may be
written as
log (H-C) = log A + u log p.
The value of the constants are determined by writing
In practice it is seldom necessary to determine either A or u, whilst
C is most easily obtained by writing
Hi-C =
(H.-HQ
The use of the formula will be made clearer by taking a practical
example. Thus, suppose dry saturated steam at a pressure of
20 Ib. per sq. in. to be expanded down to a vacuum of 29 in. with
an hydraulic efficiency of 0-7. (This efficiency is low for a modern
turbine but the method is of course applicable whatever the value
of ri.) Then from Callendar's steam tables it will be found that
Hj = 642-82 centigrade heat units; Vi =20-08 cub. ft. per Ib., whilst
, = 125-46 units. In this case - = - = 0-4075, so that
1^ = 0-9932 and U s = 124-61 centigrade heat units. The " indicated"
work done is therefore 0-7X124-61 =87-23 and hence H e = H 2 = Hi
87-23 = 555-59. The dryness fraction at exhaust is therefore
given by y =
= 0-9413, so that V e =j-V w = 0-9413 X
569'3 =535-9 cub. ft. per Ib.
Had the steam expanded in thermal equilibrium and an equal
amount of work been taken out of it, its volume on exhaust would
have been 594-4 cub. ft. per Ib. Hence at high vacua the volume of
steam to be provided for at exhaust is some 10% less than on the
old theory in which it was assumed to expand in thermal equilibrium.
The requisite data for constituting Callendar's interpolation
formula are now available. Thus we haveiVi=4Oi-6; 2 V 2 = 263-I ;
whilst Hi -H 2 = 87-23. Hence
i _.
Thus 0=389-8 and H 2 -C = 165-8.
We therefore get log (Hi-C)-log (H 2 -C) =0-1835
and log pi log pi = I -6099.
We divide each of these differences by 10 (say) and can then calcu-
late corresponding values of log (H C) and log p by repeated sub-
traction of these dividends, giving the figures tabulated in columns
2 and 3 in table 3 below. To determine corresponding values of
log V we proceed in an exactly similar manner, determining the
difference between log Vi and log V 2 and repeatedly adding one
796
TURBINES, STEAM
tenth of this difference until the value of log Vj is obtained. This
latter procedure is based upon the general relation
H 1 -H=ijU,
so that dH = ijdU= j qVdp
and thus V= TJ-T
144 dp
But on differentiating Calendar's relationship above, we get
dH /H-O
n
T7
which gives us V
Since by hypothesis ij is constant we may write this as
a log V = log (H-C) - log p.
But log p is a linear function of log (H C) and therefore so also is
log V. It may be noted that log V is accordingly also a linear func-
tion of log p, so that this interpolation formula gives between p and
V a relationship of the type pV*-= constant. But the value of the
integral of Vdp is adjusted so as to bring the total work done into
accord with the data. The formulas for V and H C are, in short,
empirical interpolation formulas and must be regarded as such.
They are not absolutely consistent with each other but the dis-
crepancy is small enough to be negligible in practice.
TABLE 3.
Sec-
log
1 A.
t \7
, H-C
H-C
tion.
(H-C)
log/)
log V
log ^
n
.
A
2-40310
1-30100
30280
2-55800
361-4
o
20-08
B
2-38475
1-14001
44543
2-53965
346-5
H-9
27-89
C
2-36640
0-97902
58806
2-52130
332-1
29-3
38-74
D
2-34805
0-81803
73069
2-50295
318-4
43-o
53-79
E
2-32970
0-65704
87332
2-48460
305-2
56-2
74-70
F
2-3II35
(>.(<)< .OS
2-01595
2-46625
292-6
68-8
103-8
G
2-29300
0-33506
2-15858
2-44790
280-5
80-9
144-1
H
2-27465
0-I7407
2-30121
2-42955
268-9
92-5
200- 1
I
2-25630
O-OI3O8
2-44384
2-41120
257-8
103-6
277-8
J
2-23795
T-85209
2-58647
2-39285
247-1
II4-3
385-9
K
2-21960
T-69IIO
2-72910
2-3745
_Y,I,-K
124-6
52VQ
To avoid an accumulation of errors and to facilitate checking,
the values of the intermediate logarithms in the above table are
tabulated to five figures but only four of these are significant. When
the additions and subtractions are accurately carried out the values
in the last line of the table must be the values at the exhaust with
which the calculation was started. The convenience of this check is
so great that it is advisable (even at the expense of the slight inac-
curacies involved) to use this type of interpolation formula even
in the case of steam superheated throughout its expansion, although
in this case exact relationships between the different functions can
be stated.
Knowing U, the general characteristics of a turbine intended to
operate with a given hydraulic efficiency can be very readily deter-
mined.
Thus if we define K as
where d denotes the mean diameter in in. of a moving row of blades,
and the summation includes the moving rows only; the efficiency
jr
of the turbine is a function of y, as will be readily understood from
the obvious consideration that K is proportional to the mean square
of the blade speed, whilst U is proportional to the mean square of
the steam speed. If the hydraulic efficiency be plotted against
!
ij the resultant curve is an ellipse, but this ellipse is not symmetri-
cal about the axis along which
this ellipse is
is measured. The equation to
T U Kj - *U Z,
where iji denotes the maximum value of i\, and y-p is the corre-
jr
spending value of VT-
i^
The relation between ij and -p, as determined by the collation
of actual test figures is given in figures 15 and 16. In both cases the
expansion is assumed to be continuous in character instead of being
effected in finite steps, a circumstance which slightly lowers the
apparent hydraulic efficiency of the impulse machine, but the error
is small and moreover cancels out when the curve is used for pur-
poses of design.
When the steam is initially superheated the value of U to be use
in the formula is given by U = U I +U, where U 1 represents th
thermodynamic head expended down to the saturation line an
UI=^M, as explained above.
07
Of
or
04
03
01
Oi
FIC
3. \5
.
-
,
.' ' "=
=
1
/
^
^
/
s Indicated Hydraulic Efficiency of Impulse Turbines
1
/
II
Effective Thermodynamic Head in Ib Cent
Z fUjfioz 31 / where d /s the mean dm:c
the Blade Path in Inches
'Into
I/
K
Tf
7
/
V
i/ues <
r
FIC.I6
^,
-
,
/
X
<
|
"5
/
/
Im
Tui
Heated Hydraulic Efficiency of Reaction
"bines (not carrectedfor Tip Leakage)
U- Effective Thermodynamic Head F.PC.
t-x&fHtff
/
/
/
/
I
/
/
/
Val
jes
fl
{
M 200M0400MOM0700U0900 1000 IPOO I2OQ 1800 MOO 1900 1600 POO MOO 1000 '8000
Suppose that an impulse turbine which is to operate with dil
saturated steam supplied at a pressure of 20 Ib. absolute an
hausted at a vacuum of 29 in. mercury is to run at a speed of 1,51
revs, per minute, the mean diameter of all the blade rows bein
44 J in. whilst the designed hydraulic efficiency is 0-7. Then fni
Tf
fig. 15 it will be seen that -JQ =436. Hence as from table 3 tl
total thermodynamic head is 124-6, the value of K must be 124-6 :
436 = 54.330-
But if v be the number of stages
whence f = i2, so that a turbine of 12 stages with wheels of 44! i
mean diameter will give the required efficiency. If v does not tut
out to be an even number, it can be made so by suitably adjustir
the value of d. Intermediate values of v are directly proportion
to the corresponding values of U and a series of such values calci
lated with an ordinary lo-in. slide rule, which is amply accurate fi
the purpose, are as follows:
Section
U .
Section
U .
v
A
o
o
1-3010
G
80-9
7-79
Q-33.SI
B
14-9
1-435
1-1400
H
92-5
8-91
C
29-3
2-82
0-9790
I
103-6
9-98
0-0131
D
43-o
4-14
0-8180
J
"4-3
II-OI
-0-1479
E
56-2
5-41
0-6570
K
124-6
12-0
0-3089
The values of v are fractional, but they are used merely for cur
plotting, the values of the different functions corresponding
integral values of v being read from the curves. Thus in fig. 17 log
has been plotted against v and it should be noted that the curve,
by no means represented by a straight line. Since v is proportion)
TURBINES, STEAM
797
to K it follows that if in any turbine log p when plotted against K
gives a straight line, that turbine, whether of the impulse or reac-
tion type, cannot be designed to operate with uniform efficiency.
In the diagram fig. 17 the values of log p represent the pressure of
the steam after discharge from the preceding stage, stage No. I
being thus conceived as being preceded by an imaginary stage No. o.
A corresponding plot of the volume would, however, give not the
volume at discharge from the guide blades, but this volume as in-
creased by the heat generated in the passage of the steam through
the moving buckets. All stages being similar, the effective thermo-
dynamic head at each stage is the same. But the apparent thermo-
dynamic head, obtained by dividing the total thermodynamic
head U by the number of stages, is somewhat greater than the adia-
batic heat drop at each stage.
1-4
,K
20 In*.
10
IS
17
IS
IS
14
13
12
II
10
9
8
7
a
3
4
3
2
Fl C. 17
I
/
A
/
12
II
1-0
09
0-8
07
M
0-5
04
0-3
02
01
OH
01
*2
0-3
A
-04
\
/
\
/
\
^7
j
\
c
\
i
\
to
3
\
f
i
t
X
ii
1
|
\
E
i
s:
\
x
~ii
<
&
|
\
?
H
t
<H
x
t
1 \
a
H
\
Va/u
IS Of
'V
/
y
\
1
z
3
4
5
>
*/r
7
8
9 1
V
12
S
^
\
i
"*
^
D
\
;=
- 'B
K
According to what has been stated above, the velocity of dis-
iarge from the_guide blades of a stage is commonly taken as
=300-2 Xo-gsVtt where u is the adiabatic heat drop. The weight
' discharged per second per sq. ft. of guide blade area is
... v__ 300-2XQ-95VM
~ V* ~ \<t>
lere V$ represents the volume of the steam after an adiabatic
pansion between the pressure above and below the stage. Instead
calculating these values it is more convenient to utilize the known
lues of U and V and to correct the above formula by using an
propriate coefficient $. As there are 12 stages in the present
se we get = ' = 10-38 =q, and the above equation may
Before be written
W =
^300-2X0-95^10-38
- ~
i interpolation formula for / which is applicable for the ordinary
ige of turbine efficiencies and for convergent guide blades is
, 1+0-13 (i i))Vx i where x denotes the ratio of the pressure
we and below the stage. The coefficient / is readily evaluated
the ordinary slide rule with quite sufficient accuracy.
In the case under consideration we note from the curve fig. 17,
it when v = i , log p = I 197 so that x = I -27 and / is therefore I -025.
The area available for flow through a row of guide blades is
-^ where h' denotes the blade height in in., and a is
..
" effective " angle of discharge, allowing if necessary for the
fact that the blades are of finite thickness. Hence if iv be the
weight of steam flowing through the turbine per second
_
6223 /' d sin aV q
Taking sin = 0-30, 5=44!, 3 = 10-38 and w = 10-3 Ib. per second,
this expression reduces to h' = -O3732V. Values of h' thus calcu-
lated for the values of V given in table 3 are plotted in fig. 17 and
from the curve thus obtained we read off the theoretical blade
heights at the different stages. These are :
Stage No. .
Theor. blade height
in in. .
I
0-94
2
1-18
3
i-5i
4
1-95
5
2-48
6 '
3-24
Stage No. .
Theor. blade height
in in. .
7
4'3
8
fcfis
9
7-69
10
10-48
ii
14-40
12
20-0
In practice the nearest even dimensions will be substituted for the
calculated heights. The calculated heights for the last three stages
are inconveniently long, but they can all be reduced to say 9 in. by
suitably increasing the effective angles of discharge. Some builders
moreover increase the pressure drop at the exhaust end, and would
accordingly combine stages II and 12 into one. These expedients
decrease the efficiency but are cheaper than the alternative of con-
structing the low-pressure end on the double flow principle.
The high-pressure end of a turbine can be proportioned in a man-
ner exactly similar to that described, but as the steam there is com-
monly superheated, the problem is correspondingly simplified and
need not therefore be discussed here. It is, however, usually neces-
sary to construct some of the high pressure stages as partial admis-
sion stages and it is also a common practice to have a large pressure
drop at the first stage with the object (at some sacrifice of efficiency)
of making a large initial reduction in the temperature and pressure
of the steam, so that the high pressures and temperatures are con-
fined to the nozzle-boxes of the first stage. To the same end a veloc-
ity compounded wheel is frequently used in the first stage. The
general theory of these wheels is described in Prof. Evving's article
(see 25.844), but it may be observed that in practice it has been found
necessary to adopt empirical methods of designing such wheels.
If designed as pure impulse wheels operated with a fluid which is
" freely deviated " the results are very disappointing. One rule
which has been used is to assume that only 85 % of the total heat
drop of the stage is utilized in the nozzles, and of the residue that
5 % is utilized in each of the three sets of blading. The wheel there-
fore works to some extent as a reaction turbine.
A -et
ts
+
*
V*
- :
:r
s - '--
-K f*.**r\
..til J
k- / -
FIG.I8
h- -77i
Speaking generally, the principle of " free deviation " as embodied
in some water wheel designs is inadmissible in. steam turbine prac-
tice, in which the moving blades should be just sufficiently long to
avoid " spilling " of the steam delivered to them from the guide
blades. As to the exact form of the moving blades, this does not
appear to be of primary importance within reasonable limits, as,
79 8
TURBINES, STEAM
although the practice of different makers varies considerably, all
impulse turbines exhibit much the same efficiency under corre-
sponding conditions. Typical Rateau blading is illustrated in fig. 18.
The discharge angle is commonly about 30 save at the last row
of blading where it is increased to 35.
As regards nozzle and guide blade efficiencies, generally, reliable
experimental data are still lacking. It has been assumed that the
efficiency of convergent guide blades is a maximum when the speed
of efflux is equal to the velocity of sound, and though this is not
improbable from a priori considerations no conclusive evidence in
support of the view has yet been forthcoming, and turbines which
attempt to embody this theory have not shown the slightest
superiority over competing designs. A great drawback to high
steam speeds is the liability to excessive wear of the blading, and in
this respect reaction blading has a great advantage over impulse
blading in addition to the higher inherent efficiency of the former.
This higher inherent efficiency depends upon the fact that the
overall efficiency of a steam turbine depends upon its stage effi-
ciency, a stage being defined as the section of a turbine comprised
between two successive heat drops. In the case of impulse turbines
for each successive heat drop, frictional losses are experienced in
two elements, namely, the nozzles or guide blades and the moving
buckets, whereas in a reaction turbine at each heat drop there is
loss in one row of blading only.
The Design of Reaction Turbines. The proportioning of a com-
pound reaction turbine is a somewhat intricate problem, and as a
preliminary it will be convenient to discuss the flow of steam through
a series of openings or stages. At each of these a certain thermo-
dynamic head q is expended, and this is not, in general, the same
for each stage. If however U denote the total thermodynamic head
expended in forcing the steam through n stages we have
dU ,
Now Laplace's theorem in the calculus of finite differences may be
written
2,2 = q dn
+ (Ag - A 2o ) - (A'g -
If we neglect the terms comprising the differences we get
so that
d U
dq
-"
NowrfU = - Vdp whilst if (as it is frequently permissible to
assume) the velocity of flow at each stage is proportional to V q
we may write
where F denotes some coefficient, w is the weight of steam flowing
per second, V its specific volume, whilst fl denotes the area through
the stage. Making this substitution for q we get
144 r dp _ dn , dq
~~~
whence
"GO
here ^ is the mean value of ^ when plotted against n and I is a
factor depending on the coefficient of discharge. Substituting for
q, the above expression reduces to
V
o- JL ir^.
Q.
In the case of an ordinary dummy Q is constant, and the law of
expansion is expressed in this case by pV = constant. Whence if
the coefficient of discharge be unity we get, on making the proper
substitutions
HI = 68 J2. |^o
Vo
n+ loge x
Here x denotes the ratio of the initial pressure to the final pressure.
The logarithmic term becomes of great importance when n is small
and renders the formula reliable under very extreme conditions.
Suppose it is desired to replace n openings in which the area is
varied in direct proportion to the volume of the steam, by n open-
ings all of equal area, the weight of steam passed per second, and
the total pressure difference remaining constant. If we neglec
the small change such a substitution will make in the value of J
and assume that the velocity of discharge at each stage is still pro
portioned to V q we get
fin
oge "a/7\
n \ff)'
-(4).
Use will be made of this formula in proportioning the blading of ;
reaction turbine.
Let it be required to proportion the blading for a double flow reac
tion machine, the conditions being similar to those assumed for tli,
impulse turbine discussed above, save that the total discharge wil
be assumed to be 27 Ib. of steam per second, that is to say, 13-.
Ib. each way, whilst the speed is to be 2,400 revs, per minute. Tb
hydraulic efficiency will be taken as 0-7, as before, so that the quan
tities already tabulated in table 3 can be used without modification
If it were practicable to construct a reaction turbine with all it
blade rows of the same mean diameter, the problem would be a
simple as that of the impulse machine, and we shall, in the firs
instance, compute the blade heights for such an ideal turbine am
from the figures thus obtained we shall deduce the blade height:
required for the practical machine.
In this ideal turbine the blade heights are varied so that the ratii
of blade speed to steam speed is everywhere constant and from thi
perfect uniformity of conditions it follows that q (the thermodynanm
head expended at any stage) is also constant and proportional
Since the blade speed is also proportional to its mean diameter
we may write
where /3 is a coefficient. From this it follows that
2
0'=
where K is defined as above. Hence
u
If the hydraulic efficiency be decided on, the value of jf can Ix
obtained from the curve plotted in fig. 16.
144 ">V ,- .- wV
Again since v=~ =. we may write V q = G = where G it
rh d sin a ha
some constant. But V g is, as already shown, equal to
and equating these two expressions we get
R.P.M. -, /TT
h'd
IOOO
loooG wV
, , * (**
~ R.P.M. 2* \-jj-
The value of G must be determined experimentally, and from care-
ful tests it appears that for normal Parsons blades h' may be written
as,
_
-
616 !Y .. pC
R.P.M. f \TJ
It may be added, however, that the value of the coefficient is not
quite independent of the efficiency, and whilst the value 616 is appro-
priate to an efficiency of 0-7 it increases to 678 for an efficiency of
Q- O/
For a reaction turbine having an hydraulic efficiency of 0-7 it
will be seen from the efficiency curve that -^ has the value 600,
and if d be taken as 49 in. we get for the total number of rows
(fixed and moving) corresponding to the expenditure of a therni"
dynamic head U, the expression
_2K t IOOO \ t 1200 U / IOOO \ = y
~ 5* x VR.P.M J d*- VR.P.M./
Taking the values of U from table 3 the corresponding valm
t are entered in the fifth column of table 4. Taking the steam pass
as 13-5 Ib. per second each way, we get for h' the expression
From this the values of h' given in the sixth column of table 4
have been deduced.
TURBINES, STEAM
799
19
18
17
16
IS
14
13
Fl<
f
1
-V,
.t
7 8 9 10 H
. In fig. 19 the blade heights corresponding to sections H, I, J
!nd K have been plotted, and from this graph we find that in the
leal turbine, if we have a stage at i> = lo-8l then the blade heights
t stages 9-81 and 10-81 will be as follows:
Lv 8-81 9-81 10-81
h 9-20 in. 13-14 in. 18-94 in.
TABLE 4.
Sec-
tion
log/)
U
V
V
h'
h' (dY-
h
dn h
dv h'
n
A
1-3010
o
20-08
o
710
1704
1-045
1-477
o
B
1-1400
14-9
27-89
1-306
986
2367
i-43i
452
1-89
C
0-9790
29-3
38-74
2-542
1-37
3287
1-940
416
3-69
D
0-8180
43-o
53-79
3-73
1-90
4565
2-60
3/0
5-34
E
0-6570
56-2
74-70
4-88
2-64
6339
3-47
3"
6-89
F
0-4961
68-8
103-8
5-97
3-67
8792
4-58
250
8-28
G
0-3351
80-9
144-1
7-02
5-09
12230
5-97
172
9-56
H
0-1741
92-5
2OO-I
8-03
7-07
16980
7-68
1-087
10-68
I
0-0131
103-6
277-8
8-97
9-82
23570
9-79
996
11-70
J
1-8521
II4-3
385-9
9-93
13-64
32740
12-40
910
12-60
; K
1-6911
124-6
535-9
10-81
1 8 -94
45470
As the first step to the design of a practical turbine the blades
L j/=9-8i and ? = lo-8l must be replaced by two blades of equal
ight, say h, which must be such that these two blades will pass the
; me weight of steam per second as the blades they replace. As a
' st approximation, the required height is equal to the height given
fig. 19 corresponding to v =
9-81 + 10-81^
= 10-31. This height
15-7 inches. This approximation with blades so long in propor-
>n to the drum diameter is not a very good one, although when
e blades are not excessively long this simple rute gives quite good
isults. To determine a more accurate value of h we make use of
uation (4) which in this case may be written as
18-94
9^0) +4 (7 3 J ^) + (18-94)
LI
iere the factor on the right is the mean value for the value of
as deduced from Cotes' rule for the mean value of a function defined
by three equidistant coordinates, and which is exact for any curve
which can be adequately defined Jpy 4 ordinates.
From this expression we get (h) 2 =216-2, whence ^=14-7, show-
ing that the provisional value obtained from the diagram was about
7 % too long. It is only at the L.P. end of a turbine, however, where
the blades are long and where the pressure drop per blade is high,
that the error attains any such magnitude.
If we use semi-wing blades for these two rows, the height will be
two-thirds of the figure given, or 9-8 inches. Let it be taken at gf in.,
so that the drum diameter is 49 9j = 39-25 in., and to this diameter
the blading of the ideal turbine must be reduced by means of an
appropriate " transfer " formula.
If h denote the height of the blades after transfer to a drum of
diameter D and h' the height of the blades, of the ideal turbine as
already calculated, all of which have the same mean diameter d.
Then we must have
and = -
Here n denotes the number of blade rows in the practical turbine
corresponding to v rows of blades in the ideal turbine.
Values of h(d) 2 are tabulated in column 7 of table 4 and from these
values the corresponding values of h are readily deduced by means
*.
B
FIG.
20
-~~,
^
<
&
~^
-k
s
x,
X
F
X
8
\,
s
i
\
\
\,
\
Values 'ifv
\
1284567690
of a slide rule. This is done by assuming a provisional value of h.
Calling this provisional value a a better value of h is got by writing
A still closer value is then obtained by repeating the process. At the
end of each operation the value of r-, is also found, and is entered
7 J
in the adjoining column. These values of j-,= -j- have been plotted
in fig. 20 and from them the value of n corresponding to any stated
/
i
9 .
B
7
9
4
>
a
/
1
j
FIG. 21
'
/
'
1
/
/
&
/
/
/
U
/
Theoretical B/ode Height sfln$
/
/
X F
''
U
/
/
X
t
>
A Of/
/
|O^D
g
0*
/
S
fl
n'
'
/
*
t
'..
"'
c
B
7
f
Va/ues of n
10 II 12 IS
value of v can be determined, by means of Cotes' formula which may
be written
8oo
TURKESTAN, WEST
Thus with v=9-92 we note that (^)o =I -477.(^J N = '9 and
(-? ) N = i-3ii, whence = !2-6o. Proceeding in this way the
dv/~
figures in the last column of table 5 are obtained. In fig. 21, h is
plotted against n as also is J>NP.
Stages 9-81 and 10-81 of the ideal turbine have already been dealt
with so that in proceeding further with the design we start with
stage 8-81 of the ideal turbine. From fig. 21, it appears that i< = 8-8l
corresponds with n = 11-51 and from the curve of blade heights we
get the following values for A
n = 9-51 10-51 11-51
h = 5-94 7-87 9-38
As before, an approximate value of h to replace the blades at 10-51
and 11-51 is the value of h at n = ll-oi. This value of h is 8-31
inches. Replacing the blades at the high pressure stages =o-5I
and n = l'5i the same method gives us h = 1-29 inches.
If we determine the corrections for these two extremes the cor-
rections for the intermediate groups can be determined with suffi-
cient accuracy by linear interpolation. Equation 4 in this case
becomes
h' a
W C*+D) = 7
ho*(h*+D-)>
which gives h as 8-259 ' n - ' n p'a ce of 8-31 in. as read from the curve.
At the high-pressure end of the turbine the calculated value is
1-321 in. as against 1-33 as read from the curve.
It will be seen that with the blading thus derived the pressure at
the first row of guide blades is that corresponding to n = 0-49
instead of to n = o as it should be. By plotting log p against n we
find that the pressure corresponding to n= 0.49 is 21.5 Ib. per
sq. in. instead of 20 as assumed. This can be corrected by slightly
increasing the height of the first group of blades, for which purpose
we can use the approximate expression
In this expression h a denotes the corrected value of h, p, the pres-
sure corresponding to n = 0-49, and pi the designed pressure in front
of the first row of guide blades, whilst po denotes the pressure on
discharge from the group.
We thus get & c =i-45, so that the computed blade heights are
as follow:
TABLE 5.
Group No.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
No. of moving rows in
I
i
I
I
i
I
I
group . . .
Calculated blade height
in in
1-450
1-710
2-960
3-540
5-320
8-310
9-800
Allowance for tip clear-
ance ....
0-093
0-096
0-108
0-123
0-141
0-171
0-186
Net calculated blade
heights
1-357
1-614
2-842
3-416
5-179
8-139
9-714
Actual blade height
if
't
2}
3J
si
8i
oj
The length of the blades in group No. VII. is for semi-wing blades
as previously explained. In the above table the allowance for tip
clearance is not the actual tip clearance, but the amount by which
the blade heights must be reduced in order that no more steam shall
pass than if there were no tip clearance whatever. This allowance
has been taken as 0-002 in. per in. of drum diameter plus o-oio in.
per in. of blade height, and this amount is subtracted from the com-
puted blade heights.
It should, perhaps, be noted that whilst in the ideal turbine the
velocity of efflux from a stage is strictly proportional to Vg this
condition is only approximately fulfilled in the case of a turbine
with constant drum diameter.
Had the above turbine been designed to run at 1,000 revs, per
minute instead of 2,400, many more rows of blading would have
been necessary, and to avoid large losses by the carrying over of
kinetic energy to the exhaust a larger drum would have been advisable.
It may be mentioned that the normal blades for which the coeffi-
cient in equation 5 applies are of the old type with the opening
gauged to about one-third the pitch, these blades being the ones
used in the turbine from the test of which the coefficient was deduced.
Certain makers now use a different form of blade having a parallel
tail, a departure which it is difficult to justify.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. H. L. Callendar, The Properties of Steam (1920);
Steam Tables (1915); H. M. Martin, The Design and Construction of
Steam Turbines (1913); A New Theory of the Steam Turbine (1918);
W. J. Gondie, Steam Turbines (1917); Dr. A. Stodola, Die Dampf-
'turbine (4th ed. 1910) ; Osborne Reynolds, " On the Theory of
Lubrication" Scientific Papers, vol. ii., "Lubrication," Engineering
(Dec. 9 1919) ; " The Theory of the Michell thrust bearing," Engin-
eering (Feb. 20 1920) ; Gerald Stoney, " High Speed Bearings,"
Proc. N.E. Coast Engineers and Shipbuilders, vol. xxx. (1913-4):
R. J. Walker and S. S. Cook, " Mechanical Gears of Double Reduc-
tion for Merchant Ships," Trans. I.N.A. (1921); H. B. Tostevin
" Experience and Practice in Mechanical Reduction Gears in \Yar-
ships," Trans. I.N.A. (1920); Robert Warriner, " Reduction (
for Ship Propulsion," Trans. Amer. Soc. N.A. and M.E. (1921);
" Lubrication of Gear Teeth," Engineering (Aug. II 1916); K. Bau-
mann, " Some recent developments in large Steam Turbine Prac-
tice," Journ. Inst. E.E. (1921). (R. H. P.; H. M. M.) ,
TURKESTAN, WEST (see 27.419). After the revolution in
Russia, Western (or Russian) Turkestan became a member
of the Federation of Soviet Republics. It was divided into
five provinces: Semiryechia, Syr Daria, Ferghana, Samarkand 1
and Trans-Caspia. The exact position of the native states of
Bukhara and Khiva, which were later occupied by the Soviet
Government, remained obscure. Each of the five provinces, by
the constitution of the Republic, is governed by a provincial
Executive Committee or council which sends representatives to
Tashkent, the. capital, where the Central Executive Committee
of the Republic meets. This Committee consists of 75 members,
sending representatives to Moscow to the meetings of the Central
Committee of the All-Russian Federation of Soviet Republics,
but the Turkestan Republic showed itself very little inclined to
accept the control which the Central Committee at Moscow
endeavoured to maintain. The Turkestan Committee elects a
small council, forming a kind of cabinet and having control of the
different branches of the administration. The right of voting
being confined to members of the Communist party, the Govern-
ment represented by no means one really elected by universal
suffrage but rather a dictatorship of the lower classes'. The
Russians in Turkestan form only about 5% of the total pop.,
and since most of the rural Mussulman pop. take no part in the
voting, the country is governed to all intents and purposes by
men elected by the very small proportion of Russians of the
lower classes living in the towns. Figures for the pop. of some
of the large towns in 1916 were: Khokand, 112,000; Naman-
gan, 103,000; Samarkand, 89,000; Tashkent, 201,000. All trade
and industry were in 1921 at an absolute standstill owing to
Bolshevism.
Great success had attended the cultivation of cotton, and the high
prices obtained for the Turkestan article (most of which is grown in
Ferghana, where 742,000 acres were cultivated in 1915), coupled
with the increase of railways, led to the abandonment of corn in
favour of the cultivation of cotton, and, although W. Turkestan is a
good wheat-producing country, cereals were actually imported from
Russia and Siberia and cotton exported in exchange. Factories for
cleaning and baling raw cotton and for extracting cotton oil were
set up, and employed a large number of people, mostly in Ferghana. ;
These factories were worked by crude oil from the Baku wells. The i
total area under cotton in 1916, including that grown in Khiva and j
Bukhara, was 1,838,215 acres, yielding about 18,000,000 poods or'
290,000 tons of raw cotton.
The cultivation of vines had also increased, and wine industries
had been initiated, chiefly in Tashkent and Samarkand. A larger
product of the vine was in the form of raisins and currants, of which
quantities were exported to Russia.
Large quantities of fruits apples, pears, quinces, peaches, nec-
tarines, apricots, grapes and melons were exported by special trains
to central Europe, where the Turkestan crop was received a short
time before the south European supplies ripened.
Minerals remained for the most part unworked, though the profit-
able coal fields and oil wells in Ferghana were used when disturb-
ances in Trans-Caspia cut Turkestan off from the Baku oil, on which
it relies entirely for its industrial life. Mining is hampered by the
lack of roads and by the want of machinery.
A very large industry in Bukhara is the export of Astrakhan lamb
skins (called locally Karakul). Enormous flocks of these sheep are
kept in the deserts around Bukhara. Attempts to breed these sheep
in other countries have always resulted in a deterioration in the
quality of the skins owing to some peculiarity of climate. Before
the World War about ij million skins were obtained annually at
a cost of 6 to 8 roubles each.
There are practically no branch roads in Turkestan, and the only
means of transport in bulk is either by wagon on the few main roads,
or by railway. The largest new railway project is the Semirye-
chenskaya railway. This line was intended to leave the Orenburg-
Tashkent line at Arys (146 versts N. of Tashkent) and go to Vierni,
a distance of about 900 versts. Actual construction was completed
to Burnoi (220 versts) when Bolshevism came to crush all enterprise
and initiative. Some work was done E. of Burnoi, but the line was
TURKEY
801
not laid and no trains ran in 1921 beyond Burnoi. It was intended
later to continue this line from Vicrni to Semipalatinsk (about
900 versts) and join up with the Trans-Siberian line. Important
railway lines were constructed from Kagan (the station on the main
line 10 m. S. of Bukhara City) to Karshi and Kerki, whence the line
runs up the right bank of the Oxus to Termez on the Afghan border.
A branch runs from Karshi to Kitab, and the intention was to join
Kitab to Samarkand. All these lines were destroyed by the Bukha-
rians in 1918 but could presumably be easily repaired. The total
length of these railways in Bukhara was about 400 m. and there are,
in addition, lines from Andijan to Jalalabad coal-fields, about 45
m., from Khokand to Namangan, about 57 m.,and from Fechenko
i(N. E. of Skobelev) to Sharikhan, about n miles. (F. M. B.)
TURKEY (NATIONALIST). An organized State of Nationalist
Turkey, in its wider aspect an Anatolian State created by Turk-
sh Nationalists in 1919-20, was the outcome of the terms of
)eace dictated to the Ottoman Empire by the victorious Powers
ifter the war of 1914-8. A severe peace was expected by the
Turkish rulers and people. They were resigned to the loss of
Turkish Arabia, Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia; to stringent
breign control of Turkish finance; to the reimposition of the
Capitulations; to international control of the waterway between
he Aegean and the Black Sea; and to measures for the protection
>f Christian populations in Turkish territory. Such curtailments
>f territory and supervision of their internal affairs would doubt-
ess have received their reluctant acquiescence. But the surrender
if Ottoman territory of Smyrna and Thrace to Greece as part
>{ the terms of peace was a matter that touched all Turks to the
[uick. The Turkish Nationalist movement received its first
reat impulse when a Greek force, acting on a decision of the
Supreme Council, occupied Smyrna and the surrounding terri-
ory in May 1919. Nationalist plans were rapidly matured and
, iut into execution.
, General Mustafa Kemal Pasha, an officer who had fought
,-ith much credit in the defence of Gallipoli, left Constantinople
, arly in June 1919, ostensibly for his military district in Asia
^inor. On June 19 he outlined the Nationalist plan for saving
i he country at a public meeting held at Khavsa, 50 m. inland
,rom Samsun. It was the official opening of the Nationalist
lovement. In brief, the scheme was to create a government
nd army in the heart of Asia Minor to resist the partitioning of
i'urkish territory within "Armistice limits." The definition of
rea referred to the armistice of Mudros of Oct. 30 1918, and thus
xcluded Mesopotamia, Syria and Arabia from the territory to
1 e preserved, but included Smyrna and Thrace. For this area
Jationalists professed willingness to accept a single Great Power
js mandatory; they would not, however, accept more than one.
'he movement spread rapidly. A provisional government was
i ;t up at Erzerum in August. In Sept. a National Congress was
, eld at Sivas, which affirmed the purpose not only of maintaining
;ie integrity of Ottoman territory within armistice limits, but of
pholding the Caliphate and Sultanate. A few weeks later the
';at of the government was changed to Angora, as a more central
.osition. By the end of 1919 the Nationalist movement had been
ccepted by nearly the whole of Asia Minor, and the Ottoman
irovernment at Constantinople became a government represent-
'ig little, and wielding no authority.
Behind the Nationalist movement was the military class of
'urkey, and the still powerful secret society known as the Com-
Uittee of Union and Progress. In fact, though the movement
presented on the part of the people a genuine patriotism and
esire to resist what was deemed as aggression, it is doubtful if
le Committee were not its real founders. At all events Talaat
asha, Enver Pasha, Djemal Pasha, Sais Halim Pasha, and many
.her Committee leaders became exceedingly active in the
ationalist cause. They gave it, too, the Panislamist policy
hich the Committee had followed when in power behind the
ttoman Government at Constantinople. Owing to this con-
:xion between Turkish Nationalism and Panislamism Mos-
m sympathy was excited in British India. Doubtless the agita-
on was arranged, but nevertheless it carried weight. A " Cali-
mte Committee " to oppose the imposition of harsh terms of
ace on Turkey was formed, and a delegation sent to London,
he delegation laid much stress on a speech made by Mr. Lloyd
XXXII. 26
George on Jan. 5 1918, in which he said: " Nor are we fighting
to deprive Turkey of its capital, or of the rich and renowned
lands of Asia Minor and Thrace which are predominantly Turk-
ish in race." This speech the delegation, and other supporters
of a lenient policy towards Turkey, claimed as a pledge. At the
Peace Conference of the Allies held in London early in Feb. 1920,
to discuss the terms of the Turkish peace, it was decided to leave
Constantinople in the possession of Turkey. At this time the
Nationalists began military operations against Cilicia. Turkish
troops drove the French out of Marash and other places in this
region, and used their success to massacre great numbers of
Armenians. Simultaneously the Nationalists organized resist-
ance in Thrace under Col. Jaffas Tayar Bey.
The Government at Constantinople were now taken with the
idea that they could suppress the Nationalists from within.
They sought to rally to their side the sober and religious masses
of the Turkish population by the joint influence of the Sultan as
Caliph and of the Sheikh ul Islam. An Imperial decree was
also issued declaring the Nationalists rebels. At the same time
a military effort was made by sending Anzavour Pasha with a
considerable force to occupy Brusa. But the appeal of the Caliph
and the Sheikh ul Islam had little effect; the decree as to rebels
was ignored ; and Anzavour Pasha's force deserted to the Kemal-
ists before Brusa was reached.
The Supreme Council sitting at San Remo finally decided the
terms of the Turkish peace in April 1920, and the treaty was
handed to the Turkish delegates on May 9. The terms of the
treaty caused the fiercest hostility in Angora. The Great Na-
tional Assembly declared for resistance to the last, and formally
denied the right of the Constantinople Government to conclude
any treaty on behalf of Turkey. It declared further that no
treaty made by that Government would be recognized by the
Nationalists. It was evident now that nothing but the application
of force by the Allies would compel acceptance of the treaty by
the Government at Angora. On the proposal of M. Venizelos,
then the Greek premier, the Allies therefore entrusted the task
to Greece of dealing with the Nationalist forces in western Asia
Minor, and imposing the treaty. In support of Greece the
Allies undertook minor naval operations. During June and July
1920 the Greek armies conducted a campaign in which they
overran the part of Asia Minor lying westward of a line drawn
from Brusa to Ushak in the valley of the Menderez. A Greek
army also occupied Thrace. As the result of these operations,
which destroyed any hope the Ottoman Government may have
had of obtaining better terms by delay, the treaty was signed
by the Ottoman delegates on August 20 1920.
In spite of their defeat at Greek hands the Nationalists showed
no inclination to accept the treaty. Instead, they turned more
and more towards Bolshevik Russia, with hostility to the Allies
as the common cause in pursuit of which each could assist the
other. Arms, munitions and money were the chief Nationalist
needs; and for her own ends Russia, to some extent, supplied
them. In return she took the opportunity for spreading Bolshe-
vik principles in Asia Minor, though with little success among
Moslems, who held that Bolshevik theories were in opposition to
the teachings of Mahomet. Towards the end of 1920 the Govern-
ment of Constantinople made an attempt at peace with the Na-
tionalists by sending a " Mission of Reconciliation " to Angora.
But this effort, too, had no results. Notwithstanding defeat in
the West, and risings and discontent within the area over which
they had power, the Nationalist Government was in a fairly
strong position. Nothing but force could overthrow them, and
the nature of the country and absence of roads made the applica-
tion of such force from outside a dangerous and exceedingly
difficult undertaking. They were in alliance with Bolshevik
Russia. Their country was self-supporting. They had but to
wait, and time would assure their ultimate success.
Meanwhile Bolshevik Russia and Nationalist Turkey endeav-
oured to' secure better land communications between their ter-
ritories, to bring, in fact, their territories to a common frontier.
Russia was established in the Transcaucasian Republic of
Azerbaijan; but between Turkey and Azerbaijan lay the Ar-
802
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
menian Republic of Erivan; and the line of railway from Azer-
baijan to Turkish territory passed through the hostile Armenian
State. In Sept. 1920 the Nationalists, in agreement with Russia,
therefore began military operations against the Republic of
Erivan. The upshot was that by the end of Nov. the Republic
was crushed, its territory occupied, many thousands of its people
massacred, its Government overthrown and replaced by a Soviet
Government which accepted Russian mediation and onerous
terms of peace. These included the cession of the districts of
Kars and Ardahan to Turkey, together with additional territory
traversed by the railway from Azerbaijan to the Turkish frontier.
Nationalist leaders had always urged that time was on their
side. During Dec. 1920 the elections in Greece overthrew the
Government of M. Venizelos; and the return of the ex-King
Constantine took place the same month as the result of a plebis-
cite. These events changed the whole policy of the Allied Powers
towards Greece. But a settlement of Turkish questions remained
as necessary to the Allies as ever. They therefore invited the
Greek and Turkish Governments to send delegations to a confer-
ence in London in Feb. 1921, for the purpose of reaching, if
possible, a compromise on the Treaty of Sevres. The condition
was made that the Turkish Delegation should include repre-
sentatives of Angora. The conference finally made an offer to the
two delegations, to be accepted or rejected as a whole by their
Governments. The offer proposed various important changes in
the Treaty, including evacuation of Constantinople by the
Allied garrison, an increase in the strength permitted the Turkish
army, and the granting of autonomy to the Smyrna zone under
Turkish sovereignty, and a Christian governor. These terms
were promptly rejected by the Greek Government, who then
reopened hostilities against the Nationalists in opposition to
Allied advice. The Greek aim was to reach Angora, and destroy
the Nationalist army. At the end of March, however, the Greek
army was heavily repulsed before Eskishehr and compelled to
retreat to its original positions before Brusa and Ushak. At the
beginning of July another Greek offensive was made, this time on
a much greater scale. Afium Kara Hissar, Kutahia, and Eskishehr
were captured, notwithstanding determined Turkish resistance,
and the advances continued along the railway towards Angora.
But in a great battle at the end of Aug., on the line of the Sakaria
river, the Greek army failed to break through the Turkish
entrenchments, and again retreated, this time to positions cover-
ing Eskishehr and Afium Kara Hissar. (W. J. C.*)
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS. Under this general heading the
operations in the World War involving Turkey in (i) the Cau-
casus, (2) Mesopotamia, (3) the Sinai area, and .(4) Syria, are
described.
(I.) OPERATIONS ON THE CAUCASUS FRONT
A firm grasp of the military-geographical conditions on the
Russo-Turkish frontier is an essential preliminary to an under-
standing of the operations in the Caucasus. In this region war,
though waged with modern weapons, must be conducted by very
old-fashioned methods; for the absence of railways and the
rarity of good roads on the Turkish side from the first militated
against, and indeed largely precluded, strategic mobility. In the
vast area, 600 m. long by 300 wide, bounded by the S. coast of
the Black Sea, the Russo-Turkish frontier, Lake Urmia and a
line thence by Urfa to Angora, not a single railway exists. The
only roads are the steep mountain track from Trebizond to
Erzerum, a somewhat easier main road from Angora by Sivas
and Erzinjan to Erzerum, the very steep mountain road from
Kharput to Erzerum which at Garib meets the road crossing
the wild Armenian Taurus from Diarbekr, the highway Mosul-
Bitlis-Mush-Erzerum, and lastly the old caravan route from
Erzerum by way of Bayazid into Persia. The only other means
of communication are narrow tracks, made by use only and
impossible to trace after a snowfall; they serve to indicate to the
troops their lines of advance, but can in no sense be said to
facilitate their march. Transport, apart from pack-animals, can
only move in the few roads mentioned and even on these, which
are all in bad condition, only with extreme difficulty. The rivers
as a rule can only be crossed at the fords, as any bridges hav
long ago broken down, for in Turkey no attempt is made to keel
up the roads, the high dues levied for this purpose disappear
ing into the pockets of the officials.
It must always be remembered that a Turkish army operatin
in the region of Erzerum has a line of communications over 600 n
long to the nearest railhead at Angora or Ulu Kyshla, from whic
points every shell has to be brought up by camel transport, takin I
six weeks in transit. It would, therefore, have been of urgen I
importance to the Turks, for this reason alone, to gain complet j
command of the Black Sea, which would have made it possibl |
for them to send supplies for the army by sea from Constantinopl
to Trebizond and thence overland by the comparatively short
route to Erzerum. However, they only succeeded for a shorj
period at the beginning of the war, in asserting a sufficien
superiority over the Russian Black Sea fleet to allow of saf(
transit by sea to Trebizond, and it became impossible to count 01
this. The present writer had in 1913 drawn up for the Turkisl 1
general staff a memorandum, in which he fully discussed anJj
recommended the reconstruction of the wholly antiquated:
fortress of Erzerum, of which the newest works dated from 1864!
the erection of barrier forts to secure the Trebizond road, ano
other measures aimed at facilitating future operations in thil
area. But this important problem received no attention, and
the future theatre of war was left in such a condition as to remit
impossible the defence of the frontier against a resolute attack, I
The main theatre of war of the eastern Anatolian campaign]
of 1914-8 was Turkish Armenia. The geographical area 01
Armenia had no clearly defined limits, having become nothin;
more than a geographical term for the districts of Russia, Peru
and Turkey, which were inhabited by people of Armejuan
nationality. The geographical limits of Armenia are cleariJ
defined only in the Caucasian isthmus, where the boundary a
formed by the little Caucasus, stretching south-eastward between
Tillis and Akhaltsikh. In Persia the Armenian population in tha
province of Azerbaijan melts gradually into the Persian from
Lake Urmia eastward. To the S. the ethnographic bourn Ian
corresponds more or less with the line of the Armenian Taurus
and the parts of the Taurus stretching from the Cilician frontiei
to the Euphrates gorge; but northern spurs of Kurdistan jut out
into Armenian territory, e.g. especially in the region of Dersin
which extends with its population of Kurdish tribesmen, who
have a mortal feud with the Armenians, to just S. of Erzinjan
In the W. conditions are the same as in Persia. As one goes
towards Sivas, the Armenians melt away into the Turkish
Mahommedan population, while to the N. Lazistan cuts off thd
Armenian highlands from the sea. The course of the Juroch may
be taken as the frontier between Pontus and Lazistan on the one
side and Armenia on the other. In all this " Armenia " there ia
no territory inhabited exclusively by Armenians. As against
this, countless Armenians are dispersed all over Turkey, and
these communities of the dispersion are frequently, as in Adana
(Cilicia), numerically strong and economically predominant.
Turkish Armenia is in parts a fertile land, but the climate is)
most unfavourable from the military point of view. Long cold,
winters, with heavy and frequent snowfalls, render almost!
impossible all strategic movement, and large bodies of troops;
are always in danger of decimation by frost and hunger, while
the short summer brings with it oppressive heat. Turkish^
Armenia, inside the stupendous mountain range which cuts it off
from Russian Armenia, is a tangled mass of hills and valleys.
The differences in height between the mountain ridges and thei
deep-cut gorges is very marked. The population is poor and
scattered, so that in areas hundreds of square miles in extent
there are neither tracks nor habitations to be found. Much of
Turkish Armenia has never really been explored, and the repre-
sentation of it on the maps is largely mere guesswork. Erzerum
itself is one of the highest placed towns in the world; it stands
over 6,000 ft. above sea-level. Its population was estimated
(much too highly) at 120,000 in 1913.
For the Russians the strategic situation was much more
favourable than for the Turks. Preparations for the eventuality
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
803
, of a war with Turkey had for some time been taken in hand by
the Russian general staff. Russia fully realized the importance
of possessing the Armenian plateau, with its Christian population
and great mineral wealth. The frontier fortress of Kars, which
. with its whole district had passed to Russia in 1878, was modern-
ized, placed in a permanent state of defence, and well provided
, with guns, ammunition and supplies. A lateral line through
Transcaucasia from Baku by way of Tiflis to Poti on the Black
I Sea was constructed, from which branch lines led to the Turkish
. frontier. The network of roads was also carefully completed and
I the frontier area thus converted into an excellent base for
i strategical deployment.
From the first, then, the Russians had the better strategic
, position. In this country whichever side was nearest to its
railways was bound to have a decisive strategical advantage over
the other, especially if in addition it possessed a better network
of roads. Enver Pasha, however, failed to realize this. As a
strategist he was a hopeless amateur, who believed that his
personal will in Constantinople could remedy in a moment the
i age-old defects of the Turkish military system and the Turkish
general staff.
Long before Russia, in Nov. 1914, declared war on Turkey,
i Gen. Liman von Sanders had planned to create a diversion in
favour of the German and Austrian armies in the eastern front by
landing several Turkish corps near Odessa and advancing into
the Ukraine, where he hoped to rally the numerous German
colonists to his standards. This scheme may be considered to
have been the one great strategic error which could be laid to the
account of Liman von Sanders: for it violated all those canons of
'prudence, the disregard of which the general himself so often and
vigorously censured in the projects of others.
Liman von Sanders earmarked for this operation the I., IV., V.
ind X. Corps, and proposed to lead the army in person. It is
;5asy to understand that the Turkish High Command looked with
) disfavour on this plan, if only because it needed all its available
worces for operations in the Turkish theatre of war. The project
i)f effecting a landing at Odessa held out no promise of success;
'or the expedition could never have ventured far from its ships,
ind could therefore have exercised no effect on the general
ritrategic situation. It might perhaps have served as a centre
or a rising in the Ukraine, whose agents were in Constantinople.
Gut, in view of the military strength of Russia at that time, the
.mccess of such a rising was more than doubtful. The adventurous
..cheme was finally abandoned on Sept. 18 1914, largely because
he commander of the fleet considered it impossible to guarantee
; ather the smooth disembarkation of the troops or the maintenance
if the line of communications by sea between Odessa and Con-
lUantinople. The Corps comprising the I. Army were also needed
|K>r political reasons in the Adrianople area.where they were to be
,ised to cover the rear of Bulgaria against a Rumanian attack,
: hould the former commit herself to an offensive against Serbia.
i For Liman von Sanders' scheme was now substituted Enver's
Teat plan for an advance against Russia, to be carried out by
he III. Army, assembling in Sept. and Oct. at Erzerum, under
he incompetent Hasan 'Izzet Pasha (not to be confused with
he Ahmad Tzzet who later became commander-in-chief).
This army consisted of the IX. and XI. Corps, the 2nd Cav.
)iv. and the so-called 2nd Res. Cav. Div. made up of Kurdish
rregular bands. This reserve cavalry, useless for fighting pur-
oses, showed great skill in massacring and plundering the de-
2nceless Armenians whenever opportunity offered. In Nov.
he X. Corps also joined the III. Army. The condition of the
roops may be gathered from a report of the middle of Nov. 1914,
ccording to which the X. Corps alone was short of 17,000
vercoats, 17,400 pairs of boots, 23,000 tents and 13,000 packs
nd this just before the Armenian winter, in a country where
ivouacking is unavoidable on account of the settlements being
ir too thinly scattered to allow the housing of large bodies of
roops. The III. Army was brought up to strength by reserves
om E. Anatolia; they were excellent military material, but
icrtage of clothing and food in the autumn soon caused them
) desert in masses.
Enver's plan of operations involved a frontal advance by the
XI. Corps -along the Erzerum-Sarikamish road, combined with
an attack against the Russian right flank by the two other corps
moving to the left over the mountains in the direction of Olti,
with the idea of cutting the Russians off from Kars and capturing
that fortress. The present writer repeatedly told the Turkish
High Command that the whole operation was impossible of
execution, and Liman von Sanders endeavoured in a personal
interview with Enver to dissuade him from carrying out his
plan, which was foredoomed to failure. The latter, who had an
exaggerated idea of his own capacity, refused to listen to advice
or to take warning. Not only would he not see that his scheme
was impracticable, but he expressed to Liman von Sanders his
ultimate intention of marching by way of Afghanistan against
India. No better proof could be desired of Enver's incapacity to
understand what strategy means.
As a matter of fact the scheme as it stood was never put into
execution, for the Russians anticipated it by undertaking an
advance on Erzerum with a Cossack division and a mixed bde.
Hasan 'Izzet attacked them at Koprii Keui on Nov. 8, and by the
1 2th he had succeeded in taking the Russian positions. Mean-
while, however, the I. Caucasian Corps had taken up a position in
rear near Asap, which resisted all the efforts of the Turks to
storm it, though they gained ground at certain points. The Turks
were already running short of ammunition and the arrival of parts
of the II. Turkestan Corps to reinforce the Russians seemed to
indicate that the Turkish superiority in numbers would shortly
be lost, if it had not already been so. Hasan 'Izzet therefore
withdrew the III. Army, gave up all idea of any further offensive,
and turned his attention to completing the equipment and supply
services of his troops, who were even now beginning to suffer
privations. This wise decision must largely be attributed to the
influence of his German chief of staff, Guse. The losses of the
Turkish army in these first encounters amounted to 1,500 killed,
5,600 wounded no inconsiderable proportion of the effective
strength of the army, estimated at some 90,000 men.
At this point, however, Enver took the bit between his teeth.
He ordered a detachment which had been assembled under a
German officer at Haidar Pasha to be transported across the
Black Sea and landed W. of Batum, and to advance thence into
Russian territory in fact, to attack Russia. The detachment
pushed forward boldly to Ardahan, where it encountered over-
whelming hostile forces and had to retire to the Russo-Turkish
frontier. Enver himself, burning with impatience, and his
German chief of staff, Bronsart von Schellendorf, who also was
no strategist, sailed on board a warship for Trebizond. Leaving
Constantinople on Dec. 6 he reached Erzerum on the 2ist, and,
taking over the command of the III. Army, set to work at once
to carry into action his pet scheme outlined above. The
various corps received the following missions. The IX. Corps
was to drive the Russians from the pass between Erzerum and
Olti and advance on the latter place. The X. Corps, moving
from Erzerum northward, was to wheel round south-eastward in
front of Olti in order to cut the line of retreat of the enemy in
conjunction with the IX. Corps, marching parallel to it. The
Russians would then be attacked frontally by the XI. Corps, as
soon as the turning movement succeeded.
This scheme was a real piece of geometrical strategy, which in
view of the bitter cold, the deep snow and the miserable equipi-
ment of the Turkish army was bound to turn out disastrously.
Enver, however, persisted in his attempt to ape the deeds of
Alexander the Great, and the operation proved a complete
failure. The IX. Corps successfully forced the pass, but got
utterly out of hand in the tangle of snowclad and pathless
mountains. With its units inextricably mixed up it encountered
near Sarikamish a superior and well-ordered enemy force, and
suffered a complete defeat. The X. Corps, which had an even
longer road to traverse, also arrived piecemeal on the battle-
field on Jan. 4 1915, when the IX. Corps was already pouring
back in complete disorder. The X. Corps shared its fate and
retreated in disordered haste over the mountains. Enver
attempted to retrieve the position by attacking with the Xj.
804
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
Corps. Naturally enough, this isolated attack was broken with-
out producing any effect beyond making it possible for the
remnants of the IX. and X. Corps to escape to Erzerum.
The III. Army, which owing to the heavy snow had been
unable to take its field artillery with it, had suffered appalling
losses, which were due not so much to the fighting as to the fact
that the troops had had to bivouac in the snow without tents and
practically without food. An epidemic of typhus now broke out
in its ranks. After the offensive the strength of the army had
been reduced to the following totals: IX. Corps 2,000, X. Corps
2,400, XI. Corps 2,400, Artillery and 2nd Cav. Div. 4,800; or
12,400 in all. The army had thus lost 86 % of its effectives,
and had suffered a disaster which for rapidity and completeness
is without parallel in military history. The miserable surviv-
ors were in a pitiable condition. Enver Pasha, with Bronsart
von Schellendorf, at once left the army, handing over the com-
mand to Havis Hakki Pasha, his brother-in-law, and returned
to Constantinople; he never again during the World War at-
tempted to conduct operations, though he often interfered with
the decisions of the other army commanders with disastrous re-
sults. Thus, soon after the defeat E. of Erzerum, he ordered
the despatch of the V. Corps to that theatre from Constantinople,
and was only at the last moment persuaded by Liman von
Sanders to cancel his instructions. During his return journey he
also announced that no orders other than his own should be
carried out by the troops, and instructions to this effect were sent
to all the Turkish armies. The greatest confusion would have
resulted had not the Grand Vizier cancelled this ridiculous order.
Havis Hakki Pasha dying in Feb. of typhus, the command was
given to Mahmud Kiamil,who knew next to nothing of strategy
and owed his rise solely to political considerations and his in-
fluential connexions.
It was an undeserved piece of good fortune for Turkey that
the Russian losses and the increasing severity of the weather
forbade any pursuit, and that the situation on the Polish front
was absorbing all the available Russian troops and preventing
the despatch of reinforcements to the Caucasus. There ensued
therefore a cessation of all activity in this quarter, and Mahmud
Kiamil had time to reorganize his army. By occupying the Id
and Olti passes he secured his left flank against any raids and
surprise attacks which the Russians might be planning. Farther
still to the left the small detachment which had carried out the
push into Ardahan was wintering at Artvin in Russian territory.
It consisted of 1,000 regulars, reinforced by volunteers raised in
Constantinople by the Committee of National Defence with the
assistance of the German military representatives. More of these
somewhat inferior troops were sent to the detachment in Feb.
and March, and it was resolved to attempt a coup de main
against Batum. The fortifications of the town, however, though
antiquated, were quite sufficient to repel the attack of these un-
organized and half-trained men, and the enterprise was a com-
plete failure. This was all the more unfortunate for Turkey, as
she had found herself unable, despite the presence in the Black
Sea of the " Goeben " and the " Breslau," which were manned
by German crews but had been transferred to the Turkish fleet,
to maintain uninterrupted command of that sea. During 1915
the two German ships, the only effective portion of the Turkish
navy, were needed to cooperate in the defence of the Dardanelles;
so the Russians were able once more to venture out to sea and
shell the coal-mines of Zunguldak and Eregli and the town and
harbour of Trebizond. Henceforward the line of communication
of the III. Army by sea had to be given up, and it now ran over-
land along the railway from Haidar Pasha (opposite Constanti-
nople) by Konia, to Ulu Kyshla (in the Taurus N.E. of Adana),
where everything was loaded onto carts and camels, and pro-
ceeded by road via Kaisariyeh and Sivas to Erzinjan, there to be
distributed. The length of this line from the railhead at Ulu
Kyshla to the main depot at Erzinjan was some 475 miles.
Mahmud Kiamil, with the assistance of the German Lt.-Col.
Guse, who was still chief of staff, succeeded during the winter
months in bringing the strength of his army up to 35,000 men;
most of the new recruits, however,had had little or no training. His
small army had to hold a wide front of some 220 m. from the
Black Sea to Lake Van, and in these circumstances Mahmud
Kiamil kept the main- body of his army concentrated round
Erzerum, and protected the rest of the front only by small de-
tachments. This was not difficult, particularly in winter, since
few passable paths led over the frontier mountains, which are
in places over 9,000 ft. high.
The Russians were not strong enough to fight a battle along
the Sarikamish-Erzerum road. They therefore had recourse to
wide turning movements, but not until May 1915, when the
snow on the roads had melted. They first pressed the Turks
back from the Olti pass and pushed on to Turtum. This village
lies in a wild and precipitous valley in the midst of the high
mountains, and here it was therefore possible for the Turkish
reserves to stem the Russian advance. The Id pass was also
occupied by the Russians. While the attention of the Turkish
Higher Command was thus attracted to the N., far stronger Rus-
sian forces began, likewise in May, an offensive over the passes of
the Aghri Dagh (W. of Bayazid) in the direction of Lake Van,
capturing the weakly defended villages of Dutak and Melass-
girt and threatening Van and Bitlis. At the same time the
Armenian population rose in arms. A Turkish division, hur-
riedly despatched to Bitlis, suppressed the rebellion with awful
savagery, but the Russians continued their advance from
Melassgirt on Bitlis, and on July 13 drove its defenders out.
Again fortune favoured the Turks. The Russians, presum-
ably too weak to venture forward, contented themselves with
what they had gained. Before them to the W. of Bitlis lay the
high plateau which stretches eastward from Diarbekr. Strong
Russian forces might have either descended thence on Mosul
and down the Tigris, thus facilitating the British operations
against Bagdad, or might have pushed forward in the Euphrates
valley on Kharput and turned the whole line held by Mahmud
Kiamil's army, which was known to be in no fit state to offer
serious resistance, and would have no alternative but to retire
hurriedly on Erzinjan or to accept battle before Erzerum with
its front facing S.W., with the certainty of complete destruction
if it were defeated. However, nothing was done. A few detach-
ments crossed into Persia (Azerbaijan) and occupied Urmia and
a few other places W. of the lake of that name. Here, however,
they were cut off by a belt of stupendous mountains over 115 m.
wide from the Mosul plain, so that this enterprise had no strate-
gic effect and merely exercised some political influence in bring-
ing over to the side of the Russians the Armenian and Persian
population of that region.
Summer passed, and as early as Sept. the first snow fell.
Mahmud Kiamil had now increased his army to a strength of
58,000 men, and had in addition assembled some 20,000 recruits
in special training camps in Erzerum. The governor of Erzerum
was a German, Gen. Posseldt, who exerted himself in every way
to put the antiquated works of the fortress in a state of defence.
Lack of all material, even wood, however, prevented the con-
struction of anything except earth-works. Erzerum drew all
its wood and fuel in peace-time from the Pontic Alps, whence
it had to be carried for 115 m. in carts. The Russian bivouacs
near Melassgirt were constructed of wood brought up all the
way from the mountain forests W. of Kars.
Although Erzerum was by no means a strong fortress, some
60 guns inits outer works and some 40 in the inner line being out of
date, it was of great importance as the only road junction in the
whole theatre of operations, as the capital of an area disaffected
towards Turkey and the central point d'appui of a weak army.
In Oct. 1915 the situation in Mesopotamia appeared so serious
that the Turkish Supreme Command, all being quiet at Erzerum,
took away from Mahmud Kiamil two divisions (the sth and 6th)
and sent them to Bagdad. And just at this moment the Rus-
sian Grand Duke Nicholas assumed command on the Russian
Caucasus front, and brought with him not only reinforcements
and material, but still more important the will to utilize
them to the full.
Nicholas had no need to resort to turning movements, and
decided to attack the centre of the Turkish front and break
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
(CAUCASUS)
PLATE I.
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
805
through to Erzerum. The offensive began on Jan. n 1916, up
the Aras valley, and by the i4th the Turkish positions E. of
Erzerum had been carried. It was unfortunate for the Turks
that at this moment Mahmud Kiamil had been called away to
Constantinople, and that his German chief of staff, Col. Guse,
was on sick leave after a severe attack of typhus. The temporary
commander of the III. Army, "Abdul Kerim Pasha, was not
equal to the situation. The Turkish forces, after losing heavily
in a series of rearguard actions, took up a position on the heights
N. and S. of Erzerum which had been hastily fortified. The
Russians, who expected to overrun these defences at the first
attack of their advanced guards, were checked for the moment;
but a second assault, delivered by strong forces against the left
of the Turkish line from Kara Gobek, proved decisive of the fate
of the fortress, which fell into Russian hands on Feb. 15 1916,
the troops of Gen. Yudenich advancing by surprise against the
southern front, where no attack was expected.
The defenders of Erzerum had certainly put up a good fight,
and the Russian claim to have captured in the fortress 100,000
prisoners, 437 guns in the inner and 374 guns in the outer forts
and 200 field guns was certainly greatly exaggerated. The
whole Turkish army, if we deduct the heavy losses suffered,
was barely 50,000 strong, and the whole artillery of the fortress
amounted to barely 10% of the figures given by the Russians.
The Turks, however, whose communiques were easily the
most inaccurate of all those issued by the belligerents, sent home
on Feb. 16 an entirely fanciful account of what had happened:
" On the Caucasus front," it ran, " in the violent position fight-
ing which has continued for the last three days despite the cold
and snow, the enemy lost 5,000 dead and 60 prisoners." The
loss of Erzerum was not even mentioned, and even the Sultan
and his entourage only heard of it some months later; and even
when the facts were finally announced to the world the impor-
tance of the place was minimized and its evacuation represented
as being a voluntary withdrawal on the part of the Turks.
The Grand Duke Nicholas, far from resting content with his
victory, vigorously followed up the Turks in their disordered
retreat, and occupied Mamakhatun. On Feb. 24 the remnant
of the beaten army crossed the Euphrates at Kotur. Mahmud
Kiamil, who had resumed his command, was now replaced by
Wahib Pasha; the greater part of the artillery and material
had been left behind in the retreat, and he only succeeded with
great difficulty in getting his troops across the river, which here
flows from N. to S., and into position on the right bank on the
heights of Baiburt. The V. Corps, which was arriving in haste
and piecemeal from European Turkey, assisted in checking the
Russian advance. In the coastal sector the detachment at
Artvin, though reinforced by some units of the V. Corps, was
assailed by superior forces and compelled to fall back after
stubborn fighting. Maj. Hunger, the German commander,
succeeded in making a renewed stand 20 m. E. of Trebizond,
but by the middle of April the Russian i23rd Div. forced him
back once more and occupied Trebizond.
The Turkish strategic situation had now become serious.
The possession of Trebizond allowed the Russians to open up a
mich shorter line of communications across the Black Sea from
:he Ukrainian and Crimean seaports, and gave them a base
:lose behind their front. The disadvantage of having this base
oehind the right wing of their army could be compensated for
)y reinforcing this wing, so as to avoid any possibility of its
)eing forced away from its line of communications, while the
and route to Erzerum from Kars was still in use and would be
ivailable to supply the whole army if necessary.
The Turks, therefore, had to expect that in the forthcoming
pring the Grand Duke Nicholas, whose forces were continually
>eing reinforced from the Caucasus, would resume the offensive
>n a large scale. The Turkish Supreme Command was now
reed of all anxiety from the side of the Dardanelles, but it still
naintained three armies, the I. (Essad Pasha), the II. (Ahmad
fzzet Pasha) and the V. (Liman Pasha), massed in the Constan-
inople-Adrianople area, thousands of miles from the theatres of
perations, in Mesopotamia and eastern Anatolia.
The loss of Trebizond finally aroused Enver Pasha to a realiza-
tion of the full extent of the strategic danger in the E., and in
March the II. Army was directed to the E. Anatolian front. It
was to deploy on the line Lake Van-Mush-Kigi, and advance
against the Russian flank and rear in the general direction of
Erzerum; it was to be brought up to a strength of 10 divisions
by the addition of the forces already in the area of operations,
and to be reorganized in four corps. The commander, Ahmad
'Izzet Pasha, had been promoted commander-in-chief of the
Turkish army after the Dec. armistice in the Balkan War.
The strategic plan adopted by the Turkish Supreme Command
for the II. Army was as usual excellent in theory but impossible
of execution. The idea of throwing a whole army on the flank
and rear of the Russians must certainly have seemed seductive
to anyone sitting over a map in Constantinople; for it seemed to
promise a strategic encirclement, it followed famous precedents,
and there was plenty of room for the manoeuvre. In practice,
however, the plan paid no attention to the actual conditions of
time and space. The II. Army was despatched in the spring by
rail from Constantinople to Ulu Kyshla; the line, which was a
single one, with enormous intervals between stations, was already
serving as the line of communication for the Palestine and
Mesopotamia armies, so that any rapid transport of the II. Army
was out of the question. The Turkish Supreme Command made
a grave miscalculation in assuming that the army would be
assembled and ready for the advance in 40 days; the distance
from the railhead -at Ulu Kyshla to the area of concentration
(some 400 m.), which had to be covered on foot, would itself have
taken up all that time. The amateur strategists at Turkish H.Q.
took no account of these matters, and were mightily surprised
when the event disappointed their expectations. As a matter of
fact by July 8 the leading troops of the II. Army (III. Corps 7th
and nth Div.) had barely passed Malatia, and the rest of the
army was still on the railway in August.
Meanwhile the situation on the III. Army front was going
from bad to worse. At the end of May it had carried out a few
successful minor operations; Mamakhatun and Surmene (E. of
Trebizond) had been occupied, and the army command, which
was now at Gumuskhane, misconceiving the general situation,
proposed to carry out a powerful offensive S. of Trebizond early
in July. For this purpose it suggested that the units of the II.
Army already available should push forward without delay to
the area S. of Erzerum an advance which, with the weak forces
which 'Izzet Pasha had at his disposal, could only have been
effective as a demonstration or a piece of bluff. But even this
could hardly have succeeded, in view of the excellent intelligence
as to the Turkish movements which the Russians were known to
have, and 'Izzet Pasha rightly declined to fall in with the scheme.
As a matter of fact the Russians had full information as to these
happenings, and especially the progress of the transport of the
II. Army, and seized their chance to attack the III. Army in
July, before the II. Army's menace to their flank could become
effective. This was the best solution of their problem of opera-
tions on the inner line, and it met with complete success. On July
7 the Turkish III. Army was driven from Erzinjan and Baiburt
with heavy losses in men, guns and material, and was able to
make another stand only on the line Kemach (on the Euphrates
30 m. W. of Erzinjan) -Chadali Pass-Tireboli on the Black Sea.
The most serious result of this defeat was the complete de-
moralization of the defeated troops; thousands of deserters,
plundering and robbing, flooded all the country as far back as
Sivas; columns and transport melted away in panic on the
appearance of the Russian cavalry, who had broken through
the Turkish line at two points and suddenly appeared in its rear.
The III. Army reported in Aug. that 13,000 deserters had re-
joined their units, but the governor of Sivas estimated that some
30,000 were still at large in his area. The fact that the Mahom-
medan population in the area evacuated by the Turkish army
fled in terror before the advance of the Russians added to the
indescribable confusion.
When 'Izzet Pasha with the III. Corps advanced at the end
of July into the zone of assembly allotted to the II. Army the
8o6
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
situation was as follows. In the hilly country S. of Bitlis was the
5th Div., which had been driven from that town by the Russians,
and the 8th Div. was in the hilly country S. of Mush. "Izzet
formed them into the XVI. Corps. N.W. of them were only
a few small detachments, holding the main roads as far as the
Elmali valley, in which stood the nth Cav. Bde. as the extreme
right wing of the III. Army.
'Izzet Pasha's intention was to assemble the main body of his
II. Army at Diarbekr and the smaller part at Kharput, and only
then to advance in the direction of Erzerum and the country to
the E. of it. He knew that in front of him the reinforced IV.
Caucasian Corps had taken over the task of guarding the flank of
the Russian main army.
This plan, however, was hot carried out. The Turkish Supreme
Command, in view of the disaster to the III. Army and the
reports of constantly arriving Russian reinforcements, urged
'Izzet to attack before the assembly of his forces had been finished.
'Izzet had no option but to obey, though he was under no illusion
as to the result. He wished at least to concentrate all his few
available forces on the left wing of his area of deployment and to
make a push into the district W. of Erzerum, in order to relieve
the pressure on the III. Army. But this also proved beyond his
powers. The ist, i4th and 53rd Divs., which had arrived at the
end of July and the beginning of Aug., were pushed forward
against the Russians, who were still being reinforced on the front
opposite the II. Army; a few local successes were achieved, and
'Izzet Pasha on Aug. 10 decided to renounce a general offensive
and to hold and fortify the line Kigi-Ognot heights S. of Mush.
Thus ended the geometrical strategy of the Turkish Supreme
Command, which had from the first been based only on wishes
and hopes rather than on definite realities. The administrative
deficiencies in the II. Army had been, as usual in Turkey, so
great as alone to ruin all hope of success. The army was sent
forward into wild and mountainous country, in which only
mountain artillery and columns of pack-animals could be moved,
and it was supplied with only 18 mountain guns and with
ox-wagons for transport and far from enough even of these.
Figures as to the number of cattle in the deployment area were
accepted without verification, and proved to be exaggerated
some five fold. Those responsible for the supply services were,
as ever in Turkish wars, quite incompetent to make the best of
what turned up, and very disposed to steal the little that was
available. Under such conditions the best plans are of no avail,
for they can never be translated into actual practice.
Meanwhile Wahib Pasha was displaying praiseworthy energy
in reorganizing the III. Turkish Army, of which the head-
quarters were at Andria. Divisions were formed out of the old
corps, regiments out of divisions, battalions out of regiments.
The army was divided into two " Caucasian Corps," the I. and
II., the former comprising the 5th, nth and 37th Caucasian
Divisions. But even these combined divisions were very weak.
The volunteer formations and other irregular bands proved
wholly useless, and were soon broken up. German motor trans-
port columns, established in the winter of 1916-7 on the line of
communications of the III. Army between Ulu Kyshla and
Sivas, prevented a threatened catastrophe due to starvation.
All Wahib Pasha's efforts, however, could not restore the spirit
of the III. Army and give back to it that confidence which was
essential to the prosecution of a successful offensive.
The II. Army, when its concentration was completed, was
composed of the XVI., II., IV. and III. Corps. Mustafa Kemal
(later to become famous as leader of the Nationalist army) was
the army commander. 'Izzet Pasha was entrusted with the gen-
eral direction of the II. and III. Armies operating on the Ar-
menian front, and moved his H.Q. to Kharput.
The II. Army, which had its H.Q. at Diarbekr, was experienc-
ing even greater difficulties in the matter of its communications
than was the III. In the winter, however, the strain was eased
by both sides going into winter quarters, as in the old days. Only
in the passes small observation detachments stood facing each
other. In Nov. most of the troops were moved back into more
sheltered districts, so that the Turkish and Russian winter
quarters were some 30 to 40 m. apart, about the equivalent o
five days' march in this difficult country. The Turks, howevei
were still short of food. As early as Nov. the men were get tin
only one-third of their regular rations, the pack-animals ha<
themselves to find what meagre pasturage they could, and t.
find any was soon impossible on account of the deep snow
the cavalry horses were getting only i| kilogrammes of oats
Hundreds of animals died every day. Again and again outposts
patrols and whole detachments of men were found starved o
frozen to death in the holes of the rocks. In the terrible cold
which when snowstorms ragsd might well chill to the bone evei
the warmest clad men, the majority of the troops had only thei
summer clothing. The percentage of sick grew higher day by day
The sanitary arrangements were in the highest degree defective
so that these miserable beings lived and died in boundlesl
wretchedness. In the hospital at Kharput alone the averag.
deaths in the winter of 1916-7 amounted to 900 per month
Medical requisites were insufficient, and there were no means ol
combating the plague lice and the epidemic of typhus whicq
followed it. Of the III. Army 60,000 men perished between JuW
1916 and the spring of 1917, and in the autumn of the latter yea;
barely 20,000 men remained at the front.
The strategic position in Armenia at the beginning of 1917 wa;
extremely unfavourable to the Turks. The Russians, who ha<
obtained undisputed control of the Black Sea, had massed surf
strong forces in front of the II. and III. Armies that there coulc
be no idea of a Turkish offensive. At the same time railways wera
being built from Sarikamish by Hasan Kala to Erzerum and fronj
Trebizond and Gumuschane, on the completion of which tha
Russians in their turn would be in a position to resume th<|
offensive without being hampered by transport difficulties. This
offensive might be directed either against the front of one of th<
two Turkish armies, or from Lake Urmia along the soutlurr
shore of Lake Van against the almost unprotected flank of th
III. Army. In view of the fact that a new English advance
against Bagdad was in preparation, this latter seemed very
probable, and Liman von Sanders did rightly in asking the
Turkish Supreme Command, in the late autumn of 1916, to hold
another army ready at Mosul. The proposal, however, was re-
jected by Enver. It would also have been sound policy to have
placed the II., III. and VI. Armies (the latter being at Bagdad)!
under one command; for the transference of forces betweert
Armenian and Bagdad fronts could not be carried out quickly
enough from Constantinople, and a junction of the Russian and
British fronts by an extension of the former by Urmia and the
western frontier of Persia was shortly to bi expected. A Russian
offensive from Persia against Mosul would certainly place both
the III. and the VI. Turkish Army in a perilous position. The
completion of the railway from Igdir by Bayazid to Kara Kilissa
and its continuance by Tutak and Melassgirt seemed to indicatei
the probability of a Russian offensive against the right of the II.
Turkish Army. The offensive against Mosul did not in fact take
place; but this omission was a serious error on the part of the
Russians and a piece of good fortune for the Turks, on which they
had no right to count. However, Liman von Sanders' request
for the establishment of a single command was rejected by the
Turkish Supreme Command. The relations between Enver and|
Liman had in fact gradually become so strained, that Enver
made a point of refusing anything that Liman wanted.
The Grand Duke Nicholas had, for his part, been making
energetic preparations during the winter of 1916-7 for a
powerful new offensive. The III. Turkish Army was opposed by
the V. Caucasian, II. Turkestan, and I. Caucasian Corps; the
II. Turkish Army by the VI. and IV. Caucasian Corps as far as
Van. Thence to the W. of Lake Urmia came the II. Caucasian
Cav. Corps and a number of detachments (fortress regiments
from Kars, frontier guard units, Armenian and Assyrian irregu-
lars). The VII. and I. Caucasian Cav. Corps prolonged the
front from Sauj Bulak along the Persian frontier to W. of
Kermanshah.
But the Grand Duke's plans, which in view of the wretched
condition of the Turkish armies must have led to a complete
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
807
victory and perhaps driven Turkey out of the war in the summer
of 1917, were never carried out. This was in part due to the fact
that all available Russian forces were being concentrated for
Brussilov's great offensive in Volhynia, but mainly to the out-
break of the Russian revolution, which checked all large operations
in Asia. When the revolution broke out in April the advance had
not begun. In the course of the winter there had been nothing
but local skirmishes for the possession of a hill or pass, which,
whether they turned out to the advantage of Turks or Russians
had no influence on the general strategic situation.
The outbreak of the revolution was taken by many of the
Russian troops as a signal that the war was at an end, though
there were formations which still maintained their cohesion and
discipline. The Turks, however, were prevented partly by the
general military situation of Turkey and partly by the peculiar
difficulties of the II. and JII. Armies, from seizing and exploiting
their advantage as they might have been expected to do. The
rapid progress of the English towards Bagdad had necessitated
the despatch of reinforcements to that theatre, and the main-
tenance of the Palestine front also absorbed large forces, so that
ihcre were neither men nor material left over for the Caucasian
front. The two armies, barely 40,000 strong in the spring of
1917, were now formed into the " Caucasian Army Group " under
'Izzet Pasha, whose H.Q. were still at Kharput, and who had now
been provided with a German chief of staff, Maj. von Falken-
hausen. All this, however, did not in any way make it possible
to resume operations. Typhus was still raging; in Feb. the II.
Army lost 42 of its few doctors from this cause. There was so
little wood that the delousing stations could not be heated. The
deportation of the Armenian population had left the fields
antilled, and the villages deserted and in ruins. Of the craftsmen
,vho exhibit a multitudinous activity behind the armies on the
European fronts there was not a sign, and even the workshops
vhich had been busy in peace-time were deserted. The supply
)ften broke down entirely. A shameless traffic in waggons went
l>n on the single railway from Haidar Pasha to Ulu Kyshla,
vhich served the Palestine, Mesopotamian and Caucasian fronts.
These waggons, which should have been used for military purposes,
I vere privately hired out by officers and officials to contractors
nd war profiteers at high prices, and on this railway an illicit
:arrying trade was developed on a gigantic scale. The higher
.uthorities, who also took their quota of profit, were not inclined
o interfere. So for the sake of these brutes thousands of brave
Anatolian soldiers perished of cold and starvation without even
.nowing the true cause of their miserable death.
The reports of the hopeless military position in 1917, which
rere sent to Berlin by the Turkish Supreme Command, were
rom first to last lies, and served only to increase the exaggerated
stimate of themselves which obsessed the minds of the German
Supreme Command as well and caused the loss of every oppor-
. unity of arriving at peace of understanding.
When Bagdad fell to the English on the night of March 10-11,
he chance offered itself of a successful Russian offensive on
rlosul either westward from Lake Urmia or from the region of
.ake Van southwards. Had it been carried out even by one good
orps it could not have failed to be successful. During the whole
,f 1917 some 15 infantry and 2j cavalry divisions remained on
he Russian front facing the Turks, but nothing important was
ndertaken. The front from Trebizond to the Diala near Bagdad,
i /here it connected with the English line in Mesopotamia,
leasured over 600 m. from flank to flank, and afforded far
reater scope for free strategic manoeuvres than the narrow
onts in France, which were actually filled with guns and men.
Warlike activity was only resumed in E. Anatolia, however,
'hen Russia at the end of 1917 entered into negotiations with
le Central Powers. The political event which decided the re-
Jtnption of the offensive by the Turks, which took place early in
918, was the notification by the Turkish plenipotentiaries at
rest Litovsk on Jan. 17 that a Russian retirement from all the
rea occupied by them in Asia Minor was an essential pre-
minary to the conclusion of peace. At the same time the
'krainian delegates were asked by the Turkish delegates how
far they were interested in the retention of the Caucasus by
Russia. On their replying that they had no interests in the
Caucasus, the Turks resolved to conquer it, and obtained Ger-
many's consent to their doing so, though at the time they did
not disclose to her all their ulterior designs.
The Russians retired at the end of Jan. 1917, and in Feb. the
Turks advanced across the line Van-Erzerum-Trebizond. The
Turkish armies, which together could muster only the strength
of a weak army corps, were in such poor condition that even the
small, unorganized Armenian bands, who opposed them, were able
to give them greater trouble. Their communiques at this time
were full of stories of great victories which never took place.
The forward march was carried out in two columns. The
northern one, feeling its way very cautiously along the coast
of the Black Sea, reentered Trebizond on Feb. 24; the other
reached Erzinjan on the i4th, and moved thence by Mamakha-
tun on Erzerum. Nothing was seen of the Russians, who, as a
matter of fact, had long since recrossed the frontier; only a
few desperate Armenians endeavoured to dispute the reoccu-
pation of their country by their hereditary tormentors. The
Turks were held up for some time by these bands in front of
Erzerum, which they only "recaptured" on March n, and
revenged themselves by the usual revolting barbarities on the
unhappy Christian population.
While Erzerum was being taken, the left Turkish column
advancing from Trebizond was approaching the frontier be-
tween Chopa and Magriali, and the political problem of the
provinces of Kars, Ardahan and Batum, the occupation of which
had been the motive of the advance, became acute. Their
interest in these provinces caused the Turks to commit their
last and decisive strategic blunder, the greatest of which they
had been guilty since 1914. The Turkish Government consid-
ered these operations in the Caucasus to be of the first impor-
tance, although the true decisive theatre for Turkey in 1918 was
Palestine. Instead of concentrating in Palestine the few troops
it had available, the Supreme Command withdrew troops and
war material from that front and despatched them to the
" East Caucasian Group." Even the small German contingent,
which formed the backbone of the Palestine army, was also
sent to the Caucasus. Liman von Sanders' words to Count
Bernstorff, the German ambassador in Constantinople, written
in June 1918, were fully justified by events: " The Turks are
sacrificing all Arabia, Palestine and Syria to these boundless
undertakings of theirs in Trans-Caucasia. Germany will some
day be burdened with the responsibility for this."
Enver and the German High Command had, however, suc-
ceeded in completely deceiving the German ambassador as to
the Turkish objective, for the latter, in reply to Liman von
Sanders, wrote on June 21 that the German Jager battalion was
being transferred from Palestine to Georgia, " not in response to
. Turkish wishes, but, on the contrary, for the purpose of restoring
order in the Caucasus, so as to allow of the whole Turkish army
being transferred thence to Mesopotamia by way of Urmia and
Tabriz." This, of course, could have been done more quickly
and easily if the Turkish army had never advanced from Arme-
nia into the Caucasus. The motive of the Caucasus adventure
lay deeper. Enver's idea of attacking India, childish as it was,
had yet proved enticing to the German High Command, and
the strategic base for an invasion of India by way of Persia
was actually established in the Caucasus in the summer of 1918.
And this at a time when the decision of the World War was
ripening on the front in France!
Considerations of an economic nature, it is true, carried great
weight in the minds of the German Supreme Command at this
time. The output of the Rumanian oil wells was insufficient;
and it was therefore thought necessary to occupy Baku, and to
despatch petroleum thence to the Black Sea by the Tiflis rail-
way. It has been necessary to mention these considerations in
order to make clear the motives of the Turkish operations in 1918.
After the occupation of Erzerum the southern Turkish column
reached Olti, the first objective of the Turks in the winter of
1914-5, on March 26. Meanwhile the coast column was moving
8o8
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
on Batum. The Georgians, however, who, naturally enough,
had little sympathy with the Turkish " restorers of order,"
banded themselves together to oppose their further advance.
The latter were not even able to keep a firm hand on insurgent
Armenia. Behind their backs Armenian bands even succeeded
in occupying Erzerum for a time and thereby interrupting all
movement on the Turkish line of communications. Meanwhile
Georgian bands had occupied Batum. The Turks attacked the
town and stormed the advanced positions on April 9; one fort
fell on the loth, two others on the nth, and on the I4th the
town surrendered. The Turkish Supreme Command seized the
opportunity to telegraph to the world at large the most incredi-
ble stories of victory.
Early in April Nuri Pasha, who was now in command of the
" East Caucasus " Army, pushed a strong column from Lake
Van in the direction of Rare. Vostan, at the S.E. corner, and
Amis, at the N.E. corner of the lake, were occupied after violent
conflicts with Armenian bands, who fought with the utmost
fierceness. Van fell on April 7.
While this column was advancing on Kars by way of Kara Ki-
lissa, the Erzerum column, which had been brought to a halt
after the above-mentioned capture of Erzerum by Armenian
bands, pushed forward by Sarikamish, and the two columns
thus converged on Kars. As there was no strategically effective
enemy to overcome, the operation was successful, despite the
late arrival of the Van force. The Erzerum column approached
Kars on April 5, after driving off some Armenian irregulars near
Sarikamish; the Van column made slow progress through the
revolted province of Bagasia, arriving at Kara Kilissa April 18.
On the z6th the Turkish communiqui reported 'the " storm-
ing " of the fortress of Kars (which was apparently undefended)
with the capture of 860 guns. This number was considerably
in excess of the truth. There is no doubt, however, that the
provisions secured in the fortress considerably facilitated the
further prosecution of the operations. The column advancing
along the coast had meantime pushed on from Batum to Kobu-
leti and Ozurgeti on the edge of the Caucasus mountains.
The Turks now felt themselves to be masters of the situation,
and their pretensions became so outrageous as to lead to serious
controversies with the German Government, which, for the
first time in the war, was compelled to protest energetically
against their exorbitant claims. It had, however, only itself
to blame for their exaggerated estimates of themselves.
In the middle of May the plenipotentiaries of the Govern-
ment of Northern Caucasia addressed a note to all the Powers,
announcing the formation of an independent state, separated
from Russia. Transcaucasia, however, remained in a com-
plete state of confusion, though the proclamation of the inde-
pendence of the country by the assembly which met early in
June at Baku was plainly directed against Turkey. What
exactly was meant by Transcaucasia, however, must have been,
obscure even to the assembly, for a few days earlier there had
been set up under Turkish auspices three independent states,
known as the Georgian, Tartar (Azerbaijan) and Armenian
Republics. Necessity had compelled all three to conclude
treaties of perpetual amity and alliance with Turkey, who had
every intention of annexing these weak states at the earliest
possible moment.
Enver did everything to strengthen his political army in the
Caucasus. Accelerated promotion and doubled pay were prom-
ised to the officers serving with it, with the result that many
officers, who were urgently required in Palestine, got away from
that theatre, where they received no pay at all.
In the summer the Caucasus Army was increased to six
complete divisions, which were stronger than they had been
at any time since 1914, numbering 9,000 men each. The trans-
port of these troops, and their reserves, material and supplies
absorbed all the fuel available, so that no trains could be sent to
the Palestine Army, on whose fighting force the ultimate decision
of the war depended. The Pan-Islamic idea, which had been
propagated since the beginning of the war, had produced a com-
plete confusion of mind and robbed Enver and his entourage of
the last vestige of that strategic sobriety which alone could no^
save Turkey from ruin. Every week 14 coal trains were sen
from Germany to Constantinople; of these seven far more thai
were necessary were kept for the use of the capital itself
2,500 tons were shipped by way of the Black Sea to the E
Caucasian Army, and the rest was absorbed by the Anatoliai
railway or in other words the war profiteers, who filled who!
trains with their goods and paid out untold sums in bribes ti
the railway officials to give them priority of passage.
The E. Caucasian Army extended itself in Transcaucasi;
and N. Persia, from Lake Urmia to Arax, during the course o
the summer, without troubling themselves in the least about thi
dangerous English offensive against Mosul, where 4,000-5, oo<
Turkish soldiers were posted in conditions of the utmost misery
The few events that followed in Transcaucasia were of little
military interest, and consisted mainly of a few petty scuffle;
without influence on the general situation, and unsuitable foi
inclusion in a strategic narrative. Even the despatch of a German
division to Georgia in the summer of 1918 had no other objecj
than the furtherance of those plans, on the futility of which we
have already insisted.
Nuri Pasha, with Bolshevik help, certainly succeeded in
expelling from Baku a small British force which had crossed tha
Caspian and occupied the town on Aug. 12. This incident
however, had no effect on the strategic position. In Persia Nun
pushed forward to Tabriz.
The final conclusions as to the Transcaucasian operations
may be summed up as follows. The position of Turkey and of tha
Central Powers in 1918 was such that a military victory was out
of the question. This fact, however, was recognized neither by
Ludendorff, who wasted the defensive strength of the German
army in a purposeless spring offensive, nor by Enver, who was
obsessed by his vast schemes for annexation of territory. The
despatch of a strong German division to the Caucasus, and the
operations of large German forces in the Ukraine in the summer
of 1918, when the war was being lost in France, show the kind of
strategic conception then prevalent. In the case of Turkey the
theatres of war which had to be supplied with men and material
were too numerous for the resources available. When the Rus-
sians collapsed in 1918 a wise strategy would have considered
the elimination of one theatre of operations as a relief to be)
accepted with gratitude, and would have, as a natural conse-
quence, transferred all the forces thus liberated to the Palestine
front. Such a course would of itself have relieved the pressure on
the Mesopotamian front, which could no longer be saved by di-
rect means. The underlying idea ought to have been that a I
tenable military position in Palestine would have been more
favourable, in the event of negotiations for peace, than any
conquests in the Caucasus, which would have to be given up
again in case of military defeat. Enver, and with him a whole
series of Turkish and German military men, had never had that
conception of the limits of the possible which is the prime
characteristic of every great strategist. They mistook the elabo-
ration of immense and impracticable schemes for genius, whereas
true genius consists of getting the best possible results from the
material available. The events on the E. Anatolian front also
'serve to prove very clearly that strategy is an art not to be mas-
tered, even with the best will in the world, by a layman such as
Enver, and that it is governed almost entirely by the geograph-
ical conditions of the theatre of operations. This should have
been recognized by the office strategists of Constantinople, who
had no clear grasp of the geographical conditions of the coun-
try in general or in detail, and failed to realize that strategical
manoeuvres which seem highly promising on the map may be
impossible of execution in practice. In the German schools of
strategy, and also in Turkey, so-called military geography was
before the war treated with complete contempt, as it was be-
lieved that it tended to limit freedom of strategic conception.
The campaigns in the East proved that freedom of strategic
conception, unless based on accurate geographical knowledge,
is not only profitless but a fruitful cause of defeat. Finally, the
war in Eastern Anatolia may teach us one valuable psychological
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
809
lesson, which was insufficiently appreciated by the Turkish
Supreme Command. The form of a strategic movement has of
itself BO driving force; the vital factor, in strategic force too, is
the troops. Now the spirit of the troops depends mainly on their
physical condition. An army called on, when insufficiently clad
and underfed, to face the snows of winter soon loses its fighting
value. If strategy depends on the efficiency of the troops, this
in its turn depends on the efficiency of the supply and trans-
port services, and the administration of the army in general.
Only when this organization is in good order and working well
, can the leading strategic conception be, in the true sense of the
word, free. On this simple truth the strategy of the Turks dur-
ing the World War always suffered shipwreck, even when they
had better leaders than those who appeared during the war in
Armenia. (F. C. E.)
(II.) MESOPOTAMIAN OPERATIONS
The Anglo-Indian operations of 1914-8 in Mesopotamia, which
ended in the military occupation of almost the whole of that
i extensive region, were in their initial stages conceived on com-
paratively modest lines. They were at the outset undertaken
merely with the object of (i) protecting the Anglo- Persian oil
installations of the Qarun; (2) occupying the greater part of the
Basra vilayet, so as to secure possession of the Shatt al "Arab and
to maintain control of the districts immediately round the head
of the Persian Gulf; and (3) impressing the Arabs and others in
this and neighbouring regions and influencing thereby the in-
habitants of the territories intervening between the Ottoman
i Empire and India. It was foreseen in London and at Simla that
the Ottoman Government would be likely, under instigation
i from Berlin, to send troops in this direction, for the purpose of
harassing the Indian executive by stirring up trouble in Persia
and Afghanistan; and steps had been taken to deal with the
contingency before relations between the Entente Powers and
the Porte were actually broken off. The Poona Bde. of the 6th
Indian Div. had been dispatched to an island near the head of
;the Persian Gulf in the middle of Oct., and on Nov. 7, two days
'after the British Government declared war on Turkey, these
advanced troops appeared in their transports at the mouth of
the Shatt al 'Arab.
The fort guarding the entrance to the estuary was taken after
j brief bombardment, and the brigade then disembarked and
Encamped some miles up-stream on the right bank. On learning
:;his the Turks hurried all available forces down from Basra to
oar the way to the invader; but, the rest of the 6th Div. under
iSir A. Barrett having arrived, they were attacked on the iyth and
effectually overthrown. Basra fell on the 2ist. The vanquished
Dsmanlis for the most part retired to Qurna, at the junction of
|:he Euphrates with the Tigris, the point where the water-way
rcases to be navigable for ocean-going vessels proceeding up-
itream; but Barrett promptly pushed troops to a point higher
!ip, and the place surrendered on Dec. 9. Considerable Ottoman
; 'enforcements had, however, been on the way from Bagdad
t:owards Basra since the arrival of the Anglo-Indian expeditionary
orce in the Shatt al 'Arab, and these now began concentrating,
>artly in the direction of Ahwaz and menacing the oil-fields, and
>artly about Nasiriya on the Euphrates. Threatened in a meas-
Mre on either flank, and necessarily dispersed owing to having
nany posts to hold, the 6th Div. was not comfortably situated;
>ut, as the Turkish fighting forces which had come down from
he N. were not as yet organized for active operations nor in an
iggressive mood, the invaders were enabled to consolidate their
>osition, and they were little interfered with during the first
hree months of 1915.
The Indian Government was, however, anxious to obtain a
tronger hold upon the district already occupied, and so in
! Vlarch it was decided to raise the expeditionary force to the
'trength of an army corps. Early in April Sir J. Nixon took
'ver command from Gen. Barrett, who with limited means had
onducted the campaign with signal skill and judgment, and
Jen. Townshend at the same time assumed charge of the 6th
|)ivision. The last units of the new division (the i2th) had
rrived by the middle of the month. These changes, as it turned
out, synchronized with a marked increase of activity on the part
of the Turks; for they appeared in some force near Qurna and
also seriously threatened Ahwaz; they were, however, driven off
with no great difficulty at both points. Encouraged by these
successes, Nixon decid'ed to assume the offensive and to occupy
'Amara, a town of some importance 60 m. N. of Qurna on the
Tigris, but considerably farther if following the sinuosities of
the stream. This task was entrusted to Townshend, who carried
it out by making free use of water-transport of all kinds for
moving his troops. Aided by a naval flotilla, on May 31, he
signally defeated a hostile force which tried to bar the way; and
then, as the result of a bold stroke, on June 3 made himself
master of 'Amara, capturing 17 guns and 1,800 prisoners. This
operation accomplished, Nixon resolved on a blow against
Nasiriya. The heat was now intense; but, in spite of this, por-
tions of the 1 2th Div., relying for mobility largely upon water
transport, took possession of the town after some hard fighting
on July 25, another 17 guns with 1,000 prisoners being the prize
of victory. The Anglo-Indian army which had descended upon
this corner of the Ottoman Empire could then fairly claim that
it had achieved the object for which the campaign had been
originally undertaken.
Its triumph had been all the more creditable seeing how
seriously it had suffered from want of transport, and taking the
inadequacy of its administrative branches into consideration.
It must be remembered that the Indian Government had
accepted heavy commitments in other fields of military action.
Two divisions had been dispatched to the western front. Large
forces had been furnished for the protection of Egypt. The E.
African campaign also at that stage was an Indian undertaking.
The military organization of the great British Asiatic dependency
had not in pre-war days been framed with the idea of prosecuting
martial operations on an ambitious scale overseas. Large re-
serves of trained men did not exist to fill those gaps in the ranks
that contests with well armed antagonists bring about in the
present day. The available departmental services notably the
medical service had been starved. The troops now operating
at the head of the Persian Gulf were, moreover, faced by quite
exceptional difficulties, owing to the insufficiency of that shallow-
draught water transport upon which their efforts and their main-
tenance virtually hinged.
Unfortunately, the success which had hitherto attended the
combinations of Generals Barrett and Nixon inspired the civil
and military authorities at Simla with the desire for a more
ambitious programme in Mesopotamia than that which had
been contemplated in Oct. 1914, and they readily fell in with
Nixon's proposal that an advance up the Tigris to Kut should
be undertaken. The Home Government agreed. This meant an
advance of some 180 m. up-river into the heart of the enemy's
country by troops who had already undergone much hardship,
the maintenance of the force depending upon a flotilla that was
barely adequate for the purpose and that would become entirely
inadequate were the strength of the force to be increased above
that of the division and the cavalry brigade already told off for
the undertaking. News had come that a Turkish force was
assembling at Kut under Nur ed Din Bey. Although Nixon
made strong representations with regard to his lack of water
transport, he perhaps hardly made the danger of advancing
beyond 'Amara unless this were substantially increased suffi-
ciently clear to authorities far away from the scene of action.
Nor, perhaps, was the virtual impossibility of rapidly aug-
menting it realized. Townshend was charged with carrying out
the proposed advance and early in Aug. his 6th Div. began
gradually to push forward up the Tigris. On Sept. 14 he con-
centrated his force at Sheikh Sa'd.
On the following day he drove an advanced Turkish force in
disarray out of a fortified position at Abu Rumman on the
right bank of the Tigris, about 15 m. from Kut, and he then
lalted for some days to admit of supplies coming up and of
reconnoitring the lines which the enemy had established on both
)anks of the river about Es Sinn. On the 28th he attacked Nur
ed Din in his entrenched position and completely defeated him,
8 io
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
taking 1,650 prisoners, 13 guns and much war material, and the
cavalry pursued the fleeing Osmanlis as far as 'Aziziya, halfway
from Kut to Bagdad. The enterprise had in fact been carried
out with a success equal to its audacity.
Kut was a locality of some strategical significance. Issuing
here from the Tigris, the Shatt al 'Arab creates a link with the
Euphrates at Nasiriya. The natural route for troops from
Bagdad proceeding to the lowest reaches of the Euphrates
immediately above Qurna would be by way of the Tigris and
the Shatt al Hai. Therefore, installed in his new position at
Kut, Townshend in a measure blocked both the routes from
Upper Mesopotamia to Basra that following the Tigris right
down to Qurna, and that turning off by the Shatt al Hai. Kut
was furthermore the most important place between "Amara or
Nasiriya and Bagdad, and its capture was calculated to exert a
considerable moral influence over the Arabs who dwelt in this
region and who were disposed to be troublesome. But almost
the whole of the Anglo-Indian troops in the theatre of war, apart
from detachments required for garrison duty nearer the Persian
Gulf, had now been projected into an isolated situation far within
the enemy's territory; they were, moreover, depending upon a
long line of water communication, not easy to protect against
marauding attacks and served by only a restricted number of
steamers and smaller craft. But for the severe defeat suffered
by the Turks at Es Sinn, the disposition of the invading forces
at the beginning of Oct. would have justified some anxiety.
But the idea of pushing on to Bagdad had already taken
shape even before the occupation of Kut. The Aug. discomfiture
in the Gallipoli Peninsula (see DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN), coupled
with a belated realization that the Dardanelles venture would
not succeed, had rendered the Home Government eager for some
dramatic achievement in Mesopotamia. The Indian Viceroy had
advocated an advance to Bagdad when the start up the Tigris
from 'Amara was materializing. Townshend's gratifying triumph
acted as a stimulus to these aspirations, and during the month of
Oct. there was much inter-communication between London,
Simla and army headquarters in Mesopotamia on the subject of
a further advance. Nixon intimated early in the month that he
was strong enough to open a road to Bagdad under the circum-
stances then existing, but he did not consider himself able to
hold the city if taken. The question of even reaching the place,
however, depended in reality upon whether the advance were to
take place before the enemy was reinforced. The military
authorities who were consulted at home, while admitting the
possibility of capture, regarded permanent retention as out of
the question with the limited forces available; they declared that,
if Bagdad was to be held, the army in Mesopotamia must be
reinforced by two divisions. Influenced by political considera-
tions, however, the Home Government became more and more
insistent. The dispatch of the two Indian divisions that were
on the western front at the time to the Persian Gulf was under
consideration, but it could not be promised at the moment.
Although no reinforcements could be sent him, and although had
they been sent him they could not have taken part in the opera-
tion owing to the time that must elapse in getting them to the
theatre of war and owing to the absence of water transport to
move them and to feed them when they got there, Nixon was on
the 3ist informed that he might advance on the city.
Townshend had pushed large parts of his force from Kut on
to 'Aziziya while the discussion was proceeding. He found that
the Turks were less demorah'zed by the reverses' they had met
with than had at first been supposed, and they had been given
time to rally and to reorganize. His own troops had been severely
tried, and all his units were short of establishment. He enter-
tained serious misgivings as to progressing farther, in view of the
isolation of his force, of the length of his communications, and
of the manifest insufficiency of that water transport which was
the governing factor in any operations that he might have to
undertake. Even after receiving his orders to advance, he was
unable to move for a fortnight owing to time lost in getting up
supplies to 'Aziziya and in organizing for the hazardous effort.
On Nov. ii, however, the advance began, and on the 2ist the
Turks were dislodged from a fortified position at Laj. It was
known that the enemy was in strong force at Ctesiphon and had
constructed elaborate entrenchments at that point; news had
also come that hostile reinforcements were expected. A night
march was therefore carried out, and at dawn Townshend at-,
tacked. The assault was most successful in the first instance.
Two lines were carried and many prisoners were captured. But
strong Ottoman reinforcements arrived on the battlefield while
the fight was still in progress, and these recovered much of the
ground that had been lost earlier in the day. For three days the
two armies remained facing each other at Ctesiphon, the Turks
being much superior in numbers and their array gradually
swelling as fresh troops arrived from Bagdad. Townshend was
in the meantime making all preparations for a retreat and was
getting his wounded away a service of no small difficulty owing
to the insufficiency of transport. Then on the night of the 25th
he moved off.
His losses since quitting 'Aziziya amounted to 3,500 nearly
one-third of his strength. Except in respect to cavalry, the enemy
enjoyed a great advantage in numbers, and as soon as the re-;
treat began the Arabs started harrying the retiring force. Still,
thanks to Townshend's skilful dispositions and to the resolute
marching of his weary troops, no great difficulty was experienced
in evading grave molestation during the first four days of the
backward march. But, owing to the flotilla of supply transports,
barges and fighting craft being delayed by the shoals, and to :
some of the craft getting aground, a halt had to be called on the
2Qth. This enabled the pursuing Ottoman columns to come up,
and on Dec. i they delivered a resolute attack upon the Anglo-
Indian force, but the assailants were beaten off after a sharp
encounter and the retreat was then resumed. It had been neces-
sary to abandon three steamers, but so great was the effect of the
stalwart resistance offered by Townshend's sorely tried little
army that it was little interfered with during its last three days
of retreat. It assembled at Kut on Dec. 3, having suffered another
i,ooo casualties since quitting Ctesiphon, but bringing in the
i, 600 prisoners taken on Nov. 22.
So for the moment ended the Bagdad adventure. On
Dec. 3 the first of the reinforcements spoken of six weeks before
(when London and Simla were pressing for an advance) had only
started a few days on their four weeks' voyage from France
to the Shatt al "Arab. Military authorities had admitted the
possibility of a successful dash on the city, but had denied the
possibility of so small a force holding the city unless reinforced;
and even had additional troops been available in the country,
the water transport to get them up the river was lacking.
When Townshend moved forward the best to be hoped for was
that he might reach his goal and might then escape if he
straightway hurried down the Tigris again. Seldom in the his-
tory of war has a military force been committed to an undertak-
ing so unwarrantable.
But worse, from the British point of view, was to follow. For,
with the approval of the Home and Indian Governments, Nixon
decided that Townshend should stop where he was, although
if he did so he was bound to be invested. They assumed too
readily that he would be relieved ere his supplies ran out. So his
sick and wounded, his cavalry, most of the flotilla and a propor-
tion of his animals were sent off down Tigris, although the civil-
ian population was unfortunately allowed to remain; prepara-
tions for a siege were put in hand ; and on the 8th Kut was hemmed
in on all sides. Its situation in a deep loop on the left bank of
the river rendered the place readily defensible against attack,
and the German Field-Marshal von der Goltz, who had just
taken supreme command of the Ottoman forces in Mesopotamia,
perceived that unless it fell to an early assault the main task of
his advanced troops would be to guard against a relief. Nur cd
Din had four divisions at his disposal, and on the icth, nth and
24th he delivered unavailing onsets upon the narrow front that
was not covered by the river. Then the siege became a blockade,
part of the Turkish army moved down the Tigris to Sheikh Sa'd
and 'All Gharbi, and the work of constructing formidable lines
at Es Sinn on the right bank of the river, and athwart a defile on
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
(MESOPOTAMIA)
PLATE II.
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
811
the left bank between the channel and the Suwaikiya marshes,
was taken in hand. About the end of the year Khalil Pasha
assumed command.
Meanwhile the 7th and 3rd Indian Divs. had begun to arrive
in the Shatt al 'Arab in the middle of Dec., and Gen. Aylmer
took charge of the troops who were to undertake the relief of Kut.
Units as they disembarked were pushed on to 'Amara and pro-
ceeded thence up the Tigris. The urgency of joining hands with
Townshend forbade delay. There was no time to organize the
force properly, it lacked powerful artillery for dealing with
entrenchments, and the shortage of river transport multiplied
its difficulties. The Turks were nevertheless driven out of "All
Gharbi and were on Jan. 6 1916 defeated with heavy loss at
Sheikh Sa'd. Three days later Aylmer again defeated them,
whereupon they fell back to the lines of Hanna at the entrance
to the awkward defile on the left bank of the Tigris. The reliev-
ing force had hitherto triumphed over every obstacle; but when
on the 2ist it essayed the storming of the Hanna position the
effort failed; and so numerous were the casualties, coming on the
top of losses in the previous actions, that Aylmer had to pause
in his offensive and to await reinforcements. About the same
date Sir P. Lake succeeded Sir J. Nixon in chief command.
Lake set himself to rectify organization in so far as means
permitted, to place Aylmer's line of communications on a better
footing, to improve the medical arrangements (which had broken
down under the stress of Ctesiphon), and to develop the wharves
at Basra and Qurna. Material of all kinds was, however, deficient,
and the sands were running out. The Home Government trans-
ferred the I3th Div. from Egypt to Mesopotamia on receipt of
the bad news from Hanna ; but it was now too late to so expand the
water transport as to enable the growing Anglo-Indian army to
act with real vigour and independence during the few weeks that
Townshend could still hold out. Aylmer attempted no forward
movement during Feb.; but on the night of March 7-8, without
waiting for the i3th Div., he advanced from near Sheikh Sa'd
against the Es Sinn position, intending a surprise. This involved
a long march in the dark hours; when day broke part of the force
had not arrived; and although the Turks were at first in no
great strength the attack was delayed. Then when the assailants
ifter a pause of some hours advanced against the reinforced
inemy, they were beaten back, and they had to retire to Sheikh
Sa'd, having suffered severely in the combat.
The garrison of Kut was already on much reduced rations;
out Gen. Gorringe, who had succeeded Gen. Aylmer, could make
10 fresh attempt for nearly a month owing to transport and sup-
ily problems. However, on April 5 the i3th Div., under Gen.
Maude, stormed the Hanna lines and penetrated well into the
lefile on the left bank of the Tigris; but, when first the 7th Div.,
md then the i3th Div. attacked the Sanna-i-yat lines at the
arther end, they were in each case repulsed. Kut could hold
>ut only a few days longer, so Gorringe now tried to advance
o the right bank. After making some progress on the i7th in
pite of almost 'insuperable difficulties caused by floods, this
novement was brought to a standstill. A final effort was made
.gainst Sanna-i-yat by the 7th Div. on the 22nd, which nearly
ucceeded. Then on the night of the 24th a steamer loaded with
'revisions tried to run the blockade but failed, and on the 2pth
Cut with its garrison of 9,000 British and Indian troops sur-
endered. The attempts to relieve it had cost 24,000 casualties.
The tidings of this very grave mishap gave rise to profound
issatisfaction in the United Kingdom, a dissatisfaction that was
ggravated by information gradually leaking out with regard to
he sufferings of the sick and wounded after the retirement from
Ctesiphon. It was feared that so unmistakable a reverse to
'ritish arms in Asia might exert a more untoward influence in
ie East generally than in the event proved to be the case. As
result of strong feeling in the public mind a commission was,
may be mentioned, set up a few months later by Act of Par-
ament to inquire into the operations that had taken place in
lesopotamia. The commission did not report till nearly a year
ter, when the military situation in the land of the Two Rivers
id come to be very different from that which had prevailed in
May 1916 after the fall of Kut. Its conclusions were to the effect
that much in connexion with the undertaking of a campaign on
so ambitious a scale without adequate forethought and efficient
preparations was worthy of blame, and it animadverted in strong
terms on the very unsatisfactory character of the medical ar-
rangements during the early stages of the venture.
No reference has been made hitherto to the Russian forces in
Persia. These, based on the Caspian Sea, were actually in
occupation of a considerable area of the Shah's northern terri-
tories. They did not, however, represent a large body of troops,
they were operating in a region of wide extent, and the avenues
leading from the tracts in their occupation towards the plains
of Iraq traversed rugged and unproductive uplands. For mili-
tary contingents so situated to have afforded any practical help
to the Anglo-Indian army during the critical months that followed
Townshend's advance from Kut, was virtually prohibited by
the conditions. Nor did their activities furnish indirect assist-
ance to their allies by withdrawing any appreciable proportion
of the Turkish forces serving under von der Goltz and Khalil
Pasha from the theatre of war on the Tigris.
In view of the disaster which British arms had met with a
disaster directly traceable to those in authority drifting into a
comprehensive scheme of warlike operations without providing
the necessary means for prosecuting the campaign it was
decided that Kut must if possible be reoccupied. The hot season
was, however, at hand. The troops had suffered exhausting trials
and had met with cruel loss. Water transport, as well as artillery
and war material of almost every kind, remained inadequate.
There could be no question of resuming the offensive on the
hand-to-mouth lines on which the advance from 'Amara had
been initiated a year before, and which Gen. Lake had been
obliged to continue when striving against time to relieve
Townshend; so that a prolonged pause became inevitable. Von
der Goltz had left Mesopotamia and the Turks, as it turned out,
manifested no inclination to advance from the scene of their
recent triumph they withdrew, on the contrary, from Es Sinn
and formed an entrenched camp nearly all round Kut, while
holding on to Sanna-i-yat and a period of several months in
which no active operations took place set in.
Great developments, however, in the meantime took place
on the Anglo-Indian line of communications, as also at Basra
and Qurna, thanks to Gen. Lake's representations and to his
powers of organization. A reasonable amount of heavy artillery
was gradually accumulated. A narrow-gauge railway was laid
down leading from Sheikh Sa'd to Es Sinn. Landing facilities at
the ports were much improved. An additional division arrived
from India. Gen. Gorringe was in July succeeded in charge of
the troops at the front by Gen. Maude, who, a few weeks later,
replaced Sir P. Lake as army commander.
Although much had been effected by the outgoing army
commander in respect to organization, Maude realized that there
was yet vital work to be done before his forces could act with
effect in this peculiarly conditioned theatre of war. A master of
administration and endowed with phenomenal energy, he was
resolved not to commit his troops to a formidable undertaking
until they were furnished with all that was necessary to insure
their mobility and their tactical efficiency. From Sept. till the
close of Nov. he laboured unceasingly at the base, enjoying full
support from the War Office in London, which had definitely
taken over charge of the campaign from the Indian authorities.
By the begininng of Dec. he had been furnished with enough
river craft, his supply arrangements were in a sufficiently forward
state, and he had furthermore a sufficiency of war material at
his command, to justify his embarking upon offensive operations
of a far-reaching kind, and on the I3th he struck suddenly and
with signal success.
Being in occupation of the right bank of the Tigris to a little
above Es Sinn, while blocked on the left bank by the fortifica-
tions of Sanna-i-yat, the Anglo-Indian army, astride the river,
was by the conditions of the case necessarily disposed in echelon,
with its left well pushed forward and its right withdrawn. It
was organized in two army corps, the I., under Gen. Cobbe, on
812
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
the right on both banks of the water-way, the II., under Gen.
Marshall, on the left. Maude's plan was to start by pushing his
left still farther forward, to clear the right bank of the Tigris of
the enemy to well above Kut, and, when these dispositions had
in due course taken effect, to force the lines of Sanna-i-yat with
his right. So long as Sanna-i-yat remained in Ottoman hands
his flotilla could not advance above that point; but, with the
railway from Skeikh Sa'd running to Es Sinn, his troops operat-
ing on that side of the Tigris could be supplied, provided they
did not advance more than a few miles. Marshall, being on the
left, opened the attack by forcing the Shatt al Hai, after a night
march, and by capturing some of the Turkish defences which
formed a bridgehead S. of Kut. During the struggles that ensued,
lasting several weeks, Khalil Pasha's forces offered a stout
resistance, and although Maude's operations on the right bank
of the great river were uniformly successful, they proceeded
slowly and by successive stages. It was not till the middle of
Feb. that the whole of the Turkish entrenched camp on that
bank was in Anglo-Indian hands and that the Ottoman troops
had withdrawn across channel.
No sooner had this part of the programme been accomplished
than, on the ryth, Gen. Cobbe attacked Sanna-i-yat. The effort
failed for the moment; but five days later the lines were assaulted
again, and they were at last carried after a desperate contest in
which the Turks lost very heavily. On the same day Marshall's
II. Corps by a brilliant feat of arms forced a passage across the
Tigris at Shumran. There was then no course left to the Ottoman
commander but to abandon Kut in haste and to withdraw his
forces as best he could up the left bank of the river. Maude's
flotilla instantly pushed up to the front past Kut, which fell
automatically into his hands, and the Anglo-Indian army in
Mesopotamia could then claim to have won a victory that went
far towards wiping out the discomfitures of the previous year.
Within the space of two months the military situation had
been completely transformed as the result of a happily conceived
and resolutely executed plan of campaign that had been rend-
ered possible by prescient and comprehensive organization in
rear of the fighting front.
But Maude was not the man to tarry after gaining a signal
triumph and thereby to give his vanquished opponents breathing
space to recover. His supplies guaranteed by the arrival of his
water transport, he pushed on along the left bank of the Tigris
on the heels of the fugitive Turks, his troops ready for any exer-
tion in their enthusiasm and full of confidence in their leader.
The river channel between Kut and 'Aziziya has many loops and
bends, making it difficult for a naval force and a military force
to act in tactical concert, but on the a6th the British gunboats,
steaming up almost ahead of the mounted troops, destroyed or
captured practically the entire Ottoman flotilla after a sharp
combat. Great prizes in war material as well as many prisoners
were also made by the advancing army. Keeping his own counsel,
as was his wont, the army commander had from the outset of his
active operations contemplated an immediate advance on Bagdad
after expelling the enemy from Kut, and he now requested
permission from the Home Government to make the historic
city his objective. He received the requisite sanction. But he
found himself obliged, in spite of his eagerness to press on, to
halt for some days at 'Aziziya for fear of outrunning his sup-
plies a check which enabled the rear of his army to close up and
which afforded the troops a welcome rest, although the brief
relaxation in the pursuit gave the Turks time to occupy defensive
positions covering the capital.
All being ready, the Anglo-Indian army resumed its advance
on March 4, whereupon it was found that the enemy had aban-
doned Ctesiphon and retired behind the Diala. This river repre-
sented a serious military obstacle, and when an attempt was
made to force the passage the Turks were discovered to be in
such strength and to be so favourably posted that the effort
proved in the first instance unsuccessful. Maude thereupon
threw a bridge across the Tigris and passed the cavalry and the
I. Corps across the channel. Then, his troops pressing forward
on either bank, the Diala was forced by Gen. Marshall, opposition
on the other side of the Tigris was gradually overcome, and bj
the nth the City of the Caliphs was in British hands, the enem)
having withdrawn northwards, unable to stem the resolutt
advance of the victors. Maude, however, allowed no pause in hi:
offensive operations to take place. Cobbe, pushing up the righ
bank of the Tigris along which a stretch of railway ran as far a:
Samarra, heavily defeated a Turkish force which attempted t<
bar his progress at Mushaida, while Marshall cleared the triangli
of country between the Tigris and the Diala in the direction o
the Jebel Hamrin. Russian forces in Persia had been penetratinj
into the mountainous country on the Turko-Persian border:
while Maude was advancing from Kut, and it had been hopec
that they might cooperate effectively with an Anglo-Indiai
column which was pushed into the hills towards Khanivin; bu
this project did not materialize. Marshall, however, conductec
a most successful campaign on the Shatt al Adhaim during tht
month of April, inflicting a number of severe defeats upon th<
Turkish XIII. and XVIII. Army Corps in that direction, anc
Cobbe completed the operations on the right bank of the Tigri:
by the capture of Samarra with many prisoners and much wa:
material. Then, having secured possession of a wide area o
fertile territory to the N. of Bagdad and driven the enemy ir
confusion into the deserts and uplands beyond, Maude was a(
last enabled to afford his victorious troops rest just as the bo\
weather set in.
The virtual conquest of Mesopotamia in a four and a hal
months' campaign had been brought about by the resolute
execution of a plan of operations based on correct calculation o;
requirements. It had been a triumph of forethought and o
strategical and tactical skill on the part of a chief who followec
up his successes relentlessly and who inspired his subordinate
commanders and his troops with his own unconquerable spirit
Neither the stout resistance offered by the Ottoman troops a)
the outset and which they had maintained even after the tide
began to set against them, nor yet the formidable defences whict
their engineers had elaborated around Kut, had in reality proved
the greatest stumbling-block to be overcome. The vast extent
of the theatre of war, the lack of communications, and the fad
that fighting forces advancing from the Shatt al 'Arab must
almost inevitably adhere to the line of the Tigris constituting
virtually one long military defile, had interposed even greatei
obstacles in the path of conquest. But those obstacles had been
surmounted as a result of appropriate and effectual organization
consummated during the months which had immediately pre-
ceded Maude's advance; and during the torrid summer of 1917,
when little fighting took place, he was busily engaged in perfect-
ing administration in the territory won, improving communica-
tions, and preparing for a fresh offensive in the cold weather.
A railway was constructed from Kut to Bagdad, as the
intervening section of the Tigris channel was shallow and awk-
ward to navigate. Sanitation and policing were secured in the
capital. Comfort and recreation were provided for the troops.
Steps were taken to tap the supply resources of the fertile dis-
tricts in occupation of the army. A division that had been in
reserve at Nasiriya was brought up to the front. Great efforts
were for a time made to arrange for cooperation with the Russian
forces in Persia; but the influence of the revolution in Petrograd
made itself more and more felt in that quarter as the weeks passed,
and before Maude started his autumn campaign it had become
manifest that little was to be hoped for from that direction.
Indeed the situation in Armenia was becoming such as to affect
adversely the prospects of the Anglo-Indian host operating in
Mesopotamia, and in the late summer there were indications that
under German instigation the Turks were contemplating an
effort to recover Bagdad. This merely made Maude the more
anxious to resume the offensive, and on Sept. 28 he struck his
first blow by the capture of Ramadi on the Euphrates, with much
booty. This victory was followed by successful operations in
clearing the Jebel Hamrin and by the capture of Tikrit on the
Tigris at the beginning of Nov. A few days later, however, the
army commander was struck down by cholera, and he died on
the loth. He was succeeded by Sir W. Marshall.
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
813
Above Tikrit and extending N. for a long distance, the country
traversed by the Tigris is a sterile tract, hilly and broken at some
points; the ordinary route from Bagdad to Mosul does not there-
fore follow the river but takes a line to the E. through Kifri and
Kirkuk. Maude had intended to conduct his main advance by
this line a plan of operations which would make it possible for
the Russians in Persia to cooperate should they be prepared to
do so. The death of the distinguished general, just at the moment
; when the project was about to be put in execution, created some
delay, but his successor set troops in motion through the Jebel
Hamrin in Dec. and Kifri was occupied in Jan. Having secured
that point, Marshall in the middle of Feb. determined on a sudden
advance of his extreme left wing up the Euphrates. Hit was
captured, and on the igth a complete victory was gained over
the Turks who had retired up the river from that place; they
consisted of the soth Div., which was surrounded and captured,
5,000 prisoners and all its guns being taken. Difficulties of
transport in the meantime hampered the force moving forward
beyond Kifri, the distance from railhead being considerable, but
j on April 29 the Ottoman forces were heavily defeated on the
road to Kirkuk, losing 3,000 prisoners, and a week later that
town was occupied, much war material falling into the hands of
the Anglo-Indian army. In view of the distance of the place from
the railway the army commander however decided to withdraw
his troops from the place after the booty had been evacuated;
the troops then fell back to Kifri, and, the hot weather having
now set in, active operations practically ceased for five months.
The collapse of Russian fighting power in Armenia had enabled
the Ottoman staff to move troops from there down to Mosul
and northern Mesopotamia, and scarcely any assistance had
1 been received from the side of Persia; but Gen. Marshall's first
campaign had nevertheless been remarkably successful and his
1 position to the N. of Bagdad had been effectually consolidated.
In the meantime a special British mission, sent off in Jan.
. under charge of Gen. Dunsterville and originally intended for
Tiflis with the object of coordinating resistance of Armenians,
Georgians and Russians to the Turks threatening Transcaucasia,
had been endeavouring to maintain satisfactory relations with
1 the Russians in Persia, and had arranged for supplying food to
certain parts of that country which were almost famine-stricken.
The allocation of a considerable amount of motor transport to
this latter service had indeed somewhat hampered Marshall's
' operations about Kirkuk and the Persian border. Great diffi-
culties were placed in Dunsterville's way by Russian officials who
were tending towards Bolshevism, while open hostility was
displayed by certain of the Persian tribesmen. Some Russian
troops, however, remained loyal to the Entente and, cooperating
with these, small bodies of British troops were gradually pushed
.up to establish a line of communications between the Anglo-
Indian army in Mesopotamia and the Caspian Sea at Enzeli.
During the early summer resistance to the Turks in Transcau-
casia was gradually breaking down, and at the beginning of July
' the last of the organized Russian fighting forces in Persia pro-
' ceeded thither by ship. On the Ottoman troops appearing before
Baku shortly afterwards, Dunsterville sailed for that city in
Aug., followed by a brigade of British infantry.
He found a complex and disturbing situation to prevail. The
Armenian garrison was unreliable. The attitude of the Russian
officials was suspicious. Bolshevik armed craft were afloat on
the Caspian. The lines constructed for the defence of Baku were
of such extent as to require a large force to man them. It soon
became apparent that the safety of the city depended entirely
upon the meagre British force as the Armenian soldiery displayed
little stomach for combat. For a very few weeks Dunsterville
and his men did what they could to save the place; but on Sept.
14 the Turks broke through the outer defences, and that night
the British reembarked and returned to Enzeli, whereupon
Baku fell into the enemy's hands. A somewhat risky venture had
proved unsuccessful, but it had at least prevented the dispatch
of some of the Ottoman troops in Transcaucasia to confront the
^nglo-Indian army in N. Mesopotamia.
On news of the fall of Baku reaching London it occurred
just when the season was suitable for commencing active opera-
tions in the theatre of war farther to the S. Marshall was
instructed to occupy Mosul, an undertaking for which he had
been preparing during the summer. The best of the Turkish
divisions in Mesopotamia were at this time assembled astride
of the Tigris at Fatha, where the river breaks through the Jebel
Hamrin range of hills. A naturally strong position had been
assiduously fortified, and the enemy possessed a second fortified
position a few miles higher up at the confluence of the Lesser Zab
and a boat bridge was established at that point. Realizing that
a frontal attack would be hazardous and that, owing to the
extreme ruggedness of the ground in the immediate vicinity of
the hostile lines a turning movement of the ordinary kind was
out of the question, resolved nevertheless to strike a decisive
blow, Marshall determined on a combination of war by which
adequate mobile forces would be thrown right across the Ottoman
communications between Fatha and Mosul. He entrusted the
conduct of these operations to Gen. Cobbe, and arranged for a
column to advance simultaneously by Kirkuk towards Mosul.
The final campaign in Mesopotamia lasted only a single week,
the movement beginning on Oct. 23. Two cavalry columns,
that with the shorter distance to cover being accompanied by
some infantry, crossed the Jebel Hamrin many miles E. of Fatha
and passed the Lesser Zab a long way above its junction with the
Tigris. In the meantime the I7th and i8th Divs. advanced
against the Ottoman position, the i7th on the right bank and the
1 8th on the left bank of the Tigris. Finding himself threatened
in rear, Isma'il Hakki Pasha, who commanded the Turks, with-
drew from the Fatha position to that higher up, followed by the
two Anglo-Indian divisions, while the cavalry columns made for
the Tigris many miles above the confluence of the Lesser Zab and
placed themselves across Isma'il Hakki's line of retreat. The
1 8th Div. forced a passage across the Lesser Zab on the 2sth,
whereupon Isma'il Hakki withdrew those of his troops that were
on the left bank of the Tigris across the river, and pulled up his
bridge. On the 26th the I7th Div. was pressing the Turkish
main body on the right bank, and that same day the outer one
of the cavalry columns forded the river and began moving down
that side of the channel. On the 27th and 28th the I7th Div.
was heavily engaged, before it finally made itself master of the
enemy's position at the confluence of the Lesser Zab, whereupon
Isma'il Hakki retired N. to Sherghat, but on the 2pth the last
hope of the trapped Ottoman force was destroyed owing to a
relieving column from Mosul being defeated by the cavalry. All
that day Isma'il Hakki resisted the advance of the Anglo-Indian
forces on Sherghat, but on the morning of the 3oth, just as the
1 7th Div. was about to launch a final attack, the white flag was
displayed and the i4th and the bulk of the 2nd Turkish Divs.
surrendered.
Eleven thousand prisoners, 51 guns and much war material
were taken as a result of Cobbe's brilliantly successful operations.
Two days later tidings of the signing of the Armistice arrived.
The Kirkuk column had, in the meantime, been working its way
forward, almost unopposed, toward Mosul. That city was occu-
pied within a week; and so, in a blaze of triumph for the Anglo-
Indian forces, the long-drawn-out campaign in Mesopotamia, in
which they had experienced both extremes of fortune, came at
last to an end, concurrently with the most sweeping tactical
success gained by either side during the course of the struggle.
(C. E. C.)
(III.) THE SINAI CAMPAIGN, 1916-7
When the Dardanelles expedition came finally to an end
during the first days of Jan. 1916, the British troops which had
been engaged on the Gallipoli Peninsula were dispatched to
Egypt, there to refit and reorganize, and to undertake the defence
of Egypt against a possible attack by the Turks, who were now
freed from any menace on the shores of the Dardanelles. On
Jan. 10, the evacuation of Cape Helles having been successfully
completed, Gen. Sir Charles Monro handed over his command to
Gen. Sir Archibald Murray and returned! to France. Sir Arch-
ibald Murray's instructions were to protect Egypt against attack
8i4
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
from the E., and to maintain a general strategic reserve of troops
for the whole Empire, ready for use wherever required. The
reorganization, reequipping and refitting of the war-worn troops
from the Dardanelles was the first consideration. In measure,
as this progressed, the " general strategic reserve " was drawn
upon to meet the exigencies of other theatres of war; and by the
end of June 1916 nine divisions, three infantry brigades, a num-
ber of Indian units, and a number of heavy artillery batteries
had left Egypt, most of them for the main theatre in France and
Flanders. By July, therefore, Sir Archibald Murray's force
available for the defence of Egypt against attack from the E.
had been reduced to four divisions, three dismounted yeomanry
brigades, one mounted division, one mounted yeomanry brigade,
and a few Indian and garrison battalions.
During this period, the first half of the year 1916, the scheme
of defence on the E. of Egypt had undergone very considerable
modification. The rapid depletion of Sir Archibald Murray's force
rendered modification essential, while the Russian victory at
Erzerum in the spring, and the fact that no Turkish attack on a
great scale was to be apprehended during the hot weather,
rendered it also practicable. In Jan. Sir Archibald Murray had
taken over a scheme, prepared with Lord Kitchener's personal
approval, for the construction of a great defensive system, suit-
able for withstanding an attack with heavy artillery, of which
the front line was some 7 or 8 m. of the Suez Canal, and which
extended from the head of the Gulf of Suez to the Mediterranean.
By Feb. 15, however, Sir Archibald Murray had already written
to the chief of the Imperial general staff pointing out that this
scheme of defence was very wasteful in men and material, and
recommending an advance across the Sinai Peninsula towards
the Egyptian frontier, with dispositions for an active instead of a
passive defence. He showed that strategically the true base of
the defensive zone of Egypt against invasion from the E. was
not the 80 odd miles of the Suez Canal, but rather a line less
than half as long near the frontier running S. from El 'Arish.
From El 'Arish it would be possible to oppose any advance
against Egypt directed along the N. Sinai road; to attack in
flank an invader moving on the lines of approach farther to the
S.; and to undertake rapid offensive operations against enemy
concentrations in S. Palestine. Five divisions and not less than
four mounted brigades would be required, but this was a consid-
erably smaller force than would be needed adequately to hold the
great defensive system prepared from end to end of the Suez
Canal. Moreover, the farther the defence was removed from
the Nile delta the less would be the unrest and the chances of
disturbance in Egypt in the event of attack by the enemy.
As a first step Sir Archibald Murray proposed in Feb. an
advance to a suitable position E. of Katia on the N. Sinai road,
and the construction of a railway to that place. Katia itself is
some 25 m. E. of the Suez Canal, and its importance lay in the
fact that round it, and in the district immediately to the E. of it,
it is possible to find or to obtain in shallow " wells " a consider-
able supply of drinkable though brackish water. It was the
only district in which any considerable force of the enemy could
possibly be collected, and for a time maintained, within striking
distance of the Suez Canal. The organization of camel transport
for the troops undertaking this advance was immediately put in
hand, and the construction of the railway was begun. By the
end of May Sir Archibald Murray had established a strong posi-
tion near Romani, about 20 m. E. of the Suez Canal at the head
of the Bay of Tine. This position was held by the 52nd Div.,
and from it the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div.
was able to keep under constant observation the whole of the
" watered " district round, and E. of, Katia. More advanced
positions, E. of Katia, were in course of preparation. A stand-
ard-gauge railway had reached Romani, and water from the
Sweetwater Canal had been brought there by pipe-lines. Lieu-
tenant-General Hon. H. A. Lawrence was in immediate command
of this northern portion of the forces in the Sinai Peninsula.
Meanwhile the enemy had not permitted this advance to take
place entirely undisturbed. Towards the end of April he had
made a partially successful raid, which penetrated to some con-
siderable distance W. of Katia and caused the loss of three and
a half squadrons of yeomanry besides other casualties. His
raiding force was, however, driven off without difficulty, and
for about three months he gave no further sign.
By about the middle of July preparations were well in hand
for undertaking the advance across the desert to El 'Arish and
the Egyptian frontier. Railhead was some 30 m. E. of the
Suez Canal. The construction of a large filter plant at Qantara,
of a series of storage reservoirs, and of a great new pipe-line had
been ordered, with a view to supplying the troops throughout the
advance and as far as El 'Arish with half-a-million gallons of
water a day from the Sweetwater Canal. Large numbers of
camels were being collected, and all manner of equipment
designed to facilitate the passage of the desert from " ped-
rails " for the wheels of the artillery to wire-netting for roads
was being procured and tested.
Then on July 19 an enemy force was found to be advancing,
and to have entered the eastern part of the area of " wells "
and palm groves which extends about 18 m. E. of Katia. By :
the 24th this force had come to a standstill within 10 m. of the
Romani position on a line on which it entrenched itself. From j
that day until the end of the month there was little further move- I
ment. During this period it became fairly clear that the enemy's
force consisted of the Turkish 3rd Div., of three regiments, with
a number of machine-gun companies, mountain artillery, some
batteries of 4-in. and 6-in. howitzers and a body of Arab camelry.
It was commanded by the German Col. Kress von Kressenstein. I
Sir Archibald Murray was in no hurry to force the issue. His
troops were in a strong position with all their requirements
close at hand, while the enemy, if he attacked, would fight with
a desert behind him and very far from his base. All that Sir
Archibald required was time to complete the provision of camel
transport for Gen. Lawrence's force so as to render its mobility
adequate for counter-attack or pursuit, or for attack eventually
if the enemy should refuse to take the initiative. General Law-
rence was, therefore, reinforced, till he had under his orders the
52nd and 42nd Divs., a brigade of the 53rd Div., two battalions
of the 54th Div., a dismounted yeomanry brigade, the Australian
and New Zealand Mounted Div. and a yeomanry brigade. By
Aug. i over 10,000 transport camels had been provided for
this force. An independent mobile column, composed of camel
corps with a' few squadrons of yeomanry and light horse, had
also been organized for cooperation from the section of the
Canal defences which lay to the S. of that for which Gen.
Lawrence was responsible.
Not until Aug. 3 did the enemy disclose his intention, but
on the night of the 3rd-4th he launched an attack against Gen.
Lawrence's southern flank with the aim of outflanking and envel-
oping the British force. General Lawrence's prepared defences
extended from the sea on the N. southward for some 5 or 6 m.,
into a region of heavy sand-dunes, with the southern flank
refused. The enemy's blow fell first on the Australian Light
Horse, the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div. being
posted on 'Gen. Lawrence's right. These troops were obliged
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
815
very gradually to give ground, while from daybreak on the 4th
the enemy's attack developed also against the British centre and
left-center, held by troops of the 52nd and 5$rd Divisions. The
enemy was evidently now fully committed. He appeared, how-
ever, to have miscalculated to some extent the direction of his
main enveloping attack. As his captured air-reconnaissance
reports subsequently showed, he was probably unprepared to
find the British right flank extended so far S., and consequently
failed to direct his enveloping movement sufficiently far to the
westward. General Lawrence had the 42nd Div. in reserve at
Pelusium station, 5 or 6 m. W. of Romani, and he ordered this
division up to his right in order to be ready to attack the enemy's
outer flank. Sir Archibald Murray, meanwhile, ordered the
independent mobile column to move out wide round the enemy's
flank against his left rear. Naval cooperation was afforded by
monitors, whose fire from the sea helped to keep down the fire
of the enemy's heavy howitzers.
The enemy's containing attack against the British left and
centre was not pressed; his force was insufficient for any such
purpose. His main enveloping attack, in a waterless region of
soft sand and high dunes, had spent its force by the early after-
noon. The march of the 42nd Div. from Pelusium had been
delayed, but long before its leading troops could come up the
mounted troops, with the reserve of the 52nd Div., had begun to
press back the enemy's left, and by nightfall had removed any
danger on the southern flank. At daybreak on the sth the south-
ern front was completely cleared, the 42nd Div. advancing on this
flank. Farther N. the 52nd Div. moved out in a south-easterly
t direction against the enemy's right wing, which assumed the
r61e of rearguard, while the mounted troops on its right pressed on
eastward. These converging movements drove the enemy back
: to Katia in the course of the day.
On the morning of the 6th the enemy was found to have
retired from Katia, and the mounted troops took up the pursuit.
The Turkish rearguards fought stubbornly against the direct
pressure of the mounted troops. The independent mobile col-
. umn with its camelmen, however, working right round the
enemy's southern flank, fought a very skilful and successful
little action on the yth which no doubt had a great effect in
hastening the retreat; and by the evening of the Sth the enemy
; was at Bir el'Abd, some 20 m. E. of the Romani battlefield.
On Aug. 9 the mounted troops made an attempt to envelop
the enemy's position and to cut off his further retreat. This
attempt was unsuccessful, and a direct dismounted attack was
launched which also failed to dislodge the Turks, who made
[several determined counter-attacks. During the loth and nth
j the situation at this point remained unchanged. But in the
meantime the independent mobile column again worked round
the enemy's left and fought a sharp action on the nth, as a
result of which the enemy evacuated Bir el 'Abd during the
night. The pursuit had to be abandoned on the I2th, and the
remnant of the Turkish force retired to El 'Arish.
Out of a force of about 18,000 troops the enemy must have lost
about half. Four thousand prisoners, a mountain battery and
a number of machine-guns were left in Gen. Lawrence's hands,
besides other booty; but the enemy was able to withdraw his
heavy howitzers in spite of the difficulty of moving them through
:the soft desert sand. It is impossible to say under what pressure
Col. Kress von Kressenstein undertook this forlorn hope, nor
what real prospects he or his superiors conceived it to offer. It
failed completely, with the loss of half the force employed. Yet
even so Kress may perhaps be accounted fortunate. Somewhat
earlier and more vigorous handling of the 52nd Div. against the
snemy's right, at the time when his left began to give way on
(Vug. 4-5, might have rendered it very difficult to extricate any-
considerable portion of the Turkish force. Again, as was indi-
cated by the successes of the miniature independent mobile
:olumn during the pursuit, wider envelopment, especially on the
southern flank, by the mounted troops might have effected more
:han the direct pursuit actually undertaken, and might have
:ut off the retreat of more of the enemy's troops and guns. It
should be said, however, that the weather was exceedingly hot
and trying for white troops; the difficulties of watering in the
desert were very great; and the going in the soft sand of that
part of Sinai was so bad that the infantry rate of marching was
reduced to 15 m. a day.
After this action the enemy remained about El 'Arish on the
Egyptian frontier, with an advance force at Bir el Mazar, over
40 m. E. of Romani. Apart from a successful reconnaissance
in force against Bir el Mazar, carried out by the Australian and
New Zealand Mounted Div. in the middle of Sept., no further
fighting took place for a considerable period. The enemy, made
nervous by the proof of extended radius of action given by the
appearance of Gen. Lawrence's mounted troops before Bir el
Mazar, withdrew all his forces to the neighbourhood of El 'Arish.
The instructions given to Sir Archibald Murray by the War
Cabinet about this time were to the effect that the policy in
Egypt was to be mainly defensive, though all preparations
should be made for an advance on El 'Arish. Sir Archibald
took occasion to point out that he adhered to his previously
expressed opinion that, in order both to occupy El 'Arish and
to be able effectively to operate from that neighbourhood against
an invader on any of the routes crossing Sinai, he required at
least five divisions and four mounted brigades. Actually at this
time he had only four divisions available for the defence of
Egypt on the E., though he disposed of a sufficiency of mounted
troops. Nevertheless, in the situation as it then was, he signified
his willingness to defend Egypt and to undertake the advance
on El 'Arish with the troops actually at his disposal.
After the action at Romani, therefore, arrangements were
actively pressed forward for the advance across the desert to
El 'Arish and the Egyptian frontier. In Sept. Gen. Lawrence
left to take up a new command elsewhere, and was succeeded by
Lt.-Gen. Sir Charles Dobell, to whom Sir Archibald Murray
now entrusted the whole of the forces in the Sinai Peninsula and
on the Suez Canal. Sir Charles Dobell's command was called
the " Eastern Force " of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force.
In the great ebb and flow of the war as a whole, the autumn
of 1916 marked, almost everywhere, a turning-point. In the
main theatre in the W. the great battle of the Somme roared to a
conclusion far more momentous than appeared to those who
were looking only for a definite breaking of the German line.
In the Russian theatre, on the other hand, high-water mark
had been reached in the summer, and Brussilov had been
checked. In Rumania von Falkenhayn and later von Mackensen
swept over the country to the lines of the Sereth. In the Balkans
Gen. Sarrail had captured Monastir, but his offensive had failed
to bring relief to the Rumanians. Greece was in a state border-
ing on chaos. Everywhere in Europe the superficial signs seemed
to indicate either turn of tide or definite ebb. In the eastern
theatres affairs seemed somewhat better. The Russian front
had been reconstituted in Armenia, though there was little prog-
ress anywhither. In Mesopotamia, since the fall of Kut, the
hot weather and the necessity for reorganization and prepara-
tion had forced a suspension of active operations. Only in the
Sinai desert was any forward movement in progress, one of
the least of all the eddies of the war. In Arabia, the Grand
Sherif of Mecca had proclaimed independence of Turkey.
The new Government in England, pressed by man-power ques-
tions after the losses in the Somme battle and increasingly feel-
ing the submarine menace, probably turned its eyes rather nat-
urally to the eastern theatres for something to show in the way
of success, when Sir Stanley Maude's preparations should have
been made, the Arabs should be in motion, and Sir Archibald
Murray nearing El 'Arish. In any case it was pointed out to
Sir Archibald Murray early in Dec. that the gaining of a military
success in his theatre was very desirable. Sir Archibald Murray
continued to adhere firmly to his original opinion that a fifth
division would be necessary if he was to hold and to operate
from El 'Arish, and he asked for a sixth division if he should be
required to make any further advance. In reply, he was told
that the War Cabinet was not prepared to send him additional
troops. He was to make the utmost effort during the winter,
but his primary mission was the defence of Egypt.
8i6
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
In the meantime the movement on El 'Arish had progressed
with such speed as was possible where the pace had to be set
by that of the construction of the railway and pipe-line. Early
in Dec. Gen. Dobell's advanced guard, which was called the
Desert Column, came under the command of Lt.-Gen. Sir
Philip Chetwode. This force varied in strength from time to
time according to circumstances. On Dec. 10, when railhead
was within 20 m. of El 'Arish, and the final advance was in view,
Gen. Chetwode had under his command the Australian and
New Zealand Mounted Div. and the 42nd and 52nd Divs.
The enemy had about 1,600 infantry in El 'Arish with sup-
porting forces at Magdhaba and Abu Aweigila, and he held the
only water supplies. The supply of water for the final advance
of the Desert Column required the most elaborate arrangements
and the establishment of a large reserve .of water, rail-borne
from Bir el 'Abd, at railhead. Thus the movement had to be
delayed till Dec. 20. Just before the advance of the Desert
Column the enemy hurriedly withdrew, and Gen. Chetwode's
mounted troops, surrounding El 'Arish after a zo-m. night
march on Dec. 20-21, found the place unoccupied.
The nearest Turkish force was at Magdhaba, about 20 m. S.
of El 'Arish, and consisted of some 1,600 infantry with four
mountain guns. During the night of Dec. 22-23, Gen. Chauvel,
commanding the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div.,
led a column composed of the majority of his mounted troops
and the Imperial Camel Bde. against this force. The enemy's
position was reached in the early hours of the morning. Some
sharp fighting ensued. The enemy was practically surrounded by
mid-day; but no water having been found for his horses Gen.
Chauvel was faced with a situation in which, if he could not
force the enemy's surrender before nightfall, he would have had
to withdraw. By the late afternoon, however, the enemy's
stout resistance was overborne, and practically the whole of his
force was killed, wounded or captured. Four guns and 1,282
prisoners were taken, at a cost of under 150 casualties.
After this the enemy withdrew the few small posts which he
had maintained farther S. within the borders of Sinai, and the
only Turkish force remaining in Egyptian territory was a de-
tachment about 2,000 strong near Rafa, the frontier post on the
" road " into Palestine, some 25 m. E. of El 'Arish. On the
night of Jan. 8-9, Gen. Chetwode moved out against this force
with the greater part of the Australian and New Zealand
Mounted Div., a mounted brigade (yeomanry) and the Imperial
Camel Bde. The long night march was carried out with remark-
able speed and efficiency; the enemy was completely surprised,
and found his position almost entirely surrounded as day broke.
As at Magdhaba, however, he offered a very determined resist-
ance, and again he held the only water obtainable for Gen.
Chetwode's horses. In the middle of the afternoon a small
relieving force approached from Shellal; this force was, however,
neither in time nor strong enough to effect its purpose. At one
time it looked as if the Turks might hold out long enough to
force Gen. Chetwode to relinquish his hold; but by 5:30 P.M.
their resistance had been worn down and their position taken.
The whole of the Turkish force, with its commander, was
accounted for, and Gen. Chetwode returned to El 'Arish with
over i, 600 unwounded prisoners, four mountain guns and other
booty, his own casualties being less than 500.
As a result of these two actions both admirable examples
of the tactics of mounted troops relying on fire action the
Sinai province of Egypt was finally freed from the enemy.
The defender who holds the country between Gaza and the
sea on the W. and Beersheba on the E. commands the access to
S. Palestine from the direction of Egypt. East of Beersheba, a
mountainous country, lacking roads and water, opposes a barrier
which could only be overcome by preparations so long and ardu-
ous as hardly to admit of their inception. At the beginning of
1917 the enemy held Gaza and Beersheba, and, after the actions
at Magdhaba and Rafa, began to concentrate his advanced
force at Shellal, a point on the Wadi Ghuzze nearly equidistant
from Gaza and Beersheba, and some 7 or 8 m. in front (from the
Turkish point of view) of the general line between those places.
From Shellal he was in a position to watch the approaches tt
Gaza and to Beersheba, and to cover his lines of communicatior
to those places especially the railway to Beersheba from the
north. Behind the advanced position which the enemy began tc
prepare at Shellal lay the line of ridges which, running almost
direct from Gaza to Beersheba, dominated the open plain to the
S.W. and formed a naturally favourable line on which to organ-
ize a strong defensive position to bar the way into S. Palestine!
Meanwhile, the desert railway having been pushed on through
El 'Arish to within a few miles of the Egyptian frontier, Gen.
Dobell advanced his headquarters to El 'Arish before the end
of Feb. Sir Archibald Murray, so far from receiving the fifth
division which he had always held to be necessary for the further
prosecution of the campaign, was now required to send one of
his divisions to France the 42nd. This left available for the
eastern force only three divisions, the sand, 53rd and 54th, with
the nucleus of a fourth the 74th to be formed from dismounted
yeomanry; but the satisfactory position of affairs in Egypt and
the western desert enabled the available mounted troops to b
increased to two mounted divisions.
It had by now been made clear to Sir Archibald Murray thai
the forward policy of Dec. had been altered. The general sit-j
uation of the Allies, envisaged as a whole, had developed andl
wore a new aspect. Naturally there could be no ground for 1
surprise at any alteration or transformation of the policy govern-
ing the conduct of operations in one of the very minor theatres.!
On Jan. n 1917, the day on which, in France, the British attackl
was launched against the Beaumont Hamel spur, Sir Archibald!
Murray was told that his primary mission was the defence ofj
Egypt during the summer months and the preparation of an
offensive campaign in the autumn. Meanwhile Beaumont|
Hamel developed into the great German retreat in the west.;
Nearer to Egypt, the Rumanian retreat came to an end
Wallachia lost but Moldavia held; and Gen. Maude's victorious
campaign in Mesopotamia carried him from success to success
past the ill-omened Kut to the capture of Bagdad.
Nor were these happenings without effect upon the attitude
of the Turks on the confines of Egypt. Early in March the
enemy evacuated his positions near Shellal before he could be
attacked. His general intention appeared to be to avoid battle,
trusting to the severe limitations set to the pace of Gen. Dobell's
advance by the difficulties of overcoming the desert. Thus he
would conserve his strength, retain his liberty of action in other
directions, and choose his ground at leisure for an eventual con-j
test d entrance in S. Palestine. Obviously this did not suit Sir
Archibald Murray's plans.
In the early days of March the Turkish dispositions were as
follows: rather less than a division (say 7,000 fighting troops)
held Gaza; about a division was in the neighbourhood of Tellesh
Sharia, roughly half-way between Gaza and Beersheba and 15
m. distant from either; and a small garrison occupied Beersheba. i
In these circumstances, apart from the desirability of foiling the '
enemy's Fabian tactics, to which reference has been made, Sir
Archibald Murray was influenced by other considerations of
more or less weight. In order to make adequate preparations
for a serious autumn offensive, in accordance with the instruc-
tions of the War Cabinet, it was necessary to move railhead for-
ward, and for this purpose it was necessary to advance to within a
few milesof Gazaand to seize the lineof the Wadi Ghuzze. Further, ;
the enemy's detachment at Gaza was a day's march distant from
any supporting troops; by an operation of the same nature as
though on a greater scale than those at Magdhaba and Rafa it ,
might be disposed of by a coup de main. Finally, such a coup de
main, if successful, might result in Gaza passing not only tem-
porarily, but perhaps permanently into British hands. If so,
the effect would be to open the gate into S. Palestine and to make
it impossible for the Turks to hold the naturally strong Gaza-
Beersheba line as their first line of defence, when the time came
for the main effort later in the year.
General Dobell commanding the Eastern Force, and Gen.
Chetwode commanding the Desert Column under him, agreed
that the chances of capturing Gaza by a coup de main were on
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
817
the whole favourable, General Dobell reported accordingly to
Sir Archibald Murray, being careful, however, to add that all
would depend on whether or not the enemy's resistance could be
broken before nightfall on the day of attack; if the decision
should be longer delayed the Turkish force from Tellesh Sharia
would probably interfere, and water difficulties might in any
case make it necessary to draw off the attacking force. On the
whole Gen. Dobell thought the game worth the candle. Sir
Archibald Murray, after hesitation, signified his consent.
The problem with which Gen. Dobell had to deal was no easy
one. Surprise and celerity were the two essentials. In order to
retain the element of surprise he must strike while yet his ad-
vanced base was so far off that the Turks should think them-
selves securely beyond his reach. Actually, when the operation
was launched, his railhead was full 20 m. from Gaza. This
involved an exceedingly difficult series of approach marches to-
the place of concentration, in a country where water was very
scarce, supplies wholly lacking, and concealment by day very
hard to secure. A considerable portion of the force had three
consecutive marches to make under these conditions in order to
reach the scene of action undiscovered. The movement once
started, therefore, no alteration or postponement was possible
without the practical certainty of its being discovered, and the
chance being lost for all. Moreover, in order so far as possible to
insure a rapid decision, Gen. Dobell was obliged to employ a
large force. There were two and a half Turkish divisions
somewhat weak, it is true at, and within a day's march of,
Gaza. General Dobell employed the Desert Column (two
mounted divisions and the 53rd Div.), the 52nd and 54th Divs.
and the Imperial Camel Bde. But even the difficulties of moving
this force in secrecy to a place of concentration 20 m. in advance
Df railhead were less than the difficulties of providing it there
with the necessary ammunition, water and supplies, and of
maintaining that provision during the action. The whole of the
transport of the Eastern Force had to be pooled and rearranged.
The troops had to be deprived of all but the barest minimum.
Fifteen " trains," each carrying one day's supplies for a mounted
'division or a division, were improvised in about as many days.
Camel water convoys were prepared. Ammunition columns
.vere specially grouped and organized. Every available horse,
nule and camel, every available cart and waggon, Ford car and
:aterpillar tractor, whatever its normal use, was pressed into
his service. The troops marched with the barest essentials.
And, as the result no small feat of organization two mounted
1 livisions were given a 30-111. radius of action, two and a half
livisions a 2o-m. radius of action, and the remaining half divi-
ion what was required to enable it to protect and assist the line
1 if communication from railhead forward.
1 In essence, then, the operation was a raid on a great scale, and,
.s has been said, Gen. Dobell made it clear that he considered
hat success depended on his being able to force the surrender of
he Gaza garrison before dusk on the day of attack. He came
rithin an ace of succeeding.
The concentration took place successfully and without alarm-
'ig the Turks by the night of March 25-26. In the early hours
'f March 26 the mounted troops crossed the Wadi Ghuzze to
urround Gaza from the N. to the S.E.; thus they would be in
position to cut off the retreat of the garrison and to prevent or
| luch delay the arrival of Turkish reinforcements whether from
he N. or from the direction of Tellesh Sharia. The sard Div.,
'hich was to attack the enemy's position on the heights E. and S.
f Gaza, of which 'Ali Muntar was the chief feature, followed the
minted troops, and was in turn followed by the 54th Div.,
D support the 53rd and to protect its exposed right flank.
' The mounted screen was in position, though not without
elay, yet in good time. The infantry was late owing to a cause
' r hich no one could either have foreseen or prevented. As
awn broke a dense fog spread over the land from the sea. The
roops could only grope their way slowly and uncertainly. They
ere delayed in reaching their position of deployment. No
Attack could be delivered until the fog had cleared. Nor did the
:>g clear until 8 o'clock, when two precious hours had been lost.
At the end of the day those two hours would in all human prob-
ability have made victory complete.
By 10 A.M. the battle was joined. By the early afternoon the
53rd Div. had fought its way close to its objectives. But the
Turkish position was very strong, and the ground over which the
attackers fought their way forward was absolutely devoid of
cover. General Chetwode, then, ordered the Australian and
New Zealand Mounted Div. to attack the town from the N. and
N.E., while the Imperial Mounted Div. and the Camel Bde.
were to extend so as to take over the screen on the N. of Gaza
as well as on the E., though the Turkish reinforcements were
already seen to be approaching from N., N.E. and S.E.
Before 5 o'clock the 53rd Div., strengthened by a brigade of
the 54th, had taken 'Ali Muntar and had pushed beyond the
crest of the line of heights overlooking Gaza. The Australians
and New Zealanders were in the north-eastern outskirts of the
town, fighting among the cactus hedges. N.E. and E. of the
battle, the weakened mounted screen held off the enemy rein-
forcements, but was being slowly forced to give ground.
Two more hours of daylight were required. Gaza lies in,
and is bordered by, an immense labyrinth of great cactus hedges,
impossible to fight through and clear by night. The 53rd Div.
and part of the 54th were extended on the hills over Gaza on a
line facing nearly N.W. Below among the houses and cactus
hedges was the Gaza garrison, still not surrendered. Bearing
down on the very point of the exposed right flank of the 53rd
Div. was a strong Turkish force, now within a few miles. Ap-
proaching the back of that same exposed right flank was another
strong Turkish force, also within a few miles, coming from the
direction of Tellesh Sharia. The thin mounted screen could not
long delay these forces; no water had been found for the horses
all day, and it must in any case be soon withdrawn. Part of the
54th Div. protected what was now the rear of the 53rd on the
Mansura and Sheikh 'Abbas ridges S. of Gaza. One brigade of
the 52nd Div. was available and no more. This was far from
sufficient to protect the right of the 53rd Div. in its actual posi-
tion, and at the same time to join it securely with the 54th.
The one day's fighting, for which alone it had been possible to
make effective arrangements as regards water supply, was
drawing to a close. No water had been found in the Wadi
Ghuzze or elsewhere by the parties detailed to search for it;
and the water supply of the troops already engaged was now a
matter of some anxiety. Half an hour before sunset, then, there
were two alternatives. One was to launch the 53rd Div. and the
Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div. down into Gaza
in an attempt by night to clear up, or even to drive back into
the Wadi Ghuzze, the disorganized remnants of the garrison,
while using the 54th Div. and the Imperial Mounted Div. as a
rearguard during the night. The other was to withdraw the
mounted troops while the way between Gaza and the Turkish
reinforcements was still open, and to form some sort of line on the
ground won, by advancing the left of the 54th Div. and retiring
the right of the 53rd until the two flanks met in a secure junction.
General Dobell thought the former alternative, on a dark night,
in unknown and extremely intricate country, with strong enemy
reinforcements already on the very outskirts of the battle, too
hazardous. General Chetwode, who was at this time at Gen.
Dobell's command post, emphatically agreed.
The second alternative was, therefore, adopted, and Sir
Archibald Murray, who had come up in his travelling paste de
commandemenl on the railway to Khan Yunis, within a few miles
of the action, was informed accordingly. Several hours later
Gen. Dobell received from Cairo the decipher of an intercepted
wireless message sent by the enemy commander in Gaza indi-
cating his intention to surrender. This message had been sent
in the early evening. Its receipt by Gen. Dobell was too late.
But even had it reached him earlier it is not easy to see how,
with darkness actually falling and the enemy's reinforcements at
hand, he was to have taken advantage of it. The two hours'
fog on the morning had destroyed his opportunity.
The new dispositions ordered were successfully taken up dur-
ing the night not without protest from the commander of the
8i8
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
53rd Div., who had to withdraw his right from 'All Muntar.
Early on the 27th his patrols again occupied the hill. But the
Gaza garrison had now been reinforced, and the patrols were
driven off again. The point of junction of the sard and 54th
Divs. was now the apex of an acute salient. The latter divi-
sion, in order to join the former, had had to leave the Sheikh
'Abbas ridge, on which the Turks now appeared. The 54th
Div. and the Camel Bde. on the S.E. face of this salient were
heavily attacked. All attacks were repelled, but the position
towards the apex of the salient grew more and more precarious.
General Dobell, therefore, ordered a further retirement during
the night of the 27th-28th to a strong position on the W. bank of
the Wadi Ghuzze. This movement was successfully carried out
and the action came to an end.
The advance to the Wadi Ghuzze had been effected, covering
the further progress of the railway. The enemy had been brought
to battle and was now pinned to the Gaza-Beersheba line.
Nearly a thousand of the enemy had been taken prisoner,
besides two guns, and he had lost several thousand killed and
wounded. The cost of this to Sir Archibald Murray was some
4,000 casualties. Gaza, however, and its garrison had escaped,
though this was owing to climatic conditions against which both
commander and troops were powerless.
In spite of the fact that an unkind fate had snatched away
the fruits of complete success just as they were within Gen.
Dobell's grasp, in Sir 'Archibald Murray's view the military
results of the action had justified his anticipations. The enemy
had been brought to battle, and had been severely mauled, and
the advance of the railway to the Wadi Ghuzze was assured.
It will be remembered that the instructions under which Sir
Archibald Murray was acting at this time were to defend Egypt
during the summer and to prepare for an offensive campaign in
the autumn. The railway could now be pushed forward suffi-
ciently to admit of what would be required.
Meanwhile, within three days of the Gaza action, Sir Archi-
bald Murray suddenly received altered instructions. The gen-
eral strategic situation was again changing. In France the
great German retreat was slowing to a halt on the Siegfried
line; the preparations for the battle of Arras were in hand, and
farther S. the second battle of the Aisne was shortly to begin.
In Russia the revolution was fairly launched. In Mesopotamia
Sir Stanley Maude was driving the Turks far from Bagdad
towards Samarra. Sir Archibald Murray was ordered accord-
ingly, on March 30, in view of the altered situation, to make his
objects the defeat of the Turks S. of Jerusalem and the occupa-
tion of that city. Sir Archibald replied that he still required
the five divisions which he had always considered necessary for
a. further advance an estimate from which he had never varied ;
he also indicated that the prospects of a rapid advance were to
say the least doubtful. In reply, he was instructed to push his
operations with all energy, though no additional troops could be
sent to him, since it was considered that, in view of the military
situation of the enemy, his present force would suffice. Un-
doubtedly the latter portion of this instruction was unhappily
expressed. The War Cabinet, with the whole strategic situation
in its view, was no doubt more competent than Sir Archibald
Murray to judge of the advisability of taking certain risks on
the Palestine frontier, so there can be no question but that the
alteration in the instructions was justified. But Sir Archibald
Murray, on the other hand, was more competent than the War
Cabinet to judge of the actual military situation of the enemy
opposed to him, and of the probable sufficiency for their task of
the forces of which he disposed. However, immediate prepara-
tions were begun for a renewed offensive, and on March 30
Gen. Dobell moved forward the Eastern Force headquarters to
Deir el Belah, on the coast some 8 or g m. from Gaza.
If anything was to be done quickly, as the War Cabinet's
new instructions evidently contemplated, there was nothing for
it but a renewed attack on Gaza. Already Gen. Dobell's thoughts
had been turned in the direction of Beersheba; but, in discussing
with Sir Archibald Murray the question of operating by his
right, he was constrained to say that it was difficult to estimate
how long a delay would be involved in the preparations neces-
sary for such an undertaking. The whole of the existing organ-
ization, and in particular the position of the railway running
close to the sea-coast, restricted the area in which it was imme-
diately possible to undertake serious operations on the confines
of the desert to within a very strictly limited distance from
railhead. To prepare for an effective operation farther to the
right would involve weeks of preparation and rearrangement.
Sir Archibald Murray decided, therefore, to attack Gaza again,
and instructed Gen. Dobejl accordingly.
In any case a vast amount of preparation had to be made.
The Turks were daily increasing their force on the Gaza-Beer-
sheba line, and it was evident that Gen. Dobell's troops, specially
lightly equipped for the passage of the desert, would have to
be organized for the battle on more normal lines. The divi-
sional artilleries, which had had to be reduced in the desert, had
to be increased again; heavy guns and howitzers had to be
railed up and heavy artillery groups formed. A few tanks were
brought up, and the troops had to be instructed in methods oi
cooperation with this new weapon which they had never before
seen; they had also to learn the use of gas shell and smoke-
clouds. New large-scale maps had to be made and issued, includ-
ing trench maps hastily prepared and incessantly revised from
aeroplane photographs. Aircraft cooperation with the artillery
had to be reorganized. The latest methods, in these and a
hundred other matters, found advantageous by experience in
more important theatres, had to be hurriedly assimilated by an
army which had just painfully emerged from a i5-months'
sojourn in the wilderness, and whose last pitched battle, so to
speak, had been fought on the Gallipoli Peninsula. The limited
capacity of the communications and transport available made
the organization of the supply of ammunition and engineer
stores a matter of great complexity. Preparations for water
supply were far more difficult and arduous still. Arrangement
had to be made for bringing up rail-borne water from pipe-line
head at Rafa to Deir el Belah, and for pumping it thence by a
small pipe-line into tanks prepared in the Wadi Ghuzze. Scores
of wells were sunk in the wadi. Several hundred thousand gal-
lons storage capacity was prepared at these wells, and by repair-
ing and filling the great underground grain-reservoirs of the
natives in the neighbourhood. Scores of prepared crossing-
places over the Wadi Ghuzze had to be made and allocated to
the various formations, arms and transport. Between March 30
and April 15, however, all this work was practically completed,
and Sir A. Murray brought up his advanced G.H.Q. to Khan
Yunus, on the railway about 6 m. S.W. of Deir el Belah.
By this time the enemy had five divisions and a force of
cavalry in line, and he had been considerably strengthened in
heavy artillery. The Gaza defences were now strong and well
wired, and the Turkish trench system extended S.E. from Gaza
for some 7 m. to the Atawine ridge. Farther to the S.E. the
defensive system was less continuous, but one division was about
Tellesh Sharia (16 m. from Gaza) and between that place and
Atawine. Beersheba was also held.
General Dobell disposed of the 52nd, 53rd and s^th Divs.,
the still incomplete 74th Div. in process of formation from dis-
mounted yeomanry, the two mounted divisions of the Desert
Column, and the Imperial Camel Bde. The French battleship
" Requin," and H.M. Monitors 21 and 31 were also to cooper-
ate by fire from the sea when the time came. General Dobell had
planned his operations in two stages. The first stage was limited
to securing the outer defences from the sea to Sheikh 'Abbas, a
commanding feature rather over 4 m. S. of Gaza. The seconc
included the attack on the 'Ali Muntar position and Gaza.
The first stage began at dawn on April 17, and success was
complete. The 52nd and 54th Divs. took all their objectives by
7 A.M. with but few casualties. The 53rd Div. on their left
pushed forward reconnaissances along the coast. One mounted
division protected the right of the 54th Div. ; the other watched
and immobilized the enemy's force about, and W. of, Tejlesh
Sharia. The ground gained was consolidated, and final prepara-
tions for the second stage completed on the i8th.
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
819
On the ipth the bombardment of the enemy reopened at dawn,
the " Requin " and the two monitors now joining in the battle.
At 7:15 A.M. the 53rd Div. launched its attack along the coast.
A quarter of an hour later the 52nd and 54th attacked the
former astride the ridge running S.W. from 'Ali Muntar, the
latter, with the addition of the Imperial Camel Bde., immediately
on the right of the 52nd. Farther to the right again the Impe-
rial Mounted Div. made a dismounted attack on Atawine, while
the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div. protected the
extreme right flank, and prepared to take advantage of any suc-
cess gained by the Imperial Mounted Div. The 74th Div. was
ttn reserve W. of Sheikh 'Abbas.
The 52nd Div. was the first to be checked, after progressing
about half-way to its objective at 'Ali Muntar. This resulted
in checking also the progress of the 53rd Div. on its left, and
the left of the 54th Div. on its right. The right of the 54th
Div., however, entered the enerny's works at Khirbet Sihan,
just W. of the Atawine ridge, while the containing attack of the
Imperial Mounted Div. was successful in occupying the defend-
ers of the Atawine works. But the situation of the 54th Div.
was far from favourable. Owing to the continued inability of
the 53rd to make headway its left was exposed to heavy enfilade
fire from 'Ali Muntar, while its right, with the Camel Bde.
thrust far forward, was subjected to a series of determined counter-
attacks. In this position, reached in the early afternoon, the
battle swayed with little change for the rest of the day. Air
reconnaissance indicated that the enemy's reserves had not yet
been drawn in, and Gen. Dobell, though moving part of the
74th Div. closer up, would not be the first to launch his last
reserve, especially in view of the fact that it was the 52nd Div.
which was checked and that the reserve brigade of that division
had not yet been employed.
Towards evening Gen. Dobell reported the situation to
advanced G.H.Q., when Sir Archibald Murray instructed him
by telephone that all ground gained must without fail be held
and the attack resumed under cover of an intense artillery
bombardment at dawn on the 2oth. General Dobell issued his
orders accordingly, and as night fell every preparation for the
pursuance of the offensive was actively in hand. Between 10
and 1 1 o'clock at night, however, Gen. Dobell was in communi-
cation with the Desert Column and all his divisional command-
ers, who by this time had received more detailed and accurate
reports of the situation on their respective fronts. These
reports made it clear that the enemy's resistance nowhere as
yet showed any signs of weakening, that the British casualties
amounted to some 7,000, and that the prospects of being able
to make any considerable further progress without a much
longer, more intense, and less hurriedly planned artillery prep-
aration, were, to say the least, dubious. By i A.M. the new
artillery plan, including the divisional arrangements, was ready.
General Dobell was not satisfied that in the time, and with the
means available, the prospects of success were sufficient to
warrant the immediate resumption of the action. Telephonic
communication with divisional commanders and their artillery
chiefs more than confirmed his doubts. General Chetwode,
commanding the Desert Column, was equally clearly of opinion
that the prospects were not sufficiently favourable to justify
a hurried resumption of the attack. About 4 o'clock in the
morning, therefore, Gen. Dobell issued orders to postpone
further operations, with Sir Archibald Murray's assent.
The ground gained was consolidated during April 20 and
following days. The enemy made no serious counter-attacks.
It became clear that, before Gaza, there was nothing for it but
the deliberate methods of trench warfare. The alternative
involved long preparation, new communications, and an eventual
movement far away in the direction of the British right flank.
On April 22 Sir Archibald reported to the War Office that with
his present force he could not count on more than a local suc-
cess; and here the Sinai campaign proper came to an end.
There was no further considerable action during the spring or
summer. The opposing lines stabilized, and there ensued a period
of preparation and training, of trench-raiding, and of enterprises
by mounted troops and camelry in the direction of Beersheba,
and against the railway running S. from that place which was
demolished. But the Sinai desert had been conquered and passed.
The defence of Egypt was secure. And room had been gained for
the preparation of a great offensive campaign in the autumn.
Thus the mission assigned to Sir Archibald Murray at the begin-
ning of the year had been fulfilled. Meanwhile, at the head-
quarters of the Eastern Force, where Lt.-Gen. Sir Philip Chet-
wode had now succeeded Sir Charles Dobell, the plans were
already in course of preparation which were to become the basis
of the great campaign fought in the autumn by Gen. Sir Edmund
Allenby, who succeeded Sir Archibald Murray in the Egyptian
command in June. (G. P. D.)
(IV.) THE PALESTINE CAMPAIGN
The successful defence of Gaza on April 19 1917, when Gen.
Kress von Kressenstein for the second time in little more than
three weeks had beaten off formidable British attacks, was fol-
lowed by a prolonged pause while both armies went into " sum-
mer quarters." Every effort was made on both sides for a re-
sumption of the struggle in the autumn, and by the beginning of
Aug. 1917 the German staff, realizing that the next British
effort was likely to be considerably more formidable than the
last, represented to Constantinople that the Gaza-Beersheba
line was inherently weak in that its left flank was " in the air,"
and that the only remedies were either readjustment, involving
withdrawal, or reinforcement on a generous scale.
Unhappily for the Ottoman cause political ambitions came
into conflict with military necessities. The loss of Bagdad on
March n 1917 had been a blow to the prestige of the Sultan,
more severe in that it followed upon that of Mecca, and the
Pan-Islamic party in the capital was insistent that steps should
be taken to retrieve the loss and rehabilitate the Ottoman
Khalifates in the eyes of the Moslem world by a triumphant
recovery of the city of the Khalifs. In this contention the Pan-
Islamic leaders were supported by Berlin, where the influence of
alliterative war cries indicative of future trade domination was
strong. " Berlin to Bagdad " still reigned in official and public
esteem, not yet supplanted by " Hamburg to Herat."
In consequence of this political counter-attraction Constanti-
nople sent men and supplies for the reconquest of Iraq (Mesopo-
tamia), until it was persuaded to realize that the Palestine front,
if starved of needed reinforcements, would inevitably give way
in a debdcle which might permit an active enemy to advance up
the whole length of Syria and establish himself on the Upper
Euphrates, thus cutting off the whole of the force in Meso-
potamia from communication with Constantinople except by
way of the railless and mountainous Armenia and Kurdistan.
The Pan-Islamists fought hard for their policy and succeeded in
delaying the dispatch of troops to Palestine until the middle of
October. It was then too late, but this was not realized.
As soon as Constantinople had accepted the principle that
the presence of a powerful British striking force in front of
Gaza constituted a menace to the operations destined for the
recovery of Bagdad, Marshal von Falkenhayn, in command of
the Yilderim Army Group, then at Aleppo, was directed to drive
the British back into the Desert of Sinai. The marshal planned
to strike at the British right flank, which, it was thought, had
probably been weakened in order to mass troops upon the left
for the expected third assault on Gaza. It was proposed to
start this Turkish offensive about the middle of Oct., which
would forestall the British offensive, calculated by the German
staff to be due in the first week of November.
Serious difficulties, however, arose which fatally delayed the
completion of these dispositions. In the first place the Turkish
transport was poor. The sector of the Turkish lines of commu-
nication from Bozanti, the then railhead from Constantinople
or, rather, Haidar Pasha on the Asiatic shore of the Bosporus,
to Beersheba, was under the Syrian Western Arabia command
of which Ahmad Jemal Pasha was G.O.C.: unfortunately this
politician was jealous because the command of the Yilderim
Group, which since the beginning of July 1917 had included his
820
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
own army, had been given to a German. He made trouble and
caused delays in the working of a system which could not really
have been efficient even if worked with perfect goodwill.
As the Taurus and Amanus tunnels were not yet open for
ordinary traffic, all stores coming from the W. to Bozanti had
to break bulk there and, reloaded into narrow-gauge trucks, to be
taken through the tunnel by compressed air engines, or hauled
by lorry, mule or camel to Dorak, where they were again packed
into standard-gauge trucks. The same performance had to be
repeated at Baghche for transport across the Amanus to Islami6.
Stores could be taken thence in standard-gauge trucks as far as
Rayak, where they had to break bulk for the fifth time to be
restowed in narrow-gauge trucks for Damascus, where, owing to
lack of railway rolling-stock, a portion was sent to the front by
lorry via Jisr Banat Ya'qub on the Jordan, Nazareth, Nablus
and Jerusalem. Where railway rolling-stock was available fuel
was often scarce, locomotives had to be adapted to burn wood,
and instances occurred of this being supplied in unsuitable
lengths, so that trains were delayed while the crews cut up the
wood afresh before it could be fed to the furnaces.
General Allenby, however, having brought his railway right
up to the front and constructed a strategic development of his
pipe-line in addition, to the considerable improvement of his
local water supplies, determined to forestall the impending
Turkish offensive. His force was disposed along a front of some
22 m. from Gaza to Gamli and beyond to where the Desert
Mounted Corps had detachments as far inland as Asluj, 38 m.
from the coast. On the eve of the British attack the rival forces
were disposed as follows. Facing one another in the strongly
fortified Gaza sector were the Turkish VIII. Army (Gen. Kress
von Kressenstein) consisting of the XX. Corps (3rd, yth and
53rd Divs. the 7th being in reserve near Herbie, 10 m. behind
the line) and the XXII. Corps (i6th, 26th, Fakhr-ed-Din Bey,
and 54th, Nasuhi Bey, Divs.) aligned out towards Tellesh
Sharia, opposing the British XXI. Corps (Lt.-Gen. Sir E.
Bulfin) consisting of the 5 2nd (Lowland), Maj.-Gen. Hill, the
54th (East Anglian) Div., Maj.-Gen. Hare, and the 75th Div.,
"Maj.-Gen. Palin. The British XX. Corps (Lt.-Gen. Sir P.
Chetwode) , consisting of the 53rd Welsh Div. (Maj.-Gen. Mott),
the 6oth London Div. (Maj.-Gen. Sir J. Shea) and the 74th
Yeomanry Div. (Maj.-Gen. Gird wood), was wheeling into posi-
tion in support of the Desert Mounted Corps (Lt.-Gen. Sir H. G.
Chauvel), consisting of the 4th Cav. Div. (Maj.-Gen. Sir G.
Barrow), the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div.
(Maj.-Gen. Sir E. W. C. Chaytor) and the Australian Mounted
Div. (Maj.-Gen. Hodgson); this was concentrating near
Khalasa for its swoop upon Beersheba, held by Ahmad Feizi
Pasha's VII. Army consisting of the III. Corps (Ismet Bey) com-
posed of the 24th Div. (Wilmer Bey), the 2 7th (Arab) Div. in
Beersheba itself, with the 3rd Cav. Div. in front of it, and the
XV. Corps, which was hardly constituted as yet, its ipth Div.
(Sedad Bey) being still in the XX. Corps area behind Gaza on
its way to the front, and its 2oth Div. being still on the b'nes
of communication S. of Aleppo and not destined to arrive even
at Ramleh, far in the rear, until Nov. 6. General Allenby further
had the support of certain warships, H.M.S. " Grafton "
(a " blister "), four monitors, 15, 29, 31 and 32, the destroyers
" Staunch " and " Comet " and the gunboats " Amphis " and
" Ladybird," which were able to enfilade the Turkish positions
near Gaza and destroyed important ammunition dumps.
During the night of Oct. 30-31 1917 the British XX. Corps
had moved forward to positions of deployment, and at dawn, when
the Desert Mounted Corps had got right round to the E. of Beer-
sheba, the 6oth and 74th Divs. were ready to close in from the
W., while the 53rd Div. at Abu Irgeig threatened the Turks
along the Wadi Saba front in such a position as to break through
them and take in flank any reinforcements which might be sent
down to the Turkish III. Corps in Beersheba.
At 05:55 (5:55 A.M.) on Oct. 31 a hundred field guns and how-
itzers opened against a Turkish front of 4,500 yd., while the
96th Bde. R.G.A. was engaged in counter-battery work. At
08:30 the iSist Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Da Costa) of the 6oth London
Div. captured the first Turkish position; at 12:15, the guns hav-
ing moved up to cut the Turkish wire, the main assault was
delivered and all objectives gained by 13:30, whereupon the
23oth Bde. (Brig.-Gen. McNeill) of the 74th Div., which had
formed the extreme left of the main assault, cooperated with
the i6oth Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Pearson) of the 53rd Div. against
the Wadi Saba front and rolled up all the Turkish defences as
far as the Beersheba-Tell el Fara road. Meanwhile the cavalry
had completed their wide swing round from the E., and after
hard fighting the 2nd A.L.H. Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Ryrie), belonging
to the Anzac Mounted Div., was astride of the Hebron-Beer-
sheba road by 13:50.
At 16:00 the 4th A.L.H. Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Grant), belonging to
the Australian Mounted Div., which had reached Iswaiwin by
ii :oo, moved forward against Beersheba itself. It charged over
a succession of strong Turkish positions, demoralized the defence
and captured the town at 18:00 with 1,148 prisoners, and was
joined at 18:30 by the 7th Mounted Bde. (afterwards I4th
Cav. Bde. then commanded by Brig.-Gen. Wigan), which had
turned the Turkish defences on Ras Ghannam.
Immediately upon its capture the Royal Engineers, upon
whose careful preparatory work in the provision of pipe-lines
and camel-convoys of water the success of the attack had been
based, began to develop the wells in hopes of being able to pro-
duce enough water for the horses and men, who required 400,000
gal. per day. Fortunately the Turkish evacuation had been so
hurried that the wells were less damaged than had been expected,
and two reservoirs were left intact. The discomfort of the thirsty
cavalry was much enhanced by the fact that a hot khamsin
blew up off the desert, and on the afternoon of Nov. 3 the water
situation was most acute, as all stored water had been drunk,
and the output was barely adequate for the demand, and at
16:00 a brigade some 2,000 strong rode into Beersheba with a
48 hours' desert thirst. Fortunately at 17:00 a new well came
into working, and by midnight the brigade was watered, con-
suming some 8,000 gallons.
Owing to this water difficulty the Australian Mounted Div.
had to go into reserve temporarily, and actually returned to
Karm for water while preparations were made for the next
attack against the positions covering Tellesh Sharia. The fall
of Beersheba had cost the Turks over 500 killed, 2,000 prisoners
and 13 guns, and exposed the left flank of the Gaza position.
The next step towards the final attack on Gaza was the capture
of Umbrella Hill by the is6th Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Lcggett) of the
52nd Lowland Div., temporarily attached to the 54th Div., at
1 1 :oo on Nov. i as a preliminary to the main assault timed for
03 :oo on Nov. 2. This attack with its preliminary bombardment
caused severe casualties to the Turks and, so far from being able
to detach troops from Gaza to strengthen the left flank, the
Yilderim command had to bring the 7th Div. into the line.
The attack, therefore, of the 54th Div. had the required effect
of " pinning " the Turks in the Gaza sector, and cost them over
1,000 dead in the captured positions, 654 prisoners and 3 guns.
Meanwhile, next day Gen. Allenby delivered another heavy
blow with his right when the 53rd Welsh Div., temporarily under
the Desert Mounted Corps, attacked the VII. Army at Khu-
weilfe on the extreme eastern end of the line, and by its obstinate
fighting against great odds did much to persuade the Turks that
the British were trying to make a great turning movement from
the E., whereas in point of fact the loth, 6oth and 74th Divs.
were about to break the line between the VII. and VIII. Armies
in order to make a gap through which the Desert Mounted
Corps could pass. After fighting for three days and nights
almost continuously against what was left of the III. Corps and
the igth and 26th Divs. brought across from the coastal sector,
the positions were captured by the isSth Bde. (Brig.-Gen.
Vernon) and held in spite of counter-attacks on Nov. 6 and 7,
and on Nov. 8 the division concentrated in Khuweilfe.
The Turks being thus fully occupied on the extreme left of
their front and " pinned " by operations at Gaza, Gen. Allenby
at dawn on Nov. 6 broke through the middle of their line with an
attack against Kawuka with his loth, 6oth, 74th Divs. and
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS (SYRIA)
PLATE III.
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
821
the Yeomanry Mounted Div. The Turks opposed him with the
right wing of their VII. Army and the left wing of their XXII.
Corps, but by 14:30 the i7gth Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Edwards) and
the iSoth Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Hill) had captured Sharia for the
6oth Div., while the 74th Div. was stiffly engaged to the right.
The Turks, however, still held positions above Sharia, and it was
not until 06:00 on Nov. 7 that the 6oth Div. was finally able
to open the way through the Turkish line for the Desert Mounted
Corps. The stout defence made by the VII. Army, the artillery
of which was notably accurate, and the XXII. Corps, had delayed
the start of the cavalry advance, which was still further hindered
by lack of water, and Gen. Allenby was unable to cut off the
Gaza troops by a flanking attack from the N.E., the more so as
the Turks, under pressure of bombardment by land and sea on
Nov. 5 and 6, had begun to withdraw. Their rearguards were
unable to hold even the most formidable positions.
Outpost Hill and Middlesex Hill fell to the 233rd Bde. (Brig.-
Gen. Colston) during the night of Nov. 6, and by 13:30 on Nov.
7 the 232nd Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Huddleston) had taken 'Ali Muntar
itself and a number of strongly fortified works. Farther to the
E. the 52nd Div. and the XXI. Corps Cav. had pushed through
on the heels of the retiring Turks. The Imperial Service Cav.
Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Harbord) actually rode through the ruins of
Gaza at 09:00 on Nov. 7. Gaza had fallen, and all that re-
mained for the Yilderim command was to get its armies away.
In places their moral was shaken, but for the first stages of the
retreat the Turks fought strong rearguard actions, notably at
Deir Sineid, where the Turkish XX. Corps four times recaptured
the position from the 52nd Lowland Div., and at Huj, where the
Turks stood up to a cavalry charge by the 5th Mounted Bde.
(Brig.-Gen. Fitzgerald) and served their guns until actually
cut down. The VIII. Army retreated along the line of the light
railway and the motor road on Ramleh while the VII. Army
fell back on Hebron and the main N. road. The line of advance
across the Plain of Philistia was easier than that over the hills of
southern Judea, consequently British transport was concen-
trated as far as possible so as to facilitate the advance of the
left wing, and the 54th Div. was immobilized at Gaza as all its
transport went N. with the rest of the XXI. and Desert Mounted
Corps which pressed on regardless of thirst, greatly enhanced
by a hot khamsin which began to blow on Nov. 19.
The hardest fighting during the pursuit was that at Qatra and
El Mughar on the Wadi Tahhana, when the 3rd, 7th and loth
Divs. tried to hold the 52nd Lowland Div. on Nov. 13. In
ordinary circumstances perhaps such a pronounced advance of
a left wing would have been dangerous, as the VII. Army was
still in the Hebron area and even tried to make a diversion,
but Gen. Allenby declined to be overawed by a force which he
rightly estimated to be largely disorganized and almost destitute
of transport. He attached the XX. Corps Cav. to the 53rd
Welsh Div. and sent them to be known as Mott's detachment
to contain the southern detachments of the VII. Army.
General Allenby proposed to push the VIII. Army back
beyond Jaffa and contain it while he turned to the E. and struck
up through the hills at Jerusalem, upon which the Turks were
concentrating. The Holy City, of no great strategic or commer-
cial value in itself, had an immense sentimental value, and the
Turks were unwilling to suffer the blow to their prestige which
its loss would entail, the more so as Mecca and Bagdad were
now no longer in their possession. Ramleh was taken on Nov.
15 and Jaffa by noon next day, while the 54th Div., which had
regained its transport, was hurrying up from Gaza, arriving in
the Desert Corps area on Nov. 18. Next day the advance to-
ward Jerusalem began and the 6oth Div. started N. from Gaza.
The 75th Div. had to encounter much resistance near Saris
amid the barren and precipitous hills dominating the main road
to Jerusalem, while the 52nd Div., moving eastward up the
parallel valley of Beth Horon, had turned off up the Beit Likia
road in face of Turks on the heights and transport difficulties in
the valleys, and the Yeomanry Mounted Div., which was trying
to reach the Nablus-Jerusalem road in order to force an evacua-
tion of the Holy City, had even greater difficulties to surmount.
All through Nov. 20 and 21 there was hard fighting during
which the Turks were steadily thrust back, a fog being of great
value to the 75th Div. just before the attack on the positions
covering 'Enab, which the 232nd and 233rd'Bdes. (Brig.-Gens.
Huddleston and Colston) took at the point of the bayonet at
17:00 on Nov. 20. Kustuland Soba, two dominating positions,
were taken next day by the 232nd and 234th Bdes. (Brig.-Gen.
Anley), and at 23:45 Nebi Samwil was successfully stormed by
the last-named brigade, and contact was established with the
52nd Div. at this point. Both divisions, however, were suffering
much from rain and cold winds, and having come straight from
an exhausting and rapid advance from the heat-stricken plains,
were marching light with nothing to protect them from the cold.
In the plain the 54th Div. went into the Desert Corps area to
hold the front N. of Jaffa and Ludd, where it was faced by the
3rd, 7th, i6th and parts of the igth and 2oth Turkish Divs., and
the 6oth Div. arrived near Mejdel from Gaza where it had had
to wait until the 54th was off the lines of communication.
The VII. Army, now consisting of the 3rd Cav. Div., engaged
against the Yeomanry on the extreme right of the Turkish line,
and the 24th, 54th, 26th, 53rd Divs. covering Jerusalem from
the W., while the 27th was observing Mott's detachment as a
cover against a possible advance from Hebron, now made strong
counter-attacks against Nebi Samwil; and although unable to
recover it was at least able to prevent either the 75th or the 52nd
from taking Ej Jib. It became apparent that for the moment
the British thrust had spent itself. Accordingly the wearied
divisions which had forced their way so far into the mountains
were taken out of the line and sent to rest near Ramleh; their
hard-won positions were turned over to the 6oth and 7oth Divs.
The delay in the British advance occasioned by this necessary
relief gave fresh hope to the Turks, who began, after a period of
depression, to hope once more that they might retain Jerusalem;
accordingly reinforcements were brought down from the N.
and across from beyond Jordan by way of Jericho, and by the
time that the British were ready to resume their advance after
the loth Div. had arrived from Gaza, the igth Div. and parts of
the 2oth, 48th and 49th Divs. had arrived to strengthen the
VII. Army, which held a strong series of positions overlooking
from the E. the steep slopes of the deep valley of the Sarar
(vale of Sorek) and across the Bethlehem road.
After a preliminary concentration during which Mott's detach-
ment was advanced up the Hebron road to within striking dis-
tance, and heavy guns had been brought up into the mountains,
the general assault which was to result in the fall of Jerusalem
began in driving rain at dawn on Dec. 8. The 6oth Div. had
great difficulty in capturing the " Heart " and " Liver " re-
doubts, and the strong works at Deir Yesin, and was hampered
by the inability of the 53rd Div. to cooperate with its right
flank owing to the strenuous Turkish opposition and the bad
weather which were delaying its advance. However, by night-
fall the British were established on the crests to the E. of the
valley of the Sarar, and the iSoth Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Watson)
of the 6oth Div. took Lifta by dusk, and by 07 :oo on Dec. 9 the
Worcester Yeomanry had moved across the front of the 53rd
Div. and got astride of the Jerusalem-Jericho road.
The news of the capture of Lifta started a panic among the
Turks, and a disorderly retreat ensued which would have been
disastrous for the Turks had not Gen. Allenby been unwilling
to allow any hostilities in the immediate vicinity of the Holy
City. It was now militarily speaking untenable, and he was
anxious to secure a peaceful occupation even at the cost of spar-
ing the Turks in this panic-stricken withdrawal.
At 07:00 on Dec. 9 the last Turkish troops left Jerusalem,
"Izzet Bey, the Mutesarrif, being the last civil official to depart.
Before 08:00 the mayor started out to surrender, and by 09:30
Brig.-Gen. Watson, the first British soldier to reach the Jaffa
Gate, arrived and posted guards in anticipation of the formal
act of accepting the surrender, which was performed by Maj.-
Gen. Shea, in command of the 6oth Div., soon after 11:00.
Having thus obtained the chief objective of the campaign all
that was now necessary was to thrust back the Turks in order
822
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
to remove the Holy City from danger of long-range bombard-
ment. The first steps towards this were taken on Dec. 10 when
the S3 r d Div. captured ridges to the E. of the city, and was
resumed, after Gen. Allenby's formal entry into Jerusalem on
foot, on Dec. n, in conformity with a general plan for improving
the front. The 5 2nd Div. forced a passage of the Nahr el 'Auja,
Dec. 20 and 21, and by pushing the front to a point 8 m. N. of
Jaffa made it possible to make use of such harbour facilities as
did then exist there. Troops were redistributed along the front,
and a number of minor advances were made while everything
was being prepared for the expected Turkish attempt to recover
Jerusalem, the loss of which had much affected Ottoman pres-
tige. This attempt was made at 23 =30 on Dec. 26 by the VII.
Army, which had been reinforced by the arrival of the ist Div.
and of troops from across Jordan.
A vigorous attack was made on the sector round Tel el Ful,
held by the 6oth Div. which, in common with the rest of the XX.
Corps, was standing by for a general offensive with which Gen.
Allenby had intended to forestall the Turkish counter-attack at
dawn a few hours later. Consequently the moment for the VII.
Army's attack was unhappily chosen, and while every effort was
being made to drive the 6oth Div. back on Jerusalem and dis-
lodge the 53rd Div. from its advanced positions the British
counter-offensive on the part of the loth and 74th Divs. started
according to plan at 06 :3O. At 1 2 :$ 5 the Turks, who were begin-
ning to feel the pressure of this advance, made redoubled efforts
to break through the 6oth Div. which lay astride of the Nablus
road only some 4 m. N. of Jerusalem. In spite of their courage
and energy the Turks were unable to make any impression on
the 6oth, and were unable to prevent the loth and 74th from
advancing 4,000 yd. on a 6-m. front by nightfall.
Next day, Dec. 28, the whole XX. Corps advanced, the
Turkish transport was harassed by aeroplanes, and the VII.
Army, having failed to recapture Jerusalem, found itself on the
last day of the year 7 m. farther from its objective than when it
had started. So ended the first battle of Mount Ephraim, dur-
ing which the XX. Corps had gone forward on a i2-m. front
to a depth of 6 m. on the right and of 3 m. on the left, occupying
the Ram Alla-Bire ridge. The N. front was now secure, but
the Turkish XX. Corps still held Jericho and the fords and
bridge of the Jordan, and remained in positions more than two-
thirds of the way up the steep and almost waterless slope leading
up from the E. to the Mount of Olives.
During Jan. the standard-gauge railway was pushed forward
across the plain of Philistia, and the problem of transport, which
all through the Dec. fighting had had to rely on camels and
donkeys or mule-drawn wheels over half foundered roads, was
greatly simplified by the opening of Ludd as railhead with ade-
quate sidings on Feb. 4 just after the narrow gauge to Jerusalem
from Ludd had been restored to use on Jan. 27. It thus became
possible to provide supplies for the large hunger-stricken civil
population of Jerusalem and to form an advanced base there for
further military operations. These were undertaken on Feb. 19,
when the 6oth Div., which had changed places with the 53rd,
cooperated with the 23151 Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Heathcote), lent
by the 74th Div., the ist A.L.H. Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Cox),
and the N.Z. Mounted Rifles (Brig.-Gen. Meldrum) of the
Anzac Mounted Div., in the capture of Jericho, from which the
Turks were driven by 08:20 on Feb. 21 after operations over
extremely broken and bad country. The acquisition of Jericho
prevented the Turks from making use of the Ghoraniye bridge
as a means of communication with their forces beyond Jordan,
and enabled the British to get command of the Dead Sea, across
which the Turks had been bringing up supplies from the wheat-
growing area round Kerak.
In March Gen. Allenby raided across Jordan to Es Salt and
"Amman and damaged the Hejaz railway. To do this it was
necessary to capture the Ghoraniye bridgehead on the left bank
of the river. General Shea of the 6oth Div. was given command
of a special force, called Shea's group, consisting of his own
division, the Anzac Mounted Div., the Imperial Camel Corps
Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Smith), some light armoured cars and guns
with bridging-trains. The Jordan was crossed by swimming ifi
spite of the flood-water by 01:20 on March 22 at Hajla as a pre-
liminary to bridge-building, and after hard fighting the Turks
lost Ghoraniye. Es Salt was occupied on March 25 at 18:00
by the 3rd A.L.H. Regt., and Brig.-Gen. Meldrum with the N.Z. i
Bde. reached the Hejaz railway S. of 'Amman at 15:00 on March
27 and cut it. 'Amman itself, however, was successfully held by
the Turkish E. of Jordan Group, and the 7O3rd German Batt.
and the Turkish 3rd Cav. Div. which crossed by the Jisr ed !
Damie from Palestine threatened the lines of communication at
Es Salt, which was held by the i79th Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Hum-
phreys) of the 6oth Division.
The weather was bad for camel transport, and the camel park
at Shunet Nimrin was, moreover, bombed by German aeroplanes; '
thus the raid, owing to the stout Turkish resistance and the:
Jordan floods, had been less rapid and less successful than it
might have been; but a number of Christian refugees were able
to get into safety under cover of the raiding troops, and solid
results were obtained in the permanent possession of the Gho- j
raniye bridgehead and the attraction of some 4,000 or more
Turkish troops from the Hejaz to contain it.
The withdrawal of these men and their immobilization just
above the Lower Jordan did much to facilitate the operations of
the Arab army under the Sherif Faisal, but the Turks had good:
reason for supposing that this raid was but a single feature in a
far wider and more formidable movement on the part of the
British, which had been countermanded at the last moment
owing to the sudden necessity for sending troops from the
Palestine front to help resist the German offensive in France.
As it was, Gen. Allenby by the -end of April had to part with
his 52nd and 74th Divs., ten British battalions drawn from
other divisions, nine yeomanry regiments, five and a half siege J
batteries and five machine-gun companies, receiving in exchange!
the 3rd (Lahore) and 7th (Meerut) Divs. of the Indian army:
from Mesopotamia and Indian cavalry from France all expe-
rienced troops. His reinforcements received, in exchange for his
British battalions, were, however, raw troops fresh from India.
In May he had to send away 14 more British battalions, and
received only a partial equivalent of Indian troops. Thus the!
character of the force opposed to the Turks was profoundly
modified, and its activities were largely suspended during reor-
ganization: yet the Yilderim command, although strengthened by!
the formation of the Asia Corps with German units in March
and the arrival of reinforcements with which the VIII. Corpsi
and the IV. Army were constituted, was unable to make an!
offensive during these weeks of opportunity. On the contrary
Gen. Allenby took pains to sow the seeds of future victory by
again raiding into the Oultre Jourdain country, and took Es
Salt on April 29; a good deal of fighting ensued, and the raiders
were finally turned back by the 24th and 48th Divs. of Turkish
infantry and the action of the 3rd Cav. Div. which had been!
brought across from Palestine by the Jisr ed Damie. Yilderim,
however, were deceived by this raid into thinking that the next
serious British move would be by way of Gilead towards Damas-
cus; and Liman von Sanders Pasha, who had taken over the
command of the group, allowed the "Amman and Es Salt raids
to influence his plans more than the " readjustments of front "
in the Sharon and Berukin sectors in April and June, which
might otherwise have appeared to him to be directed for the
purpose of depriving him of observation posts from which he
could overlook some great future concentration.
At the end of the summer, just before Gen. Allenby struck
his final blow, the Yilderim Group of Armies was arranged along
a front of some 65 m. running from the Mediterranean a little
to the N. of Arsuf to a point some 4 m. E. of the influx of the
Jordan into the Dead Sea. From his headquarters at Nazareth
Marshal Liman von Sanders Pasha commanded the four armies
composing the group. On the right the VIII. Army (XXII.
Corps, 7th, 2oth and 46th Divs., and Asia Corps, i6th and igth
Divs. and 7oist, 702nd and 703rd German Bdes.) held some 20
odd miles as far as Furkha. Then came the VII. Army (III.
Corps, ist and nth Divs., and XX. Corps, 26th and 53rd
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
823
Divs.) holding another 20 m. astride of the Nablus road, and
running down into the Jordan valley, where it was flanked by
the IV. Army (II. Corps, 24th Div. and 3rd Cav. Div. in the
Jordan valley, VIII. Corps, 48th Div. and Composite Div. on
the hills of Moab). This array of armies and corps would have
been exceedingly imposing had the Turkish units of which they
were made up been at full strength, but, as it was, the British
army commander estimated their numbers as follows: VIII.
Army, 10,000 rifles and 157 guns; VII. Army, 7,000 rifles and
in guns; IV. Army, 6,000 rifles, 2,000 sabres and 74 guns. The
Ma'an garrison and the troops on the Hejaz railway were esti-
mated at 6,000 rifles and 30 guns, while the general reserve was
3,000 rifles and 30 guns. All told the troops with which the
Turks hoped to hold Syria and what was left of Palestine
amounted to some 4,000 sabres, 32,000 rifles and 400 guns,
representing a ration-strength S. of Rayak-Beirut of 104,000.
Against this Gen. Allenby had at his disposal 12,000 sabres,
57,000 rifles and 540 guns, and arranged his forces so as to
strike with an overwhelming force of men and guns at the most
favourable point in the Turkish line for making use of his cavalry.
For this purpose the Desert Mounted Corps was brought
right across the front and concentrated in the olive and orange
groves in the Sarona area. The 6oth Div. came from the XX.
Corps area and went into the front line at Arsuf, near which
the 7th (Indian), 75th and 3rd (Lahore) Divs. were closely con-
centrated along a front of about 4 miles. The 54th Div. and the
French detachment in the foothills immediately E. of Mejdel
Yaba formed the hinge upon which the offensive across the plain\
of Sharon was to pivot. The 3ist and 2Qth Bdes. of the loth
Div. were strung out along a considerable front of some 13 m.
from Arura to Rafat, with the 3oth Bde. in reserve above the
Wadi Ballut. The 53rd Div. held some difficult country in
front of Et Taiyibe well to the E. of the Nablus road; and in the
Jordan valley a specially formed force, under Maj.-Gen. Sir
E. W. C. Chaytor (Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div.,
zoth Indian Bde., 38th and 39th Royal Fusiliers [Jewish troops],
two battalions of the British West Indies Regt. and some guns),
was to give the Turks the impression that another offensive in
the direction of Es Salt was contemplated.
The necessary concentration of troops in the Sharon sector
was effected by a bold policy which left great stretches of the
British front either entirely unoccupied or merely watched;
and, had the Turkish Intelligence Service been less hampered
by Gen. Allenby's counter-espionage measures, advantage might
have been taken of the existence of these gaps. As it was, the
care with which the concentration was achieved, by silent night
marches to the W. while deceptive dust was clearly visible by
day going eastward, completely deceived the Turks, who were,
moreover, further misled by the strangely faulty reports sent in
by the German aeroplane scouts. The ascendancy in the air
was so entirely in Gen. Allenby's hands, and had been so for
several weeks, that it was only occasionally that the Germans
came over, and then at very considerable height, which made
observation difficult. That this made for inaccurate obser-
vation was amply proved by the German air reconnaissance
reports which were subsequently captured with other docu-
ments of the Yilderim Group headquarters at Nazareth, since
the report for the day before the British advance still shows an
entirely erroneous distribution of Gen. Allenby's troops, in-
correctly locates his G.H.Q., the headquarters of the XXI.
Corps, and even tentatively " identifies " a non-existent division.
Thus the surprise for which the British commander had been
working was complete.
At 04 :3o on Sept. 19 the artillery on the Sharon sector of the
front opened, and after a preparation of 15 minutes, during
which the whole striking force advanced across the wide "no
man's land," the attack was begun at 04:45. The plan pro-
vided for a pivoting movement of which the 54th (East Anglian)
Div. (Maj.-Gen. Hare) and the French detachment (Col. de
Piepape) formed the hinge, while the 3rd (Lahore), 75th, 7th
(Indian) and 6oth moved like a door opening away from the sea,
pushing back the Turks from an ever-widening gap through which
the cavalry poured. The Turks were thus overwhelmed and
thrust aside. The cavalry began the advance which was to
carry the front beyond Aleppo, and behind them the Royal
Engineers, while the action was still in progress, began to lay
the pipe-line which by 13:00 had reached Jil julie from the mill-
race on the Nahr el 'Auja 7,000 yd. away, and was able to pro-
vide 4,000 gal. per hour to the troops in an area where the water
supply was wholly inadequate behind the 3rd' Div. By 07 :3O
the 5th Cav. Div. (Maj.-Gen. MacAndrew) was crossing the
Nahr Falik, by noon it had reached and crossed the Iskanderune,
and the 4th Cav. Div. (Maj.-Gen. Barrow) and Australian
Mounted Div. (Maj.-Gen. Hodgson) swept up behind them.
The speed of the advance was entirely bewildering to the
Turks, who could get little or no news of its progress, and only
realized its results by actual contact, as every artifice had been
employed to cripple the Turkish Intelligence Service. A special
bombing squadron had been sent out to reinforce the Royal
Air Force, which at the opening of the offensive consisted of a
brigade with two wings, seven squadrons, and a balloon com T
pany; and during the night of Sept. 18-19 a Handley-Page
with more than half-a-ton of bombs attacked the German
aerodrome at 'Afule. At dawn on Sept. 19 the special squadron
attacked all Turkish telephone and telegraph exchanges behind
the line, while the corps squadrons bombed the smaller exchanges
just behind the front, with the result that Turkish communica-
tion by telephone or telegraph was completely deranged. To pre-
vent Liman von Sanders Pasha from becoming aware of the prog-
ress of the advance, steps were taken to keep all German aero-
planes from leaving the ground. For this purpose two scouts at a
time hovered over the main German aerodrome at Jenin, each
carrying four bombs, which were dropped on the aerodrome at any
sign of activity. Each pair was relieved while still patrolling
over the aerodrome, and, before leaving, came down and fired
machine-guns into the hangars. In this way the German air
service was immobilized throughout the day, and the Yilderim
command deprived of its only remaining means of obtaining
rapid information about the British advance. Furthermore, the
general attack on the Sharon front had been preceded at 22:00
on Sept. 18 by a vigorous offensive on a smaller scale by the 5'rd
Div. (Maj.-Gen. Mott), which by attacking the Turkish XX.
Corps diverted attention from the coastal sectors in the last
hours during which the Turks could use their field telephones.
In this way, by dint of elaborate preparation, the Yilderim
command was kept in the dark as to what was happening, and
the Turks had to fight as best they might, relying on lines of
communication after they had been cut, relying on reinforce-
ments which never knew when or where they were wanted,
and were never sent, and finally trying to retreat along roads
already occupied by the British. As a final measure to complete
the confusion of the Turks, Gen. Allenby, after his first feint by
the 53rd Div. and his main attack across the plain of Sharon,
put the whole of the rest of his front W. of Jordan in motion, and
began to press the Turks northward through Mount Ephraim.
The main advance pressed northward, and while the sth
and 4th Cav. Divs. headed for the plain of Esdraelon in order
to seize 'Afule and its railway junction, the infantry [6oth
(London) Div., Maj.-Gen. Shea, 7th (Indian) Div., Maj.-Gen.
Fane, and 3rd (Lahore) Div., Maj.-Gen. Hoskins], turning east-
ward, began to drive the XXII. Turkish Corps and the Asia
Corps into the hill country. The Londoners captured Tul
Keram after fighting and marching for 18 m. over heavy sand
before dark, driving a mass of retreating Turks and transport
into the narrow defile up which the road and railway ran to
Nablus. Here the retreat was scourged from above by aero-
planes, which finally blocked the pass by killing multitudes of
transport animals across its narrowest part, while the 5th Aus-
tralian Light Horse Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Onslow), with cavalry
of the French detachment, temporarily attached to the 6oth
Div., made a detour and came into the pass from the N.E. of
Anebta, cutting off all hope of retreat from Tul Keram and
engaging the extreme right of the Asia Corps, which tried to
hold the upper part of the pass so as to facilitate retreat along
824
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS
the Nablus and Messudie roads to Jenin. Individual Turkish
units fought well. If they were unaware of the disaster which
had befallen their cause, they were at least not oppressed by
news of defeat; the opposition encountered by the 3rd and 7th
Divs. in the W. was tenacious and well organized, and the XX.
Turkish Corps in the E., not realizing the necessity for imme-
diate retreat, even made a successful counter-attack against the
53rd Div., and for the moment recovered some minor positions.
While the infantry hammered away at each other Gen.
Allenby's cavalry had broken through the Carmel Range by the
historic pass of Megiddo, captured Nazareth with the Yilderim
headquarters (dawn Sept. 20), and 'Afule (08:00); and the 4th
Cav. Div. after cooperating with the 5th in its capture hastened to
Beisan, which was taken at 16:30, while part of the I2th Bde.
(Brig.-Gen. Wigan) reached Jisr el Mujami*, where the railway
crosses the Jordan, at 08:00 on Sept. 21, thus cutting off alike
all hope of retreat northward from the Turks and guarding
against the possible arrival of reinforcements from Damascus.
As additional insurance, raiding parties from the Arab N. Army
operating in Gilead had broken the railway near Tel 'Ar'ar
and at Muzerib on Sept. 17. Meanwhile the 3rd Australian
Light Horse Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Wilson), driving in from the N.,
had captured Jenin (evening of Sept. 20) in spite of the resist-
ance of a German force, and Turkish troops and transport on
the road between Jenin and 'Afule and Jenin and Nablus were
plentifully bombed from aeroplanes.
On Sept. 21 at 13:45 Nablus was captured, and the Turks,
having in vain endeavoured to retreat along the newly restored
Roman road from Nablus to Beisan, only to be the target of
aeroplanes while on the way and to find the British at the end
of it, tried as a last resort to withdraw the wreckage of the VII.
and VIII. Armies down the Wadi Fara road, so as to retire upon
Es Salt and the IV. Army crossing over the Jordan by the Jisr ed
Damie. This movement was detected by an air scout early, on
the morning of Sept. 21, and the importance of checking the
retreat was at once realized, as the Jordan valley troops Lad not
yet been able to capture the Jisr ed Damie, nor could the fords
to the N. of it be guarded even by the cavalry at Beisan in time.
All available aeroplanes were at once detailed for an intensive
air attack upon this line of retirement; departures from the
Ramleh aerodrome were so timed that two machines should ar-
rive over the objective every three minutes, and that an addi-
tional formation of six machines should come into action every
half-hour. Machines on arriving over the objective bombed it
first and then swept down to a low altitude and raked the column
with machine-gun fire, crawling uneasily along a narrow road
cut out of a precipitous slope, before flying back to Ramleh to
replenish with bombs and fresh drums of cartridges.
This form of attack continued from 08:00 until noon, when
Chaytor's force came within striking distance of the bridge, and
the line of retreat itself was blocked for a distance of 5 m. with
countless corpses and carcasses and the debris of 87 guns with
their limbers, 55 motor lorries, 4 staff -cars and 842 waggons, all
of which had been put out of action by the attacks of the Royal
Air Force unaided by any surface cooperation. At 01:30 on
Sept. 22 Chaytor's force, which had been pressing all through the
previous day, captured Jisr ed Damie, and at 08:00 a Turkish
column was observed by air scouts to be moving up towards
Beisan from the still unoccupied area E. and N.E. of Nablus.
It was bombed from above, while the XX. British Corps shep-
herded it up toward the 4th Cav. Div., which came down to
meet its survivors and patrolled along the left (E.) bank of
Jordan to cut off such stragglers as might cross the stream.
Meanwhile the Jewish battalions of Chaytor's force had cap-
tured Umm esh Shert ford at 03:00, and by nightfall the 2nd
Australian Light Horse Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Ryrie) was in contact
with the main Turkish position at Shunet Nimrin. A little
later it became apparent that the IV. Army had realized how
isolated and unsafe its position had suddenly become, and that
it had begun to retire in hopes of reaching Damascus before it
was too late. It was, however, vigorously pressed by Chaytor's
force, its railway had been cut by the Hejaz Camel Corps of the
Northern Army, and the whole country-side appeared to be
boiling up into sudden revolt about its path.
The IV. Army still carried a sting in its tail, and although it
lost Es Salt by 16:30 on Sept. 23 it held 'Amman gallantly until
15:10 on Sept. 25, in hopes of being able to keep the line of retreat
open for the garrison of Ma'an under *Ali Bey Wahbi, which,
though hastening northward amid a perpetual whirl of Arab
rifle-fire, was still S. of the town. With all hope of retreat cut off,
the Ma'an force became anxious to surrender, and as soon as the
5th Australian Light Horse Regt. was near enough to Qastal to
afford protection, the Turks, to the number of over 4,000, with
500 sick and 1 2 guns, surrendered on Sept. 29. The Australians
had some difficulty in saving their prisoners from being mas-
sacred by the Arabs who were eager for vengeance and plunder.
The news that the IV. Army was trying to avoid the fate
which had overwhelmed the VII. and VIII. caused Gen. Allenby
to order his available cavalry to advance upon Damascus, in
order to prevent the Turks on the E. of Jordan from reaching
it and re-forming in combination with the small force there.
The sth Cav. Div. was employed during the greater part of
Sept. 23 in capturing Acre and Haifa, when the Turks, contrary to
the wishes of the Germans, who did not wish to risk the numer-
ous houses of the German colony in a bombardment, put up a
stout resistance, and were only quelled by a charge of the i5th
(Imperial Service) Cav. Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Harbord). The sth
Cav. Div. then went to Nazareth en route for Damascus with
the rest of the Desert Mounted Corps by way of Jisr Banat
Ya'qub and the main motor road beyond Quneitera.
At Jisr Banat Ya'qub a stiff resistance was made, chiefly by
German technical troops, who had blown one arch of the bridge
and formed a laager of lorries and machine-guns commanding
the ruin. This delayed the Australian Mounted Div. until the
position was turned by the action of the 3rd and 4th Australian
Light Horse Bdes. (Brig.-Gens. Wilson and Grant), which crossed
the river N. and S. of the bridge late on Sept. 27. The position
was taken, but the delay had enabled the sth Cav. Div. to
come up, and by 20 130 on Sept. 28 both divisions had reached
Quneitera. To the S. the 4th Cav. Div., having crossed the
Jordan at Jisr el Mujami', engaged the Turks on the Zebda-
Irbid-Beitras line on Sept. 26, where a good deal of opposition
was made, took Irbod during the night, then pressing on through
Remte made contact with the Hejaz Northern Army, which had
just taken Der'a, a few miles W., at dawn on Sept. 28.
The Arab Camel Corps, with which was Col. Lawrence, had
started on its northern raid on Aug. 31, by unfrequented and
often waterless paths through the desert from a point near Akaba
and had reached the railway between Der'a and Damascus on
Sept. 17. The line was wrecked, and in spite of the activity of
the garrison and aeroplanes at Der'a the Arabs continued to
prey upon the lines of communication, which they kept in a
state of disorganization all through the critical days of Gen.
Allenby's advance, and now were able to get their fill of fighting
in trying to impede the retreat of the IV. Army.
Under the constant pressure of the Desert Mounted Corps
and the Arabs, both regular and insurgent, driving in from W.,
S.W. and S., the IV. Army melted into rout. It still fought
when it could, but it was with the spasmodic jerks of a body no
longer under control of its brain, and after actions at Kaukab
Jasa and Kiswe the end came for the Yilderim Army Group
when the Australian Mounted Div., with the French cavalry
attached, got across the Damascus-Beirut road on the afternoon
of Sept. 30, capturing 4,000 Germans and Turks as they tried
to escape along it. Next morning Maj. Olden with men of the
loth A.L.H. Regt. (3rd Bde. A.L.H.) reached the Serail of Damas-
cus, at 06:30 on Oct. i., just a little ahead of the Hejaz Camel
Corps. Damascus had fallen, and a Turkish column trying to
reach safety by the desert road to the N.E. was overtaken,
attacked and captured near Duma on Oct. 2.
Nor was the victory a day too soon the British cavalry had
been stung by malarial mosquitoes in the plain of Esdraelon,^in
the marshes round Beisan and in other areas behind the Turkish
lines where army sanitation was grossly neglected. The malaria
TURNER TYPHUS FEVER
had Incubated for a fortnight, and immediately after the capture
of Damascus, officers and men sickened by scores whole regi-
ments were temporarily out of action, and on top of the malaria
<:ame a savage visitation of the so-called " Spanish " influenza,
which preyed upon captors and captives alike, particularly the
latter, whose resisting power had been greatly impaired by the
privations of a fortnight's disaster and rout.
There now remained no formidable Turkish force in southern
or central Syria, and all that remained for the victorious general
to do was to occupy the starving lands which he had liberated
and move northward in search of a Turkish formation to attack.
The 7th (Meerut) Div. was ordered to march up the coast, and
made remarkable progress, leaving Haifa on Oct. i, occupying
Tyre on the 4th, Sidon on the 6th, Beirut on the 8th, and
Tripoli (Tarabulus) on the i8th, while the sth Cav. Div., less
affected by malaria and influenza than other cavalry, moved up
through the Biqa' along the railway to Kama (Oct. 20), engaged
German armoured cars near Khan es Sebil (Oct. 22), and reached
Aleppo, which had just been occupied by Arabs, at 10:00 on
iOct. 26. The division passed through Aleppo, engaged the
Turks on the Alexandretta road, and on the 28th relieved Arab
i troops at Muslimie junction astride of the Bagdad railway.
During this advance an uncounted number of Turks were
killed, 200 German and Austrian officers and 3,500 men, while
over 72,000 Turkish prisoners, 360 guns, 800 machine-guns,
and large quantities of locomotives and motor transport were
captured. (H. P.-G.)
TURNER, SIR GEORGE (1857-1916), Australian politician,
was born at Melbourne Aug. 8 1857 and educated at its Central
school, proceeding on to its university. He was called to the
Victorian bar and in 1889 was elected to the Victorian legis-
lature as member for St. Kilda. Two years later he became
Minister of Health and later held office as Minister of Customs,
Solicitor-General and Minister of Defence. From 1894-9 he
was Premier and Treasurer of his colony and again from 1900-2.
From 1901-5 he was Treasurer of the Commonwealth of Aus-
tralia. He was also president of the Federal Council of Australasia,
'which came to an end in 1899. He represented his colony at
2ueen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee (1897) and was then created
G.C.M.G. and sworn of the Privy Council. He retired from
politics in 1906 and died at Melbourne Aug. 14 1916.
TURNER, SIR WILLIAM (1832-1916), British anatomist,
was born at Lancaster Jan. 7 1832. He was educated at various
srivate schools, and afterwards studied medicine at St. Barthol-
>mew's hospital, and graduated M.B. at London University.
1 In 1854 he became senior demonstrator in anatomy at Edinburgh
University, in 1867 professor of anatomy, and in 1903 was
:lected principal and vice-chancellor of the university. He was
rom 1898 to 1904 president of the General Medical Council,
md in 1900 was president of the British Association. He was
:nighted in 1886 and made a K.C.B. in 1901. Turner was best
mown as a brain surgeon, and published various valuable
>apers on the subject. He died at Edinburgh Feb. 15 1916.
TWINING, LOUISA (1820-1912), English philanthropic worker,
vas born in London Nov. 16 1820. In early life she was an
irtist, and published Symbols and Emblems of Mediaeval Chris-
ion Art (1852) and Types and Figures of the Bible (1854). In
:853, however, she became interested in movements for social
eform, and began the work in connexion with the Poor Law to
vhich she devoted the rest of her life. In March 1861 she
lelped to establish a home for workhouse girls sent out to service,
md in 1864 a Workhouse Visiting Society. In 1867 an act was
>assed separating infirmaries from workhouses, and after 12
nore years of work Miss Twining in 1879 established the Work-
louse Infirmary Nursing Association. She was a Poor Law
^tardian for Kensington during 1884-90, and for Tonbridge
Jnion during 1893-6. She promoted the opening of Lincoln's
nn Fields to the public, helped to start the Metropolitan and
National Association for nursing the poor in their homes, did
nuch to secure the appointment of police matrons, and was
iresident of the Women's Local Government Society. She
mblished Recollections of Life and Work (1893), Workhouse
825
and Pauperism (1898), and many papers on Poor Law subjects.
She died in London Sept. 25 1912.
TYLOR, SIR EDWARD BURNETT (1832-1917), English
anthropologist (see 27.498), died at Wellington, Som., Jan. 2
1917. He was knighted in 1912.
TYPHUS FEVER (see 27.508). This acute specific fever is
spread by the agency of the body-louse, and is characterized
by a sudden onset, a maculo-petechial eruption, severe toxaemia,
lasting some 12 to 15 days, and ending by a rapid lysis. The
disease has many synonyms: Typhus exanthema ticus, synochus
putrida, spotted fever, gaol fever, famine fever, prison fever,
Brill's disease. This last term is often applied to denote a
very mild type of the disease occurring in the United States.
Hippocrates' mentions the word " typhus," but he applied it to
any stuporous and delirious condition and does not appear to have
been acquainted with the fever in question. The malady was appar-
ently confused with plague until the i6th century, when Fracas-
torius differentiated it from the latter disease and called it petechie.
During the i8th and igth centuries typhus fever was well known in
Europe, but included typhoid and relapsing fever, from the former
of which it was distinguished by a long series of researches beginning
with those of Strother, Gilchrist and Huxham in the early i8th cen-
tury and ending with the classical work of Still in 1837. From relaps-
ing fever typhus was definitely differentiated by Henderson of
Edinburgh in 1843.
Climatology and Epidemiology. Typhus is mostly a disease
of temperate and cold climates; in tropical countries it occurs
only in the hills or during the cool season. In 1921 typhus was
endemic in many parts of E. and S.E. Europe, Poland, Galicia,
many provinces of Russia and certain districts of the Balkans.
It was endemic also in some parts of Asia, Persia, Afghanistan,
and an endemic area exists in India on the W. of the Indus,
stretching from Baluchistan in the S. to Yusafzai, Hazara,
and Kashmir in the N., and then passing eastwards along the
ranges of the Himalayas, where it is especially prevalent at
Kulu, and also passing southwards into the district of Rawal
Pindi. It also occurs in Indo-China, in N. China and in Japan
in the province of Hiogo. It does not occur in Australasia or
Oceania. In America it is endemic in Mexico, in certain dis-
tricts of Peru and northern Chile.
Before the World War it was eradicated from most European
countries where hygienic measures for the destruction of vermin
were in existence. During the war, extremely severe epidemics
raged in the Balkans, Poland and Russia. Epidemics are
caused by anything which favours the propagation and dis-
semination of lice. The principal factors which do so are:
(i) massing together of people of all classes; (2) retaining these
masses under conditions which render personal cleanliness and
clean clothing difficult or impossible, typically in times of
war or famine; (3) a suitable atmospheric temperature, not too
high i.e. a temperate zone temperature.
Aetiology. The disease is spread by means of the body-louse,
Pediculus carports de Geer (1778). The virus is apparently present
in the blood of a patient from the fifth to the twelfth day, but in
greatest abundance from the fifth to the seventh day. The louse
requires approximately eight days interval before it becomes infec-
tive, and probably remains infective for the rest of its life, but it is
not certain whether it passes the virus on to the next generation or
not. When an infected louse bites a non-immune human being, a
period of six days to ten days elapses before symptoms appear.
The virus was reported by Nicolle to be filterable, but more recent
investigation has shown this to be doubtful. The guinea-pig and
the monkey are susceptible. As regards the nature of the virus,
innumerable bacteria and protozoa have been described. In 1921
most authorities favoured de Rocha Lima's theory, viz. that the
causative agent is an organism which he has called Rickettsia pro-
wazeki. Rocha Lima has given this name to some peculiar, minute,
gramme-negative, oval bodies often showing polar staining when
stained by Giemsa's method, and found in the epithelial cells of the
alimentary canal of lice which have fed on the blood of typhus
patients. Attempts at cultivation have so far failed. Brumpt and
others do not give any etiological importance to these bodies, as,
according to them, they are found also in lice which have not fed
on typhus patients. Rocha Lima contends, however, that there are
:wo forms of the parasite, one non-pathogenic, Rickettsia pediculi,
found only in the lumen of the alimentary canal of lice; and the
other, pathogenic, Rickettsia prowazeki, which multiplies in the cells
of the insect's alimentary canal.
826
TYPHUS FEVER
Plotz has described an anaerobic, gramme-positive, bacillus which
he now identifies with Rickettsia prowazeki. (For similar disease-
carrying by body-lice, see TRENCH FEVER.)
Morbid Anatomy. There are no specific anatomical lesions.
A certain amount of oedema of the lungs and hypostatic pneumonia
is often present. The spleen is enlarged, usually of a dark red colour
and juicy red pulp. The liver and kidney show cloudy swelling, and
punctate haemorrhage may be present. In the intestine there are
no changes in Peyer's patches, and the mesenteric glands are not
enlarged. The heart muscle may show cloudy swelling and fatty
degeneration. The cerebral spinal fluid may present a slight
lymphocytosis.
Symptomatology. Incubation varies from 4 to 21 days, but is
usually about to to 12 days. The onset is usually sudden, being
characterized by severe headache, pains in various parts of the
body, often rigours; marked rise of the temperature, quick pulse,
flushed face and suffused eyes, and quickened respirations. The
patient complains of extreme weakness. The duration of the fever
on an average is 14 to 15 days. During the first 2 or 3 days the tem-
perature continues to rise at night, with remission in the morning,
to a maximum of 104 to 105 on the second to fourth day. During
this time the tongue becomes dry, swollen, and coated with a thick
brown deposit on the dorsum, while the tip and sides of the organ
are red. The patient quickly becomes apathetic, drowsy, with dull
expression. As the disease progresses, the rapidity of the pulse
increases and may reach i<jo a minute, and is usually small and of
low tension. The respirations are generally quickened and there
are usually signs of laryngitis and bronchitis and occasionally
bronchial pneumonia. Delirium is known, especially at night.
Definite preliminary rashes are rare. What one generally sees
the first two or three days of the disease is a very marked flushing
of the face, neck and upper portion of the chest, with a subcuticular
mottling of the skin of the lower part of the chest and abdomen
(cutis marmorata). It should be noted at once that this symptom
is far from being specific, a similar flushing being very often notice-
able in many cases of Pappataci fever. The true typhus rash appears
generally on the fourth or fifth day in the form of small roseolar
spots, indistinguishable from typhoid roseola but often more abun-
dant. According to some of the old authorities, it appears first on
the arms and legs, but, in the writer's experience of Serbian and
Polish epidemics, the rash generally starts on the abdomen and then
spreads to the chest, arms and legs. The spots are at first roseolar
and disappear completely on pressure, then some of the spots slowly
fade away, while others become of darker hue and do not disappear
completely on pressure, becoming petechiae, though it is rare for
them to develop the dark blue appearance of petechiae in such
eruptions as those of purpura. The rash, in a few cases, may remain
furely roseolar-like, without any of the spots becoming petechial.
n exceptional cases, the rash may be absent altogether: typhus
exanthematicus sine exanthema. The medical man with little expe-
rience of typhus should be on his guard not to mistake for true
typhus rash a petechial rash, the so-called Balkanic rash, due to
bites of innumerable fleas, composed of numerous perfectly circular
dark red petechiae, which is extremely common in the Balkans and
in Galicia in peasants and soldiers. Anyone who has not been to
those countries can hardly believe how profuse this rash can be.
The whole body, with the exception perhaps of the face, is com-
pletely covered with it, while the shirt of the sufferer may be abso-
lutely black from the number of living fleas upon it. With a little
Cractice one soon learns to distinguish the two rashes. Each flea-
ite shows at first a central haemorrhagic spot surrounded by a
hyperemic circular zone, which disappears on pressure. This
peripheral hyperemic zone fades away spontaneously within a day
or two, while the central haemorrhagic spot remains as a petechial
area, which is, as a rule, perfectly circular, not raised, and of a dark
red, sometimes copper-like, colour which does not disappear on
pressure. In the blood there is often a marked leucocytosis,
and a differential count shows a large increase of polymorphonu-
clears. An interesting feature is the complete absence of eosinophiles
in practically every case.
Termination. On or about the fifteenth day, the temperature
generally falls by crisis, or, much more frequently, by rapid lysis
which may extend through three to five days.
Convalescence may be slow, and fairly frequently there is danger
during this stage, as the general condition may not improve after
the cessation of the fever, and death may occur some two to three
weeks after defervescence. In certain cases, while the temperature
has become normal, the pulse does not improve, and the patient
becomes weaker and weaker until he dies.
Complications and Sequelae. The most usual complications are:
parotitis, ending often in suppuration, gangrene of feet and poly-
arthritis; neuritis, hemiplegia, severe mental depression amounting
almost to melancholia (seen during convalescence) may be men-
tioned, also bubonic swellings; otitis media, abscesses and boils
occur, while jaundice, endocarditis, and meningitis are rare, but
myocarditis is fairly common.
It is interesting to note that different epidemics of typhus have
been reported as being characterized by special features in regard
to complications and sequelae; thus, the Serbian epidemic in 1914-5
showed a great tendency to gangrene of the feet, while those of
Ireland have generally been associated with bronchial and pneu-
monic complications. On the other hand, in the recent epidemics in
Poland and Galicia, complications have been comparatively rare.
Diagnosis. The principal data on which to base the diagnosis
are as follows:
(a) Incipient Typhus. (l) The sudden onset, often with head-
ache, rigours, and vomiting. (2) The congested eyes and face and
the subcuticular mottling of the skin over the chest. (3) The
mental confusion and stupor, associated with the log-like attitude
of the whole body. (4) The increased percentage of polymorphonu-
clear in the differential count.
_(&) Fully Developed Typhus. (i) The typical rash. (2) The
history of the sudden onset, etc. (3) Leucocytosis and increased
polymorphonuclear percentage. (4) The Weil-Felix reaction, viz.,'
the blood of typhus patients agglutinates a proteus-like germ, iso-j
lated from the urine of some cases of typhus by Weil and Felix and
called by them Proteus Xig.
Prognosis. The case mortality may be from 10 to 50% and,
greatly varies in different epidemics. It is low in the young and very
high in the old. The malady is slightly more fatal in males than in
females, while alcoholism and kidney disease are bad prognostics. 1
Treatment. This is merely palliative. Patients suffering from
typhus should be placed, whenever possible, in airy, well-ventilated
wards, and in the summer months tents may be used with advantage. ',
Cleanliness and good nursing are essential. During the febrile attack
the diet should consist of broths and milk and soft solids, \vhilei
plenty of water is allowed to be drunk. The temperature should be
controlled by cool sponging and the nervous symptoms by ice to the
head, hyoscin, bromides or morphine, while the heart is supported
by hypodermic injections of strychnine and digitalin. Special atten-
tion should be paid to the mouth and throat. The legs and feet
should be kept warm and pressure on the feet, even from the bed-
clothes, should be avoided, lest it contribute to the production of
gangrene. Prostration is extreme in most typhus cases, and a most
striking fact is the occurrence of many deaths after the period of
defervescence, even when severe complications have not developed.
To combat this extreme exhaustion, the administration of alcohol
in moderate doses is sometimes useful.
Attempts at specific medication have been made by various
authors, and Nicolle has prepared a serum, by injecting horses with
emulsions of spleen and adrenals of guinea-pigs artificially inocu-
lated, said to have good results, the dosage being 20 c.c. daily.
Prophylaxis. This consists in taking every possible measure for
the destruction of lice. There is no doubt that heat, whenever it
can be employed, is the most satisfactory means for the destruction
of lice and their eggs in clothes, blankets, bedsheets, etc. When dry
heat is used, a temperature of 68 C. for 15 minutes is the safe;
standard for routine practice. When steam is used, articles should
be submitted to a temperature of 100 C. for 30 minutes to allowi
the steam to thoroughly penetrate all parts of the clothing. For
disinfestation of rooms, barracks, etc., sulphur fumigation is prob-i
ably the most satisfactory routine method. The rooms, whenever
possible, should be sealed and rendered approximately airtight,
and then the sulphur fumigation is carried out, using 5 to 8 Ib. of'
sulphur per 1,000 cub. ft., the rooms remaining sealed up for a period:
of not less than 12 hours.
With regard to the usual chemical insecticides, their utility is
somewhat limited; among the liquid ones, petrol is, in practice, prob-
ably the best ; guaiacol is a powerful licecide but is expensive. Among 1
solid insecticide substances, naphthalene is the most useful and con-|
venient. It is interesting to note that according to Jackson's and 1
the writer's experiments in Serbia insecticide chemicals do not act;
equally well on lice, bugs and fleas; for instance, pyrethrum (many
patent insecticide powders are merely pyrethrum) acts powerfully
on bugs while its action on lice is very slight; on the other hand,,
iodoform, which will kill lice in 10-15 minutes, has no action on bugsj
and very little on fleas. When an insecticide for general use is
required therefore, several chemical substances should be combined,;
and the following powder has been found fairly efficacious, viz.,
naphthalene, previously soaked in guaiacol or creosote 3'j pyre-
thrum 3ij zinc oxide ad. 8- The wearing of undergarments made
liceproof by soaking in crude carbolic acid and soft soap, as recom^
mended by Bacot and others, has been found useful.
In badly infected districts a large number of bathing and disin-
fecting stations should be established and a general disinfection of
people should be carried out. The following procedure, as adopted
by the American Typhus Commission with most satisfactory results
in the Serbian epidemic of 1914-5, is recommended. The infested
person goes into a room, takes off the clothes, which are steamed or
boiled, passes into another room where he is bathed, then into a
third room where he is sprayed with petrol, and finally into a fourth
room in which he receives clean or sterilized clothes. The steriliza-
tion of the clothes may be conducted by boiling, but better still byi
making them into lightly packed bundles and placing them in a!
truck or room into which steam is blown.
AUTHORITIES. Arkwright, Bacot and Duncan, Trans. Soc. Trap.
Med. (1919) ; Borrel, Cantacuzene, Jonesco and Nasha, C.R. Soc.
Biol. (1919); Gumming, Buchanan, Castellani and Visbecq, Report
TYRRELL TYRWHITT
827
of Inter- Allied Med. Comm. to League of Red Cross Societies (1919);
Gerard, Arch. Inst. Pasteur de Tunis (vol. xi, No. 3, 1920); Jorge,
Med. Contemporanea (No. 9, 1918); C. Nicolle, Bull. Path. Exot.
Paris (with C. Comte and E. Conseil, 1912); Comptes Rendus de
L 'Academic des Sciences (cxlix, 486, 1909 and 1910); C. Comte and
E. Conseil, Annales de L'Institut Pasteur (xxv, 13, 1911); Nuttall,
Parasitology (Feb., 1919); Rocha-Lima, Arch. f. Schiffs- u. Tropen-
Hyg-, (xx. 1 7< I9!6): Rocha-Lima and Prowazek, Berl. klin. Wchn-
schr. (liii, 567, 1916); Strong, Shattuck, Sellards, Zinsser, Hopkins,
Typhus Fever with particular reference to the Serbian epidemic (1921) ;
Wolbach, Todd and Palfrey, Jnl. Trap. Med. (xxlv, 13, 1921); Weil
and Felix, W. kl. W. (1920); Compton, Jnl. Royal Army Med. Corps
(1920). (A. Ci.)
TYRRELL, ROBERT YELVERTON (1844-1914), Irish classical
scholar, was born at Ballingarry, co. Tipperary, Jan. 21 1844.
He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he sub-
sequently became a fellow in 1868 and professor of Latin in 1871.
From 1880 to 1898 he was Regius professor of Greek at Dublin,
and from 1900 to 1904 professor of ancient history. He was a
Commissioner of Education for Ireland and one of the original
fellows of the British Academy. Amongst his published works
were an edition of Cicero's Letters (7 vols., the later vols. with
Dr. Purser, 1879-1900); Latin Poetry (1893); Sophocles (1897);
Terence (1902), and Essays on Greek Literature (1909). He
died in Dublin Sept. 19 1914.
TYRWHITT, SIR REGINALD YORKE, IST BART. (1870- ),
British Admiral, was born at Oxford May 10 1870, the young-
est son of the Rev. Richard St. John Tyrwhitt. He entered
the navy in 1883, was promoted lieutenant (1892), commander
(1903), captain (1908), commodore (1914) and rear-admiral
(1919). He was in charge of a landing party at Nicaragua in
1894. During the World War he commanded destroyer flotillas
in actions in Heligoland Bight (Aug. and Dec. 1914) and off
the Dogger Bank (1915). He was created K.C.B. in 1917,
and in 1919 received a baronetcy, a grant of 10,000 and the
thanks of Parliament.
828
UGANDA
UGANDA (see 27.557*). The area of the protectorate,
after taking into account an exchange of certain dis-
tricts with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in 1914, is some
110,300 sq. m., including 16,000 sq. m. of water (chiefly
those parts of lakes Victoria and Albert Nyanzas within its limits).
The pop., given as 2,843,325 at the 1911 census, was in 1919
officially estimated at 3,318,190 of whom 847 were Europeans
and 3,516 Asiatics (mostly Indians). The most numerous races
are the Baganda and Banyoro.
Industries, Trade and Communications. The economic resources
of the protectorate greatly increased in the decade 1910-20. This
period was marked by the rapid development of cotton-growing an
industry entirely in the hands of the natives and by the acquisition
of numerous plantations by Europeans, who engaged chiefly in the
production of coffee and Para rubber. These, with ox-hides, goat-
skins and ivory formed the chief exports. Sesame seed, red chillies
(which grow wild) and ground nuts were fluctuating crops. _Cocoa,
tea, tobacco and other plantations were started and a beginning was
made in the export of timber. Ghee (clarified butter), in consider-
able quantities, was sold in Kenya Colony (British E. Africa).
At first the cotton produced was mainly ginned in the E. Africa
Protectorate, but by 1919 ginneries established at Kampala,
Entebbe, Jinja and other centres by European companies ginned and
baled all the cotton exported. The value of the cotton exported
(most of it taken by Indian merchants for the Bombay market),
165,000 in 1910-1, had increased to 965,000 in 1918-9. The last-
named figure was, however, due to the inflation of prices and repre-
sented an export of 4,909 tons; in 1914-5 when 6,866 tons were
exported the value was only 351,000. In 1919 a tax of 4 cents per
pound on all cotton exported was imposed, the proceeds to be de-
voted wholly to the development of the industry. In 1920 the tax
was reduced to 3 cents per pound, and was to so continue for three
years. Progress made in the rubber plantations was shown in the
increase of exports from 9 tons in 1914 to 113 tons in 1919. Coffee
exports increased from 13 tons in 1910 to 2,716 tons (valued at
106,000) in 1919.
External trade is almost wholly through Kenya Colony by rail
to Mombasa. The value of the imports, chiefly textiles and hard-
ware, rose from 347,000 in 1910-1 to 744,000 in 1916-7, exclu-
sive of Government stores, specie and goods in transit. (The transit
trade is almost entirely with the north-eastern part of Belgian
Congo and consists largely in bullion from the Kilo gold mines.)
In the same period the value of exports of domestic produce rose
from 306,000 to 637,000. The Customs Depts. of the two pro-
tectorates were amalgamated in 1917, and since that date no separate
statistics have been kept, except in regard to domestic produce.
The value of such produce in 1918-9 was 1,247,000.
The development of trade and the work of administration was
aided by a well-planned system of metalled roads suitable for motor
traffic. A railway 61 m. long from Jinja (by the Ripon Falls) to
Namasagali, the first navigable point on the Nile, was begun in 1910
and opened on Jan. I 1912. It was built entirely by Busoga natives
and is called the Busoga Railway. It connects with a line of steamers
which serves Lake Kioga and the Bukedi district, where a rich soil
and well defined dry season provide excellent conditions for cotton
growing. Besides the Busoga Railway there is a 7-m. railway
(opened 1915) connecting Kampala, the capital of Buganda, with
Port Bell on Victoria Nyanza. It was designed as the first stage in
a main line to connect the Victoria and Albert Nyanzas; that is,
Uganda and the Belgian Congo. Mechanical transport, introduced
in 1908, is much developed. In 1919 Jinja became a station on the
Cape to Cairo air route, and the first machines to use its aerodrome
arrived in Feb. 1920, coming from Cairo.
The chief towns are Kampala (or Mengo), the capital of Buganda
(pop. approx. 40,000); Entebbe, on Victoria Nyanza, the seat of
government and 24 m. from Kampala (pop. 12,000); Jinja, chief
town of Busoga and headquarters of the cotton industry ; Masindi,
capital of Bunyoro; Mjanji, a port at the mouth of the Sio river.
Kampala, the headquarters of the Buganda Government and of the
chief missionary societies, has a number of fine buildings; a new
Anglican cathedral, a brick-built domed building with massive stone
pillars, was consecrated in Sept. 1919.
Revenue, Administration and Education. The revenue in 1909-10
was 165,000 against an expenditure of 240,000, the balance being
met by an Imperial grant in aid. In that year a poll tax was sub-
stituted for a hut tax, and the revenue thus increased. By 1915-6
the revenue had risen to 287,000, while the expenditure was
285,000. This was the first year in which income exceeded out-
goings and in which no grant in aid was needed. In 1918-9 the
revenue was 351,000 and the expenditure 323,000. The chief
source of income is a poll tax on the natives; since April 1919 a poll
tax has also been levied on Europeans and other non-natives. An
ad valorem duty of 10% on imports and an export duty on certain
commodities are other sources of revenue.
The administration is on the line of a British Crown Colony. An
Order in Council passed in 1911 provided, in effect, that the criminal
law should be the Indian Penal code, the civil law generally that in
force in England. Much of the protectorate consists, however, of
native states governed by chiefs (four of whom bear a title equivalent
to king) with the aid of a lukiko (council or Parliament). This sys-
tem of local self-government was extended from 1910 onwards as new
districts were brought under control.
Education is entirely in the hands of the missionaries, Anglican
and Roman Catholic. The Native Anglican Church (formed by the
efforts of the Church Missionary Society) had in 1918 some 40,000
scholars. There are elementary, secondary, high and medical schools
as well as theological colleges. The Mill Hill (R. C.) Mission had
over 18,000 children in its schools the White Fathers Mission nearly
20,000. Education is most advanced among the Baganda, the
majority of whom (400,000 out of 676,000) profess Christianity.
The kings of Buganda, Bunyoro, Toro and Ankole, and their prime
ministers, are all Anglicans.
History. The history of the protectorate since 1910 was one
of steady development, in which the missionaries continued to
play .a leading part. The World War of 1914-8, though it
entailed a serious drain on the man-power of the country, only
temporarily checked (and that not to a great extent) its progress.
In March 1911 Mr. (afterwards Sir) F. J. Jackson became
governor, holding that post till April 1917. During his governor-
ship some few hundreds of planters and commercial men were
added to the European residents, hitherto almost entirely
Government servants and missionaries, but as Uganda is not,
and can never be, a " White Man's Country," the problems
presented in lands where large numbers of whites and blacks
live side by side did not arise.
The readjustment of the south-western and western frontiers
in accordance with agreements made in 1910 and 1911 with
Belgium and Germany was completed in 1912. The western
shores of Albert Nyanza with the adjacent strip of territory
were transferred to the Belgian Congo, while to Uganda was-
added the district of Kigezi (2,056 sq. m.), a highland region
(much of it over 6,000 ft.) containing some of the peaks of the
Mfumbiro range of active volcanoes. The northern part of
Ruanda lies within the district. The formal transfer of the part
of Kigezi which had belonged to German E. Africa took place
in Jan. 1912. Two years later Kabale was chosen as headquarters
of the district.
In April 1914 another territorial change was effected when the
northernmost part of the protectorate E. of the Nile was
transferred to the Sudan Government, whose administration
was extended S. to Nimuli, this giving the Sudan control of
the whole of the stretch of the Nile navigable from Khartum.
In return the Sudan surrendered to Uganda some 4,000 sq. m.
W. of the Nile and N. of Albert Nyanza, an area which had been
part of the Lado enclave, leased to Leopold II. of Belgium, j
These arrangements tended to make the Uganda Protectorate
more compact and manageable. By 1915 effective control had
been established over the whole protectorate except the district
lying W. of Lake Rudolf an arid region sparsely inhabited
by Turkana and other warlike nomads who owned no paramount
chief. This remote district was the scene of an extensive gun-
running trade with Abyssinians and Somalis, and of raids on
peaceful tribes, involving punitive measures. The most impor-
tant of these expeditions was carried out during April-June
1918 by a combined force from British E. Africa, Uganda and
the Sudan. The operations showed the Turkana that though
supported by Abyssinian marauders they could not escape
punishment, but they were inconclusive, as neither the Sudan
Government nor that of Uganda was prepared effectively to ad-
minister their portions of the disturbed area.
The outbreak of the World War found Uganda wholly un-
prepared. At that time, Aug. 1914, the protectorate troops
(4th Batt. King's African Rifles) were engaged against the
Turkana. For 180 m. W. of Victoria Nyanza the Uganda
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
UHDE UKRAINE
829
frontier marched with that of German E. Africa, and for some
time it was defended only by a few policemen and mobs of
undisciplined spearmen. The Germans, however, let the op-
portunity pass, and only outpost actions were fought. With
the launching of the Belgian offensive in April 1916 Uganda
ceased to be in the sphere of active operations. The chief
service rendered by Uganda in the E. Africa campaign was the
raising of over 10,000 African soldiers, the formation of a native
i medical corps this corps was formed through the efforts of
Sir Apollo Kagwa, prime minister of Buganda the supply of
over 60,000 trained carriers and some 100,000 " job porters "
(see EAST AFRICA CAMPAIGN).
The Baganda, Banyoro, Busoga and other races, throughout,
i gave the British authorities prompt and continuous aid. The
Buganda Government at once mobilized every militarily-fit man.
This was done by direction of the Kabaka (King) Daudi Chwa
(b. 1896), who "came of age" four days after war began.
During the war some trouble was caused in the Kigezi district
' by the Nabingi, an anti-white society, which took a sheep as
totem, put 2,000 warriors in the field and attacked impartially
British, Belgian and German troops. The trouble originated in
Ruanda, then under German rule. It was temporarily stopped
by the sacred sheep being captured, shot and burnt, but in 1920
the Nabingi, with a new leader and a new sacred sheep, again
gave trouble. This society was the only instance of anti-white
feeling in Uganda, and affected only a minute part of the
protectorate.
On Sir F. J. Jackson's retirement after 23 years' service in
E. Africa, Mr. (afterwards Sir) R. T. Corydon was appointed
governor (Nov. 1917). A notable event in 1920 was a visit by
1 the Rev. John Roscoe, the chief authority on Baganda ethnology,
to study the lesser known tribes of the protectorate.
The problems with which Sir R. T. Corydon had to deal were
largely economic and social. The rise in the value, in 1919, of the
rupee and the decision of the Colonial Office in 1920 to fix its
exchange at 25. sterling affected Uganda less perhaps than
Kenya Colony, but caused a disturbance of trade, while the
great fall in the price of cotton from the middle of 1920 onward
seriously affected the industry. The introduction by order of the
Colonial Office of the differential treatment of Indians enforced
in Kenya was another disturbing influence. (See KENYA COLONY.)
A step forward in the political status of the protectorate was
the creation of a Legislative Council, to which various sections
of the community nominated members. The first session of the
Council was held on March 23, 1921. The Indian community,
in view of the action of the Colonial Office, declined to send a
representative to the Council.
See H. R. Wallis, The Handbook of Uganda (2nd ed. 1920), an
excellent monograph, by a former chief secretary to the Uganda
Government, with bibliography; Maj. E. M. Jack, On the Congo
Frontier (1914); Rev. J. Roscoe, The Northern Bantu (1915);
R. Kmunke, Quer durch Uganda (1913); R. Lorimer, By the Waters
of Africa (1917). (F. R. C.)
UHDE, FRITZ KARL HERMANN VON (1848-1911), German
painter (see 27.563), died at Munich Feb. 26 1911.
UKRAINE (see 27.564). In its more recent application the
name of Ukraine refers to a region of south-eastern Europe,
embracing districts of South Russia and former Austria-Hungary
which are said to be predominantly Ukrainian-speaking and
which should, it is claimed, for this reason form an autonomous
State. The boundary of this territory was in 1921 undefined,
but, broadly speaking, the claim was that it extended from the
mouth of the river Dniester in a north-westerly direction to the
neighbourhood of Cracow, thence running roughly N. towards
Byelostok, then E. slightly by S. to the Volga, then S.S.W. to
near Rostov, S.E. to the Caspian Sea and W. to the Black Sea.
The independence of Russian Ukraine, the eastern section of
this territory, was proclaimed in Nov. 1917, and that of Austrian
(western) Ukraine in Nov. 1918; and in Jan. 1919 eastern and
western Ukraine united as a " Republic of the Ukrainian People."
The total pop. of this " ethnographic Ukraine," according
to the census estimate of Jan. 1914, was 46,012,000, giving a
density of 62.3 per sq. km.; of these 32,662,000 were classified
as Ukrainians, 5,376,800 Russians, 2,079,500 Poles, 3,975,760
Jews, 871,270 Germans, 435,24 Rumanians and 32,960 Hun-
garians; or, according to religion, Ukrainian-Orthodox Church
30,653,000, Greek Catholic 6,847,000, Russian Orthodox
4,500,000, Jewish 3,976,000, Roman Catholic 2,000,000 and
Protestant 800,000.
The accompanying table shows in fuller detail the area and
pop. of the various districts composing the territory, in which,
according to the 1914 estimate, the Ukrainian-speaking people
are claimed to be in a majority, either absolutely or relatively.
Country.
Province
(Govern-
ment).
Area
in
sq. km.
Population.
Total.
Ukrainian-
speaking.
Per-
cent-
age.
Russia
Chelm
(Kholm)
10,455
841,800
447,650
53
Grodno
13-701
715,600
443,370
62
Minsk
19,953
469,700
355,920
76
Volhynia .
7L735
4,189,000
2,936,080
69
Podolia
42,016
4,057,300
3,282,680
80
Kiev .
50,957
4,792,500
3,746,310
78
Chernigov .
38.334
2,234,700
2,050,350
90
Poltava
45,893
3,792,100
3,523,720
92
Kharkov .
54,492
3,416,800
2,743,710
80
Kursk
. 10,531
780,250
440,190
56
Voronezh .
28,890
1,519,950
1,150,310
76
Don (terri-
tory of)
20,861
1,196,600
580,970
48
Stavropol .
17,397
492,500
248,100
50
Kuban
53,i6o
1,763,800
1,078,460
61
Taurida
35,064
1,763,800
805,900
46
Ekaterinos-
lav
63,392
3,455,500
2,366,280
68
Rumania
Kherson .
Bessarabia
70,798
11,988
3,774,600
787,700
1,977,030
319,210
53
4
Austria-
Hungary
(former)
(Galicia
I Bukovina.
[Hungary .
54,577
5,276
6,347
5,378,650
460,430
568,490
3,415,000
301,150
440,630
64
65
78
Total,
Ethno-
graphic
Ukraine
739,162
46,012,000
32,662,000
71%
Language. The Ukrainians claim to have a national language
of their own, distinct from the Russian and Polish languages.
Mr. Ralph Butler, in his New Eastern Europe (1919), says:
" Whether Ukrainian is a dialect of Russian or a separate language
is a vexed question. But if Ukrainian was a dialect in 1914 it
is a separate language now: for whatever may be the ultimate
destiny of the two great divisions of the Russian people the
events of 1917-8 have carved lines which are beyond effacement
in the ethnical development of the Ukrainian race. As written
by the Nationalists, Ukrainian differs considerably in appearance
from Russian; it discards six of the Russian letters and uses three
which Russian has not got. The Nationalists have purposely
made the orthography as different from the Russian as possible.
They have created a neo-Ukrainian literary language from which
they have excluded as far as possible all Great-Russian technical
terms." The people furthermore claim to have a national
culture of their own.
The Ukrainian Movement. Briefly the history of the Ukrain-
ian Movement down to 1914 is to all intents and purposes
the history of the Ruthenians (see 23.939), inhabiting the eastern
parts of Galicia, of which province they constituted slightly
less than half the population. Though subservient to the Polish
majority in Galicia, the Ruthenians constituted the intellectual
centre for the Ukrainian Movement. The books which were
not allowed to be published in Russia were published in Lemberg
and Cernowitz, and eastern Galicia became the chief centre of
Ukrainian propaganda.
By the Treaty of Pereyaslavl, 1654, the Ukraine received
independence, but acknowledged the Tsar as protector of the
republic. By this treaty the Ukraine retained complete self-
government and the right of maintaining its own diplomatic
representatives abroad. By degrees, however, its autonomous
830
UNDERWOOD, O. W.
privileges withered, and by 1847 the Ukrainians saw their
national existence in danger of being merged, in spite of ethno-
graphic differences between the two races, in the general subjec-
tion of the Russians. A society called the "Cyril-Methodius
Brotherhood" was started to keep the national tradition alive,
having not only the literary object of promoting the Ukrainian
language (till then only in oral use among the peasants) but
also a far-reaching political programme. A federation of auton-
omous Slavonic states was aimed at.
In 1900 the various Ukrainian political parties began to
organize themselves. Of these the most important was that of
the National Democrats, founded to fight for equal rights to
those of the Poles in Galicia and for the autonomy of the Russian
Ukraine as a federated Russian State. In the same year the
first Revolutionary Ukrainian party was organized in Lemberg,
and in 1905 assumed the name of the Ukrainian Social Demo-
cratic Working-men's party. Gradually the efforts of these
societies were rewarded by the resurrection of the Ukraine as a
result of the break-up of the Russian Empire.
The Ukrainians claim that the relation between them and
Russia was purely dynastic, inasmuch as the Tsar was, by treaty,
Protector of their State, and that when there was no more a
Tsar of Russia they declined to permit the Russian people to
succeed to the rights and privileges, of their deposed sovereign.
They therefore resumed their long dormant autonomy and
founded a provisional Government in the summer of 1917. This
Government, supported by the Ukrainian National Congress
and the Central Rada appointed by this body, refused to
recognize the Bolshevist regime under which Kerensky was
supplanted in Oct. 1917. Accordingly, the independence of the
Russian Ukraine was proclaimed on Nov. 21 1917, and accredited
representatives from France and Great Britain entered into
relations with it in Dec. 1917 and Jan. 1918.
Then came the Brest Litovsk meeting and the Treaties of
Feb. 9 and n 1918, between the Central Powers and the
" Ukrainian People's Republic," treaties which were interpreted
by the Rada as a formal recognition of Ukrainian independence,
but in effect meant annexation by the Germans. In April 1918
a German coup d'etat overthrew the constitutional Government.
Skoropadski was appointed nominally as Hetman but in reality
Dictator, and, until the collapse of the Germans on the western
front, spared no effort to destroy Ukrainian independence.
After the signing of the Armistice the succeeding steps in the
evolution (and subsequent disintegration) of a Ukrainian State
were as follows: In Nov. 1918 came the proclamation of the
State of the Ukraine of the West (Ruthenian Ukraine), and the
conflict of this State with Poland. On Dec. 14 1918 the old
Rada of Russian Ukraine was reorganized into a " Directory,"
with Vinnitchenko and Petlura at its head. On Jan. 3 1919 the
union of the Russian and Ruthenian Ukraines was announced,
with Hetman Petlura as recognized head of the constitutional
Government of the joint republic, having its seat at Kiev.
Subsequently the Ukrainians with varying fortunes resisted
in turn or simultaneously the attacks upon their territory made
by the Bolshevists on the one hand and by Gen. Denikin's
" White " volunteers on the other.
In Feb. 1920 the nominal Government of the Ukraine presented
a note to the Peace Conference asking for recdgnition as being
a de facto Administration on the same footing with other states
which have arisen amid the ruins of Russia. The note pointed
out that the population was firmly opposed to Bolshevistic
theories and intent upon independence. It asked for the moral
support of " Western Civilization " in its task of overthrowing
anarchy, and appealed for material assistance to enable it to
reorganize its immense resources. Not only did the Ukraine
remain unrecognized, but, by the Peace Treaties, large tracts
that were claimed as " Ukrainian " (Galicia, Grodno, Minsk,
Volhynia, a part of Podolia, Bukovina, Bessarabia) had been
previously assigned to Poland, Lithuania, Czechoslovakia, or
Rumania. Against the delivery of eastern Galicia, in particular,
to Polish rule, the " Ukrainian Republic " made a strong protest
to the United States in Dec. 1919. At about the same date the
country was described as dotted with a number of miniature
republics consisting of a dozen or so towns and villages fortified
for defence, each having its own armed force. Gen. Petlura
was in Warsaw, and M. Mazeppa, his prime minister, with thei
nucleus of the Ukrainian National Government and an army of
about 6,000 strong, at Kamenets Podolskiy, and the Government
was proving itself totally incapable of organizing the country.
In April understandings were reached with Poland and
Rumania, and the Ukrainian army was cooperating with the
Poles against the Bolshevist army. On April 27 the Polish
Government formally recognized the Ukraine or what remained
of their claim as an independent State, and accepted the
provisional National " Directory," with Petlura as head, as
the Government of the country. In May it was officially stated
by Mr. Bonar Law in the British Parliament that conditions
in the Ukraine had not been settled enough to warrant the
recognition by the Allied Powers of any government set up:
there. Later in the year Petlura's Ukrainian Government was'
temporarily housed at Reshoff , W. of Lemberg, and in Oct. Gen. !
Wrangel had temporarily become a power in the Ukraine. By
Oct. 23 Petlufa had reestablished his Government at Kamenets !
Podolskiy, and his troops were pushing on towards Kiev. On t
Nov. 4, in a written reply to a question in the House of Commons
the Government stated that the Ukraine had not been recognized
either as a de jure or de facto Government. By the Treaty of :
Riga between Soviet Russia and Poland, in Oct. 1920, a further
large part of the Ukrainian claim passed to Poland.
Reports of happenings in the Ukraine during 1921 were
extremely meagre. The defeat and withdrawal of Wrangel's
army had no tranquillizing effect on the region, but was, on
the contrary, followed by a crop of serious peasant risings.
Petlura and the " Ukrainian People's Government " had their
headquarters in southern Poland, at Tarnow.
Resources, Industry and Trade. The resources of the Russian
Ukraine are naturally very great: covering an area nearly equal to
that of France, Italy and England combined, this region contains
the best part of the Black Earth zone (the granary of eastern
Europe), most of the coal and iron, 80% of the beet, 70% of the
tobacco and one-third of the live stock of pre-war Russia. According
to figures available during peace-time the total national wealth
derived from the different branches of industry in this region was
over 265,000,000, of which agricultural products amounted to 158,1
live stock 26-5, metallurgy and mining 37-5, manufactures 30-5,1
poultry 4-5, forestry 4-5 and other sources 5 millions of pounds.
Of the land, 65 % is arable, 10 % forests, 12 % pasturage, 6 % other
products and 6% sterile. The grain crop is the main source of|
agricultural wealth and normally represents 32 % of the total produc-
tion of grain of the whole Russian Empire. The sugar industry
occupies second place: in 1910-1 there were 580,000 ac. under;
sugar-beet cultivation. The manufacture of sugar is by far the chief
manufacturing industry and 143 out of the 238 sugar factories in
the whole of Russia were situated in Podolia, Volhynia and Kiev.
The tobacco industry is also of importance, including the cultivation
of Turkish, American and other lower-grade varieties. At the begin-
ning of the war the census of the live stock of the region was as
follows: horses 8,000,000; horned cattle, sheep and goats 27,600,000;
and pigs 6,300,000; and the export of stock, meat and animal
products, mostly through the ports of Odessa and Nikolayev, was
approximately: cattle (horned), 240,000; horses, 15,000; pigs,
130,000; beef, 9,000 tons; pork and dressed poultry, 12,000 tons;
eggs, 65,000 tons; hides, 6,500 tons.
The coal-mining industry is located in the Donets-Basin district,
which comprises an area of some 8,poo sq.m. the larger part of which
falls within the Ukrainian " claim." The better kinds of coal
(anthracite, steam and coke) are obtained in the governments of
Ekaterinoslav and Kharkov. Taking the percentage of production
in 1915, the Don district amounted to 85-6%, other parts of former
Russia 14-4%, and the average production in the years 1913-5 was
20 millions of tons annually. The export is normally carried on at
Berdyansk and Mariupol. The output of mercury, found in the
district of Ekaterinoslav, increased during the war as follows: 64-5
tons in 1913, 115 tons in 1915, and 100 tons in 1917.
The total exports from nine of the Ukrainian governments
between 1909 and 1913 averaged 76,000,000 and the total imports
52,000,000. The exports were, cereals 64 % and sugar 22 per cent.
Commerce is much facilitated by the navigability of the Ukrainian
rivers, that of the Dnieper being 1,250 m., the Desna 537 m. and the
Dniester 521 miles. (H. W. M.)
UNDERWOOD, OSCAR WILDER (1862- ), American poli-
tician, was born at Louisville, Ky., May 6 1862. He studied at
UNEMPLOYMENT
831
the university of Virginia (1881-4), was admitted to the bar in
1884, and practised law thereafter in Birmingham, Ala. From
1895 to 1915 he was a member from Alabama of the National
House of Representatives, and during his last two years chairman
of the Committee on Ways and Means. After the Democrats
came into power in 1913 he had a large share in framing the tariff
bill passed the same year; but his attempt to establish a House
Budget Committee was defeated. In 1914 he opposed the Panama
Canal Tolls Repeal bill, but supported the resolution authorizing
the President to use armed force in Mexico. He was opposed
to the woman suffrage amendment to the Federal Constitution,
holding that the question was a state issue. He also opposed the
national prohibition amendment. In 1914 he was elected to the
U.S. Senate, and in 1920 reflected. In 1919 he favoured the anti-
strike clause of the Cummins railway bill. He was a strong
supporter of the Peace Treaty of Versailles without changes; but
when its ratification had been blocked by the Republicans, he
attempted to bring about a compromise. In Dec. 1919 he offered
a resolution in the Senate providing that the president of the
Senate should appoint a committee of 10 senators to work out
some acceptable plan for adopting the Peace Treaty; but this was
blocked by Senator Lodge. In April 1920 he was chosen Demo-
cratic leader in the Senate. He was one of the four U.S. dele-
gates at the Washington Conference on the Limitation of Ar-
mament which assembled in Nov. 1921.
UNEMPLOYMENT (see 27.578). Subsequently to 1910 the
provision made in the United Kingdom for the remedy of
1 unemployment was further fortified and extended. The Un-
employed Workmen Act, 1905, was included each year after its
: enactment in the annual Expiring Laws (Continuance) Act.
The Act empowers local authorities to form distress committees
consisting of their own members, of representatives of boards of
guardians and of coopted members possessing special knowledge of
problems of distress. Their functions are to maintain a register of
i unemployed persons, to assist such persons to obtain work, to provide
: relief works and to assist unemployed persons to emigrate. Funds
' are provided by Government grants, from charitable money and from
! a id. rate. Hitherto, Government grants have been made to cover
' the difference between the actual value of the relief work done and
I the cost of doing it. The annual amount of Treasury grants never
; exceeded 300,000 (1908), and from 1911 was 100,000, which was
i not in any year fully expended. No grant had been made from 1913
to 1921. It proved impossible to provide relief work of a kind to
which many of the unemployed applicants were accustomed, and
i consequently workpeople were employed upon work, generally
I approximating to navvy's work, for which they were unfitted. A
' heavy financial loss was incurred in almost every case. It proved
' impossible to obtain anything like a reasonable standard of work or
. output upon relief works, and employment upon such works was
i found to be demoralizing to workpeople of a good type. This method
. of providing for unemployment is discredited.
Labour Exchanges. Under the Labour Exchanges Act (1909),
61 labour exchanges were opened in Feb. 1910, and this number
' was increased to 175 in Feb. 1911 and to 272 in Feb. igr2.
As the result of the operation of Part II. of the National Insurance
Act of 1911, the number of exchanges was further increased to
425 in Feb. 1913, and in June 1920 there were 395 exchanges.
The organization established by the Board of Trade consisted
of a central office in London the Labour Exchanges Branch
i and n divisional offices, to which areas covering the whole of
i the United Kingdom were attached. The number of the divisional
offices was subsequently reduced to ten and Scotland, Ireland
( and Wales each formed a division. Labour exchanges were
opened in practically all towns with a population of 15,000 or
more. Responsibility for this service was transferred to the
Ministry of Labour upon its creation in Jan. 1917, central
control being exercised through the Employment Department
of the Ministry. The facilities provided by the labour exchanges
(whose name was changed to " Employment Exchanges " in
, Oct. 1916) were made available without charge to all employers
and workpeople with the exception of " private " domestic
servants over 17 years of age. This exception was suspended
during the World War and had not been reimposed up to 1921.
It is an important function of the exchanges to bring together
unemployed applicants and suitable vacancies which may exist in
different districts, when it has been found that the vacancies can-
not be filled by applicants from the immediate locality. Arrange-
ments are made, therefore, for the prompt circulation of particulars
of vacancies which cannot be filled by local applicants, provided
that the vacancies are of a character for which it is probable that
applicants from a distance can be obtained. Such vacancies are
notified as a rule by telephone to neighbouring exchanges within a
defined " Clearing Area," and should this fail, the particulars are
circulated more widely. Up to 1914 a system of divisional clearing
houses was used. Particulars of unfilled vacancies were sent by each
exchange to the divisional office to which it was responsible, and a
classified list of all the vacancies so received was issued daily by the
divisional office to all exchanges in the division. Lists of unfilled
vacancies were also exchanged each week as between the divisions.
In Aug. 1914, the system was superseded by the institution of a
" National Clearing House " in London. While the immediate cir-
culation of particulars within the " Clearing Areas " was retained,
the circulation of lists of vacancies by the divisional offices was
abandoned in favour of the circulation of a classified list for the
whole kingdom. The information for this publication is received
direct at headquarters from the various exchanges; a complete
printed list of vacancies is issued once a week to all exchanges, and
the list is kept up-to-date by the daily issue of a statement of
vacancies to be added to the list and of cancellations of vacancies
which have appeared upon it and are no longer open.
In order to enable workpeople who have, through the exchanges,
found employment at a distance of more than 5 m. from their
homes, the exchanges are empowered to advance the amount of the
travelling expenses. Such advances are as a rule recovered through
the employer by small weekly deductions from wages. During the
World War, and until the Unemployment Insurance Act (1920)
came into operation (Nov. 8 1920), tickets for railway journeys, etc.,
were issued at less than the normal rates by the exchanges to all
workpeople for whom the exchanges had found employment. The
cost was borne by exchequer funds. Under the Unemployment
Insurance Act (1920), the exchanges are enabled in the case of
insured workpeople who have found work through the exchanges to
remit (at the cost of the unemployment fund) one half of the amount
by which railway and other fares exceed 43. for a single journey.
In cases of strikes and lock-outs it was decided not to deny the use
of the exchanges to the employers and workpeople concerned. In
such cases the officials of the exchanges are oound to accept from
an employer the notification of a vacancy created by the dispute and
are further bound to bring to the notice of any unemployed applicant,
with the particulars of such a vacancy, the fact that a trade dispute
exists at the establishment of the employer concerned. As a rule
formal notification of the .existence of a trade dispute is made to the
exchanges either by employers or workpeople and when this occurs
the terms of the notification are laid before unemployed applicants.
Travelling expenses cannot be advanced to enable workpeople to
travel to vacancies caused by a trade dispute, and particulars of such
vacancies are rarely, if ever, circulated to other exchanges.
The Labour Exchanges Act authorized the formation of advisory
committees to assist in the management of the employment ex^
changes. The intention of this provision was to secure the coopera-
tion of representatives of industry in the administration of the
exchanges. From 1912 onwards advantage was taken of this pro-
vision to form 17 advisory trade committees consisting of repre-
sentative employers and workpeople in equal numbers; the number
of the members of each committee varied from 12 to 36, and the usual
number was rather more than 20. The chairman was chosen by the
committee itself or, in default of agreement between the two sides
of the committee, by the Board of Trade. The areas covered by the
advisory trade committees were as a rule large, consisting of as many
as five counties. It was the duty of the committees to advise the
Board of Trade' upon matters referred to them, and the matters so
referred were as a rule questions of policy arising in the administra-
tion of the labour exchange service, e.g. the attitude which should
be adopted by the exchanges towards employers and workpeople
concerned in trade disputes and the extent to which " references "'
should be taken up by the exchanges in respect of applicants for
employment. It was found that the areas assigned to the committee
were too wide to permit of any close association with the current
work of individual exchanges, and the restriction of the functions
of the committees to the consideration of matters referred to them,
prevented the development of a sense of responsibility for the con-
duct of the exchanges. When, therefore, it became evident (in 1917)
that upon the conclusion of the World War the exchanges would be
faced with tasks of special difficulty in every area, the Minister of
Labour, to whom responsibility for the exchanges was transferred
upon the creation of that office in Jan. 1917, decided to replace the
advisory trade committees by a larger number of local employment
committees, associated much more closely with the work of each
exchange. Three hundred and two local employment committees
were formed in connexion with the 395 exchanges. As a rule, there-
fore, each committee is associated with a single exchange, and with
more than one exchange only in some cases in the provinces where
several are situated within a single industrial area.
Members of the local employment committees are appointed by
the Minister of Labour, as a rule upon the nomination of local organi-
zations of employers and of workpeople. The chairman of the com-
832
UNEMPLOYMENT
mittee is chosen and appointed by the minister. The committees
are responsible for advising the minister upon every phase of the
work of the exchanges with which they are associated. They are free
to initiate their business and to carry it out through sub-committees.
Two hundred and forty-six committees have formed women's
departments at the exchanges. Consisting of representatives of
every industrial interest of importance in the locality, the com-
mittees are in a position to indicate precisely in what ways each
exchange should be adapted to local needs so as to be of most service,
and further, the committees have since their formation undertaken
much detailed work on behalf of individual workpeople upon the
books of the exchanges.
Exchange Statistics. The scale and ^character of the work done is
shown in Table I.
TABLE I. Employment Exchanges.
Individ-
Vacan-
Vacan-
Individ-
Y
AT
Registra-
tions
uals
Regis-
cies
Notified
cies
Filled
uals
Found
xir l
tered
Work
I9IO
920,000
740,221
261,560
219,069
I9II
1,323,162
978,211
446,035
362,670
268,794
1912
1,594.236
1.025,332
626,756
5'3,649
336,341
1913
2,088,735
1,267,077
714,270
566,150
390,141
1914
2,316,042
1,381,694
909,383
706,458
507.538
Men
1915
1-512,335
1,072,213
1,004,970
716,816
577.206
I9l6
1,229,171
954,172
909,721
636,095
539.564
1917
1,167,864
938,725
906,627
623,830
539.396
1918
1.363,590
I.N9.905
977,999
669,732
582,899
1919
3.601,393
2,897,333
900,970
658,836
598,658
1920
2,392,553
1,699,924
581,406
454.624
393.623
I9IO
290,000
232,106
103,007
81,846
I9II
414459
307,641
178,446
136,409
97,598
1912
518,775
360,873
226,276
168,555
118,650
1913
532,060
35L755
270,325
199,395
133.424
w/\
1914
707,071
476,926
312,344
232.935
160,145
wo-
1915
,232,891
920,638
493.515
385,101
306,192
men
1916
,92 1 ,826
1,501,260
846,196
695,631
615,920
1917
,873.706
1,487,728
814.785
706,034
636,269
1918
,815,691
1,478,934
808,490
624,220
547,412
1919
,927,143
1,568,625
731.320
408,033
34L773
1920
,015,113
767,037
469,068
284,451
212,895
1910
110,000
90,084
62,233
46,728
I9II
185,108
138,684
106,920
77,881
64.752
1912
200,403
146,434
130,601
88,086
70,565
1913
186,574
137,668
143.715
90,387
74.535
1914
211,898
157.093
157.278
103,280
85,068
Boys
1915
194,864
150,559
i6i,459
106,716
90,237
I9l6
241,314
184,443
148,091
1 16,900
100,053
1917
265,668
204,283
146,103
120,525
105,547
1918
296,673
234.285
148,158
122,054
106,429
J9I9
355,547
285,603
155.978
117,166
103,237
I92O
286,003
218,365
133,662
106,938
93.386
1910
80,000
65,036
32,143
26,670
I9II
117,718
88,833
57.208
44.450
38,066
1912
151,890
110,948
78.941
57.940
48,153
1913
158,524
"5.I7I
94,5i8
65,921
54,206
1914
207,441
148,310
100,019
74,236
61,320
Girls
I9IS
246,047
183,393
137,702
99,506
84,701
1916
266,378
203,909
145,010
108,609
95,869
1917
268,142
206,914
I3L927
104,834
93,986
1918
263,110
212,139
132,570
98,706
88,003
1919
313.570
252,225
163,096
105,928
94,207
I92O
290,931
220,972
127,997
95,695
84,265
1910
i ,400,000
1,127,447
458,943
374-313
I9II
2,040,447
1,513,369
788,609
621,410
469,210
1912
2,465,304
1,643.587
1,062,574
828,230
573,709
1913
2,965,893
1,871,671
1,222,828
921,853
652,306
1914
3,442,452
2,164,023
1,479,024
,116,909
814,071
Total
1915
3,186,137
2,326,803
1,797,646
,308,137
1,058,336
1916
3,658,689
2,843,784
2,049,018
,557,235
1,351,406
1917
3,575,380
2,837,650
1,999,442
,555,223
1,375,198
1918
3,739,064
3,045,263
2,067,217
,514.712
1,324,743
1919
6,197,653
5,003,786
1,951,364
,289,963
1,137,875
I92O
3,984,600
2,906,298
1,312.133
941,708
784,169
During the World War and the period of demobilization (Aug.
1914 to the end of 1919) much work of a special kind (see below) was
undertaken by the exchanges, and in order to judge the extent to
which they are used by employers and workpeople in normal years
attention should be directed to the non-war periods.
It should be noted that at the end of 1918 the age-limit for " boys
and girls " was raised from 17 to 18. The table shows that the work
of the exchange system increased steadily and reached its maximum
in the latter years of the World War. The figures for 1920 indicate
a return after the exceptional war conditions to a normal scale of
work. It appears that the exchanges may anticipate roughly the
receipt each year of 3,000,000 registrations by unemployed work-
people, of notifications by employers of I J million vacancies and the
filling of 1,000,000 of those vacancies. It should be remembered that
the latter half of 1920 was a period of industrial decline.
Casual Labour. Schemes intended to lead up to the regularization
of employment were devised at the Liverpool docks, the Goole docks,
the South Wales ports (ship repairers), and at Manchester (cloth
porters). Of these, the Liverpool dock scheme is the most inter-
esting. Managed by a joint committee of employers and workpeople
in the docks, the scheme has led, through a system of tallies issued
to approved dock workers, to some limitation in the number of the
dockers employed in or about the port. The scheme also provides
for a single weekly payment of wages to each man employed, irre-
spective of the number of separate employers for whom he may have
worked. The wage-paying arrangements at Liverpool have not been
copied elsewhere, but the method of controlling dock labour by the
issue through a joint committee to dock workers of tallies, has be-
come almost universal in British ports and provides a basis upon
which it is possible to build schemes to regularize the employment of
dockers.
Juvenile Employment. Since 1910 a separate system of com-
mittees for dealing with the employment of juveniles (under 17 years
of age to Dec. 1918 and under 18 years of age thereafter) has been in
operation (see JUVENILE EMPLOYMENT). These committees are j
either formed by the Ministry of Labour under the Labour Ex-
changes Act, or by the local education authorities under the Choice
of Employment Act, 1910. Their work is, in cooperation with the
employment exchanges, to supervise the finding of employment for
children; to advise children as to the most promising openings, and
generally to take such local action as is calculated to improve the
conditions of juvenile employment.
Unemployment Insurance. On May 4 1911, Mr. Asquith's
Government introduced in the House of Commons, as the second
part of the National Insurance Bill, proposals for the compulsory
insurance upon a contributive basis of zj million workpeople.
The bill received the royal assent, Dec. 16 1911. This measure,
to the extent to which it brought the employed population within
the scope of unemployment insurance, completed the policy
for dealing with unemployment which had been begun in 1909
by the passage of the Labour Exchanges Act. Part II. of the
National Insurance Act also contained provisions intended to
encourage voluntary provision for unemployment in the indus-
tries which were not included under the compulsory scheme.
All workpeople employed in the " Insured Trades " as defined by
a schedule to the Act were compelled to be insured against unem-
Cloyment. Contributions were payable as from July 15 1912, and
enefit was paid from Jan. 8 1913. The trades concerned were build-
ing, construction of works, shipbuilding, engineering, construction of
vehicles, ironfounding, together with saw-milling in connexion with,
or of a kind commonly done in connexion with, any of the insured
trades. Questions as to the precise limits of the insured trades were
settled by an umpire appointed by the Crown to act for the whole
kingdom. An unemployment fund was created out of contributions
from workpeople employed in the insured trades and from the
employers of such workpeople. The rate of contributions was 2jd.
each from employer and workman for each period of employment up
to a week, with reduced rates for workmen below 18 years of age and
for periods of employment of adults for two days or less, viz. a joint
contribution of 2d. for a week's employment of a juvenile worker or
for the employment of an adult for a period not exceeding two days.
To the amount so collected the State contributed an amount equal
to one-third of the joint contributions of employers and workpeople.
It was the duty of an employer to affix to an unemployment book
each week, or at the earlier termination of the employment, a stamp
of the value of his own and the workmen's contributions, the em-
ployer thereafter deducting the amount of the workman's contribu-
tion from wages paid to him. The scheme provided unemployment
benefit at the rate of 73. a week during unavoidable unemployment
subject to a maximum of 15 weeks' benefit in any 12 months and to
the limitation of payment to one week's benefit for every five full
contributions paid by the workman. Benefit was not payable to
persons under 17 years of age and was payable at half the adult
rates between the ages of 17 and 18. The principal statutory condi-
tions for the receipt of benefit were application for benefit in the
prescribed manner, namely at a Board of Trade labour exchange or
other local office of the unemployment fund; proofs, secured mainly
by daily attendance at the labour exchange, that unemployment had
been continuous since the date of application; capacity for work,
and inability to obtain suitable employment. Proof that the last
condition had been satisfied was obtained mainly by an examination
of the register of vacancies at the labour exchange in order to see
whether suitable employment was available and the offer to the
applicant of any apparently suitable work. A workman was dis-
UNEMPLOYMENT
833
qualified for benefit if he had lost his employment as the result of
a stoppage of work due to a trade dispute at the premises at which he
was employed, and in such a case the disqualification lasted during
the continuance of the stoppage or until the workman had obtained
fresh employment in an insured trade. Disqualification for six weeks
from the date of losing employment was involved in discharge
through misconduct or in leaving employment voluntarily without
just cause. Claims to unemployment benefit were decided in the
first instance by a statutory " Insurance Officer." From the decision
of this officer the workman had a right of appeal to the court of
referees consisting of an employer, a workman and an impartial
chairman. Further, the insurance officer had the right to refer the
decisions of courts of referees to the umpire for final settlement.
Associations of insured workmen were entitled (Section 105, Nat.
Ins. Act) to undertake the payment to their own members of
unemployment benefit due to them out of the unemployment fund.
Such an arrangement involved the payment of the State benefit by
the association together with supplementary benefit out of the
association's own funds to the value of at least one-third of the
amount to be recovered from the State. In order, however, to estab-
lish a claim for the repayment of State benefit already paid, the
association was bound to satisfy the Board of Trade that the benefit
in Question had been paid in circumstances which entitled the
individual member to receive State benefit. This involved an
approximation of the procedure upon claims to receive benefit
through an association, to the procedure upon claims to receive
benefit direct from a labour exchange.
The insured workman upon becoming unemployed lodges a claim
for unemployment benefit at a labour exchange or other local office
of the unemployment fund, viz. at one of the 1,048 branch employ-
ment offices which have been established in less populous districts for
the administration of the unemployment insurance scheme. In
' lodging his claim the workman indicates whether he wishes to receive
his benefit through an association or direct from the office of the
, unemployment fund. His claim is then examined, and when a favour-
able decision has been given, benefit is paid to him by the association
; or at the office at which he made his claim according to his choice.
i If the workman has chosen to receive his benefit from an association
he will sign the " Vacant Book," provided by his association, as a
rule each day. Many of the associations concerned have found it
convenient to keep their vacant books at the labour exchanges. In
July 1913 over 2,000 vacant books of associations having arrange-
. ments for the payment of unemployment benefit were lodged at
: labour exchanges. At that date arrangements had been made by 105
associations with nearly 540,000 members in the insured trades.
In Nov. 1920, immediately before the operation of the Unemploy-
ment Insurance Act (1920), when the number of insured workpeople
had been increased from 2\ million to 3| millions, some 5,180 vacant
books, out of a total of about 8,600 maintained by the trade unions
concerned, were lodged at employment exchanges. At that date
1 arrangements had been made by 92 associations with an approximate
' membership of 1,341,000. The reduction in the number of associa-
tions was due to the amalgamation of certain trade unions.
Voluntary Insurance. Part II. of the National Insurance Act,
1 (1911), also contains (in Section 106) a provision intended to encour-
1 age voluntary insurance against unemployment, both in the insured
trades and in other trades. The arrangement here was based upon
the successful experiment made over a number of years at Ghent, and
involved the payment of a subsidy to trade unions or other associa-
tions of workpeople which make a voluntary provision for unemploy-
ment. Under Section 106, the Board of Trade was empowered in
such cases to repay out of moneys provided by Parliament, an
amount not exceeding one-sixth of the sum spent by the association
out of their own funds upon unemployment benefit, with a limit to
the amount so repaid of 2s. per head per week in respect of members
who have received benefit from the association. By July 1913, 275
associations with a membership of 1,104,000 had been admitted by
the Board of Trade as satisfying the required conditions (as to the
methods of proving unemployment, etc.) for receiving the grant.
During the 12 months ending in March 1914, a total sum of 15,167
was paid under the section to 347 associations with a membership of
1,401,000, and during the 12 months ending March 1920 1,678 was
paid to 397 associations with a membership of 2,608,273. Consider-
able difficulty was experienced in the administration of the section in
obtaining evidence which would satisfy the Government auditors
that the payments upon which the associations based their claims for
a grant had been properly made. This difficulty was due solely to
the varying standards of clerical competence maintained by the
associations in keeping their accounts. The section was allowed to
lapse in the revision and general extension of unemployment insur-
ance which was undertaken in 1920.
Rates of Contribution. The requirements governing the payment
of unemployment insurance contributions were devised so as to
charge a higher rate of contribution for engagements of less than a
week's duration than for engagements for more than a week. At the
same time provision was made (Section 99) for an employer, and,
subject to the extent to which employers made use of the section, for
workmen, to escape this higher charge by engaging workpeople
through the labour exchanges and by handing over to the exchanges
the work of affixing insurance stamps. When employers entered
xxxii. 27
into an arrangement of this kind they were not charged the higher
rate of contribution otherwise appropriate in respect of very short
engagements, and as a further inducement to make such arrange-
ments, employers were allowed to hand over to the labour exchanges
the work of stamping the health insurance cards as well as the unem-
ployment insurance cards. The intention of this section was to
induce employers to give the labour exchanges an opportunity of
regularizing employment by " dovetailing " a series of casual jobs so
as to afford a reasonable livelihood for a limited number of workmen.
Up to July 1913, arrangements under the section had been made by
592 employers in respect of 138,500 workpeople; in July 1914 by 899
employers in respect of 162,192 workpeople and in Nov. 1920 by 124
employers in respect of 29,334 workpeople.
Finally the Act of 1911 contained provisions for reducing the cost
of unemployment insurance in respect of workmen who had experi-
enced little unemployment. Thus (Section 94) employers were
entitled to obtain a refund of one-third of their contributions in
respect of workmen continuously employed by them for 12 months
and (Section 96) a refund of the whole of their contributions in
respect of periods during which short time was worked. Section 95
enabled workmen who had paid 500 contributions to recover at the
age of 60 the amount by which the value of their contributions
exceeded the value of unemployment benefit received by them.
Amending Acts. On Aug. 10 1914, the royal assent was given to an
Act amending Part II. of the National Insurance Act upon a number
of points, none of them of first-class importance, upon which experi-
ence of the administration of the scheme had shown weakness in the
principal Act. Thus changes were made in the machinery for the
determination of claims to benefit and the arrangements for refund-
ing contributions paid by employers and workmen. The Board of
Trade was empowered to exempt workmen upon short time from the
payment of unemployment insurance contributions, and associations
undertaking the payment of State benefit to their members were
definitely required to provide from their own funds benefit equal
to one-third more than the amount of the State benefit. The Act of
March 16 1915 allowed unemployment insurance contributions to be
paid in respect of workmen engaged upon war work abroad.
Extension of Insurance. In July 1916, the scope of unemployment
insurance was extended to include workmen employed upon muni-
tions work, and particularly in the chemical, metal, rubber, and
brickmaking industries and in the leather industry. This extension
was made in order to bring substantially the whole working popula-
tion employed in war industries within the scope of insurance, and
the operation of the Act was to cease after 5 years or at the end of 3
years after the war, whichever was the later date. As the result of
this extension the number of workpeople insured against unemploy-
ment became approximately 3! millions.
In Feb. 1918 the Minister of Labour was empowered by order to
exclude from unemployment insurance any branch of trade which
had been brought into insurance by the Act of 1916.
Experience proved that the calculations, upon which were based
the rates of contribution and benefit contained in the Act of 1911,
erred upon the side of caution. From this cause, but also as the result
of the period of good trade which followed 1911, of the practical
absence of unemployment during almost the whole of the war period,
and of the Out-of-work Donation Scheme during 1919, under which
unemployed persons were entitled to a much higher rate of weekly
payment than they could obtain under the Unemployment Insurance
Act, the unemployment fund stood at 18,030,356 in July 1919. In
view of this large reserve fund and of the increasing cost of living,
a short Act was passed in Dec. 1919, increasing the weekly rate of
unemployment benefit under the Unemployment Insurance Act from
73. to us. The requirements as to the amount of benefit to be pro-
vided out of their own funds by associations undertaking to pay
State benefit to their members were not affected.
Insurance Act of 1920. On Dec. 23 1919, Sir Robert Home,
as Minister of Labour, introduced on behalf of Mr. Lloyd
George's Government an Unemployment Insurance bill contain-
ing proposals for a general extension of compulsory and con-
tributory unemployment insurance. These proposals were ap-
proved by Parliament, and the bill received the royal assent
on Aug. 9 1920. This Act superseded the previous Unemploy-
ment Insurance Acts, but the general character of the scheme of
unemployment insurance remained unaltered.
The scope of unemployment insurance was extended to include all
persons of the age of 16 and upwards employed under a contract of
service or apprenticeship with the following principal exceptions:
persons employed in agriculture and private domestic service;
established servants of the Crown ; persons employed otherwise than
by way of manual labour at a rate of remuneration exceeding 250
a year; persons casually employed otherwise than for the purpose of
the employer's trade or business, and persons employed by public
authorities and by corporations whose status approximates to that
of a public authority, upon the certificate of the Minister of Labour
that the persons in question are not subject to dismissal except for
misconduct or unfitness to perform their duties, and that the condi-
tions of their engagement make insurance unnecessary.
834
UNEMPLOYMENT
The rates of joint contributions by employers and employed per-
sons were fixed at 8d. for men ; 6Jd. for women ; 4d. for boys between
16 and 18 years of age; 3|d. for girls between 16 and 18 years of age.
Out of these amounts the employed person's contribution is 4d. for
men ; 3d. for women ; 2d. for boys between 16 and 18 years of age and
ifd. for girls between 16 and 18 years of age. To the unemployment
fund formed by these contributions the State contributes 2d. for
each man's contribution; ifd. for each woman's contribution; i^d.
for each boy's contribution, and id. for each girl's contribution. The
weekly rate of unemployment benefit was fixed at 153. for men, I2s.
for women, 7/6 for boys and 6s. for girls. Payment of benefit is
limited to 15 weeks' benefit in any period of 12 months ending early
in July each year, and to the payment of one week's benefit in respect
of every 6 weekly contributions paid. In general the conditions for
receiving benefit and the rules governing disqualification for receiv-
ing benefit follow the lines of Part II. of the National Insurance Act,
1911. The Act of 1920 requires, however, that the applicant shall
have not less than 12 contributions standing to his credit, and
requires him to show that he has attended an approved course of
instruction if he has been called upon to do so. By a special tempo-
rary provision the Act allows all insured persons who have paid 4
contributions to draw up to a maximum of 8 weeks' benefit during
the first 12 months. This temporary arrangement was modified by
the Unemployment Insurance (Temporary Provisions Amendments)
Act of Dec. 1920 which permitted any person to draw up to a maxi-
mum of 8 weeks' benefit during the first year of the operation of the
Act upon proving that he had been employed during 10 weeks in the
course of the year 1920, or during 4 weeks since July 4 1920 in any
employment which is within the scope of unemployment insurance.
Arrangements for deciding disputes follow the scheme of 1911.
Special Schemes. Provision is made in the Act for the manage-
ment by separate industries of the unemployment insurance of
workpeople employed therein. Section 1 8 of the Act enables the
Minister of Labour to approve a " Special Scheme " submitted to
him by employers and employees in any industry to which com-
pulsory unemployment insurance applies. The main conditions
governing the formation of special schemes are that : (l) The scheme
must cover all persons employed in the industry either throughout
the country or over some defined area. (2) The benefits, which may
include payment for short time as well as unemployment benefit,
must be, on the whole, not less favourable than those provided under
the general scheme. (3) The State contribution to a special scheme
will be limited to an amount not exceeding 3 /ioof the contribution
the State would have made if the members had remained under the
general scheme. (4) The scheme will be administered not by the
Ministry of Labour, but by a joint body of employers and employed
in the industry specially set up for this purpose.
The Act contemplated the formation of such special schemes
before July 1921, and provided for the payment to the responsible
body of contributions collected from members of the industry
before the scheme is launched. The provisions as to special schemes
went far to meet a body of opinion that industries should bear the
burden of their own unemployment. When the Act was passed, the
Government actually contemplated the formation of special schemes
in respect of rather less than 4 million out of a total of some I2j
million insured workpeople. The event seemed likely to prove that
this was a generous estimate.
Provision was also made (Section 20) for the creation" of supple-
mentary schemes of unemployment insurance by any industry which
did not form a special scheme. Such supplementary schemes might,
out of special contributions, provide additional benefits including
provision for short time or for unemployment not covered by the
general scheme. When approved by the Minister of Labour, supple-
mentary schemes have statutory effect.
The Act of 1920 (Section 17) reproduces Section 105 of the Act of
191 1, which enables associations of insured workpeople to undertake
the payment to their members of unemployment benefit due from
the State fund. Of the various provisions made in the Act of 191 1 for
the refund or reduction of contributions in certain circumstances, the
provision for the refund to workmen at the age of 60 of the amount
of the value of their contributions over the amount of benefit re-
ceived is alone reproduced (Section 25). The Minister of Labour is
enabled (Section 31) to arrange for keeping and stamping at an
employment exchange the insurance contribution cards and books of
workpeople engaged through the exchanges.
Statistics of Insurance. Table II. shows the extent to which unem-
ployment benefit was drawn in the industries covered by the un-
employment insurance scheme since Jan. 1913, when unemployment
benefit was first payable. During the operation of the out-of-work
donation scheme for civilians (Nov. 25 1918 to Nov. 24 1919)
unemployed workpeople as a rule availed themselves of their rights
under that scheme, and were debarred from drawing unemployment
benefit concurrently.
War Work of the Exchanges. With the outbreak of the World
War, the character of the work done at the employment ex-
changes was necessarily altered to meet the exceptional condi-
tions, and it continued to change with the development of
events until the restoration of more or less normal conditions
at the end of 1919. Immediately upon the declaration of war,
the exchanges were called upon to assist the war departments
in mobilization by the supply of large numbers of skilled and
unskilled civilian workmen. Up to Aug. 14 1914, nearly 30,000
workmen were supplied through the exchanges for this purpose.
In the earlier months of the war, unemployment upon a large
scale was anticipated and was experienced in certain industries,
particularly in the textile industries. To meet this situation,
the exchanges cooperated in the collection of information as
to the extent and character of unemployment with the local
representative committees which were formed by local author-
ities at the suggestion of the Government. The exchanges also
assisted in the distribution of special grants in aid of unemploy-
ment benefit paid by trade unions, upon the lines of Section 106
of the National Insurance Act, 1911. From Aug. 1914 to March
1915, the amount of such special grants was 74,926. Unemploy-
ment decreased rapidly with the progress of recruiting and the
development of war industries, and from early in 1915 to the
end of the war, the employment exchanges were engaged upon
a series of schemes to use the man-power of the nation to the
best advantage.
Enrolment Schemes. In order to obtain a body of mobile skilled
labour for munitions work, and in order also to make it possible to j
put pressure upon employers to make full use of the skilled workmen I
in their establishments, several enrolment schemes were set on foot i
whereby selected workmen undertook, in return for guaranteed j
minimum pay and a subsistence allowance, to work at any place at I
which they might be required (see LABOUR SUPPLY AND PVEGULA-
TION). Thus enrolment of volunteers was begun in 1916.
Priority of Labour. From 1916 to the end of the war, a system of
controlling the available supplies of labour for civilian war work of
all kinds was developed apart from the enrolment schemes. As early |
as April 1915, certain classes of the employers, mainly those engaged I
TABLE II. Unemployment Benefit.
Number of unemployment books remaining lodged at the end of the month.
Vr-ir
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
January
"5.152
121,267
54.723
19,155
20.273
32,063
Out-of-work do-
127,476
February
103,332
97,636
43,257
16,021
21,221
32,445
nation in opera-
97,932
March
82,822
81,667
30,085
14,415
2I,07O
36,873
tion ; unemploy-
82,843
April .
68,151
74-546
24,517
13.095
21,973
36,412
ment insurance
67,255
May .
66,910
73,589
19,009
11,264
23,556
33,079
returns suspend-
66,897
June .
69,175
80,461
18,607
11,100
25,305
30,080
ed.
67,410
l uly ;
63.832
83-412
20,730
11,264
25,213
26,442
77,901
August
63,866
145,1940
18,997
11,290
25,006
26,024
82,406
September .
73-124
128,038
17,766
10,589
25,682
26,208
103,075
October
75,996
99,282
16,654
13,044
27,487
24,505
120,114*
November
December .
88,493
101.712
81,341
68,815
17.724
22,275
15,944
17,612 b
28,799
28,382
33,634 c
102,684 (i
123,344
189,916
324,6747
a Outbreak of war.
b Unemployment insurance extended to cover 3^ million workpeople (in place of 2\ million).
c Armistice Nov. n.
d Out-of-work donation for civilians ceased Nov. 25.
e Coal-miners' strike Oct. 15.
/ Unemployment insurance extended to cover total of about 12 million workpeople.
UNEMPLOYMENT
835
in engineering and shipbuilding, were restrained from enticing work-
people to their establishments from employers elsewhere, and were
prohibited from seeking to engage workmen from a distance of more
than 10 m. otherwise than through the employment exchanges. In
1916, arrangements were made to reach agreement between the
various departments responsible for production as to the order in
which demands for labour should be met. In their fully developed
form, these arrangements involved frequent periodical consultation
between the producing departments, and the grading of current
demands for labour according to their importance. The labour
needs of employers in war industries were graded as entitled to
" Super-Priority," " First " or " Second Class Priority," or as not
deserving special treatment. Decisions of this character were given
upon the demands of employers as notified to the employment
exchanges. Such demands from the whole kingdom were brought
together in the central clearing house of the unemployment depart-
ment, and the classified lists of labour demands issued upon this
basis were circulated to all employment exchanges. A general list of
vacancies was issued by the clearing house in the manner already
described, and a special list known as the " Munition Workers'
Gazette," relating especially to the most important labour demands
in the engineering industry, was issued by the clearing house upon
the authority of the Ministry of Munitions. The employment
exchanges working upon the information so supplied, were able to
influence appreciably the distribution of any local surplus of labour.
War Employment of Women. With the development of war pro-
duction, the demands for women's labour became far greater than
the supply which was available immediately. In order to obtain
control of the distribution of the available supplies of women's
labour, Government and controlled factories were required to engage
all women through the employment exchanges. Further, a large
proportion of the women employed in other factories engaged upon
war work was supplied through the exchanges. The exchanges
carried out a continuous campaign for recruiting women for these
purposes, the total number supplied by the exchanges amounting to
more than 1,086,000. Recruiting for the Women's Service Corps was
also undertaken by the exchanges. Forty-three thousand seven
hundred women were recruited by the exchanges for Queen Mary's
Army Auxiliary Corps (W.A.A.C.), 5,700 for the Women's Royal
Naval Service (W.R.N.S.) and 16,300 for the Women's Royal Air
Force (W.R.A.F.).
Labour from Abroad. In order to avoid difficulties with British
workmen, employers were compelled to arrange the engagement of
alien workpeople required for munition work through the employ-
ment exchanges. The principal work in this connexion was find-
ing employment for about 65,000 Belgian workpeople.
Release from the Forces. In the early stages of the war, large
numbers of workmen, possessing skill which was of great value upon
civil war work, joined the army. Arrangements were made subse-
quently for the release from the army of a number of these men. The
staff of the employment exchanges were largely employed in select-
ing such men for release.
Substitution. During 1917 and 1918, the employment exchanges,
and the local employment committees from their formation at the
end of 1917, were largely occupied upon endeavouring to obtain sub-
stitutes for men in civil life who had been certified as available for
military service upon the supply of a substitute. This work was one
of great difficulty and was carried out with the National Service
Department, subsequently the Ministry of National Service.
Work for Demobilization. Before the conclusion of the war, an
elaborate scheme for the demobilization of the forces according to
industrial requirements had been elaborated (see DEMOBILIZATION
AND RESETTLEMENT). The employment exchanges and the local
employment committees were responsible for preparing and apply-
ing the original scheme of demobilization upon its civil side, and upon
the introduction of the " Contract " scheme they continued to assist
in the work and were responsible for dealing with the increasing
numbers of unemployed ex-service men. The local employment
committees performed a very valuable service in pressing upon
employers in every area the obligation to reengage the men who had
been employed by them before the war.
The employment exchanges assisted in the redistribution of work-
people which followed upon the conclusion of war contracts. They
endeavoured to arrange with employers for discharges to be regulated
with a view to fresh employment which seemed likely to be available.
Workpeople about to be discharged from war work were invited to
supply the exchanges with particulars of their industrial experience
with a view to fresh employment being found for them, and some
130,000 workpeople took advantage of this arrangement. The
exchanges also supplied free railway passes_to munition workers who
were returning to their homes or were going to fresh employment.
Discharges from war work were at their maximum towards the
middle of 1919, that is to say at the time when demobilization of the
forces was proceeding most rapidly. The effect of this double stream
of workpeople seeking employment is to be seen in the particulars
of the payment of out-of-work donation.
Throughout the resettlement period, the work of the local employ-
ment committees was of the greatest value. In order to strengthen
their organization, divisional councils were formed consisting of
representatives of the committees in each division.
Out-of-Work Donation. Early in the war it had been decided
that members of H.M. forces should be entitled to certain
payments during unemployment following their discharge at the
conclusion of the war. Proposals to extend compulsory and
contributory unemployment insurance to the bulk of workpeople
engaged upon civil work had not fructified during the war.
When, therefore, the end of hostilities was in view, the Govern-
ment decided that the out-of-work donation scheme should
apply to civilian workpeople as well as to all non-commissioned
members of H.M. forces. The scheme came into operation on
Nov. 25 1918.
In the first instance donation was granted to ex-service men at the
rate of 293. a week with allowances for dependent children under the
age of 15 at the rate of 6s. for the first child and 33. each for other
children, for 26 weeks, and at the rate of 2os. a week with unreduced
allowances for dependent children for a further period of 13 weeks.
The period during which this 39 weeks' donation could be drawn
was the period of 12 months following the end of a man's demobiliza-
tion furlough. Civilian workers were entitled to donation for a
maximum period of 13 weeks in respect of unemployment occurring
during the six months ending May 24 1919, and the donation was at
the rate applicable to the first 26 weeks of the donation paid to ex-
service men. In order to be entitled to donation, civilian workers
were required to show that they had become employed contributors
under the National Health Insurance scheme at least 3 months prior
to Nov. 25 1918, or if they were under 16 or over 70 years of age, to
produce equivalent evidence of employment. Donation was paid
at half rates to persons under 18. Persons who were entitled to out-
of-work donation applied to the local employment exchange upon
becoming unemployed, and produced evidence that they were
qualified to receive donation under the conditions of the scheme.
Thereafter the procedure approximated to that adopted in the
administration of unemployment insurance ; that is to say, donation
was refused if it appeared that the applicant had left his previous
employment without just cause or as the result of misconduct or of
a trade dispute, and donation was withdrawn if suitable work was
refused. Disputed claims were dealt with by a local court of referees.
The out-of-work donation scheme was modified in respect of
civilians in May 1919 by a postponement until Nov. 24 1919 of the
date up to which a total of 13 weeks' donation could be drawn. At
the same time the rate of donation for civilian workers was reduced
to 2os. for men and 153. .for women, together with unaltered allow-
ances for dependents, and the conditions for the receipt of donation
were made more stringent by requiring the applicant to prove em-
ployment in 20 weeks during 1918 and by a review by the local
employment committees of all applications for donation with a view
to their rejection unless the committee were satisfied that the
applicant was (a) normally in employment; (b) genuinely seeking
work, and (c) unable to obtain it. The donation to civilian workers
was also extended by the grant in March 1919 of donations for a
further maximum period of 13 weeks (making 26 weeks in all) at the
rates and under the conditions applied in May 1919 to the original
grant of donation. Out-of-work donation ceased to be payable to
civilian workers on Nov. 24 1919. Out-of-work donation to ex-service
men was extended in respect of all ex-service men who had exhausted
their rights under the original scheme by the grant of a further
maximum of the 12 weeks' donation at the rate of 2Os. a week with-
out children's allowances during the period Nov. 25 1919 to March 21
1920, a further 12 weeks' donation between April I 1920 and July 31
1920, and a further 14 weeks' donation between July 31 and Nov. 6
1920. By a further extension, donation was granted to ex-service
men up to a maximum of 14 weeks during the period ending March 31
1921. The local employment committees were entrusted with a
review of the individual grants of donation upon the occasion of each
extension. This review involved very heavy work in all localities,
as will be realized from the number of donation policies upon which
payment was being made in successive months. There were, for
civilians (up to Nov. 1919, when their donation ceased): in 1918,
Dec. 356,707; in 1919, Jan. 625,149; Feb. 782,363; March 753,982;
April 689,933; May 384,290; June 233,282; July 177,221; Aug.
141,132; Sept. 100,731; Oct. 135,185. For ex-service men the
figures were: 1918, Dec. 23,988; 1919, Jan. 53,554! Feb. 166,257;
March 306,263; April 403,467; May 386,921; June 372,843; Ju'V
363,663; Aug. 336,952; Sept. 302,272; Oct. 344,242 ; Nov. 358,823;
Dec. 370,610; 1920, Jan. 377,116; Feb. 293,144; March 240,508;
April 219,226; May 196,508; June 174,224; July 139,866; Aug.
143,186; Sept. 158, 759; Oct. 172,834; Nov. 192,144; Dec. 244,061.
In June 1920, the Minister of Labour appointed an independent
committee, under the chairmanship of Mr. G. N. Barnes, M.P.,
" to examine the working and administration of the employment
exchanges in Great Britain and to advise as to their future."
The committee presented a report signed by all but one of their
number in Nov. 1920 (Cmd. 1054). They found that the
employment exchanges are a necessary corollary to the State
8 3 6
UNEMPLOYMENT
system of unemployment insurance and they made a number of
recommendations designed to insure that the exchanges should
be fully effective for their purpose. The committee recommended
that the facilities of the employment exchanges should be avail-
able to all persons, whether or not they were liable to compulsory
unemployment insurance. (J. S. Nc.)
United Kingdom Statistics.
The statistics of unemployment most commonly used indeed
the only statistics available over a long series of years without
a special, and laborious, inquiry are those of unemployment
among members of certain trade unions. The principal trade-
union statistics of unemployment are therefore given here in
Table III. accompanied by some observations as to the limita-
tions of their utility.
It should be remarked at the outset that the figures in Table
III. cannot be taken as necessarily an accurate measure of general
unemployment; all that can safely be assumed is that they give
a fairly trustworthy indication of the direction of the curve of
rising or falling employment, and some indication of the severity
of each successive depression, and of the high-water mark
reached by the intervening period of good trade. For this
purpose the exaggeration of the fluctuations, due to the pre-
ponderance of the metal, engineering, and shipbuilding trades,
is no great disadvantage; but it is always necessary to remember
that the fluctuations are exaggerated by the use of these figures.
It should also be remembered that the figures relate to
members of trade unions, and to those only in certain trades,
and are almost confined to (i.) men, as distinguished from women
or young persons, and (ii.) to skilled men, as distinguished from
labourers. It is instructive to examine the constitution of those
sections of the work not covered by the trade-union percent-
ages of unemployment given above. These include:
(i.) AH those workpeople, whether in the trades covered or not,
who do not belong to any trade union.
> (ii.) The great majority of labourers, or of semi-skilled men,
whether in the trades covered or not.
(iii.) Practically the whole of the mining industry and of the
textile industries; and the whole of the railway, tramway, and
omnibus services; the gas, water, and electricity services; dock and
wharf labour; agriculture; the mercantile marine and sea fishing;
the clothing and the boot and shoe trades; commerce, banking, and
insurance; retail trade; the Post Office, and other branches of the
civil service and of the municipal services; and many other industries
and services.
It will be observed that many of the industries and services
mentioned are less subject to fluctuations in employment than
the metal, engineering, and shipbuilding trades, which pre-
ponderate in the trade-union figures. The industries or occupa-
tions mentioned may, for the present purpose, be roughly
grouped under three headings:
(i.) Industries or services which are subject to relatively slight
fluctuations in employment. Examples are the Post Office, and other
branches of the civil service and of the municipal services; agricul-
ture; the railway, tramway, and omnibus services; the gas, water,
and electricity services; employment in banks, insurance offices,
and commercial businesses.
(ii.) Unskilled or semi-skilled occupations. The men and women
employed in these occupations generally either do not belong to any
trade union, or else their trade unions are not in a financial position
to pay unemployment benefit.
(iii.) Industries which meet fluctuations in trade by other means
than the discharge of workpeople. Mining and the textile trades are
good examples of this group.
The third group is deserving of somewhat detailed con-
sideration, as helping to define, by contrast, the term " unemploy-
ment " a term which does not, as is sometimes supposed, cover
a perfectly definite and clear-cut conception.
The most frequent alternative to the discharge of workpeople
is " short time." A factory, for example, may be entirely
closed on Saturday, and work only seven hours (instead of eight
or nine) on the other days of the week. It is important to ob-
serve, however, that, when the time worked is reduced (say) to
three days in each week, the worker is entitled, under the pres-
ent system of unemployment insurance, to unemployment bene-
fit for the remaining days when he is not working (after the first
TABLE III. Percentage of Trade Union members unemployed.
In Metal,
Year
Engineering
and Ship-
building
In other trades
making returns
Mean of
columns (2) and
(3) 1
trades
(i)
(2)
(3)
(4)
i860
1-9
1-8
1-85
1861
5-5
1-9
J
3-70
1862
9-0
3-1
6-05
1863
6-7
2-7
4-70
1864
3-o
0-9
1-95
1865
2-4
1-2
1-80
1866
3'9
1-4
2-65
1867
9-1
3-5
6-30
1868
IO-0
3-5
6-75
1869
8-9
3-o
5-95
1870
4-4
3-1
375
1871
1-3
2-0
1-65
1872
0-9
1-0
'95
1873
1-4
0-9
I-I5
1874
2-3
0-9
i -60
1875
3'5
0-9
2-20
1876
5-2
1-6
3-40
1877
6-3
2-5
4-40
1878
9-0
3'5
6-25
1879
15-3
6-1
10-70
1880
6-7
3-8
5-25
1881
3-8
3-3
3'55
1882
2-3
2-4
2-35
1883
2-7
2'5
2-60
1884
10-8
3-5
7-15
1885
12-9
4-2
8-55
1886
13-5
5-6
9-55
1887
10-4
3-9
7-15
1888
6-0
2'3
4'iS
1889
2-3
1-8
2-05
1890
2-2
2-O
2-IO
1891
4-1
2-7
3-40
1892
7-7
47
6-2O
1893
11-4
4-0
7-70
1894
II-2
3'2
7-20
1895
8-2
3-8
6-00
1896
4-2
2-5
3'35
1897
4-8
2-1
3-45
1898
4-0
1-9
2-95
1899
2-4
i-7
2-05
1900
2-6
2-3
2-45
1901
3-8
2-9
3-35
1902
5-5
2-9
4-20
1903
6-6
3'4
5-00
1904
8-4
4.4
6-40
1905
6-6
3-9
5-25
1906
4-1
3-3
3-70
1907
4-9
3-o
3-95
1908
12-5
4-8
8-65
1909
13-0
4-4
8-70
1910
6-8
3-4
5-io
1911
3-4
2-7
3-05
1912
3-6
2-7
3-15
1913
2-2
2-0
2-IO
1914
3-3
3-2
3-25
1915
0-6
1-4
1-00
1916
0-3
0-6
o-45
1917
O-2
I-O
0-60
1918
0-2
1-2
0-70
1919
3-3
1-8
2-55
1920
3-2
1-9
2-55
1921
End of
Jan.
8-6
5-8
7-2
Feb.
10-9
7-0
9-0
March
14-0
7-3
10-7
April
2O-O
14-7
17-4
May
28-8
16-5
22-7
June
30-8
16-9
23-9
July
27-3
IO-I
18-7
1 It should be observed that this is not necessarily identical with
the percentage of trade union members unemployed in all trade
unions making returns, taken together. In the early years of the
period the metal, engineering, and shipbuilding trades, which are
subject to much more violent fluctuations of employment than most
other industries, are over represented. By taking the mean of the
fluctuating engineering and shipbuilding figure and of the relatively
stable " other trades " figure in other words, by giving the metal,
engineering, and shipbuilding trades a constant weight " equal to
one-half of the total this source of error. is corrected.
UNEMPLOYMENT
TABLE IV. Percentage of Insurance Workpeople in receipt of Unemployment Benefit or Out-of -Work' Donation. 1
837
Trade
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920'
Works of Construction ....
**;
5'2
1-2
0-4
0-8
0-4
0-8
0-6
6-4}
2-8}
Shipbuilding . _ .
Engineering and Ironfounding
Construction of Vehicles
Sawmilling 1 ....
Other Insured Workpeople 2 .
3-5
2-4
2-5
2-4
1-2
3-8
3-4
3-5
3-3
1-8
0-8
0-6
0-8
I'O
0-4
0-4
0-4
o-5
0-6
0-2
0-4
0-6
0-4
0-6
O-I
0-4
1-2
o-5
0-7
O'l
4-8
8-1
4-4
5-6
Included
3-9
4'9
2-2
8-4
0-8
below
Total Insured under Act of 1911
3-6
4'2
1-2
0-6
0-6
I'O
3-9
Iron and Steel Manufacture
I'l
Tinplate Manufacture .
O'd.
}' '
2-2
Miscellaneous Metals
Ammunition and Explosives
2-Q
-i
5'3
Chemicals ....
3*2
2*0
Leather and Leather Goods
0-5
0-8
Included
3-6
Bricks, Tiles and Artificial Building
Materials
0-4
0-6
3'4
1-3
Sawmilling*
Included
Machined Woodwork and Wooden
with 1911
Cases
i'3
2-1
Act Saw-
2-8
milling
Rubber and Manufactures thereof
I'O
I-I
Included
2-7
below
Other Insured Workpeople .
i-3
3-5
3-5'
4-6
Total Insured under Act of 1916
0-9
i-7
2-7
Total, Insured Industries .
3-6
4-2
1-2
0-6
0-7
1-2
6-1
3-5
Number of workpeople insured in the
month of July
2,071,000
2,326,000
2,075,000
2,029,000
3,6-52,000
3,922,OOO
3,721,000
4,188,000
1 Sawmilling " of a kind commonly done in connexion with other insured trades." Workpeople engaged in sawmilling actually done " in
connexion with " other insured trades are included with the other workpeople in those trades. Other sawmilling was not included at all,
prior to the Act of 1916.
2 These are workpeople engaged in insurable occupations in businesses whose main work is not insurable, e.g. engineering operatives on
the maintenance staff of a cotton factory.
3 Sawmilling other than that covered by the Act of 1911.
4 Includes " other workpeople insured under the Act of fgn "; also leather workers and rubber workers.
' Based on the first nine months of 1920, Oct. details not being available owing to the coal strike, and Nov. and Dec. owing to the
extension of Unemployment Insurance under the 1920 Act.
three, which constitute " the waiting period "). 1 Thus " unem-
ployment " and " short time " are not as is sometimes supposed,
mutually exclusive terms. The same applies, of course, in the
very common case where workers, during a time of depression,
are employed in alternate weeks.
A depression is sometimes met, however, by other devices,
entirely different from either " unemployment " or " short
time." In the weaving section of the cotton industry, for example,
it is a very common practice in times of depression to give a
weaver (say) two or three looms to mind, instead of the usual
four or six. Again, a common complaint among weavers (by
no means confined to periods of acute depression) is that of
" playing for warps," i.e. of being kept waiting for a supply of
the " warp," through which the " weft " threads are woven.
Some term is clearly needed to describe all forms of partial
unemployment, whereby a worker's production is reduced, and
his or her earning power with it. The useful term " under-
employment " is coming into use to an increasing extent for
this purpose; it is more scientific than the term " short time "
and covers a wider ground. It might properly be used, for example,
to describe the state of employment of a dock labourer, who
presents himself for work at the beginning of each 4-hour spell
of work during the week, but is only taken on for three of them.
This cannot, with strict accuracy, be called either " unemploy-
ment," or " short time "; but it is a very good example of
" under-employment."
Table IV. shows the percentages unemployed among persons
insured against unemployment under Part II. of the National
Insurance Act, 1911, and the various amending Acts. Under
1 Statistics of short time workers are kept separate from those of
persons entirely unemployed and are not used in the calculation of
the percentage unemployed given in Table IV. Alternate week
working is counted as short time.
the original Act, compulsory insurance was confined to the build-
ing trades and construction of works; the engineering, iron-
founding, and shipbuilding trades; the construction of vehicles;
and sawmilling " in connexion with or of a kind commonly
done in connexion with " any of the other insured trades.
Under the Amending Act of 1916, however, compulsory insur-
ance was extended to a number of the " munition " trades.
Apart from the difference in the trade constitution of the work-
people covered, these figures differ from the trade-union per-
centages given in Table IV. chiefly in including the labourers and
semi-skilled men, who are almost entirely excluded from the
trade-union figures. The numbers insured under the Act in
July of each year, 1913-20, are shown at the foot of Table IV.
Under the Unemployment Insurance Acts, 1920 and '1921,
substantially all persons liable for Health Insurance contribu-
tion, except outworkers and persons employed in agriculture
and private domestic service, were required to be insured against
unemployment. Employees of local authorities, railways and
certain other public utility undertakings, members of the police
forces, and persons with rights under a statutory superannua-
tion scheme might, in certain circumstances, be excepted.
Persons employed otherwise than by way of manual labour at
a rate of remuneration exceeding in value 250 per annum, were
excepted, as were also juveniles under 16 years of age. The
number of persons insured under the Act at May 31 1921 was
estimated at 12,190,790, of whom 8,829,320 were males and
3,361,470 were females.
Payment of unemployment benefit was made subject to cer-
tain statutory conditions and disqualifications. The procedure
required the " lodging " of an unemployed person's unemploy-
ment book, and the records of books lodged thus afford a measure
of the extent to which unemployment was prevalent in the
insured industries. As a by-product of the administration of
8 3 8
UNEMPLOYMENT
TABLE V. Unemployment in Insured Trades: July 29 1921.
Industry
Estimated No. of Insured
Workpeople
No. of Unemployment Bks. and
O.W.D. Policies remaining
lodged at July 29 1921
Percentage
Unemploved at
July 29
Males
Females
Total
Males
Females
Total
Males
Fe-
males
Total
Building and Works of Construction
1,020,430
9-030
1.029,460
158,065
456
158,521
15-49
5-05
15-40
Shipbuilding
340,160
6,280
346,440
112,767
726
' 13,493
33-15
11-56
32-76
Engineering and Ironfoundring
1,163,53
101,460
1,264,990
276,107
14,396
290,503
23-73
14-19
22-96
Construction and Repair of Vehicles
294,960
26,440
321,400
3 '.490
6,050
37,54
10-68
22-88
11-68
Sawmilling and Machined Woodwork
210,610
44,290
254,900
32.224
6,573
38,797
15-30
14-84
15-22
Ammunition, Explosives, Chemicals, etc.
214,500
96,050
310.550
36,849
8,054
44,903
17-18
8-39
14-46
Metal Trades
628,310
203,450
831,760
198,839
43.281
242,120
31-65
21-27
29-11
Rubber and Leather Trades
103,820
65,300
169,120
13,854
8,950
22,804
13-34
I3-7I
13-48
Bricks, Tiles, etc.
73,io
12,100
85,200
10,507
2,394
12,901
14-37
19-79
iS-H
Pottery, Earthenware, etc.
30,040
31.440
61,480
4,102
3,658
7,76o
13-66
11-63
12-62
Glass Trades (Excl. optical, scientific, etc.)
32,580
7-770
40,350
10,388
2,104
12,492
31-88
27-08
30-96
Hotel, College, Club, etc., Service .
99,150
198,100
297,250
9.737
25.440
35,177
9-82
12-84
11-83
Laundry Service
16,810
85,730
102,540
852
5,281
6,133
5-07
6-16
5-98
Commercial, Clerical, Insurance and
Banking
175,660
131,480
307,140
8,006
4,496
12,502
4-56
3-42
4-07
Transport Services
769,500
35.090
804,590
141,306
3,319
144,625
18-36
9-46
17-97
1,2^5,780
11,220
1,247,000
120,615
909
121,524
9-76
8-10
9'75
Printing and Paper Trades ...
205,760
139,630
345.390
18,304
15,407
33,7"
8-90
11-03
9-76
Textile Trades
485-770
782,130
1,267,900
59424
110,338
169,762
12-23
14-11
13-39
Dress .........
230,530
436,400
666,930
25,208
47.573
72,781
10-93
10-90
10-91
Food, Drink and Tobacco
289,960
195,840
485,800
24.731
21,473
46,204
8-53
10-96
9-51
Miscellaneous Trades and Services .
1,208,360
742,240
1,950,600
132,693
46,750
179.443
10-98
6-30
9-20
Total
8,829,320
3,361,470
12,190,790
1,426,068
377,628
1,803,696
16-15
11-23
14-80
these Acts, reliable statistics of unemployment in respect of over
12,000,000 workpeople became for the first time available.
At July 29 1921, the number of unemployment books lodged in
respect of total unemployment was 1,802,909, while in addition
,787 persons were claiming out-of-work donation, making a
total of 1,803,696, or 14-80% of the total number insured.
Table V. shows by main industrial groups and by sex the number of
persons insured under the Unemployment Insurance Acts, 1920 and
1921, and the number and percentage 'of persons totally unemployed
.whose unemployment books or out-of-work donation policies re-
mained lodged at July 29 1921.
Table VI. analyzes the figures in respect of systematic short
time working by main industrial groups and by sex.
An applicant for unemployment benefit under the Acts was
required to prove continuous unemployment, and it was pro-
vided that two periods of unemployment of not less than two
days each, separated by a period of not more than two days
during which the insured contributor had not been employed
for more than 24 hours, or two periods of unemployment of not
less than six l days each, separated by an interval of not more
than six weeks, should be treated as continuous unemploy-
ment for this purpose. Persons employed in establishments
where, owing to depression in trade, the number of working
days had been reduced on a systematic basis in such a manner
as to fall within the above provision, were accordingly eligible
for benefit. The number of persons claiming benefit in respect
of systematic short time working at July 29 1921 was 534,253,
or 4-38% of the total number of persons insured. Among males
the percentage amounted to 3-15, while among females the per-
centage was 7-61. (J. H.)
UNITED STATES
There were in 1921 no exact data on the number of unemployed
in the United States. Studies made by the Federal Government
and by the states were based chiefly on information received
from the labour unions, and represented unemployment among
organized labour only. For some years Massachusetts pub-
lished a Quarterly Report on Employment, which combined re-
ports from the trade unions and the employment offices, and
later also from Boards of Trade, Employers' Associations and
editors of trade journals, as well as statistics of building oper-
ations in the cities. The publication is continued from March
1920 in the quarterly Massachusetts Industrial 'Review. In 1915
New York State inaugurated the practice of compiling statistics
1 Prior to June 30 1921, a period of three days was admitted.
on unemployment from reports received from representative
manufacturers of the state. These statistics are published
monthly in The Bulletin and Labor Market. The Wisconsin
Industrial Commission has adopted the New York plan of em-
ployment records for statistical studies covering the period
since 1915. Other states do not publish regular records.
TABLE VI. Short Time: July 29 1921.
Industry
Number of Short Time
Workers claiming U. I.
Benefit and Donation,
July 29 1921
Percentage on
Systematic
Short Time
July 29 1921
laid
Females
Total
Males
Females
Total
Building and Works
of Construction
5,930
25
5,955
0-58
0-28
0-58
Shipbuilding
8,945
97
9,042
2-63
1-54
2-61
Engineering and Iron-
founding .
68,141
2,968
71,109
5-86
2-93
5-62
Construction and Re-
pair of Vehicles
5,310
785
6,095
I -80
2-97
1-90
Sawmilling and Ma-
chined Woodwork.
4,846
1,701
6,547
2-30
3-84
2-57
Ammunition, Explo-
sives, Chemicals, etc.
8,653
2,779
11,432
4-03
2-89
3-68
Metal Trades .
36,954
12,183
49.137
5-88
5-99
5-91
Rubber and Leather
Trades .
3.731
2,886
6,617
3-59
4-42
3-91
Bricks, Tiles, etc.
655
7i
726
0-90
o-59
0-85
Pottery, Earthenware,
etc
261
87
348
0-87
0-28
o-57
Glass Trades (excl.
Optical, Scientific
etc.). . . .
1.725
' 388
2,113
5-29
4-99
5-24
Hotel, College, Club,
etc., Service .
IS'
262
4'3
0-15
0-13
0-14
Laundry Service
33
269
302
O-20
0-31
0-29
Commercial, Clerical,
Insurance and
Banking .
178
IOO
278
O-IO
0-08
0-09
Transport Service
6,489
325
6,814
0-84
o-93
0-85
Mining Industry
4.665
20
4,685
0-38
0-18
0-38
Printing and Paper
Trades .
6,047
8,725
14,772
2-94
6-25
4-28
Textile Trades .
91,696
174,893
266,589
18-88
22-36
21-03
Dress ....
10,716
36,558
47,274
4-65
8-38
7-09
Food, Drink and To-
bacco
2,310
7.207
9,517
0-80
3-68
1-96
Miscellaneous Trades
and Services .
10,868
3.620
14,488
0-90
o-49
0-74
Total
278,304
255.949
534,253
.Vi5
7-61
4-38
UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 839
Studies made by H. Hornell Hart of the Russell Sage Founda-
tion show that while the industrial pop. of the United States
increased from approximately 19,500,000 workmen in 1902 to
about 30,200,000 in 1917, the demand for labour did not increase
at the same ratio. In 1902 an average of 2,750,000 workers was
out of employment at all times during the year; in 1903, 1906,
1907, 1910, 1917, the annual average fell below 2,000,000; in
the depression of 1908 it was 3,500,000 and in that of 1914-5 it
was 4, 500,000. Throughout the 1 6 years 1902-17 the unemployed
constituted, on the average, 9-9% of the labour force; but it
reached 14-1% in 1902, 14-8% in 1908; 15-8% in 1914 and 16%
in 1915. On the other hand it fell to 5-5% in 1906, 7-1% in
I9i6and4-7%in 1917. The other years saw fluctuations between
these extremes. In 1903, 1906, 1907, 1910 and 1917 the demand
for labour was strong; in 1908, 1914 and 1915 it was weak. In
the other nine years it varied less, with a little more than
2,000,000 out of work all the time. No such percentages have
been calculated for the years since 1917. Common experience
was that the interruption of commerce with Europe in 1914
caused sudden business depression. But as the months passed,
and especially after Jan. 1915, war contracts called into industry
the " reserve army of the unemployed," and led to a labour
shortage, acute in some trades, from 1917 until the signing of
the Armistice. Then, in the late fall of 1918, contracts were
cancelled and workers were laid off. The public continued to
buy, however, and men laid off from war work were absorbed in
other industries. There continued to be a demand for labour
until Feb. and March 1920, then industry in general began to
lay off men. By the end of the year the volume of employment
in the factories of New York State had dropped off 20% since
March, in Wisconsin it had dropped off 22-5% in the same
According to statistics in the Industrial Employment Survey
Bulletin for Dec. 1921, 1,428 firms, employing each over 500
persons, located in 65 principal industrial centres of the country,
were employing 1,567,374 workers on Nov. 30 1921 as against
1,506,614, on Jan. i 1921, an increase of 60,760, or 3-7%. Of
the 14 industrial groups recognized by the U.S. Census, 9 report-
ed an increase in employment in Nov. 1921 over Oct. 1921, viz.:
paper and printing; lumber; vehicles for land transportation;
tobacco manufactures; iron and steel; chemicals; stone, clay and
glass; textiles; and metals and metal products. A decrease was
reported by 5, viz.: liquors and beverages; railway repair shops;
food products; leather and its products; and miscellaneous in-
dustries. Of 65 cities, 40 reported an increase in employment,
24 a decrease, and i no change, since Oct. 31! 1921; total net
increase reported for the month was 7,219.
See: Don D. Lescohier, The Labor Market; and Sumner Slichter,
The Turnover of Factory Labor. (J. R. Co.)
UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT. BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Information as regards earlier years than those here dealt with
will be found in 27.598 seq., and as regards England in 9.408
seq.; and similarly in the articles in the earlier volumes on
counties and towns in the United Kingdom. See also ENGLISH
HISTORY, ENGLISH FINANCE, IRELAND, SCOTLAND, BRITISH
EMPIRE, COAL, SHIPPING, RAILWAYS, etc.
Population. A census of the United Kingdom was taken in
April 1911, and one of Great Britain on June 19 1921. On the
latter date no census of Ireland could be taken owing to its
disturbed condition, and the census in Great Britain was post-
poned from the customary month of April owing to the coal
dispute and attendant industrial troubles. The postponement
had certain effects upon the returns, such as enhancing the
TABLE i. Population ign, 1921.
Area
Population
Pop. per
sq. m. 1921
(or +1911)
Increase (+)
or decrease ( ) %
1921 (or +1911)
England
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
Isle of Man
Channel Islands
sq. m.
50,890
7,434
30,405
32,360
227
75
1911
34,045,290
2,025,202
4,760,904
4,390,219
52-016
96,899
1921
35-678,530
2,206,712
4,882,288
60,238
89,614
701
298
160
( + 135)
265
1,194
1901-11
+ 10-5
+ 17-7
+ 6-5
- i-5
Ti,
1911-21
+ 4'8
+ 9
+ 2-5
+ 15-8
- 7-7
Males
16,984,087
1,098,133
2,348,403
(+2,192,048)
27,321
41,264
Females
18,694,443
1,108,579
2,533,885
(+2,198,171)
32,917
48,350
period, but was 13% greater than in Jan. 1915. In New York
State employment in Dec. 1920 was 9%' greater than in Dec.
1914, and about equal to that in June 1914. In Jan. 1921
employment in Wisconsin declined 11-3%, the, greatest decline
in any single month since July 1920, making the total decline
since the first quarter of 1920, 29.5% and bringing the number
employed to the same as in the first quarter of 1915. The
number increased 1-6 in Feb. 1921, the first increase in manu-
facture as a whole since July; the number decreased 4-5% in
March, making a total decline since July 1920 of 32-4 per cent.
Metal industries suffered most. The climax of unemployment
in New York State came in Jan. 1921, but the increase of
employment during that month may have been due to seasonal
changes rather than to improvement in business conditions.
Between Feb. 1920 and Feb. 1921 the number employed in New
York State factories had decreased 23 per cent..
In Jan. 1921 an unemployment survey made by the U.S.
Employment Service for 35 states and the District of Columbia
showed 9,402,000 employed in Jan. 1920 and 6,070,648 employed
Jan. 1921, and estimated 3,473,446 as unemployed in the
country as a whole. The greatest reduction in employment
during this period was that of 82% in Michigan, 50% in Ohio
and Indiana, 44% in Illinois, 43% in Connecticut, 38% in
Massachusetts, 28% in New York, 32% in Wisconsin, 22% in
New Jersey. In establishments studied by the U.S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics, the greatest decreases between Feb. 1920
and Feb. 1921 were 44-2% in hosiery and underwear, and 41%
in automobile manufactures; the smallest decreases were 2% in
bituminous coal-mining and o-i % in cotton manufacturing.
apparent population of holiday resorts. Preliminary returns
for England and Wales, with total figures only for Scotland
and other parts of the United Kingdom excluding Ireland, were
issued in Aug. 1921 and are utilized in the following tables.
Where administrative areas are given, these are for the year 1921,
and the population figures for 1911 are adjusted to them.
The preliminary figures for 1921, for England and Wales,
reveal an increase in the decennial period of 4-93 %, a figure
proportionately much lower than ever recorded before. The
effect of the World War is clearly seen in the analysis, which
gives, for the intercensal period: births registered 8,275,400;
deaths registered in England and Wales, 5,266,900; loss due to
excess of outward over inward emigration 1,193,750, of which
560,000 is estimated as representing deaths of non-citizens
outside the United Kingdom; leaving a net intercensal increase
of 1,814,750. The increase % in intercensal periods is given
thus for major divisions:
1901-11
Wales 1 8- 1
Midland counties .
Northern counties
London and adjacent counties
Southern counties .
Eastern counties .
1911-21
9
1 1-2 5-9
10-3 4-9
ii 4-4
9-5 3-9
7'6 3
The urban pop. of England and Wales is given as 78-1% of
the whole in 1911 and 79-3% in 1921; the rural as 21-9% in
1911 and 20-7% in 1921. A future effect of the World War is
seen in the increased preponderance of females over males, which,
for England and Wales, was as 1,064 to 1,000 in 1901, 1,068 to
1,000 in 1911, and 1,095 to 1,000 in 1921. .
840
UNITED KINGDOM
TABLE II. English and Welsh Counties.
Area in
Increase
Statute
(+) or
Acres
Popula-
Popula-
decrease
Name
(Land and
Inland
tion
1911
tion
1921
.(-)
between
Water)
1911 and
1921
England :
Bedford .
302,942
194,588
206,478
+ 11,890
Berkshire
454,725
193,101
202,533
+9,432
Buckingham .
479,36o
219,551
236,209
+ 16,658
Cambridge
315,168
128,322
129.594
+ 1,272
Isle of Ely .
238,073
69,752
73.778
+4,026
Cheshire
640,791
597,771
625,001
+27,230
Cornwall
868,167
328,098
320,559
-7,539
Cumberland .
968,598
213,521
220,437
+6,916
Derbyshire .
645,097
560,013
584.703
+24,690
Devonshire
1,660,948
433.162
440,021
+6,861
Dorsetshire .
625,612
223,266
228,258
+4,992
Durham .
633,058
871,886
943.670
+7L784
Essex
964,443
857,688
918,111
+60.423
Gloucester
785,088
328,964
329.277
+313
Hereford
538,924
114,269
113,118
-1,151
Hertford
404,523
311,284
333.236
+21,952
Huntingdon .
233,985
55,577
54.748
829
Kent
971,990
1,020,965
1,118,129
+97.164
Lancashire
1,054,741
1,699.938
1,746,418
+46,480
Leicester
524-197
249,331
260,332
+ 11,001
Lincoln:
Holland .
263,355
82,280
85.225
+2,945
Kesteven .
469,142
107,832
108,237
+405
Lindsey
963,800
237-843
260,294
+22,451
London . .
74,850
4,521,685
4,483,249
-38,436
Middlesex
148,692
1,126,465
1,253,164
+ 126,699
Monmouth
345,048
312,028
358,331
+46,303
Norfolk .
1.303,568
321.721
322,914
+ I.I93
Northants
581,679
213.733
211,507
2,226
Soke of Peter-
borough
53-464
44-718
46,954
+2,236
Northumber-
land
1,278,691
371,474
407,397
+35,923
Nottingham .
529,188
344.197
378,476
+34-279
Oxfordshire .
474,501
136,435
132,506
-3,930
Rutland .
97-273
20,346
18,368
-1,978
Shropshire
861,800
246,307
242.959
-3.348
Somerset
1,032,442
388,836
397.034
+8,198
Southampton
Isle of Wight .
935,195
94,146
404,541
88,186
410,223
94.697
+5-682
+6,511
Stafford .
707-177
670,380
711,003
+40,623
Suffolk, East .
549-241
203,223
211,623
+8,400
Suffolk, West
390,916
116,905
108,982
7,923
Surrey
452,821
676,027
739.500
+63,473
Sussex, East .
517,040
242,146
261,253
+ 19,107
Sussex, West .
401,916
176,308
'95-795
+ 19,487
Warwick
557,527
300,867
342,449
+41,582
Westmorland
504,917
63,575
65-740
+2,165
Wiltshire
864,101
286,822
292,213
+5,391
Worcester
451,144
287,456
301,120
+ 13,664
Yorkshire :
E. Riding .
741.073
154,768
173,704
+ 18,936
N. Riding .
1,357-899
299,636
325,209
+25,573
W. Riding .
Wales:
1,652,647
1,415,248
1,508,610
+93,362
Anglesey
176,630
50,928
51,695
+767
Brecknock
469,281
59,287
61,257
+ 1.970
Cardigan
443,189
59,879
61,292
+I.4I3
Carmarthen .
Carnarvon
Denbighshire
588,472
366,005
426,080
160,406
125,043
144,783
175,069
131.034
154,847
+ 14,633
+5,991
+ 10,064
Flintshire
163,707
92,705
106,466
+ I3,76l
Glamorgan
474.607
713,664
814,717
+ 101,053
Merioneth
422,372
45,565
45-450
-"5
Montgomery .
510,110
53,146
51.317
1,829
Pembroke
393,003
89,960
92,056
+2,096
Radnorshire .
301,165
22,590
23,528
+938
Total for 62 coun-
ties . . .
36,700,304
24,150,992
25,302,076
+1,152,132
TABLE III. English and Welsh County Boroughs.
82 County
Boroughs
640,034
11,919,500
12,583,166
663,666
'Barnsley
Barrow-in-
Furness .
Bath .
Birkenhead
Birmingham
2,385
II.OO2
5,152
3,909
43,6oi
50,614
63,770
69,173
130,794
840,202
53,670
74,254
68,648
145,592
919,438
+3,056
+ 10,484
-525
+ 14,798
+79,236
TABLE III. (Continue.
Name of Towns
Area in
Statute
Acres
Popula-
tion
1911
Popula-
tion
1921
Increase
(+)or
decrease
(-) be-
tween 1911
and 1921
Blackburn .
7,420
133,052
126,630
6,422
Blackpool .
5,i89
60,746
99,640
+38,894
Bolton
15,280
180,851
178,678
-2,173
Bootle
1,947
69,876
76,508
+6,632
Bournemouth
Bradford .
6,545
22,881
79,183
288,458
91,770
285,979
+ 12,587
-2,479
Brighton . .
2,545
131,237
142,427
+ 11,190
Bristol
18,436
357,114
377,o6i
+ 19,947
Burnley . .
4,620
106,765
103,175
-3,590
Burton-upon-
Trent .
4,203
48,266
48,927
+661
Bury .
5,925
59,040
56,426
2,614
Canterbury
3,975
24,626
23,738
-888
'Carlisle . .
4,488
52,225
52,600
+375
Chester
2,863
39,028
40,794
+ 1,766
Coventry .
4.H7
106,349
128,205
+21,856
Croydon
9,012
169,551
190,877
+21,326
'Darlington .
4,614
57,328
65,866
+8,538
Derby
5,272
123,410
129,836
+6,426
'Dewsbury .
6,720
53,351
54,165
+814
Dudley
3,546
51,079
55,908
+4,829
'Eastbourne .
6,474
52,542
62,030
+9,488
East Ham .
3,324
133.487
143,304
+9,8i7
Exeter .
4,705
59,092
59,6o8
+516
Gateshead .
3,132
116,917
I24,5M
+7,597
Gloucester .
2,318
50,035
51,330
+ 1,295
Great Yarmouth
3,598
55,905
60,710
+4,805
Grimsby
2,868
74,659
82,329
+7,670
Halifax
13,984
101,553
99,129
-2,424
Hastings
4,496
61,145
66,496
+5,351
Huddersfield
n,875
107,821
110,120
+2,299
Hull .
9,042
277,991
287,013
+9,022
Ipswich
8,112
73,932
79,383
+5,451
Leeds .
28,090
454,155
458,320
+4,165
Leicester .
8,582
227,222
234,190
+6,968
Lincoln
6,128
61,346
66,020
+4,674
Liverpool .
21,242
753,353
803,118
+49,765
Manchester
21,690
7H,385
730,55'
+ 16,166
Middlesbrough .
4.159
119,910
131,103
+ 11,193
Newcastle-upon-
Tyne
8,452
266,603
274,955
+8,352
Newport (Mon.)
4.504
83,691
92,369
+8,678
Northampton .
3,469
90,064
90,923
+859
Norwich
7,898
121,490
120,653
-837
Nottingham
io,935
259,901
262,658
+2,757
Oldham
4,735
147,483
145,001
-2,482
Oxford
4,7J9
53,048
57,052
+4.004
Plymouth .
5,7"
207,449
209,857
+2,408
Portsmouth
7,964
233,573
247,343
+ 13,770
Preston
3,964
117,088
117,426
+338
Reading
9,105
87.693
92,274
+4,58i
Rochdale .
6,446
91,428
90,807
-621
Rotherham
5,957
62,483
68,045
+5,562
St. Helen's
7,284
96,551
102,67=
+6,124
Sal ford
5,202
231,357
234,150
+2,793
Sheffield . .
24,930
460,183
490,724
+30,541
Smethwick
1,929
70,694
75,757
+5,063
Southampton
9,192
145,096
160,997
+ 15,901
'Southend-on-Sea
7,082
70,676
106,021
+35.345
Southport .
9,728
69,643
76,644
+7,ooi
South Shields .
2,399
108,647
116,667
+8,020
Stockport .
7,063
119,870
123,315
+3,445
Stoke-on-Trent .
11,142
234.534
240,440
+5.906
Sunderland
3,357
151,159
159,100
+7,94'
Tynemouth
'Wakefield .
4,372
4,060
58,816
51,5"
63,786
52,892
+4,970
+ 1,381
'Wallasey .
3,324
78,504
90,721
+ 12,217
Walsall
7,483
92,115
96,964
+4,849
Warrington
3,057
72,166
76,811
+4,645
West Bromwich
5,859
68,332
73,76i
+5,429
West Ham
4,683
289,030
300,905
+ 11,875
West Hartlepool
2,684
63,923
68,689
+4,766
Wigan
5,083
89,152
89,447
+295
Wolverhampton
3,525
95,328
102,373
+7,045
Worcester .
3,662
49,153
48,848
-305
York .
3,730
82,282
84,052
+ 1,770
Wales
Cardiff
6,489
182.259
200,262
+ 18,003
Merthyr Tydfil .
17,760
80,990
80,161
-829
Swansea
21,600
143,997
157,561
+ 13,564
1 County boroughs created since 1911.
UNITED KINGDOM
841
TABLE IV. Chief Municipal Boroughs and Urban Districts
(England and Wales).
Name
Area in
Statute
Acres
Popula-
tion
1911
Popula-
tion
1921
Increase
(+)or
Decrease
(-)
Aberdare .
15,184
50,830
55.010
+4,180
Accrington
3,427
45,029
43,610
-1,419
Ashton-under-
Lyne
1,345
45,172
43,333
-1,839
Barry .
3,726
33,763
38,927
+5,164
Bedford
2,223
39,i83
40,247
+1,064
'Cambridge
5,457
55,812
59,262
+3,450
Chatham
4,356
42,250
42,665
+4'5
Cheltenham
4,726
48,942
48,444
-498
Chesterfield
8,474
55,309
61,236
+5,927
Colchester .
",333
43,452
43,377
-75
Crewe .
2,184
44,960
46,477
+ i,5i7
Darwen
5,959
40,332
37,913
-2,419
Doncaster .
4,831
48,455
54,052
+5,597
Dover
1,948
43,645
39,985
-3,66o
Eccles .
2,057
41,944
44- 2 37
. +2,293
Enfield
12,602
56,338
60,743
+4.405
Finchley
3,304
39,419
46,719
+7.300
Gillingham
4,988
52,252
54,038
+ 1,786
iHendon
8,382
38,806
56,014
+ 17,208
fieston and Isle-
worth
6,851
43,313
46,729
+3,416
Hornsey
2,875
84,592
87,691
+3.099
Hove .
' 1,543
42,173
46,519
+4.346
Ilford .
8,496
78,188
85-191
+7,003
Keighley
3.902
43,487
41,942
-1,545
Lancaster .
3,482
41,410
40,226
-1,184
Llanelly
2,069
32,071
36,504
+4,433
Leigh .
6,359
44,103
45,545
+1,442
Leyton
2,594
124,735
128,432
+3-697
Lowestoft .
3,327
37,886
44,326
+6,440
Luton .
3,132
49,978
57,077
+7,099
Peterborough
1,878
33,574
35,533
+ 1,959
Poole .
7,964
38,885
43,661
+4-776
Rhondda .
23,886
152,781
162,729
+9,948
Scarborough
2,727
37-224
46,192
+8,968
Stockton-on-
Tees
5,465
58,521
64,150
+5,629
Stratford
3,240
42,496
46,535
+4-039
Swindon
4,265
50,751
54,920
+4-169
Torquay
3,906
38,771
39-432
+661
Tottenham
3,014
137,418
146,695
+9-277
Wallsend
3,420
41,461
43,013
+1-552
Walthamstow .
4,343
124,580
127,441
+2,86l
Watford .
2,238
40,946
45,910
+4,964
Wimbledon
3,221
54.966
61,451
+6,485
Willesden .
4,385
154,214
165,669
+ "-455
Wood Green
1,626
49,369
50,716
+ 1-347
TABLE V. Scottish Counties.
Area In
Statute
I
Name
Acres
(exclusive
of Inland
Popula-
tion
Popula-
tion
Increase
(+)or
Decrease
Water,
1911
1921
f 1
TidalWater
\ /
and
Foreshore)
Aberdeen .
1,261,521
312,177
300,980
-11,197
Argyll . . .
1,990,472
70,902
76,856
+5,954
'Ayr
724,523
268,337
299,254
+30,917
Banff .
403,053
61,402
57,293
-4,109
Berwick
292,535
29,643
28,395
1,248
Bute .
139,658
18,186
33,7"
+ 15,525
Caithness .
Clackmannan .
438,833
34,927
32,010
31,121
28,284
32,543
-3,726
+1,422
Dumbarton
157,433
136,233
150,868
+ H,635
Dumfries .
686,302
72,825
75,365
+2,540
East Lothian
(Haddington)
170,971
43,254
47,487
+4-233
Fife .
322,844
267,733
292,902
+25,169
Forfar . ' .
559-037
281,417
270,950
10,467
Inverness .
2,695,094
87,272
. 82,446
4,826
Kincardine
244,482
41,008
41,779
+771
Kinross
Kirkcudbright .
52,410
575,832
7,527
38,367
7,963
37,156
+436
1,211
Lanark
562,821
1,486,118
1,539,307
+53.189
Midlothian
(Edinburgh) .
Moray (Elgin) .
234,325
304,931
507,666
43,427
506,378
4i,56i
-1,288
-1,866
TABLE V. (Continued).
Area in
Statute
Name
Acres
(exclusive
of Inland
Popula-
tion
Popula-
tion
Increase
* (+) or
Water,
1911
1921
Decrease
(\
TidalWater
-)
and
Foreshore)
Nairn .
104,252
9-319
8,790
-529
Orkney
240,847
25,897
24,109
-1,788
Peebles
222,240
15,258
15,330
+72
Perth .
1,595,802
124,342
125,515
+1,173
Renfrew
153,332
279,066
298,887
+19,821
Ross and Cro-
marty
1,97,7,248
77,364
70,790
-6,574
Roxburgh
426,028
47,192
44,989
-2,203
Selkirk
170,793
24,601
22,606
-1,995
Shetland
352,319
27,911
25,520
2,391
Stirling
288,842
160,991
161,726
+735
Sutherland
I,297,9H
20,179
17,800
-2,379
West Lothian
(Linlithgow) .
76,861
80,161
83,966
+3,805
Wigtown
3",984
31,998
30,782
1,216
19,070,466
4,760,904
4,882,288
+ 121,384
TABLE VI. Scottish Burghs, over 30,000 inhabitants.
Burgh
Population
Increase (+)
or Decrease ( )
1911
1921
Glasgow . .
784,455
1,034,069
+249,614
Edinburgh
320,315
420,281
+99,966
Dundee .
165,006
168,217
+3,211
Aberdeen .
163,084
158,969
-4."5
Paisley .
84,477
84-837
+440
Greenock '
75-140
81,120
+5,98o
Motherwell and
Wishaw
65,895
68,869
+2-974 1
Clydebank .
37-547
46,515
+8,968
Coatbridge .
43-287
43,909
+622
Dunfermline .
29,213
39,886
+10,673 *
Kirkcaldy
39,600
39,591
9
Hamilton
38,644
39-420
r +776
Kilmarnock .
34,729
35,756
+1,027
Ayr .
32,985
35,741
+2,756
Falkirk .
33,569
33.312
-257
Perth .
35,851
33,208
-2,643
1 Motherwell and Wishaw were united in 1920.
2 Boundary altered 1911.
TABLE VII. Irish Provinces and Counties.
Provinces and
Counties
(including
County
Boroughs)
Popula-
tion
1911
Inc. or
Dec.
per
cent
on
1901
Provinces and
Counties
(including
County
Boroughs)
Popula-
tion
1911
Inc. or
Dec.
per
cent
on
1901
Connaught:
Galway .
Leitrim .
Mayo
Roscommon
Sligo
181,686
63,557
191,969
93,904
78,850
-5-6
-8-3
-3-6
-7-7
-6-2
Munster:
Clare
Cork, E. R.
Cork, W.R.
Kerry
Limerick .
Tip N pe R ary :
Tipperary,
S. R. .
Waterford
104,064
267,472
123,718
159,268
142,846
63,958
87,993
83,766
-7-4
-1-9
-6-2
-3-9
2-2
-5-7
-4-8
-3-9
Total Prov-
ince .
609,966
-5-7
Leinster:
Carlow .
Dublin .
Kildare .
Kilkenny
King's
Longford
Louth
Meath .
Queen's .
Westmeath
Wexford .
Wicklow .
36,151
476,909
66,498
74,821
56,769
43,794
63,402
64,920
54,362
59,812
109,287
60,603
-4-2
+6-4
+4-6
-5-5
-5/7
6-2
-3-8
-5-3
-2-9
-1-7
- -4
Total Prov-
ince .
1,033,085
-4-0
Ulster :_
Antrim
Armagh .
Cavan
Donegal .
Down
Fermanagh
London-
derry .
Monaghan
Tyrone .
478,603
119,625
91,071
168,420
304,589
61,811
140,621
71,395
142,437
+3-7
-4-6
-6-6
-3-1
+5-2
-5-5
-2-6
-4-3
-5-4
Total Prov-
ince .
1,160,328
+0-7
Total Prov-
ince .
1,578,572
-0-3
842
UNITED KINGDOM
TABLE VIII. Largest Irish Towns.
Popula-
tion
Inc. or
Dec.
per
cent on
1901
Popula-
tion
Inc. or
Dec.
per
cent on
1901
1911
Rate
per
cent
1911
Rate
per
cent
Dublin and
Suburbs:
Dublin
City .
Rathmines
& Rath-
gar
Pembroke
Kingstown
Blackrock
309,272
38,190
29,260
17,227
9,081
+6-4
+ I7-I
+ 13-4
-0-9
+4-2
Belfast
Cork
London-
derry .
Limerick .
Waterford
Galway .
Dundalk .
Drogheda
Lurgan
Lisburn .
Sligo
Kilkenny
Clonmel .
385,492
76,632
40,799
38,403
27,430
13,249
13,128
12,425
12,135
12,172
11,163
10,513
10,277
+ 10-4
+0-7
+2-3
+0-7
+2-5
-1-3
+0-4
-2-6
-3-o
+6-2
+2-7
-0-9
+ i-i
Total .
Newry
Portadown
Wexford .
Ballymena
403-030
",956
11,727
",455
ii,376
+7-4
-3-6
+ 16-2
+2-6
+4-5
Vital Statistics. In the separate section below (Medical
Examination of the Nation) the results of the physical census
held during the war are discussed. The birth-rate, death-rate,
and marriage-rate for the United Kingdom are given in Table
IX. for various years down to 1919. The figures per thou-
sand, for 1916 and following years, are based upon estimates of
the population in which allowance is made for conditions of
military service, and, in the case of the death-rate, upon the
deaths and presumed total number of civilians.
TABLE IX. Birth-rate.
1910
1914
1916
1918
1919
England .
Scotland .
Ireland
25-1
26-2
22-6
23-8
26-1
22-6
20-8
22-8
2O-9
17-7
20-2
19-9
18-3
21-7
20-0
TABLE X. Death-rate.
1910
1914
1916
1918
1919
England
Scotland .
Ireland
13-5
15-3
17-1
14-0
15-5
16-3
14-4
14-6
16-13
17-6
16-0
18-0
13-7
15-4
17-9
TABLE XI. Marriage-rate.
Year
England and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
United
Kingdom
Total
per
IOOO
Total
per
IOOO
Total
per
IOOO
Total
per
IOOO
1910
1912
1914
1916
1918
1919
267,721
283,834
294,401
279,846
287,163
369,4"
15-0
15-6
15-9
14-9
15-3
19-7
30,902
32,506
35,028
31,483
34,594
44.137
13-0
13-7
14-8
I3-I
14-2
18-0
22,112
23,283
23,695
22,245
22,570
27,193
IO-I
10-6
10-8
IO-2
10-3
12-2
320,735
339,623
353,124
333,574
344,327
440,741
14-3
14-9
15-3
14-2
14-7
18-9
Emigration. Table XII. shows the number of emigrants, dis-
tinguishing English and Welsh, Scottish, and Irish, who left
the United Kingdom in 1910 and 1913. During the war emigra-
tion decreased, and full particulars for years during and since
the war were not available in 1921.
TABLE XII. Emigration.
Year
English and
Welsh'
Scottish
Irish
Total
1910
1913
241,767
285,899
78,040
59,047
50,810
44,662
370,617
389,608
In 1915, 104,919 British subjects left for places outside Europe.
Occupations. Table XIII. shows the occupations of the people
(excluding children under ten years old), as distinguished in
six great groups, or unoccupied and unspecified, according to
the census of 1911.
TABLE XIII. Occupations.
England &
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
Government Defence
/ 299,599 \
1205,817;
47,408
Professional
714,621
81,675
131,035
Domestic
2,121,717
201,066
219,418
Commercial
2,214,031
283,465
97,889
Agricultural and Fish-
ing
1,260,476
227,111
876,062
Industrial .
9,468,138
1,226,242
639,413
Unoccupied and Un-
specified .
12,234,914
1,647,434
2,494,958
Pauperism. Table XIV. gives particulars in regard to the
number of persons receiving poor relief in England and Wales
on Jan. i in each year.
TABLE XIV. Pauperism.
Jan. 1st
Institutional
Domiciliary
Lunatics &
Casuals
Total
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
264,292
258,962
226,466
215,283
198,493
183,110
186.273
388,917
394.843
354,325
321,813
296,104
287,244
305,822
108,509
108,255
103,758
100,231
92,188
84,263
84,323
761,718
762,060
684,549
637,327
586,785
554,617
576,418
In Scotland, on May 15 1916, the figures for paupers were
95,857, and on the same day in 1917, 89,779. Figures for Ireland,
on Mar. 31 in each year, were: 1914, 76,093; 1915, 73,508; 1916,
68,864; 1917, 67,522.
A griculture. (See also the article AGRICULTURE) . The depres-
sion in British agriculture, which set in in 1879 and culminated
in 1894, continued to show some abatement down to 1914, al-
though in that year arable land in the United Kingdom amounted
only to 19,414,166 ac. against 24,092,075 ac. in 1870, and
wheat production only to 7,804,041 quarters against 13,419,496
quarters. British agriculture had turned away from the cultiva-
tion of cereals and towards the raising of stock. At the out-
break of the World War, therefore, Britain, as a country import-
ing the vastly greater proportion of its food-stuffs, was faced
with the possibility of a shortage and of an adverse effect upon
exchanges owing to compulsory importation, at enhanced prices,
while countervailing exports necessarily diminished. The
researches of various Royal Commissions, the efforts of the
Government and public bodies, and the effect of high prices,
resulted, from the early part of 1917, in a large extension of
arable cultivation, 1,497,293 ac. being added to the area under
tillage in Great Britain in 1917-8.
Tables XV. and XVI. show the total area of arable land and of
permanent grass in the four divisions of the United Kingdom
for each year 1912-20.
TABLE XV. Arable Land.
June 4th
England
acres
Wales
acres
Scotland
acres
Ireland
acres
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
10,596,843
10,361,849
10,306,467
10,272,673
10,302,153
10,454,149
11,463,679
11,412,353
11,180,322
738,433
696,384
691,787
693,034
748,948
791,957
934,961
896,523
839.423
3,325,027
3.301,954
3,295,487
3,289,902
3,303,741
3,360,562
3,453.495
3,408,479
3,380,237
4,988,420
4,978,580
5,027,082
4.998.903
5,050,234
5,046,008
5,271,830
TABLE XVI. Permanent Grass.
June 4th
England
acres
Wales
acres
Scotland
acres
Ireland
acres
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
13,817,650
14,012,946
14,061,042
14,038,071
14,015,840
13,868,721
12,798,361
12,656,945
12,667,104
2,021,764
2,058,203
2,054,708
2,049,322
2,007,143
1,966,654
1,790,511
1,782,132
1.820,162
1,496,307
1,495,965
,490,694
,491,495
,471,765
,415,761
,307,606
,342,996
,358.809
9,685,358
9,712,567
9,715,684
9,720,785
9,664,043
9,308,546
9- I 2i,i45
UNITED KINGDOM
843
Table XVII. shows the production, for the United Kingdom,
of certain principal crops.
TABLE XVII. Principal Crops.
June
4th
Wheat
Quarters
Barley
Quarters
Oats
Quarters
Potatoes
Tons
Hops
(England)
Cwt.
1912
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
7.175,288
7,804,041
9,239,355
7,471,884
8,040,352
11,643,000
8,665,000
7,104,000
7,275,900
8,065,678
5,862,244
6,612,550
7,184,843
7,760,000
7,213,000
8,211,000
20,600,079
20,663,537
22,308,395
21,333,782
26,020,909
31,196,000
25,495,000
22,609,000
5,726,342
7,476,458
7,540,240
5,468,881
8,603,820
9,223,000
6,312,000
6,374,000
373,438
507,258
254,609
307,856
220,719
130,000
189,000
281,000
Fisheries. The war had a profound effect upon British fish-
eries. They were restricted not merely by military operations,
but also by the diversion of so many fishermen and vessels to na-
val service. The figures in Table XVIII. illustrate the limitation
of production and the increase of prices.
TABLE XVIII. Fisheries.
Year
Wet Fish Landed
Value of '
Wet Fish
Value
of Shell
Fish
Eng. & W.
Cwt.
Scotland
Cwt.
Ireland
Cwt.
U.K.
Cwt.
1910
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
13,117,681
16,152,374
10,124,809
5,785,233
4,244,181
4,051,613
4,681,000
8,709,655
7,828,350
7,440,321
2,319,390
3,412,030
3,079,768
3,313,228
1,041,351
676,392
589,996
550,194
566,137
662,755
760,986
22,868,687
24,657,116
18,155,126
8,654,817
8,222,348
7,794,136
8,755,214
11,382,740
14,229,311
11,228,829
9,776,729
10,815,569
13.442,654
21,132,924
357,314
463,642
401,812
389,174
437,804
453,984
590,211
Minerals and Mining. Tables XIX. and XX. show the output
and value of minerals raised and metals manufactured in the
United Kingdom in 1910, 1914, 1917 and 1919, and illustrate
the inflation of prices during and since the war. The figures for
1917 also indicate the effect of the war upon output, but at the
same time demonstrate that coal production, in spite of all
difficulties, was not permitted to decline to the extent that is
seen in other cases.
For coal production and statistics see COAL. Iron ore raised
in the various counties of the United Kingdom and in the most
productive counties in England is shown in Table XXI. in tons
for the years 1910, 1915, and 1919.
TABLE XXI. Iron Ore Production.
1910
Tons
1915
Tons
'919
Tons
England
Cumberland
I.334-75I
1,323,408
982,143
Lancashire ....
408,090
338,086
231,534
Leicester ....
560,410
685,137
534,595
Lincoln ....
2,128,161
2,806,989
2,787,322
Northampton
2,649,539
2,517,150
2,202,177
Stafford ....
913,006
703,231
704,376
York .....
6,198,411
4,821,465
3,732,476
England (including other
counties) ....
14,471,108
13,729,146
11,863,597
Wales
4M55
91,299
65,974
Scotland . .
648,415
375,241
308,721
Ireland
65,037
39,326
15,903
The home production of tin ore (almost exclusively in the
S.W. of England) is shown in Table XXII. to have had some
revival in 1910-14, with a marked increase in world prices in
and about 1912, and a further increase during the war, followed
by a, decrease at its close. ,
TABLE XXII. Tin Ore Production.
Year
Tin Ore
Tons
Value
1910
1912
1914 .
1916
1917
1919
7.572
8,166
8,085
7,893
6,573
5,156
655,871
1,012,290
661,865
712,142
784,493
678,82^
Textile Industries. The quantities of raw cotton imported, ex-
ported and retained for consumption are given in Table XXIII.
for 1910, 1912, 1914 and subsequent years. The restriction of
export imposed by war conditions is most clearly illustrated
by the figure for 1918. The figures for wool are given in
Table XXIV. on the following page.
TABLE XXIII. Cotton.
Year
Imported
Ib.
, Exported
Ib.
Retained
Ib.
1910
1912
1914
1915
1916
1918
1919
1,972,741,120
2,805,817,800
1,864,133,300
2,647,616,100
2,171,002,200
1,489,083,000
1,958,286,700
256,100,768
323,801,100
216,263,500
343,638,000
237,472,800
352,ooo
121,131,600
1,716,640,352
2,482,016,700
1,647,869,800
2,303,978,100
1.933,529,400
1,488,731,000
1,837,155,100
TABLE XIX. Mining Production.
1910
1914
1917
1919
Description of Metal
Tons
Value
Tons
Value
Tons
Value
Tons
Value
Coal
264,433,028
108,377,567
265,664,393
132,596,853
248,499,240
207,786,894
229,779,517
314,113,160
Iron Ore
15,226,015
4,022,269
14,867,582
3,921,683
14,845,734
6,429,620
12,254,195
7,428,366
Clay and Shale
14,090,320
1,761,410
13,124,361
1,731,779
5.842,675
1,393,858
7,765,965
2,358,522
Sandstone
4,386,281
1,300,705
3,464,528
1,057,096
1,613,379
563,119
1,699,853
97L329
Slate ......
416,324
1,063,994
318,912
806,196
121,524
366,124
164,098
844,394
Limestone ....
12,512,736
1,296,169
12,158,441
1,295,512
10,454,717
1,722,199
9,537,495
2,431,627
(not chalk)
Igneous Rocks ....
6,608,705
1,263,410
7,135.243
1,369,242
4,239,405
1,049,121
4-387,703
1,720,932
Oil Shale
3,130,280
860,827
3,268,666
837,249
3,"7,658
1,280,007
2,763,875
1,567,050
Tin Ore (dressed) .
7,572
655.871
8,085
661,865
6,576
784,493
5,156
678,823
Salt
2,050,630
581,504
2,069,989
560,893
2,013,388
1,318,944
1,908,080
2,079,011
TABLE XX. Output of Metals.
Description of Metal
1910
1914
1917
1919
Tons
Value
Tons
Value
Tons
Value
Tons
Value
_
Iron .
Tin
Lead . . . . .
Zinc
Copper
Gold Bar
Silver .
4-975,735
4,797
21,522
4,168
449
2,427 oz.
136,665 oz.
17,008,812
738,025
283,194
99,823
27,570
8,088
14,058
4,786,090
5,056
19,378
5,208
341
99 oz.
146,444 oz.
17,953,057
800,547
371,977
121,585
22,777
333
15,445
4,688,063
3,936
11,250
2,735
187
75,472 oz.
43,271,614'
935,407
337,500
142,699
25,141
12,854
3,808,095
3,272
10,277
2,436
144
68,414 oz.
51,511,064
842,485
289,769
102,951
14,176
16,266
1 Calculated on the value of pig iron exported.
8 4 4
UNITED KINGDOM
TABLE XXIV. Wool.
Year
Imports
Ib.
Exports of Im-
ports Ib.
Retained
Ib.
1910
1912
1914
1915
1916
1918
1919
803,295,083
810,494,862
7i7,i22,-475
934-495.242
624,823,286
420,559,105
1,046,704,166
335,222,545
337,941,504
295,487,373
122,990,049
45,381,652
20,500,264
169,474,718
468,072,538
472,553,358
421,635,102
811,505,193
579,441,634
400,058,841
877,229,448
Commerce. Table XXV. shows the value of imports from
other countries to the United Kingdom, and of exports to
other countries from the United Kingdom, in 1910, 1915 and
1919; and Tables XXVI. and XXVII. (p. 845) show the chief
imports into, and exports from, the United Kingdom.
TABLE XXV. Imports and Exports.
1910
1915
1919
I. BRITISH POSSESSIONS:
India and
Ceylon . Imports
48,751,021
74,411,031
124,982,208
Exports
48,320,012
47,560,290
73-328,775
Straits Settle-
ments, Ma-
laysia and
Hong-Kong Imports
13,692,223
20,925,355
30,665,036
Exports
8,190,185
6,380,438
11,976,007
Africa . . Imports
16,186,605
48,325.974
115,648,393
Exports
26,566,138
34,840,681
54,281,137
Canada and
Newfound-
land . . Imports
26,238,649
42,206,548
117,843,141
Exports
20,606,889
13.636,894
16,521,681
West Indies,
Bermudas,
Honduras
and Guiana Imports
3.232,433
5,707,326
13,486,215
Exports
3,265,706
2,773.380
3,109,863
Australia . Imports
38,584,370
45,190,148
111,403,971
Exports
27,652/567
28,965,698
26,306,421
New Zealand Imports
20,943^42
30,407,581
52,703,816
Exports
8,652,716
9,373.843
9.593.J53
Other . . Imports
2,821,823
4,651,264
15,827,859
Exports
4,048,929
4,888,460
10,503,277
II. FOREIGN COUNTRIES:
France . . Imports
46,692,355
34,528,585
52,259,323
Exports
24,930,142
72,119,948
155-593,536
Germany . Imports
62,094,634
526,886
3,202,516
Exports
37,432,603 l
155,673
549,575
Belgium . Imports
19-195-974
2,931,025'
10,1 io,373 s
Exports
10,886,704
624,207
49,202,523
Holland . Imports
18,527,965
23,418,757
21,658,430
Exports
12,695,074
18,036,837
34,315,945
Denmark,
Faeroe, Ice-
land, Green-
land . . Imports
19,671,884
22,894,308
9,791,098
Exports
5,580,865
8,008,689
34,972,425
Norway . Imports
6,630,746
13,690,481
17,067,379
Exports
4-033,195
7,286,938
27,437,672
Sweden . Imports
1 1 ,825,079
19,801,659
35,583,568
Exports
6,697,967
6,278,672
24,483,000
Austria-Hun-
gary . . Imports
7,5",865
48,531
505,813
Exports
4,001,053
1,459,448
Rumania . Imports
3,184414
5,276
2,742
Exports
1,826,652
492,378
5,585,085
Greece . . Imports
2,286,871
3,934,622
10,440,500
Exports
1,545,863
2,467,439
6,914-713
Italy . . Imports
6,458,736
11,258,452
14,635,183
Exports
12,530,583
13,929,053
27,756,885
Spain . . Imports
I5,35l.o86
20,764,004
39,010,162
Exports
6,231,797
7,261,540
12,668,021
Portugal . Imports
3,470,873
5,318,000
13,879,719
Exports
6,328,622
4,703,533
9,579-873
Russia . . Imports
43,644,648
21,424,998
16,370,377
Exports
12,252,556
13,432,172
12,993,681
Turkey . . Imports
4,668,076
1,303,348
9,284,659
Exports
8,636,666
433,o87 3
22,160,138*
Japan . . Imports
4.327,299
9,379,432
23,871,012
Exports
10,121,919
4,876,655
12,913,373
China . . Imports
5,529,530
7,034,852
23,052,935
Exports
9,171,672
8,545,505
20,969,728
TABLE XXV. (Continued).
1910
1915
1919
L
II. FOREIGN COUNTRIES (Continued):
Netherlands
India . Imports
4,029,389
14.474,398
22,394,183
Exports
4.075,825
6,162,284
9,029,752
Other Coun-
tries in Asia Imports
1,238,856
2,562,891
3-"3,54i
Exports
1,312,710
1,757,576
3,411,910
Egypt . . Imports
21,004,468
4
4
Exports
8,717,330
U.S.A. . Imports
117,607,435
237,773,576
541,553,171
Exports
31-446,730
26,167,551
33,913,239
Mexico and
Central
American
States . Imports
3-582,859
4,520,801
8,641,032
Exports
3,342,446
771,452
2,313,059
Brazil . . Imports
17,496,568
8,256,879
10,821,100
Exports
16,426,985
5,I5M70
10,741,637
Argentina . Imports
29-009,738
63,876,814
81,730,319
Exports
19,097,985
11,516,158
21,217,210
Chile . . Imports
S-lSi-737
9-585,247
7,344,655
Exports
5-479-556
1,791,131
4-779,253
Africa . . Imports
1,413,642
1,974,844
3,581,519
Exports
1-747,570
1-999,297
6,063,998
South Americalmports
9- 3 i, 443
11,247,707
25,874,754
Exports
7,200,996
4,481,388
9,556,626
Other Coun-
tries . . Imports
17-038,588
27-541,750
39,804,960
Exports
9-330,539
7,998,131
17,738,366
Total for Brit-
ish Posses-
sions . . Imports
170,450,266
271,825,227
582,570,639
Exports
147,302,942
148,419,684
205,620,314
Total for For-
eign Coun-
tries . . Imports
507,806,758
580,068,123
1,043.585,573
Exports
283,081,830
236,448,764
593,015,062
Grand Total Imports
678,257,024
851.893,350
I,626,I56,O62
Exports
430,384,772
384,868,448
1,798,635,376
1 From German possessions in W. Africa.
1 Includes Belgian Congo after 1914.
3 To territory formerly Turkish, now occupied by other Powers.
4 Included under British possessions from 1915.
The proportion of imports and exports per head of popula-
tion of the United Kingdom was approximately as follows:
Year
Imports
Exports
s. d.
1520
s. d.
9 II 8
1912
1914 .
1915-1919
Average ....
16 7 3
15 2 4
25 3 6
10 14 2
9 6 II
ii 15 o
Parliamentary Representation. Under the Representation of
the People Act, 1918, there was a complete redistribution of
seats. Tables XXVIII. to XXXV. show the new Parliamentary
arrangements for England, Wales and Scotland.
TABLE XXVIII. London Parliamentary Boroughs.
Name of Borough
No.
of
Mem-
bers
Name of Borough
No.
of
Mem-
bers
Battersea
2
Lambeth
4
Bermondsey .
Bethnal Green
2
2
Lewisham
Paddington
2
2
Camberwell .
4
Poplar .
2
Chelsea .
i
St. Marylebo
le
I
City of London
2
St. Pancras
3
Deptford
I
Shoreditch
I
Finsbury .
I
Southwark
3
Fulham . .
2
Stepney
3
Greenwich
I
Stoke Newington
i
Hackney . _ .
3
Wandsworth
5
Hammersmith
2
Westminster
2
Hampstead
TJ _IL ___,
I
Woolwich
2
Holborn .
Islington* .
I
4
Total ....
62
Kensington
2
UNITED KINGDOM
TABLE XXVI. Imports into the United Kingdom.
845
Imports
IQIO
1912
1 T
1916
T
1920
Grain and flour .....
77-298,383
88,496,284
79,636,269
133,253,132
154,801,757
231,712,529
Meat . . . . .
Other principal articles of food and
drink:
48,878,947
49,079.559
63,215.056
94,050,999
173,861,571
141,557,025
Butter . . . . .
2 A 4O7 A^O
JA -1CA TO7
24 014 276
1 8 964 002
TO ge^ ,127
2A. f)1A 2Oi
Sugar
' T-> i ryO'T-0' J
24,554,209
*4'OO4i i yo
25,149,66!
32,118,170
37,367,675
*:7i u OT-T-*/
53,927,868
*T- w O*ft*V4-
72,958,737
Tea
11,381,056
13,125,689
14,221,496
17,745,317
33,050,853
26,928,953
Wine
4,287,426
?,6'*o,^i'i
3,511,822
18,167,077
13,147,753
Coffee
2,305,555
T^ ' 'T^ ,
2,5l8,52l!
O* <J >O O
3.549,038
4,727,426
5,982,804
4,522,327
Fish (preserved) ....
3.371,565
2,887,767
4,584,321
9,290,131
12,177,696
11,127,603
Cocoa and chocolate
1,169,530
1,604,274
1,523.630
2,300,731
2,323,484
5.032,532
Principal fruits:
Apples
2,189,309
2,507,024
2,046,824
2,741,102
6,245,874
9,324,700
Oranges
2,267,474
2,^4.8,'*7 | ;
2,^2^.2^
3,087,175
9,445,154
8,017,095
Bananas . . , .
1,698,556
W"J W U / \J
1,964,200
,O O, O*J
2,434,751
2,211,245
3,908,393
6,468,719
Tobacco . ....
4,624,782
6,359.115
7,463,068
7,364,308
41.653,708
33,584,169
Raw materials :
Cotton . ....
71,711,908
80,238,960
55,350,626
84,729,677
190,771,416
256,765,237
Wool . . ....
37,332,470
36,567,818
34,246,722
39,730,623
104,753,205
93,957.397
Oils . . ....
37,548,960
37,418,767
41,332,056
63,356,728
130,994,512
151,905,135
Wood and timber ....
26,207,329
28,357,158
25,343,111
40,163,994
72,306,469
82,164,620
Textile materials, excluding cotton
and wool
12,803,327
18,578,100
15,367,670
23,840,128
28,818,186
36,798,326
Hides and skins . _ ._
12,882,326
13,690,265
12,727,066
13.784,590
29,508,074
31,976,823
Metallic ores, excluding iron
8,970,272
9,059,505
9,533.465
13,679,870
12,343,018
17,711,627
Iron ore, etc
6,261,471
6,219,050
5,487,344
12,136,066
11,983,278
20,799,861
Manufactured articles:
Yarns and textile fabrics
32,049,602
44,870,344
37,767,686
33,584,048
45,029,820
87,562,067
Metal, excluding iron and steel .
24,699,194
31,197,428
29,604,332
39,048,339
35,215,276
39,221,892
Leather
11,824,741
14,342,926
13,478,148
16,188,901
37,362,572
19,715,078
Chemicals
11,259,685
12,545,758
12,064,430
28,622,052
23,068,847
35,315,326
Iron and steel (not machinery) .
9,086,214
12,961,991
10,877,249
11,214,097
11,309,908
29,005,826
Paper
6,413.718
7,234,437
6,791,191
8,327,405
13,014,623
30,252,181
Machinery
4,470,898
6,820,683
6,712,499
7,988,039
15,066,659
19,961,401
TABLE XXVII. Exports of Home Produce.
1910
i>
1914
ii
1916
A
1918
i,
1919
Jb
1920 l
Cotton yarn and manufactures
105,871,208
103,266,538
118,307,992
118,307,992
240,977,605
401,682,535
Iron and steel manufactures .
42,976,671
41,667,830
56,673,705
36,843,078
63,484,265
128,942,618
Woollen yarn and manufactures
37,516,397
31,499,885
46,905,649
49,-86s,94i
98,431,697
134,969,462
Coal
37.813.360
42,202,128
50,670,604
52,416,330
92,297,685
99,627,146
Machinery
29,271,380
31,363,093
20,217,598
16,120,463
32,670,013
63,457,987
Chemicals
18,568,136
19,508,061
27,565,087
22,663,148
29,502,610
40,729,760
Textiles (not cotton or wool) .
13,481,198
12,982,261
15,817,943
11,126,189
21,253,385
45,037,326
Metal manufactures (not iron)
10,352,354
10,283,283
12,720,016
9,003,158
15,337,212
. 25,867,965
Clothing
12,717,587
14.531.674
16,941,093
. 11,818,335
17,562,933
. 48,887,862
Leather and leather goods
4,686,485
4,685,015
4,897,503
1,551-378
7,360,317
. 11,672,599
Ships
8,770,204
6,932,554
1,290,585
1,047,334
2,328,331
2,306,267
1 From preliminary returns.
TABLE XXIX. Provincial English Parliamentary Boroughs.
Name of Borough
No. of
Mem-
bers
Name of Borough
No. of
Mem-
bers
Accrington
Dudley ....
Ashton-under-Lyne
Baling ....
Barnsley ....
East Ham . .......
2
Barrow-in-Furness
Eccles
Bath ....
Edmonton
Batley and Morley
Exeter . . . . .
.
Birkenhead
2
Gateshead
Birmingham
12
Gloucester
Blackburn
2
Great Yarmouth .
Blackpool
I
Grimsby ....
Bolton
2
Halifax ....
i
Bootle
I
Hartlepools, The .
i
Bournemouth
I
Hastings ....
I
Bradford .
4
Hornsey . .
i
Brighton .
2
Huddersfield .
I
Bristol
5
Hull (Kingston-upon-
Bromley .
i
Hull) . . . .
4
Burnley .
i
Hythe . . . .
i
Bury
i
Ilford . . . .
i
Cambridge
Carlisle .
i
i
Ipswich .
Kingston-upon-Thames
i
i
Cheltenham
i
Leeds . . . .
6
Coventry
i
Leicester ....
3
Croydon
2
Leigh .
i
Darlington
I
Leyton . . .
2
Derby .
2
Lincoln .
I
Dewsbury
I
Liverpool
II
TABLE XXIX. (Continued).
Name of Borough
No. of
Mem-
bers
Name of Borough
No. of
Mem-
bers
Manchester .
10
Smethwjck .
I
Middlesbrough
2
Southampton
2
Morpeth ...
I
Southend-on-Sea
I
Nelson and Colne
I
Southport
I
Newcastle-under-Lyme"
I
South Shields
I
Newcastle-upon-Tyne
4
Stockport
2
Northampton . .
i
Stockton-on-Tees
I
Norwich . .
2
Stoke-on-Trent
3
Nottingham . .
4
Sunderland .
2
Oldham
2
Tottenham , .
2
Oxford .
I
Tynemouth .
I
Plymouth
3
Wakefield .
I
Portsmouth
3
Wallasey .
I
Preston .
2
Wallsend
I
Reading
I
Walsall . . '
I
Richmond" (Surrey) ] .
I
Walthamstow
2
Rochdale
I
Warrington .
I
Rochester (with
Wednesbury .
I
Chatham and
West Bromwich
I
Gillingham) . ,
2
West Ham .
4
Rossendale (incl. Bacup,
Wigan .
i
Haslingden and Raw-
Willesden
2
tenstall) ,
I
Wimbledon .
I
Rotherham
I
Wolverhampton . .
3
St. Helens
I
Worcester
I
Salford .
3
York .
I
Sheffield ' . .
7
Total ....
193
846
UNITED KINGDOM
TABLE XXX. Welsh Parliamentary Boroughs.
Name of Borough
No. of
Mem-
bers
Name of Borough
No. of
Mem-
bers
Cardiff ....
.Carnarvon District (Ban-
gor, Carnarvon, Con-
way, Pwllheli.Criccieth,
3
I
Merthyr Tydfil
Newport
Rhondda
Swansea
2
I
2
2
fechan, Penmaenmawr,
Nevin)
Total ....
II
TABLE XXXI. Scottish Parliamentary Boroughs.
Name of Borough
No. of
Mem-
bers
Name of Borough
No. of
Mem-
bers
Aberdeen
2
Kirkcaldy District
Ayr District (Ayr, Ar-
(Kirkcaldy, Buck-
drossan, Irvine, Prest-
haven, Methil, In-
wick, Saltcoats, Troon)
I
nerleven, Burntisland,
Dumbarton District
Dysart, Kinchorn) .
I
(Dumbarton, Clyde-
Leith ....
I
bank) ....
I
Montrose District
Dundee ....
2
(Montrose, Arbroath,
Dunfermline District
Brechin, Forfar, In-
(Dunfermline, Cow-
verbervie)
I
denbeath, Inverkeith-
Paisley ....
I
ing, Lochgelly) .
I
Stirling and Falkirk
'Edinburgh
5
(with Grangemouth)
I
j e
1 i hi 1 -) J < )\\ . . . .
15
Greenock
I
Total ....
33
TABLE XXXII. English County Divisions.
t
Name of County
No. of
Divs.
and
Mem-
bers
Name of County
No. of
Divs.
and
Mem-
bers
'Bedford ....
3
Leicester . .
4
Berks ....
3
Parts of Lindsey (Lin-
Bucks ....
3
colnshire) .
4
Cambridge
i
Middlesex
10
Chester ....
9
Norfolk
5
Cornwall
5
Northampton (with
Cumberland .
4
Soke of Peterborough)
4
Derby ....
8
Northumberland .
3
Devon ....
7
Nottingham .
5
Dorset ....
4
Oxford ....
2
Durham ....
ii
Salop ....
4
Essex ....
8
Somerset
6
Gloucester
4
Stafford
7
Hants ....
6
Suffolk, East
3
Hereford ....
2
Suffolk, West
2
Hertford ....
5
Surrey ....
7
Holland with Boston
Sussex, East .
4
1 (Lincolnshire)
'Huntingdon
i
i
Sussex, West
Warwick
2
4
!Isle of Ely
i
Westmorland
i
lisle of Wight .
i
Wilts ....
5
Kent .....
ii
Worcester
4
Parts of Kesteven
York, East Riding
3
(Lincolnshire) and
York, North Riding .
4
Rutland
2
York, West Riding
19
Lcinciistor
18
Total ....
226
TABLE XXXIII. Wels h County Divisions.
Name of County
No. of
Divs.
Name of County
No. of
Divs.
Anglesey .
Brecon and Radnor
Cardigan
Carmarthen .
Carnarvon
Denbigh
I
i
i
2
I
Glamorgan . '
Merioneth
Monmouth .
Montgomery
Pembroke
7
i
5
i
i
Flint
I
Total ....
24
As compared with the former distribution of seats, London
boroughs, in the Act of 1918, gained 3 members; other bor-
oughs gained 33 (31 new boroughs were created and 44 old
boroughs were abolished); the counties lost 5 members; the
universities gained 6 members, the newer universities being
represented for the first time. Membership of the House of
TABLE XXXIV. Scottish' County Divisions.
Name of County
No. of
Divs.
and
Mem-
bers
Name of County
No. of
Divs.
and
Mem-
bers
Aberdeen and Kincardine
Argyll . . .
Ayr and Bute .
Banff
Berwick & Haddington
Caithness & Sunderland
Dumbarton
Dumfries
Fife ....
Forfar
Galloway
3
I
3
2
I
I
Lanark .
Linlithgow
Midlothian and
Peebles
Moray and Nairn
Orkney and Shetland
Perth and Kinross
Renfrew
Roxburgh and Selkirk
Stirling and Clackman-
nan
7
i
2
I
I
2
2
I
2
Cromartv .
3
Total . . . .
38
TABLE XXXV. University Constituencies.
Name of County
No. of
Divs.
and
Mem-
bers
Name of County
No. of
Divs.
and
Mem-
bers
Oxford ....
Cambridge
London ....
Wales ....
Durham, Manchester,
Liverpool, Leeds, Shef-
field, Birmingham,
Bristol ....
2
2
I
I
2
St. Andrews, Glasgow,
Aberdeen, Edinburgh
3
Total ....
II
Commons totalled 707: England 492 (an addition of 31),
Wales 36 (addition of 2), Scotland 74 (addition of 2), Ireland
(the Act did not cover Irish redistribution), 105. On the ex-
tension and revision of the franchise under the Act, see ENG-
LISH HISTORY.
Local Government. Some important changes were made in
the municipal status of towns in England and Wales in the
years preceding 1920. Barnsley, Carlisle, Darlington, Dews-
bury, Eastbourne, East Ham, Southend-on-Sea, Stoke-on-
Trent, Wakefield and Wallasey became county boroughs.
Aylesbury, Buxton, Devonport, Fowey, Llanelly and Stour-
bridge became municipal boroughs. The following were
created urban districts: Ardwick-le-Street, Axminster, Bed-
dington and Wallington, Bedwas and Machen, Bentley with
Arksey, Bletchley, Bungay, Chorleywood, Coulsdon and Purley,
Cwmamman, Haslemere, Letchworth, Leyland, Long Benton,
Market Drayton, Mitcham, Oadby, Prudhoe, Seaton Delavel,
Spenborough, Stratford and Wolverton, Tilbury, Yiewsley.
The following urban districts changed their names: Ynseyn-
haiarn to Portmadoc, Ystradyfodwg to Rhondda, Merton to
Merton and Morden, New Shoreham to Shorcham-by-Sea,
Preesall with Hackensall to Preesall, Hunstanton to New
Hunstanton, Hucknall Torkard to Hucknall, Ncwbold and
Dunstan Whittington to Whittington and Newbold. The
Greater Birmingham scheme, which came into operation Nov.
9 1911, included in the city of Birmingham the farmer borough
of Aston Manor and certain urban districts. (O. J. R. H).
MEDICAL EXAMINATION OF THE NATION
In order to appreciate the nature and scope of the physical
census of men of military age carried out in the United Kingdom
by the Ministry of National Service during the last years of the
World War, it is necessary to recapitulate briefly the phases
through which the recruiting arrangement for the British army
passed during the- earlier stages of the war.
Before the -war 'the British army was a voluntary army, and
only men between 18 and 30 years of age of good physique and
free from any physical defect were accepted for enlistment. It
was laid down that the height and chest measurements of each
recruit should accord with each other and with his age in con-
formity with the official table of standards. Each recruit whose
physical condition did not conform, to these standards was re-
UNITED KINGDOM
847
garded as unfit and not accepted. In short, the army accepted
for service only the best human material.
At the outbreak of war in Aug. 1014, there was a tremendous
rush of recruits to the colours, and perforce attempts were made
to deal, on the same simple plan, with the tens of thousands of
men who besieged the recruiting offices. The need for soldiers
was clamant, irresistible, and there was no time to devise another
method. The result was inevitable the army was flooded
with men who after a few weeks or months of service broke
down and proved useless. The authorities then saw that in
this war they were confronted with a new problem men had to
be provided on a scale never before contemplated and the man-
power resources of the country were to be strained to the ut-
most. The army needed would have to employ men of different
degrees of physical fitness, since the available number of per-
fectly fit men would not be adequate for all the needs of the
country. It was therefore necessary to classify recruits accord-*
ing to their fitness for the very varied duties for which the army
required men the old simple division into " fit " and " unfit "
was no longer sufficient: recruits must be classified or graded so
that as far as possible every man called up for service should be
allotted to the particular occupation in the army for which he
was fitted by his training and degree of physical fitness. Ac-
cordingly, a system of categories was introduced whereby
recruits were classified by medical boards as being fit for general
service, field service at home, garrison service, labour or seden-
tary work; as experience of this system accumulated various
modifications and sub-divisions of these categories were subse-
quently introduced to meet the difficulties which arose in their
application in practice.
Meantime, on Jan. 27 1916, the first Military Service Act,
which provided for the compulsory service of unmarried men
between the ages of 18 and 41, came into operation, and on May
26, a like obligation was imposed on the married between those
ages. By this time, the difficulty of categorization was becoming
painfully evident; it consisted essentially of the fact that the
category was not a purely medical classification but rather a
kind of administrative shorthand founded upon medical informa-
tion. In other words, medical boards were required to perform
the functions of a posting board, as well as their proper medical
function of assessing the degree of physical fitness of the men
examined. The attempt to combine these functions failed, as
in the light of experience we can see it was bound to fail, and was
in fact the cause of the growing volume of dissatisfaction which
became steadily more general and more emphatic during the
latter half of 1916 and the early months of 1917. The examina-
tion of men called up under the Review of Exceptions Act in
April 1917 caused a storm of hostile criticism; this led to the
appointment of the Shortt Committee, which, in Aug. 1917, recom-
mended to the House of Commons that the whole organization
and administration of examination should be transferred from
the War Office to civilian control. Accordingly, the Ministry of
National Service the Department entrusted with this work
assumed these duties as from midnight Oct. 31 1917.
The immediate medical duties of the Department were: (i)
To introduce a new system of grading the grade of each man
to be determined by physical considerations alone to replace
the system cf categorization in which administrative as well as
medical considerations were taken into account; (2) to lay down '
definite standards of physical efficiency for the guidance of
members of examining boards; (3) to establish National Service
Medical Boards for the examination of men of military age.
As regards the personnel of the boards, great care was taken
to select suitable chairmen who were generally whole-time
medical officers. Members of the boards (i chairman and 4
members constituted a board) were drawn from a panel of local
civilian doctors of good standing a system which made for
efficient work, economized the medical man-power of the country
and was at the same time elastic. These boards were established
at convenient centres all over Great Britain. At first they
numbered 97 and were soon examining some 80,000 men per
month. The number of boards steadily increased to cope -with
the increasing work. In April 1918 285,631 men were examined,
in May 456,999, and in June 475,416; by this time the number
of boards was 209. After this the pressure relaxed somewhat, and
the numbers in succeeding months were July 371,923, Aug.
158,544, Sept. 97,694, Oct. 110,255.
From the outset instructions were issued to boards that they
were to grade all men brought before them according to their
physical fitness at the time of examination in conformity with
the following standards:
Grade I. Those who attain the full normal standard of health
and strength and are capable of enduring physical exertion
suitable to their age. Such men must not suffer from progressive
organic disease, nor have any serious disability or deformity.
Minor defects which can be remedied or adequately compensated
by artificial means will not be regarded as disqualifications.
Grade II. Those who for various causes, such as being subject
to partial disabilities, do not reach the standard of Grade I.
They must not suffer from progressive organic disease. They
must have fair hearing and vision, be of moderate muscular
development, and be able to undergo a considerable degree of
physical exertion of a nature not involving severe strain.
Grade III. Those who present marked physical disabilities
or such evidence of past disease that they are not considered fit
to undergo the degree of physical exertion required for the
higher grades. Examples of men suitable for this grade are those
with badly deformed toes, severe flat-foot, and some cases of
hernia and of varicose veins (others are indicated later under the
headings of the various diseases and disabilities). The third
grade will also include those who are fit only for clerical and other
sedentary occupations, such as tailoring and bootmaking.
Grade IV. All those who are totally and permanently unfit
for any form of military service.
In order to assist the boards in their task of grading, and to
insure uniformity as far as possible through the country, instruc-
tions were also issued to them indicating the effect of some 60
common disabilities and diseases upon the grading. Thus, in the
Ministry of National Service, a department was created with the
administrative machinery requisite not only to supply the armed
forces with recruits, but also to survey the physical fitness of
the male population of military age and so provide a physical
census of the human material at the disposal of the country for
all its needs. It is evident that, until categorization with its
administrative factors was abandoned and grading by physical
considerations alone introduced, true inferences as to the health
and fitness of the male population could not be drawn from the
statistical returns of recruiting. With the introduction of the
new system on Nov. 1 1917, the statistical returns at once became
of great value, and provided for the first time a physical census
of part at least of the population.
The number of examinations completed during this last year
of the war with the numbers placed in each grade is shown in the
accompanying table:
Medical Examinations (Period Nov. I 1917 to Oct. 31 1918).
No. of Examinations and Reexaminations.
Grade 1 871,769 (36-0%)
Grade II 546,276(22-5%)
Grade III 756,859(31-3%)
Grade IV 250,280 (10-2 %)
Total
2,425,184
It will be noted that of the 2,425,184 examinations 871,769 resulted
in the man being placed in Grade I., 546,276 in Grade II., 756,859 in
Grade III., and 250,280 in Grade IV. In other words 36% were
placed in Grade I., i.e. were judged to have attained the full normal
Standard of health and strength, and to be capable of undergoing
physical exertion suitable to their age; 22 % were placed in Grade II.,
i.e. were judged to be capable only of undergoing such physical
exertion as did not involve severe strain ; 32 % were placed in Grade
III., i.e. presented marked physical disabilities or such evidence of
past disease that they were not considered fit to undergo the degree
of exertion required for the higher grades; 10% were placed in
Grade IV., i.e. were judged to be totally and permanently unfit for
any form of military service. This result may be summarized by
saying that of every 9 men of military age in Great Britain in the
year under review 3 were perfectly fit and healthy, 2 were definitely
below the normal standard of health, 3 were unfit to undergo any^
848
UNITED KINGDOM
thing but the most moderate degree of exertion, and the remaining
man was a chronic invalid.
Exception has been taken to these inferences on the ground that
these grading results are not a true reflection of the health of the
nation for two reasons:
First, that the grading was inaccurate. In reply to this criticism
it is to be observed that men dissatisfied with their grading had the
right to appeal to an independent tribunal against their grading, and
that the number of men whose grading was altered on appeal was
less than 0-4 % of the total number of examinations, in other words
an independent tribunal only altered the finding of the board in
between 3 and 4 cases out of every 1,000. Further, though we do not
know to what extent grading was found by actual experience in the
army (the only real criterion) to represent truly the degree of physi-
cal fitness, it is certain that any conclusions we may reach from the
grading results will, if anything, lead us to overrate the physical
fitness of our manhood, since every factor in the situation contributed
toward grading men too high rather than too low.
Secondly, that the men examined were the dregs of a population
exhausted by 3 years of war. This criticism, though natural and
self-evident at first sight, is inadmissible principally for the reason
that it is made in ignorance of the extent to which fit men of military
age were employed in such industries and occupations as agriculture,
mining, shipbuilding, and munition works, and protected from
recruitment by law during the earlier years of the war, remaining in
civil life until in the fourth year of the war these industries had to
be " combed-out " in response to the increasing strain upon the
diminishing reserve of man-power. Analysis shows that the men
examined during the year under review belonged to one of the five
following groups:
(1) Men in the protected industries, which in the nature of things
employed a high proportion of the physically fit, and this group was
numerically much the largest.
(2) Men who were now refused further exemption by tribunals
owing to the urgent demand for men caused by the military situation.
(3) Lads who attained the age of 18 years during this year; in
number 261,137.
(4) Men who had been previously rejected when the need for
soldiers was less urgent.
(5) Men between 41 and 51 who became liable for military service
under the Military Service No. 2 Act of April 1918.
Inasmuch as group (i), the largest, comprised an abnormally high
proportion of the physically fit, group (4) an abnormally low, and
group (2) an average proportion, while groups (3) and (5) were a
" virgin soil," we can hardly escape the inference that in the aggre-
gate the men examined during the year under review represented the
manhood of military age from the standpoint of health and physique,
and that therefore the observations made at their medical examina-
tions form a trustworthy criterion of the national health.
With this general picture before us, we may well and rightly
ask what are the causes of this great mass of physical inef-
ficiency which low grading means and to what extent is it
preventable. After all, the large majority of babies are born
healthy, and the conditions and environment subsequent to
birth are created by mankind and are capable of a large range of
modification. It will be readily understood that such a mass of
records and observations require full and detailed analysis
before complete conclusions as to the lessons obtained can be
reached. While a complete analysis was not yet available in
1921, the matter had been sufficiently explored to reveal several
striking results.
First, as to the causes for which such a large proportion of
men were placed in Grades III. and IV., viz., 1,007,139 or 41-5%
of the total number of .examinations. Men placed in these
grades, it must be remembered, presented such marked physical
disabilities or such evidence of past disease that they were only
considered fit to undergo the most moderate degree of exertion,
and some were so incapacitated as to be totally and permanently
unfit for any form of military service. The reasons for 2 out of
every 5 men of military age being so physically unfit clearly
requires explanation. The largest group of men in these two
grades which has been analysed is 160,545 men, examined in the
London region during the period Jan. to Oct. 1918; of these
82,645 were placed in Grades I. and II., the balance of 77,900
(48-5%) falling to Grades III. and IV., namely 60,031 (37-4%)
in Grade III. and 17,869 (11-1%) in Grade IV. In the case of
the Grade III. and Grade IV. men in this large group the accom-
panying table shows the disease or disability on account of
which they were so graded.
Broadly speaking, this table shows that of this large group of
men of military age half were found to be suffering from organic
~>
o
B
"S
a
u l ~~ l
cy oy
J2>
V
<J ^
C\-I
fail rt
a- 1
"op
Disease or disability
c l ~ t
V"
E $
2
g
j!
a
*o
"%
UD
*
1
6O
cug
<u""
v'"
3
c
a.
i. Valvular disease of heart .
2. Deformities, congenital and
12,562
7-9
1-6
6-3
acquired (including flat-foot,
hammer toe, kyphosis, etc.)
3. Diseases of circulatory system
8,605
5-3
o
4-3
(other than V. D. H.) includ-
ing varicose veins .
4. Diseases of lungs and bronchi
6,275
3-9
6
3-3
(other than tuberculosis) and
of respiratory system
6, 1 88
3-8
6
3'2
5. Pulmonary tuberculosis .
4,327
2-6
2-O
6
6. Functional diseases of heart
3.385
2-1
I
2-O,
7. Wounds, injuries, etc., including
traumatic deformities, ampu-
tations, etc
3.335
2-O
3
7
8. Diseases of ears ....
I -9
3
6
9. Diseases of nervous system
(other than insanity and
epilepsy)
? 066
9
C
4
8
2
6
II. Defective vision .
2,620
6
2
4
5
I
4.
13. Hernia
2 >!79
3
2
T^
I
14. Diseases of digestive system .
2,170
3
2 .
I
15. Diseases of eyes
,886
.1
5
6
708
o
2
8
26s
.7
2
1 8. Haemorrhoids ....
^"O
,140
i
7
05
65
19. Skin diseases ....
053
6
15
45
20. Diseases of generative organs
T^
and of genito-urinary system
(other than venereal disease,
albuminuria and glycosuria)
983
6
75
525
21. Albuminuria ....
951
5
3
2
22. Tuberculosis (other than pul-
monary)
911
5
3
2
23. Insanity
656
4
3
I
24. Syphilis
556
3
I
2
25. Glycosuria
214
I
i
26. Venereal disease (other than
syphilis)
162
I
02
08
1-9
375
I-525
77,900
48-5
U-I
37-4
ii-i
48-5
disease of one kind or another of a severity sufficient at least to
render them incapable of a normally active life. It will be
observed that diseases of the heart were the most frequent
disability. Valvular disease 12,562 (7-9%) and functional dis-
ease 3,385 (2-1%) made up 15,947 cases of heart disease in all,
or 10-0% of the number examined. There had been no pre-
vious opportunity of gauging the frequency of heart disease
among the population, but it can be safely stated that such an
incidence as one in ten among men in the prime of life would
never have been expected. It indicates the importance that
should be attached to insuring that adequate treatment is given
Jto all cases, and to the infections such as rheumatism in which it
frequently originates especially in the earlier years of life.
Another figure which naturally attracts attention is that for
tuberculosis; 4,327 had pulmonary tuberculosis, 911 had tuber-
culosis of other organs, 5,238 in all, or 3-1% of the number
examined. Of these 3,874 (2-3% of the number examined) were
cases sufficiently advanced or sufficiently active to warrant the
boards in relegating the men to Grade IV., i.e. totally and perma-
nently unfit for any form of military service. Great doubt and
difficulty have always attended aU. attempts to estimate the
frequency of tuberculosis; a disease of many manifestations, it
is often impossible to prove its existence in a given case and
frequently impossible to exclude it. It is rather striking to
find that 2-3% of this large group of men presented sufficiently
UNITED KINGDOM
849
definite evidence of its existence to enable the examiners to
reject them as useless for any form of military service. This
experience was not limited to London, for we find that in Liver-
pool among 20,704 men the incidence was 2-15% and in Yorks,
in a group of 24,281 men, 2-37%. The close correspondence of
the incidence found among these 3 large groups of men in
different parts of the country suggests very strongly that the
figures are trustworthy, and represent with accuracy the fre-
quency of active or established tuberculosis in men in the 3rd,
4th and 5th decades of life.
Apart from specific diseases another feature of this table
which invites comment is the 2,967 men (1-8% of the number
examined) who were found fit only for the lower grades on account
of poor physique. Now the physique of an individual is to be
regarded as the effect upon him of his inheritance and environ-
ment it is the net result of all the factors which combine to
make him what he is physically. In the absence of evidence
of actual racial degeneration poor physique must be attributed
to the environment of the individual to the conditions of
life to which he has been subjected. Any evidence that indicates
the standard of physique prevailing among men of military age
will therefore afford a valuable criterion of the extent to which
modern conditions of life do or do not permit of healthy bodily
development. Measurements of the height, weight and chest
girth are commonly accepted as the practical criteria of physique,
and the records of these measurements provide us with an
opportunity of investigating and comparing the physique of the
men examined.
Now, though the anthropometrical observations made as part
of the physical examination of men of military age had not in
1921 been fully worked out, the figures already available are of
interest and importance; thus in a group of 71,000 men of all
ages between 18 and 41 in the W. Midland region it is shown that
at 18 years the average height was 65-6", at 25 years 66-1", at
35 years 65-9", and at 40 years 65-8". On comparing these
figures with those of the report of the Anthropometrical Com-
mittee of the British Association in 1883, it is found that they
are in every case well below the averages then found which
were, at 18 years 66.6", at 25 years 67-5", at 35 years 68-0",
and at 40 years 67-9". Indeed, these recent W. Midland figures
are less favourable than those of Group IV. (the poorest class
in the Anthropometrical Committee's report), viz. artisans in
towns, and much less favourable than those of Group I., the pro-
fessional classes in the same report.
Height in Inches.
Age
1 8 years
25 years
35 years
40 years
W. Midland
Group IV
Group I
65-6"
66-6"
68-2"
66-1"
67-5"
69-1"
65-9"
68-0"
69-1"
65-8"
67-9"
69-6"
On the average, therefore, the W. Midland heights are about
i|" below the average stature quoted in the anthropometrical
report of 1883.
Turning to the weight tables for the same group of W. Midland
men the salient feature is that in no age group in any of the
constituent areas (Birmingham, Burslem, Dudley, Worcester,
Coventry, Shrewsbury, Hertford, Leamington, Walsall and
Wolverhampton) is there a higher average than 137! Ib.
Among all the 240 groups in the scries only 7 1 show an average
weight of 130 Ib. or over, while in all the 24 age groups in
Birmingham (which include nearly 20,000 men) there are only
5 groups of 130 Ib. and upwards, and no age group under 30
years reaches an average of 130 Ib. Comparing the Birmingham
figures with those of the Anthropometrical Committee's report
(with a deduction of 9 Ib. for clothes) it is found that the
Birmingham figures are lower throughout to the following extent:
at 18 years u| Ib., at 20 years 14 Ib., at 25 years 135 Ib., at
30 years 21 Ib., at 35 years 27-5 Ib., at 40 years 21-6 Ib.
The other industrial communities (Burslem, Dudley, Walsall,
Wolverhampton and Coventry) show similar deficiencies. The
agricultural communities (Worcester and Shrewsbury) show the
best weights, but still below those found by the Anthropometrical
Committee to the extent shown in this table:
Weight in Pounds.
Age
1 8 years
25 years
30 years
35 years
40 years
Worcester . .
Shrewsbury .
10 Ib.
2jlb.
II Ib.
9lb.
20f Ib.
igflb.
22 Ib.
24 Ib.
21 Ib.
23 Ib.
These comparisons speak for themselves.
The average stature and weight of individuals furnish a
valuable criterion of the health and physical capacity of a
community, and these figures clearly indicate the deleterious
effect of modern conditions of life upon the population. This
conclusion is further borne out by an investigation of the
principal measurements of groups of Grade I. men from every
area in Great Britain, which show that the average for a Grade I.
man is as follows:
Height Weight Chest girth
5 ft. 6 in. 127-2 Ib. 35 in.
Due precautions were taken to insure that these groups were
as far as possible representative of the whole, and the results in
different parts of the country showed surprisingly small variations
from the average. We must therefore conclude that a man
presenting the above measurements is to be regarded as an
average specimen of the male Briton, who has attained the full
normal standard of health and physique a conclusion which
can hardly be regarded with satisfaction. With regard to Grade
I. youths of 18 years, similar data for all areas are unfortunately
not available, but the average for a considerable group in the
N.W. region worked out as follows:
Height Weight Chest girth
5 ft. 5 in. 117-3 Ib. 33'4 in-
If we accept this group of youths as representative (and there
is no reason to think it is not so) and compare these figures
with the corresponding measurements of the Grade I. men, we
find that the average increase between 18 years and full develop-
ment is i in. in stature, 9-9 Ib. in weight, and 1-6 in. in chest
girth. Now we know from the experience of the army, both in
peace-time and during the war, that much better results can be
obtained by making youths and young men live a hygienic life,
with proper food and attention to their physical development.
The present figures therefore show clearly that the average condi-
tions of life to-day have produced and are producing physical
results on the rising generation which are greatly to be deplored.
One other table printed in the report is of special significance
comment is superfluous.
Average Measurement of 36 Youths of 18 Years Rejected
for Poor Physique.
Height
Weight
Chest girth
4 ft. 9 in.
84 Ib.
29-9 in.
In conclusion let us consider the main facts of this physical
census in the light of the method of comparisons suggested by
Prof. Arthur Keith. He shows that on theoretical grounds it is
to be expected that the complex quality of physical fitness is
distributed among a healthy population in the same proportions
as has been found for the distribution of other physical attributes.
If this reasoning is correct we ought to find in a healthy popula-
tion that the numbers of men in each grade of fitness bear a con-
stant relation to each other in the following proportions:
Grade 1 70 %
Grade II . . . 20 %
Grade III 7-5 %
Grade IV 2-5 %
Actual experience testifies to the truth of this inference: thus
a " comb-out " of miners (a group of the community known to
enjoy a good standard of health and physique) in the summer
of 1918 yielded the following result:
Grade 1 76 %
Grade II ....-,. . . . 12 %
Grade III 10 %
Grade IV . . . . . 4-2 %
Another group of miners yielded Grade I. 76%, Grade II.
19%, Grade III. 11%, Grade IV. 3%. Results such as these
850
UNITED KINGDOM
(and there are numerous other examples) prove the soundness
of Prof. Keith's reasoning, and show that in healthy sections of
the community his standard is reached and even exceeded.
This standard may be represented graphically, and it is
instructive to place alongside this representation of what we
may regard as the normal standard for a healthy community a
similar graph representing the proportions actually found in the
total gradings during the whole year's work in Great Britain
(the figures have been given above).
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
70
36
31-3
1O2
11
1
g
^
$
|
%
^
20
|
?Z
%
$
%
$
|
t,
^
7-5
%
^
Mm,
1
K
\\\
Grade I
Proportion In healthy
community
I II III IV
Proportion actually found
in Great Britain
These two diagrams show graphically the differences between
the relative proportions of men of the four grades of fitness
actually found and the standard relative proportions in a healthy
community. In actual numbers the difference works out as
follows: Among the zj million examinations there was in Grade I.
a deficiency of 825,000, in Grade II. an excess of 61,000, and the
alarming excess of no less than 575,000 in Grade III., and
190,000 in Grade IV.
With such results before them the committee which presented
the report express surprise that with human material of such
physical quality it was found possible to create the invincible
armies which overthrew the Germans. We may well share their
surprise, and indorse their opinion that the spirit of the race,
which alone made this possible, deserves that no effort should
be spared to ameliorate the conditions which had brought about
such deplorable effects upon the national health and physique.
(H. W. K.)
THE POST- WAR ARMY
The development of British military organization from 1910
to the end of the World War is treated under the heading ARMY,
section British Army. The period immediately following a war
of any importance usually sees many changes in army organiza-
tion based upon the experiences gained during the war, and the
years directly following the War of 1914-8 were no exception
in this respect. The years 1919-21 were devoted to incorporating
into the British army organization various essential innovations
which a war of such magnitude was bound to produce.
Generally speaking, the war had shown that the broad frame-
work of army organization, as it existed in 1914, had been built
upon sound lines. In certain respects, it is true, defects had been
found in this organization, e.g. an inelasticity in the system
which failed adequately to provide for the expansion entailed
when a nation is absorbed into military service; but these defects
were connected more with details than with broad principles.
Army reorganization had still to provide for an expeditionary
force, trained garrisons for maintaining the various parts of the
Empire, and home defence. To make provision for carrying out
these duties, therefore, the after-war army was organized, in its
main outlines, similarly to what it had been in 1914. This organi-
zation may be described as an expeditionary force, formed al-
most entirely of regular soldiers with their reserves, backed up
and supplemented by the militia; whilst the territorial army,
composed of troops which would require several months' training
on mobilization to fit them to take their place in the field, would
be available for expanding the expeditionary force, should a
state of national emergency arise.
It may be noted that the old name " militia " once again
found a place in army nomenclature (although this force had not
yet been finally reconstituted by the end of 1921); when or-
ganized its functions were to remain identical with those of the
Special Reserve in 1914. Briefly, these may be enumerated as
completing the establishment of the expeditionary force on mobil-
ization and providing drafts for the regular units during the first
few months of war, after those provided from the regular re-
serves have become exhausted. The militia is also required to
produce on mobilization certain technical personnel, whose work
in war, being akin to that performed in peace, would need but little
military training to fit them to take their place in regular units
in the field. The r&le of the reorganized militia, therefore, may
be considered as the definite one of being a reserve to the regular
army, without any idea of its units being employed as a separate
force. It may further be noted that the name of the old territorial
force has been changed to that of " Territorial Army." The
special functions of this army remain the same as they were in
1914; but the organization to enable those duties to be carried
out has been altered in conformity with the lessons learnt during
the war. The after-war territorial formations, in fact, have been
shaped into an exact counterpart of their prototypes in the regu-
lar army, and this has entailed certain units, which had existed
in 1914, becoming surplus to requirements; such units had cither
to be merged into new ones or disbanded. It was on this account
that many of the old mounted yeomanry regiments became
surplus to the actual needs of the army, and were offered con-
version into other arms of the service which the war had shown
to be necessary for modern war, but which had no place in the
pre-war territorial organization, e.g. army field artillery brigades
and armoured car companies. Similarly surplus infantry bat-
talions were asked to convert into other arms of the service in
which the pre-war territorial army organization was deficient.
The establishment of the territorial force in 1914 was some
314,000, all ranks. The establishment of the reconstituted terri-
torial army in 1921-2 was some 220,000, all ranks.
Whilst the broad outlines of army organization remained in
1921 practically identical with what existed in 1914, the organiza-
tion of the various formations for war underwent some modifica-
tions. Notably was this the case in the additions made to the
Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers, both in army and divisional
troops, and the new units were added as a result of war experience,
e.g. Tank Corps, Signal Corps. But whilst changes naturally
had to take place, the infantry allotted to formations still remained
unchanged; for instance a division comprised 3 infantry brigades
as formerly, and infantry brigades once again were composed of
4 battalions, as in 1914, instead of the 3-battalion brigades which
force of circumstances had imposed towards the latter part
of the war.
Broadly speaking, the greatest changes which have been made in
army organization may be attributed to two main causes: neces-
sity for increased firepower and improved mechanical science. As
coming under the former heading, first and foremost may be cited
the artillery. Yearly, as the war had progressed, heavier and still
heavier calibres of artillery had been brought into the field ; and the
number of guns which had been considered sufficient in 1914, had
been multiplied several times by the end of the war. The reorganiza-
tion of the artillery, therefore, had to take into account, and make
provision for, this increased need of artillery.
The peace organization of the artillery includes not only horse and
field artillery but also medium artillery as well. On the other hand
the horse-drawn 6o-pdr. battery, which formed part of the divisional
artillery in 1914, no longer exists. In pre-war days the heaviest
mobile gun or howitzer figuring in the British artillery organization
was the 6-in. howitzer. During the war ordnance of heavier calibre
UNITED STATES
851
was introduced into the field, and the new peace organization pro-
vides for this. Provision is also made for anti-aircraft artillery.
Not only in the artillery has the war led to changes in organization,
but practically all arms have undergone some modifications as its
result. During the war Hotchkiss guns were introduced into the
cavalry, and Lewis guns into the infantry; both these weapons still
1 remain as part of the peace organization of these two arms. The
machine-gun also continues to find a place in their organization, as
v.-as the case in 1914. In this connexion it may be noted that during
the war a Machine-Gun Corps was built up. Shortly after the war
ended, however, this corps ceased to form part of the peace organiza-
tion, because the machine-gun was considered to be a weapon of not
sufficiently distinctive type to justify its being considered a separate
arm of the service when its rdle was obviously ancillary to both
: cavalry and infantry.
Under the heading of improved mechanical science, the outstand-
ing feature is the tank. Its success during the war had insured it a
place in the army reorganization. It was now incorporated as the
Tank Corps. This corps, which is capable of expansion, consists in
peace of 4 tank battalions, a depot and an artificer-training battal-
ion. In addition there is an experimental establishment. In peace
the organization of a tank battalion consists of 3 companies, each of
which is split up into 3 sections. Another product of the war, some-
what akin to the tank and consequently incorporated as part of its
organization, is the armoured-car. Armoured-cars are organized in
companies. During the war armoured-cars proved so highly efficient
for use in some of the outlying portions of the Empire, that their
inclusion as part of the peace organization was indicated. But it
remained uncertain in- 1921 how far the Tank Corps organization
might develop.
Another corps which has arisen in the application of science to
war, is the Signal Corps. Before the war the Signal Service was in
its infancy. The whole service then consisted of 66 officers and 1,534
other ranks, who formed part of the Corps of Royal Engineers. The
war showed the need for rapid, accurate and alternative methods of
communication, and the result was the formation of the Signal
Corps. This corps is so organized as to be capable of division into
several self-contained units; thus a divisional signal company not
only controls all the signal communications at divisional head-
quarters, but it detaches a section for work with each infantry bri-
gade, and other sections for work with the divisional artillery.
. The corps is responsible for dealing with all forms of communication,
both visual, airline, cable and wireless, also for despatch riding.
Mechanical science has also led to a much greater use of mechan-
ical transport than had ever been contemplated in pre-war days.
The reliability maintained by M.T. vehicles has had the effect of
gradually lessening the numbers of horse-drawn vehicles in the army.
This can be seen by the increased number of M.T. units now form-
ing part of the peace organization of the R.A.S.C. compared with
the number existing before the war.
The war also showed that the 1914 organization included an in-
sufficient number of Royal Engineers allotted to divisions. In 1914
the number of field companies with divisions was two. This new
peace organization makes provision for an additional one, and pro-
vides as well for the carrying out of the larger R.E. services re-
quired by divisions, e.g. electric lighting of divisional headquarters,
water supply, accommodation, etc. Moreover, as a result of the
war, the Royal Engineers make provision for electrical and me-
chanical companies. The special rSle of these companies is the re-
pair and construction of electrical installations, mechanical plant
and installation of workshops.
It was not only in organization that the war led to changes, but
it also had the effect of causing improvements to be made in the
education of the soldiers. It was felt that greater advantage might
be taken of the age at which the majority of youths entered the army
to continue their education. For this reason a new corps, called
the Army Educational Corps, was included as part of the army
organization. This is a small corps composed mainly of officers,
which took the place of the pre-war army schoolmasters. Both at
I home and abroad officers of the Army Educational Corps are dis-
tributed among the various units whose chief duty it is to coordinate
i the education in the various units and to set out the lines on which
it is to be carried out.
Yet another addition was made to the peace organization of the
army shortly after the war in the shape of the Corps of Military
Accountants. This is a completely new corps, by which is meant
that it had no counterpart of any description in the pre-war or-
ganization. It is a small corps with an establishment of approx-
imately 1,000, all ranks. The purposes for which it was formed was
for the compilation of cost accounts.
The development of aerial navigation caused a separate Air
Ministry to be set up during the war. This arrangement was con-
tinued in the after-war organization; so that whereas in 1914 the
Royal Flying Corps formed part of both the navy and army or-
ganization, this is no longer the case; the Royal Air Force being al-
most entirely divorced from army administration.
Shortly after the war alterations and additions were made to the
rates of pay of both officers and other ranks throughout the army.
In pre-war days the rates of pay varied in different corps; this
procedure ceased and a universal rate for all corps was substituted.
The additions were based on the high cost of living existing at the
date of alteration, and were subject to revision after five years.
As an example, the pay per annum of a second lieutenant and a
private in the infantry in pre-war days was approximately 96
and 24 respectively. Their respective rates of pay under the new
rates worked out at 237 and 59.
Before the war the total peace establishment of the regular army,
exclusive of India, comprised some 9,500 officers and 163,000 other
ranks. In 1921-2 the establishments of the regular army, again
exclusive of India, made provision for 15,000 officers and 186,000
other ranks. (B. B.-H.)
UNITED STATES, THE (see 27.612*). This article describes
the development of the United States from the close of the first
decade of the 2oth century, as shown roughly by the census of
19 10 and the Congressional elections of that year, to the close
of the Washington Conference early in 1922. This period of 12
years, covering the World War and America's part in it, the
shifting of the United States from the position of a debtor to
that of a creditor nation, a vast increase in wealth and world
influence, and many other changes scarcely less important, is
from an international as well as a domestic point oif view one
of the most important in American history. The main facts of
the period are outlined in this a'rticle, but for many of the de-
tails other articles must be consulted; and the reader who would
consider the full perspective should read those as well as this,
as should also the reader who desires detailed information on
any one point. The articles on the various states contain details
of their respective population, agriculture, manufactures, educa-
tion and political history; data more local appear in articles
on the more important cities. A full list of the articles re-
lating to the United States will be found in the Classified
Table of Articles which precedes the List of Contributors at
the end of Vol. XXXII., but we may name here the leading
articles in the more important divisions of the subject. Details
of population, supplementing the various summaries contained
in the first section, Statistics, of the present article, will be found
in the articles on separate states and in the articles NEGRO
and PUBLIC ASSISTANCE. Many economic questions are treated
fully in such articles as BANKING, FEDERAL RESERVE BANKING
SYSTEM, FEDERAL FARM LOAN BOARD, EXCESS PROFITS DUTY,
INCOME TAX, CITY GOVERNMENT, INTERSTATE COMMERCE, CON-
SERVATION POLICY, INSURANCE, COST OF LIVING, FOOD SUPPLY,
RATIONING, MARKETING, PRICE CONTROL, PROFITEERING, PROF-
IT-SHARING, SAVINGS MOVEMENT, ETC. For industrial develop-
ment see also the articles SHIPPING, RAILWAYS, TELEGRAPH,
TELEPHONE, and ELECTRICITY SUPPLY, as well as those on im-
portant industries such as COAL, COPPER, COTTON AND COTTON
INDUSTRY, DYEING, PETROLEUM, IRON AND STEEL. Various
phases of labour are discussed under ARBITRATION AND CON-
CILIATION IN LABOUR DISPUTES, LABOUR LEGISLATION, LABOUR
SUPPLY AND DEMAND, STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, TRADE UNIONS,
UNEMPLOYMENT and WAGES. For social and welfare work,
read also HOUSING; HOSPITALS; JUVENILE EMPLOYMENT; CHIL-
DREN, LAWS RELATING TO; LIQUOR LAWS; PROHIBITION; and
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE. For recent developments in education,
arts and letters, see besides the articles on HARVARD, YALE,
PRINCETON, ETC., the articles EDUCATION, MEDICAL EDUCATION,
ARCHITECTURE, ARTS AND CRAFTS, PAINTING, SCULPTURE,
AMERICAN LITERATURE. For recent changes in the status of
women, see further WOMAN SUFFRAGE; WOMEN; WOMEN'S EM-
PLOYMENT; WOMEN POLICE; WOMEN, LEGAL STATUS OF. The
section History of the present article may be supplemented by
articles such as ARMY, SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING, WORLD WAR,
LIBERTY LOAN PUBLICITY CAMPAIGNS, MUNITIONS OF WAR,
WOMEN'S WAR WORK, WASHINGTON CONFERENCE, and by the
biographies of political leaders and public officials. The present
article has eight sections: Statistics, Agriculture, Finance, Tax-
ation, Social and Welfare Work, The American Labour Movement,
Military Law, and History, in the order named.
I. STATISTICS
In 1920 the pop. of the United States (excluding all outlying
possessions) was 105,710,620, as compared with 91,9*72,266 in
The rate of increase between these two dates, 14-9%,
irsal rate for all corps was substituted. 191- me
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
852
UNITED STATES
was considerably less than in the preceding decades. Never be-
fore in a lo-year period had the rate of increase fallen below 20
per cent. The decline was due to the large falling off of immigra-
tion in the last half of the decade, and in some slight degree to
the epidemic of influenza in 1918, as well as to the casualties re-
sulting from the World War. It was estimated that the pop. of
the outlying possessions was 12,148,875, of which the Philippine
Is. furnished more than 10,000,000. The total pop. of the United
States with its outlying possessions in 1920, therefore, numbered
117,859,495. Excluding the outlying possessions, the total ad-
dition to the pop. in the decade 1910-20 was 13,738,354 as
compared with nearly 16,000,000 in the previous decade.
The accompanying table shows the pop. by territorial divisions
and component states, with changes between 1910 and 1920.
Increase of Population
1920
1910
Increase
Increase
per cent
NEW ENGLAND
Maine .
768,014
742,371
25,643
3-5
New Hampshire
443,083
430,572
12,511
2-9
Vermont . .
352,428
355.956
-3.528
I'O
Massachusetts .
3.852,356
3,366,416
485.940
14-4
Rhode Island .
604,397
542,610
61,787
11:4
Connecticut.
1,380,631
1,114,756
265,875
23-9
7,400,909
6,552,681
848,228
12-9
MIDDLE
ATLANTIC
New York .
10,385,227
9.113,614
1,271,613
14-0
New Jersey .
3,155,900
2,537,167
618,733
24-4
Pennsylvania
8,720,017
7,665,111
1,054,906
13-8
22,261,144
19,315,892
2.945,252
5'2
EAST NORTH
CENTRAL
Ohio .
5,759,394
4,767,121
992,273
20-8
Indiana
2,930,390
2,700,876
229,5H
8-5
Illinois .
6,485,280
5.638,59
846,689
15-0
Michigan
3,668,412
2,810,173
858,239
30-5
Wisconsin .
2,632,067
2,333.860
298,207
12-8
21,475.543
18,250,621
3,224,922
17-7
WEST NORTH
CENTRAL
Minnesota .
2,387,125
2,075,708
3",4I7
15-0
Iowa
2,404,021
2,224,771
179,250
8-1
Missouri
3,404,055
3.293.335
110,720
3'4
North Dakota
646,872
577,056
69,816
I2-I
South Dakota
636,547
583,888
52,659
9-0
Nebraska
1,296,372
1,192,214
104,158
Kansas
1,769,257
1,690,949
78,308
4-6
12,544,249
11,637,921
906,328
7-8
SOUTH
ATLANTIC
Delaware .
223,003
202,322
20,681
10-2
Maryland .
1,449,661
1.295,346
154,315
1 1-9
District of
Columbia.
437,571
331,069
106,502
32-2
Virginia
2,309,187
2,061,612
247,575
12-0
West Virginia
1,463,701
1,221,119
242,582
19-9
North Carolina .
2,559,123
2,206,287
352,836
16-0
South Carolina .
1,683,724
1,515,400
168,324
ll-l
Georgia
Florida
2,895,832
968,470
2,609,121
752,619
286,711
215,851
I I'O
28-7
EAST SOUTH
13,990,272
12,194,895
1,795,377
14-7
CENTRAL
Kentucky .
2,416,630
2,289,905
126,725
5-5
Tennessee .
2,337,88s
2,184,789
153,096
7-0
Alabama
2,348,174
2,138,093
210,081
9-8
Mississippi .
1,790,618
1,797,114
6,496
-0-4
WEST SOUTH
8,893,307
8,409,901
483.406
5-7
CENTRAL
Arkansas
1,752,204
1,574,449
177,755
"3
Louisiana
1,798,509
1,656,388
142,121
8-6
Oklahoma .
2,028,283
1,657.155
37.1,128
22-4
Texas .
4,663,228
3,896,542
766,686
19-7
10,242,224
8,784,534
1,457,690
16-6
Increase of Population (Continued)
1920
1910
Increase
Increase
per cent
MOUNTAIN
Montana
548,889
376,053
172,836
46-0
Idaho .
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
431,866
194,402
939,629
360,350
325,594
145,965
799,024
327,301
106,272
48,437
140,605
33,049
32-6
33-2
17-6
IO-I
Arizona
334.162
204,354
129,808
63-5
Utah .
Nevada
449,396
77,4>7
373,351
81,875
76,045
4.468
20-4
5-5
PACIFIC
3,336,101
2,633,517
702,584
26-7
Washington .
1,356,621
1,141,990
214,631
18-8
Oregon
California .
783,389
3,426,861
672,765
2,377.549
110,624
1,049,312
16-4
44-1
5,566,871
4,192,304
1.374,567
32-8
There was no change beween 1910 and 1920 in the relative
rank of the territorial divisions, and only minor shif tings for most
of the states, California rising from I2th to 8th place. The terri-
torial divisions may be further condensed into geographic sec-
tions north (comprising New England, Middle Atlantic states,
and the two North Central divisions), south (comprising the
South Atlantic and South Central divisions) and west (including
the Mountain and Pacific states). This gives the following dis-
tribution:
1920
Per cent
of total
Increase
over 1910
Rate of
increase
North .
South .
West . .
Total U.S. .
63,681,845
33,125,803
8,902,972
60-2
31-3
8-5
7,924,730
3,736,473
2,077,151
14-0
12-7
30-4
105,710,620
ICO-O
13,738,354
14-9
More than one-half the increase in pop. was found in the north,
and the rate of gain in this section was greater than in the south,
but less than in the west represented by the Mountain and
Pacific Coast states.
Sex. By sex the pop. in 1920 was divided: males 53,900,376;
females, 51,810,244. This gives 104 males to 100 females. The
excess of males is attributable in part to immigration, for in the
foreign-born pop. the males greatly outnumber the females. In a
few states the females are in excess of males; in Massachusetts the
number of males was 96-3 toioo females; in Rhode Island, 97. This
is probably due to the inflow of female operatives to the textile fac-
tories. In some of the far- western states the proportion of males
to females runs very high, as in Nevada, 148-4; Wyoming, 131-3;
Arizona, 121-9. The mining industry accounts for these differences.
The two sexes in these sections, however, are nearer in numbers
than in 1910. In the earlier year the ratio of males for the Mountain
states was 128 to 100 females, while in 1920 it fell to II5'7- In the
Pacific states the ratio dropped from 130 to 114. This is evidence
that these sections are rapidly approaching the standard forms of
family life which obtain in the older portions of the country.
Negroes. The negro pop. in 1920 was nearly 10% of the total
pop. 10,463,131 in a total of 105,710,620. This was an increase
of 635,368 or 6-5% since 1910, as compared with 11-4% in the pre-
vious decade, and 13-8 % between 1890 and 1900. The percentage of
negroes in the total pop. is diminishing; in 1900 it was 1 1-6%; in
1910, 10-7% and in 1920, 9-9%. The number of negroes per 1,000
whites was 132 in 1900; 120 in 1910 and no in 1920. Although com-
plete data are not available, it is believed that the birth-rate of
negroes declined between 1900 and 1920 while the death-rate did
not greatly change. The negro element in the south barely held
its own in the 10 years 1910-20, numbering 8,912,259 in 1920 as
compared with 8,749,427 in 1910. This was a gain for this section of
less than 2 per cent. In the south as a whole the percentage of
negroes in the total pop. declined from 29-8 to 26-6. In 1920, in
South Carolina and Mississippi the negroes still outnumbered the
whites; in Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisi-
ana, however, there was an actual falling off in the negro popula-
tion. There was a marked gain in the number of negroes in the
north, 9-43 %, showing that negroes were migrating in considerable
numbers to the industrial centres of that section. The negro pop. of
Michigan increased from 17,000 in 1910 to over 60,000 in 1920. (See
NEGRO.)
The number of Indians declined from 265,683 in 1910 to 242,959
in 1920. This apparent decrease, however, is probably due to the
fact that in 1910 persons with only slight traces of Indian blood
were enumerated as Indians, and in 1920 were classified as whites.
UNITED STATES
853
The Chinese also decreased in number, as might be expected from
the policy of exclusion; in 1910 there were 71,531 and in 1920
61,686. The number of Japanese, however, increased from 72,157
to 111,025, or 53-86 per cent. About 30,000 of this increase is cred-
ited to California and a little over 4,000 to the state of Washington.
i Foreign-born. The foreign-born white pop., owing to the check
in immigration resulting from the World War, increased but slightly,
from 13,345,545 to 13.712, 754, or 2-7% between 1910 and 1920, as
against an increase of 30-7 % between 1900 and 1910. The numerical
increase in this group of the pop., 367,209, was much smaller than in
any preceding decade since 1850. This element increased between
1910 and 1920 in 20 states and the District of Columbia, and
decreased in 28 states: in the previous decade there was a gain in
every state except five. Arizona and Texas showed the largest rate
of increase, 67 % and 50 % respectively, due to Mexican immigra-
tion. Table I shows the foreign-born whites for the four states
having over 1,000,000 of this element in 1920. In 1910 the foreign-
born whites constituted 14-5% of the total pop. of the United
States and in 1920, 13 per cent. The nativity of the white pop. in
TABLE I. Foreign-born Whites.
State
1920
1910
1900
Per cent
increase
1910-20
Per cent
increase
1900-10
Illinois.
Massachusetts .
New York .
Pennsylvania .
1,204,403
1,077,072
2,783,773
1,387,298
1,202,560
1,051,050
2,729,272
1,438,719
964.635
840,114
1,889,523
982,543
O-2
2-5
2-O
-3-6
24-7
25-1
44-4
46-4
' 1920 is shown in Table 2. Little over one-half of the total white
' pop-. 55'3%> was native-born with native-born parents. In New
England only 30-8 % were in this group; and in Massachusetts less
than one-third, 31-9 %. According to the post-war map, the coun-
tries from which had come the largest numbers of foreign-born
whites who were in the United States in 1920, were Germany,
1,686,102; Italy, 1,610,109; Russia, 1,400,489; Poland, 1,139,978;
Canada, 1,117,878; Ireland, 1,037,233; England, 812,828; Sweden,
625,580; Austria, 575,625.
TABLE 2. Nativity of Whites, 1920.
Number
Per cent
Native parentage ....
Foreign parentage ....
Mixed parentage ....
Total native-born ....
Foreign-born white ....
Total white
Negro
Other non-white races
Total pop
58,421,957
15,694,539
6,991,665
55-3
14-8
6-6
81,108,161
13,712,754
76-7
13-0
94,820,915
10,463,131
426,574
89-7
9 . 9
0-4
105,710,620
IOO-O
The following figures show the total number of foreign-born
whites in certain states, with the foreign country which had fur-
nished the largest number in that state: California, 681,662 (Italy,
"8,502); Illinois, 1,204,403 (Germany, 205,491); Massachusetts,
^S'l
(Germany, 111,893); Pennsylvania, 1,387 ,'850 "(Italy, 222',764')';
Texas, 360,519 (Mexico, 249,652); Wisconsin, 460,128 (Germany,
151,250).
In connexion with the problems of Americanization the statistics
of citizenship of the foreign-born whites are of interest. In 1920
12,498,334, or 94% of this element, were 21 years of age and over;
6,928,027 were men and 5,570,307 were women. Table 3 shows the
number in 1920 naturalized, those who had taken out first papers,
aliens and those for whom no reports were obtained.
TABLE 3. Naturalizations, 1920.
Men
Women
Naturalized
First papers
Alien ....
Number
3,314,577
1,116,698
2,I'?8,2O';
Per cent
47-8
16-1
30-9
5'2
Number
2,893,785
77,558
2,226,690
372,274
Percent
52-0
1-4
40-0
6-7
No reports.
358,547
In 1910, 45-61 % of the men were naturalized as compared with
47-8% in 1920, and only 8-6% had taken out first papers, as com-
pared with 16-1 % in 1920.
Statistics of immigration are often inaccurately used, no allow-
ance being made for departures. Increasing facilities in ocean trans-
portation, and the higher wages received by immigrants, enabling
them to travel, led to a constant stream of departures in the decade
1910-20. In order to determine the net increase of pop. by immi-
gration, it is necessary, therefore, to determine both arrivals and
departures. Table 4 compiled by the Bureau of Immigration, shows
the changes for the II years 1910-20.
TABLE 4. Immigrants, in thousands.
Admitted
Departed
Immi-
grant
Non-
immi-
grant
Total
Emi-
grant
Non-
emi-
grant
Total
Added
to pop.
1910
1,042
156
1,198
202
178
380
818
1911
878
152
1,030
296
222
5i8
5"
1912
838
179
1,017
333
282
6iS
402
1913
1,198
229
l-4 2 7
308
304
612
815
1914 .
1,218
185
l,43
303
330
634
769
1915
327
107
434
204
1 80
384
5
1916 .
299
68
367
130
III
241
126
1917
295
67
363
66
80
146
216
1918 .
III
101
212
94
99
193
19
1919
141
96
237
123
93
216
21
1920
430
192
622
288
140
428
194
Beginning with 1915 there was a marked decline in immigration,
due to the World War. In the five years 1910-4, the total number
of immigrants was 5,174,000, and in the succeeding five years end-
ing in 1919, only 1,173,000.
Immigrants may be classified (i) as to race or people and (2) as
to country of last residence. The first is of importance as an index
of the contribution of ethnic traits and characteristics ; and the second
as throwing light upon previous training of immigrants in social and
political institutions. Tables 5 and 6 show immigration by race and
by countries, for a few of the most important groups, for the years
1910 and 1920.
TABLE 5. Immigrant Aliens, by Race.
19-
>o
19
o
Race or people
Number
Per cent
of total
Number
Per cent
of total
Croatian and Slovenian
493
39,562
4
Dutch and Flemish
12,730
3
13,012
i
English
58,366
14
53,498
5
French
27,390
6
21,107
2
German
7,338
2
7i,38o
7
Greek
13,998
3
39,135
4
Hebrew
14,292
3
84,260
8
Irish .
20,784
4
38,382
4
Italian, North
12,918
3
30,780
3
Italian, South
88,882
21
192,673
19
Lithuanian.
422
22,714
2
Magyar
Mexican .
252
51,042
12
. 27,302
17,760
3
2
Polish
2,519
128,348
13
Portuguese.
15,174
4
7,657
7
Ruthenian
258
27,907
3
Scandinavian
16,621
4
52,037
5
Scotch
21,180
5
24,612
2
Spanish
23,594
5
5,837
TABLE 6. Immigrant Aliens, by Country.
1920
I9IO
Number
Per cent
of total
Number
Per cent
of total
Austria
268
135,793
13
Hungary
84
122,944
12
Germany
1,001
31,283
3
Greece
11,981
3
25,888
2
Italy .
95,145
22
215,537
21
Russia
995
186,792
18
England
27,871
6
46,706
5
Ireland
9,591
2
29,855
3
Norway
4,445
I
17,538
2
Portugal
15,472
4
8,229
I
Sweden
5,862
i
23,745
2
Turkey in Europe
1,933
18,405
2
Turkey in Asia
5,033
I
15,212
I
British North America
90,025
21
56,555
5
Mexico ....
52,361
12
18,691
2
It will be observed that in 1920 there was a change in the racial
composition of immigration as compared with 1910. The propor-
tion of Italians was about the same, but immigration from eastern
European stocks fell off. Immigration from Austria, Hungary,
Germany and Russia practically stopped after 1917. Immigration
from the northern border, of both English and French Canadians,
and from the southern part of Mexico, had greatly increased. Until
the World War, Europe was the chief source of immigration to the
United States, furnishing 90% of the total. The percentage com-
ing from Europe fell, however, to 60% in 1915, 50% in 1916, 45%
in 1917, 28% in 1918 and 17% in 1919. In 1920 it rose to 57%.
After the war the return movement to Europe increased, and in
1920 emigration to that continent was in excess of immigration
from it. This excess was due to emigration to south-eastern Europe
rather than to the northern and western sections. The proportion
854
UNITED STATES
of females among the immigrant aliens in 1920 was 42-4%, as com-
pared with 33-4% in the years 1910-4. For Greeks the female per-
centage increased from 9 to 20, and for Italians from 5 to 48. This
suggests that the immigration of these peoples might prove to be
more permanent than in the past.
In 1917 a literacy test was imposed upon immigrants, exemptions
being made in certain cases, as for example, to those who came to
the United States to join relatives or who would have been subject
to religious persecution at home. As a result only 15,094 illiterate
immigrants 1 6 years of age and over, or 4/4%, were admitted in
1920. During the years 1908-17, 1,617,000 illiterate immigrants 14
years of age and over were admitted. Undoubtedly the new restric-
tion should show in the course of the decade 1920-30 a marked
effect upon the degree of illiteracy in the United States. By the
Immigration Act passed in 1921 the number of immigrants admitted
from any one country in the year July I 1921 to June 20 1922, was
restricted to 3 % of the persons of that nationality resident in the
United States in 1910. Only 358,000 immigrants, therefore, could
be eligible for admittance during the year 1921-2. The United
Kingdom was limited to 77,200 ; Germany to 68,000 ; Italy to 42,000 ;
Russia to 34,200 and Poland to 25,800.
Urban and Rural Population. The tendency of the population
to concentrate in towns and cities continued unabated. In 1910 the
percentage of the pop. living in urban territory (that is, in cities and
other incorporated places of 2,500 inhabitants or more, and in towns
of that size in Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Rhode Island)
was 46-3 per cent. In 1920 the percentage was 51-4, showing that
more than one-half of the pop. was then living in urban territory
as defined by the Census Bureau.
Table 7 shows the pop. of cities having 50,000 inhabitants or
more in 1920 with comparison for 1910.
TABLE 7. Cities with 50,000 Inhabitants or More.
Rank
1920
1910
Percent-
age in-
crease
i
New York, N. Y. .
5,620,048
4,766,883
17-9
2
Chicago, 111.
2,701,705
2,185,283
23-6
3
Philadelphia, Pa.
I 823,779
I.S4Q.OO8
17-7
O
4
Detroit, Mich. .
993.678
,jf ^f">
465.766
/ /
"3'3
5
Cleveland, O. . . .
796,841
560,663
42-1
6
St. Louis, Mo. .
772.897
687,029
12-5
7
Boston, Mass. .
748,060
670,585
n-6
8
Baltimore, Md.
733.826
558,485
3'-4
9
Pittsburgh, Pa. .
>88, -14-5
S11.QO5
IO-2
10
Los Angeles, Cal.
J *JTO
576,673
\JOJ':f v *j
319,198
80-7
II
Buffalo, N. Y. .
506.775
423.715
19-6
12
San Francisco, Cal. .
506,676
416,912
2i-5
13
Milwaukee, Wis.
457.147
373,857
22-3
14
Washington, D. C. .
437,571
331,069
32-2
15
Newark, N. J. .
414.524
347,469
19-3
16
Cincinnati, O. .
401,247
363,591
10-4
17
New Orleans, La.
387.219
339,075
14-2
18
Minneapolis, Minn.
380,582
301,408
26-3
19
Kansas City, Mo.
324,410
248,381
30-6
20
Seattle, Wash. .
315.312
237.194
32-9
21
Indianapolis, Ind. .
314.194
233,650
34-5
22
23
Jersey City, N. J. .
Rochester, N. Y. .
298,103
295.750
267,779
218,149
"3
35-6
24
Portland, Ore.
258,288
207,214
24-6
25
Denver, Col.
256,491
213,381
2O-2
26
Toledo, O. ...
243.164
168,497
44-3
27
Providence, R. I.
237.595
224,326
5'9
28
Columbus, O. .
237,031
181,511
30-6
29
Louisville, Ky. .
234.891
223,928
4'9
30
St. Paul, Minn.
234,698
214,744
9-3
31
Oakland, Cal. .
216,261
i so, 1 74.
A4.-O
32
Akron, O
208,435
j , * it
69,067
*ff vr
01-8
33
Atlanta, Ga.
200,616
IS4..8V5
2Q-6
34
Omaha, Neb.
191,601
* o^***Jy
124,096
^y v
54'4
35
Worcester, Mass.
179,754
145,986
23-1
36
Birmingham, Ala. .
178,806
132,685
34-8
37
Syracuse, N. Y.
171.717
J37.249
25-1
38
Richmond, Va.
171,667
127,628
34 - 5
39
New Haven, Conn. .
l6 2,537
133.605
21-7
40
Memphis, Tenn.
162,351
I3I.I05
23-8
41
San Antonio, Tex. .
161,379
96,614
67-0
42
Dallas, Tex.
158,976
92,104
72-6
43
Dayton, O.
152,559
"6,577
30-9
44
Bridgeport, Conn. .
143,555
102,054
40-7
45
Houston, Tex. .
138,276
78,800
75-5
TABLE 7. (Continued).
Rank
1920
1910
Percent-
age in-
crease
46
Hartford, Conn.
138,036
98,915
39-6
47
Scranton, Pa.
137,783
129,867
6-1
48
49
Grand Rapids, Mich.
Paterson, N. J.
137.634
135.875
"2,571
125,600
22-3
8-2
50
Youngstown, O.
132,358
79,066
67-4
5'
Springfield. Mass. .
129,614
88,926
45-8
52
Des Moines, la.
126,468
86,368
46-4
53
New Bedford, Mass.
121,217
96,652
25-4
54
Fall River, Mass.
120,485
"9.295
I-O
55
Trenton, N. J. .
119,289
96,815
23-2
56
Nashville, Tenn.
118,342
"0,364
7-2
57
58
Salt Lake City, Utah
Camden, N. J. .
I IS, l ID
116,309
92.777
94.538
27-3
23-0
59
Norfolk, Va. .
"5,777
67.452
71-6
60
Albany, N. Y. .
"3,344
100,253
13-1
6l
Lowell, Mass. .
"2,759
106,294
6-1
62
Wilmington, Del.
110,168
87,411
26-0
63
Cambridge, Mass. .
109,694
104,839
4-6
64
Reading, Pa.
107,784
96,071
12-2
65
Fort Worth, Tex. .
106,482
73,312
45-2
66
Spokane, Wash.
104.437
104,402
67
68
Kansas City, Kan. .
Yonkers, N. Y. . .
101.177
100.176
82,331
79.803
22-9
25-5
69
Lynn, Mass.
99,H8
89.336
I I-O
70
Duluth, Minn. .
98,917
78,466
26-1
7 1
Tacoma, Wash.
96,965
83.743
15-8
72
Elizabeth, N. J.
95.783
73.409
30-5
73
Lawrence, Mass.
94,270
85.892
9-8
74
Utica, N. Y. .
94,56
74419
26-5
75
Erie, Pa
93,372
66,525
dO'J.
/ o
76
Somerville, Mass.
93,091
77.236
IfV hf
20-5
77
Flint, Mich.
9L599
38,550
137-6
78
Jacksonville, Fla.
9L558
57,699
58-7
79
Waterbury, Conn. .
9L7'5
73,141
25-4
So
Oklahoma City, Okla. .
9,295
64,205
42-2
81
Schenectady, N. Y. .
88,723
72,826
21-8
82
Canton, O. . . .
87,091
50.217
73-4
83
Fort Wayne, Ind.
86,549
65.933
35-4
84
Evansville, Ind.
85.264
69,647
22-4
85
Savannah, Ga. .
83,252
65,064
28-0
86
Manchester, N. H. .
78,384
70,063
n-9
87
St. Joseph, Mo.
77,939
77.403
0-7
88
Knoxville, Tenn.
77,8i8
36,346
114-1
89
El Paso, Tex. .
77,560
39,279
97-5
90
Bayonne, N. J.
76.754
55,545
38-2
OI
Peoria, III.
76,121
66,950
13-7
7
92
Harrisburg, Pa.
75.917
64,186
18-3
93
San Diego, Cal.
74.683
39,578
no _
tto'7
94
Wilkesbarre, Pa.
73.833
67,105
IO-O
'IS
Allentown, Pa. . .
73,502
51,913
41-6
7 J
9 6
Wichita, Kan. .
72,217
52,450
377
97
Tulsa, Okla. .
72,075
18,182
296-4
98
Troy, N. Y. . . .
72,013
76,813
-6-2
99
Sioux City, la. .
71,227
47,828
48-9
100
South Bend, Ind.
70,983
53,684
32-2
IOI
Portland, Me. .
69,272
58,571
18-3
102
Hoboken, N. J. . .
68,166
7 ,324
-3-1
103
Charleston, S. C.
67,957
58,833
15-5
104
Johnstown, Pa.
67,327
55.482
21-3
105
Binghamton, N. Y.
66,800
48.443
37-9
1 06
East St. Louis, 111. .
66,767
58,547
14-0
107
Brockton, Mass.
66,254
56,878
16-5
1 08
Terre Haute, Ind. .
66,083
58,157
13-6
109
Sacramento, Cal.
65,908
44,696
47-5
no
Rockford, 111. .
65,651
45,401
44-6
III
Little Rock, Ark. .
65,142
45.941
41-8
112
Pawtucket, R. I.
64,248
51,622
24-5
113
Passaic, N. J. .
63,841
54.773
16-6
114
Saginaw, Mich. .
61,903
50,510
22-6
US
Springfield, O. .
60,840
46,921
29-7
UNITED STATES
855
TABLE 7 (Continued).
Rank
1920
1910
Percent-
age in-
crease
116
Mobile, Ala.
60,777
51,521
18-0
1 17
60,331
52,127
I s ;-?
1 * /
118
Holyoke, Mass.
60,203
57,730
* j /
4-3
119
New Britain, Conn.
59,3i6
43,9i6
35-i
120
Springfield, 111.
59,183
51,678
H-5
121
Sg.'IQ-J
38,002
54-2
122
Chester, Pa. ...
O w , J7O
58,030
38,537
J^
50-6
123
Chattanooga, Tenn.
57,895
44,604
29-8
124
Lansing, Mich.
57-327
31,229
83-6
125
Covington, Ky.
57-121
53,270
7-2
126
Davenport, la.
56,727
43,028
31-8
127
Wheeling, W. Va. .
56,208
41,641
35-o
128
Berkeley, Cal. .
56,036
40,434
38-6
129
Long Beach, Cal.
55,593
17,809
212-2
T-2O
55,378
16,802
229'6
*o
T-JI
Lincoln, Neb.- .
54,948
43,973
25-O
*o
132
Portsmouth, Va.
54,387
33,190
63-9
133
Haverhill, Mass.
53,884
44,"5
22-1
134
Lancaster, Pa. .
53.150
47-227
12-5
135
Macon, Ga.
52,995
40,665
30-3
136
Augusta, Ga.
52,548
41,040
28-0
137
Tampa, Fla.
51,608
37,782
36-6
138
Roanoke, Va. .
50,842
34,874
45-8
139
Niagara Falls, N.Y.
50,760
30,445
66-7
140
East Orange, N. J. .
50,710
34,371
47-5
141
Atlantic City, N. J.
50,707
46,150
9-9
142
Bethlehem, Pa..
50,358
12,837
292-3
'43
Huntington, W. Va.
50,177
31,161
61-0
144
Topeka, Kan. .
50,022
43,684
14-5
The cities with increases of over 100% were Detroit, Mich., due
to the development of the automobile industry; Akron, O., the
home of several large rubber factories which manufacture tires for
automobiles; Flint, Mich., also an automobile city; Tulsa, Okla., a
centre of oil activity ; Gary, Ind., a city recently built up by the U. S.
Steel Corp.; Bethlehem, Pa., also a steel city; Knoxville, Tenn.;
and Long Beach, Cal. With the exception of Bethlehem, no one of
these cities is in the east.
Nearly one-fourth of the gain in the total pop. was due to the
growth of the 12 largest cities, which in 1920 all had more than
500,000 inhabitants each. In 1910 there were only eight cities with
a pop. of 500,000 or over. In the earlier year 12-5%, or one-eighth
of the total pop., lived in cities of this size; in 1920 the proportion
was 15-5%. In 1910 there were 42 cities with a pop. between
100,000 and 500,000; in 1920 there were 56.
Occupations. The proportion of the pop. engaged in gainful occu-
pations increased from 38-3% of the total pop. in 1900 to 41-5%
in 1910. This was largely due to the greater number of females
receiving wages. In 1900 the percentage of- females 10 years of age
and over in gainful occupations was 18-8; in 1910, 23-4, a gain of
4-6 per cent. The percentages for males for the two dates respec-
tively were 80 and 81-3, a gain of only 1-3 per cent. Table 8
classifies those engaged in industry according to the principal divi-
sions of occupations.
TABLE 8. Industrial Occupations.
Occupation
Number
Per cent.
1910
1900
1910
1900
Males:
Agricultural pursuits
10,760,875
9,404,429
35-8
39-6
Professional service .
1,151,709
827,941
3-8
3-5
Domestic and personal
service .
2,740,176
3,485,208
9-1
14-7
Trade and transportation
6,403,378
4,263,617
21-3
17-9
Manufacturing and me-
chanical pursuits .
9,035,426
5,772,641
30-0
24-3
All occupations (male) .
30,091,564
23,753,836
IOO-O
IOO-O
Females:
Agricultural pursuits
1,807,050
977,336
22-4
18-4
Professional service .
673,418
430.597
8-3
8-1
Domestic and personal
service ....
2,620,857
2,095,449
32-5
39-4
Trade and transportation
1,202,352
503,347
14-9
9;5
Manufacturing .and me-
chanical pursuits .
1,772,095
1,312,668
21-9
24-7
All occupations (female)
8.075,772
5,319,397
IOO-O
IOO-O
Table 8 does not include all those engaged in economic serv-
ices. Many children and wives work for their parents or husbands;
technically they do not receive wages and consequently are not
recorded as engaged in gainful occupations, but in reality they con-
tribute to the household economy. If these be included, approxi-
mately two-thirds of the pop. was engaged in some degree of creating
wealth or in services which might be valued in economic terms.
Nearly one-third of all the workers were engaged in agricultural and
allied industries, and a little over one-fourth in manufacturing and
in tool industries. If we divide the pop. of the United States into
groups according to age, the following were the percentages of each
age-group engaged in gainful occupation in 1910: 10 to 13 years,
males 16-6% and females 8-0%; 14 to 15, 41-4% and 19-8%; 16 to
20, 79-2% and 39-9%; 21 to 44, 96-7% and 26-3%; 45 years and
over, 85-9% and 15-7%; 10 years and over, 81-3% arid 23-4%.
There was a slight decrease between 1900 and 1910 in the two lower
age-groups for males and a slight increase for females. More than
8 out of 10 of the gainful workers in the United States as a whole
in 1910 were 21 years of age and over, and about 95 out of 100 were
1 6 years of age and over.
Education. In 1918 there were 20,853,516 children enrolled in
the public schools, constituting 70% of the pop. from 5 to 18 years
of age. There were 650,709 teachers in the public schools, or one
to every 32 pupils. Of the teachers 16% were males. The total
expenditure for public schools was $763,678,089 or about $37 per
pupil. The above enrolment of pupils includes 1,735,619 attending
public high schools. In addition there were 158,745 pupils in pri-
vate high schools and academies. There were over 300 public and
private normal schools with an enrolment of nearly 140,000. Uni-
versities, colleges and schools of technology numbered 672 in 1918,
having 44,600 students of preparatory grade, 239,707 students of
collegiate grade, and 14,406 graduate students. Nearly one-half
of the students of collegiate grade were female. Professional schools
in 1918 numbered 424, as follows: theology 141, with 9,354 students;
law 101, with 11,820 students; medicine 72, with 13,802 students;
dentistry 37, with 8,314 students; pharmacy 54, with 4,053 stu-
dents; and veterinary medicine 19, with 1,250 students. (See EDU-
CATION, section United States.)
The statistics of illiteracy for 1920 showed a diminution com-
pared with those for 1910. The Census Bureau classifies as illiter-
ate any person 10 years of age or over who is unable to write in any
language, regardless of ability to read. Illiterates in 1920 num-
bered 4,931,905, or 6% of the pop. at least 10 years of age, as com-
pared with 7-7 % in 1910. The proportion of illiteracy for the
individual states in 1920 ranged from 1-1% in Iowa to 21-9% for
Louisiana. Illiteracy is. very marked in those states in which the
colored pop. or the foreign-born pop. is relatively large. I n 1 9 1 o nearly
one-third (30-4%) of the negroes were recorded as illiterate, but this
showed a marked decrease from 44-5% in 1900. Of the native
whites of native parentage only 3-7% m 1910 were illiterate, but in
six of the southern states the percentage ran over 10%.
Vital Statistics. In 1915 the Census Bureau began the annual
analysis and publication of birth statistics based upon data obtained
from state registration records. In 1919 the birth registration area
covered nearly three-fifths (58-6%) of the total population. The
birth-rate varied in the five-year period 1915-9 from 25-1 per 1,000
in 1915 to 22-3 per 1,000 in 1919. The ratio of male births was 1,057
to 1,000 female births. The fecundity of foreign-born mothers was
much greater than that of native mothers. For example, in Connecti-
cut, although the white married women of foreign birth, age 15 to
42, constituted only 46% of the total' pop. of white married women
of that age group, they gave birth to 57% of the children. In
Massachusetts 49 % of foreign-born mothers gave birth to 53 % of
the children; and in New York 43% of foreign-born mothers gave
birth to 49 % of the children. The first and second children formed
50 % of all children born to native white mothers, while only 34 %
born to foreign-born mothers were first and second children.
The registration area for mortality statistics covers more than
three-fourths of the population. Between 1900 and 1921 the death-
rate varied from a minimum of 13-5 per 1,000 in 1915 to 18 per
1,000 in 1918. This latter high rate was due largely to the great
influenza pandemic. The rate of infant mortality (the number of
deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 born alive) for the
registration area in 1918 was 83 for the white pop.; for negro pop.,
131 ; and for the total pop., 87.
A third nation-wide compilation of statistics of marriage and
divorce was made by the Bureau of Census, covering the year 1916.
There were 1,040,778 marriages, or 10-5 per 1,000 of the popula-
tion. In some of the southern states the rate ran as high as 11-9
per 1,000. There were 112,036 divorces. The statistics were not
analyzed to show ratios of divorce to marriage, but only the ratios
to population. For the whole country the ratio of divorce was 112
per 100,000 population. In New England the ratio was 80, Middle
Atlantic states 43, Southern states 59, and Pacific states 210.
Of the divorces 31-1% were granted to the husband and 68-9%
to the wife.
Religious Bodies. For statistics of Christian churches, see the
article CHURCH HISTORY: section United States. Statistics of mem-
bership in Jewish churches are unsatisfactory for purpose of com-
parison with other denominations, for they are restricted to heads
856
UNITED STATES
of families. In 1920, according to returns published in the Year
Book of Churches by the Federal Council of Churches, there were
2,960 Jewish congregations with a membership of 260,000; 784
Sunday-schools with a membership of 108,534. These figures may
be compared with the report of the Bureau of Census which gives
1,901 congregations and 357,135 members for the year 1916. Accord-
ing to the American Jewish Year Book for 1920 there were in 1918
3.390,300 Jews as against 1,777,185 in 1907. According to the same
authority nearly one-half, or 48-6 %, of the Jews resided in the state
of New York in 1918, and 45% in New York City. It is estimated
that 26 % of the total pop. of New York City is Jewish. Between
1907 and 1918 the Jewish pop. of New York state increased from
905,000 to 1,603,923; Pennsylvania, from 150,000 to 322,406; and
Illinois, from 110,000 to 246,637. It was also estimated that the
Jewish pop. constituted about 3-2 % of the total pop. of the United
States; in New York it was 15 %; in Connecticut and Massachusetts
5 /a and in Maryland 4-5%. Jewish immigration 1899-1919 num-
bered 1,551,315, or 10-4% of the total number of immigrants.
Agriculture. During the decade 1910-20, the number of farms
showed a slight gain, 1-4%. In 1920 there were 6,448,343 as com-
pared with 6,361,502 in 1910. A comparison of these numbers with
the total pop. shows that in 1910 there was one farm for every 14
of the pop., and in 1920 one farm for every 16. The decrease in the
number of farms was particularly marked in states east of the Mis-
sissippi; for example, in Connecticut 15-5%; Massachusetts 13-4%;
New York 10-5 %; Ohio 5-6 %; and Illinois 5-8 %. In New England
the number of farms decreased by 32,238, giving in 1920 one farm
for every 47 persons. The total farm acreage increased somewhat
more rapidly than the number of farms, from 878,798,325 ac. to
955-883,715 ac., nearly 8-8%. The greater portion of this increase
was due to the use of jand for dry farming in the arid states of the
Rocky Mountain section and also to the enclosure of large areas
for grazing. In 1919 there were 507,000,000 ac. under cultivation.
One half of the total land area of the United States was in 1920
included in farms, as compared with 46-2 % in 1910. Of the 956,000,-
ooo ac. included in farms, 88,000,000 in 1919 was devoted to corn;
73,000,000 to wheat; 73,000,000 to hay; 38,000,000 to oats; and
33,000,000 to cotton. Nearly one-third of the farm area and nearly
one-sixth of the total land area is used for the growing of these five
products. The average size of farms slightly increased between
1910-20, from 138-1 ac. to 148-2 acres. Notwithstanding the small
increase in the number of farms, and of acreage in farms, the value
of all farms, lands and buildings increased from $35,000,000,000 in
1910 to $66,000,000,000 in 1920, or 90%. This increase, however,
was due largely to the abnormally high prices prevailing in 1920,
rather than to new investments and improvement of property. For
the same reason the average value of land and buildings per farm
for the United States as a whole greatly increased, rising from
$5,471 in 1910 to $10,284 in 1920. In 1910 62-1% of farms were
owned by their cultivators and in 1920 60-9%. In New England,
New Jersey, New York and Pennsylvania, there was a decline in
tenancy but there was a marked increase in the Mountain and
Pacific states. During the decade 1910-20 native white farmers
increased from 4,721,063 to 4,917,386; foreign-born white farmers
decreased from 669,556 to 581,068; coloured farmers increased
from 920,883 to 949,889. The countries furnishing the greater
number of foreign-born farmers were, in 1920, Germany (140 667),
Sweden (60,461), Norway (5L999), Canada (48,688), Russia' (32,-
388), Austria (30,172), England (26,614), Denmark (25,565), Italy
(18,267), Poland (17,352), Ireland (16,562), Holland (15,589), Fin-
land (14,988), Switzerland (13,051), Mexico (12,142), Scotland
(7.605), Hungary (7,122), France (6,119).
The United States is an agricultural country, but the question is
frequently asked whether agriculture is keeping pace with the growth
of the population. A comparison of the annual crop for the three-
year period 1907-9 with that for the period 1917-9 for corn, wheat,
and oats gives the following :
Average 1917-9
bushels
Average 1907-9
bushels
Corn
Wheat .
Oats
2,828,000,000
833,000,000
1,459,000,000
2,678,000,000
679,000,000
856,000,000
_ A comparison of these figures with the population at the respec-
tive dates shows that the per capita product of corn is slightly less,
that of wheat and oats greater.
Table 9 shows the estimated annual crop of some of the most
important agricultural staples for each of the 10 years, 1910-9.
TABLE 9. Annual Crops; in millions.
Corn
(bus.)
Wheat
(bus.)
Oats
(bus.)
Cot-
ton
(bales)
Irish
pota-
toes
(bus.)
To-
bacco
Ob.)
Wool
db.)
1910
2,886
635
1,186
n-6
349
1,103
321
1911
2,531
621
922
15-7
293
905
319
1912
3,125
730
,418
13-7
421
963
304
1913
2,447
763
,122
14-2
332
954
296
1914
2,673
891
,141
16-1
410
1,035
290
1915
2,995
1,026
,549
1 1 -2
360
1,062
286
1916
2,567
636
,252
n-4
287
1,153
288
1917
3,065
637
,593
"3
442
1,249
282
1918
2,503
921
,538
12-0
412
1,439
299
1919
2,346
945
.055
"3
290
1,372
307
The annual production of cotton did not greatly change in the
IO years 1910-0, running about 1 1,000,000 bales (500 lb.). Domestic
consumption, however, slowly increased, leaving a smaller amount
for export. During the five-year period, 1910-4, the average annual
export was 8,811,000 bales, and in the five years 1915-9, 6,310,000
bales, a decline of 28 per cent. The production of wool also remained
fairly constant, approximating 300,000,000 lb. annually. Imports
in the years 1915-9 were greater than ever before and the total con-
sumption therefore larger, as exports were insignificant. The aver-
age annual consumption, domestic and foreign, 1910-4, was 509,-
000,000 lb., and 1915-9 690,000,000 lb. Since 1914 the United
States has been dependent upon foreign countries for more than
one-half its wool consumption as compared with two-fifths, or even
only one-third in the earlier years of the century.
Strenuous efforts were made during the World War period, even
before the entry of the United States, to increase the production of
wheat. In 1916 the average farm value per bus. for the first time
since the decade following the Civil War, was above Si. A record
crop was produced in 1915, amounting to over a thousand million
bushels. The average annual production for the five years 1910-4
was 697,000,000 bus., and in the succeeding five years 1915-9,
822,000,000, giving an average annual increase of 125,000,000;
on the basis of an annual per capita consumption of five bus.
this provided bread for 25,000,000 people. In the years 1910-4
the average annual export was 125,000,000 bus., and in 1915-9,
240,000,000 bushels.
The domestic beet-sugar industry during the 10 years 1910-9
became firmly established. Until 1907 the volume of beet-sugar
E reduction was less than that of cane sugar; in later years it has
een far in excess. The production, in millions of pounds, was
1,775 in 1910 (cane 750, beet 1,025); 1,937 in 1915 (cane 493, beet
1,444); and 2,091 in 1919 (cane 569, beet 1,522). The outlying
possessions of the United States (Porto Rico, Hawaii and the
Philippine Is.) provide an amount of sugar approximately equal to
that produced at home. This, however, does not meet the demands
of domestic consumption, and the United States is still dependent
upon foreign countries for half its needs. The annual per capita
production of sugar was approximately 80 lb. in 1920 as compared
with 70 lb. in 1900.
The crops of hay, sweet potatoes, rye, barley, and rice, as esti-
mated by the Department of Agriculture for 1910 and 1919, are
seen in Table 10.
In 1919 the production of apples was 26,174,000 bar., of which
one state, Washington, yielded one-fourth (6,440,000 bar.). The
peach crop amounted to 50,690,000 bus. valued at a little over
$100,000,000. In 1918 1,525,792 ac. were devoted to truck crops.
The number of cattle on farms in 1920 was 66,652,559, as com-
pared with 61,803,866 in 1910. This increase did not keep pace
with the growth in population. The number of swine was 59,346,-
409 as compared with 58,185,676 in 1910, and again the increase
was not in proportion to population. The number of sheep as esti-
mated by the Department of Agriculture in 1920 was 48,615,000 as
against 52,447,861 in 1910. The wool product in 1919 was 307,459,-
ooo lb. as compared with 321,363,000 lb. in 1910. In 1919 the
product of Wyoming was 33,415,000 lb. ; Idaho, 22,145,000 lb.;
Montana, 17,750,000 lb.; Utah, 15,800,000 lb.; New Mexico,
15,076,000 lb.
The Department of Agriculture in its Year Book of 1918 esti-
mates that 350,000,000 ac., or nearly one-fifth of the land area of the
United States, is too rough or hilly for the successful cultivation of
crops. It may, however, be adapted to the growth of forests or used
for grazing purposes. Nearly one-third of the land area, or 600,000,-
ooo ac., receives insufficient rainfall for the profitable production of
TABLE
10. Hay and other Crops.
1919
191
o
Amount
Farm Value
Amount
Farm Value
Hay (short tons)
Sweet potatoes (bus.)
Rye
Barley
Rice
91,326,000
78,091,000
88,478,000
165,719,000
41,059,000 .
* 1, 839,967 ,000
124,844,000
119,041,000
200,419,000
109,61 -5,000
60,978,000
59,938,000
34,897,000
173.832,000
24,510,000
1747,769,000
40,216,000
24,953,000
100,426,000
16,624,000
UNITED STATES
857
crops at normal prices and affords no possibility of irrigation. A
total of 40,000,000 ac. is absolute desert. It is estimated that 200,-
000,000 ac. of forest, " cut-over " land, and woodland including
that in farms, could be used for crops after clearing. This, if divided
into farms averaging 160 ac., would provide 1,250,000 farms, or an
addition of about 20% to the number of farms in the country.
Moreover, 60,000,000 ac. of swamp land can be drained, and 30,000,-
ooo ac. of potentially irrigable land can be converted into farms if
available sources of water supply are fully utilized. In all there are
about 850,000,000 ac. of land at present in crops and potentially
available. A little over 1,000,000,000 ac. of non-arable land con-
sist of 360,000,000 ac. of absolute forest land, 615,000,000 ac. of
grazing land, 40,000,000 ac. desert land and 40,000,000 ac. in cities,
roads and railway rights of way. It is also estimated that 360,000,-
ooo ac. of forests will not be sufficient to supply a population of
150,000,000, but that 450,000,000 ac. will be needed for that num-
ber. To provide food, therefore, more intensive methods of farm-
ing will be required. For corn the average yield per ac. in the five
years 1900-4 was 24-2 bus., and in 1915-9, 26-3 bushels. The
yields for wheat were 13-4 and 14-3 bus. ; for oats 31 and 33-7 bus. ;
and for barley 25-7 and 25-6 bus., respectively, for the two periods.
(See also the section Agriculture.)
- Manufactures. A census of manufactures was taken for 1914 and
another for 1919. The results of the latter had not been fully pub-
lished by Jan. 1922. The manufacturing industries as a whole did
not increase so rapidly in the five-year period 190914 as in the pre-
vious five years, but showed great increase in the next five, ending
in 1919 (preliminary figures). This is seen from Table II.
TABLE n. Manufactures.
Estab-
lishments
Wage-
earners
Value of
products
Value added
by manufac-
ture
1904
216,180
5,468,383
814,793,903,000
$6,293,695,000
1909
268,491
6,615,046
20,672,052,000
8,529,261,000
1914
275,791
7,036,337
24,246,435,000
9,878,346,000
1919
288,376
9,103,200
62,910,202,000
Increase
Increase
Increase
Increase
1904-9
24-0%
21-0%
39-7%
35-5%
1909-14
2-8%
6-4%
17-3%
15-8%
1914-9
5-o%
29-4%
159-0%
Arranged by the 14 general groups of industries according to the
classification of the Bureau of Census, Table 12 shows numbers of
wage-earners and capital invested.
m TABLE 12. Groups of Industries.
Group
Wage-earners
Capital in mil-
lions of dollars
1914
1909
1914
1909
Food and kindred products
496,234
4",575
2,174
1,697
Textiles and their prod-
ucts
i ,498,664
1,438,446
2,8il
2,488
Iron and steel and their
products.
1,061,058
1,026,553
4,282
3,579
Lumber and its remanu-
factures ....
833-529
911,593
1.723
1,570
Leather and its finished
products.
307,060
309,766
743
659
Paper and printing . .
452,900
415,990
1.433
1,134
Liquors and beverages
88,152
77,827
1,016
874
Chemicals and allied
products.
299.569
267,261
3.034
2,167
Stone, clay and glass
products.
334,702
342,827
987
858
Metals and metal prod-
ucts other than iron
and steel
262,154
249.607
1,014
867
Tobacco manufactures .
178,872
166,810
304
246
Vehicles for land trans-
portation
263,076
202,719
803
521
Railway repair shops
365,902
304,592
418
277
Miscellaneous .
594,465
489,480
2,048
1,490
All industries
7,036,337
6,615,046
22,791
18,428
The industrial group having the largest number of wage-earners
in 1914 was the textile, but the iron and steel was first in capital
invested; although the chemicals and allied products group had
only 4% of the wage-earners, it was credited with 13% of the total
capital; leather and its finished products, which employed 4% of
the wage-earners, had less than 4 % of the capital.
Table 13 shows the distribution of manufactures in 1909 and
1914 by the three geographic divisions North (New England,
Middle Atlantic, and East and West North Central states), South
(South Atlantic, and East and West South Central states), and
West (Mountain and Pacific states).
TABLE 13. Geography of Industries.
Value of
No. of wage-
Capital
product
earners
(millions
(millions
Per
Section
of dollars)
of dollars)
cent
in-
crease
1914
1909
1914
1909
1914
1909
North
5,558,049
5.I97.I38
18,122
14,278
19,555
16,827
16-2
South
1,161,660
1,129,307
3.046
2,502
3,186
2,637
20-8
West
316,628
288,601
1,623
1,197
i,55
1,208
24-7
In 1914 the North manufactured 81-2 % of the product according
to value; the South, 12-8%; and the West, 5-9%. New York
retained in 1914 first place among the states in manufactures, pro-
ducing 15-7% of the total value of the product; Pennsylvania was
second with 11-7%, followed by Ohio and Massachusetts. Manufac-
turing establishments as a rule are in large cities. In 1914 cities with
a pop. of 100,000 and over, having 24 % of the total pop., had 40 %
of the wage-earners who manufactured 43 % of the value of the total
reduction. Ten cities, New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit,
t. Louis, Cleveland, Boston, Buffalo, Pittsburgh, and Milwaukee,
with a combined pop. of approximately 13,473,000, or nearly 14%
of the total pop., manufactured 25% of the total product value.
Districts outside cities having a pop. of 10,000 or over and having
6 1 % of the total pop., had only 33 % of the wage-earners, and manu-
factured only 30% of the total production. Some manufacturing
industries tend toward local concentration: for example in 1914,
measured by value of product, Michigan produced 62-9% of all the
products of the automobile industry in the United States; Massachu-
setts 43 % of the boot and shoe industry ; Connecticut 43 % of brass,
bronze and copper products, and 62 % of fire-arms and ammunition ;
California 25 % of canning and preserving products; Illinois 40%
of the agricultural implement industry; New York 43% of men's
clothing, 73 % of women's clothing, 96 % of men's collars and cuffs,
and 59 % of leather gloves and mittens.
Preliminary figures for the census of 1919 showed for value of
product an increase of nearly 160% over 1914. This remarkable
gain is far in excess of that of any previous five-year or even that of
any lo-year period. Table 14 shows the specific industries, which
in 1919 manufactured a product valued at more than $500,000,000.
Complete data were not yet available in Jan. 1922 to show how
far the increases shown in Table 14 were due to higher prices and
how far due to greater volume of production. To illustrate this dis-
tinction the following figures are taken from the preliminary bulle-
tins of the Bureau of Census, to show quantity production in 1914
and 1919 with respective values at each date. In the silk industry
there was manufactured in 1914 242,000,000 yd. of broad silk, and
in 1919, 307,000,000 yd. ; the value more than trebled in the period,
from $137,720,000 to $435,935,000. Pig-iron production increased
in quantity from 23,269,000 tons to 30,543,000 tons, or 31 %, and
in value 151%; coke from 22,788,000 tons to 30,097,000 tons and
in value more than doubled, from $304,234,000 to $770,101,000;
window glass decreased in quantity from 401,000,000 sq.ft. to
369,000,000 sq.ft., but the value more than doubled, increasing
from $17,496,000 to $41,106,000. Oil-cloth and linoleum also
decreased in quantity from 127,038,000 sq.yd. to 125,448,000 sq.yd.,
but increased in value from $25,598,000 to $68,110,000. Fertilizers
decreased in quantity from 8,432,000 tons to 8,291,000 tons, but
gained in value from $153,000,000 to $280,000,000. In quantity,
sole leather increased from 18,075,500 sides to 19,715,800 sides,
and in value from $116,188,000 to $218,830,000. In food products
lard increased in quantity from 1,119,189,000 Ib. to 1,372,550,000
lb., and in value more than trebled, $120,414,000 to $415,817,000;
condensed and evaporated milk increased from 884,647,000 lb. to
2,096,973,000 lb., and in value from $59,375,000 to $293,569,000;
beet sugar decreased in quantity from 1,486,948,000 lb. to 1,426,-
890,000 lb., but increased in value from $58,590,000 to $138,100,-
ooo; cleaned rice increased in quantity from 674,872,000 lb. to
1,062,813,000 lb. and in value from $21,655,000 to $83,462,000;
wheat flour increased from 116,403,770 bar. to 132,478,513 bar.
and in value from $543,840,000 to $1,436,589,000. The growing
demand for automobiles greatly expanded not only their manu-
facture but also the refining of petroleum, and the rubber industry.
The number of passenger cars manufactured in 1919 was 1,657,000
as compared with 569,000 in 1914 for all motor vehicles. The petro-
leum refining industry showed a phenomenal development. The out-
put of gasoline increased in five years from 1,195,000,000 gal. to
3,637,000,000 gallons. The increase in quantity was 204% and in
value 540%. In 1919. the refineries used 358,000,000 bar. of crude
petroleum of which 38,000,000 was of foreign origin and 320,000,000
domestic. The manufacture of rubber goods greatly expanded.
Two-thirds of the value in 1919 was represented by tires. The
maximum production of lumber was reached in 1908, 42,000,000,000
ft.; in 1918 it was 32,000,000,000 ft., the decline being due to the
858
UNITED STATES
TABLE 14. Individual Industries; dollars in millions.
1919
1914
Per
cent,
in-
crease
Automobile bodies and parts
Automobiles
674
2,388
130
503
418
373
Boots and shoes
1,152
502
129
Bread and other bakery products
Butter
Cars and general shop construction and
repairs by steam railway companies.
Cars, steam railway, not including
operations of railway companies
Chemicals.
Clothing, men's
Clothing, women's
1,406
583
1,278
54
695
1,158
1,184
492
243
5H
195
200
458
474
1 86
140
149
176
242
153
15
Confectionery and ice cream.
Cotton goods ......
637
1,878
2IO
677
203
177
Electrical machinery, apparatus and
I.OI4
335
203
Flour-mill and grist-mill products
Food preparations not elsewhere speci-
fied
Foundry and machine-shop products .
Furniture
Iron and steel, blast furnaces . _ .
Iron and steel, steel works and rolling-
2,193
663
2,321
574
794
2,813
878
219
867
266
318
QIQ
152
203
167
116
118
206
Knit goods
Leather, tanned, curried and finished .
Lumber and timber products . _ .
Lumber, planing-mill products, not in-
cluding planing-mills connected with
saw-mills
Oil and cake, cottonseed
Paper and wood pulp ....
Petroleum refining
686
929
1,401
561
57
794
1,645
259
367
715
308
212
332
396
165
15
96
82
169
139
315
Printing and publishing, book and job.
Printing and publishing, newspapers
and periodicals .
Rubber goods, not elsewhere specified .
Shipbuilding, steel
Silk goods. ,
Slaughtering and meat-packing, whole-
sale
Smelting and refining, copper
Sugar, refining, not including beet
sugar
Tobacco, cigars and cigarettes
Worsted goods
601
892
980
'lit
3,74
633
731
886
676
307
496
224
66
254
1-454
444
289
3'5
276
96
80
338
2,103
170
155
42
153
181
145
fact that readily available timber was becoming less and less acces-
sible. Portland cement is manufactured in larger amounts and has
a wide use in the building industry. During the years 1900-9 the
average production was 33,000,000 bar.; in 1916 it reached 95,000,-
ooo barrels. The production of tin plates, terne plates, and taggers
tin showed a steady development; in 1910 the production amounted
to 1,370,788,000 Ib. and in 1919 to 3,301,624,000 Ib. An export
trade was developed, the export of domestic product rising from
26,168,000 Ib: to 527,462,000 Ib. ; import of this product has prac-
tically disappeared.
The cost of new buildings in the principal cities is estimated by
the U.S. Geological Survey as follows: 1910, $726,437,000; 1911,
$687,507,000; 1912, $738,990,000; 1913, $673,221,000; 1914, $619,-
752,000; 1915, $700,413,000; 1916, $839,706,000; 1917, $569,011,000;
1918, $344,622,000; 1919, $1,019,491,000. The figures show that,
although the war checked building, the total value of the buildings
constructed in 1919 was much greater than in any preceding year;
the cost for 1919 was swollen by high prices and does not accurately
represent the volume of new building, measured by physical units.
After 1909 there was but a slight increase in the number of manu-
facturing establishments, notwithstanding the gain in the number
of wage-earners and value of product. In 1914 there were 275,791
establishments, with 7,036,337 wage-earners, and products valued
at $24,246,000,000, or $87,916 per establishment; in 1919, 288,376
establishments with $62,588,000,000, or $217,000 per establish-
ment. In 1914, 2,476,006 wage-earners, or more than one-third
(35-2%), were in 3,819 establishments, an average of nearly 650
workers per establishment; nearly one-half (48-6%) of the value
of the product was manufactured in this small group of establish-
ments. Of the 8,263,153 persons engaged in manufactures in 1914,
6,613,466, or 80%, were males, and 1,649,687, or 20%, were females.
Minerals. The value of mineral products, as estimated by the
U.S. Geological Survey, increased from $1,992,406,000 in 1910 to
$5,543>456,ooo in 1918. Nearly three-fourths was represented' in
1918 by five products, as follows (in millions of dollars): pig-iron
1,181 (412 in 1910); bituminous coal 1,492 (469 in 1910); anthra-
cite 336 (160 in 1910); copper 471 (137 in 1910); petroleum 704
(128 in 1910). Lead increased in value from $30,855,000 in 1910
to $76,667,000 in 1918; zinc from $27,268,000 to $89,618,000;
aluminum from $8,956,000 to $41, 159,000; natural gas from $70,756,-
ooo to $157,000,000; and cement from $68,752,000 to $113,555,000.
Platinum had a remarkable development, the product increasing
from 8,665 9 z -i valued at $478,688, in 1915 to 59,753 oz., valued at
$6,4^17,980, in 1918.
Ihe production of iron ore increased from 56^889,734 long tons
in 1910 to a maximum record of 77,870,553 tons in 1916. In 1918
the production was slightly less, 72,021,202 tons. In the latter year
this was manufactured into 39,054,644 tons of pig-iron. More than
half of the iron ore produced is mined in Minnesota amounting to
43,263,240 tons, followed by Michigan 17,587,416 tons; Alabama
mined 6,121,087 tons. In 1912 the National Conservation Com-
mission estimated the total supply of iron ore profitable to mine at
4,784,930,000 long tons, and 75,000,000,000 tons not worth mining.
According to this estimate the profitable ore deposits might be
exhausted in 60 years, allowing for no increase in annual rate of
production. The ore deposits being worked in 1921 were for the
most part on the surface in the region of the Great Lakes. (See
IRON AND STEEL.)
The production of anthracite coal in 1910 was 75,433,246 tons
(of 2,240 Ib.); in 1919 78,653,751 tons, an increase of 4 per cent.
The bituminous coal production in 1910 was 417,111,142 short
tons as compared with 459,971,070 tons in 1919 (preliminary esti-
mate of the Geological Survey), a gain of 52 per cent. About two-
thirds of the coal consumed goes into the production of power,
about equally divided between the industries and transportation;
about one-sixth is used as a raw material, for making products
employed industrially, as coke, gas, and coal-tar products; and
about one-sixth for heating homes and other buildings. (See COAL.)
The mining of copper does not follow a regular ascending curve
of production. It reached the high point in 1906, 409,735 long
tons; declined in 1907; rose to 487,925 tons in 1909; again declined
in 1910; rose to 555,031 tons in 1912; fell to 513,454 in 1914; and
again advanced to 86^,648 tons in 1916. In 1916 more than one-
third was produced in Arizona, which has become the principal
producing state. In the same year it was estimated by The Mineral
Industry that the world's production was 1,373,200 long tons.
After 1916 there was a marked decline in production. (See COPPER.)
The increased demand for gasoline for automobiles raised the
price and led to vigorous efforts to discover new supplies of petroleum.
During 1908-19 the production in California more than doubled;
in Texas trebled; in Oklahoma more than doubled; in Wyoming
new oil-fields were opened. The total production in 1920 was 443
million barrels, as against 281 millions in 1915 and 179 millions in
1908. For details see PETROLEUM. The Director of the U.S. Geo-
logical Survey estimated in 1920 that the country's oil resources
were over 40% exhausted, and that the supply at the existing rate
of consumption would be exhausted within 20 years (see FUEL).
Between 1908 and 1916, when active exploration was carried on,
the reserve was enlarged by only 1,200 million barrels. Attention
has been turned to the possibility of extracting petroleum from the
oil shales of Utah, Colorado and Wyoming.
The volume of natural gas produced has risen steadily since the
beginning of the century. In 1910 the production was 509,000 mil-
lion cub. ft., and in 1919, 1,726,000 million cubic feet. Natural gas
is found in 23 states, but chiefly in West Virginia, Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Oklahoma, and California. Some 2,100 cities and towns are
supplied. One-third is used for domestic purposes and two-thirds
for industrial plants. The production in 1910 and 1918 is shown
in Table 15. The average value in 1910 was 13-9 cents per 1,000 ft.
giving a total value of the product, $70,800,000; in 1918, 21-3
cents per 1,000 ft. and $154,000,000 total value. About 15,444,000
ac. of land were controlled by natural gas producers in 1917.
TABLE 15. Natural Gas Production; in million cub. ft.
1918
IQIO
West Virginia
265,000
191,000
Pennsylvania
123,000
127,000
New York .
8,000
6,000
Ohio ...
61,000
48,000
Louisiana and Texas
49,000
8,000
Illinois ...
4,000
7,000
Oklahoma .
124,000
50,000
Kansas ...
28,000
59,000
California . .
40,000
3,000
Other states
19,000
10,000
721,000
509,000
The production of gold reached its maximum in 1915, valued at
$101,035,700; during the war it declined owing to advancing prices
of materials and labour and the decreased purchasing power of
gold (see GOLD). In 1919 the production was valued at $58,488,800,
less than in any year since 1897. California furnished $17,398,000;
Colorado $9,736,400; Alaska $9,036,000. Silver likewise reached
its maximum in 1915, amounting to 74,961,075 fine Troy oz.,
valued at $37,397,300. In 1919 the bullion produced was less,
UNITED STATES
859
55,285,196 oz., but owing to the high price the production was
worth $61,966,412. Montana and Utah seemed to be forging
ahead as the great silver-producing states, Nevada remaining
stationary.
Fisheries. According to an estimate made by the Bureau of
Fisheries the annual fishery product during the decade 1910-9
amounted to 2,500,000,000 lb., for which about $80,000,000 was
paid to the fishermen. The industry employs about 200,000 per-
sons. The total quantity of fish landed at Boston and Gloucester,
Mass., and Portland, Me., the three principal fishing ports in New
England, amounted in 1919 to 196,481,000 lb. having a value to the
fishermen of $7,548,000. Cod represented $2,332,000 and haddock
$2,788,000. The product of the fisheries of the Great Lakes in 1917
was 104,269,000 lb., valued at $6,295,000. One-half of the product,
53.529,ooo lb., was ciscoes (whitefish). The product of the fisheries
of the Gulf states in 1918 was 130,924,000 lb., valued at $6,510,000.
The principal products were: mullet, 28,641,000 lb. ; shrimp, 27,143,-
ooo lb. ; and oysters, 23,754,000 lb. At Seattle, Wash., the fishing
fleet landed in 1919 13,651,000 lb., valued at $1,530,000. The prin-
cipal product was halibut. The total catch of salmon and steel-
head trout on the Pacific coast in 1919 including Alaska was 767,000,-
ooo pounds. It is estimated that the annual yield of oysters for the
whole United States is about 30,000,000 bus. giving a return to the
fishermen of nearly $15,000,000. About one-sixth, 5,942,000 bus.,
come from the New England coast, and over one-half, 18,906,000
bus., from the coast of the Middle Atlantic states.
Production. Professor Edmund E. Day of Harvard has made an
ingenious statistical study of the physical volume of production in
the United States for the period 1888-1919, published in The
Review of Economic Statistics (Harvard University, Sept. 1920
Jan. 1921). His conclusions are shown in Table 16. With 1899 as
the base (too) index numbers for subsequent years were calculated
for agriculture, representing 12 important crops; for mining, repre-
senting 10 minerals; and for manufacturing, representing 12 groups,
covering 34 branches of manufacture. The indices for pop. are
added in order to compare the growth of production.
TABLE 16. Index Numbers of Production.
Population
Agriculture
Mining
Manufac-
ture
1899
100-0
IOO-O
IOO-O
IOO-O
1900
101-8
100-6
105-7
IOI-O
1901
103-8
89-3
114-6
112-4
1902
1 06-0
II3-7
122-7
123-5
1903
108-1
105-0
135-0
125-5
1904
1 10-3
116-0
136-3
123-2
1905
112-4
JI7-5
161-6
144-4
1906
iH-5
125-0
169-9
155-0
1907
116-7
112-4
185-9
156-3
1908
118-9
118-8
154-2
132-7
1909
I2I-O
118-1
189-4
163-4
1910
I23-I
123-2
2OI-6
166-0
1911
125-3
117-0
194-4
I58-3
1912
127-4
138-1
216-7
181-4
1913
I29-6
I22-I
227-2
187-1
1914
I3I-6
135-0
2O2-6
171-4
1915
133-2
I4I-O
227-6
187-2
1916
134-8
124-9
267-0
218-6
1917
I36-5
135-0
277-2
215-2
1918
I38-I
133-2
279-6
214-0
1919
139-7
137-6
228-4
I95-3
I Table 16 shows that the physical volume of agricultural produc-
tion has closely followed the growth of population. As Prof. Day
points out, " Mining output, on the other hand, completely out-
distanced population growth. Since 1897 the development of min-
ing has been phenomenal. . . . Crops are an annual harvest
from a soil the fertility of which scientific cultivation carefully
preserves; mineral production is a continuing exhaustion of irre-
placeable natural deposit. Mining typically lives upon its capital;
agriculture upon its income. The rate of production in mining is
consequently open to an acceleration whicn in agriculture is alto-
gether impossible. . . .The fluctuations of manufacturing output
appear to be much more cyclical than the variations in agricultural
production. In general the fluctuations of production in manufac-
ture resemble closely those in mining."
Commerce, Foreign and Domestic. Extraordinary movements in
foreign commerce, due to the World War, began with 1915. During
the years 1900-9, inclusive, the excess of exports over imports of
merchandise varied in value from a maximum of $666,000,000 in
1908 to a minimum of $351,000,000 in 1909. Beginning with 1915
the annual excess was over a thousand million dollars, reaching in
1919, $4,016,000,000. Table 17 shows the movement by years, and
the excess of exports over imports in each year. The excess of
exports over imports in trade with European countries was even
greater than the balance from total trade with all countries, amount-
ing in 1919 to $4,437,000,000. Trade with South America uniformly
showed an excess of imports over exports, ranging from $66,000,000
in 1911 to $308,000,000 in 1918; and trade with Asia also gave
TABLE 17. Foreign Trade; in millions of dollars.
Exports
Imports
Excess
1910 ....
1,745
1,557
1 88
1911 ....
2,049
1,527
522
1912 ....
2,204
1,653
551
1913 ....
2,466
1,813
653
1914 ....
2,365
1,894
471
1915 ....
2,769
1,674
1,094
1916 ....
4,333
2,198
2,136
1917 ....
6,290
2,659
3,631
1918 ....
5-920
2,946
2,974
1919 ....
7,920
3-904
4,016
1920 ....
8,228
5,278
2,950
adverse balances ranging from $121,000,000 in 1911 to $408,000,000
in 1918. The figures given here relate to values of exports and
imports, and do not, even approximately, reflect the changes in the
physical volume of foreign commerce. For some of the commodities
recorded in official statistics of exports and imports it is possible to
give quantities as well as values; for others only values. In order
to illustrate the influence of prices on abnormal values of commodi-
ties entering into foreign trade, quantities are given in Table 18
of exports for five commodities: wheat, cotton, bacon, mineral oil
and tobacco; for other principal commodities only values are stated.
It will be observed from Table 18 that the quantity of wheat
increased six times, while the value increased nearly fifteen tirr.es,
and the quantity of cotton was less in 1919 than in 1910, but its
value more than doubled. High prices also influenced imports,
as seen in Table 19. The quantity of coffee imported increased a
little over 50%, while the value more than trebled; and the quan-
tity of sugar 67 %, but its value 245 %.
The enormous excess of exports of merchandise over imports,
which began to be so marked in 1915, resulted in unprecedented
gold transfers to the United States. In 1916 the import of gold
exceeded the export by $403,760,000, and in 1919 by $685,255,000.
Thus in two years the gold holdings were increased by $i ,089,000,000.
In the years 1918-9 $366,000,000 of this gold was exported, leaving
a net additional balance of $723,000,000. This was in large part
reflected in the increase of gold money in circulation, which rose
from $590,000,000 in 1915 to $1,112,000,000 in 1919.
Railways and Canals. There was but little new railway construc-
tion in the years 1910-21. In the five years 1915-9 less than 5,000
m. of new railway was built, not as much as was constructed in one
year in the period 1902-7. In 1919 the miles of track in opera-
tion were 253,350 as compared with 242,107 in 1910, a gain of
less than 5 per cent. The railways, however, did more work.
Passenger-miles increased from 32,338 millions in 1910 to 39,477
millions in 1917, or 22%, and freight-ton-miles from 255,017 mil-
lions in 1910 to 394,465 millions in 1917, or 54 per cent. The aver-
age tons per freight train increased from 380 to 597. In 1917 1,264
million tons of freight (excluding duplications) were moved by the
railways as against 968 millions in 1910. More than one-half of the
tonnage carried was the products of mines, coal being by far the
largest item. The average number of passengers carried per train
rose from 56 to 65. The number of railway employees increased but
slightly, from 1,699,420 in 1910 to 1,833,732 in 1917. Electric rail-
ways, mostly used for passenger service, have been extended more
rapidly than steam railways. In 1907 there were 25,547 m. of
electric line and in 1917, 32,548. The number of employees rose from
221,429 to 294,826 and the number of revenue passengers from
7,441 millions to 11,305 millions. (See RAILWAYS.)
In 1916 the Bureau of Census made a study of transportation
by water. According to this report the tonnage employed on the
Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence river in 1916 was 2,737,491
tons as compared with 2,392,863 tons in 1906, a gain of 14-4 per
cent. The freight carried was 125,384,000 tons as against 75,610,000
tons in 1906, a gain of 65-8 per cent. Of this, 73,000,000 tons was
iron ore, 30,000,000 tons coal, and 6,000,000 tons grain. The
freight handled by the Lakes fleet represented nearly one-half,
48-6%, of the water-borne freight shipments reported for the
United States as a whole in 1916 as against 42-6 % in 1906. Tonnage
on the Mississippi river and tributaries declined greatly, from
4,412,000 tons in 1906 to 1,621,000 tons in 1916. Vessels operating
on canals declined both in number and in tonnage. In 1906 the
number of such vessels was 2,140 with a tonnage of 259,491; in
1916 the number was 2,049 with a tonnage of 196,426. The decline
was on the canals of New York state, where the tonnage dropped
from 209,152 tons in 1906 to 115,290 in 1916, showing that the
efforts to develop canal transportation in that state had not been
successful. The freight carried on the Sault Ste. Marie Canal, con-
necting lakes Superior and Huron, fluctuated during the decade
1910-9, between 53,477,000 tons in 1911 and 91,888,000 tons in
1915; in 1919 it was 68,236,000 tons.
Mails, Telephone and Telegraph. Postal statistics show a
slight extension of post routes, exclusive of rural delivery routes,
from 435,488 m. in 1910 to 455,498 m. in 1919; the number of city
carriers from 29,168 to 35,024; the mileage of rural delivery service
from 993,068 to 1,143,467; and the' number employed in railway
mail service from 16,795 t 19,683. The telephone Was rapidly
86o
UNITED STATES
TABLE 18. Exports of Principal Commodities, 1910-9.
3
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rt*o
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8.2
_c
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o
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3
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3
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11
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is
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r o
i
o
< S C
U
HH
H
Bush-
Dol-
Bales
Dol-
Lbs.
Dol-
Gal-
Dol-
Lbs.
Dol-
Dol-
Dol-
Dol-
Dol-
Dol-
Dol-
Dol-
els
(mil.)
lars
(mil.)
(mil.)
lars
(mil.)
(mil.)
lars
(mil.)
lons
(mil.)
lars
(mil.)
(mil.)
lars
(mil.)
lars
(mil.)
lars
(mil.)
lars
(mil.)
lars
(mil.)
lars
(mil.)
lars
(mil.)
lars
(mil.)
1910
24
23-5
7-1
530-8
128
17-9
1,502
94-1
329
36-1
43-o
90-4
45-9
13-2
35-6
195-0
53-5
iMi i
33
30-4
8-6
5I7-I
198
24-2
1,769
105-9
370
42-2
52-8
98-2
54-5
19-2
45-7
57-o
1912
62
59-6
10-7
623-1
192
23-5
1,883
124-2
411
46-9
49-3
123-0
52-2
23-8
52-5
290-5
64-4
1913
100
95-J
8-6
575-5
213
28-0
2,137
149-3
444
52-9
56-9
H3-4
60-7
33-3
55-5
295-4
60-0
1914
174
187-2
6-3
343-9
184
25-6
2,240
139-9
347
43-9
62-4
116-0
48-6
34-2
50-1
201-3
67-9
1915
206
282-6
8-4
417-0
524
69-8
2,329
142-9
434
32-5
96-2
"7-3
48-3
II 1-6
95-8
390-9
156-1
1916
ISO
226-7
7-0
545-2
593
87-1
2,607
201-7
484
62-8
86-5
204-9
56-0
120-7
129-3
87I-3
159-7
1917
1 06
245-8
4-8
575-3
578
123-1
2,651
253-0
252
45-6
138-4
333-7
75-4
120-3
158-8
1,242-0
122-5
1918
ill
260-6
4-1
674-1
1,105
316-0
2,715
344-3
407
122-9
244-7
I95-I
144-9
96-7
181-0
1,035-3
91-7
1919
148
356-9
6-6
1,137-4
1,190
373-9
2,493
343-7
777
260-0
"7-3
238-0
I5I-7
273-1
968-5
303-2
TABLE 19. Imports of Principal Commodities, 1910-9.
o
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?
M
3
3
uT
D
3
C3
(3
IM
3
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1
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:
i
3
1
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<?i
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rt
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Pounds
(mil.)
Dol-
lars
(mil.)
Pounds
(mil.)
Dol-
lars
(mil.)
Pounds
(mil.)
Dol-
lars
(mil.)
Pounds
(mil.)
Dol-
lars
(mil.)
Pounds
(mil.)
Dol-
lars
(mil.)
Dol-
lars
(mil.)
Dol-
lars
(mil.)
Dol-
lars
(mil.)
Dol-
lars
(mil.)
Dol-
lars
(mil.)
1910
804
73-7
461
86-1
70-1
4,195
"3-9
1 80
36-1
110-4
67-0
28-9
27-3
54-5
1911
800
97-2
425
81-5
69-3
4.J34
100-4
156
25-5
87-9
65-8
30-6
23-9
51-8
1912
943
I30-5
615
I2I-I
3
79-8
4,317
118-5
238
42-2
III-2
67-0
44-5
24-5
57-7
1913
853
104-7
498
105-9
34
92-8
4,762
97-1
152
28-8
84-9
65-4
50-7
26-7
60-6
1914
,011
104-8
556
112-3
3'
92-6
5,4i8
127-2
260
58-3
74-7
60-3
49-1
24-5
63-2
1915
,229
113-8
646
127-4
37
94-8
5,286
179-2
423
95-o
II5-5
42-2
44-8
2I-O
59-8
1916
,167
118-8
726
I72-6
41
149-8
5,532
227-6
449
1255
164-5
53-8
65-5
37-5
77-2
1917
,287
122-6
631
209-7
43
189-8
4,944
222-5
421
171-6
239-5
53-8
95-8
63-4
98-6
1918
,052
99-4
362
108-0
49
194-2
5,171
454
251-8
149-2
39-8
114-4
107-6
98-3
1919
334
261-3
745
306-5
56
341-9
7,02 4
3')4'3
446
216-8
221-6
52-6
81-8
123-0
1 1 1-6
extended. In 1917 there were 28,827,000 m. of single wire in this
service as compared with 12,999,000 in 1907. The number of
employees nearly doubled during this period, increasing from
144,000 to 244,000. The Bell telephone system operated in 1919
23,281,000 m. of wire, of which 3,334,000 was for long-distance toll
service. The number of daily exchange messages of this system
alone was 30 millions and of toll messages one million. The tele-
graph systems made but little extension between 1907 and 1917.
In the former year there were 239,646 m. of pole line and in the
latter year 241,012. The number of messages sent increased over
50%, from 101 millions to 155 millions; and the number of employees
from 26,827 to 49,608. (See TELEGRAPH and TELEPHONE.)
The automobile became an important factor in terminal trans-
portation. Motor-car registration increased nine times between
1912 and 1920, numbering (not allowing for duplicate registration)
in the latter year 9,21 1,295. This represents a motor car for approxi-
mately every n of the population. (See MOTOR VEHICLES.)
Shipping. Owing to the great activity in shipbuilding during
the World War the tonnage of the American merchant marine
showed a marked increase between 1910 and 1919, rising from
7,508,100 tons in 1910 to 16,324,000 tons in 1920. Nearly one-
fifth, or 3,138,700 tons, was employed on the Great Lakes. The
tonnage on the western rivers continued to decline, being only
120,230 tons in 1920. Sailing vessels decreased both in number and
tonnage, and steam vessels declined in number from 12,452 to 8,103,
but increased in size. The average tonnage of a steam vessel in
1910 was 394 tons, and in 1919, 1,359 tons. During the five years,
1910^-4, the tonnage of new steam vessels built was 1,106,000 tons;
and in the next five years ending in 1919, 4,948,400 tons, or more
than four times as much. In 1920 new construction amounted to
3,880,639 tons. American shipping is engaged in two distinct
branches of trade: coastwise trade between domestic points, and
foreign trade. The tonnage in foreign trade increased from i ,076,152
tons in 1914 to 9,928,595 tons in 1920. Coasting tonnage remained
about the same. It is estimated that the new tonnage, constructed
under the emergency of the war, represented an expenditure of
$3,000,000,000, a sum greater than the book value of all the
world's merchant shipping in 1914, aggregating 49,000,000 tons.
(See SHIPPING.)
A notable change has taken place in the nationality of shipping
entering and clearing from American seaports. Until 1916 the ton-
nage of vessels sailing under foreign flags for many years was approxi-
mately three times as great as that under U.S. registry; in 1920
U.S. tonnage (26,242,332) equalled foreign tonnage (26,I78,328)._
The total tonnage of vessels entering at all ports from foreign
countries increased from 40,235,800 tons in 1910 to 52,420,600 tons
in 1920, and the tonnage cleared from 39, 705,900 tons to 56,072,300
tons. The tonnage of British shipping entering at seaports of the
United States fell from a maximum of 20,416,000 tons in 1914 to
11,237,000 tons in 1919. German tonnage entering in 1915 was
5,035,000 tons, and in the years 1916-9 was practically nil.
National Wealth. In 1912 the Bureau of Census made an esti-
mate of the wealth of the United States shown in Table 20, amount-
ing to $187,700,000,000.
This gave an average of $1,965 for each person as compared with
$1,165 m 1900. More than one-half the wealth consisted of real
estate and improvement, largely due to the increase in value of
urban real estate. In 1916 the value of taxable real estate in New
York City alone was nearly $8,000,000,000.
Unofficial estimates of the national wealth have been made by
statistical experts for dates later than 1912. That of W. R. Ingalls,
of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, published in the Annalist, Sept. 13
1920, gives $216,600,000,000 for the year 1916. Other estimates
run as high as $400,000,000,000. These figures, however, have little
significance as evidence of domestic welfare. High prices increased
appraised valuation; and high valuation, e.g. of real estate, may
be a burden upon the productive efforts of the community.
The income-tax statistics published by the Commissioner of
Internal Revenue throw light upon the distribution of wealth.
In 1918 the number of personal income-tax returns was 4,425,114.
The net income reported was $15,924,639,000; the tax collected on
this income was $1,127,722,000; 34-3% of those making returns
reported an income of from $1,000 to $2,000; 33-8% an income of
$2,000 to $3,000; 21 -I %an income from $3,000 to $5,000; and 7-2%
an income of from $5,000 to $10,000. Incomes of $1,000,000 or
more were reported by 67 persons. Of the total tax, New York
state paid $354,000,000, or 31-4%; Pennsylvania, $138,000,000, or
12-2%; Illinois, $85,000,000, or 7-5%; and Massachusetts paid
UNITED STATES
861
TABLE 20. National Wealth, 1912.
fil
<~
.
JS'o'o
*""c3
C '-S.
Items of Wealth
>i-B
M
fa
H | g
Real property and improvements .
Live stock
110-7
6-2
3-3
1,150
65
Farm implements and machinery,
etc '. .
1-4
0-7
14
Manufacturing machinery, tools
and implements ....
Gold and silver coin and bullion
6-1
2-6
3-2
1-4
63
27
Railway and equipment including
Pullman and private cars .
16-2
8-7
171
Street railways
4-6
2-4
47
Telegraphs
2
i
2
Telephones
I-I
6
12
Shipping and canals ....
1-5
8
16
Irrigation enterprises
4
2
4
Privately owned waterworks .
3
I
3
Privately owned electric light and
power stations . .
2-1
I-I
22
Agricultural products
5-2
2-7
53
Manufactured products .
14-7
7-8
153
Imported products ....
8
4
8
Mining products ....
8
4
8
Clothing and personal adornments.
4'3
2-3
45
Furniture, carriages, etc. .
8-5
4-5
88
Total
187-7
100-0
1,965
$81,000,000, or 7-2%. Of the personal income, 73% was from per-
sonal service and 27 % from property. Corporations reported a net
income of 88,362,000,000, of which those connected with metals and
metal products returned $2,053,000,000 and those connected with
transportation and other public utilities $1,054,000,000. The
income, war profits and excess-profits taxes from corporations
amounted to $3,159,000,000 of which those connected with metals
and metal products paid 31-76%, or $1,003,000,000. (See INCOME
TAX and EXCESS PROFITS TAX.)
Public Finance. The two main sources of Federal revenue are
customs duties and internal revenue duties. Revenue from customs
although nearly as large in 1920 as in 1910 was relatively unim-
portant; in 1910 it yielded $333,683,000 as compared with $289,934,-
ooo from internal revenue. After that year internal revenue was
the larger. Receipts were as follows :
Customs
Internal Revenue
1910
$333,683,000
$ 289,934,000
1911
314,497,000
386,875,000
1912
311,322,000
380,456,000
1913
318,891,000
405,120,000
1914
292,320,000
442,350,000
1915
209,787,000
415,670,000
1916
213,186,000
512,702,000
1917
225,962,000
809,366,000
1918
182,759,000
3,696,043,000
1919
183,429,000
3,840,231,000
1920
. 323,537,000
5,399,149,000
On account of the war new taxes were levied, the personal income
tax was increased, and excess-profits tax added. The income from
these two sources was, in 1918, $2,839,028,000; in 1919, $2,600,784,-
ooo ; and in 1920, $3,958,000,000. Transportation taxes in 1919
yielded $238,000,000. Tobacco duties yielded in 1910 $58,118,000
and in 1919 $206,003,000; spirits and fermented liquors in 1910,
$209,000,000 and in 1918, $483,000,000. The total ordinary receipts
in 1910 were $675,512,000, or $7.48 per capita, and in 1919 $4,647,-
604,000, or $43.79 per capita. Total ordinary expenditures increased
from $660,000,000 in 1910 to $15,365,000,000 in 1919, a per capita
increase from $7.30 to $144.77. Expenditures for the War Depart-
ment increased from $158,000,000 in 1910 to $9,273,000,000 in 1919;
for the Navy Department from $124,000,000 to $2,019,000,000.
The interest on the public debt increased from $24,742,000 in 1917
to 81,024,024,000 in 1920. Until 1917 the net public debt remained
fairly stationary for many years. In 1916 it was about $1,000,000,-
poo; in 1917 it rose to $1,909,000,000; in 1918 $10,924,000,000, and
m 1919 $24,331,000,000. For the Fourth Liberty Loan, the sub-
scriptions were $6,959,000,000 from 22,777,680 subscribers, or 21-9 %
of the total population. Of the subscriptions 53 % were for $50, the
total in this class making 10 % of the total amount subscribed.
The net cost of government, distinguishing between the United
States, states, and cities having a pop. of over 30,000, as tabulated
by the Bureau of Census for 1919, was: United States, $15,740,-
133,000 ($149.78 per capita) ; states, $635,370,000 ($6.05 per capita) ;
cities over 30,000 $1,202,324,000. Of the $635,006,000 representing
the cost of state Governments, $543,000,000 was devoted to current
expenses of the general departments, the balance representing pay-
' ments for outlays and interest on state debts. Of the $543,000,000
for general departmental services, $183,000,000 was expended for
schools, $134,000,000 for charities, hospitals and corrections, and
$62,000,000 for highways. The revenue receipts of states were
$675,000,000, of which $237,000,000 came from the general prop-
erty tax; $104,000,000 from special property taxes, as $46,000,000
inheritance tax, and $43,000,000 corporation stock taxes; $123,000,-
ooo was derived from business taxes; and $48,000,000 from licences
other than business, for the most part from the use of motor vehicles.
The net indebtedness of states in 1919 was $520,000,000 or $4.95
per capita. With this may be compared the net indebtedness of the
Federal Government amounting to $24,33 1,000,000^ or $232.95 per
capita, and for cities having a pop. of over 30,000, $2,698,000,000.
Of the total governmental-cost payments for cities having a pop.
of over 30,000, 754 millions was for current expenses of general depart-
ments; 238 millions was expended for schools, 72 millions for high-
ways; 6 1 millions for sanitation, 65 millions for fire departments,
8 1 millions for police departments, and 65 millions for charities,
hospitals and corrections. In addition 67 millions was expended for
public service enterprises, two-thirds of which was for water-supply
systems; 157 millions for interest on debt; and 256 millions for out-
lays; representing costs of new property and equipment. The gov-
ernmental-cost payments of 10 large cities for 1919 were as follows :
New York, $232,061,926 (pfr capita, $42.28); Chicago, $93,515,758
(p.c., $35.66); Philadelphia, $67,027,257 (p.c., $37.64); Detroit,
834,738,091 (p.c., $36.86); Cleveland, $29,617,643 (p.c., $38.84);
St. Louis, $24,188,963 (p.c., $31.75); Boston, $37,042,131 (p.c.,
$50.13); Baltimore, $16,372,941 (p.c., $25.12); Pittsburgh, $25,527,-
430 (p.c., $44.09); Los Angeles, $24,716,666 (p.c., $44.81). (See also
the section Finance.)
Army. On June 30 1920 the enlisted strength of the army was
composed of 15,451 officers and 184,904 men, making a total of
200,355. Of the total 149,869 were on duty in the United States,
I 9,3 I 9 in the Philippine Department, 4,519 in Hawaii, and the
remainder were scattered in China, Panama, Alaska, Porto Rico,
and Siberia, with the U.S. army in Europe, and at sea. By branches
of service the army was composed of Infantry, 52,560; Cavalry,
16,777; Coast Artillery, 16,145; Field Artillery, 15,757; Air Service,
9,358; Corps of Engineers, 4,877; Signal Corps, 4,948; Staff Corps
and Departments, 47,165; General Officers and aids, 195; Philip-
pine Scouts, 7,149; and miscellaneous, 25,368. As a result of service
in the World War it was estimated by the Chief of Staff of the War
Department in 1919 that there were nearly 4,000,000 men and
200,000 officers fit and trained for war. (See ARMY.)
Navy. Owing to the war with Germany, the navy, both in ves-
sels and men, was greatly increased. In 1912 there were 323 vessels
fit for service, and 42 under construction; in 1920 the respective
numbers were 795 and 165. The principal classes of vessels in 1920,
fit for service, were: battleships 37, armoured cruisers 8, cruisers
26, destroyers 249, submarines 98. In addition there were under
construction, II battleships, 24 cruisers, 70 destroyers and 50 sub-
marines. In 1910 the number of officers in the regular service was
2,645 an d enlisted men 45,076; in 1920 the respective numbers
were 8,765 and 116,760. In addition the marine corps contained in
1910 9,659 and in 1920 19,685. (See SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Relating to the Thirteenth Census of the United
States, 1910 are the following volumes: I. Population, General
Report and Analysis (1913); II-III. Population, Reports by States
(1913); IV. Occupation Statistics (1914); V. Agriculture, Gen-
eral Report and Analysis (1913); VI-VII. Agriculture, Reports by
States (1913); VIII. Manufactures, General Report and Analysis
( I 9 I 3); IX. Manufactures, Reports by States (1912); X. Manu-
factures, Reports for Principal Industries (1913); XI. Mines and
Quarries, 1909 (1913). Much of the material in these volumes is
summarized in the Abstract (1913), and is graphically represented
in the Statistical Atlas of the U.S., 1(114.
The Census of Manufactures, 1914, appeared in 2 vols. in 1918-9.
Important volumes on special topics have been recently pub-
lished by the Bureau of the Census: Negro Population 1790-
1915 (1918); Indian Population in the United States and
Alaska, 1910 (1915); Religious Bodies, 1916: part I, Sum-
mary and General Tables (1919), part II, Separate Denomina-
tions (1919); Insane and Feeble-Minded in Institutions, 1910
(1914) ; Benevolent Institutions, 1910 (1913) ; Deaf Mutes in the United
States, 1910 (1918); Paupers in Almshouses, 1910 (1915); Prison-
ers and Juvenile Delinquents, 1910 (1918); Statistical Directory of
State Institutions for Defective, Dependent and Delinquent Classes
(1919); Wealth, Debt and Taxation, 1913 (3 vols. 1915); Central
Electric Light and Power Stations and Street and Electric Railways
1912 (1915); Telephones and Telegraphs, 1912 (1915); Transporta-
tion by Water, 1916 (1920). The Bureau of the Census has also pub-
lished a series of volumes on Financial Statistics of Cities and on
Financial Statistics of States and continues the annual compilation
on Mortality Statistics, begun in 1900. As the registration area is
constantly enlarged, these latter statistics are of increasing value.
The Federal Department of Agriculture issues many statistical
bulletins relating to crops, supplies and stocks of staple commodities.
862
UNITED STATES
The most important of these are summarized in the Year Book of
the Department of Agriculture. The U.S. Geological Survey of the
Department of the Interior issues frequent bulletins on mineral
products and stocks which are annually gathered together in the
volume Mineral Resources of the United States. Statistics of com-
merce are compiled by the Department of Commerce and published
in an annual volume, Foreign Commerce and Navigation.
The U.S. Tariff Commission has also published several volumes
in which commercial statistics are rearranged for use in tariff dis-
cussion, as The Wool-Growing Industry. Price statistics both for
retail and wholesale trade are gathered and published by the Fed-
eral Bureau of Labor Statistics. A valuable series of studies on price
statistics of different groups of commodities during the World War
was published under the editorship of W. C. Mitchell by the War
Industries Board, under the titles History of Prices during the War
and Government Control over Prices. The Bureau of Labor Statistics
also issues frequent bulletins showing wages in different trades in
different parts of the country. The Interstate Commerce Commis-
sion issues an annual report, Statistics of Railways. Shipping statis-
tics are published in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Navi-
gation. Immigration statistics are published in the Annual Report
of the Commissioner of Immigration. Statistical tables in regard to
the Federal finances are to be found in the Annual Report of the
Secretary of the Treasury, sometimes known as the Finance Report.
This contains abstracts of the reports of the Comptroller, Treasurer,
Commissioner of Internal Revenue and Director of the Mint. Of
especial value for recent years are the annual reports and the month-
ly bulletins of the Federal Reserve Board. The bulletins contain a
great variety of commercial and trade statistics collected by the 12
different reserve banks. More detailed statistical data may be
found in the monthly bulletins issued by the several district banks.
The most serviceable single source-book is the annual volume,
Statistical Abstract of the United States, first issued in 1878, published
by the Department of Commerce. This assembles data on area and
population, including census returns, immigration, and vital sta-
tistics; education and school statistics; agriculture, forestry and
fisheries; manufactures and mines; occupations, labour, and wages;
internal communication and transportation; merchant marine and
shipping; foreign commerce; consumption estimates; prices; money,
banking, and insurance; public finance and national wealth; army,
navy, civil service, pensions, and election statistics. Most of the
statistics are derived from official publications, but when they are
wanting, reliance is placed upon private statistical agencies.
A useful statistical handbook relating to finance, crops, railways,
trade and commerce is The Financial Review, an annual published
by the Commercial and Financial Chronicle (New York).
In addition to Government statistics the following volumes should
be noted: W. I. King, The Wealth and Income of the People of the
United States (1917), a scholarly analysis and interpretation of
official statistics; Raymond Pearl, The Nation's Food (1920), a
volume growing out of the author's work as chief of the Statistical
Division of the U.S. Food Commission during the war. The Com-
mittee on Economic Research of Harvard University has published
an important work, Indices of General Business Conditions, by W. M.
Persons (1919). (D. R. D.)
II. AGRICULTURE
For the conditions of agriculture in the United States before
1910 see 1.414; for recent statistics see the section Statistics of
the present article; for general progress since 1909 in biological,
chemical and bacteriological research see article AGRICULTURE
30.71; for development in any one state see the article on that
state. For various aspects of progress see also, in vol. 32, the
index-heading AGRICULTURE and the other index-headings
naming the various crops, products, processes, machines, etc.
The main characteristics economic rather than technical of
agricultural activities in the United States during 1910-20 were the
result of significant changes which must be traced through a period
of more than one decade. The ten years ending with 1920 witnessed
the close of an important epoch and the opening of a new epoch in
the agricultural history of the United States. The closing epoch
might well be called the pioneer epoch, that of agricultural expan-
sion, or of agricultural exploitation. The new epoch might be
called that of agricultural readjustment, development, or utiliza-
tion. The names by which these two epochs are known are of little
importance, but it is of great importance that all who are interested
in the development of American agriculture ge* clearly in mind
the fact to which all other facts in this connexion are subsidiary,
namely, that ever since the beginning of American agriculture and
down to the decade 1910-20 there was ample and fertile field in the
West for the expansion of agriculture, but that during 1910-20 vir-
tually the last of the arable part of the public domain passed into
private ownership. There was no longer land available for homes
for the surplus population from the older portions of the country.
The western agricultural migration, which began almost with the
first settlements on the Atlantic coast, was, owing to natural bar-
riers and the absence of adequate transportation systems and other
causes, more or less sporadic and irregular until about 1860.
The Agricultural Frontier in 1859. In 1859 the frontier of agri-
cultural development as determined by density of population of 6
or more to the sq. m., or the production of 100,000 bus. of wheat
per county per annum had been pushed westward to include portions,
varying in size, of the states of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas]
For the next 50 years there was a steady western and northern agri-
cultural movement, until in 1910 virtually the only agriculturally
unoccupied territory in the great plains was in Montana, Wyo-
ming, western South Dakota, northwestern Nebraska, southwestern
Kansas, New Mexico and western Texas. During the following
decade 1910-20 virtually all the agricultural land that remained in
the above described regions went into private ownership. By 1921
all the public domain suited to agriculture without irrigation, east
of the Rocky Mountains, had ceased to be open to homestead
claims and was undergoing agricultural development.
The Agricultural Frontier in 1920. The 5,ooo-ft. contour on the
eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains is generally considered the
western boundary of the great plains, but to simplify computation
the great plains may be regarded as including four-fifths of the an .1
of Montana, one-third of Wyoming, one-half of Colorado, one-half
of New Mexico, and all of Texas. The tract which came into agri-
cultural production during 1860-1920 includes four-fifths of Mon-
tana; one-third of Wyoming; one-half each of Colorado and New
Mexico; all of North and South Dakota, and Oklahoma; about
seven-eighths of Minnesota; over one-half of Wisconsin; over two
thirds of Michigan; nearly one-half of Iowa; all but six coi<
(2,494 sq. m.) of Nebraska; all but 10 counties (4,684 sq. m.) of
Kansas; all but 25 counties (19,356 sq. m.) of Texas; 14 counties
(10,607 sq- m -) i n Missouri; 28 counties (20,939 sq. m.) in Arkansas,
and all but 27 counties (16,212 sq. m.) of Louisiana; the entire
amounting to no less than 1,096,607 sq. m., or 701,828,480 ai us
Not all of this is arable land, but a higher percentage of it is ataMr
than that of any other equal area on the North American contin-
ent, and contains at least 250,000 sq.m. of the richest agricultural
land on the continent. More than half the total wheat crop of the
United States for 1920 was grown in this area.
Coincident with the settlement of this plains region east of thei
Rocky Mountains was that of the inter-mountain and basin region
and of much of the Pacific slope. The percentage of arable land w est
of the Rocky Mountains is much less than in the plains of the Missis-
sippi Valley and the Lake region, but in the aggregate an immense
area of land was brought into cultivation west of the Rockies during
18601920. There, as in the plains, practically all the land suit-
able for agriculture was appropriated and developed. There re-
mained only small valleys and isolated areas and some Indian reser- i
vations that were to be soon thrown open to settlement. New recla- i
mation projects were expected to develop, but if all the potentially
agricultural land west of the Rocky Mountains were to be developed
during 1920-30 the area would be small in comparison with that!
developed in each decade during 1860-1920. And it is probable thatj
during 1920-30 as much land classed as farm land may be found|
unfit for that purpose and be devoted to other purposes, such at
grazing and forestry, as will be brought into cultivation.
The significance of these facts does not seem to impress as it
should either the public or the farmers. The habit of western migra-
tion, bred into the American people, during three centuries of prac-
tice is about to be broken.
The exhaustion of the public domain means that there is no longei
available each year, as there was during 1860-1920, an area of virgin
land in the Mississippi Valley, averaging 18,277 sq. m., or 1 1,697,280
ac., that is to say an area equal to one-third of the state of Iowa.
It means that increased agricultural production by the simple proc-
ess of breaking up virgin prairie is virtually at an end, so that
future increases in food production must be attained by a more
effective utilization of the land already occupied as farms.
The Increase of Agricultural Production and of Population fat
60 Years. The accompanying tables have been prepared from data
contained in the 1920 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture
and the 1920 Census Reports. The yields of grain stated in these
tables are not those of the Census Reports, but are the averages ol
the yields given in the Yearbook for each of the 10 years in each
decade, except those for 1860 which represent the single year 1859]
and for 1870 which represents the average for four years, 1866-9!
inclusive. It is believed that this gives a better expression of the
facts than using for each decade a single year's yield, such as :j
given in the Census Reports.
The two crops, wheat and corn, are chosen as an index of the
general agricultural production for each decade since 1860. It ie
believed that they will serve the purposes of this discussion as wel
as or better than the more complex indexes used for more detailed
investigation.
It will be seen that the proportionate increase by decades in popu
lation has been declining, having been 26-6% for 1860 and 14-9^
for 1920, the greatest decrease in any decade having been betveer
1910 and 1920. There has been no such progressive decrease in pro-
duction of either wheat or corn. The highest proportionate increase
in the production of wheat was in 1880, when it was 49-3% over
that of 1870. The highest proportionate increase in the yield oj
corn was also in 1880, when there was an increase of 41-9% ovei
UNITED STATES
863
1870. The percentages of increase of both wheat and corn for 1870
are not very trustworthy, because, as has been said, the yields used
in the census of 1860 were the yields of the single year 1859 and
those for the year 1870 were the averages of four years 1866-9
inclusive. From 1880 to 1920 there was a general decline in the
average increase in production of wheat. In the case of corn its
regularity was broken by reason of the very low rates of increase
for the decade reported in the census of 1900. This was due to a
succession of crop years with unfavourable weather conditions and
to a general business depression. The production in bushels per
capita of both wheat and corn has been quite constant. There has,
therefore, been a regular increase in the bushels per capita of wheat
from 5-5 bus. in 1870 to 7-4 bus. in 1920, and an increase in corn
from 22-2 bus. in 1870 to 26-2 bus. in 1920. Dividing the per-
centages of increases for decades by 10 to give the annual percent-
age of increase shows that the average annual increase in the pro-
duction of wheat in the United States for a period of 60 years
(from 1860-1920) is to the annual increase in population as 2-91
is to 2-25 and that of corn for the same period is as 2-28 is to 2-25.
Both population and production have been increasing at a lessen-
in? rate. The retardation in the increase in population has been
somewhat greater than that of production, as is indicated by the
increase in the per capita production of wheat from 5-5 bus. to 7-4
bus. and of corn from 22-2 to 26-2 bus.
The proportionate rate of increase in production of wheat for
the decade ending with 1920 was 13-9% and for corn 11-2%, and
for population 14-9%.
TABLE I. Wheat Production and Population.
c
d
C C
V c
a> c
o
- o
SP o
m O
;/. 4-1
!"
3 %'Z
TJ'S.
a
OJ
"a
a
u
3
O
li
SS-s
u a
s/5
o
t:
C u
OH
OH
K-On
OH .-.On
OH
i860
31,443,321
173,105,000
1866
to
38,558,371
2I2,I56,OOO
39,051,000
22-6
26-6
5-5
1869
1870
to
50,155.783
316,820,000
104,664,000
49-3
26-0
6-3
1880
to
62,947,714
444,O78,OOO
127,258,000
40-2
25-5
7-1
1889
1890
to
75.994.575
556,674,000
II2,596,OOO
25-4
20-7
7-3
1899
1900
to
91,972,266
684,434,000
I27,76O,OOO
23-0
2I-O
7-4
1909
1910
to
105,710,620
779,560,000
95,I26,OOO
13-9
14-9
7-4
1910
Averages
2<V I
22-5
6-8
TABLE II. Corn Production and Population.
(0
1
c
_o
"3
o.
.9
u
1
OH
Increase in
Production
Bus.
~
Percentage
Increase of
Population.
Bushels
Per Capita.
1860
31,443,321
838,793,000
1866
to
1869
38,558,371
854,278,000
15,485,250
1-8
26-6
22-2
1870
to
1879
50,155,783
I,2I2,OI3,OOO
357,735,000
41-9
26-0
24-2
1880
to
1889
62,947,714
I,692,OI9,OOO
480,006,000
39-6
25-5
26-9
1890
to
1899
75,994.575
I,995,I9O,OOO
303,171,000
17-9
20-7
26-3
1900
to
1909
91,972,266
2,486,274,OOO
491^084,000
24-6
2I-O
27-0
1910
to
1919
105,710,620
2,765,041,000
278,767,000
II-2
14-9
26-2
Averages
22-8
22-5
25-5
It becomes evident that the record of the annual production of
wheat and corn through a period of 60 years, and its relation to the
increase in population as indicated by the figures.given in the accom-
panying tables, is a safe index of the agricultural requirements for
the future, the conclusion is that if the general agricultural produc-
tion of the country can be increased at the rate of 2 % per annum
for the future, the per capita production of wheat and corn, and
probably of most other staple agricultural products, can at least
be maintained at the ratio of the decade 1910-19.
The Agricultural Problem of the Future. Had conditions in all
parts of the world remained substantially as they were in 1914, the
chief problem in 1921 would have been how to maintain in later
years an increase of 2 % per annum in the agricultural production
of the United States, notwithstanding that virgin land could no
longer be counted upon. This is a problem that prior to the World
War would have engaged the most earnest effort of American
farmers and the various agricultural agencies and organizations,
both Federal and state. It would have presented difficulties of
adaptation, adjustment, and development. The question of actual
field production would have been a minor one as compared with
such questions as transportation and distribution, the securing of
efficient farm labourers at reasonable wages, and the opportunity
for the farmers to purchase at prices comparable with the prices of
farm products the things that a farmer has to buy to conduct his
business and to live in comfort. Given conditions favourable in
these respects, agricultural production undoubtedly could have
been increased for many years after 1921 at a rate of 2 % per annum.
There are many ways in which this increased production could have
been brought about : by clearing and bringing into cultivation waste
land already included m farms; by draining swamps, and by devel-
oping water to enlarge existing irrigation projects; probably most
of all by more intensive methods of agriculture. The agriculture of
the United States had been and in 1921 still was an extensive, rather
than an intensive, agriculture, and properly so. So long as land
was plentiful and men were scarce the extensive system was to be
encouraged. But as land began to become scarce and men plentiful
there came almost unlimited opportunities for the intensifying of
agriculture. While this need for closer farming was being discussed
the World War brought with it a new set of problems that engaged
the attention of the farmers as well as other citizens.
Prices of Farmer's Products and of Commodities He Buys. The
most pressing problem in 1921 was the disproportion between the
prices of those things the farmer has to buy and those he has to sell.
This difficulty was as great when he paid for labour as when he
bought commodities.
Wages of Farm Labour. The Bureau of Crop Estimates of the
Department of Agriculture published in the Yearbook for 1920 a
table giving the wages paid farm labourers from 1866 to 1920.
Arranging these figures for the different classes of farm labourers
as index numbers, and calling the wages of 1913 100 as a base, gives
the following results:
Wages Agricultural Labour.
1913
1920
1921
Index No.
1920
1921
A By the month with board
$21.38
$46.89
$29.48
219
138
B By the month without
board ....
30-31
64-95
42.65
214
141
C Day labourer at harvest,
with board.
1-57
3.60
2.12
229
135
D Day labourer at harvest,
without board .
1.94
4-36
2.80
225
144
E Day labourer, not har-
vest, with board
1.16
2.86
1. 6O
247
138
F Day labourer, not har-
vest, without board.
1.50
3-5Q
2.17
240
145
Farm wages declined during 1921. The best information avail-
able, Nov. 20 1921, was that wages were about as follows (A) $29.48,
(B) $42.65, (C) $2.12, (D) $2.80, (E) $1.60, (F) $2.17. These
figures would give an index number about 145, or an increase of
about 45% for 1921 over the wages of 1913. In the diagram, fig. I,
the figures for " Day labour, not harvest, without board " have
been used as they are considered the most trustworthy. Men of
this class are usually married men who either own their own homes
or rent them from their employers. They are less inclined to drift
than those who are boarded by their employers, and who are usually
single and " footloose." The married man who works by the
month and boards himself frequently has house, garden, firewood
and sometimes milk and pork provided by his employer. This
is probably the most stable class of farm labour. It does not, how-
ever, yield a conclusive index of the changes in wages because
changes in the value of the perquisites above mentioned tend to
complicate the calculation.
The index number for the wages of day labourers, not for harvest,
without board were as follows:
Year .
Index No.
1913 1914 1915- 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921
100 97 98 108 135 175 208 240 145
Discussion of Diagram. Fig. I (p. 864) shows the index numbers
of farm crops, live stock, commodities and farm labour for each
year from 1913 to 1921, inclusive.
864
UNITED STATES
FIG.
Index Numbers of Farm Crops, Live Stock, Commodities and Farm
Labour Each Year from 1913 to 1921 Inclusive.
The two outstanding facts are that in every year from 1913 to
1919 the farm crops index stood higher than any of the others,
and that from 1913 to 1918 the farm wage index stood as low as
or lower than any other.
Tables III., IV., and V. are based upon data prepared by the
Bureau of Crop Estimates, and published by authority of the Secre-
tary of Agriculture.
TABLE III. Index Numbers of Farm Prices of Crops.
The index numbers of average prices to farmers of the United
States of 10 leading crops (wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye, buck-
wheat, potatoes, hay, cotton, and flax) represent about four-
fifths of the value of all crops and may be regarded as representing
the trend of all crop prices. (Base too = average for 12 months of
I9I3-)
1921
I<>2(>
1919
[<)IS
1917
1916
1915
1914
1913
Jan.
129
241
221
214
H9
105
103
108
90
Feb.
123
252
211
22O
159
114
114
107
91
Mar.
1 20
255
209
234
168
112
117
109
92
Apr.
May
"3
104
271
294
22O
238
234
229
183
228
114
I If)
117
122
109
no
92
94
June
109
309
249
221
236
118
I2O
"3
98
July
106
34
252
222
235
US
113
112
IOO
Aug.
109
268
26 7
228
250
120
I'3
112
1 02
Sept.
109
239
258
238
227
131
108
"5
III
Oct.
202
235
235
225
133
IO4
III
"3
Nov.
163
227
219
212
145
IOI
103
109
Dec.
135
230
215
205
152
98
IOO
108
Average
112
244
235
226
206
123
III
109
IOO
TABLE IV. Index Numbers of Farm Prices for Live Stock.
Index numbers of average prices to farmers of the United States,
for live stock. (Base ioo = average for 12 months of 1913.)
1921
1920
1919
1918
1917
1916
1915
1914
1913
Jan. 15
1 20
173
192
179
121
92
94
IOO
91
Feb. 15
117
177
192
1 80
134
IOO
92
103
95
Mar. 15
123
178
200
1 86
152
107
92
105
IOI
Apr. 15
112
181
214
193
166
112
94
105
104
May 15
109
177
218
197
1 68
114
97
104
IOI
June 15
104
175
213
194
167
114
98
103
102
July 15
109
176
222
195
163
114
97
i5
103
Aug. 15
"3
172
221
202
1 68
114
96
109
102
Sept. 15
174
191
206
182
119
96
1 08
102
Oct. 15
166
174
196
186
114
99
1 02
I O2
Nov. 15
147
169
190
177
"5
t2
97
99
Dec. 15
121
164
191
181
116
9
94
98
Average
"3
1 68
197
192
164
in
95
103
IOO
TABLE V. Index Numbers of Commodity Prices, Excluding Farm
and Food Products.
Based upon the Bureau of Labor index numbers of wholesale
prices of all commodities from which were deducted the commodi-
ties representing the foods, and farm products group. (Base 100 =
average for 1913.)
1921
1920
1919
1918
1917
1916
I9IS
1914
J 9i3
Jan.
205
246
191
173
153
109
94
98
102
Feb.
194
257
192
175
152
112
95
97
1 02
Mar.
1 86
263
1 86
179
160
115
93
98
loo
Apr.
1 80
272
184
182
162
118
93
97
IOO
May
177
278
187
I8 4
170
118
95
96
loo
June
173
277
196
1 88
178
I2O
94
96
IOO
July
171
272
205
192
182
118
96
96
IOO
Aug.
169
271
217
193
177
119
95
95
IOO
Sept.
267
221
196
175
124
96
96
IOO
Oct.
257
225
195
1 66
I2O
98
93
IOO
Nov.
234
230
198
1 68
I4O
IOI
92
99
Dec.
220
237
196
169
148
105
94
97
Average
182
259
2O6
1 88
1 68
122
96
96
IOO
A study of the diagram (fig. i) confirms the evidence from many
other sources that farmers engaged primarily in crop production
were reasonably prosperous from 1913 to 1916 inclusive, and that
during 1917, 1918 and 1919 they enjoyed unprecedented prosperity
followed by two years of heavy losses; the high prices of the early
months of 1920 having broken before the products could be marketed
and the cost of commodities and farm wages remaining high. It
also shows that the live stock grower was only just able to keep
pace with the increasing cost of necessary commodities, and but
little ahead of the steadily rising farm wages that he had to pay.
The conditions of agriculture on Dec. I 1921, as shown by Tables
I., II., III. and V., and fig. I, indicate that never before in the his-
tory of American agriculture had the farmers been confronted with
so serious a situation. Unless the prices of what the farmer must
sell could be brought into proper relation with prices of what
he must buy ^commodities and labour agricultural production
would necessarily be so greatly reduced as to bring about a seri-
ous shortage of food and textile products, for farmers cannot
continue to produce crops at a loss not only of their time, but also of
their money.
When, however, the agricultural situation is more closely studied
it becomes apparent that even though a proper relation could be
restored between the prices of farm products, farm labour, and the
commodities the farmer has to buy, many of the farmers would be
still unable to operate their farms profitably.
During the decade 1910-20, throughout the first half of which
the farmers enjoyed normal prosperity and throughout the latter
half of which their prosperity was the greatest ever enjoyed by
American farmers, the rural population increased only 5-4% while
the urban population increased at the rate of 25-7 %. That is to say
urban population increased nearly five times as rapidly as the rural
population, increased movement to centres showing that farm life
and farming had come to be disliked, notwithstanding their new
advantages: improved roads, rural free mail delivery, telephones,
automobiles, farm electric lighting plants and modern water and
heating systems, all developed rapidly during the ten years in
question.
Although there were 86,864 or i'4% more farms in the United
States in 1920 than in 1910, there were 23,627 or -6% fewer farm
owners. Of the 3,925,090 farms operated by their owners in 1920,
41-3% were mortgaged as against only 33-6% in 1910.
The value of the land and buildings of mortgaged farms was
$6,330,236,951 in 1910, and in 1920 $13,772,729,610, an increase of
117-6%. In 1910 the mortgaged indebtedness was $1,726, 172, 851 ; in
1920 $4,012,711,213, an increase of 132-5%. The increase in value
ranged from 21 % in New Jersey to 480% in Arizona. The increase
in mortgaged indebtedness ranged from 10-2% in Rhode Island
to 625-7 % in Montana. The increase per cent in mortgaged indebt-
edness by geographical divisions was as follows: New England 56-8;
Middle Atlantic 45-5; East North Central 101-0; West North Cen-
tral 136-3; South Atlantic 161-8; East South Central 194-6; West
South Central 154-0; Mountain 379-4; Pacific 215-6.
The average value of land and buildings on all mortgaged farms
in 1910 was $6,289, an d in 1920 it was $11,536, an increase of
117-6%. The average debt per farm was $1,715 in 1910 and $3,361
in 1920, an increase of 132-5%. The debt per cent value was 27-3
in 1910 and 29-1 in 1920, the figures being based on 1919 values.
These declined and debts increased during 1920 and 1921, and at
the end of 1921 it was believed that changes would continue in the
same direction, until a shortage of food should increase prices.
There was difference of opinion as to the significance of the heavy
increase in mortgaged indebtedness. The published reports of the
Bureau of Census do not indicate at what time during the decade
this increase took place, nor the purposes for which the money repre-
sented by the mortgages was used : whether as purchase money for
the land upon which it was placed, for buildings, or other improve-
ments upon the land, for farm equipment, or for the purchase,
UNITED STATES
865
operation, and the incidental expenses pertaining to the owner-
ship of an automobile.
Conditions during 1910-5, unforeseen in the beginning of that
period, favoured investors in agricultural land and in farm improve-
ments. Values doubled and in some instances quadrupled during
1910-20. And many of those who borrowed to make such invest-
ments were enabled during 191520 to repay in what were called
" thirty cent dollars," because inflated prices made currency
redeemable in gold seem worth less than before. Indeed many farm-
ers thus repaid not only the capital they had borrowed, but also
their small floating debts, so that when deflation began in the sum-
mer of 1920 they could face without fear the inevitable hard times,
in which economic readjustments must be made.
Unfortunately not all farmers were safe. Some, because of local
crop failures or other unavoidable circumstances and other?,
more numerous, because they had yielded to the spending craze
that swept the country in 1918 and 1919 found themselves in the
summer of 1920 possessed of much property, both real and personal,
some of which had been acquired at war-time prices, but heavily
indebted and with credit exhausted. It was largely owing to their
difficulties that during the decade the mortgaged indebtedness of
farmers so largely increased.
The Internal-Combustion Engine as an Agricultural Factor. In
the decade ending with 1919 there was a great development of the
internal-combustion engine and adaptation of it not only to the
labour, but also to the health, comfort and enjoyment of the Ameri-
can farmer. (See articles: INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES; TRAC-
TORS; and MOTOR VEHICLES.) It came to be used directly in the
automobile, truck, tractor, pumping plant, electric lighting plant;
for cutting silage, grinding feed, shelling corn, threshing grain,
sawing wood, operating spraying machines and fruit-grading
machines; and for many other power purposes. The internal-com-
bustion engine, generating current, also indirectly operates the
washing machine, the electric iron, electric fans, the vacuum cleaner,
electric heating pads, and (through small portable motors) serves
for separating milk, churning, meat grinding and many other house-
hold purposes.
A general farm of 150 to 200 ac. growing fruit, a small dairy herd,
some truck and general farm crops, was no longer considered well
equipped unless it had all the facilities above mentioned and per-
haps a milking machine also, if the dairy herd was large. Seven sep-
arate internal-combustion engines and an equal number of small
i electric motors probably would be needed for alj these purposes.
Such a plant undoubtedly would be a good investment if it were
judiciously selected and bought at a fair price, provided always
that (i) the farm and the system of farming were adapted to the
use of a tractor, (2) that the farmer or some member of his family
had the necessary mechanical skill to see that this equipment were
; properly operated and kept in repair, (3) that the capital of the
Farmer was sufficient to provide such a plant, and (4) that the
income of the farm was sufficient to support such a plant without
seriously interfering with the other requirements of the family and
. the farm business.
Seldom, if ever, are all the above-mentioned conditions fulfilled,
but the measure in which they can be approximated will determine
the advisability of the purchase of all the above-mentioned equip-
ment, except the automobile. This must be considered apart, for,
although any part of a full farm equipment may be misused, the
extent to which the privileges conferred by the automobile may be
abused is almost without limit. The choice of the make of auto-
mobile is a simple matter, so far as mechanical construction is con-
cerned. The buyer gets about what he pays for in any standard
make. It is the use to which the car is put rather than its quality
which makes it advantageous or harmful. Whether it will contribute
;o the efficient handling of the farm is not the only question. If the
car is used chiefly to take the family away from home and to en-
Murage waste of time and money, then it is a poor investment.
Automotive Statistics, for 1921, published by the Motor List Com-
pany of Des Moines, Iowa, states that 3,243,051 automobiles are
owned by farmers in the United States. As already mentioned, the
increase in the mortgaged indebtedness of the farmer-owned farms
jf the United States from 1910 to 1920 was $2,286,538,362. If those
3,243,051 automobiles cost $705.06 each, which is a fair estimate,
they would nearly equal in value the amount of the increase in
mortgaged indebtedness between 1910 and 1920. This correlation
is accidental; no one believes that those 3,243,051 automobiles
were bought with money secured by executing mortgages aggre-
gating $2,286,538,362 upon farm property. It is nevertheless prob-
ible that some of the purchase money would have been better used
:o pay off mortgages. .
Farm Labour. Mention has been made of the changes in tarm
wages during and since the World War. The changes in the price
oaid per day or per month, or in the index numbers, ought to, but
io not, fully represent the changes in the costs of units of labour
aerformed. Before the war most farm labourers were willing to give
io hours of faithful work for a day's pay. The migration of labour
luring and after the war, by reason of enlistment or employment m
:ities or in large manufacturing plants, brought many farm labourers
nto contact with men who preach inadequate work as a duty. Many
>f the farm labourers were demoralized, and near large cities it
XXXII. 28
became almost impossible to get an honest day's work at any price.
For this reason although the figures in the present article indicate
that the price of labour is about 50% more than before the war,
the actual cost of labour is from two to three times as much as it
was. This is a factor of great importance in all readjustments of
the cost of farm products.
Farmers and Consumers. There was little in the agricultural
outlook in Dec. 1921 to encourage the farmers to plan even normal
production in 1922, for corn was then selling at from 19 to 28 cents
on the farms of North and South Dakota, Minnesota, Nebraska,
Iowa, and Kansas; much of the 1920 crop remained unsold; and
nearly all farm products were selling at much lower prices than in
1913, although both labour and the commodities the farmer had to
buy were much higher. It was evident that farmers must retrench
in every practicable way, hiring as little labour as possible; reducing
the scale of farm operations as nearly as possible to the point where
the farmer and his family could do all the work. They must burn
corn or any other agricultural product for fuel, whenever the farm
price of that product fell below the cost of equivalent coal, wood,
gas, or oil after adding to the price of such fuel, at the railway
station or waterside, the cost of hauling the fuel to the farm and
the agricultural products from the farm.
Much could be done toward reducing cash outlay by making each
farm produce as much as possible of the food for the family. Much,
also, might be accomplished by a system of community exchange.
With good roads, automobiles and trucks every farm family should
be provided with virtually all necessary food products without
expenditure for products, freight or middleman's profit.
In respect of food this generation by reason of the ease and rapid-
ity of communications and country road transportation is better
able to develop community self-sufficiency than any previous gen-
eration. If there were a demand for home spinning and weaving
machinery on a large scale, as there is on a small scale, for home
knitting machines throughout the country, homespun clothing
again would take its place on the farm. As has been said already,
good roads, rural mail delivery, the telephone and the internal-
combustion engine have removed practically all but one of the
objectionable features which drove many from farm life. That
objection is that farming does not yield as large a revenue in propor-
tion to the capital invested and the intelligence, business ability,
and enterprise possessed by the farmer, as do other business or pro-
fessional careers. This must cease to be the case, or American farm-
ers will not continue to produce food and clothing for the rest of
the population.
There has been and will continue to be much discussion and agi-
tation of this subject in the public press and on the floors of Congress.
Some legislation had already been enacted by 1922 for_the purpose
of helping the farmer, and further measures were in prospect.
It is doubtful whether any real headway can be made in solving
the producers' problem until there is an actual and very severe
shortage of food in the country. When this occurs, the farmers will
obtain fair prices for their products, and may then be able to resume
the operation of their farms at full capacity, and to take up the
great agricultural problem of the future, which is the adaptation,
adjustment and development of the fixed agricultural area of the
United States, so that it may continue indefinitely to meet the
constantly increasing demands of an increasing population.
III. FINANCE
The movement of public expenditures and receipts in the
United States during the decade 1910-20 presents as its most
important aspect an instructive contrast between conditions of
peace and those of war and readjustment. When the decade
opened, education was the largest expenditure, taking all divi-
sions of Government into account; and the financial operations
of the state and local Governments were twice as large as those
of the national Government. Expenditures, taxes and public
debt, it is true, had all been increasing for some time both in the
aggregate and per capita; but the wealth (expressed in money) of
the country had more than doubled between 1900 and 1912, the
average rate of the general property tax had decreased between
1902 and 1912, the Federal debt per capita was decreasing, and
Federal expenditures per capita were lower between 1910 and
1914 than in 1908 and 1909. There was, of course, constant
protest against rising taxes and " extravagant public expendi-
tures," but the total tax burden was probably increasing less
rapidly than wealth or income, and this was certainly true of
Federal taxes. War changed all this. Education and the de-
velopmental functions yielded first place to military activities;
Federal finance threw into the background state and city finance;
reduction of the aggregate debt ceased and in less than two years
of war the interest charge of the Federal Government alone had
become greater than the entire cost of running the Federal
866
UNITED STATES
Government before the war. The Federal Government's ex-
penditures and revenues in peace, war and reconstruction are
presented in Table I., in which it should be noted that the
figures represent net expenditures and net revenues, the ex-
penditures of each department being credited with the earnings
of that department and the tax receipts being similarly reduced
by the refunds allowed during the same period.
From 1910 to 1916, inclusive, the net expenditures of the
Federal Government showed no striking tendency to increase,
being only $35,000,000 greater in 1916 than in 1910. The net
expenditures for the army and navy were only $23,000,000
greater in the fiscal year 1916 than in the fiscal year 1914, which
closed so far as Americans knew to the contrary amid conditions
of secure peace -a striking commentary upon the attitude of the
Administration in power toward preparedness. Between 1917
and 1919, however, the net expenditures of the army and navy
rose from $668,852,948 to $11,192,817,468. It is needless to add
that this expansion checked the development of the civil functions.
Even before the World War, expenditures for the army, navy,
pensions and interest upon old war debt absorbed about two-
thirds of the Federal expenditures, leaving less than one-third for
the civil functions. But in 1920, at the close of the decade, the
expenditures chargeable to war consumed three-fourths of the
very much greater aggregate. The total expenditures for primary
governmental functions, research, education and development,
and for public works, representing the civil functions, were actu-
ally less per cap ita in 1919 ($2. 21) than in 1910 ($2. 24), the princi-
pal reductions coming in the expenditures for public works which
amounted to $54,332,139 in 1919 as contrasted with $79,503,701
in 1910. In 1920, after the war, the expenditures for civil pur-
poses rose materially; but considering the fall in the purchasing
power of money, even the later and higher figures suggest de-
crease in the equipment, personnel and efficiency of the civil
branches of the Government.
The cost of the war may be estimated with rough accuracy,
defining such cost as the excess of the expenditures which actually
occurred over the amounts which probably would have been
expended had the war not taken place. The Secretary of the
Treasury (Annual Report, 1920, p.ios), assuming that expendi-
tures on a peace basis during the three fiscal years 1917-9, would
have been" $1,000,000,000 a year and during the following fiscal
year $1,500,000,000, estimated the net war expenditure to June
30 1920 at $33,455,000,000, and the net war-tax receipts, i.e. the
excess of the annual tax revenue over the normal tax revenue of
peace-times, at $10,703,000,000. On this basis, 32 per cent of the
special war expense was paid from special war taxes. Mr. E. B.
Rosa, in his authoritative analysis, Expenditures and Revenues of<
the Federal Government, makes a more careful estimate, for the
four years 1917-20, of the " excess of expenditures over the
estimated normal expenditures on a pre-war basis," and reaches a
figure of $35,427,730,074, against which he places an estimate of!
the special war revenue, i.e. " the excess of revenue over the
estimated cost of government on pre-war basis," $i i ,818,699,300.
Mr. Rosa's estimate agrees with that of the Secretary of the
Treasury in indicating that one-third of the special war costs;
were paid from special war revenues. In both cases loans to
foreign Governments, $9,500,000,000 in round figures, are in-
cluded in the war costs.
Federal revenues during the decade were revolutionized. At
its beginning in 1910, customs supplied more than one-half the
total receipts; and customs together with the duties on distilled
spirits, beverages and tobacco produced more than 95% of thei
total net revenues. The income tax (special corporation excisei
tax) was then in the first year of its collection and yielded less;
than 4% of the total. By the end of the decade, customs and:
the old duties on alcoholic beverages were subordinate. In the
year 1920 customs yielded less than 6%, and the combined duties;
on imports, distilled spirits, beverages and tobacco yielded onlyj
14% of the total tax revenue; while the income and profits taxes
produced $3,956,936,003 or nearly 70% of the total net tax-
revenue, which was large enough in this year of readjustment to
meet the entire current cost of the Government and to create a
surplus of more than $1,000,000,000. Other noteworthy develop-!
ments of this decade from the viewpoint of revenue are found in!
the introduction in 1916 of the Federal estate or inheritance tax,
the development of the excess-profits tax, the loss of one of the-
most important of the older taxes through the adoption ofj
Federal prohibition, and the reestablishment of the Tariff Com-)
mission. The most significant change, however, was the revolu-l
tionary readjustment of taxes by which a system of taxation,!
predominantly indirect and regressive, gave way to a system!
predominantly direct and progressive.
Public credit supplied during the war two-thirds of the revenue!
or receipts. Details concerning the management and yield of thai
huge war loans are given in the article LIBERTY LOAN PUBLICITY
CAMPAIGNS. Here the subject can only be briefly treated in it.-
connexion with the plan of the Government for the financia
management of the war. That plan was based upon the policy o!
sedulously avoiding the use of Government paper money; oil
raising at least one-third (and, if possible, one-half) of the neces-
sary revenue by taxation; of keeping the inflation which inev-
itably accompanies war to a minimum, by restricting "non-es-
TABLE I. Average Annual Net Expenditures and Revenues of U.S. Government for 7 Pre-War Years,
3 War Years, and in IQZO. (a)
Average
1910-6
Average
1917-9
1920
1
EXPENDITURES (net)
Primary governmental functions
Research, education and development
Public works
$ 97,718,290
25.329.328
8s. 408.010
S 124,509,073
33,692,610
KQ 8S7.18O
$ 224,110,594
57,368,774
8 S 07 1 .042
Army and navy
2S6 Q7I ^80
6 302 322 105
I 14.8 8Q2 747
Pensions and care of soldiers
Obligations arising from World War (b)
Interest
165,439.944
23,605,213
236,816,982
1,205,255,174
115,853,240
329,261,746
1,634,695,094
920,131,128
Total expenditures (net)
REVENUE (net)
Customs
654473.074
27-1 4.86 oti
8,078,306,564
181 403 815
4-599,531,125
2Q6 274 2^O
Internal revenue
-568 T.2A. 7^1
2 774. 8O4. 6lS
S.^70,^S^,O2O
Tax on bank circulation
7 6OO d.8O
4 036 586
7.I72.SQ8
Post-office war revenue
55.489,500 (e)
4,913,000
Total revenue (net)
6.1^ ^02 171
2 QQ7 2l8 Ol6 ie]
"5 687 712,848
PUBLIC DEBT, LOANS AND TRUST FUNDS
Public debt transactions (c)
Loans and trusts (d)
-11,401,317
- 4,982,411
-8,085,631,219
3,210,794,518
1,184,098,321
513,885,254
(a) Table adapted from E. B. Rosa, Expenditures and Revenues of the Federal Government, Table 14.
(b) Expenses of Railroad and Administration, Shipping Board and other special war activities.
(c) The minus sign indicates an excess of public debt receipts over public debt disbursements.
(d) Consists principally of seignorage in 1910-6; and of loans to European Governments in 1917-9 and in 1920.
(e) Post-office war revenue given as annual average for the two years collected, but averaged over three years, 1917-9, in computing thj
total.
UNITED STATES
867
sential" commercial credit, encouraging subscribers to the
Liberty and Victory loans to pay for them from current savings;
and (in minor degree) by repressing unnecessary consumption
through the adequate taxation of personal incomes and the use
of luxury taxes. Financial preparation for a long war, perhaps
of three years, was made, with due appreciation of the fact that
in the early months the most effective contribution of the
United States would take the form of generous supplies of goods
and credit to the Allies. As stated by R. C. Leffingwell, Assist-
ant Secretary of the Treasury, who more than any other one
man guided the credit operations of the Government during
the war:
"The Treasury's war problem was to meet the financial require-
ments of the Governments of the United States and the Allies
promptly and without stint, and to meet them so far as possible
from the saved incomes of the people, avoiding avoidable inflation.
These objectives must be pursued in such ways as would not inter-
fere with, but on the contrary facilitate, the mobilization of the
Nation for war purposes and the production and transportation of
I munitions."
As the principal credit instrument with which to achieve these
ends, the Government used, for the most part, terminable bonds
with moderate but adjustable maturities (in no case exceeding
30 years), partially subject to taxation, issued every six months
from the beginning of the war to May 1919, at interest rates which
because of the conversion privilege varied with the changing credit
conditions but were always high enough to stimulate the instinct
i of saving, yet low enough to utilize fully the patriotic fervour
of the people.
In order to avoid credit strain, with its demoralizing effects
upon interest rates and business, the huge bond issues were
preceded by practically monthly issues of short-dated tax and
I loan certificates, to be taken up by the payments for taxes or
by the subscriptions to Liberty Bonds. When the war debt was
at its peak, at the close of Aug. 1919, the gross debt amounted
to $26,596,701,648 (or to $25,478,392,113, deducting the net
balance in the general fund); of which short-time Treasury cer-
tificates constituted $4,201,139,050. As an essential part of the
credit machinery, the Treasury adopted as particularly suited
to the decentralized character of the country's banking sys-
tem, upon which the burden of distributing the war loans fell,
the device of " payment by credit," by which banks subscribing
for Government loans held their subscriptions as a credit to the
account of the Government until the Government called for the
funds. This reduced the credit strain by preventing the con-
centration of funds in the Government coffers, and " developed
the further advantage that in the difference between the rate
borne by the securities and the rate charged on the deposit, banks
found some compensation for their time, trouble and the loss of
deposits, resulting from the sale of securities to investors "
(Leffingwell). This method of payment by credit has been
criticized both as paying huge sums to the banks for creating
credit which could have been as easily manufactured by the
Government itself; and also as productive of inflation. Neither
charge will bear analysis. The banks lost rather than gained by
the Government's absorption of the investment resources of the
people and by the repression of " non-essential industry "; and
the device checked rather than stimulated inflation. If the Treas-
ury had actually drawn into the reserve banks and its own offices
the proceeds of these great loans, not only would it have de-
moralized the money market and increased money rates, but
after a period of agitation perhaps panic there would have
been heavy calls for discounts upon the reserve banks and " upon
the re-deposit of the proceeds of certificates, depositary banks
would be put in possession of loanable funds. ... It was better
to make one bite of the cherry and to avoid the money strain and
inflation which would have been inevitable if the money had been
first drawn out of the banks and then re-deposited with them "
(Leffingwell) .
In its decision of the momentous credit questions arising
during the war, the Government steered a middle course, avoid-
ing the mistakes which characterized the Civil War financing
in the United States and much of the European financing during
the World War. One set of critics urged much greater reliance
upon short-time debt. Another set urged long-time bonds,
" sold over the counter," at interest rates high enough to keep
the bonds at par when the inevitable post-war reaction set in.
The Government took the intermediate course, utilizing but not
abusing the patriotism of the people on the sound assumption
that no rate of interest could have been sufficiently high to
float these huge issues on a commercial basis alone. And its
use of anticipatory short-time certificates was designed not
only to prevent money stringency during the war, but to keep
some pressing war debt current for extinguishment in the pros-
perous time which usually follows the termination of a great
war. " No administration could have resisted the pressure for
reduction of taxes and increase of expenditures if the war debt
at its maximum of $25,300,000,000 had been funded, and it
had subsequently appeared that taxes and salvage would more
than meet current expenditures. The time to pay down a war
debt is immediately after the war " (Leffingwell). With the
depression that set in in 1921, the Government introduced
successfully the device of selling notes running from three to
five years along with the more temporary Treasury certificates.
And the same middle course was taken, with the results already
stated, between the proposals to exempt Government obligations
entirely from taxation and to subject them to all Federal taxes at
full rates; between those who counselled " conscription of
wealth " and those who would have paid practically the whole
cost of the war with credit devices of one kind or another. One
mistake, the issue of Government paper money, was wholly
avoided, and bank credit utilized in its place. But every effort
was employed to draw the borrowings from actual savings and
to get Government securities as rapidly as possible out of the
banks into the hands of investors. These efforts succeeded; on
June i 1921 (according to reports from banks transacting over
40% of the commercial banking business of the country), less
than $600,000,000 of the long-time debt of $15,271,000,000
outstanding, only $186,412,000 Victory notes (out of $4,022,000,-
ooo outstanding) and $184,086,000 Treasury certificates (out of
$2,572,000,000 outstanding) were pledged with these banks as
security for loans and discounts.
The management of the credit operations of the war was not
without its shortcomings. The preferential discount rate for
loans secured by Government obligations may have been a
mistake; perhaps, too, much use may have been made of bank
credit and not enough use of taxation particularly of taxes
on the consumption of luxuries and on incomes of the moderately
rich; and it seems unquestionable that, owing to inability to
gauge the exact time and amount in which the subscriptions to
the Liberty loans would be paid, there was an overlapping of
Treasury certificates and of bond subscriptions, with the result
that the Treasury balance throughout the war was unnecessarily
large. But these errors and defects were of secondary impor-
tance. The smoothness and efficiency with which the credit
machinery worked during the World War particularly in
contrast with its inefficient management during the Civil War
indicate that in essentials the credit policy of the Government
was sound and its administration remarkably efficient. The
response of the people to the call for bond subscriptions, the
cheerfulness with which the heavy war taxes were borne, and the
absence of even a temporary breakdown in the credit mechanism
with which the war was financed, were all admirable.
State and local finance were affected in unexpected ways by the
war. At the beginning of the decade under review, state Government
n particular was undergoing an unusually rapid expansion ; and both
state and municipal expenditures were increasing nearly twice as
rapidly as those of the Federal Government. The tax burden, in the
case of the state and local Governments, was increasing but not so
rapidly as expenditures; increasing deficits were the rule; and the
public debt both in total amount and per capita was increasing. The
situation at the beginning of the decade and the principal financial
movements throughout the decade are suggested in Tables II.
and III. It should be noted that the Federal expenses or cost pay-
ments in Table II. do not include payments made for the purchase
of obligations of foreign Governments; and that the per capita
statistics quoted m Table III. represent net expenditures and
revenues after deduction of working credits and tax refunds.
868
UNITED STATES
TABLE II. Governmental Cost Payments 1
Voar
States
United Stat
ES
Cities having a pop
30,000
. of over
Total
Per
capita
Total *
Per
capita
Total
Per
capita
1919
1918
1917
1916
1915
$635,370,153
561,000,635
513,063,487
505,399,448
490,707,827
$6.05
5-42
5-04
5-05
4-99
$15,740,132,791
9,312,169,079
2,405,932,009
1,048,225,180
1,047,834,967
$149.78
89.16
23.40
10.36
10.44
$ ,202,323,639
,144,629,589
,081,865,678
-043,594,297
,057,125,696
$34.67
33-35
32-53
32-34
33-92
1 Bureau of Census, Financial Statistics of States, 1919, p. 30.
1 Amounts for the United States represent the total payments of the United States less payments for investments (consisting principally
of obligations of foreign Governments), payments for reduction of the public debt, and the excess of national bank-notes retired over
deposits for their retirement.
TABLE III. Net Expense and Tax Revenue, Per Capita, for All State
Governments and for Municipalities Having a Population
of over 30,000; 1010-9. '
Year
States
Municipalities having a
pop. of over 30,000
Per capita
net expense
Per capita
tax revenue
Per capita
net expense
Per capita
tax revenue
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
_ *
a
t
i
>
$4.11
4.10
4.00
4-25
4-73
$3-74-
3 ^Z
4.06
4.48
5-o6
$25-13
26.04
26.06
26.5,
27-63
26.12
26.10
26.55
.27.48*
$21.64
21.76
22.32
22.16
j
23.16
23-84
24.82
25-I4
27.22'
1 From E. B. Rosa, Expenditures and Revenues of the Federal
Government. Tables 18, 19.
1 Data not available.
1 Computed and inserted by the writer of this article.
It is evident from the tables that the financial operations of the
state and local Governments were affected by the events of the war.
That the expansion of their activities would be checked, was to be
expected; but that the state and local Governments in the face of
the heavy Federal war taxes should seize the occasion to adopt or
approach the policy of " pay as you go " was, perhaps, not to be
expected. Nevertheless this has taken place. City expenditures
per capita were not only less in 1919 than in 1915, but the tax revenue
which was seriously deficient in the earlier year had in the later
year increased almost to the point of meeting governmental costs.
And beginning with 1917, the receipts of the state Governments as
a whole have exceeded their expenses. In 1919, for instance, "31
states " realized enough from revenue to meet all their payments for
expenses, interest ana outlays and to have a balance of $50,192,314
for paying debt " (U.S. Census Bureau, Financial Statistics of States
1919, p. 30). In 17 states there was a deficit aggregating $15,378,246.
Much of the economy has been achieved by discontinuing public
works or improvements or refraining from those contemplated, and
the cost of those public works which have been undertaken has in
increasing degree been met from tax revenue rather than the pro-
ceeds of loans. In 146 of the principal cities, for instance, the per-
capita payment for capital outlays in 1918 was only $7.51 as con-
trasted with $10.18 in 1909. Despite opinion to the contrary,
Government ownership by states and cities has not expanded during
recent years. Public-utility enterprises have developed less rapidly
than other branches of the Government and far less rapidly than
private business. According to official statistics, these public enter-
prises yield a substantial profit over the costs incurred, more than
three-fourths of the net earnings from these sources being credited to
the water departments owned by municipal Governments.
Looking to the revenues of the state and local Governments, the
general property tax was still preeminent in 1921. Nearly one-half
of the total tax receipts of the states and nearly nine-tenths of those
of the cities, were derived from this source. Among the states, the
relative importance of the property tax was slowly declining; but
among the cities, in recent years it had slightly increased. Among
the state Governments, taxes on business had been rapidly increas-
ing and yielded more than half as much as the property tax itself.
With the repression of public improvements, due to the war, both
the absolute and relative yield of special assessments had fallen off.
In general, the drain upon the national income created by Federal
taxes and loans had forced upon the state and local Governments
measures not only of economy but of parsimony, and it is probable
that their efficiency had correspondingly suffered.
Budget Procedure. Methods of financial administration
made substantial progress during the decade under review.
The old and generally inefficient " state boards of equalization "
had in many states given way to central tax commissions
charged with the power and duty not only of securing greater
equality in the distribution of the tax burden but of supervising
the work of local assessors, administering the more important
corporation taxes and usually also the state inheritance taxes.
The work of the property assessors had noticeably improved
in recent years, particularly in the cities. In a majority of the '
states, some more or less effective budgetary system had been '
introduced ; and in an increasing number of commonwealths the
county and local divisions were being required to follow a pre-
scribed budgetary procedure. Tax limit laws, designed to check
local expenditures, had in several states been adopted or;
revived in improved form; and their effectiveness was being
studied with great interest by those interested in governmental
economy and efficiency. In the state Governments administra-
tive progress had temporarily taken the path of centralization, >
and the events of the war had greatly centralized the fiscal
machinery of the Federal Government. So far as the tax I
machinery of the Federal Government is concerned, it is apparent
that despite heroic efforts the burden of the war taxes had been
too heavy to permit its work to be kept current; and here, at
least, it was generally conceded that the path of improvement lay
in decentralization. The crowning administrative events of
recent years had been the self-denying ordinance adopted by the
House of Representatives, by which in the future the old appro-
priation committees would be combined in a single committee on
appropriations, and the introduction of a national budget system, -
by the passage of the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Annual Reports of the Secretary of the Treasury ;
on the State of the Finances, particularly those for 1919 and 1920;
Taxation and Public Expenditures, The Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. xcv. (particularly
noteworthy as containing E. B. Rosa's Expenditures and Revenues of
the Federal Government) ; Financial Statistics of Cities and Financial
Statistics of States, published annually by the Bureau of the Census,
Department of Commerce; R. C. Leffingwelt, The Treasury's War
Problem (Senate Document No. 301, 66th Congress 2nd Session);
E. L. Bogart, Direct and Indirect Costs of the Great World War (Pub.
of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace) ; E. R. A. Selig-
man, " The Cost of the War and How It Was Met " (Amer. Econ.
Review, vol. ix., No. 4). (T. S. A.)
IV. TAXATION
The movement by which taxation has supplied, with the
passage of time, an increasing share of the public revenue of the
United States, was accelerated by the events of the decade
1910-20. At its beginning, according to the general financial
survey of the national, state and local governments made by the
Bureau of the Census for the year 1912-3, public expenditures
were met to the extent of approximately 5% from loans, 70%
from taxes, 4% from special assessments, and 21 % from interest,
rentals, departmental or commercial earnings, and miscellaneous
sources. During the World War, borrowing took first place, and
probably not more than one-half of the aggregate public expend-
iture was met by taxes. But in the fiscal year 1920, the Federal
Government began actively to reduce its short-dated debt; and
in that year Federal, state and local revenues were larger than
expenditures. Of these revenues (despite the large amounts
realized by the Federal Government from salvage and other
non-tax sources) taxes supplied over 80% of the total. From the
financial standpoint as a source of revenue compared with
UNITED STATES
869
taxation Government ownership is not gaining in importance.
In the states and cities, the earnings of public service enterprises
shrank in relative, though not in absolute, importance during
the decade; and in the national budget, postal earnings, Panama
Canal tolls and similar receipts have been dwarfed by the huge
tax levies necessitated by the war. Federal taxes, which before
the war were of smaller amount than city taxes, became after it
larger than all state and local taxes combined; and the leading
Federal tax, the income tax, displaced the property tax from its
old position at the top of American public receipts. In the fiscal
year 1913, property taxes supplied over one-half of the revenue
receipts of all divisions of Government, while the yield of income
taxes was comparatively insignificant. In the fiscal year 1920
property taxes produced less than one-sixth, while income and
profits taxes produced at least one-third and possibly as much as
40% of the total taxes collected in the United States.
Federal taxes at the beginning and end of the decade 1910-20
are contrasted in Table I. which portrays statistically the super-
session of customs duties by the income and profits taxes; the begin-
ning of the decline of the tax on alcoholic beverages caused by pro-
hibition legislation a decline which is disguised m the table by the
inclusion of new taxes on non-alcoholic beverages, introduced since
the beginning of the World War; the introduction of the Federal
estate or inheritance tax; and the multiplication of internal taxes
on articles of common consumption. In the past it has been customary
to contrast " direct taxes " such as income and inheritance taxes,
which are supposed to rest in the main where first imposed, with
" indirect taxes " such as those on tobacco and beverages, which,
however collected in the first instance, are supposed to be paid
eventually by the producer or consumer. Interpreted with reserva-
tions, the distinction is serviceable. It will be noted that in 1910
customs, liquor and tobacco taxes regressive taxes on consumers
yielded over 95% of the total tax revenue; while in 1920 the same
taxes augmented by similar taxes on " luxuries," attendance at
amusements, and transportation and insurance, produced only 25 %
of the total. Progressive income, profits and inheritance or estate
taxes produced over 70% of the total in 1920. It is obvious that
the war revolutionized the character of the Federal tax system in
the direction of what has been called " liberal democratic finance."
However, in July 1921 the income and profits taxes were falling off
more rapidly than the indirect taxes on consumption, owing to busi-
ness depression ; there was a recrudescence of protectionism, and a
strong movement to introduce a general sales tax. It seemed prob-
able, at that time, that for the fiscal year ending June 30 1922 indirect
taxes would supply from 30% to 40% of the total tax collections.
The " consumer " would be thus paying no small share of the
national tax bill.
Slate taxes and other receipts during the period 1915-9 for which
general statistics could be obtained are analyzed in Table II. The
net revenue receipts of all states for the year 1919 amounted to
$670,183,918, and the net governmental-cost payments to $635,370,-
153, from which figures the general meaning of the percentages
given in the table may be inferred. In arriving at the " net revenue
receipts," there have been excluded the proceeds of bond issues and
of sale of investments or supplies, refunds returned by reason of
error or otherwise, and bookkeeping items representing transfers
between governmental departments. The term " net governmental-
cost payments " is applied to actual payments for expenses, interest
and outlays, less counterbalancing payments and receipts, refunds
received on account of error or otherwise, and departmental trans-
TABLE I. Tax revenues of Federal Government: 1920 and 1910.
(From E. B. Rosa, Expenditures and Revenues of the Federal
Government.)
1920
1910
Income and excess profits.
Distilled spirits and beverages .
Tobacco
Transportation, insurance, etc.
Luxuries, automobiles, candy,
furs, etc
Estate or inheritance.
Capital stock of corporations,
brokers, etc
Stamps on legal documents
Admissions to amusements
Miscellaneous ....
Total internal revenue .
Customs net revenue after re-
funds, etc
Tax on national bank circula-
tion, net
Postal war revenue .
Total tax revenue .
$3-956,936,003
197,332,105
295,809,355
307,769,841
270,971,064
103,635,563
95,141,732
81,259,365
89,710,525
9,014,694
$20,959,958(0)
208,601,600
58,118,457
2,277,204
85,407,580,251
296,274,230
7,172,598
4,913,000
$289,957,220
323,519,307
3,333,011
$5,715,940,080
$616,809,538
(a) Corporations only excess tax measured by net income.
fers. By " outlays " is meant capital outlays for permanent prop-
erty. With these explanations, the more important developments
in the field of state taxation and finance during the latter half of
the decade may be inferred from Table II. Taxes increased in the
aggregate from $364,543,797 in 1915 to $527,819,167 in 1919, but
the relative importance of taxes among the total receipts decreased
slightly. As a source of state revenue, property taxes were declining
in importance, while business and other licence taxes were increas-
ing. Earnings of public enterprises, together with rents, interest
and charges for highway privileges commercial earnings in their
general character were comparatively speaking stationary. For
the three years 1917-9 state receipts exceeded state expenses by a
substantial margin.
City taxes and the relative importance of other classes of munici-
pal receipts are analyzed in Table III., which is based upon the
revenue receipts of 146 of the larger cities of the United States for
which comparative statistics are available for a period of 17 years.
The net revenue receipts of these cities increased from $439,126,723
in 1903 to $1,103,665,750 in 1919; and the net governmental cost
payments increased from $514,189,206 to $1,113,599,879 in the
same interval. The net revenue receipts thus increased 151 % while
the cost payments increased less than 117%. In 1903 the receipts
constituted only 85-4% of the expenditures, but in 1919 the receipts
amounted to more than 99 % of the expenditures. There is thus no
foundation for the current statement that because they may issue
bonds " free from taxation," American cities have been led in recent
years to borrow unduly.
Table III. describes in figures the more significant movements
among city taxes and receipts during recent years; the material
increase in the relative importance of the general property tax, the
decline of the liquor taxes, the shrinkage in the use of the special
assessment since the outbreak of the war, and the slight decrease
in the importance of earnings of public service enterprises. Expressed
in absolute figures, the total net revenue receipts rose from $21.14
per capita in 1903 to $35.26 in 1919; receipts from the general prop-
TABLE II. Relative importance (percentage distribution) of net revenue receipts and net governmental cost payments of all states:
1915-9. (From Bureau of the Census, Financial Statistics of States, 1919, p. 33.)
Per cent, of net governmental
Net revenue receipts
cost payments repre-
sented bv:
Per cent, obtained from :
Per cent, re-
quired for
-2u
Payments for :
w
Taxes.
in ifi
. ,
__.
meeting :
X%
O,
u
<3
1
Property
is
i
c/)
1
Business and non-
business licence
Special assessment
and special charge
for outlays
Fines, forfeits,
and escheats
Subventions, grant
donations and per
sion assessments
Earnings of genera
departments
Highway privi-
leges, rents, and
interest
Earnings of public
service enterprise
I
1
Interest
.O +->
rt O &
Ts8
" e-
. en
**
8i
r
Expenses of genera
departments
Expenses of public
service enterprises
Interest
CO
>,
jj
3
O
Net revenue rece
1919
50-9
2-O
o-3
25-5
0-7
0-4
2-6
12-3
4-8
o-5
8 1-3
2-9
15-8
85-3
0-4
3-1
II-2
105-5
1918
50-8
2-1
0-4
25-5
o-5
0-4
2-2
12-4
5-2
0-6
81-5
3'2
15-3
84-4
0-4
3-4
n-8
104-1
1917
53'5
2-6
0-4
22-5
0-6
0-4
2-1
12-0
5-3
o-5
82-6
3'3
H-i
83-0
0-4
3-3
13-2
IOI-I
1916
55-5
i-7
o-5
2I-I
0-6
0-4
2-9
"5
5-3
o-5
87-6
3-3
9-1
79-8
0-3
3-o
16-8
9i-5
1915
58-7
o-5
0-7
2O-6
o-5
0-4
1-6
II-I
5-3
0-6
83-9
3-2
12-9
77-2
0-4
2-9
19-4
92-5
870
UNITED STATES
erty tax increased from $12.98 per capita in 1903 to $23.29 in 1919;
and the earnings of public service enterprises rose from $2.42 per
capita in 1903 to $3.61 per capita in 1919. As stated above, the
relative importance of the last class of receipts declined slightly
during the period under review.
TABLE III. Relative importance (percentage distribution) of net
revenue receipts of 146 cities for specific years: ipoj-lp.
(From Bureau of the Census, Financial Statistics of Cities, 1919, p. 55-)
1919
1917
1915
1913
1911
1909
1907
1905
1903
c
0>
bo
66-0
o
.
2-8
3-6
4.4
5-o
5-2
5-9
6-6
5'9
6-3
1-4
i-5
i-5
1-5
i-5
1-5
i-3
3-3
2-3
2-O
2-O
2-O
2-3
2-5
2-2
2-2
.3
I
5-6
7-8
8-5
8-2
8-4
8-4
8-2
7-9
7-6
2 = E
MB 3
O ft
~S!
23
M O
c-o e
4-1
4-0
4-2
4-5
4-6
4'9
4-8
4-7
4-3
.
II
bo
10-2
9.9
IO-O
9.9
10-6
10-9
rt-2
11-4
i
6-4
6-6
6-9
6-6
5-8
5-3
5-8
5-
5-5
The most important aspects of American taxation during the
decade 1910-20 are those connected with the rates and the aggre-
gate burden of taxation. Direct taxes were pushed to a height
thought to be impossible before the war. The maximum rate under
the Federal income tax is 73%, and this is supplemented in some
places by a state income tax which, in Wisconsin for instance, exceeds
at the maximum 13 per cent. Corporations have been subject to
equally drastic taxes. The war profits tax for 1918 was 80% on
profits in excess of a deduction which in the average case only
slightly exceeded 10% of the invested capital ; and corporations paid
in addition a 12 % income tax, a capital stock tax, and state or local
taxes which frequently exceeded (in theory, at least) 2 % of the capi-
tal value of the property of the corporation.
In addition there were miscellaneous Federal taxes important
enough to have produced over fifteen hundred millions of dollars
in the year 1920. This unprecedented taxation placed upon busi-
ness a serious burden, brought about a complexity of law and pro-
cedure hitherto unknown in the United States, and threw upon the
administrative machinery tasks difficult enough to cause grave con-
gestion and delay. In July 1921 there was a systematic effort, par-
ticularly among business men, to replace the direct taxes in large
part by a flat tax at a low rate (l % was usually recommended)
upon all sales of goods, wares and merchandise. It was urged pri-
marily in order to " simplify " the tax system, to take the place of
the excess profits tax and reduce the rates of the income tax. Its
opponents attacked it as an attempt to shift the burden of taxation
from those who had income or profits, and were thus " able to
pay," to the general class of consumers; and asserted that it would
discriminate in favour of the " combination " and against the inde-
pendent or single-process business. In the United States this con-
troversy assumed an importance worthy of historical record. It
marked a reaction from the high tide of direct taxation which during
the war supplied more than three-quarters of the entire tax revenue.
It was also worthy of record that in the midst of the industrial
depression prevailing in 1921 there was no discernible movement in
favour of meeting the expenses of Government by the issue of
paper money or by borrowing.
In state and local taxation real progress toward the solution of the
more important problems was made during the decade. The gradual
abrogation of the old " iron rule of constitutional uniformity "
(taxation of all classes of property at the same rate) continued.
Gradually, but without material setback, law and practice were
being modified so as to adapt the general property tax to the pecu-
liar needs of the different classes of property or business, such as
forest land, the mining industry, and public service enterprises.
Low rates were in a constantly increasing number of jurisdictions
applied to money and securities, which go into hiding if an attempt
is made to tax them at the rate applicable to real estate and tangible
property; or this class of intangible property was exempted from
the property tax and subjected to special taxes such as the mortgage
registry tax, or the income tax. With three exceptions all American
states employ some form of the inheritance tax. With the Federal
Government imposing an estate tax which rises to 25 % where the
net estate exceeds $10,000,000; and the state Governments employ-
ing several mutually inconsistent bases of taxation, for example,
taxing the transfer of all corporate shares owned by resident dece-
dents and the transfer of all corporate shares in domestic corpora-
tions owned by non-resident decedents, problems of double or
multiple taxation were becoming particularly serious; and an almost
unbearable situation promised to arise unless in some manner state
and Federal laws could be made both uniform and consistent. Auto-
mobile and hunting licence taxes were rapidly increasing in impor-
tance, and together yielded approximately as much as the state
inheritance taxes (about fifty million dollars a year). In recent
years there has been a marked improvement in the administration
of state and local taxes, particularly in the work of assessment.
Much of this is attributable to the development of state tax com-
missions charged usually with the assessment of state-wide corpora-
tions, the administration of the income tax where such a tax is in
force, the equalization of assessments among local districts, and the
supervision of the work of the county or local assessors. It is
worthy of note that in recent years the movement for the segrega-
tion or separation of state and local taxes has abated. In 1921 there
was a marked tendency towards centralization of administration
and the collections by state officials or under state supervision of
taxes which are later returned in part to the local divisions of gov-
ernment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See H. C. Adams, Science of Finance; C. C.
Plehn, Introduction to Public Finance; E. R. A. Seligman, Essays
in Taxation; Bureau of the Census, Wealth, Debt and Taxation (1913) ;
and the annual publications Financial Statistics of States and Finan-
cial Statistics of Cities. For state and local taxation, see in particu-
lar the annual Proceedings and the monthly Bulletin of the National
Tax Association. (T. S. A.)
V. SOCIAL AND WELFARE WORK
The zoth century has seen an extraordinary development
in the field of social-welfare work in the United States. The
number of persons interested whether as volunteers, serving
on boards and committees, or as contributors of financial support,
or as salaried employees has multiplied manyfold. Appro-
priations from taxes, annual contributions for the current work
of privately supported organizations, and endowments by men
and women of wealth, have increased enormously. New forms
of social work have come into existence, and the older forms have j
improved their methods, as well as extended their scope. Princi-
ples have been formulated; standards have been set up; training '
courses have been established; general instruction has been
introduced into the colleges and universities, and even to some
extent into the secondary schools; a technical literature has been I
produced; intelligent discussion of social problems in the popular '
periodicals and the daily press has become common.
Social work in the United States displays certain marked |
characteristics which distinguish it from corresponding activi-
ties in other countries, (i) There is greater variety. In the field I
of private charity individual initiative has had free play, little i
hampered by legislative restrictions or by precedents, and I
comparatively little by the control of church authorities. The i
administration of public charitable and correctional institutions I
and welfare legislation are not, as in England or France, national !
undertakings, but for the most part fall under the jurisdiction i
of the states, and even within the states the bulk of responsi-
bility lies with local authorities of city, town or county. This
situation has favoured experimentation. (2) The relative
amount of social work undertaken on private initiative, as
compared with that done by the State, is far greater than !
elsewhere. (3) In private philanthropy, the relative amount i
carried on under religious auspices is far less. (4) Throughout ;
the whole system of charity and correction, both public and
private, there is more hope. In comparison with older countries,
there has been little poverty and degeneracy in America at any j
period. Even in the oldest cities there is no pauper class. (5)
In the United States public and private relief, charity and j
correction, the care of sick, criminal or indigent individuals, and
the efforts to improve housing, to provide facilities for recreation,
and so on, are coming to be regarded as component parts of a
complicated system, not as separate and distinct departments
in the economy of the nation. (6) Finally, there is in Ameri- I
can social work something of the readiness to " scrap " machinery,
processes and plants, which is characteristic of American in-
dustry. Indeed, the ultimate object of all social work, from the
American point of view, is to make social work unnecessary; 1 1
and every social agency which is efficiently accomplishing its
immediate purpose is more or less consciously working for its
own extinction. Social work, therefore, is constantly changing.
Legally, the responsibility for the relief of the poor in America
rests ordinarily upon their immediate relatives. Children and
UNITED STATES
871
in some states grandchildren, parents and in some states grand-
parents, even brothers and sisters, may be compelled by law to
furnish, if able, the necessaries of life to the indigent. The laws
in American states do not uniformly recognize what in England
is called the " right to relief." In New York, for example, an
able-bodied man who has no visible means of support and no
regular occupation is not, under the law, a " poor person," but
is a " vagrant." On his own confession before a magistrate he
may be accepted as a public charge, but technically he is
punished, not " supported." Harsh as the law sounds when thus
stated, it corresponds to the fact that for able-bodied adults in
America there is always practically some alternative to starva-
tion besides vagrancy.
Public ^e/ie/. Although a legal right to relief is not formally
recognized, there is a tacit assumption that any kind of mis-
fortune which threatens life or physical well-being should be
provided for; and that if relatives, friends, or voluntary agencies
do not make such provision, the State must, or at least should,
do so in some way (see PUBLIC ASSISTANCE: section United States).
By the end of the igth century public opinion had recognized
that the almshouse was not a suitable place for tramps, vagrants,
and disorderly persons; for children; for the insane, feeble-
minded, epileptic, blind, and deaf; for confinement cases; cases
of acute illness and contagious disease; but that these should be
provided for in special institutions. These theoretical conclusions,
however, were by no means completely or uniformly embodied in
practice. In many of the newer states, with no correctional
institutions except gaols and State prisons, the courts still
habitually committed certain minor offenders to the almshouse.
Seventeen states in 1900 still maintained their dependent
children in almshouses. The greatest progress towards specialized
care had been made in the case of the insane, but in most of the
states institutions for them were overcrowded, while in many a
certain number of insane were still to be found in the county
poorhouses or even in the gaols; and the horsewhip was still
advocated by some of their official guardians for quieting the
violent. State schools for blind and deaf children had been
generally established, but there was practically no provision for
the instruction of persons who became blind, or deaf, or otherwise
disabled in adult life. There were only 26 public institutions for
the feeble-minded in the country, and special provision for
epileptics was rare. Even in so advanced a state as New York
there were about as many " idiots," feeble-minded, and epileptic
in the almshouses as in the special institutions for their care.
There were still many large cities and towns which had no general
public hospitals; confinement cases were generally admitted to
the almshouse, and as there was almost no public provision, and
little under private auspices, for the care of consumptives, many
of these also were found in the almshouses. Except in certain
northern cities and in some of the southern states, outdoor relief
was generally given by local public officials in the form of
groceries, fuel, clothing, and sometimes in money. This and
the undifferentiated almshouse were still the public provision
available for the majority of dependents.
Private Philanthropy. Parallel with the various public agen-
cies were many which had been established, and were con-
ducted, under church auspices, or by incorporated societies or
less formal associations of private individuals. The private
institutions which existed in 1900 were chiefly orphan asylums,
hospitals, and homes for the aged. Most churches gave charit-
able assistance on occasion to their own members, and the larger
ones had a Ladies' Aid Society, or a St. Vincent de Paul Society,
or some other agency for the purpose. In the cities there were
" bread lines " and " soup kitchens " and temporary shelters
for the homeless. In many places there were non-sectarian
general relief societies, such as the New York Association for
Improving the Condition of the Poor, and in about 100 cities
there was a Charity Organization Society, or Associated Chari-
ties, or United Charities. There were also many societies for
assisting certain classes in their own homes widows, for exam-
ple, or members of a particular nationality; or for giving some
particular kind of help, such as legal aid. There were 161 socie-
ties for the protection of children from cruelty and neglect; and
a considerable number of societies performing one or more of
the functions of the pioneer Children's Aid Society of New
York to find homes in families for homeless children, to con-
duct lodging-houses and reading-rooms for newsboys, and in
other ways to promote the welfare of city " waifs." " Fresh-air
societies " existed to provide outings for city children. " Visit-
ing nursing associations " had demonstrated the value of such
service, and some 40 to 50 had been organized, with an aggre-
gate force of not more than 140 nurses for the entire country.
In the larger cities and industrial centres day nurseries had been
established for the convenience of wage-earning mothers and to
reduce the number of children who were candidates for institu-
tional care.
Treatment of Criminals. Reformatory schools for juvenile
delinquents, which had naturally come into existence much
earlier than reformatories for adults, were to be found by 1900
in four-fifths of the states more of them for boys than for
girls, even in proportion to their numbers as delinquents. Juve-
nile courts were at the beginning of their development. Proba-
tion also was only beginning to receive attention. Growing out
of the privilege of the court to suspend sentence after conviction,
it had been the practice in connexion with adult offenders
throughout Massachusetts for 20 years, and was established by
statute in New Jersey in 1899, but had not spread farther. As
applied to children, it had not yet been tried. Probation,
indeterminate sentence, reformatory institutions, special courts
for children, and even specialized treatment for women and
children offenders, were still novelties. Fixed sentences, deter-
mined by the nature of the offence, without reference to the needs
of the offender, were the rule; and they were served for the most
part under conditions dictated by the theory of retribution
rather than of reformation. As the characteristic charitable
institution of America is the town or county almshouse, so the
characteristic correctional institution was and is the county
gaol and town " lock-up." Generally small, with poor sanita-.
tion, frequently " fire-traps," they are described by a committee
of the National Conference of Charities and Correction in 1900
as " foul dens, infested with vermin, reeking with dirt and filth."
Boys and girls arrested for a trivial first offence, professional
criminals, prostitutes and innocent persons awaiting trial were
" herded together " in idleness, dirt, and bad air.
State Supervision. To insure a certain standard in the con-
duct of public charitable and correctional institutions, state
boards had been established in over half the states. These were
of two main types: (i) advisory boards, with authority to
inspect, report, and make recommendations, relying for their
influence chiefly on the power of publicity; and (2) boards .of
control, with full executive powers and executive responsibility.
The former type was considerably in the majority.
Preventive Philanthropy. Of " preventive philanthropy " or
" constructive social work " there was very little at the beginning
of the aoth century. Interest in providing playgrounds and
small parks in congested districts and public baths had been
growing for several years. The New York Tenement House
Committee had begun work in 1899, and was laying the founda-
tions of the modern housing movement. The Consumers'
League had exposed the horrors of sweat-shop work, and was
preparing the way for a general concern about industrial condi-
tions. But the conspicuous educational agency at this period
was the social settlement. Beginning with the Neighborhood
Guild on the lower east side of New York City, the number of
settlements had increased to over one hundred.
Twentieth-Century Developments. One of the ideas which be-
came dominant among social workers early in the aoth century
was that " prevention is better than relief." A second, in the
picturesque phrase of Jacob A. Riis, was that " a man cannot
live like a pig and act and vote like a man." Both these ideas
grew out of the experiences of men and women who were engaged
in work for the relief or the reformation of individuals, or who
were living among the poor in social settlements. Out of these
ideas naturally developed the organized social movements
872
UNITED STATES
which are characteristic of contemporary American philan-
thropy. Conspicuous among them are the movements for the
prevention of tuberculosis, for the diminution of infant mortality,
to promote the health of children, for the control of cancer, for
the reduction of venereal disease, for the prevention of blind-
ness, to abolish extortionate charges for loans secured by salaries
and pawnable property, to promote wholesome recreation, to
diminish child labour, to further industrial education, to advance
the interests of the negro, to reform criminal law and procedure,
to prevent insanity, to improve housing conditions, to improve
and standardize labour legislation.
Each of these movements is represented by a national organi-
zation some of them by several and in most of the cases
a large number of local societies or committees also exist, more
or less closely affiliated with the national body. Their central
feature is educational propaganda, based on the study of facts.
Millions of dollars were spent to this end in the two decades,
1900-20, and remarkable ingenuity was used in devising
effective methods. Simple " literature," presenting 1 clearly
the essential facts (about the nature of tuberculosis, for ex-
ample, and the precautions which should be taken), printed in
alluring style and translated into many languages, photographs,
lantern slides, posters, motion pictures, standardized exhibits;
monologues by clowns, plays, lectures to use on the phonograph;
Christmas seals; a press service supplying material to news-
papers all over the country; a " tuberculosis day " or a " child
labour day " in the churches and in the schools; lectures and
motion pictures at county fairs; travelling exhibits touring the
countryside such are some of the methods in use.
Research and Surveys. Another result of the interest in pre-
vention and in underlying causes was to stimulate research into
social conditions. The new organizations which have just been
mentioned were obliged to begin operations by collecting data.
Charity organization societies, settlements, and others among
the older philanthropic agencies, began to delve into their
records, or into their unrecorded experiences, for knowledge about
social conditions. Several heavily endowed " Foundations "
were established notably the Russell Sage, the Rockefeller,
and the Carnegie with research as one, if not the primary,
object. For about a decade, beginning about 1002-4, many
studies were made. In 1007 the " Pittsburgh Survey " was
undertaken by the committee in charge of the publication then
known as Charities and the Commons (now The Survey), with
financial support from the Russell Sage Foundation, and with
cooperation from many of the social and sanitary movements of
the country and from many citizens and organizations of Pitts-
burgh. It was an attempt to present a bird's-eye view of the
conditions in an industrial wage-earning centre. This survey,
published later in six volumes, had immediate practical results
in Pittsburgh itself. It had a wider influence because of the
dramatic prominence assumed in it by industrial accidents, the
twelve-hour day and the seven-day week in impressing on
America the evils of overwork and of the outworn theory of
employers' liability. It also established the " social survey "
as a method of research. There have been only one or two other
surveys equally ambitious, notably one of Springfield, 111., con-
ducted by the Russell Sage Foundation's Department of Sur-
veys and Exhibits; but less comprehensive surveys have been
made under various auspices in many cities, and although this
method has at times been absurdly applied, it has done a great
deal to establish the sound principle that plans for improvement
should be based on an understanding of actual conditions.
Reaction on Relief and Correction. The New York Charity
Organization Society enlarged its activities (1897-1905) by
establishing a Tenement House Committee, a committee on the
prevention of tuberculosis, a committee on criminal courts, a
school for the training of social workers, and the weekly journal
already mentioned, The Survey. Other societies created similar
committees, or undertook other educational work as an adjunct
to their original function. All these new activities, in turn, had
a reflex influence on the older forms of social work. As the
idea of prevention gained ground, those who were engaged in the
relief of the poor found their task growing more complex. In
particular, they found themselves obliged by the logic of their
new knowledge to examine into the health of each member of
the family, to see that physical defects in children were corrected,
that the family diet was suitable and sufficient, that the home
was decently sanitary, that incipient physical and mental
troubles were properly treated; to make it possible for children
to stay in school at least as long as the law required, and pref-
erably beyond that age; for mothers and fathers who were ill
to have adequate medical treatment and convalescent care ; and
to supplement the income, if necessary, sufficiently to secure
these essential conditions. Hospitals and dispensaries came to
see the connexion of their institutions with the homes of their
patients, and " hospital social service " was devised. Provision
for the insane, for the tuberculous, for delinquent children and
adults, was extended in both directions to reach them at an
earlier stage of their difficulties and to watch over them after
discharge. Prevention of infant mortality led back to prenatal
care and instruction of mothers. Rehabilitation became the
conscious goal in philanthropy and correction.
Training Schools. The Summer School of Philanthropy,
begun in 1898 by the Charity Organization Society of New
York, was expanded in 1903-4 into a two-year course of special
training for graduate students and persons who had had the
equivalent of a college course, with instruction which included
both study of principles and practice and which was recognized
by Columbia University as of graduate standard. Within a
few years similar schools, affiliated more or less closely with
educational institutions, but, like the New York school, owing
their existence to social workers, were established in Boston,
Chicago, St. Louis, Philadelphia, and Richmond, while instruc-
tion on the same general plan was introduced in a considerable
number of colleges and universities. By 1920 such training was
offered by most of the leading educational institutions of the
country, either as graduate or undergraduate work in the depart-
ments of the social sciences. No new independent schools have
been established for a decade or more, and one of the most
important of them (the Chicago School of Civics and Philan-
thropy) has recently (1920) been discontinued on the creation of a
Graduate School of Social Service Administration in the uni-
versity of Chicago. Whether or not social work has become a
" profession " is a question of merely academic interest, but it
has become a recognized occupation, engaging large numbers of
men and women with high qualifications, and offering salaries
which compare favourably with those available in the teaching
profession and the ministry.
Formulation of Standards. From their study of methods
social workers were led to formulate standards, and this has been
done with special success in matters of legislation. The Uniform
Child Labor law, prepared by the Commissioners on Uniform
State laws of the American Bar Association and adopted by the
National Child Labor Committee, and the essential features of
a Workmen's Compensation law as advocated by the American
Association for Labor Legislation, are conspicuous examples,
to the influence of which the statute books of most of the states
bear witness. National leagues of societies engaged in similar
work have been organized and have promoted uniformity of
methods in their several fields. Aside from those which are
purely legislative, the standards which have had the greatest
influence are those formulated by the White House Conference
on the Care of Dependent Children, held by invitation of Presi-
dent Roosevelt Jan. 25-6 1909, and by the Conference on Child
Welfare Standards, held under the auspices of the Federal
Children's Bureau 10 years later. The unanimous recommenda-
tions of the White House Conference were adopted as a quasi
creed or constitution by the child-welfare workers of the country.
The Children's Bureau Conference, held in 1919, at the close
of the " Children's Year," had a far wider scope. It considered
the essentials to child-welfare from every point of view, and
drew up minimum standards for children entering employment;
for the protection of the health of children and mothers and for
the protection of " children in need of special care."
UNITED STATES
373
Coordination. In recent years social workers have developed
a new sense of the interrelations of social agencies. As affecting
case-work, this has showed in an increased appreciation of the
idea of registration which had been one of the cardinal principles
of the charity organization movement. Under the new name of
" confidential exchange " or " social service exchange," there
has been established in the leading cities a central record of the
families known to the various social agencies, so that each
society may learn which other agencies may be, or have been,
interested in any particular family and may consult with them.
Furthermore, social workers began to think of particular agen-
cies and particular methods as elements in the community's
equipment, to consider what place each one should occupy,
what its appropriate function was, and what was needed to
supplement it. In other words, they began to make " pro-
grammes ": for a comprehensive campaign against tuberculosis;
for a charity organization society in a small town ; for an adequate
system of care for the insane; for State legislation on behalf of
children " children's codes," as they are called, presenting a
harmonized plan of desirable laws; and so on. The national
associations in the different educational movements not only
Outlined in a general way the elements in a " campaign " against
the particular evil of their concern, but also suggested concrete
programmes for local organizations. Councils of social agencies
have been organized in some cities to promote mutual under-
standing and the development of a community programme,
while the financial federations which have beea developed for
joint raising of funds have, as an incident to their main purpose,
perhaps been the strongest influence of all in this direction.
Since the World War it has become obvious that there is need
for coordinating the work of the national agencies also.
Financial Federations. The financial federations bid fair to
establish themselves as an integral feature of social work in
America. Before the end of the igth century bureaux of ad-
vice and information had been created by the charity organiza-
tion societies in several of the large cities, supplying information
about organizations and individuals and app:aling for contribu-
tions. Beginning with Cleveland about 1900, the chamber of
commerce in various cities had established a " charity endorse-
ment committee," which made up a list of approved agencies
for the convenience of its members, who, with their families,
constituted a large part of the giving public. As social agencies
multiplied, competition became so intense that protests from
harassed contributors led to the idea of financial federation,
viz. that all the agencies in a community which depended on
voluntary contributions for their support should form an asso-
ciation, agree on a joint budget for the next year, throw into a
common pool their contributors' lists and other information
about sources of income, present their united needs to the public
in a single campaign, and share in the results in proportion to
their budgets. Jewish charities were the first to do this suc-
cessfully, but by 1917 there were general federations in several
cities. When the war brought demands from a host of new
and old organizations, in sums that had never before even been
imagined, a development of the fundamental idea in federations
was forced. ". War chests " were set up in some 300 cities by the
summer of 1918, to raise the money asked for by the American
Red Cross, the Y.M.C.A., the Y.W.C.A., the War Camp Com-
munity Service, and other " war work " agencies, and in some
places the local charities also were included in the chest. The
general satisfaction felt with the experiment led a number of
the cities to convert their war chests into " peace chests " or
" community funds," and by March 1921 at least 30 important
cities had adopted this method of raising their funds. A great deal
more money is secured in this way than by separate competitive
appeals; a much larger proportion of the population contributes
(20-30 % instead of an estimated 2-10 %) ; less expense is involved
and less annoyance to contributors. The strongest argument in
favour of financial federations, however, is that through joint
budget-making, joint study of community needs, joint planning
for community welfare, they tend to dissipate the narrow institu-
tionalism of the agencies concerned; while, on the other hand,
they increase the public interest in the social work of the com-
munity, and provide a channel through which the public may
register its judgments of the social agencies and share in direct-
ing their development.
Increased Reliance on Government. Even before the war there
was a noticeable tendency away from the old American individ-
ualism and distrust of government. Supervision over private
social work has been extended, and there has even been a tend-
ency towards some degree of public control. Recourse has been
had to legislation to establish minimum standards of housing, of
working conditions, even of wages, to protect women and chil-
dren in industry, and otherwise to promote social welfare; and
such legislation has been increasingly sustained by the courts.
The great cost of adequate provision for the sick and adequate
hygienic education of the well, together with the growing recog-
nition that, to be adequate, such measures must reach all citi-
zens, have made it inevitable that they should be undertaken
largely by public authorities. Boards of health have accord-
ingly extended their control over infectious diseases, established
sanatoria and all sorts of clinics, distributed much information,
and maintained nurses and physicians to visit the poor in their
homes and give them oral instruction. Public schools have added
physicians, nurses, psychiatrists, dentists and " visiting teach-
ers " to their staffs, have offered evening classes and vocation
schools and public lectures and opened their buildings as " com-
munity centres," as well as admitted into the curriculum new
subjects. Three-fourths of the states have established bureaux
of child welfare or child hygiene.
There has even been an extension of public out-door relief,
which had fallen into disrepute during the igth century. Partly
as a result of the new conviction that children were better off
with their mothers than in institutions or in foster homes, partly
from a sudden appreciation of the service performed to the
State in the bearing of children and a determination that the
State should recognize this service, most of the states of the
Union (beginning with Missouri in 1911) made special provi-
sion for payments of " widows' pensions " or " mothers' allow-
ances," " mothers' aid," " funds to parents," or " mothers'
compensation," to mothers who without this assistance might
be obliged to place their children in institutions.
Reliance on the State has gone so far as to demand assistance
in promoting social welfare from the Federal Government. Its
taxing power has been invoked to discourage the employment
of children in factories, mines and quarries, in order to extend
some protection to the children in the more backward states.
Financial aid for vocational education and (by a measure passed
in 1920) for the reeducation of industrial cripples, has been
granted by the Federal Government to the states in proportion
to their population and their own appropriations. The Depart-
ment of Agriculture has done social work on a substantial scale
in rural districts. The Bureau of Labor has been erected into
a separate department, with corresponding increase in impor-
tance. A children's bureau, placed almost by chance in the
Department of Labor, was created in 1912, at the instance of
the social workers of the country.
The World War and Social Work. The first effect of the war
on social work in America, while the United States was still
neutral, was to strengthen and improve it. Sympathy for suf-
ferings in Europe quickened sensitiveness to social problems
at home. A little later the appeals for war relief tended to drown
those of the familiar everyday agencies at home. This was not
an unmixed evil, for it compelled scrutiny of plans within each
organization to determine what could be spared with least dis-
advantage. When the United States entered the war, in April
1917, social work leaped into unprecedented prominence. Many
of the wonted social problems were intensified and some new
ones created, especially by the operation of the draft and the
establishment of training camps; while a new demand for per-
sons with experience in human problems sprang up in govern-
ment departments and war industries. A fervour developed
for service, especially for service to American soldiers and sailors
and to the civilian sufferers in the Allied countries. The Red
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UNITED STATES
Cross organized its Home Service Sections to minister to the
needs of the families of men in service; its Bureau of Refugees
and Relief in France and other activities on behalf of the civil-
ian populations in European countries. With official encourage-
ment, the seven " mora/-making agencies," as they were called
Y.M.C.A., Y.W.C.A., Knights of Columbus, Jewish Welfare
Board, Salvation Army, American Library Association, War
Camp Community Service undertook to occupy the leisure
of the soldiers and sailors, in training at home or on duty abroad.
They provided physical, social, and spiritual comforts, mental
diversion and entertainment.
The Federal Government, through the system it adopted of
allotments and allowances to the families of men in service,
compensation for death and disability, reeducation of the dis-
abled, and war-risk insurance; through the Housing Corpora-
tion; the Federal Employment Service; the Division of Venereal
Disease in the Public Health Service; the thrift campaign of the
Treasury Department; the educational work of the Food Admin-
istration; and other undertakings, plunged into social work on a
gigantic scale. Much of it, unfortunately, though wisely con-
ceived, was badly executed, but it strengthened the demand that
the Federal Government should in the future make more sub-
stantial direct contributions to social welfare.
The established forms of social work fared badly under the
competition of these new activities. Financial support was
difficult to secure, and what was more serious many agencies
saw their staffs sadly depleted by the superior appeal of war
work. Young, inexperienced persons were frequently the only
ones available for positions of responsibility. On the other hand,
many capable men and women who would not otherwise have
been attracted to social work have entered it permanently, and
many more have had experiences which cannot fail to be of
advantage to social work in the future because of the interest and
knowledge acquired. Aside from this increase in the popularity
of social work and in the general understanding of social prob-
lems, a conspicuous effect of the war was to hasten the process
of nationalization which had been going on for half a century.
This is shown not only in the disposition to expect more active
participation by the Federal Government, but in a consciousness
of the national character of the problems of education, health,
and adequate income; in a prominence accorded to certain ele-
ments of the national life, hitherto comparatively neglected,
such as the rural population, the negro, the foreign-born.
Topics in which interest has been intensified are education,
recreation, physical efficiency, venereal disease, mental defects,
" community organization," retraining of cripples and other
handicapped adults and their restoration to a place of useful-
ness and self-support in the community.
In general, the effect of the war has been to confirm the princi-
ples of social work and to commend them to a larger public.
In the treatment of criminals, however, it has been the opposite.
For the moment, at least, it seems that much of the progress
painfully made in the course of the ipth century has been
brushed away. There has been a reversion to the principles of
vengeance and retribution in dealing with civilian lawbreakers.
A reaction in favour of the death penalty and of severe and even
brutal sentences has displaced the sentiment that certainty of
punishment is more efficacious as a deterrent than severity.
Practical Advance. In these 20 years of the 2oth century,
ideas have far outstripped practice. Both ideals and practice
have made great strides in advance, but the gap between gener-
ally accepted theories and actual provision is as wide as it was
in 1900. By way of summary: what difference have the 20
years made to the individuals whose welfare is at stake?
The task of helping those who are in economic difficulty is
done more thoroughly. A larger proportion of those who need
assistance receive it; a larger proportion receive a kind and an
amount adapted to their needs; individual and family situations
likely to produce dependence later are more frequently recog-
nized and corrected. There were in 1920 over 300 " family
social work societies," as compared with 100 at the beginning of
the century. The home service sections of the Red Cross, con-
tinued in many small towns and rural communities after the
World War, supply something corresponding to the general
relief society or family society in the cities. Public relief has
been extended by the all-but-universal provision of " mothers'
allowances," which, however, are generally inadequate in amount
or incompetently supervised. An organized system for assuring
prompt relief in any community visited by a disaster has existed
since 1006 under the auspices of the Red Cross. In theory reha-
bilitation is accepted as the object of the social agencies which
have to do with children or with family groups or individuals
capable of ultimate self-support, including the public depart-
ments which administer outdoor relief. Available resources for
recreation and education, for physical and mental examination
and treatment, are utilized more fully. Money is spent more
freely, especially to ensure adequate food, sanitary homes, the
recovery or preservation of health, to keep families together,
and to keep children in school. In public institutions diet has
improved, and in general the physical conditions are better.
Here and there the almshouse has been transformed in accord-
ance with the theories of the zoth century, and through the
continued growth of specialized institutions its population is
gradually decreasing and it is losing its place of preeminence
among the social agencies of the country. It is still, however,
much the same institution that it was 20 years ago, and it still
affects far too many persons to justify the indifference still shown
it. In other respects, too, there has been little advance in pro-
vision for those who reach old age without resources and with-
out relatives who can take care of them: accommodations in
private homes for the aged have not increased substantially;
the plan of placing them in families under supervision has
nowhere had much attention; and thus far there has not been
much sentiment in any state in favour of old-age pensions, nor
much evidence brought forward that they are needed.
Children (the other class of natural dependents), in their
character as the most responsive subjects for both preventive
and constructive efforts, have aroused a new and scientific
interest. The case of the child who must be supported wholly
or in part by other than his parents or near relatives has improved
more than that of the aged. There are more chances than there
were 20 years ago that arrangements will be made for him to
stay with his own mother or that he will be placed in some family
where he will at least have the training of family life ; if the latter,
that the home will be chosen with reference to his particular
requirements, and that in case of mistake it will be discovered
before his future is jeopardized. If he goes to an institution, it
is more likely to be one in which he is regarded as an individual,
and in which the life is organized for the benefit of the children
rather than primarily for ease and economy of administration.
The capital invested in old-style congregate institutions and the
initial cost of replacing them by a plant on the cottage plan
retards the tendency in this direction. Few institutions of the
old type have been constructed in recent years, and some old
institutions have moved out from the city into a colony of
small home-like buildings, permitting better classification of the
children and a more nearly normal life, but the process of dis-
placement is slow, the 19th-century city institution still pre-
dominates. While in the best institutions, and the best placing-
out agencies, physical and mental examinations are given to the
children and more careful attention is paid to the correction of
defects than in the average family, such skilled professional
care is still the exception rather than the rule.
In provision for the cure and prevention of disease and for the
promotion of health these 20 years have seen the most marked
advance. Ill health as a cause of individual inefficiency, poverty,
and even crime; good health as the foundation of individual
welfare and happiness; preventable disease as one of the greatest
and least excusable social evils; physical efficiency as a national
ideal these ideas have created a large proportion of our current
social work, and materially modified most of the rest. General
hospital accommodations and dispensary service have increased
at a rapid rate, considering the investment required. Although
there is not yet suitable provision for more than 20% of the
UNITED STATES
875
tuberculous in need of institutional care, still nearly all of the
60,000 beds in the 689 sanatoria and special hospitals, day
camps and preventoria (Jan. i 1921) have been provided since
1900. This is true also of most of the convalescent homes, the
many specialized clinics prenatal, " baby," dental, venereal
disease, psychiatric, etc. the medical examination of school
children, the nursing service of schools and health departments.
The level of knowledge about tuberculosis and other prevent-
able diseases and about personal hygiene has risen perceptibly.
A new type of agency is now becoming prominent " health
centres " and " well-baby clinics," for example directed
towards the preservation of the health of those who are well.
Provision for the treatment of mental disease also has con-
tinued to increase, until in 1920 there were 232,680 patients in
institutions; and the tendency already well established in the
loth century towards public care, by the state rather than by
local units, has progressed until, in all but 8 states, all insane
who are public charges are in state hospitals (i.e. not in alms-
houses or other county or city institutions). In 12 states there
were, in 1921, psychiatric hospitals, psychiatric wards in general
hospitals, detention hospitals, or other provision for the tempo-
rary care of mental cases. The corollary, however, is that in 36
states there is no such provision and in these 1 2 only a fraction
of the population is thus served. The hospitals in most states
are sadly overcrowded. Notwithstanding this pressure, the
Scotch plan of boarding out selected cases of certain types,
which has long been followed with success in Massachusetts,
has not been adopted elsewhere. National prohibition, however,
has already cut down the number of admissions to the alcoholic
wards, and it may be that this influence will enable the states
within the next few years to match accommodation with applica-
tions. A few institutions undertake to keep watch over the
patients discharged as cured or improved, and a few private
organizations supplement the work of the public institutions in
this way, and also try to avert the development of insanity in
incipient or suspected cases brought to their attention. In
New York a state system of clinics has been organized under
the joint auspices of the state hospitals, the state Department
of Health, and the Committee on Mental Hygiene. In general,
however, the prevention of mental disease and the promotion of
mental hygiene are comparatively rare.
For mental defectives provision has increased rapidly as com-
pared with that at the beginning of the century, but slowly as
compared with the need. There were about 40,000 feeble-minded
in institutions in 1920, which was twice as many as in 1910,
but not more than 6% of the estimated total in the country.
There were still, in 1921, 14 states which had no separate institu-
tion for such patients. In the conduct of the institutions the
tendency is towards making them less custodial in their atmos-
phere, more medical and educational, less like a poorhouse,
more like a combination of hospital and school. Special classes
for backward children were maintained in 1921 in over a hundred
cities, but the aggregate enrolment of over 20,000 represents
: only a small portion of such children even in these cities.
In connexion with crime the greatest advance has been made
in the case of juvenile delinquents, who are now treated rather
like neglected children than like criminals. Nearly three-fourths
| now come before courts intended especially for children's cases,
the best of which have facilities for thorough physical and mental
I examinations 'and social investigation, and before judges who
are expert in this work. All the states except Wyoming had
made by 1919 some provision for probation for juvenile offenders,
and about half the juvenile courts had a probation service in
operation. Children in small villages and the country are hardly
touched by these new methods. The proportion of juvenile
1 delinquents sent to institutions is smaller than 20 years ago, and
these institutions have become in some instances excellent schools.
They have made more progress than those for dependent children
in transforming their plants and their methods to correspond
with current theories. The interests of adult criminals have not
advanced so much. It is more generally admitted, however,
that every correctional institution should be a " reformatory,"
and more of them are than formerly. There is increased atten-
tion to physical conditions and needs, better ventilation,
improved sanitation, more physical exercise, and in the refor-
matories some use is made of psycholpgical tests and some
attention paid to the correction of physical defects. The
value of academic instruction and of productive occupation is
more generally realized in the state prisons, and the reformatories
also provide vocational training. The old perplexity of how to
prevent prison labour from competing with free labour has
ceased to be a practical problem, with the general acquiescence
of organized labour on the "state use" system. Contract la-
bour, however, is still found in many state prisons, and there has
been little progress in making the work of the man in prison
contribute to the support of his family at home. The convict
lease system in the South has almost disappeared. A few
county gaols have been remodelled, and a few others have been
replaced by farm colonies. The use of probation for adult offen-
ders has increased, though less rapidly for juvenile delinquents.
Private enterprise in the field of correction has concerned
itself chiefly with furthering the movement for juvenile courts
and probation; promoting specialized provision for women
offenders, including policewomen and separate detention houses;
developing protective work, especially for girls; securing the
establishment of night courts and special courts for cases involv-
ing family desertion and other domestic relations; and in a few
places, intermittent efforts to secure a rational treatment of
beggars, drunkards, and other misdemeanants. Interest in 1921
seemed to centre round protective work for young offenders; the
need of separating the feeble-minded from those of normal
mental powers in reformatories and of distinguishing between
them throughout the correctional system; problems of court
organization and procedure, including the proposal for merging
juvenile courts and the so-called domestic relations courts into
" family courts," to deal with all cases involving family life.
While it would be out of the question to review in this place
the progress which has been made during the 2oth century in the
general standard of living and the conditions under which the
mass of Americans live and work, still so large a part of the
social work of these 20 years has been consciously directed
towards this object that it would be equally impossible to omit
all reference to it. The contribution of organized social work
cannot be definitely disentangled from that of any of the other
factors which have been influential in bringing about these im-
provements, but it is patent to any student of the period that it
has been an important factor. The educational social movements,
through their research, their programmes, their publicity and
their propaganda, have to a large extent enlisted the interest
of the other factors, determining which questions should have
precedence, and how they should be presented to the public.
" Welfare work " in mercantile and industrial establishments
has an obvious historical association with those kinds of social
work which deal with health, housing, recreation, and the stand-
ard of living. In America, however, it is now generally conceived,
not as an expression of altruistic interest on the part of the
employer, but rather as a subdivision of personnel administra-
tion. Scientific management, industrial medicine, vocational
guidance and other factors have influenced its development.
In many instances welfare activities have begun with a rest-
room, a lunch-room, first-aid appliances. From these modest
beginnings they have expanded to include everything which
might directly or indirectly increase the efficiency of the workers.
Their home life, savings, investments, education of children,
and social opportunities have been included. Industrial good-
will between the management and the workers has come to be
looked upon as an asset to be cultivated. The Y.M.C.A., and
other agencies which prefer to avoid industrial controversies
and to operate within the " zone of agreement," have found
here a useful and congenial field. (L. BR.; E. T. D.)
VI. THE AMERICAN LABOUR MOVEMENT
The labour movement in the United States has been distin-
guished from that in other countries by being less class-conscious.
876
UNITED STATES
more individualistic and opportunist. Although there are Social-
ist factions, and some leaders favour industrial unionism, the
majority of organized labour clings to the tactics of federated
crafts, and does not aim further than to increase wages, decrease
hours and improve the conditions of employment through
agreement with the employer. The American labour movement
has not been led by " intellectuals." The leaders have come
from the ranks one explanation of the characteristic opportun-
ism and lack of a social philosophy. The great majority of Ameri-
can working men do not want a Labour party in politics; they
do not consider themselves a separate class in the body politic.
The American political parties antedate the formation of modern
economic classes. Class parties are discountenanced as " un-
American." A politician in any party may present himself as a
" friend of labour." Moreover, the system of checks and balances
of the Government offers resistance to change, and the division
of sovereignty between state and Federal Government makes
legislative reform measures difficult of passage. More can be
accomplished with equal effort by trade-union methods. What
part the American Federation of Labor has taken in politics
has been to advise the working men to reward their friends and
punish their enemies at the polls.
During the World War an attempt was made, without success,
by the machinists of Connecticut to form a Labor party. In
Nov. 1918 leaders of the Chicago Federation of Labor proposed
a. Labor party, and suggested 14 planks for the platform, which
ranged from the right of labour to organize and bargain collec-
tively to representation of labour as such in all Government
departments. Eleven of the planks closely resembled the recon-
struction programme of the American Federation of Labor. In
Jan. 1919 the Labor party of Cook county (Chicago) was
formed, with an official organ The New Majority. In April an
Illinois state Labor party was formed at the convention of the
state Federation of Labor. It elected several mayors and other
officials. The same year there sprang up also a Pennsylvania state
Labor party, the American Labor party of Greater New York
and the Working People's Non-Partisan Political League of
Minnesota, which last had the object of cooperating with the far-
mers' Non-Partisan League. In Nov. a national Farmer-Labor
party was organized in Chicago, which aimed to draw together
the working man and the farmer. This party nominated a pres-
ident for the national election; 272,514 votes were polled for him,
or i % of the total votes cast. Other political parties, having as
their aim better conditions of labour, are the Socialist party,
the Communist party and the Communist Labor party, both
of which latter split off from the Socialist party in Aug. 1919, and
the Socialist Labor party (organs, The Socialist, the Weekly
People). In the spring of 1920 the Michigan branch of the
Communist party became the Proletarian party.
Labour and the World War. In 1916 when President Wilson
established the Council of National Defense he appointed Samuel
Gompers, president of the American Federation of Labor, one
of the seven members composing the advisory commission, to be
in charge of all policies affecting labour. As chairman of a labour
committee Gompers appointed about 350 persons, representa-
tives of capital and labour, Government officials and others with
technical qualifications, who effected a permanent organization
as the full Committee on Labor of the Council of National De-
fense, April 2 1917. This committee early urged that legislation
protecting labourers be not weakened during the war. Such was
the sentiment also of labour organizations and civic associations
generally. When, in the early spring of 1917, it appeared that
the United States would enter the war, Gompers called a con-
ference of the Executive Council of the American Federation of
Labor with the presidents of international and national unions,
heads of industrial departments and representatives of the rail-
way brotherhoods. Those present at this conference, March 12,
offered their services to the country in the event of war, and
issued a call to members of their organizations to follow this lead.
In order to secure the constant support of the Government by
American wage-earners, the conference urged the adoption of
trade-union standards for all war work, equal pay for equal work
regardless of sex, the representation of organized labour on all
committees which fixed policies for war work, and provision that
special exertion of workers in war emergencies should not benefit
chiefly the employers by increased profits. On April 17, at a
meeting of the -Council of National Defense and its Advisory
Committee, Gompers gave his pledge that organized labour
would support the Government to win the war. In the summer
of 1917 the American Alliance for Labor and Democracy was
formed by trade unionists, social reformers and non-pacifist
socialists to counteract the pacifist propaganda of the People's
Council of America. But some members of the trade unions
opposed the pro-war stand of the leaders, and formed the Work-
men's Council for Maintenance of Labor's Rights; this died out
during the next year.
In Nov. the national convention of the American Federation
of Labor passed a resolution that the United States was in the
war for democracy against autocracy. The convention urged
that organized labour be represented at the Peace Conference;
that there be no reprisals against conquered nations; the inde-
pendence of all nationalities; a league of free nations to maintain
peace; certain labour standards to be accepted by international
agreement as a part of the Peace Treaty and a plan for controlling
employment during demobilization. In Feb. 1918 the Executive
Council of the American Federation of Labor issued a state-
ment that " this is labor's war."
Early in 1918 the War Labor Policies Board was created, to
administer the relations with labour of the Federal Government
in its capacity as employer. It aimed to secure uniformity of
conditions in all Government work and to stabilize the working
force. It took a stand for prohibition of child labour and prison
labour, in favour of the right of labourers to organize, a living
wage, equal pay for equal work, the basic eight-hour day, and
some definite system of settling labour disputes. To meet the
grievances of employees on Government work, the National War
Labor Board was established in April 1918 to serve as a final
court of voluntary arbitration. The American Federation of
Labor was given representation on the Emergency Construction
Board, on the Fuel Administration Board (the president of the
United Mine Workers was assistant to the Fuel Administrator),
on the Woman's Board, on the Food Administration Board, and
on the War Industries Board. In connexion with the administra-
tion of the Military Conscription Law organized labour was given
representation on each District Exemption Board. Trade union-
ists were sent to Russia on the Commission of Investigation in
the spring of 1917.
The Mooney Case. Thomas Mooney, a labour organizer, was
accused of having placed the bomb which exploded in the street
of San Francisco during the " Preparedness Day " parade, July
22 1916, killing six persons instantly, mortally wounding four
more, and injuring 40 others. Mooney pleaded not guilty, but
he was sentenced to death. Many organizations of labour pro-
tested that the trial was not a fair one. Execution was postponed
several times. It then appeared that much of the testimony on
which he had been convicted was perjured. This was substan-
tiated by the report of the investigation of the U.S. Department
of Labor in July 1919, which condemned the conduct of the
trial. Request for retrial, however, was refused, as not provided
for by the constitution of California. Radical labour urged a
general strike May i 1918, to protest against letting the verdict
stand. At Mooney's request the plan was dropped. In Nov. the
governor of California commuted the sentence to life imprison-
ment. A plan for a general strike July 4 1919, to demand a new
trial, was not taken up by the conservative unions.
International Relations. During the war American labour
awoke to an interest in international affairs. The American
trade unions sent no delegate to the Inter-Allied Labour Con-
ference in London in 1918, but that year the American Federa-
tion of Labor sent three small groups to Europe to confer unoffi-
cially with trade unionists in the Allied countries. The American
Federation of Labor refused to be represented at the interna-
tional labour conference in Berne held after the signing of the
Armistice, on the ground that the conference would not erpress
UNITED STATES.
877
fairly the opinion of labour in the Allied countries. The proposal
of American labour for an inter-Allied labour conference at Paris
was not accepted. In July 1919, American delegates were present
at the International Trade Union Conference in Amsterdam, at
which they took issue with the German delegates, and opposed
the resolutions passed for the lifting of the Allied blockade of
Germany and Russia and those criticizing the labour sections of
the League of Nations. Since the United States had not ratified
the Peace Treaty, American labour could not be officially repre-
sented at the meeting of the Labour Department of the League
of Nations held in Washington in the autumn of 1919. The
American Federation of Labor Convention of 1919 by a large
majority endorsed the labour clauses in the Peace Treaty. The
Convention also passed resolutions asking that immigration be
stopped for two years, to prevent the underbidding of American
labour in the home market.
In 1918 the American Federation of Labor took steps to es-
tablish friendly relations with organized labour in Mexico. A
conference of trade unionists of the two countries in June urged
a conference on the question of the Mexican frontier and a
federation of the labour movements of both countries for the
protection of workers employed across the border from their
homes. In Nov. the conference was held at Laredo, Tex.; 150
delegates were present, representing the United States, Mexico,
Central America and Colombia. The U.S. Secretary of Labor
was present. A permanent organization was launched. A sec-
ond conference was held the next year in July in New York.
Reconstruction Programmes. In July 1919, the national con-
vention of the American Federation of Labor endorsed a pro-
gramme for reconstruction which advocated first " democracy in
industry," that is, workers to have a voice in determining the
conditions under which they work "equivalent to the voice which
they have as citizens in determining the legislative enactments
which shall govern them." The corollary is seen as the right to
organize in trade unions. The programme urged better wages to
prevent " underconsumption " and consequent unemployment,
and to make possible the maintenance and improvement of the
American standard of life; the 8-hour day and the 44-hour week;
equal pay for equal work regardless of sex; special protection of
the health of women; prohibition of labour by children under 16,
and compulsory part-time school attendance until the age of 18;
the elimination of the middleman; curtailment of the power of
the U.S. Supreme Court; Federal supervision and control of cor-
porations; Government ownership or regulation of public utili-
ties; development of waterways and waterpower; a graduated
land tax; a special tax on idle lands; progressive taxes on incomes
and inheritances; assistance to farmers; the development of Gov-
ernment experiment farms; municipal aid to home-building;
workmen's compensation with state insurance; better educational
advantages for children and adults; establishment of public
employment agencies controlled jointly by capital and labour;
and the regulation of immigration so as to facilitate Americaniza-
tion and to prevent flooding of the labour market in periods of
unemployment. The Federation reaffirmed its non-partizan po-
litical policy, urged the restoration of freedom of speech and
assembly and went on record as opposed to a standing army. At
the 1919 convention the Federation voted its support to the
" Plumb plan " for Government ownership of the railways and
their operation by a board representing equally the executives,
the other employees, and the public. The United Mine Workers
at their convention in 1919 passed a resolution favouring public
ownership of the mines.
Since 1917 the general public has had, as never before, a defi-
nite conception of " American " labour standards, endorsed by
such Government agencies as the wartime labour boards, the
Council of National Defense, and by the consensus of opinion of
certain groups in the industrial relations conferences, and of
leaders in the national life. These standards include, in general,
safety and sanitation in the shop and the home, accident, and
health insurance, special protection of women and children,
abolition of " home work," the eight-hour day and the six-day
week, the " living wage," industrial training and a public employ-
ment service. The majority of American working men and
women have as their aim the attainment of these standards:
not ownership or control of business. The labour movement is a
struggle for power to gain control of the " job " not the busi-
ness adequate wages, short hours, security of employment, and
sufficient responsibility to command respect and sustain interest
in the work to be done.
Education in the Labour Movement. In recent years there has
been developed in the United States a movement on the part of
working people to further their education, with a double aim: to
give to working people a share in the culture which has been
largely the possession of the propertied classes, and to fit them
to understand and meet the problems of the modern industrial
order. The leaders are trade unionists and socialists who resent
the control of education by the class that also controls industry,
and who wish to teach their own view of society; also impartial
educators, idealists, eager to bring to the many the culture of the
few, and to extend to adults educational advantages now pro-
vided generally for children. The Rand School of Social Science
in New York City, established in 1906 by private gifts, is owned
by the American Socialist Society. In 1918-9 the enrolment,
including correspondence students, was over 5,000. The school
has some five or six regularly appointed instructors. Courses
are also given by teachers from colleges near by and by trade-
union leaders. The Workers' Training Course, from Nov. to
May, prepares leaders for the socialist and labour movements.
The Department of Labor Research publishes the American
Labor Year Book. The school maintains also a reference library
and reading rooms and a book store. In 1914 the International
Ladies' Garment Workers' Union took up educational work for
its members, in cooperation with the Rand School. About 150
members attended classes at the school. Later classes were held
in public-school buildings under the auspices of the union. More
advanced classes were given under the name of the Workers'
University of the I.L.G.W., especially for business agents and
union officials. In 1918 under the leadership of the United Cloth
Hat and Cap Makers the United Labor Education Committee
was organized in New York City by six labour organizations for
the promotion of education among their members, about 200,000
in that city. This committee has conducted weekly courses, in
different parts of the city, in art, labour, history, science and
elementary English and physical training, and has also provided
concerts and motion pictures. It has introduced lectures and
musical programmes in connexion with the trade-union shop
meetings. The committee planned a workmen's theatre where
for popular prices a higher class drama will be presented than can
be found in the majority of the theatres of the city. In April 1919
the Trade Union College organized by the Boston Central Labor
Union opened with 160 students. Courses, open to all members
of the American Federation of Labor and their families, are
given in the evening in one of the public schools by members of
the faculty of Harvard University and other institutions.
Other labour colleges, under the control of local trade or indus-
trial unions or local federations of unions, are: The Workers' Insti-
tute, Chicago; The Workpeople's College, Duluth; The Workers'
University, Philadelphia; The People's Lyceum, Philadelphia;
Trade Union College, Washington, D.C.; The Women's Trade
Union College, Chicago; Hobo College, Chicago; Trade Union Col-
lege, Minneapolis; People's College, Fort Scott, Kan.; The People's
Institute, San Francisco; The Proletarian University, Detroit and
other cities; Workers' College, Seattle, Wash.; The Amalgamated
Textile Workers' School, Paterson, N.J. ; Labor College, Tacoma,
Wash. The Trade Union College of Pittsburgh has been organized.
The Clothing Workers of Rochester maintain an educational direc-
tor. The Labor Temple at Los Angeles is under the control of the
school-board, and the Community School, Baltimore, has a private
management.
All these colleges are financed by small tuition fees, by contribu-
tions and by guarantee funds. As a rule the teaching force is not
permanent, but the courses depend on volunteers from neighbour-
ing colleges or from the labour movement. Classes are usually in
the evening, one hour of lecture followed by one of discussion.
The subjects taught are various phases of economics: law, civics,
history, English, public speaking, psychology, sociology, biology,
hygiene, art, music. In connexion with the colleges plays and motion
pictures are shown. The Waistmakers' Union of New York City
8y8
UNITED STATES
has purchased a summer camp near the Delaware Water Gap
where members may spend their vacations. The Boston local has
built a vacation house on Cape Cod. Bryn Mawr College held
a two months' summer school for wage-earning women, which
opened in June 1921. Students are supported on scholarships
raised by trade unions and other groups of industrial women. _ It is
probable that the education of working men and women will be
carried on through cooperation with the extension work of the state
universities. Teachers are now sent out from the universities to
conduct classes where they have been organized in a community.
Correspondence courses offer advantages to isolated students.
There has been some public opposition to the labour colleges, where
these have been suspected of radical propaganda. In 1918 the
Department of Justice conducted raids on the Rand School and on
the Proletarian University of Detroit.
The reconstruction programme of the American Federation of
Labor included actual universal education, for all ages, in all com-
munities, for which public schools and universities were to be devel-
oped. The programme stated : " It is also important that the indus-
trial education which is being fostered and developed should have
for its purpose not so much training for efficiency in industry as
training for life in an industrial society."
The American Labour Press. The growth of the American labour
press has been rapid. Each international and national union has
its official organ, and the trade unions of most large cities publish
their local labour papers. Well known are the Cleveland Citizen,
the Denver Labor Bulletin and the Seattle Union Record. Some
state federations of labour publish bulletins. The monthly American
Federationist of the American Federation of _Labor had a circula-
tion (1920) of 100,000. Among the more important trade union
papers are: The Bricklayer, Mason and Plasterer; Carpenter; Cigar-
makers' Journal; Justice (Ladies' Garment Workers); Garment
Worker; Machinists' Journal; Miners' Magazine; International
Molders' Journal; Plumbers, Gas and Steam Fitters' Journal; Sea-
men's Journal; Shoe Workers' Journal; Textile Worker; Federal
Employee, and the periodicals of the railway brotherhoods. The
Chicago Federation of Labor publishes the New Majority (circula-
tion 15,000), as national official organ of the Farmer-Labor party.
Jewish workers have the Freie Arbeiter Stimme, New York, and
Vorwaerts, of New York, daily circulation about 158,000. The
Chicagoer Arbeiterzeitung is a German socialist paper._ Zukunft, a
Jewish socialist monthly paper, New York, has a circulation of
65,000. The Amalgamated Clothing Workers publish weekly
papers in six languages: English, Yiddish, Italian, Polish, Bohemian
and Lithuanian. The Industrial Workers of the World publish the
One Big Union Monthly, and New Solidarity (circulation 10,000),
both of Chicago. The Socialist Labor party publishes The Socialist
and the Weekly People, New York, and the Industrial Worker,
Seattle. The New York Call, a socialist daily, has a circulation of
21,800. Radical labour and socialist groups have published many
short-lived periodicals of small circulation. During the war the
Post Office Department revoked the second-class mail privileges of
25 papers, and held up one or more editions of a number of others.
REFERENCES. J. R. Commons, Trade Unionism and Labor
Problems (Second Series, 1921); S. Gompers, Labor in Europe and
America (1910); U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor
Review; American Labor Year Book (Rand School); Government
Reports, especially that of Industrial Relations Commission, 1914-6.
Q. R. Co.)
VII. MILITARY LAW
The U.S. army is subject to a system of military law which
had its origin in, and was at first the same as that of, Great
Britain. In the French and Indian Wars the colonists had fought
side by side with British regulars and under the same rules and
regulations. When they revolted they continued the system of
military law with which they were already familiar. So little
necessity for change existed that even the antiquated language
of the British Articles of War was retained and some of it is still
found in the American code. Passing over the earlier enactments
of separate American colonies for the government of their re-
spective contingents, such as those adopted in 1775 by the local
Legislative Assemblies of Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut,
Rhode Island and New Hampshire, we find that the Second
Continental Congress in 1775 adopted practically the whole
British Code of 1774 and furnished the foundation for the
Articles of War as they have been known since then in the United
States. Reenacted, with enlargements and modifications, in
1776 and amended in 1786, this code survived the adoption of
the Federal Constitution and was continued in force by successive
enactments until 1806.
In the United States, under the Constitution, the power of
establishing military law rests with Congress. It was not, how-
ever, until 1806 that Congress concerned itself much with the
military code, the Articles of War. In that year the Articles
were redrafted and reenacted though there were no material
changes from the Articles as they had existed during the Revolu-
tion. Nor did the next large redraft in 1874 include any great
changes. Occasionally an Act of Congress would make some
change, sometimes, but more frequently not, specifically amend-
ing an Article of War. If the effect was that of an amendment
the Article was considered as changed. Such Acts were those of
1890 and 1898 establishing the summary court and abolishing
the field-officers court; and finally the summary court supplanted
the two remaining inferior courts, the garrison court and the
regimental court.
In 1910 the Judge-Advocate-General undertook the systematic
and logical arrangement of the Articles of War. In 1916 he pre-
sented his project to Congress and it became a law. This draft
presented no fundamental changes; it was rather a compilation
made with the idea of bringing the code to date by incorporating
late statutes, by deleting obsolete material and dropping quaint
phraseology, and by systematizing the presentation. In short it
was a logical up-to-date statement of the greater part of the
military law of the nation, rendering it quickly accessible. Not
all the statutes, customs or regulations governing rights and
procedure were placed in the new code, but by it the President
was authorized to prescribe by regulations the procedure, in-
cluding modes of proof, in cases before military tribunals, so long
as such regulations were not inconsistent with the new Articles;
and all such prescribed regulations were required to be laid
annually before Congress. Under this authority a new manual
for courts martial was published by the authority of the President,
and in this was embodied so much of custom and regulation that j
it became a complete exposition of the military laws.
This was the code in effect when the United States entered |
the World War, and by it its armies were governed during that
conflict. Only one important addition was made before the
Armistice, and that was by an executive order establishing in
fuller detail the power of review of the records and proceedings \
of general courts martial. Shortly after the Armistice a bill was
introduced in the Senate (Sen. 64, 66th Congress, ist Sess.) which,
if enacted, would have made many and vital changes in the ad-
ministration of military law. Chief among the radical changes
proposed were those of making enlisted men members of general
courts martial; of establishing a civilian court of military appeals;
and of injecting into the principal courts martial a new functionary
with powers so extensive and of such a kind as to constitute him
the administrator of discipline. At the time the Senate was con-
sidering this bill a board of officers was convened by the War
Department to recommend any changes it believed to be neces-
sary in the Articles of War and in the methods of procedure which
then obtained in the administration of military justice. After
considering numerous recommendations from the army at large
the board submitted a detailed report accompanied by a redraft
of the Articles of War.
At the same time General Crowder, the Judge-Advocate-
General, redrafted the Articles of War upon lines that he thought
advisable in view of the experience gained during the war. The
draft prepared by him was accepted by Congress with little
change and became a law June 4 1920, though most of its pro-
visions did not go into effect until six months later. The radical
views as expressed in the Senate bill were rejected and the admin-
istration of military discipline was left to the military authorities.
This new code contains 122 Articles. In 85 Articles there are
no changes except the formal variations made necessary by the
creation of grades before unknown, such as warrant officers and
nurses, and other analogous alterations. This leaves 37 Articles,
a little more than one-fourth, in which there have been substantial
changes. Many of these, however, are only statutory enactments
of rules already established by administrative interpretation,
orders, or customs of the service. Only about 20 Articles contain
really new matter and of these it will be necessary to consider
here only the more important.
Probably the most important of the changes is that effected
by Article 50! which creates a Board of Review in the office of
UNITED STATES
879
the Judge-Advocate-General. Until Jan. 1918 the reviewing
authority acted upon a court-martial sentence and immediately
ordered it executed if he did not disapprove. By an order of Jan.
1918, it was directed that no sentence of death or of dismissal or
dishonourable discharge not suspended should be executed until
the record of proceedings of trial had been reviewed in the office
of the Judge-Advocate-General or branch thereof. The effect
of the new article was to establish by statute much the same
procedure. The Board of Review consists of three or more
officers in the office of the Judge-Advocate-General, and func-
tions in the following classes of cases:
(a) Where the. President is reviewing or confirming authority
or where he has ordered a rehearing.
(b) Where the sentence does not require approval or con-
firmation by the President, but involves death, dismissal or
dishonourable discharge not suspended or confinement in a
penitentiary, unless, in the two latter cases, the sentence is based
upon a plea of guilty.
All other general court-martial records are examined in the
office of the Judge-Advocate-General, but do not go to the Board
of Review unless found insufficient to sustain the findings and
sentence, in which case the record is submitted to the Board
of Review. When the Board of Review has acted, its action is
submitted to the Judge- Advocate-General. If there be an agree-
ment between the Board of Review and the Judge-Advocate-
General that the record is legally sufficient to sustain the finding
and sentence, the reviewing authority is notified and the sentence
is forthwith ordered executed. If the Board and Judge-Advocate-
General agree that the record is not sufficient to sustain the
findings and sentence, the findings and sentence are by virtue of
the statute vacated and the record is returned to the reviewing
authority for action. In case of disagreement between the Board
and the Judge- Advocate-General the record is transmitted to the
Secretary of War for the action of the President. Provision is
made for more than one Board of Review if business requires such
and for a branch of the Judge-Advocate-General's office like that
in France during the World War.
Another change is that in connexion with a rehearing of a case.
In civil cases the defendant asks for a new trial and by so doing
is held to waive the guarantee against repeated jeopardy. In the
military procedure, if on examining a record prejudicial error be
found, the accused receives the benefit of it without any affirma-
tive act on his part. In other words, the appellate review is
automatic. This requires some modification of the rules govern-
ing new trials before civil courts. It is accordingly provided that
no proceedings shall be deemed a trial until final action by the
reviewing authority. When a hearing is ordered it is to take place
before a different court and the accused cannot be tried for any
offence of which he was found not guilty by the first court nor can
a sentence be imposed more severe than that of the first court.
Still another change is that which forbids the reviewing
authority to return a record to the court for increase of sentence
or reconsideration of an acquittal. And the reviewing authority
is not permitted to act upon a record until he has referred it to
his staff judge-advocate, but this reference was always customary.
The prohibition against cruel and unusual punishments is
broadened but not more than the customs of the service have
already broadened it, and the President is authorized to set
limits of punishment in time of war as well as in time of peace.
Under the new code voting upon challenges and upon the findings
and sentence is by secret ballot, and the majority ballot has been
extended, so that a death sentence must be by unanimous vote,
sentence to imprisonment for life or over 10 years by three-
quarters vote and all other sentences by two-thirds vote.
The new Articles provide for the appointment on each general
court martial of a law member who rules upon all objections to
the admissibility of evidence and, subject to reversal by the court,
rules upon other interlocutory matters except challenges. The
investigation of charges before reference to trial has been extended
and possibly to an extent such that resulting delay prevents the
swift application of justice. But a large part of this procedure is
ruled by regulation and can be changed when found necessary.
Another innovation is that of peremptory challenges, each
side being allowed one, except that the law member can be
challenged only for cause; and the trial judge-advocate's right
to challenge is made statutory. The punishing power of summary
courts is reduced. The disciplinary powers of commanding
officers to handle offences without trial has been somewhat
extended, but yet not made so extensive as to lead to unreasonable
punishment; and this power extends to junior officers in time of
war, but no officer shall be subjected to a forfeiture of more than
one-half of one month's pay.
Under the new code there are three classes of courts the
summary, special and the general courts. The summary court
consists of one officer and the limits of punishment are one
month's confinement and forfeiture of two-thirds of one month's
pay. The limits of punishment of the special court are six months'
confinement and forfeiture of two-thirds pay per month for six
months. The limits of punishment of the general court are es-
tablished by the President under his statutory power to fix such
limits both in peace and war, except where a specific punish-
ment is made mandatory by the particular Article of War, as is
dismissal under the 95th Article.
In 1913 the Judge-Advocate-General succeeded in establishing
a method of restoration to the colours of men who had been
sentenced to severe punishment. This included the establish-
ment of detention barracks, called disciplinary barracks, and a
system of drills and vocational training, by means of which a
prisoner could earn honourable restoration to his position lost by
his offence and sentence therefor. This procedure received Con-
gressional sanction in 1915 and the process of reclaiming those
who have made mistakes is probably the most enlightened of all
systems of modern penology.
In addition to the foregoing there are many laws, statutory in
character as well as those of regulation and custom, that could be
properly classed as military laws. But as these are mostly ad-
ministrative in character they are not usually considered in a
brief account of military laws. Among these are the Acts of
Congress reorganizing the army, establishing the pay of grades,
and making appropriations for the expenses of the army. These
laws are administrative and only incidentally affect military
justice, but the organization of the army in 1921 was to a great
extent covered by the Act of June 4 1920, the Act which also
contains the Articles of War already described. (H. A. W.*)
VIII. HISTORY
Conditions in 1908. The year 1908 seemed one of the quietest
in recent American history. The seven previous years of Presi-
dent Roosevelt's administration had been marked by lively con-
tests between the executive and Congress, and also between the
Government as a whole and the railways and other strong finan-
cial and industrial organizations; but the President possessed the
fullest authority and influence. He had established a supremacy
in many legislative matters, had carried out a vigorous foreign
policy, and might have gone on to a third term had he wished.
Instead, he chose to put forward William H. Taft, Secretary of
War in his Cabinet, and previously head of the Government of
the Philippine Is., as his choice for the Republican candidate in
the impending presidential election. With that powerful backing
Taft was nominated, and in the election of Nov. 1908 easily
defeated William J. Bryan, for the third time the Democratic
candidate. The Republican party cast 7,700,000 votes against
the Democrats' 6,400,000 and secured 321 of the 483 electoral
votes. The Republicans also had a clear majority in both Houses
of Congress. The country was prosperous, contented, and
aroused by the positive and constructive policies of President
Roosevelt and of several state governors, who had furnished the
country an example of the possibility of personal leadership by
state and national executives, as against the leadership of self-
constituted groups which had been usual in both state and
national Legislatures.
The people of the United States were much more conscious of
themselves in 1908 than in recent periods, because they had come
to recognize the variety of their make-up. The total pop. in 1910
88-o
UNITED STATES
in the continental United States was 92,000,000. Of these, only
50,000,000 were native whites of native parentage; while 13,000,-
ooo were foreign-born and 19,000,000 others were of foreign-born
or mixed parentage. The negroes and Indians were 10,000,000.
This meant that out of the white pop., three-eighths were sub-
stantially foreign, and nearly one-half went back to a foreign
ancestor not more than two generations behind them. Nearly
one-half of this half came from S. or E. Europe. The urban pop.
(in places having more than 2,500 inhabitants) was 43,000,000,
or 46 % of the whole. Here were elements of greatness and also
of dissension and bitterness. Race riots, except where the negro
was concerned, were very infrequent, because the non-English-
speaking groups tended to establish " islands " of population in
the great cities and manufacturing towns and live by themselves.
Their children, however, went to public schools, learned English,
and began to consider themselves Americans.
Americans were of various kinds. Everybody in the United
States except the American Indian is an immigrant from some
other country or a descendant of an immigrant. The main race
groups were, first, the descendants of the colonists, who were
mainly Anglo-Saxons with some Germans and Scotch-Irish and
small elements of other races. The descendants of that ante-
Revolutionary population naturally thought of themselves as the
preeminently American-born Americans. Next in the account
were descendants of the foreigners who began to come over in
great numbers about 1820. Lastly came the large number of
recent immigrants and their children. In 1910 there were in the
United States, 2,266,535 unnaturalized aliens, many of whom
expected to return to their native country; or if they remained,
to cleave to their own kind, use their native language and keep
up their own schools, language press, and home connexions.
The country was not yet aroused to the dangers arising from
this mixture of unassimilated races. The theory was that in the
aoth century, as in the i8th and igih, all comers would find the
United States the great " melting pot." The process was one in
which the public schools were supposed to play, and did play, an
important part. Few voices were raised against admitting not
only western Europeans, whose languages and customs were
much like those of the United States, but men and women from
E. and S.E. Europe and from W. Asia Russians, Poles, Jews,
Bulgarians, Greeks, Turks, Serbians and many other races. The
only bar to^ immigration based on race in 1908 was the prohibi-
tion of Chinese immigration and the practical exclusion of Jap-
anese labourers by a " gentlemen's agreement " with the Japa-
nese Government (1907), which undertook to refuse passports to
Japanese labourers intending to come to the United States.
There was as yet no organization, public or private, to aid the
in-comer in acquiring the language and knowledge of the Gov-
ernment of his adopted country. There was no intelligence
qualification, no provision that a man who sought naturalization
should be able to read, write, or understand the language of the
nation he wished to join. Some of the states permitted an alien
to vote if he had filed a declaration of intention to become a
citizen, without even troubling themselves to see that he carried
out that intention. The undigested load was becoming heavy.
The immigrants were not the only burden on the State. Mil-
lions of American-born, many of them descended from the old
colonial stock, were poor and ignorant and criminal. The south-
ern mountaineers, the frontier farmers, the loggers and the
miners, included a host of men and families who lived a rough
life. Parts of the rich United States were infested by tramps and
vagabonds. In the wealthiest cities there was grinding poverty
and degradation in the slums. The situation was saved by gen-
eral prosperity and the American spirit of cheerfulness, and of con-
fident waiting for things to come right. Furthermore, out of the
most unpromising conditions arose some of the strongest figures
in American history. Presidents Jackson, Lincoln, Johnson and
Grant were all children of the rude frontier. Two other race
problems complicated the social and political life of the country.
The American Indians were a small group of only about 250,000,
most of them living in tribes on Government reservations. The
problem was to make them individuals; but in 1908 they were
still a race group. The negroes, about 10,000,000 in number,
were unorganized as a race, and were scattered over a large area,
mostly in the South. Descendants of forced immigrants, they had
no culture and no traditions but those of the United States. The
results of their former servitude still clung about them; they
were shut out from their constitutional suffrage in some of the
southern states. Legally equals of the whites, they were subject
to humiliating discriminations, and both in N. and S. were held
in an inferior social position from which there was no escape.
Defects in Government. The units of American society were
held together by a complicated, but strong, democratic Govern-
ment, well fitted to rule a diverse population. The political forms
were familiar to every schoolboy a group of (in 1908) 46 states, .
each with its own government, rigidly cast by the traditional
principle of " checks and balances " into three departments; i
legislative, executive, and judicial. A national Government, also !
balanced, had under the Federal Constitution large powers in
national affairs. A widely distributed franchise was almost
equivalent to universal suffrage for adult males. There was a
belief that the courts were the highest authority, not only as to
questions of personal rights and duties, but as to the validity of
the laws and acts of the other two departments. In addition a i
third type of government in the city, town and county, set up
by the states, was considered to be an essential part of the sys-
tem. This combination of governments governed reasonably !
well. It was expensive, it was not highly skilled, but it per-i
formed its tasks to the general satisfaction of most of the people.
It was supported by the conviction of a large part of the popula-
tion that it was the " best Government on earth."
The boast of the United States was its equal opportunity;
the pride of the United States was its popular government, in
which the will of the people was the only ultimate force. As a
nation, Americans believed that they had, more than any other
country in the world, the blessings of personal liberty, of free
public education, of sharing in their government, of impartial
judges. Everybody was supposed to have a fair chance in life.
Few Americans could bring themselves to realize that equal
opportunity was denied to those who chanced to be outside the
advantages of education and of contact with their fellows; that
the personal liberty of workers in mills, mines, or cotton-fields
was much restricted; that some 10,000,000 negroes were subject}
to legal and social discrimination; that the public schools failed;
to reach at least one-fourth of the children who needed enlight-
enment and instruction; that the actual government of thei
country was in many communities carried on by a self-selected 1
group of men who dictated nominations, controlled legislation
and decided policies; that in matters of property or even
personal rights, court proceedings were long, expensive and un-
certain.
In the organization and conditions of business could be traced
another startling contradiction between the word and the fact.
Nominally all kinds of business not prohibited by law were open to
all comers in free and honourable competition. In reality, by!
1908 a great number of both employers and employees were
engaged in a combat outside the laws, constant and conscience-
less. Although the country grew wealthy fast, and commercial
transactions increased, the small dealer or manufacturer or miner
found himself shut in by a thick growth of corporations which
had the great advantage of limited liability and the privilege of
operating through the country under the legal fiction that a cor-
poration was a " citizen " in the constitutional sense of the word.
It was hard for individuals and firms to compete with corpora-
tions, and hard for small corporations to compete with large
ones in the same line of business. For many years the steady
accumulation of capital tended to flow into these expanding
units, a process veikd by the use of parallel and " holding " cor-
porations. The railways were among the most conspicuous of the
large corporations, because everybody used them and because
they, too, tended to combine into larger and more powerful units.
The whole system was under suspicion, because railways and
some other large corporations made it their business to get con-
trol of majorities in city and state Legislatures, and of party
UNITED STATES
881
management. For example, the governors of California were in
effect designated by the heads of a railway company. The states
could not deal adequately with these powerful bodies because
most of the railways and many of the other corporations operated
from state to state, and could not be controlled at either end by
anything short of Federal power.
The appeal to Congress for action, first against railways and
then against other corporations, had led to the Interstate Com-
merce Act of 1887 and the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890. It
was a centralizing process; the more Congress did, the more
eager became the desire to push Congress to restrict, and then
to make restrictions still closer. The U.S. Supreme Court fell
in with this process more readily than could have been expected
of a body so conservative and so withdrawn from the arena of
dubious business methods. Yet, notwithstanding a few decisions
against railways and " trusts," the powerful corporations pros-
pered and increased. They were bound to live, because they were
economically effective; they found means of carrying on immense
lines of business in an orderly manner; they supplied the demand.
Their profits were large, but they gave employment to multi-
tudes of every degree of skill.
Political organizations were on nearly the same basis as busi-
ness companies they also grew bigger and more powerful and
gathered into fewer groups. Nominally, parties are simply asso-
ciations of voters for common ends. Actually, they are armies
acting under commanding leaders who in many cases hold no
offices. The evils of this " invisible government " were apparent.
Many states and cities were badly governed by unscrupulous men
who were tools of the leaders, or by too competent men who
plundered their fellow citizens. The average voter was honest,
but stood by his party. Committees of voters, non-partisan
leagues and citizens' parties tried to organize the voters for
reform, but no permanent improvement was made. The political
philosophy of the Americans was based on the belief that man-
kind was steadily growing better. Hence a tendency to look to
laws and political devices to correct the ills of popular govern-
ment. Millions of voters believed that if tfiey could only get laws
enough, they could break the power of the " bosses " and chain
the corporations. They overlooked the fact that the real evil
was the party managed by men who made politics a business,
who were responsible for " getting out the vote," and always got
out the votes of their friends, who knew from long experience
that the weary and listless voter at last would cease to protest.
On the other hand, the pressure of the trusts on small corpora-
tions and individuals was felt by masses of voters who protested
against the corporations that felt strong enough to break the law
and defy the voters. There was a glacier-like force of public
opinion that could break down all opposition. What was most
needed was the leadership of bold and far-seeing men. Roosevelt,
a man of the type needed, retired to private life when President
Taft was inaugurated, March 4 1909.
Political Reform. When Roosevelt left the presidency the
position of President was at the highest point of authority that it
had ever known. Most Presidents are obliged to strive with Con-
gress in behalf of their policies, inasmuch as their only means of
officially proposing legislation is through public messages, and
their heads of departments work directly only through Congres-
sional committee hearings; American tradition is against the
framing of bills by the executive, and the President's initiative is
limited. Most Presidents have found their principal legislative
influence in the veto, by which they have the weight of one-sixth
of both Houses. President Roosevelt followed the McKinley
method of emphasizing his wishes by personal discussion with
members of Congress. He did more; he revived the Jacksonian
method of announcing a legislative plan, and if Congressmen
hung back, of appealing over their heads to the country at large.
This policy was adopted by President Taft, who was not afraid
of a fight and who saw the advantage of assuming that the Presi-
dent was the natural party leader. William H. Taft had many of
the qualities of leadership. He was large, happy, genial, fond of
his many friends; a cheerful, balanced man. He was also experi-
enced in the public service. Born in 1857, he graduated at Yale,
and became a lawyer and a state judge in Ohio. In 1890 he was
made solicitor-general of the United States and thus introduced
into the Federal service. He was then selected as a Federal circuit
judge and his decisions were valued. In 1891 he was appointed
chairman of the Philippine Commission and was the first civil
governor of the Islands. From 1904 to 1909 he was Secretary of
War in Roosevelt's Cabinet, and proved himself an excellent
executive. He made few enemies and had a most powerful friend
in the President, who selected him as his successor. Throughout
his career, including the presidency, he was an easy and popular
speaker, a head of the Government who worked well with his
associates and subordinates. Nevertheless, from the beginning
of his term he found obstacles in his way. As an avowed succes-
sor to Roosevelt's policies he drew upon himself the opposition
of Roosevelt's enemies. At the same time it soon became appar-
ent that he was not relying on Roosevelt's friends.
President Taft's Cabinet was as follows: Secretary of State,
Philander C. Knox of Pennsylvania, a man by experience and
temperament, allied with the " stand pat " element of the Republi-
can party; Secretary of the Treasury, Franklin MacVeagh, of
Illinois, a business man of large experience; Secretary of War,
Jacob M. Dickinson of Tennessee, succeeded in 1911 by
Henry L. Stimson of New York; Attorney-General, George W.
Wickersham of New York; Postmaster-General, Frank H.
Hitchcock of Massachusetts; Secretary of the Navy, George
vonLengerke Meyer of Massachusetts; Secretary of the Inte-
rior, Richard A. Ballinger of the state of Washington; Secretary
of Agriculture, James Wilson of Iowa, remaining from the time
of McKinley; Secretary of Commerce and Labor, Charles Nagel
of Missouri. In the building of the Panama Canal Colonel
Goethals continued as chief engineer. Maj.-Gen. Leonard
Wood, as chief of the general staff, urged reform in the organ-
ization of the army, and the training of additional officers.
Ballinger very soon involved himself in a bitter controversy
with Pinchot, a warm personal friend of Roosevelt, over alleged ir-
regularities in the disposal of public lands in Alaska. Ballinger
was sustained by the President and a committee of Congress; but
public pressure was such that he was obliged to resign, March 6
1911, and was succeeded by Walter L. Fisher of Illinois.
Taft's appointments were in the main good, including the
elevation of Justice White to the chief justiceship of the Supreme
Court, and the appointment as a justice of Charles E. Hughes,
previously governor of New York. Nevertheless, a few months
after the President's inauguration, his influence on Congress
declined and he lost his hold on two powerful elements in his
own party. The important business men capitalists, bankers,
managers of corporations, commonly called the " interests "
thought him disposed to interfere with them; while he found him-
self out of accord with the rising spirit of reform which aimed to
give better expression to the will of the voters as a whole as
against party leaders and. political organizations.
Here was a critical point in popular government; for in prac-
tice it was almost impossible to elect a candidate unless he was
on some party ticket. A small group of men, politely called the
" organization," or more harshly the " bosses," in many states
and cities had control of the machinery of the nominating con-
ventions. Where they could not dictate a candidate, they could
usually defeat the selection of any man whom they disliked or
distrusted. Their power extended to national nominating con-
ventions, particularly in the Republican party, because the Re-
publican delegates from southern states, which almost always
voted Democratic, were elected to national conventions by a
handful of Federal office-holders and other professional politi-
cians. Complaints were abundant everywhere of " hand-picked
conventions," of delegates who sat silently in their seats until
informed by their " organization " for what men they must vote.
The solidifying principle was that the bosses' candidate could
usually count upon the steady, regular members of the party.
A method of selecting candidates long practised in some parts
of the country now spread rapidly through the Union; this was
the primary, under which candidates were selected for each party
by the ballots of the members of the party. The primary under-
882
UNITED STATES
mined the convention system, which in some states was even
prohibited. From nominations for local officers it spread by 1911
to state officers in two-thirds of the states; and after 1910 began
to be applied to the choice of delegates to the national conven-
tions. For a time the system seemed a great success; it opened
opportunities to enter public life, and killed off unpopular lead-
ers. An unforeseen effect was that the official ballots were made
upon the basis of party nominations, with an opportunity for
independent voting. The primary was therefore a public and
effective election, which practically brought the party system
into the domain of public law, as a part of the Government.
The distrust of conventions and controlled elections extended
to the numerous and powerful bosses in city and state Legisla-
tures. Three new devices were set at work to curb them and to
interest the electors in public measures. The first of these, the
referendum, was by 1909 spreading rapidly through the western
states. It was a means of checking legislative action contrary to
public sentiment. The system, both in local and state govern-
ment, can be traced from colonial times; and most igth century
state constitutions were submitted to a popular vote, and also
many statutes, if the Legislatures so directed. The referendum
system furnished a mechanism, usually imbedded in state con-
stitutions, by which a statute on the demand of a sufficient num-
ber of voters could be held back from effect until submitted to a
vote of the electors. The state of Oregon was one of the earliest
and most thorough-going in this reform.
What was to be done if the Legislature refused to enact a
statute demanded by the people? How could this negative force
be overcome? By the initiative, through which a designated
number of voters could unite on a measure, which must then
be submitted to the electors for their suffrages. Both the initia-
tive and referendum were attacked on the ground that they were
contrary to republican government, inasmuch as they substi-
tuted direct action for representation. The referendum had been
so long and widely used that it was hard to make out a case
against it. The initiative was based on the general principle that
the ultimate source of authority is not the Legislature or any
public officer, but the people at large. In a test case (Feb. 1912)
the Federal Supreme Court declined to rule that the initiative
and referendum were contrary to a " republican form of govern-
ment "; and no further attempts were made to upset them on
constitutional grounds.
A third branch of this system of appeal tothe people was the
recall, under which a public officer chosen by popular vote, and
in a few cases those who were appointed in some other way, could
be subjected to an election; and, if the majority decided against
them, they would be thereby removed from office. The system
began in the far western states and never spread so widely as the
other two methods mentioned. In 1911-2 the recall came before
Congress in connexion with the proposed constitution of the new
state of Arizona, which included a provision for the recall of
judges. President Taft vetoed the Act of admission because of
this provision. The state therefore withdrew the clause, was
duly admitted in 1912, and thereupon proceeded to reinsert the
recall. In practice, recalls proved to be few, and recalls of judges
very few. A still wider application of the principle of responsi-
bility of functionaries to the voters was the recall of judicial
decisions, which was advocated by Roosevelt in 1912 and was
applied in one state, Colorado.
Popular elections were applied to the choice of Federal sen-
ators, first by an indirect method of pledging members of the Leg-
islature, invented in the state of Oregon. The Senate contained
some members who could never have passed the ordeal of popu-
lar election, yet were frequently re-elected by the Legislature.
The result was the I7th Amendment, submitted by Congress
June 12 1912, and added to the Constitution May 31 1913, under
which all elections to the Senate from that time were to be made
by direct popular vote. Another evidence of a rising feeling of
responsibility in Congress was a statute (Aug. 7 1911) requiring
candidates for the House and Senate to submit statements of-the
money raised and expended in their behalf and limiting the
amount that they might themselves spend. One purpose of both
these measures was to make it difficult for men to purchase their
way into the Senate. On July 13 1912 Senator Lorimer of Illi-
nois was practically expelled from the U.S. Senate for buying
legislative votes.
Experience has shown that the load of responsibility placed
upon the voters by these new measures was sometimes more than
they were willing to bear. The scanty primary votes, and the
inattention to some of the referendum and initiative questions
put on the ballots, were seized upon as showing that the voter
was interested only in men. On the other hand, the ballots of
most cities, towns and states were loaded down with long lists
of officers to be chosen at each election, so that the " vote for
men " was in many cases a vote in the dark. The result was
an agitation for the reform commonly known as the " short
ballot," by reducing the number of elective officers and increas-
ing the officers to be appointed by the few elective officials.
Working difficulties were found in many of these reforms, and it
was hard to keep the public keyed up to the necessary pitch of
thought and attention at every election. It was evident, however,
that the American people intended to free themselves from the
shackles of what Elihu Root styled " invisible government."
Social Questions. The spirit of discontent extended to many
questions outside of politics. Throughout Taft's administration
there was an increasing pressure for " equal suffrage " that is,
woman suffrage which was introduced in the territory of Wyo-
ming in 1869, gradually spread among the far western states, and
then worked its way eastward. Inasmuch as the voters for the
more numerous branch of the state Legislature are also voters
for members of Congress and for presidential electors, women
began to take part in national affairs, and one of them was a
delegate in the Republican National Convention of 1908. As the
number of suffrage states increased, it was natural to look for-
ward to a constitutional amendment which would abolish sex
distinction for voting and indirectly for office-holding.
Both state and national Governments were compelled to deal
with the question of alcoholic beverages. From the earliest times
there had been some restriction on liquor selling and liquor sellers
as well as punishment for undue use of intoxicants. By 1909 in
almost all states there was some form of general legal restriction:
prohibition or local option or high licence or a state dispensary
system. These laws were enforced more or less strictly within
the state or communities to which they applied. The question
became national, however, because the liquor trade transported
its wares from one state to another; and that brought it within
the Interstate Commerce clause of the Constitution and the Inter-
state Commerce Act. There was a long, running fight between
the opponents of the liquor trade, Congress, the state Legisla-
tures, and the Federal courts, which finally passed upon the
validity of various Acts passed by the Federal Government
regulating transportation. Eventually Congress adopted the
policy, by the Original Package Act of 1890, of prohibiting ship-
ments of liquor into prohibition states; and this law sustained
the test of the U.S. Supreme Court. Pure food laws in force be-
fore 1909 were supplemented by the Drug Label Act (Aug.
23 1912), which greatly aided in preventing the adulteration
of drugs.
Many questions arose out of immigration. The laws forbade
the entry of labourers under a contract to work in the United
States, of convicts, insane persons, and (after 1907) diseased per-
sons; but the execution of such laws was slack. The first statute
looking toward decided control of immigration was that of Feb.
1907, which increased the grounds of exclusion, and at the same
time provided a plan to help the immigrants to find work. It
also created an Immigration Commission, which in 1910 made a
report in 41 volumes, strongly recommending the sifting of
immigrants by testing their ability to read and write some
language; but bills to that effect were twice vetoed by President
Taft. Meanwhile, the number of immigrants rose in the decade
1901-10 to an average of a million a year. New machinery for
registering departures brought out the fact that from 300,000
to 500,000 annually returned to their old homes, so that the rate
of increase of population by immigration was no larger than it
UNITED STATES
883
had been for 50 years. The alarming fact was that the immigra-
tion from W. Europe fell off, while great numbers of ignorant
and unskilled people crowded in from Russia, Austria-Hungary,
and other parts of E. Europe. Still, the newcomers found work
and their employers found a profit in employing them.
Finances and the Tariff, 1908-13. Every growing unit in the
country from a small school district to New York State was
harassed by questions of taxation and expenditure. The U.S.
Government also searched for new resources, and found them in
the income-tax, a method familiar in European countries and
open to the individual American states. An income-tax had been
levied by Congress during the Civil War, and again in 1884, when
it was set aside by the odd decision of the U.S. Supreme Court
that it was a direct tax which could be levied among the states
only in proportion to their representation in Congress. Success-
ful agitation brought about, July 13 1909, the submission of a
i6th Amendment, to remove the restriction, and it was declared
adopted by the necessary three-fourths majority of states, Feb.
25 !Qi3-
June 25 1910 a postal deposit Act was passed which created a
vast savings bank, of which many post-offices were the local
branches. The new form of savings attracted foreigners who
were accustomed to a similar system in their own countries; and
in 1920 the deposits had risen to $157,276,322. Another new
resource of the Federal Government was a tax upon corporations
levied on net income (Aug. 5 1909). The immediate proceeds
were small only about $30,000,000 a year; but corporations
were obliged to file accounts which showed their net income, and
thus to'give access to facts about their profits and methods. The
more important question of reorganizing the national banking
system so as to furnish a strong national institution was debated
from 1908 to 1912, and was the subjett of an elaborate report by
a National Monetary Commission; but no action was taken at
that time. The net Federal debt was $1,000,000,000, which was
only about $11 per head of the population.
A financial resource as to which Congress had sole authority
was the tariff. Under strong pressure from members of the party
to carry out the promises of the Republican Convention of 1908,
President Taft, a few days after his inauguration, summoned
Congress to meet in special session, for a " revision." As usual
there was a long controversy which resulted, Aug. 5 1909, in the
Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act. The administrative features were
good. The act created a permanent court of customs appeals,
with power to determine finally all questions as to the value of
imports; and also a Tariff Board, expected to make investigations
and recommend specific measures which Congress would adopt.
As to rates, the Act was not very different from its predecessor,
except for a decided increase of duties on cotton and silk manu-
factures. There was a loud outcry that the " revision " called
for by the party platform was plainly a revision downward and
not upward. President Taft argued against the textile schedules,
but signed the bill and in a speech at Winona, Minn., Sept. 17
1909, surprised the country by declaring that it was the " best
tariff bill that the Republican party has ever passed." When in
the next Congress the Democrats had a majority of the House,
they passed a series of bills, covering a farmers' free list, woollens
and cottons, which were carried also in the Senate by the aid of
low-tariff Republicans; all these were vetoed by President Taft.
In the campaign of 1912 the tariff played very little part. It was
accepted that a considerable revenue must be raised by import
duties; and the large import trade showed that the existing tariff
was not prohibitive.
Trusts and Transportation. During the 20 years ending with
1910 it had become clear that the most difficult question before
the U.S. Government was the regulation of the vast aggregates
of capital, commonly called trusts, which were combined into
corporations and aimed at the control of particular lines of busi-
ness, and also of the railways, which, as general transportation
agencies, were of great importance in connexion with every kind
of industry and trade. For many years Congress had been strug-
gling with this question, and the result was two lines of restrictive
statutes, headed by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 and
the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890. Upon these and the amend-
ments to the Interstate Commerce Act was built a structure of
decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court, sometimes annulling pro-
visions of the statutes, more often altering decisions by the Inter-
state Commerce Commission. Partly to carry out and partly to
avoid these decisions, the Mann-Elkins Act of June 18 1910
widely extended the Interstate Commerce Acts by including
telephones, telegraphs, express and sleeping-car companies, and
setting up a Commerce Court which was to hasten decisions on
transportation questions. Armed with these new powers the
Commission reduced some freight rates and raised others. De-
cember 2 1910, the Supreme Court dissolved the combination of
the Union Pacific and Southern Pacific railways as contrary to
the laws against mergers. The Commerce Court proved a failure;
its decisions were received by the public as an unreasonable
attempt to control the Commission; and in 1914 Congress refused
appropriations, and the President was obliged to abandon it.
Federal control of railways on the whole worked well. It
secured uniform appliances and a system of rates based on suc-
cessive decisions of the Interstate Commerce Commission. This
Commission was a striking example of disregard of the great
principle of separation of powers inasmuch as it was a rule-mak-
ing body, an executive body, and a court which interpreted its
own rules, subject as to some questions to appeal to the Federal
Courts. The great problem of the trusts was much farther from a
solution than that of the railways, because the large corporations
were linked together through the holding and manipulation of
stocks by capitalists and banks, and through the so-called " inter-
locking of interests." Furthermore, except for Treasury pro-
cesses for collecting taxes, there was no public agency other than
the Department of Justice to call into action the anti-trust laws
in specific cases and exact penalties for their violation.
The process of forming new and powerful corporations, fre-
quently by the union of previous companies or firms, grew more
active from year to year. Capital was abundant, vast riches lay
in the development of mines and oil-wells and in manufactures
and trade. The constant tendency was to combine and systema-
tize so that such large lines of business as the production and
manufacture of oil, the mining of iron ore and the manufacture
of steel, the weaving of cotton, woollen and other textiles, the
manufacture of tobacco, packing of meat, making of cordage,
were rolling up into larger and larger corporate units. Above all,
the railways which stretched throughout the country and were
indispensable to business of every kind had consolidated into
great systems which destroyed competition.
The only effective way of dealing with large corporations
whose activities extended from state to state was to bring suit
against them for monopolizing or conspiring to monopolize in
their lines of trade. These were difficult matters to prove against
corporations of great resources. Hence it was considered a tri-
umph when, May 9 1911, the U.S. Supreme Court rendered
decisions against two of the most powerful trusts, the Standard
Oil Co. and the American Tobacco Co., the latter on an issue
which had been pending since 1906. The minds of a majority of
the Court worked in a roundabout way. It held that the anti-
trust legislation must be interpreted by the " standard of reason "
namely, that a combination was not unlawful or against the
public interest unless it actually caused a restraint of trade and
commerce among the Federal states or with foreign nations.
Having thus set up a " rule of reason " which Congress had
refused to enact, and created an example of judicial legislation,
the Court proceeded in both the pending cases to hold that the
companies were guilty of attempts to monopolize their lines of
trade, and had tried to cloak their monopoly by setting up a
variety of intertwined companies, thus concealing their transac-
tions. The Court, therefore, upheld the justice and constitution-
ality of the Sherman Act, but as to penalties, the Court contented
itself with ordering the offenders to disintegrate. The companies
reluctantly and slowly went through the process of reorganiza-
tion, but their stocks immediately rose on the market a suffi-
cient proof that the court decisions were more favourable than
had been expected. Thenceforth the " rule of reason " required
884
UNITED STATES
that positive proof must be adduced that a great combination
was doing harm before it could be touched; the general danger
of vast aggregations of capital was left out of account.
Another form of unlawful behaviour by trusts was their misuse
of the patent laws. The question arose whether the maker of a
patented device could insist that the purchaser must use also the
seller's unpatented appliances in connexion with the materials
employed. On this point the Supreme Court went through vari-
ous stages of opinion. In the Dick case (March 1912) it held that
such restrictions on the purchaser were legal. About two months
later it held, in the " Bathtub Trust " case, that there could not
be a monopoly of the product of patented machinery.
Labour Questions. A long time was needed to make the discov-
ery that closely connected with the railway question and the
trust question was the legal and economic status of those who
labour. Beginning in the i8th century with the English legal
principle that a combination of labourers to raise their wages
was unlawful, the United States changed its position and early
accepted and for many years acted on the counter principle that
strikes were lawful. No legal obstacle was put in the way of the
organization, first, of local trade unions, then of nation-wide
unions for single trades, and finally of national unions combining
many trades. To this was slowly added by the unions the prin-
ciple of the " right to labour," which means both that it is the
duty of the community to see that the worker has a job, and also
that at least the skilled workers have a kind of title in their em-
ployment, so that it is contrary to good morals for a " scab " to
take the place of a striker. When the railways came under
Federal supervision and control, the railway employees, espe-
cially the skilled workers, began to feel that they, as well as the
shipping and travelling public, were entitled to protection by
the Government. When, during Roosevelt's administration, the
President designated an informal commission to negotiate a
settlement of a wage dispute in the anthracite coal-mines in
Pennsylvania, he made almost the first acknowledgment that
such industries as fuel production and steel-making were national
in their character and required national regulation.
The legal position of labour unions in these controversies was
brought to a head by suits of national importance against unions.
The first test case was that of the Buck Stove and Range Co.
against the American Federation of Labor, which was really a suit
between a national labour union and a national organization of
manufacturers. The charge was that the Federation, by posting
the Company in its publications as " unfair " to labour, was
boycotting and thus infringing legal rights. In its evolution the
case turned into long-drawn-out proceedings against Samuel
Gompers, president of the Federation, for contempt of court, on
the ground that he had refused to obey a court order to abandon
the boycott. After seven years of shifting of the case from one
court to another, Gompers escaped the 1 2 months' imprisonment
to which he had been sentenced. In 1910 a suit was decided
against a union of the Danbury (Conn.) hatters, who had at-
tempted to boycott the products of a local hat manufacturer. The
jury found a verdict of $74,000 damages, part of which was
eventually collected from members of the local union who had
property, and refunded by the general trades union.
These court trials accented the labour controversy and led to
violent strikes. In the midst of them sprang up a new labour
organization, the Industrial Workers of the World (I.W.W.),
which was an attempt on a large scale to organize the unskilled
labourers, and also to reach the goal of one big union for all
trades. The movement was unwelcome to the unions of skilled
labour, because the unskilled were so much more numerous that
they could always outvote the skilled, and were sure to insist on
an equalization of wages, which would reduce the rates of the
highly paid. For several years, strikes were frequent and often
-accompanied by acts of violence. In several instances labour
unions supported their leaders in arson and murder. One such
case was the blowing up of the Los Angeles Times building in
Oct. 1910, for which two brothers named McNamara, one of them
secretary of the International Association of Bridge and Con-
structional Iron Workers, were convicted and sentenced.
Another phase of the labour situation was the spread of
employers' liability laws through various states, and an Act of
Congress of April 22 1908 for the protection of employees of
interstate railways. Minimum Wage Acts also were passed in a
few states with the purpose of protecting the employees in indus-
tries that required chiefly unskilled or slightly skilled women. In
June 1912 Congress added to its previous enactment of an eight-
hour maximum regular day for public employees, by providing
that all contract work for the Federal Government must also be
on the eight-hour basis. The effect of these movements was that
labour came to be recognized as one of the elements of production
that must be considered; as most of the labourers were voters
they brought to bear powerful influences on state Legislatures
and Congress in favour of labour. On the other hand, the courts,
particularly those of the states, were slow to recognize the changes i
in industrial conditions which made protection of wage earners
necessary, and many statutes intended for the betterment of
labour conditions were held invalid.
In addition, the courts began to use a system of labour injunc-
tions; workmen, labour unions and members were forbidden to
perform acts, which if performed would presumably be a viola-
tion of a statute and would therefore lead to prosecution, in
which the question of guilt or innocence would be settled by a
jury. If the offense were transformed by the injunction into a
defiance of the Court, then the Court itself would decide on the
responsibility and affix a penalty not specifically laid down in any
statute. Labour was opposed to unlimited immigration, and :
nearly all the measures for restricting immigration were origin- '
ally proposed by labour unions, particularly the convict and con- }
tract labour Acts. For many years there was a Labor or Socialist i
Labor national party, which regularly nominated a candidate for I
the presidency and cast a small popular vote. It did not succeed |
because there was a standing Socialist party which cast from half
a million to a million votes and absorbed the Socialist vote; while
the labour leaders saw that if they withdrew from the main
political parties they would set the farmers and traders and pro-
fessional men against them. Hence, in all the shifts of politics
very few avowed Labour candidates were elected to the state
Legislatures or Congress. Labour agents and agitators failed!
therefore, to influence the public at large their speeches and
literature were little regarded outside their own constituencies.
Furthermore, the members of the labour unions, about 5,000,000
all told, were not more than one-eighth of those men and women !
in the United States who worked with their hands.
Foreign Relations, 1907-13. In the pressure for action on
social and political matters, foreign affairs received even less than
the usual meagre attention given them by the American people.
The tradition of isolation was a strong force in the public mind,
notwithstanding the rapidly growing foreign trade and the influ-
ence of the great number of immigrants. The thing that brought
the United States closest to European complications was the
possession of the Philippine Is., which made the United States
an Asiatic power, and compelled it to be interested in the fiscal
and territorial conditions of China on the basis of the " open
door " system proposed by Secretary Hay in 1901. In the west-
ern hemisphere the Americans upheld the Monroe Doctrine as
applied by Roosevelt to prevent the use of force by European
countries to collect debts and claims from delinquent American \
powers. Three steps had already been taken in pursuit of the j
Caribbean policy: the protectorate of Cuba, the Panama Canal :
undertaking, and the lodgment in San Domingo. j
In the Hague conference of 1907 the U.S. delegates urged arbk
tration; and in accordance with the general principles put forth
at that conference, Secretary Root in 1908 secured 25 arbitra-
tion treaties with as many countries. The United States and
Great Britain arranged (Jan. 27 1909) to refer to the Hague
tribunal their long-standing dispute on the Newfoundland fish-
eries, the first really important case brought before the tribunal.
The result was a decision (Sept. 7 1910), which brought to a
satisfactory termination the difficulty. President Taft, through
Secretary Knox, secured in 1911 arbitration treaties with Great
Britain and France. The Senate insisted on inserting in these
UNITED STATES
885
documents a reservation of all questions involving what Roose-
velt called the " vital interest, the independence or honour of the
nation," and in 1912 it refused to approve them. A long-standing
difficulty with Russia caused by the refusal of the Russian Gov-
ernment to recognize passports issued to Jews and some other
people, was suddenly accentuated when, on Dec. 18 1911, the
commercial treaty with Russia was abrogated. Trade relations
went on for the time, however, without a treaty.
In 1911 the Republican majority under President Taft's lead-
ership proceeded to a policy of commercial reciprocity with Can-
ada, thus reviving the principle of the treaty of 1854 which went
out of effect in 1865. An agreement was made with the Canadian
Government by which each side should reduce or abolish duties
on certain raw products and manufactures. For the first time in
American history such an international arrangement was to be
brought about by legislation on both sides, instead of by a formal
treaty. With great difficulty the necessary bill was pushed
through Congress (July 1911); but two months later the Cana-
dian electors refused to support the Liberal Government which
had negotiated the reciprocity agreement, and the plan broke
down with the refusal of Canada.
Conditions in the Latin-American states did not remain har-
monious. The United States ever since the Spanish war had been
gaining territory and power to the southward. The arrangements
of 1902 made Cuba practically a dependency; and from 1906 to
1909 it was found necessary to resort to those treaty rights and
set up a provisional Government, supported by American troops.
The Panama Canal was now approaching completion and the
little republic of Panama, which it bisected, nominally an inde-
pendent state, was in fact under complete American control.
President Taft continued the occupation of San Domingo, the
consent of the Senate to a treaty to that effect having been
obtained in 1907. In 1911 he secured a convention by which
Nicaragua ceded certain small islands on its Atlantic and Pacific
coasts and gave exclusive canal privileges to the United States.
Although the Senate did not ratify the treaty, President Taft
practically took possession of Nicaragua and this occupation con-
tinued throughout his term. Another foreign question arose out
of the possession of the Panama Canal. As the Canal approached
completion, an Act of Congress was passed Aug. 27 1912 for lay-
ing tolls on shipping, from which American ships engaged in
coastwise trade were to be relieved. The British Government
lodged a protest (Dec. 9) on the ground that by its treaty with
the United States the Canal was to be opened on equal terms to
the ships of "all nations"; President Taft, however, stood by
the Act, and the question was passed on to the next Adminis-
tration (see PANAMA CANAL).
Still more serious were the relations with Mexico, where, in
1910, a revolution headed by Madero, assailed the presumedly
solid Government of Dictator Diaz and drove the latter after a
few months out of the country. Mexico was thrown into confu-
sion, and President Taft found it necessary to place troops on the
border; in 1912 he proclaimed an embargo on the export of arms
or military supplies to Mexico. Meanwhile the concessions and
property of Americans in Mexico were threatened or destroyed,
and there were many cases of robbery, forced loans and murder.
The Americans who had interests in Mexico began a steady pres-
sure for intervention by the United States. The nationals of
other countries were suffering from the same disorder and vio-
lence; but the temper of the United States was strongly against
any show of force by other Governments, because it might be a
direct or indirect violation of the Monroe Doctrine.
Across the Pacific, clouds rose on the diplomatic horizon.
Chinese immigration had long been prohibited, but the commer-
cial treaties with Japan allowed a reciprocal freedom of residence
and trade to the nationals of the two countries. The immigration
of Japanese was very distasteful to the people of California, who
undertook to restrict Japanese children to separate schools.
Behind this difficulty was the rising power of the Japanese and
their national spirit, greatly enhanced by their victory over the
Russians in 1905. In 1908 Roosevelt sent around the world a
powerful naval fleet which visited Japan and was received with
elaborate courtesy by a welcoming Japanese squadron exactly
equal in number, ship for ship. In the Root-Takahira reciprocal
note of Dec. i 1908 (which was never submitted to the Senate),
the United States practically admitted Japan's special interest
in Asiatic affairs. In Dec. 1909, Secretary Knox suggested the
nationalization of the Manchurian railways by China, which
proved to be unacceptable both to Japan and Russia. The
Japanese were evidently acquiring a sense of their special and
almost exclusive rights to influence on the Asiatic mainland. The
question of immigration was settled for the time being by renewal
of the commercial treaty, July 24 1911; the previous " gentle-
men's agreement " was continued, according to which, while not
yielding its claim to a right of immigration into the United
States, the Japanese Government pledged itself not to issue
passports to labourers. There still seemed to be a feeling in the
United States that the Japanese had in mind an imperial policy,
and when in 1912 it was rumoured that they were trying to get
possession of Magdalena Bay in Mexico, the Senate adopted the
Lodge resolution against foreign occupation of territory near
by which might be a point of vantage against the United States.
Politics, ipop-12. In the action of Congress on many impor-
tant issues as above described no party lines were drawn; though
such measures as the tariff and the new taxes were distinctly
Republican. As often happens when a party is firmly seated in
power, the Republicans began to divide. On the tariff, some
members from middle western states, particularly Minnesota,
voted against the Payne-Aldrich measure because their constit-
uents could see in it no advantage to themselves. Another
influence which tended to divide the Republican party was
resentment against the Speaker of the House, Cannon of Illinois,
who exercised the powers that had been accumulating in the
hands of Speakers for a hundred years. By his control of the
proceedings of the House, by his appointments of committees,
and by his power to refuse recognition of members who desired
to take part in debate or submit proposals, he was practically
the legislative premier. Through the combining of these powers
the Speaker virtually had a veto on any measure or proceeding
which he did not like. This concentration of authority in the
Speaker, and a few chairmen of committees whom he designated,
in many ways tended to unity and responsibility in legislation;
but Cannon kept too tight a hand; hence, March 19 1910, a
group of Republican " insurgents " joined hands with the Demo-
crats of the House to reduce his power. By these and later
changes in the rules, the power to appoint committees and to
direct legislation was taken from the Speaker and never restored.
The Speaker became simply a partisan moderator.
A new issue upon which both parties were divided was covered
by the general term " conservation." The United States, though
most of the arable land had passed out of its possession, was still,
as owner of a vast area of public lands, the possessor of great
tracts of forest, of mineral lands, and of water power. President
Roosevelt became interested in stopping the waste of timber and
minerals, in preserving part of the gifts of nature for future
generations, and in retaining public ownership of the utilities of
the country, particularly the forests and streams. The policy of
conservation had hardly gone further than the reservation of
large areas of forest land until 1910, when statutes provided for a
new classification of land and for the reservation of coal by the
Government. Congress in 1902 had provided for a system of
irrigation, the cost to be advanced by the Government and
repaid in instalments by the users of the water. This statute
underwent various amendments so as to give greater encourage-
ment to settlers. In 1910 large areas, previously held as forest
lands, were thrown open to settlement. Under a statute of March
1911, considerable areas of mountain land were purchased in the
Appalachians on the theory that their control would protect the
watersheds of navigable rivers. Congress also reserved forever
several scenic areas, particularly Rocky Mountain National
Park in Colorado, Glacier Park in Montana, and later the Grand
Canyon of the Colorado.
The Progressive Movement. In the confusion of statutes, exec-
utive orders, proceedings of the Interstate Commerce Commis-
886
UNITED STATES
sion and Supreme Court decisions, it was difficult to see how far
the country was really advancing in its attempt to control capital
and satisfy labour. The only clear result was that the Republican
party was weakening, and that President Taft's popularity and
influence were lessening. The diminution of power vested in the
Speaker was an evidence both of discontent and of willingness to
disregard party lines; and the State and Congressional elections
of 1910 were unfavourable to the Republicans. The insurgents,
who soon came to be called Progressives, gained most of the
Republican districts in the west; and the Democrats gained about
50 seats in Congress, which transferred to them the control of the
House; while in the Senate they had 41 of the 92 members.
The dissatisfied Republicans began to look forward to the
presidential election of 1912, and a group of them gathered about
Senator La Follette of Wisconsin as a leader and presumptive
candidate. Meanwhile the state Legislatures were passing pri-
mary laws some of which included the choice of delegates to na-
tional nominating conventions. La Follette had broken into the
Republican party organization in his own state, secured the
governorship, and entered the U.S. Senate, where he violated the
traditions of that conservative body by making speeches without
waiting the usual length of time. Taft's friends and supporters
naturally expected that the President would be renominated.
All these calculations were upset by the greatest personality
in the country, Theodore Roosevelt. A few weeks after leaving
the White House (1909) he undertook an expedition to Central
Africa, and before returning made a series of visits to the coun-
tries of W. Europe. He was received as the ex- President of the
most important of republics and as a commanding personage;
immense crowds greeted him as a world celebrity. He returned
to the United States June 18 1910 to find political conditions
little to his liking. Most of his friends had disappeared from the
Administration; his policies, particularly as to conservation and
the more rigorous control of the trusts, seemed to him to have
been slighted. Without any open breach of personal friendship
Taft did not satisfy the ex-President, and the two drifted apart.
On the other hand, the insurgent Republicans included some of
Roosevelt's warm friends. It was impossible for him to remain
silent, for he was called upon to speak in all parts of the country.
Aug. 31 1910 at Osawatomie, Kan., he set forth a programme
which he called " the new Nationalism," favouring publicity of
the accounts and proceedings of trusts, a tariff commission, a
graduated income-tax, a proper army and navy, conservation,
protection of labour, and the direct primary with the recall of
elective officers. This was a programme which could not be
accepted by the conservative or " stand-pat " Republicans, with
whom, by this time, President Taft, was included.
Nevertheless, throughout 1911 Roosevelt made no direct
movement towards standing for the presidency. He publicly
attacked Taft's position on the trusts in the columns of The Out-
look of which he had become an editor, and openly classed himself
as a Progressive. Meanwhile several of the western states, par-
ticularly California under the guidance of Gov. Hiram Johnson,
had accepted a radical programme of political and social reform.
A formal breach with Taft and the open candidacy of Roosevelt
seemed inevitable. The crisis came when, Feb. 2 191 2, La Fol-
lette suffered a physical and mental collapse which put him out
of consideration; and on Feb. 12 President Taft in a speech
alluded to the Progressives (evidently having Roosevelt in mind)
as " Extremists not Progressives; they are political emotion-
aries, or neurotics." This was taken as a challenge and a few days
later Roosevelt openly declared himself a candidate, adding, " My
hat is in the ring." Primaries or conventions had already been
held in several states which would have instructed their delega-
tions to support Roosevelt if they had known his purposes; in
another large group of states, and those for the most part states
that formed the backbone of the party, there was still time to
organize and select delegates favouring Roosevelt.
Election of 1912. As the convention held at Chicago ap-
proached, the lines of battle were developed. Behind Taft were
Barnes of New York, Penrose of Pennsylvania, Crane of Massa-
chusetts, and other " stand-pat " leaders. Among those in fa-
vour of Roosevelt were Garfield of Ohio, Pinchot of Pennsylvania
and a strong body of Republican governors. Roosevelt himself
had come to Chicago, established headquarters there, and thrown
his immense energy and enthusiasm into the campaign. The
convention was a scene of unusual excitement. Out of the 1,076
delegates something near 400 were pledged to Roosevelt, and
there seemed a good chance of gaining for him some of the south-
ern delegates, of whom a large number were negroes who recog-
nized Roosevelt as favourable to their race. The decision was
not made in open convention, but in the preliminary meetings of ,
the national committee (chosen in 1908), which was strongly
"stand-pat"; for that committee had to decide upon the right
of claimants to be inscribed in the preliminary roll of delegates.
The Roosevelt managers entered contests for many seats and
had an especially strong case as to Missouri, Washington and ,
two seats for California. In the end, every contest except that of
Missouri was settled in favour of the Taft claimants. Even then
the combination was almost broken. Notwithstanding the fact |
that the temporary organization was in the hands of Roosevelt's j
enemies, among them Elihu Root, his former Secretary of State,
a test vote for temporary chairman showed 558 votes for Root
against 502 for the anti-Taft forces. The shifting of 30 delegates
from one side to the other in all probability would have brought
about a " stampede " to Roosevelt; and those delegates Roose- ;
velt would have had if he had thrown his " hat into the ring "
two months earlier.
The conservative Republicans being thus in control, there was
nothing for the Roosevelt men to do but to protest to the last.
Roosevelt advised his delegates to take no further part in the
proceedings. At the final roll-call, June 22, there were 561 votes
for Taft, 58 scattering, and 107 for Roosevelt, besides 344 Roose-
velt men not voting. In the last issue, therefore, Taft had a
majority of 50 votes out of 1,070. Fairbanks of Indiana was
nominated for Vice-President. In the minds of the conservative
Republicans Roosevelt was extinct. He had entered the con-
vention, been defeated, and he must bow to the will of the
majority. In the minds of Roosevelt and most of his followers
the nomination was a violation of the principles of popular gov-
ernment. At a great meeting held the same night Roosevelt
openly advised a bolt. This was duly accomplished by a formal
Progressive Convention which met in Chicago in Aug. and nom-
inated Roosevelt for president and Hiram Johnson, of California,
for vice-president.
Meanwhile the Democratic Convention at Baltimore met
under the guidance of William J. Bryan, who had no hope of
being the candidate himself but proved to be in a position to dic-
tate the choice. He declared open war upon the capitalistic
delegates, one of whom was sitting on the platform. The appar-
ently sure candidate was Speaker Champ Clark of Missouri, who
received a majority of the votes, but under the rules of the Dem-
ocratic Convention requiring a two-thirds majority, he was
finally defeated by Woodrow Wilson, governor of New Jersey,
owing to the vigorous support of Bryan. Gov. Marshall of
Indiana was nominated for vice-president. The platforms of the
two old parties were of an usual type. The Republicans as
usual declared for protective duties. The Democrats stood by
their platform of a tariff for revenue only, additional regulation
of the railways and presidential preference primaries. The Pro-
gressive platform was a general programme of political reform
and " an enlarged measure of social and industrial justice."
It was not the platform, however, but men that appealed to
the voters. The issue was really Roosevelt, Taft, or Wilson.
Not for 50 years had there been so stirring a campaign. All
three candidates took the field; and for the first time in presiden-
tial campaigns " soap-box " speakers appeared in large numbers
on the streets of the cities. From the first it was clear that the
real fight was between Roosevelt and Wilson, since Taft had to
bear the unpopularity of the Republican party and also the
Progressive charge that the Chicago Convention had given him a
stolen nomination. The Progressives were well organized and
their convention and campaign included many women. The
final question was whether Roosevelt could draw to himself a
UNITED STATES
887
sufficient number of Democrats to reduce the Democratic vote
below the winning point. He was hopeful as to some of the south-
ern states in which he had many warm friends and supporters.
The result in Nov. showed that the voters in the main stood
by their regular candidates. The total popular Democratic vote,
more than six and a quarter million, was only about 1 20,000 less
than in 1908. The total Taft and Roosevelt vote combined was
almost exactly the same as that of the Republicans in 1900.
Roosevelt polled about four million popular votes to two and one
half millions for Taft; but he carried only six states with 88 elect-
oral votes against 40 states and 435 votes for Wilson. The only
Taft states were Utah and Vermont with a total of eight electoral
votes. Notwithstanding the ignominious defeat of their candi-
date, the Republican party was still intact with its " stand-pat "
leaders, its " organization," and its control of state and local
politics. On the other hand, Roosevelt had built up what seemed
to be a new national party controlling four million votes, and he
hoped for a continuation of that party as a power in the individ-
ual states and in national politics.
Woodrow Wilson. The centre and soul of the Progressive
movement was Theodore Roosevelt because of his ardent habit
of mind; he felt intensely; he spoke with tremendous energy and
deep conviction; he was accused by his critics of " inventing the
Ten Commandments " ; he was not only the head of a party, he
was the head of a political cult (see ROOSEVELT, THEODORE). In
that respect he was closely paralleled by Woodrow Wilson, who,
on March 4 1913, was inaugurated as President. Wilson's life
had been much less adventurous and varied than that of Roose-
velt. Born in Staunton, Va., in 1856, of Scotch Presbyterian
ancestry, son of a minister, he graduated from Princeton in 1879,
essayed the practice of law in which he made no success, then
studied political science and was a professor in several colleges,
finally returning to Princeton. From 1902 to 1910, he was presi-
dent of that university. In 1885 he published his first and most
remarkable book, Congressional Government, which was a search-
ing criticism of the weaknesses of the American legislative com-
mittee system and the separation of executive officials from legis-
lation. He was an easy and attractive speaker, and had a remark-
able literary style shown in several books on government and in
an elaborate history of the United States. He moved much about
the world, and mixed freely with people in and out of his pro-
fession, in which he was a leading figure. As administrator of a
great university he chafed against the conservatism of his col-
leagues, and found he could not bring himself to share the
responsibilities of direction with others (see WILSON, WOODROW).
In 1910, a favourable year for the Democratic party, of which he
had always been a member, he was put forward for the governor-
ship of New Jersey by friends who looked farther than that
office, particularly the journalist, George Harvey. New Jersey
went Democratic, and during 1911 and 1912 Gov. Wilson had
opportunity to show his skill as a party leader and his interest in
reform. He made himself responsible for the " seven sisters," a
group of measures dealing with direct primaries, corrupt prac-
tices, workmen's protection and control of trusts, and especially
public service corporations, somewhat on the plan of the Federal
Interstate Commerce Commission.
In 1912 when the Democratic party was looking for a candidate,
Woodrow Wilson was put forward against Champ Clark, the
experienced political chieftain. He was taken up by Bryan who
saw in him first of all, an exponent of the political principles for
which Bryan had stood for many years. He was wise enough to
see that the party needed a leader and a President who could
meet the Progressives on their own ground. He persuaded the
Democratic Convention to nominate Wilson, who had a special
advantage in his southern birth but was little known among the
ranks of the party. Bryan also aided him by drafting a platform
hardly less progressive than that of the Progressive party. The
split in the Republican party rendered Wilson's election inevitable.
On the eve of his inauguration he published a collection of his
speeches, chiefly delivered in the preceding campaign, under the
title of The New Freedom. It was in effect a confession of politi-
cal faith, a forecast of what the President intended, a summing
up of the fundamentals of American government. He protests
against the political conditions and methods of the time, finds
economic conditions even worse, and points out the baleful influ-
ence of corporations and trusts on parties and Governments.
The book advocates publicity and action by popular vote as the
remedy for the ills which the writer so clearly sees.
On entering office the first duty of the President was to select
his Cabinet. It was only reasonable that Bryan, the most prom-
inent man in the party, who had been three times its candidate
for presidency, should enter it; but not that he should be made
Secretary of State, an office for which he had little training and
as little adaptation. A new Cabinet office had just been created
by Congress, the secretaryship of the Department of Labor, to
which was appointed W.B. Wilson, a former member of Congress
and a strict labour organization man. Lindley M. Garrison,
Secretary of War, and Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of the Inte-
rior, were strong men. Albert S. Burleson, Postmaster-General,
and Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy, had no adequate
training for their duties. David F. Houston of Missouri was
made Secretary of Agriculture, William G. McAdoo, Secretary
of the Treasury, and James C. McReynolds, Attorney-General.
Most of the members of the Cabinet were men who could be
trusted to follow the President's lead. One remarkable figure,
not included in this list, was Col. E. M. House of Texas, who for
six years was the President's most trusted counsellor and political
friend without holding any political office. The President's
judicial appointments were good, including one man, Louis D.
Brandeis, as justice of the Supreme Court, against whom a prop-
aganda was raised because he was supposed to be unduly radical
and favourable to labour. In the minor civil service Wilson
carried out his principles by enlarging the classified list of posts
which could be entered only by competitive examinations.
Although a genial man, who could be a delightful companion,
full of experience and of Scotch Presbyterian humour, President
Wilson from his first day in the White House cut himself off from
most of his countrymen. There were none of those receptions
open to all, which had .delighted President Roosevelt; none of
those sessions with newspaper correspondents that Taft had
thought not beneath his dignity. The President's theory was
that he must husband his time so as to consider his views upon
public questions; nor did he expect the members of his Cabinet
to act as antennae for him, to test the currents of public senti-
ment. He gauged the public mind for himself. He had a power-
ful mind, an amazing skill of expression, and an intense belief in
the power of ideals to arouse and inspire a people. Furthermore,
he stood by the political programme indicated in his book The
New Freedom. He thought he had no need of conferences, of feel-
ing the public pulse, of mixing with members of Congress and
party leaders, of personally greeting the average voter who so
much appreciates a word from the President.
Finance and Tariff. The election of 1912 carried with it a safe
Democratic majority in the Senate and a two-to-one majority in
the House, so that the responsibility for legislation was clear.
Champ Clark again had the empty honour of the Speakership.
April 8 1913, the President created a surprise by appearing in
person to address the two Houses of Congress jointly at the open-
ing of a special session, instead of sending the written message
which had been invariable since 1800. This practice he followed
throughout his administration, with great effect. It was part of
his conception of the presidency. He was not only chief magis-
trate of the nation, but head of the Democratic party, and prac-
tically the premier of the Government from whom ought to pro-
ceed plans for important legislation. May 26 1913 he publicly
denounced the lobbyists in Congress who he declared, were
endeavouring to control tariff legislation; and Congress accepted
the rebuke. He disdained the arts of Jefferson or McKinley in
soothing individual congressmen; he revived and enlarged Roose-
velt's practice of telling the country what Congress ought to do.
Furthermore, he had in his mind a sheaf of statutes which he
believed the country needed.
The special session was called particularly to frame a tariff Act,
the outline of which was contained in his first address. Repre-
888
UNITED STATES
sentative Underwood, chairman of the Committee of Ways and
Means, gave to the new measure his name and large experience.
The purpose of the statute was to enlarge the free list of raw
materials, foodstuffs, and some manufactures, to make a moder-
ate reduction of the protective duties, and to correct some of the
things which made the Payne-Aldrich Act unpopular. It was
with but one exception the first measure for tariff reduction
enacted since the Civil War. Included in the statute was an
income-tax, at last made possible by the adoption of the i6th
Amendment (Feb. 25 1913), which was expected to supply any
revenue which might be lost by the reduction of duties (see
INCOME TAX, United States'). The tax was low: i%on incomes
from $3,000 to $20,000 a year, and a sliding scale on larger
incomes, with 6% as a maximum. A Tariff Commission was
created to make researches into the workings of the Act and try
to find out what was the actual difference between the cost of
labour in the United States and in foreign countries. The
Republicans naturally fought the bill throughout, but it became
a law, Oct. 3 1913.
The powerful influence of the President was again exerted to
secure a systematic banking system, with the result that (Dec.
23 1913) the Owen-Glass Federal Reserve Bank Act was added
to the statutes (see FEDERAL RESERVE BANKING SYSTEM). The
principle was no longer to rely on separate national banks, each
chartered as a separate entity and having no official connexion
with other banks, but to create a national institution, which was
to be divided into 12 regional banks, in each of which was a body
of directors, besides the central organization in Washington. In
these 12 subdivisions clustered such banks, whether national or
state-chartered, as chose to accept; but pressure was put upon
national banks to go into the new system. The Federal Reserve
banks were authorized and expected to rediscount commercial
paper discounted by the local banks. The new institution was
also to issue a new form of paper money. Federal Reserve banks
were authorized to act as depositories and fiscal agents for the
Government. It was about a year before the system could be
put into operation, but it was from the start recognized as a great
improvement and a large national asset. At the same time a
Rural Credits Act was passed (July 17 1916), which created a
special group of banks to lend money to farmers on the security
of their farms. Both banking systems worked smoothly. The
Federal Reserve banks greatly increased the elasticity of the
currency; the effect of their operations up to 1920 was virtually
to add an immense sum to the circulating medium of the country.
Transportation, 1914-6. Experience showed that it was much
easier to secure regulation of the railways than of other corpora-
tions. In 1914 the Interstate Commerce Commission began for
the first time to sanction small increases in rates. Under a stat-
ute of March i 1913 the Commission was authorized to enter on
an elaborate valuation of the railway property throughout the
country as the basis of a judgment as to what was a reasonable
profit (see RAILWAYS: United States}. The Supreme Court sup-
ported recent legislation by compelling the pipe-Jines to accept
the status of common carriers, and by breaking up some of the
railway combinations, particularly that of the New York, New
Haven and Hartford, which had tried to monopolize the steam,
trolley, and steamship lines in southern New England. Down to
the middle of 1916 the railways were doing well on the prevailing
low rates for passengers and freight.
A new transportation problem developed as the Panama Canal
approached completion; for this was the first great agency of
transportation which was owned and managed by the U.S.
Government. President Wilson undid the work of the previous
Congress so far as it gave special privileges in the canal to Ameri-
can vessels. He used to the utmost his personal influence in sup-
porting a bill repealing the discrimination in favour of American-
owned vessels, of which the British Government had complained;
it became an Act, June 15 1914. On Aug. 15 the first steamer
passed through the Canal from sea to sea and in a few months
the Canal was paying its own way. Temporary slides closed it
for a few months; but in 1916 traffic was resumed and by the
close of the fiscal year 7,046,407 tons of shipping had made use
of the new international waterway since its completion. The
success of the Panama Canal called attention to the possibilities-
of water transportation. A canal across Cape Cod, constructed
by private capital, was opened July 29 1914. The state of New
York spent a hundred million dollars in enlarging the Erie Canal
which was then allowed.to remain almost unused. Various plans
were urged for an artificial waterway from the Great Lakes to the
Gulf, ignoring the fact that the Ohio and Mississippi rivers had
almost ceased to be used for traffic. Internal canals were all sub-
ject to the difficulty that they could not compete with the rail-
ways which received freight at any place in the United States for
delivery at any other place; while in the northern part of the
country ice prevented winter traffic on canals.
A new question of transportation was arising through the rapid
development of motor vehicles. At first a plaything, then aj
luxury, by 1908 they were spreading throughout the country, for
pleasure, for convenience, for professional work; then, as the
motor-truck developed, for general transportation. These ma- 1
chines could not well be operated on the ordinary country roads
or on some of the city streets; and the attention of the whole
country was called to the absolute necessity of good roads. The
old system of privately owned toll roads and bridges had almost i
disappeared, and the only way to accommodate this new traffic
was to build roads at the public expense. Some of the states had
for years been aiding the rural localities in this process. As soon ;
as good roads were built, however, the public discovered to its
consternation that they would soon wear out unless kept in order!
at great expense. In 1916 Congress passed an Act appropriating
approximately $85,000,000 to be paid in about five years to such
states as would contribute equal sums for good roads.
The Trusts, 1914. Just before President Wilson took office, an
investigation was begun of the so-called shipping trust, composed!
of some American and various foreign companies, which was
charged with a monopoly of a large part of the business of marine
transportation by steamers. A few hours before the end of Presi-
dent Taft's term a congressional committee reported against thei
" great and rapidly growing concentration of the money control
and credit in the hands of a few men." The Supreme Court in its
decisions followed this spirit of opposition to the growth of
combinations. President Wilson urged successfully a radical'
amendment of the Sherman Act and the result was the Clayton !
Anti-Trust Act (Oct. 15 1914) against discriminating freight!
agreements, interlocking directorates and holding corporations.
The field of governmental action was thereby very much enlarged. ;
In June 1914 in a suit involving the International Harvester!
Company, one of the largest of the manufacturing corporations, i
the U.S. Supreme Court upheld state anti-trust laws. The ring
of law and justice seemed to be drawing closer round the great
offenders; yet these offenders still flourished, and huge corpora-
tions, such as the U.S. Steel Corp., paid dividends on thousands!
of millions in stock and bonds.
Another branch of the same attack on the money power was
the Federal Trade Commission, created Sept. 26 1914, which was
an attempt to find means of dealing with corporations engaged
in interstate commerce other than banks and common carriers.
It received large powers of investigation, and the very important
authority to institute hearings as a preliminary to suits. In the
same direction were the " blue sky laws " passed in this period
by many states, to break up the practice of floating the stock of
companies which had no property more substantial than the
atmosphere. By these statutes and active prosecutions the Dem-
ocratic party was put on record as the enemy of the enemies of
the people. Unfortunately, the more the laws, the more the need
for laws; while there was still what Roosevelt called the " twi-
light zone " of business action, an area in which neither state nor
national laws were operative.
Labour 1913-7. The example of capital, in rolling itself into
masses too great to be controlled by ordinary means, was followed
by labour, which during this period took the field most success-
fully. The American Federation of Labor was a loosely woven
council of representatives from the great trade organizations; it
did not undertake to call strikes, though it was likely to support
UNITED STATES
889
them. Its agitation and its publications were lively; and it had
jjreat effect in bringing about combined and simultaneous de-
mands for the various items in the labour programme. The
leaders fixed upon an eight-hour day (commonly interpreted as
48 hours a week) as the basic working time; by which they
meant that any work beyond the eight hours was overtime, to be
paid for at extra rates. The eventual demand was for a " time and
a half " rate (each hour to be counted as an hour and a half) for
ordinary overtime, and " double time " for Sundays and holidays.
The next item was the minimum wage, which made its way
slowly and was not altogether acceptable to labour, since it
tended to end the employment of feeble and old persons who
could not earn even the minimum wage. Another demand was
that American citizens should have the preference over aliens in
employment. The Supreme Court set aside an Arizona statute
in that direction, and affirmed a somewhat similar New York
statute. Labour in general was unfriendly to child labour and
was, therefore, interested in a Federal statute of Sept. i 1916.
Since Congress had no right to regulate child labour directly, it
stretched the Interstate Commerce clause of the Constitution
to cover the prohibition of the transport of products made by
child labour under specified conditions. This Act was afterwards
set aside by the Supreme Court. Some of the states set up public
-employment bureaus. Many labour acts were contested and
nullified by the state courts; but there was an unmistakable
.gain in public sentiment favouring protection of labour.
As the labour unions gained in numbers and strength they
used their energies in favour of the " closed shop," that is, a
system by which union men refused to work in any establishment
where men not members of the union were also employed. Their
object was to bring everybody in that particular trade into the
union so as to form a firm front. From this idea rapidly devel-
oped the system of -sympathetic strikes, in which members of
one union back up another union by refusing to handle or use or
transport products of non-union labour. Thus a factory employ-
ing a thousand hands might be compelled to stop work because
it directed two or three non-union men to clean a truck, or be-
cause it bought machinery built by non-union labour hence
boycotts and perhaps ruin for employers who had no difficulty
or quarrel with their own workmen.
Never in the history of the United States had there been so
many and so violent strikes as from 1913 to 1917. In New York
150,000 garment workers were unionized and they struck. In
May 1916 nearly a million men in various states were out of work
because they or some other union had struck. The I.W.W. or-
ganized long and tumultuous strikes among the silk weavers of
Paterson, N.J., and the textile workers of Lawrence, Mass.
More than half of these strikes were attempts to get higher
wages; many of them aimed at new working conditions, and very
often sought working rules which would add to the wages with-
out increasing the service. In the trying years of 1916-7 there
were violent strikes directed not only against non-striking work-
men, but against the public peace for instance, among the
Michigan ironworkers and the Spokane lumbermen. In 1913
there were armed conflicts in Colorado. In July 1917 at Bisbee,
Ariz., the tables were turned. A kind of vigilance committee
seized and carried out of town, with orders not to return, about
1,200 striking miners and their friends. When after many months
a trial was obtained in the state courts for those responsible for
this illegal action, it was found that no jury would convict.
The most serious of all these labour struggles was the threat-
ened strike in 1916 of the large and very powerful unions of rail-
way employees. A day was set for a general strike all over the
country. The companies refused to make further concessions,
believing that a few days of strike would bring the public to their
side. President Wilson intervened and all but compelled Con-
gress to pass (Sept. 3 1916) the Adamson Act by which a basic
eight-hour day was secured with pro-rata for overtime. This
turned out to be in effect a large increase of wages. The Supreme
Court upheld this statute, which went to the furthest verge of
the Federal Government's authority over labour matters, and
formed a basis for the increases of following years.
Social Movements, 1913-7. These struggles between the rail-
ways and the courts, between the trusts and Congress, between
labour and state Governments, between strikers and the Presi-
dent of the United States, are part of American history, because
they were vital to the welfare of the country. Combinations,
both of capital and labour, were too large to be dealt with by any
kind of private organization, or by the local and state Govern-
ments. Neither the capitalist nor the labourer respected the
restraint of state legislation. It was apparent that in the long
run the country would go back to the " might makes right " of
the middle ages, unless some peaceful settlement could be made
by a force that must be respected. Yet the ordinary plain citizen
was not much disturbed by these contests, unless he held stock
in a trust or his son was a member of a trade union. The first
concern of most people is their bread-getting, and the greater part
of the population was earning its bread daily. The farmers every-
where were aroused, for they looked on railways as hostile to
their interests, by overcharging for carrying their products, and
they resented the trusts which they believed raised prices. The
storm centre was in Washington, where President Wilson stood
intent on finding the remedy for these difficulties.
The anti-liquor forces steadily developed strength. They
urged out-and-out prohibition and secured it in more than half
the states. At the end of 1917 war prohibition was enacted by
the Federal Government and also prohibition in the district of
Columbia. December 19 1917 a two-thirds majority was secured
in Congress for a prohibition constitutional amendment the
i8th amendment which was at once submitted to the states.
Woman suffrage also advanced steadily. When it appeared in
1915 that a third of the male voters in the conversative eastern
states of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York and Massachu-
setts favoured woman suffrage, the result was beyond doubt.
Congress submitted an amendment in 1919. Thus changes that
had been 50 years on the way finally were brought about by the
force of public opinion.
A change was also visible in the attitude of the country
toward immigration which Congress was determined to reduce by
an intelligence qualification. Wilson followed the example of
Taft by vetoing the new bill not once but twice; yet on Feb. 5
1917 it was passed over his veto. Besides a literacy test it raised
the head-tax to $8 and excluded oriental labourers coming from
certain geographical areas which did not include Japan but did
apply to Hindus and Malays. Causes connected with the World
War at the same time brought about a reduction in the number
of immigrants.
Educational Progress, jpop-2j. The decade following 1909
was marked by a new sense of the possibility of general edu-
cation, and the responsibility of the various governments within
the United States for a more direct, searching and practical
type of education. The country was accustomed to a system of
graded public schools, offering the " common school education,"
and leading up to the few surviving endowed academies, and
the thousands of public high schools, which were expected to
" prepare " the small proportion of young men who went on to
institutions of higher education. This system had been enriched
in various ways.
By 1910 girls were given about an equal chance in the public
elementary and secondary schools, and m a large number of co-
educational colleges and universities, besides a small group of high-
class colleges open to women only. Secondary education was sub-
divided into literary, commercial and industrial schools. The in-
stitutions of higher learning set up new professional departments
including the intensive study of education and separate schools of
science, engineering, agriculture and other specialties. Private
enterprise created a great number of so-called business colleges, and
a few very efficient trade schools. The prestige of the classics and
of the so-called culture courses was declining; and the most con-
servative universities moderated their requirements for entrance
and offered degrees to men and women on a variety of specialized
and technical courses. The number of students in the higher in-
stitutions increased to 355,131 in 1918.
Nevertheless there was general complaint that the schools did not
relate themselves to the life of the community in which the children
were to pass their later lives. It was a common experience that the
numerous boys and girls who left school at from 12 to 16 years of
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UNITED STATES
age, and even the graduates of the secondary schools, did not take
hold readily of trades or business, and were hard to " break " to
new tasks. For many years a remedy had been sought in manual-
training schools, mostly secondary, which undertook to help the boy
and girl to meet the manufacturer and employer by specific training
in shop practice. The new steel town of Gary, Ind., introduced a
general system of industrial schools, in which the pupils in the lower
grades took various kinds of shop work. A National Society for
the Promotion of Industrial Education became the focus of a move-
ment to organize what now became generally known as vocational
education throughout the country.
A national commission was appointed by President Wilson, in
1914, to consider the whole subject. The Federal Government was
making annual grants to the state agricultural and mechanical
colleges, founded by the Morrill Land Grant of 1862. This idea of
grants-in-aid was incorporated into the report of the commis-
sion, and into the resulting Smith-Hughes Act, Feb. 22 1917,
which provided the machinery and laid out the outlines of plans for
action throughout the Union. It created a Federal Board for Vo-
cational Education which framed an elaborate plan for instruction
in the four vocational fields of agriculture, commerce, industry and
home-making. The Act promised to appropriate Federal funds
rising to about $7,000,000 in 1925 and thereafter, to be paid to such
states as would match these funds dollar for doljar.
The underlying idea was that training for life-tasks was to be
carried on in regular public schools alongside the usual culture
studies; that it ought to begin in the lower grades and run all the
way through; that it ought to apply to girls, particularly in the
fields of home life and women's industries; and that it ought to offer
facilities for those already employed, through continuation and part-
time schools.
Private enterprise went alongside this movement by building up
advanced engineering and trade schools of a high type, such as the
Carnegie Institute at Pittsburgh; by improving the private com-
mercial schools, and establishing advanced schools of business train-
ing in colleges. Some of the great manufacturers, especially in the
automobile trade, set up schools within their own works.
When the United States plunged into the World War in 1917, and
it was discovered that a vast number of young men were physically
and intellectually unfitted for military service, a new influence was
brought to bear in favour of a type of public education which would
help to make citizens. The Government established a variety of
vocational schools to train men for the numerous specialties of
military service. It made great use of the shops and other vocational
facilities of the existing schools and colleges. When the war was
over, those institutions were used by the Government for " rehabilita-
tion, " preparing partially disabled soldiers for self-support. At the
same time the schools and colleges of the traditional cultural type
advanced in resources and efficiency, many of them taking on voca-
tional subjects as suitable for higher education. Great sums were
raised by special " drives " among the alumni and friends of the
endowed institutions, and the state universities were allotted hitherto
unheard-of grants. The strictly vocational schools were admitted
into fellowship with the other institutions. The students fraternized,
joined in athletic contests and alumni associations and university
clubs. There seemed room for both the old and the new types of
national education. (See EDUCATION : section United States.)
Foreign Policy, 1913-7. Woodrow Wilson was naturally a
man of peace, and so was Secretary Bryan. At the outset of the
administration they set themselves to aid the cause of general
peace by enlarging the plan of arbitration treaties which had
been urged by Root and Taft. Secretary Bryan prepared a
definite project for treaties by which the parties should pledge
themselves in case of difficulties to submit their grievances and
claims to a special arbitration commission; and to abstain from
war or preparations for war until the commission should have had
time to report. This method avoided the difficulty which had
either wrecked or weakened previous arbitration treaties, namely
the exclusion of certain matters from arbitration. On the other
hand, under such treaties no country would be bound to accept
the finding of a commission. The presumption was that a sen-
sible nation would submit to the judgment of an impartial tri-
bunal. There was little difficulty in concluding more than 30
treaties upon this basis in the course of a year. They were never
effective, and they disregarded the fact that since the first sug-
gestion of general arbitration on a large scale by the Hague Con-
ference of 1899, there had been five important wars, in not one of
which had any contestant expressed a desire for arbitration by
an impartial tribunal. The truth was that the American people
as a whole had been little accustomed to international questions
and had no definite foreign policy.
The Government of the Philippine Is. was altered by setting
up the first Filipino Assembly in 1908. Under President Wilson,
Gov.-Gen. Cameron Forbes was withdrawn and Burton Harrison
was appointed his successor, to carry out a policy of liberalization
and preparation for independence. The Filipinos were allowed
to hold a majority of the seats in the Commission, which was a
kind of administrative upper House. Natives were substituted
for Americans in many of the civil offices. The Filipinos were
thus given a definite opportunity to govern themselves. In
response to the pleading of President Taft, Congress in 1909
grudgingly included them within the customs boundary of the
United States and thus in practice abandoned duties on goods
arriving in the United States from the islands. The Jones bill
proposed even greater local powers. As enacted Aug. 29 1916,
it greatly enlarged the power of the popular part of the Govern-
ment, and the Commission ceased to exist. The bill promised
that the Filipinos should be given their independence when their
ability to govern themselves should be demonstrated. In April
1919 President Wilson publicly declared that he was ready to
grant complete independence. There was no answering sentiment
in the United States, perhaps because the World War had made
it clear that so feeble and unarmed a state could not hope to live
without the continued protection of the United States.
At the other end of the American empire, Cuba, while nomi-
nally independent, remained a protectorate of the United States.
March 2 1917 the Porto Ricans were for the first time made
American citizens and received a popular Government of two
elected Houses, possibly a preparation for statehood. President
Wilson continued the practical administration of San Domingo
which dated back to Roosevelt. He also took military control
of Haiti in 1914 and followed it by a treaty which was ratified by
the Senate Feb. 28 1916. He carried even farther Taft's policy
in Nicaragua by a treaty (ratified by the Senate Aug. 14 1914)
which converted that State into a virtual protectorate. Another
area came under control of the United States by a treaty for the |
annexation of the Danish West Indies (Aug. 4 1916) ; these islands
were duly organized under the title Virgin Is. of the United i
States. Little opposition was made to this creation of a virtual
empire, including dependent provinces. No reluctance was
shown by the American people in extending their borders, their
influence and their naval stations, so as to include portions of
the West Indies. They were unconsciously preparing the way for
a policy of Caribbean activity, under which the United States
would take that predominance in the West Indies which Great
Britain had held for over a hundred years. .
Latin America and the Orient, 1913-7. The peaceful policy
of the United States towards its neighbours was severely tested i
by disturbances in Mexico. Soon after Wilson's inauguration
in 1913 Madero, president of that turbulent republic, was mur-
dered and Gen. Huerta, an insurgent officer, thereupon declared
himself the head of the State. The almost invariable policy of
the United States had been to recognize any de facto head of any i
Latin-American Government, without inquiring into the source
of justice of his title. To President Wilson and to many others
it seemed an iniquity to recognize murder as a proper means of I
changing a Government. He therefore adopted what he called
a policy of " watchful waiting." He steadily refused to recognize
Huerta, who was compelled to battle for his dictatorship against
Carranza, the bandit Villa and other rival revolutionists. Not
having recognized Huerta, Wilson was not in a position to pro-
tect American rights of life and property in Mexico. Some years
later a record was published of 112 murders or violent deaths of
Americans. All Wilson could do was to declare neutrality as
between Huerta and his rivals. In April 1914 a trifling dispute
arose as to a salute of the American flag and Wilson, apparently
yielding to strong public sentiment, ordered the navy to attack
and capture Vera Cruz, of which the United States remained in
possession for some months. The real object appears to have
been to discomfit Huerta, who was compelled to flee the country.
Two years later, further and more serious trouble arose when the
brigand Villa raided the town of Columbus, N.M., and killed
several soldiers and civilians. The Government of Mexico had
no control over Villa, and President Wilson ordered a military!
expedition under Gen. Pershing to advance into the interior of
UNITED STATES
891
Mexico, which remained about eight months, without capturing
Villa or accomplishing any other definite result. The three friend-
ly nations of Argentina, Brazil and Chile commonly known as
the " A B C Powers " offered a kind of mediation; and after
many months of delay, at their suggestion Carranza was recog-
nized as president by the United States. But disorder continued;
neither life norproperty was safe. Not till 1921, after n years of
civil war and immense destruction of life and wealth, did Mexico
emerge from the state of revolution which had been its chronic
condition before the time of President Diaz.
The long controversy with Mexico was highly disturbing to
the intention of the Administration to cultivate close relations
with Latin-America in general. In spite of four pan-American
congresses and several scientific congresses, in spite of the visits
of Roosevelt and Secretary Root and Secretary Knox to S.
America, and the opening of the short route to the W. coast
through the Panama Canal there could be no harmony if the
United States were to continue annexing small and defenceless
Latin-American nations and engaging in undeclared wars with
Mexico. President Wilson sought to relieve apprehensions in
this regard, and in a speech at Mobile Oct. 27 1913 declared that
the United States had no designs on the territory or independence
of its Latin-American neighbours. Colombia, too, had a griev-
ance arising out of the loss of the isthmus when the Panama
Canal Zone was annexed in 1904. Wilson gave his approval to a
treaty to pay $25,000,000 to Colombia and to include an apology
for the disagreeable events of 1904; but he could not push his
measures through the Senate, though a similar treaty, minus the
apology, was ratified by the succeeding Administration in 1921.
In regard to the Far East, Wilson had little opportunity to
develop a policy. He began by disavowing the plans made under
the advice of President Taft for a concert of American bankers
with those of other countries to lend money to China. He con-
tinued, on the same lines as the Taft Administration, to argue
with the people of California because they insisted on passing
a statute restricting alien ownership of lands by Japanese resi-
dents. The World War soon made the United States and Japan
temporary allies, and on Nov. 2 1917 the Lansing-Ishii note, on
the same plan as the Root-Takahira note of 1908, set forth that
the United States recognized Japan's " special interests in
China." In the deeper currents of East Asiatic diplomacy the
United States did not enter until after the war.
Outbreak of the World War, 1914. Long before the domestic
and foreign policies of the United States reached the results
described in the preceding sections, the United States was
brought face to face with new and vital problems arising out of
the war. That the country was peaceful in 1914, and expected
to remain indefinitely at peace, is shown by the lack of anything
that could be considered national military preparation in the
terms of modern warfare. When on Aug. 4 1914 President Wilson
issued a proclamation of neutrality as between the two groups
of European nations just engaging in a gigantic struggle, the
authorized military establishment was about 107,000 men of
whom some 87,000 were enrolled. The United States had not
one military aeroplane of approved type; had only four modern
heavy field guns and no transport for them; had not a trench
bomb nor a mine-thrower; nor considerable supplies of any weap-
ons or equipment except 800,000 excellent rifles; nor any of-
ficers experienced in the kind of warfare used in the recent South
African, Manchurian, Balkan and Tripolitan campaigns; nor
any instruction camps for officers or men. The navy included
a fleet of battleships recently built, but was weak in small and
swift vessels and particularly in submarines, though it had the
great advantage of trained crews accustomed to the strategic
units of sea warfare. For the protection of the Texas border,
and as a second line in case of an invasion of Mexico, militia was
available, but when called out later proved to be of little service.
The tradition of a hundred years led the American people to
expect no wars and in case of danger to rely on hasty volunteer
enlistments. Bryan, in many respects a far-sighted man, publicly
declared that the nation needed no preparation, for it could
raise a million men between sunrise and sunset.
The foreign policy and the diplomatic organization of the
United States were not fitted for such a crisis. Apparently not one
of the American ambassadors realized the imminence of war in
Europe or warned the Department of State of trouble; although
Theodore Roosevelt as far back as 1909 had detected the hostile
attitude of Germany toward the United States. The traditional
diplomacy of America was based on the Monroe Doctrine as a
principle that would keep European Powers out of the Americas,
and therefore out of dangerous controversies with the United
States. On the other hand, the principle of isolation forbade
the United States to take any part in European crises or wars.
Friendship with all nations had been the avowed policy of many
successive presidents. If nations fought among themselves, the
. United States expected to remain neutral. As a neutral it stood
by the principle of " freedom of the seas," by which was meant
in particular the right to carry on commerce with all belligerents,
in case of war, subject to the limitations of the then acknowl-
edged international law as to contraband and blockade. More-
over, the United States during the Civil War had laid down prin-
ciples of " continuous voyages," which it could not refuse to
accept so far as its own commerce was concerned. Yet probably
not one voter in ten had any clear notion of the external policy
and principles of his Government, or understood that such a war
as broke out in 1914 must deeply affect the United States, and
might at last draw it into the struggle.
The diplomatic activities of the United States at the beginning
of the war created no difficulties. Thousands of American tour-
ists and residents were caught in the mobilization of the great
European armies, and on Aug. 8 1914 $5,500,000 was sent over
by the Government on a U.S. steamer to aid in bringing them
home. A few weeks later relief was organized on a large scale for
the Belgian people, most of whose country was overrun and held
by the Germans. From year to year this system of relief was
enlarged, so as to include French refugees as well as those who
were still in the devastated portions of France, the unhappy
peoples of Serbia and Asia Minor and other non-combatant
sufferers, besides the sick and wounded of the contending armies.
The agents of the American Red Cross and similar organizations
were received in most parts of the war area, and privileged to
work at the front and to carry on their operations within the
warring countries. Supplies costing more than $1,500,000 were
sent to Europe by the American Red Cross before the United
States entered the war. This work of mercy put these unofficial
representatives of the United States in the position of exponents
of American neutrality.
Difficulties of Neutrality, 1914-7. From another point of view
the United States was compelled at once to take into account
the relation between the war and American industries, commerce
and finance. Very soon after hostilities began, loans were sought
by most of the belligerent Governments. Large amounts were
placed in the United States by Great Britain, France and Russia.
The German Government floated several small loans, chiefly
among their nationals and former nationals. President Wilson
for a time advised Americans against aiding either side in that
way and issued a proclamation (Aug. 18 1914) advising that
the people remain neutral " not only in act but in word and in
thought." Such neutrality was impossible, because the natural
course of neutral trade put the United States at once in the posi-
tion of a source of supplies of every kind for any belligerent that
could transport them. Probably not a dollar of the loans placed
in America ever crossed the Atlantic in cash; as fast as the
money was borrowed it was spent in the United States for the
purchase of food, clothing, animals and especially munitions.
Though the privileges of this trade were in theory equal, in
practice it was decidedly unfavourable to the Central Powers.
In the first weeks of, the war German commerce was driven from
the seas' and more than 80 German steamers took refuge in ports
of the United States. The Allied command of the sea very nearly
cut off trade of any kind between the United States and Germany
and her allies; while commerce continued in ever-increasing
volume with England and France. This disparity led to violent
protests on the part of the German Government, supported by
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UNITED STATES
Germans and pro-Germans in the United States, and also to
lawless acts perpetrated or directed by agents dispatched by the
German Government for the purpose of buying up or paralysing
the munition factories.
In addition to this controversy as to munitions and other
supplies there was the question of the German methods of carry-
ing on war, and particularly of the treatment of the occupied
areas of Belgium and France. Neither the State Department
nor any considerable number of American statesmen saw any
obligation under the Hague neutrality treaties of 1907 to go to
war for the defence of Belgian neutrality; nevertheless the Ger-
man policy aroused deep and lasting resentment. Within a few
weeks after the war broke out the United States realized for
the first time that its population included hundreds of thousands
of citizens of the belligerent countries, many of whom were liable
to military service and attempted to return to their homes in
order to serve. The road for recruits was blocked for the Ger-
mans and their allies, but open for the English, French and later
for the Italians, Serbians, Greeks and Armenians. No neutrality
proclamation could prevent these men from believing in their
native countries, defending them by argument, and going over to
fight for them if possible. For the first time in a hundred years
the United States found within its own borders the sharpest
division on questions of foreign policy.
On the other hand, the war trade brought immense profits.
The favourable balance of trade rose from $691,000,000 in 1913
to $1,768,000,000 in 1915 and $3,000,000,000 in 1916. This pro-
digious debit was balanced by about $3,000,000,000 sent to the
United States in securities and gold, besides $2,000,000,000 in
foreign war bonds. Under these circumstances genuine neutrality
was out of the question; and while direct commerce with Ger-
many and Austria was almost cut off, enormous shipments con-
tinued to the western Allies. A decided preponderance of sym-
pathy developed toward these countries which were profitable
customers and also were in close and almost undisturbed inter-
course with the United States, and, as time went on, seemed to
be fighting against a ruthless, arrogant and dangerous autocracy.
International Controversies, 1914-7. The internal tension of
the United States was tightened by the incidents of the war
and especially by the controversy over submarine warfare. The
practical issue was the insistence of Germany on the right to use
new weapons, tactics and procedures of war, without submitting
to the limitations supposed to be provided by international law,
without mercy to non-combatants, on the basis of a law of neces-
sity, and supported by all the physical and political force of the
German Empire engaged in war. No able--bodied German man
or woman was really a non-combatant; all Germans insisted that
they must regard all civilian enemies as combatants. In so far as
contact in the field was concerned they carried out their theory
unhesitatingly. They introduced the use of poison gas and
bombing aeroplanes; they murdered civilians and practically
enslaved Belgian men and women. There was no way to stop
them except by conquest, and conquest was impossible without
using these new methods of warfare. On the sea their principle
was the same, but the execution was different because it brought
them into controversy with neutrals and especially with the
United States.
Great Britain, which in the London Maritime Conference of
1912 had shown some disposition to enlarge the privileges of neutral
commerce, seized American ships and shipments, and arbitrarily
extended the list of contraband, until (Dec. 26 1914) a dispatch
signed by Secretary Bryan, but known to be the work of Presi-
dent Wilson, made a protest. Some of the incidents of the
British practice as to neutral vessels were given up; but in the
course of 1915 the British Government took up the American
principle of "continuous voyages," and eventually extended it so
as to cover shipments to neutral ports in cases where those ship-
ments were likely ultimately to reach Germany, or would replace
products of the neutral countries that could thus be spared to
Germany eventually, or if the neutral countries declined to make
a hard and fast agreement not to reship. In 1916 the British
were practically blockading neutral ports and capturing vessels,
American and other, wherever they liked. The Central Powers,
which were in no position to interfere with neutral trade by
ordinary cruising, as an offset to this very effective system
set up a new war practice, on principles never before as-
serted, by using submarines as commerce destroyers. On Feb.
4 1915 this practice was asserted as a right. The Amer-
ican Government at once protested, and President Wilson at one
time declared that any use of submarines against merchant ships
was contrary to international law. He based his protest chiefly
on the failure of the Germans to observe the usual rules as to
safety of h'fe for ships' crews and passengers, when submarines
sank merchant vessels. The fact was, and it was perfectly clear
to the large majority of thinking Americans, that whatever the
state of international law on that subject, belligerent or neutral
vessels carrying Americans and American property, and also
American merchant ships, were sunk by the Germans whenever
they felt so disposed.
The crisis came through the destruction of the British passen-
ger liner" Lusitania " May 7 1915, with the loss of 113 American
lives all neutral in the war, all non-combatant. That sinking
was a deliberate act of the Germans to test the temper of the United
States. Apparently they were greatly surprised when the people
of the United States rose in resentment. President Wilson, who
had months before notified Germany that " strict accounta-
bility " would be demanded, insisted on a protest such as could
not be ignored. Mr. Bryan thought milder measures sufficient,
and on that issue resigned the Secretaryship of State, June 8 1915,
and was succeeded by Robert M. Lansing. The correspondence
went on for months until, after the sinking of the British steamer
" Sussex," while plying across the English Channel, and the
killing of more Americans, on May 4 1916 Germany informed
the American Government that merchant ships would not be
sunk without warning and the opportunity to save non-combat-
ant lives. Meanwhile, throughout 1915 and 1916, a constant
series of attacks was made on the United States or its citizens
within the boundaries of the country through systematic viola-
tions of the neutrality laws of the United States by Germans and
Austrians. These acts caused the dismissal of the Austrian ambas-
sador to the United States and of the two most obnoxious members
of the German ambassador's staff. The whole status of neutral
trade was changed by the ruthlessness of the Germans, who
drew upon themselves the belief that they would hesitate at :
nothing during the war.
" Preparedness." By the end of 1915 it became clear that the I
war would be long and destructive; and that, with or without
their own desire, the people of the United States might find
themselves involved. The whole world was taken by surprise by
the new methods of warfare, and the United States was visibly
in no position to attack across the sea or to defend itself against
the kind of warfare which was by this time going on all over the
world. President Wilson desired peace. As late as a day or two
after the sinking of the " Lusitania " he spoke of there being
such a thing as " a nation that was too proud to fight." The
speech containing these words was, however, prepared before
the sinking of the " Lusitania," and in his message of Dec. 1915
he urged national defence and the protection of American ship-
ping by placing it all in the hands of the Government. The
movement in favour of preparedness grew, and the President in
Feb. 1916 favoured a bill for concentrating the national forces,
and abandoning the idea of a Federalized army composed of state
militia contingents. Because the President refused to use upon
Congress the influence that had carried through so many meas-
ures, Garrison, Secretary of War, resigned and Newton D. Baker
of Ohio succeeded him. The only result was the passage of a
weak and inadequate bill.
Long before this time the war had brought about a violent
change in the economic conditions of the country. The great
demand for foodstuffs raised the price of grain and other farm
products. " The high cost of living " became a political issue.
The munition factories offered unheard-of wages and drew hun-
dreds of thousands into improvised towns, thus inaugurating a
movement for the increase of wages in other industries. One of
UNITED STATES
893
the unexpected effects of the war was a great change in immigra-
tion. Hundreds of thousands of men left the United States for
Europe to join the various -armies; and the countries at war
were not likely to allow anybody to evade military service by
going to America. Net immigration fell from 1,218,480 in 1914
to 298,826 in 1916.
Election of igi6. In the midst of the turmoil and confusion
of business and public policy caused by the war came the pre-
liminaries of the Presidential election of 1916. The sharp differ-
ence of opinion as to the responsibility for, and the conduct of,
the war was reflected in Congress, which included many ardent
friends of the western Allies, others without a doubt pro-Ger-
mans, and a much larger number who desired to keep the United
States out of war, no matter what happened overseas. President
Wilson, though of Scotch-Irish descent and much inspired by
English law and history, carefully abstained from taking sides;
but the aggressive submarine policy of Germany made necessary
a much sharper tone toward, and much more direct and insistent
demands on, the Germans than in the case of the English. He
was not only President with complete control of all diplomatic
negotiations, he was the acknowledged head of the Democratic
party; he was also commander-in-chief of the army and navy of
the United States. He felt the need of caution, particularly
because a growing group of men inside and outside Congress,
among them Roosevelt, were coming to the conclusion that
eventually the United States would have to go into the war.
During the early part of 1916 the President was studiously
neutral and careful. In April the little force under Pershing was
withdrawn from Mexico. May 4 the President succeeded in
securing from Germany the promise to refrain from submarine
warfare on neutrals. In June the great national nominating con-
ventions met, in which the attitudes of the President and his
opponents upon the war were issues. As usual the Republican
Convention came first, and was called in Chicago for June 7. A
strong effort was made by those friends of Roosevelt who had
returned to their relations with the Republican party to make
him the Republican candidate. One result of the complaints
regarding the Convention of 1912 was that the Republican
National Committee recommended a change in the basis of
representation in the Convention, which reduced the representa-
tion of those southern states in which the Republican vote was
very small. Such a reduction, if made four years earlier, would
have brought about Roosevelt's nomination. Nevertheless, in
most of the states the " stand-pat " Republicans had control of
the party machinery including the primaries, and Roosevelt
showed little strength in the Convention. The Progressives,
who in Nov. 1914 had cast 1,800,000 votes for Congressional
and state candidates, met in convention in Chicago side by
side with the Republicans. Their purpose was to make such a
demonstration of strength as would compel the Republicans to
nominate Roosevelt as the only means of healing the breach.
That effort failed because it became evident that a large number
of the Progressives throughout the country would vote for any
candidate nominated by the Republican Convention who seemed
likely to carry out the Progressive principles, and they gave up
all hope of electing Roosevelt on a third-party ticket. The
Republicans nominated Justice Hughes of the Supreme Court
who had been a reform governor of New York State. No course
was left to Roosevelt but to refuse the nomination offered by the
Progressive Convention. The days of the Progressive party
were numbered.
In the Democratic Convention, June 14, there was practically
no opposition to Wilson and his running-mate Marshall. The
platform in many respects was similar to that of the Republicans.
Both favoured woman suffrage, conservation of national re-
sources, and national enforcement of child-labour laws; both
approved the Monroe Doctrine. But in opposition to the Repub-
licans the Democrats upheld tariff for revenue only ; they endorsed
| the promise of ultimate independence to the Filipinos; they
commended the establishment of a Federal trade commission;
and they approved a merchant marine owned and operated by
the Federal Government. In the campaign Roosevelt publicly
supported Hughes, though he felt no enthusiasm for him. He was
more interested in questions of neutrality and in the moral sup-
port of the hard-pressed Allies than in the election. Hughes and
Wilson, especially the former, canvassed the country, which was
not interested in the questions of tariff and immigration but was
eager to know what would be the effect of the victory of one
party or another on foreign relations. The only " slogan " that
caught the public ear was favourable to Wilson: " He kept us
out of war." The result was the reelection of Wilson, who
received about 9,000,000 popular votes against 8,500,000 for
Hughes. The electoral vote, however, was very close and was
finally decided by majorities of a few hundred in New Hampshire,
Minnesota and especially California.
Peace or War, 1917. Although the election had been so close,
President Wilson stood in a very strong position in the United
States and in the world. He was reelected. His policy, whatever
it was, was approved. He felt that he had the nation politically
united. The Administration soon began to take a firmer tone
in protesting against the Allied system of neutral blockade.
Meanwhile the Allies were hard pressed. During the summer
of 1916 the Russians made their last aggressive campaign against
Austria-Hungary. Rumania entered the contest Aug. 28 1916
but was defeated by the Germans by the close of the year. Eng-
land, France and Italy were holding the western lines with diffi-
culty. It seemed to President Wilson that only the one great
neutral nation could bring about peace. Dec. 18 1916, six weeks
after the election, he sent an appeal to the warring Powers to
take some steps to come to an understanding of each other's
demands. In a later document, Jan. 27 1917, he suggested a
" peace without victory," which should give the right of self-
determination to the different national units. The western
Allies responded courteously. The practical German answer
was a brief note communicated by Ambassador Bernstorff to
Secretary Lansing Jan. 31 1917, announcing that the Germans
would shortly resume submarine warfare without mercy. High
military authority in Germany had decreed that this was the
way to win. They were convinced that the Americans would
never sacrifice the large profits of export trade and incur the
huge expenses of war merely for the sake of a question of neutral
maritime rights.
Nevertheless it was announced Feb. 4 that the United States
was using its influence to persuade other neutrals to sever diplo-
matic relations with Germany, and immediate steps were taken
to make the navy ready for war. Unfortunately, the United
States at that moment was not in a position to assemble even so
small a land force as 30,000 men and send it abroad. It had no
organized transport service to carry numbers of troops or their
supplies. For a time the President dallied with a plan of main-
taining official neutrality while arming merchant ships and
authorizing them to defend themselves. This measure, proposed
to Congress Feb. 26, certainly would have brought about war
in a few days, by an engagement between some American mer-
chant ships and a submarine. Although Congress was ready to
grant to the President almost any power, this armed ship bill was
killed by a filibuster in the Senate, which the President charac-
terized as the act of " a little group of wilful men representing no
opinion but their own." The Administration then took steps to
arm merchant ships without Congressional authority. One result
of the controversy was the adoption by the Senate March 8 of a
mild and cumbrous method of cutting short debate by closure.
During Feb. and March 1917 a few American vessels and one
belligerent vessel having Americans on board were torpedoed by
German submarines. It was apparent, therefore, that Germany
would not desist from these atrocities, and that the United States
must resort to war. The President called Congress in special
session for April 2. Congress, elected the previous Nov., con-
tained a small Democratic majority in both Houses and wel-
comed the first woman representative in the person of Miss
Jeannette Rankin of Montana. On Feb. 8 the Government pub-
lished an intercepted German despatch to the Mexican Govern-
ment asking the Mexicans to join in the war, promising them
the " former Mexican provinces," long incorporated in the
8 9 4
UNITED STATES
United States. This so-called "Zimmerman Note" further sug-
gested that Mexico induce Japan to desert the Allies and join
her in war on America. The participation of the United States
in the war was now inevitable. A formal declaration signed by
the President April 6 after a House vote of 373 to 50 and a
Senate vote of 82 to 6, stated that war had been already begun
by Germany. Relations with Austria and Turkey were at once
broken off, but the declaration of war with Austria was delayed
until Dec. 17 and no declaration was ever made against Turkey.
Though the breach with Germany was initiated by a Demo-
cratic President and passed by a Congress in which the Demo-
crats had a small majority, it was a spontaneous national action
representing the practically universal belief that the United States
could no longer live in peace with such a nation as Germany had
become. In a succession of brilliant speeches President Wilson
had developed the idea that it was the duty of the American
people to make the world " safe for democracy." Moreover,
there was widespread sympathy with the three western Powers
closest to the United States in their political principles and sys-
tem of government. Righteous wrath was aroused by the Ger-
man treatment of the people of Belgium and other conquered
countries. In some minds existed a genuine and well-grounded
fear of a future attack upon the United States by Germany if the
resistance of the Allies should be destroyed. Amid all the motives
for the war, the one thing clear was that the American people
recognized Germany as an enemy, and the enemies of Germany
as natural friends and partners in the great enterprise of subduing
" the Hun." (See also WORLD WAR.)
War Measures. Passionate national spirit, patriotism, and
urgent reasons for war were all useless unless the United States
could enroll, train, equip, convey, and continuously supply an
immense army. By improved methods of coping with subma-
rines the British were giving such protection to their merchant-
men as to keep up their connexions with the centres of food, raw
materials and munitions. The American navy, though the ves-
sels were good and the crews skilled and well commanded, was
in no position to give direct aid in the process of destroying the
German army and still less the German navy. The main service
to be rendered by the United States must clearly be to raise and
convey to the fighting front a large force of American troops.
Under the Act of 1916 nothing had been done toward organizing
an efficient expeditionary force a real army was still to be made.
One saving service the United States was able to do at once:
it could help the western Allies in their pressing financial diffi-
culties. Besides the immense industrial production of military
and other supplies, the country was blessed with an abundant
surplus of foodstuffs. The main crops of 1915 and 1916 were
large and prices high. The U.S. Treasury and banks were holding
about $3 ,000,000,000 in gold, which was one-third of the world's
supply. Federal taxes were low and little felt. The new income-
tax was just beginning to be significant. The total Government
income for the fiscal year 1916-7 was $1,118,182,978.
Soon after the declaration of war by the United States, mis-
sions from the various Allied countries were sent to America to
suggest from their experience plans for cooperation. The British
Mission, headed by Arthur Balfour, British Foreign Secretary,
and including military and naval officers as well as financiers,
reached Halifax April 20 and proceeded to Washington. The
French Mission, headed by Rene Viviani, the former Premier,
and including Marshal Joffre, landed at Hampton Roads April
24. Other missions came from Italy, Belgium, Russia, Rumania
and Japan. Conferences were held with officials of the U.S. army
and navy departments with regard to the prosecution of the war.
Afterwards the French Mission travelled through the eastern
and middle western states, visiting Chicago, Kansas City, St.
Louis, Springfield (111.), Philadelphia, New York, and Boston;
it was everywhere welcomed with enthusiasm, Marshal Joffre
being hailed as a hero. With the Japanese Mission an important
agreement was signed (the so-called Lansing-Ishii Agreement),
which recognized Japan's special interests in China, but pro-
vided for a continuance of the " open door " policy for commerce
in that country. The commissioners from the European Allies
asked for immediate financial assistance. Under Acts of Con-
gress beginning Oct. 17 1917, the Allies received credits which
amounted eventually to $9,500,000,000: this was supplied to
take up the floating debts held in the United States and to
purchase more supplies. This material support, backed by the
moral support given by America, was a great encouragement to
the Allies through the winter campaign of 1917-8.
These enormous payments were among the results of the so-
called Liberty loans. April 24 1917 was passed the first loan
Act, under which some 4,000,000 people joined in offering in
June $3,000,000,000 to the Government. Three later issues of
Liberty bonds followed, and in 1919 an issue of Victory notes.
The result was an increase of the interest-bearing debt from
$972,469,290 on Dec. 31 1916 to $25,234,496,000 in 1919. These
loans were supplemented by the War Revenue Act of Oct. 17
1917, which laid a variety of new taxes, increased the income-tax
heavily, and combined with it an excess-profits tax, the purpose
of which was to bring into the Treasury unreasonable profits
likely to be made in the war industries.
All limitations on raising an army were discarded. Volunteers
were authorized as in previous wars. Ex-President Roosevelt
asked permission to raise a division of which he might take com-
mand, and Congress gave its authority for such a special force,
but the President refused him a commission. It was soon seen,
however, that the only fair and helpful method was to call out all
able-bodied men within certain ages. May 18 the Selective Service
Act was passed, which provided for raising the regular army and
National Guard to authorized strength, and also the enlistment
of 1,000,000 men by " selective draft." There was abundant raw
material, but it took time and energy to make it available. A
system was provided for registering all men of military age.
When they were compelled to appear for physical and mental
examination the astounding facts were revealed that one-fourth
were illiterate, one-fifth were physically unfit for military service,
and another fifth defective but not enough so to prevent their
serving. (See the table below.) When called up, the men had
to be clothed, housed, fed and drilled. Thousands of officers
were necessary, and training camps, both for men and officers,
were established on a vast scale. Eventually about 4,000,000
men out of 11,000,000 registrants were inducted into the service.
Table Showing Rejections of Draftees for Physical
and Camp Boards, Compiled by Maj. Albert
Office of the Surgeon-General.
Local
1. Infectious diseases (excluding
tuberculous and venereal) .
2. Tuberculous ....
3. Venereal
4. General
5. Nervous system
6. Mental alienation
7. Eyes and their annexa
8. Ear .
9. Nasal fossae
10. Throat
11. Circulatory system
12. Respiratory system
13. Digestive system
14. Genito-urinary system (non-
venereal)
15. Skin and cellular tissue
1 6. Bones and organs of locomotion
17. Congenital malformations and
ill-defined ....
Total defects
Cases with two defects in one man
(rejected men only)
Total men rejected for above causes
Total men examined, not defective
in those respects ....
Total men examined
Total number of men in Class I
available who were not inducted
Total number of defective men in-
cluded in the 2,745,073 who were
not rejected, but accepted for
military service ....
Boards
I-4I5
351 1,766
6g,935
15,446 85,381
5,796
9,342 15,138
31.772
13,878 45,650
37-873
8,717 46,590
40,167
12,93 53,097
91-755
25,531 117,286
3-794
8,699 39,493
1,892
1-257 3,H9
I,2l6
3,416 4,632
110,527
31,769 142,296
8,365
4,448 12,813
42,900
42,928 85,828
7,186
1,843 9,029
5,949
2,535 8,484
113,287
58,533 171,820
97-889
20,864 n8,753
698,718
262,487 961,205
149,619
55,865 205,484
549,099
206,622 755,721
3,215,002
2,538,451
3,764,101
2,745,073
Defects by Local
C, Love,
Camp
Boards Total
469,929
848,482
UNITED STATES
895
Nothing could conceal the hard fact that no considerable force
could be made ready in less than about a year from the declara-
tion of war. In May 1917 a few American destroyers reached
England. June 8 Gen. Pershing, who had been selected as
commander-in-chief, arrived in England. June 26 a small detach-
ment of U.S. troops reached France. From that time contin-
gents continued to arrive, thus giving to the Allies the assurance
that succour on a vast scale was being organized. New branches
1 of military service were established, among them the Chemical
i Warfare Service which provided materials for lethal gases and for
j gas-masks and other means of resisting the enemy attacks. Con-
; gross, July 24, appropriated $640,000,000 for aviation. The
whole land was full of unwonted and startling preparations. By
: Aug. about 700,000 men were enrolled in the army and 230,000
i in the navy. Nevertheless, on Dec. 31 1917 the total number of
troops in France was only 176,665.
Control of Industry and Transportation. The establishment of
huge war industries for making guns, munitions, clothing, and the
varied supplies for a vast army put a great strain on the industry
and transportation of the United States. The country was called
upon to feed its own people, the army that was preparing to go
abroad and, in considerable part, the Allied armies. Aug. 10
1917 a Food Control Act gave the President powers never before
conferred with regard to food and fuel (see FOOD SUPPLY) . Herbert
C. Hoover, of California, who had distinguished himself in the
management of the Red Cross in Europe and especially in
Belgium, was made Food Administrator with large powers. Be-
| fore the war ended he had established " meatless days," " wheat-
less days," and " porkless days "; the price of grain was fixed;
eventually the farmers were assured $2.20 a bushel for their
wheat crops, which was more than twice what had been con-
sidered a good price before the war. The winter of 1917-8 was
very severe and coal shipments were delayed both by storms and
by pressure of war industries; so that even New York City was
for a few days almost without fuel. The warming of buildings
and houses was cut to the lowest point. Dr. Harry A. Garfield,
president of Williams College, was made Fuel Administrator,
and carried through drastic measures for stimulating production,
regulating shipments and distributing the supply.
During 1918 these sweeping war powers were rigorously ap-
plied. In the food bill was a provision against the use of grain
for the manufacture of liquor. Later, manufacture for sale was
entirely prohibited by Congress as a war measure. On March 19
1918 Congress passed a Daylight Saving law, for putting the
clocks one hour ahead of Standard time from March to October.
On March 21 the Federal Control Act placed the management
of all the railways in the country in the hands of the Government
during the war, and for a period after its close (see RAILWAYS).
Secretary of the Treasury McAdoo was made director-general
of the railways; later Walker D. Hines, an experienced railway-
man, succeeded him. President Wilson declared all telephone and
telegraph wires to be under the control of the Government and
appointed Postmaster-General Burleson to take charge.
One of the most serious needs of the time was a fleet adequate
to carry across the Atlantic the army and its supplies and then
keep up the shipments of reserves and munitions. The merchant
marine of the United States registered for foreign trade was in
1914 only 1,066,288 gross tons. Most of the food and munition
tonnage, which was immense, was carried up to 1917 in British
or neutral ships, some in French and Italian. The Government
then undertook the great task of improvising a merchant fleet
(see SHIPPING). After a contest between those who insisted on
steel ships and those who thought they could be suoplemented
by wooden vessels, construction was authorized in both materials.
But the war was over before any considerable number of new
ships were completed, and the wooden ones were a failure.
The Army and Navy at the Front. The sea duty was strenuous
but less dangerous than army service at the front. Beginning
with patrol work on the American coast as soon as war was
declared, the activities of the U.S. navy extended to cooperation
with the British and French in the hunting down of submarines
and the protection of convoys. No German fleet gained access
to the high seas, but in 1918 one or two commerce destroyers
succeeded in doing a little damage to Allied commerce. In the
laying of the North Sea mine barrage, extending from the Ork-
neys to Norway and completed by July 29 1918, the U.S. mine-
layers placed 56,611 out of a total of 70,263 mines. The American
navy had some part in blockading the Austrian coast of the
Adriatic, and participated in maintaining that Allied command
of the sea which in the end was fatal to Germany. One of the
most remarkable feats accomplished by the United States during
the war was the development of a convoy system whereby over
2,000,000 troops were carried safely 3,000 m. overseas to France.
In this work the utmost secrecy was necessary and there was
little to appeal to the public mind. On entering the war the
United States was wholly unprepared to transport a large expe-
ditionary force; but in June 1917 a few cruisers and transports
were provided and the first troops sent across. This convoy was
attacked by submarines, but no boat was damaged and no lives
were lost. The convoy system was generally adopted. At inter-
vals vessels assembled and sailed on definite routes under the
protection of destroyers. Under Rear-Adml. Albert Cleaves
the cruiser and transport service was rapidly increased, even-
tually comprising 24 cruisers and 42 transports, besides 4 French
men-of-war and 13 foreign merchant vessels, manned by 3,000
officers and 41,000 men. By a system of zigzag courses, camou-
flage and protection by swift destroyers the German submarines
were rendered almost powerless. Of the escort protecting the
convoys up to the Armistice the United States furnished about
83% (Great Britain 14% and France 3%). Of American troops,
according to the report of the Secretary of the Navy (1920),
911,047, or 43-75%, were carried on U.S. navy transports, and
41,534, or 2-5% on other U.S. ships. The rest were carried
chiefly in British ships. The peak of movement for any one day
was reached on July 9 1918 when 75 transports, carrying 171,630
men, were on the high seas. The record month also was that
of July, during which 306,350 troops were embarked. So suc-
cessful was the convoy system that not one east-bound American
transport was torpedoed by the German submarines; only three
were sunk on their return voyage the " Antilles " (Oct. 17 1917,
70 lives lost), the " President Lincoln " (May 31 1918, 26 lives
lost), and the " Covington " (July i 1918, 6 lives lost). The
" Mount Vernon," returning from France, was torpedoed Sept.
5 1918, but made port; 36 lives were lost. Only three fighting
ships were destroyed by the enemy the patrol-boat " Alcedo,"
a converted yacht (Nov. 5 1917, off the French coast, 20 lives
lost), the torpedo-boat destroyer " Jacob Jones " (Dec. 6 1917,
off the British coast, 62 lives lost), and the cruiser " San Diego "
(July 19 1918, sunk by a mine off the New York coast, 6 lives
lost). Interned German vessels were used as transports, the
" Leviathan " alone (the former " Vaterland ") making ten
voyages to France and carrying almost 100,000 troops. Other
large U.S. transports were the " President Grant," 9 voyages,
carrying all told about 80,000 men; the " George Washington,"
9 voyages, about 46,000 men; the " America," 9 voyages, about
37,000 men; the " Agamemnon," 10 voyages, about 35,000 men.
The first notable appearance of American troops was at Can-
tigny May 28 1918. On June 6 there was a fierce engagement
between the Americans and the Germans at Belleau Wood.
During July 15-18 American troops, posted at Chateau-Thierry,
desperately and successfully held the German forward move-
ment. By Aug. about 1,500,000 soldiers had reached France.
During Sept. 11-13 ' ne Americans were given the task of clear-
ing the Germans out of the St. Mihiel salient, their first indepen-
dent action. From Sept. 26 to Nov. 1 1 the American army was
engaged in the sanguinary Meuse-Argonne campaign, finally
capturing Sedan and breaking the German lines. In these brief
and territorially limited operations the American army, of which
not more than 600,000 actually came within reach of the enemy,
lost through casualties about one-third of those engaged.
The work of frenzied preparation and the steady drives on
land and sea would have been impossible but for a new kind of
organization of the War Department and other parts of the
Government machinery at Washington. Under the Overman
896
UNITED STATES
Act of May 20 1918 the President was authorized to rearrange
the departmental work and to transfer bureaux according to his
discretion. Large numbers of civilian men and women were
brought into the War, Navy and other departments, some on
salaries, others as " dollar-a-year men " that is, men who for
one reason or another could not enter the army but desired to
serve their country at their own cost. The pace was severe,
the administration complicated. The main object was to start
things moving, without due regard, at times, to immediate re-
sults or costs. Plans were made with a view to a prolonged war.
The sudden cessation of hostilities found the Government in
possession of vast stores of supplies, now unneeded and inviting
waste. There was a large accumulation of raw materials but
comparatively little of finished product. The most glaring con-
trast between expenditures and results was in the construction
of aircraft. In April 1918 Gutzon Borglum, the distinguished
sculptor, and other civilians charged that the aircraft production
was extravagant and inefficient. Charles E. Hughes was ap-
pointed by the President to make an investigation; he later re-
ported that waste and confusion and inefficiency existed but
that there was no wilful plunder of the Government on the
part of anyone. Notwithstanding such errors large armies were
speedily raised, dispatched and reached the front in time to
give decisive aid to the Allies.
During the campaign of 1918 efforts were made to extend the
possible field of enlistment by the passage of the Man Power bill
of Aug. 27. All men between 18 and 45 were required to register
with a view to service if needed, and 11,000,000 were registered.
On Aug. 17 it was reported that some 3,000,000 men were with
the colours at home and abroad. By a statute of Oct. 6 1917
provision was made for a system of military and naval insurance
available for all men in the service. General Pershing officially
reported that at the date of the Armistice, Nov. n 1918, there
were in Europe 2,071,463 American officers and men (approxi-
mately 82,000 officers). Only about 15,000 soldiers had returned
to the United States. On the same date, according to figures
compiled by the War Department, the number of troops en-
camped in the United States was 1,634,499, including 104,155
officers. The casualties up to Nov. 18 1918 were: killed in action,
35,556; died of battle wounds, 15,130; died of other wounds,
5,669; died of disease, 24,786; total deaths, 81,141 ; wounded 179,-
625; missing, 1,160; prisoners, 2,163; total casualties, 264,089.
War Activities at Home. Immediately after the declaration of
war the American people through official and unofficial channels
made preparations to give support by civilian service and
money contribution. One of the first war measures of President
Wilson was to designate, April 14 1917, a Committee on Public
Information, composed of the Secretaries of State, War and
Navy, and one civilian, George Creel, journalist, as chairman. It
was designed to be the official source of news relating to Allied
war activities and issued a daily Bulletin, widely distributed for
the special use of the press. Newspapers were requested to
cooperate and to refrain from publishing unauthorized war news.
The Committee kept up a lively system of publicity throughout
the war, and at times was accused of providing favourable infor-
mation even when things did not go altogether well. Its pub-
licity work was aided by the National Board for Historical Service,
created April 28 1918 at a conference of historians at Washington.
Numerous pamphlets, maps and moving pictures were prepared
and a nation-wide organization effected for furnishing a patriotic
speaking service of " four-minute men," who by arrangement
with the purveyors of public amusements made brief talks before
their audiences. By an executive Act of Oct. 12 1917 a Censor-
ship Board was established for censoring all communications
mail, cable, radio passing between the United States and
foreign countries. Its members consisted of representatives of
the Secretary of War, Secretary of the Navy, Postmaster-General,
War Trade Board, and the chairman of the Committee on Public
Information. Control of all radio stations within the jurisdiction
of the United States had been placed under the Secretary of the
Navy April 6 1917; on April 28 the transmission of cable mes-
sages between the United States and foreign countries had been
placed under the same supervision and international telephone
and telegraph messages under the Secretary of War; censorship
of the mails began Nov. 2, under the direction of the Post Office
Department. This last provision was of great service in enforc-
ing the Trading with the Enemy Act, in suppressing enemy pro-
paganda, and in preventing the disclosure of military informa-
tion to the enemy.
As early as Aug. 29 1916 a Council of National Defense, cre-
ated by Act of Congress, had been approved and on March 3
1917 was fully organized. Its duty was the " coordination of
industries and resources for the national security and welfare "
and the " creation of relations which render possible in time of
need the immediate concentration and utilization of the resources
of the nation." Composed of the Secretaries of War, Navy, In-
terior, Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, it utilized the coun-
sel of an Advisory Commission of seven persons, each one a
specialist in one branch of industry. After America entered the
war this Council devised the ways and means for efficient pro-
duction and transportation of the essentials of war. Under it
were later created several special organizations such as the War
Industries Board (succeeding the earlier General Munitions
Board), created July 28 1917, for assuring the prompt equipping
and arming, with the least possible disadjustment of normal
industrial conditions, of whatsoever forces might be called into
the service of the country; the Purchasing Commission, formed
Aug. 28 1917, for coordinating the purchases in America of sup-
plies for the Allies; the Emergency Fleet Corp. of the Shipping
Board, incorporated April 16 1917 for the purchase, construction,
equipment, lease, charter, maintenance, and operation of mer-
chant vessels in the commerce of the United States (see MUNI-
TIONS). Early steps were taken also to conserve the supply of
food and fuel. At the request of the Secretary of War (April 9
1917) the various states also organized State Councils of Defense,
which supervised such matters as the conservation of food, sale
of Liberty bonds and draft registration.
On April 21 1917 the Council of National Defense appointed
a Woman's Committee, with Dr. Anna Howard Shaw as chair-
man, to coordinate the patriotic work of the women throughout
the country. Divisions were organized in every state, and within
a year four-fifths of all counties had subdivisions. Through these
organizations the country's needs were promptly reported and
all households mobilized for thrift. On April 2 1917 a General
Medical Board was established under the Council. Through its
aid medical officers were recruited, various committees were
appointed and advice given in the interest of camp sanitation
and health of the soldiers.
Hardly less important than production was transportation.
The Advisory Commission of the Council of National Defense
created a Committee on Transportation and Communication,
with Daniel Willard, president of the Baltimore & Ohio railway,
as chairman. Already in Feb. 1917 a Special Committee on
National Defense had been appointed by the American Railway
Association. Railways were requested to adopt measures for the
most efficient handling of freight. At a meeting of the presidents
of the important railways, held in Washington, April n, plans
were made for organizing an executive committee, composed of
the presidents of five railways and of two ex-officio members one
each from the Council of National Defense and the Interstate
Commerce Commission, with Fairfax Harrison as chairman.
This Committee, popularly known as the Railroad War Board,
undertook to secure unity of operation among all railways, to
subordinate private interests, and to eliminate competition.
It continued to work until Dec. 28 1917, when the President
placed all railways under Government control. William G.
McAdoo, Secretary of the Treasury, was named as Director-
General of Railroads, and under him was organized the U.S.
Railroad Administration. By an Act approved March 21 1918
each railway, during the period of Federal control, was allowed
compensation equivalent to its average income during the year
ending June 30 1917; it was further provided that the roads
should be kept in good repair and with equipment equal to that
assumed by the Government. It was an emergency war measure
UNITED STATES
897
and Federal control was not to last longer than 21 months after
the end of the war. The country was divided into regions, each
under a regional director, and methods were devised for rapid
. transportation of troops and supplies. The roads were returned
to private ownership on March i 1920. On April n 1918 the
important coastwise steamship lines also were placed under con-
trol of the Director-General of Railroads. At the latter's sugges-
. tion the four large express companies had combined in May 1918
under the name American Railway Express Co. which on Nov. 16
was placed wholly under control of the Railroad Administration.
Authorized by a joint resolution of Congress, dated July 10
1918, the Government assumed control of telegraph, telephone
and marine cable systems, under the U.S. Telegraph and Tele-
phone Administration, directed by Postmaster-General Albert
S. Burleson. Radio control was already under the Navy Depart-
ment. The telegraphs and telephones were taken over Aug. i
1918. Contracts as to compensation were made with various
.companies, including the American Telephone and Telegraph Co.,
and the Western Union Telegraph Company. The Postal Tele-
graph-Cable Co. refused to enter into a contract, but was given
compensation. There was considerable opposition to the taking
over of the wires, due to the fact that the Postmaster-General
was an avowed advocate of Government ownership, and it was
surmised that he would use his influence for permanent Federal
[control. The cables were not taken over until Nov. 16 1918, five
Idays after the signing of the Armistice, an action which aroused
much criticism. They were returned to their owners May 3 1919.
iThe telegraphs and telephones were returned Aug. i 1919.
: On Oct. 6 1915 a Naval Consulting Board had been organized,
with Thomas A. Edison as president, and after the outbreak of
the war it was associated with the Council of National Defense.
Through various committees it studied such questions as those
connected with life-saving appliances, explosives, mines and tor-
pedos. At the same time many scientists were engaged in
researcli throughout the country under the National Research
Council, organized by the National Academy of Sciences with
the support of President Wilson.
In order that available capital might be turned into channels
contributing to the successful prosecution of the war, two
agencies were devised. In Jan. 1918 the Secretary of the Treas-
kiry asked the Federal Reserve Board to pass upon all proposed
Issues of securities that should be referred to it. The Board
formed a Capital Issues Committee for this purpose, and all
{banking institutions were asked to refrain from assisting in the
floating of new securities until passed upon by the Committee,
tn general, approval was given only to such issues as contributed
to the winning of the war or to the promoting of national welfare.
This committee, however, had no legal status. Accordingly by
Act of Congress, April 5 1918, there was created a Capital Issues
Committee of the same nature, with authority to investigate and
pass upon all issues, with certain specified exceptions, of securi-
'ies of $100,000 or more. However, it was not empowered to
'cquire the submission of such securities to its investigation or
i) impose acceptance of its decision. The production of non-
essentials was discouraged and many doubtful enterprises were
repressed. The committee became inactive after Dec. 31 1918.
tt had investigated issues totalling about $3,800,000,000, of
which amount about $900,000,000 had been disapproved. The
;ame Act that created the Capital Issues Committee also created
, :he War Finance Corp., the purpose of which was to encourage
^reduction of war essentials by providing funds for approved
fflterprises. With authorized capital of $500,000,000 furnished
: )y the Government, it was placed under the direction of the
secretary of the Treasury a nd f our associates. Up to Oct. 3 1 1 9 1 8,
equests for loans had been made amounting to $323,329,000
ind loans amounting to $67,716,000 granted. At that time the
let earnings of the Corporation had reached $2,169,000. A
special War Credits Board was created Nov. 20 1917 for supply-
> ng loans to producers of munitions of war, its policy being to
mpply funds when not available elsewhere. Up to May 1919
<>ans of about $248,000,000 had been made, of which sum
$163,000,000 had been repaid,
xxxn. 29
By the Espionage Act of June 15 1917 the President was
empowered to control exports. A Bureau of Export Licenses
was created through which were issued permits for shipments to
foreign countries. The object was to prevent, so far as possible,
American goods from reaching the enemy. Later this Bureau
was placed under the Exports Administrative Board, created
Aug. 21 1917. After the passage of the Trading with the Enemy
Act of Oct. 6 1917 this Board in turn was merged with the War
Trade Board, organized by executive order of Oct. 12 1917, and
consisting of representatives of the Departments of State,
Treasury, Agriculture, and Commerce; the Shipping Board, and
the Food Administration, with Vance McCormick as chairman.
The War Trade Board undertook the control of imports as well
as exports, and aimed to strengthen the blockade and to injure
Germany's trade. With the aid of a Bureau of Enemy Trade a
list was prepared of firms throughout the world with whom Amer-
icans should not trade. This Enemy Trading List was distributed
for guidance among Americans engaged in foreign trade. Trade
agreements were made with neutral countries, allowing them to
receive American goods under conditions intended to prevent
their reexport to the enemy.
The importance of securing the cooperation of labour was recog-
nized from the first. One of the six members appointed on the
Advisory Commission of the Council of National Defense was
Samuel Gompers, president of the American Federation of Labor.
On April 2 1917 Gompers called a conference at Washington,
which was attended by representatives of labour, employers, and
social workers. The result was the organization of a Committee
on Labor of the Council of National Defense, designed to advise
as to the relations between labour and employers during the war.
Suggestions were issued through the Council of National Defense
and requests made that no changes in existing standards be
made without the Council's approval. Labour conditions were
investigated, information published, and efforts made to settle
disputes without interruption of work. During the summer of
1917 serious labour trouble arose in the west in connexion with
the production of such important war materials as copper, lum-
ber, and oil. A special commission, popularly known as the
President's Mediation Commission, was appointed by the Pres-
ident, Sept. 19 1917, with William B. Wilson, Secretary of Labor,
as chairman, and Prof. Felix Frankfurter, of the Harvard Law
School, as secretary and counsel. A thorough study of labour
conditions was made and many disputes settled. A report made
Jan. 9 1 918 formed the basis of all subsequent labour adjustments.
In Jan. 1919 the Secretary of Labor called a conference, inviting
employers and labour to send five representatives, each side to
choose a chairman to preside on alternate days. Plans were for-
mulated for governing relations between employers and em-
ployees, recommending, among other things, that the right of
collective bargaining should be conceded on both sides; that
no change should be made in existing conditions as to the " open "
and " closed " shop; that women replacing men should be paid
on an equal basis; and that the minimum wage should insure
reasonable comfort for the worker's family.
Following a suggestion of the conference there was created,
April 9 1918, a National War Labor Board, whose membership,
chosen by the Secretary of Labor, was identical with that of the
labour conference, and consisted of 1 2 members. It acted through-
out the war as a " supreme court " in settling labour disputes.
To supplement the work of this Board there was appointed,
May 13 1918, a War Labor Policies Board, intended to be repre-
sentative of all the Governmental producing agencies, for the
purpose of standardizing wages, hours of labour, housing condi-
tions, draft exemption, and employment of women.
A matter of great importance was the recruiting of labour
and its directing into necessary industries. After America's en-
trance into the war several existing services under the Department
of Labor were enlarged and new ones created. The U.S. Employ-
ment Service, under the Bureau of Immigration, with offices
throughout the country, assumed Aug. i 1917 the task of recruit-
ing unskilled labour for all war industries, excepting farms and
railways. Private employment bureaux were closed. Much
898
UNITED STATES
skilled labour, also, was secured for shipyards and camp con-
struction. From Jan. i 1918 up to the signing of the Armistice,
about 2,400,000 workers had been placed in essential industries.
Later this Service undertook to find employment for ex-service
men; and from Dec. i 1918 to Sept. 27 1919 out of 758,474 regis-
trants, 474,085 were duly placed (see DEMOBILIZATION AND RESET-
TLEMENT). The influx of labour in the industrial centres created
a serious housing problem. In Feb. 1918 in the Department of
Labor there was organized a Bureau of Industrial Housing and*
Transportation. On May 16 Congress appropriated $60,000,000
(later increased to $100,000,000) for providing adequate housing
facih'ties for labourers and their families. By Act of June 4 1918
the President was authorized to form a corporation for carrying
on this work. Accordingly, on July 10 1918 the U.S. Housing
Corporation was incorporated under the laws of New York. The
personnel was the same as that of the Bureau of Industrial Hous-
ing and Transportation. Elaborate preparations were made for
erecting dwellings, dormitories, and cafeterias, but actual con-
struction had not proceeded far before the Armistice.
In addition to these and other official organizations several
private agencies were established which had the goodwill and
aid of the authorities and raised large sums for the comfort and
health of the soldiers in the service, the care of the sick and
wounded and aid to refugees and non-combatants in the war
zones. Chief among these was the American National Red Cross,
which during a single drive raised $100,000,000 and was to be
found wherever there was fighting, sickness, suffering, or starva-
tion. At the date of the Armistice its total membership was
19,928,022; the number of women giving their services in Red
Cross workrooms was 8,000,000; supplies had been furnished to
the amount of almost $76,000,000. Special attention to the social
welfare of soldiers in camps both in America and overseas was
given by the Y.M.C.A., Y.W.C.A., Knights of Columbus, Sal-
vation Army, Jewish Welfare Board, American Library Associa-
tion, and War Camp Community Service. An attempt was made
to coordinate the work of these various organizations through
the War Department Commission on Training Camp Activities,
which also acted in an advisory capacity in connexion with the
prevention of the sale of intoxicating liquor and the discourage-
ment of brothels near the camps.
The Government formally took charge of all foreign trade Feb.
15 1918, and seized not only all German ships interned in U.S.
ports since the war broke out, but also ships under the Dutch
and other neutral flags, and impressed them into war service.
Under the Webb Act of April 10 1918 the Government went to
the extent of permitting combinations for foreign trade, which
would otherwise have been in violation of the anti-trust Acts.
Enemies in the United States. While the people of the United
States were practically a unit in favour of a vigorous prosecution
of the war, there were a few, chiefly foreign-born or sons of
foreign-born, who were opposed to the war or more often to the
nations in concert with which and partly for whose salvation the
United States was fighting. Ever since 1914 the country had
been irritated and aroused by a series of illegal, violent and often
murderous acts which were traced to German and Austrian
agents. For example, determined efforts were made to blow up
the international bridge at Vassalboro, Me., and the locks of the
Welland Canal, by men acting within the boundaries of the
United States. Bopp, German consul-general at San Francisco,
was convicted and imprisoned for aiding German vessels in the
Pacific in defiance of neutrality laws. Rintelen (after the war
specially rewarded by the German Government) was sent to the
Federal prison at Atlanta for aiding in placing bombs on outgoing
vessels with intent to destroy them. In 1910 Eugene V. Debs,
Presidential candidate four times of the Socialist party, was
sentenced to ten years' imprisonment for advising men not to
enlist in the army. Victor Berger, member of Congress from
Wisconsin, was convicted and sentenced for disloyalty, then
reelected to Congress, which refused to seat him.
The I.W.W. took advantage of the general confusion to engage
in a campaign of disturbance and violence in the west; as many
as 97 leaders of that order, including William Haywood, were
convicted of disloyal conduct by one court at one time. These
prosecutions were supported by the Trading with the Enemy
Act of Oct. 6 1917, the Espionage Act of June 15 1917, and the
Act of April 18 1918 as to alien enemies. Several thousand Ger-
man and Austrian citizens who were believed to be dangerous
were interned. On Dec. 19 1918 two pro-German editors were
punished for disloyal utterances in a German-American paper.
These prosecutions against American-born citizens, naturalized
citizens and unnaturalized foreigners continued for two years
after the end of hostilities. The authorities were particularly
incensed by an open propaganda carried on by Russians and
others in favour of Bolshevism as a principle of Government and
a substitute for the institutions of the United States. In Dec.
1919 some 250 alien anarchists were placed on a Government
transport and taken to Russia. On Dec. 25 1921 President
Harding commuted the sentences of Debs and 23 others who
had been convicted under the Espionage Act, but a number of
persons remained in jail under sentences for disloyal action.
The Armistice and (he igi8 Elections. All at once this tre-
mendous energy, these costly preparations, this enrolling of
millions of men, this unceasing action of the great national relief
societies, were interrupted by the end of the war in western
Europe. The fierce campaign of 1918 was the final effort of the
Germans. For the second time in the war they came almost
within striking distance of Paris, but were repelled by the bravery
of the French and British combined with the new armies from
America. No one can say positively that the American army in
the field was the chief element that insured victory; but there is
not a doubt that the triumphant success in raising, drilling and
transporting incessantly provisions and supplies, was to the Ger-
man mind convincing and disheartening evidence that the Gov-
ernment and the people of the United States, with all their
power and potentiality, would stand by the Allies indefinitely.
November n 1918, by the Armistice in which the American
armies shared, the Germans admitted their defeat and at once
began to evacuate the occupied regions and also portions of
their own national territory.
This climax came a few days after the state and Congressional
elections of the autumn of 1918. The war was a national war.
Enlistments, whether volunteer or by draft, had no relation to
politics. Nobody paid any attention to the party affiliations of
officers or men or civilian administrators and aids. Nevertheless,
Oct. 15, a few days before the elections, President Wilson took
the strange course of issuing a circular letter urging the voters to
return a Democratic majority to the Senate and the House,
because, if the Republicans were successful, it would be con-
sidered an imputation upon the President. The warning was in
vain; in fact, it probably helped the Republicans materially. The
result of the election made the new House decidedly Republican
and the Senate Republican by two votes. It was apparent, there-
fore, that the Administration in making the necessary adjust-
ments after the war must take into account the preponderance
of the opposition in both Houses of Congress. Several changes
came about in the Cabinet at the end of 1918. McAdoo resigned
and was followed in the Treasury by Carter Glass, a representa-
tive from Virginia, who gave way in turn to Houston, trans-
ferred from the Department of Agriculture, where he was suc-
ceeded by Meredith. February 13 1920 Secretary Lansing was
practically removed by President Wilson for " insubordination,"
and was succeeded in the State Department by Bainbridge Colby. <
Throughout the year 1918 the influence of Theodore Roose- 1
velt was steadily growing. He was by his whole nature a sup-
porter of the war. He and his four sons volunteered for service,
though, as he put it with plaintive humour: " Wilson has kept
me out of the war." He was recognized as a Republican and the
most powerful Republican. Even his strongest political enemies
admitted that the party must reckon with him. As the months
passed it became clear that he would be nominated by the
Republican Convention of 1920 and in all probability would be
elected President. But he died suddenly, Jan. 6 1919, leaving
behind him a long roll of achievements and a place among the
greatest of American statesmen and world figures.
UNITED STATES
899
Peace and the Treaty. Two great tasks remained when active
war ceased. The first was to secure a settlement and register it
in a treaty or series of treaties, thus returning so far as possible
to normal international relations. The second was to reconstitute
the world and to protect it, if possible, against future wars. A
third task for the United States was its internal reconstruction
by putting an end to the special war laws and conditions and by
readjusting business, transportation and labour.
The first two of these tasks are described in detail elsewhere
(see PEACE CONFERENCE and LEAGUE or NATIONS). In addition
to the suggestions made in the winter of 1916-7 President Wilson
put forward on Jan. 9 1918, during the height of the war, " four-
teen points " (see WILSON, WOODROW) which he considered a
necessary basis for the peace of the nations and a subsequent
world agreement. These points he enlarged in later addresses to
twenty-seven. The Germans afterwards asserted that the points
were an essential part of the Armistice. One week after the sig-
nature of that document President Wilson decided that he would
attend the necessary Peace Conference in person. As soon as
Congress assembled he announced that purpose and designated
as peace commissioners with himself four others Secretary Lan-
sing, Col. House of Texas, his most intimate friend and political
adviser, Gen. Bliss of the army, and Mr. White, formerly minister
to France. These commissioners were not passed upon by the
Senate, only one of them was a Republican, and not one was a
member of either the Senate or the House. To Republicans it
seemed that the President meant it to be a Democratic peace as
well as a Democratic war. In the Peace Conference President
Wilson, as representative of the richest and most powerful nation
in the world, became one of the four representatives of the four
Great Powers Great Britain, France, Italy and the United
States who engineered the Treaty.
President Wilson was deeply interested in the League of Na-
tions; and, when he found that the French were not ready to
adopt such a plan without some guarantee of protection, he
signed a treaty of alliance between the United States, France and
Great Britain pledging the United States to join in war in case of
the invasion of France by Germany. No one familiar with the
temper of Congress and of the American people should have sup-
posed that such a treaty would be ratified. President Wilson
returned home for a short stay (Feb. 24-March 4), defending
the general terms of the Treaty and the Covenant of the League
of Nations, of which he was the most significant draftsman. He
returned to Paris and on June 28 1919, he and the four commis-
sioners signed for the United States the formal Treaty of Ver-
sailles, including the Covenant of the League of Nations, which
was interwoven into the text of the Treaty. Upon one of the
subjects covered by the territorial adjustments of the Treaty in
which the people of the United States felt a deep national inter-
est the continued occupation of Shantung by the Japanese
the President reluctantly gave way and consented to its reten-
tion by the Japanese, in spite of the general adverse opinion in
the United States.
The Treaty had many powerful supporters in the United
States among all parties, particularly ex-President Taft, the
League of Free Nations and the League to Enforce Peace, in
which A. Lawrence Lowell, president of Harvard University, was
the leading spirit. The Senate, which had the constitutional
right to pass upon the Treaty by a two-thirds majority, was
divided into strongly opposed groups. Most of the Democrats,
under the lead of Senator Hitchcock, followed the President in
favouring the Treaty with the Covenant as it stood. A group
of Republicans, headed by Senator Lodge of Massachusetts,
favoured " amendments " to the Treaty and " reservations "
as to the League which would have maimed but not killed the
two projects. The contest ostensibly centred about Art. X. of
the Treaty, under which the members of the League undertook
" to respect and preserve as against external aggression the
territorial integrity and existing political independence of all
members of the League," and agreed that in case of need the
Council should " advise upon the means by which this obligation
shall be fulfilled." This group expressed fear lest the United
States be drawn into foreign wars and insisted that " no Ameri-
can soldiers or sailors must be sent to fight in other lands at the
bidding of the League of Nations." The President, on the other
hand, regarded Art. X. as the heart of the whole Treaty. Another
group wished reservations that would practically destroy the
document. A small but implacable junto, headed by Borah of
Idaho and Johnson of California, were against both the Treaty
and the Covenant in any form or with any reservations.
The President declined at the critical moment to accept either
amendments or reservations, except certain minor alterations
approved by himself. Senator Knox of Pennsylvania proposed a
resolution intended to put an end to the fictitious state of war
with Germany. It was passed by both Houses, but was vetoed
by the President (May 27 1920). After strenuous debate and by a
test vote, Nov. 19 1919, the Senate refused to ratify the Peace
Treaty with reservations the vote being 55 to 39 in favour, but
not the necessary two-thirds. Thus after five months' discussion
the Treaty was rejected, and the United States was left in the
absurd situation of remaining at war with Germany and Austria
though all hostilities had ceased a year before.
President Wilson until the last moment believed that he could
force ratification of the Treaty by his logic and influence. Sep-
tember 26, while on a speaking trip through the country in favour
of the Treaty, he was struck down by paralysis; when he rallied
sufficiently to think of public business he continued to hope that
he would recover. His Cabinet and closest friends joined in an
attempt to minimize the extent of the President's illness, though
for months he was unable to see even members of his Cabinet.
Had he possessed his usual mental force, the result would prob-
ably have been the same. The difficulty with the Treaty and the
League was that both were signed by a body of so-called commis-
sioners who represented no lawful authority except that of the
President. The only one who held public office or responsibility
was Lansing, who by his own account fundamentally differed
from the President at Paris but always surrendered his convic-
tions. Whether President Wilson, or the statesmen who opposed
him in the Senate, had the clearer view of the state of the world
and the duties of the United States, whether the opposition
could have been avoided by taking counsel with a larger group
of competent men, cannot now be decided. The fundamental
fact is that the opposition to the Covenant was strong enough to
prevent the ratification of the Treaty even with serious reserva-
tions: the representatives of the United States at Paris were out
of accord with the constitutional treaty-making power of the
nation. Since the President had the last word in framing
treaties, nothing could be done.
Rehabilitation. The task of post bellum economic adjustment
was entirely within the control of the people of the United
States, except so far as foreign trade was involved. The census
of 1920 showed a pop. of 105,000,000 in the continental area and
12,000,000 more in the dependencies. At the end of the war the
Federal Government by war statutes was controlling the food
supply and its distribution, manufactures, the coal supply and
shipments, railways, telegraphs and telephones, foreign com-
merce and shipping, the care of the property of aliens through an
Alien Property Custodian, as well as the conditions of interstate
labour and of labour in other fields, through a War Labor Ad-
ministrator, and a National War Labor Board. For foreign com-
merce there was still a Shipping Board, an Emergency Fleet
Board, a War Trade Board and a War Finance Board. Two
million American soldiers were overseas and wanted to come
home as soon as possible. The average cost of living was about
80% higher than in 1914. The United States had spent on the
war about $35,500,000,000, including $9,500,000,000 loaned to
the Allies. Congress was willing enough to impose high taxes,
and the people were ready to pay them; but expenditures after
peace came continued on a scale far beyond any previous expe-
rience of the country. This complicated condition was to be
readjusted by a Government made up of a President physically
unable to perform his duties, a Senate and a House opposed to
him in politics, and a group of abnormal war agencies. No swift
or judicious result could be expected.
goo
UNITED STATES
In the course of six months after the Armistice, about two-
thirds of the troops were brought back, leaving behind them
enormous stores, large parts of which were sold at heavy dis-
counts to European Governments. General Pershing, the only
military man of high rank whose achievements caught the pub-
lic eye, received the reward of the permanent rank of general.
By 1920 the only American troops left in Europe were an Army
of Occupation of about 17,000. In Sept. 1919 the American
Legion incorporated by Act of Congress was formed to look after
the interests of the ex-soldiers.
Two constitutional amendments crystallized some of the re-
sults of the war. The various prohibition measures passed by
Congress, on the ground that the use of liquor impeded the suc-
cess of the war, were powerful aids to the general arguments
against liquor. Many of the states had absolutely prohib-
ited the sale of liquor and on Jan. 16 1919 the i8th Amend-
ment, prohibiting the manufacture, sale, transportation or gift
of intoxicants (submitted in 1917) was ratified by 36 states
(eventually 45 states). It went into final effect Jan. 15 1920,
enforced by the Volstead Act (passed Oct. 28 1919, over the
President's veto), which declared all liquors containing more
than one-half of i % of alcohol to be intoxicating and therefore
prohibited (see PROHIBITION).
The active war patriotism and service of women, together with
the votes they already enjoyed, caused Congress June 1919 to
submit the igth Constitutional Amendment, annulling all sex
restrictions of suffrage. It was warmly supported by the former
Progressives and by President Wilson, received its 36th rati-
fication Aug. 24 1920, and went into force August 26.
Railways and telephones were restored to their owners. Fed-
eral control over fuel stopped; but the abnormal number of
executives and clerks in Washington and elsewhere remained
under pay. Congress provided for the men disabled in the war
by establishing hospitals and by giving to the weak and maimed
an opportunity to acquire some trade or calling by which they
could make a living. This system enlarged the functions of the
Federal Vocation Board created by the Vocational Education
Act of Feb. 23 1917. Trade and oversea transportation were
discouraged by the financial conditions of the European nations
that had been accustomed to trade with the United States. All
the war countries in Europe except Great Britain were on a
paper-money basis, and a dollar in gold in Oct. 1920 would buy
15 French francs, 26 Italian lire or 71 German marks; even the
English sovereign was as compared with the dollar at a discount
of 25%. These conditions demoralized international exchange.
Transportation in the United States was much disturbed because
of the great increase in the money cost of labour and supplies.
Feb. 28 1920 Congress passed the Esch-Cummins Transporta-
tion Act for the return of the railways to their owners, with cer-
tain guarantees of compensation for a period of six months and a
stipulation directing the Interstate Commerce Commission to
make rates yielding a return of sJ% to 6% for a period of two
years. Sea traffic was confused, and in 1921 became almost pro-
fitless because of the increased number of ships which were com-
peting for a decreasing amount of business.
The most serious trouble was with labour. Railwaymen and
many other skilled employees received wages amounting in some
cases to more than double the figures of 1914, and naturally were
unwilling to relinquish their advantages. Whenever there was
an attempt to reduce wages there was a strike. New York and
other ports were several times almost paralysed by strikes of
longshoremen or officers and crews of ships. In Aug. 1919, under
President Wilson's direction, the Government threatened to use
military force to break a railway strike. The police force of Bos-
ton struck Sept. 9 1919 as a protest against an order not to join
the American Federation of Labor. ''The strikers stood by and
saw without protest scenes of riot and pillage. They were all
dismissed and Governor Coolidge of Massachusetts, in replying
to a telegram from Samuel Gompers, declared that " there is no
right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere,
any time." In 1916 there was a strike of 600,000 bituminous
coal-miners in the west. Notwithstanding conferences and
boards and mutual understanding there was no national or state
machinery that could effectively deal with these troubles.
Political Overturn of 1920. As the months passed, dissatisfac-
tion grew. The soldiers received in many states a money bonus
varying in amount, and demanded a similar bonus from Con-
gress. The general public complained bitterly against the " high
cost of living," while many corporations continued to make war
profits in time of peace. Salaried men, people living on investments,
holders of life-insurance policies and depositors in savings banks,!
saw their incomes and expectations reduced by the fall in thej
purchasing power of the dollar. The Democratic party was para-
lysed by internal difficulties over the Peace Treaty and by lack
of the trusted leadership of the President. The Republicans hadl ;
broken the foreign policy of the Administration and were in :
possession of a majority of both Houses, but had no fixed policy] j
of foreign relations or reconstruction.
In the winter and spring of 1920 Presidential candidates began
to develop. General Leonard Wood, formerly chief-of-staff ofl |
the army, who had been refused a foreign command during the
war, was put forward by a large group of Republicans. Gover-
nor Lowden of Illinois had a considerable following. A move-l
ment was made in favour of Hoover, well known for his services
on the Commission for Relief in Belgium and other relief
agencies and also as Federal Food Administrator. When the Con-
vention assembled at Chicago June 9 1920, it proved to be impos-
sible to nominate any of the three, and Senator Harding of Ohio re-
ceived the nomination backed by a strong group of stand-patters
to whom, however, he seems to have made no pledges as to policy J
or appointment. Governor Coolidge of Massachusetts was put i
on the ticket as vice-president.
The Democratic Convention held at San Francisco was con-
fronted with a similar difficulty. Woodrow Wilson had already
served two terms and was known to be physically unable to i
perform the duties of the office. The leading candidates were
McAdoo of New York, formerly Secretary of the Treasury, and
Attorney-General Palmer of Pennsylvania; but after many bal-
lots the nomination went to Governor Cox of Ohio, a man little 1
known in national affairs, with Franklin D. Roosevelt, a cousin
of the former president, as vice-president. The Republicans 1
had the lead in the campaign, in which for the first time women
were eligible to vote in every state. The result was a complete
triumph for the Republicans, who elected Harding by a popular
majority of about seven million and an electoral majority of
404 against 127 for Cox, besides securing solid majorities in
both Houses of Congress.
March 4 1921 Woodrow Wilson accompanied the Presidcnt-
Elect to the Capitol as the last act of his official life. He had been
president for eight years, during six of which he was the undis-
puted leader of his party and of the nation. Except for a few not
very important measures passed over his veto, up to the summer
of 1919 he had his way with Congress and with the people,
was responsible for a group of important revenue, banking and ,
labour laws. He had a great hold on the affections and opin:
of millions of his fellow citizens, and maintained the country's I
dignity in war and peace. He had the people behind him in .
entering the war. He stood behind the measures for organizing i
and transporting millions of American soldiers. For a time in I
Paris he was the foremost man in the world, and he succeeded irj i
inducing foreign statesmen, not much interested in, and ai
heart disliking, the project, to accept a League of Nations. Aj
the height of his career he suddenly lost control as war president
of the whole country, was no longer accepted as unquestioned
head of his party, and ceased to be the one man who could appeaj
from Congress to the people. Before illness disabled him, he had |
already lost his hold upon the minds of the majority of hi:
fellow countrymen.
His work was transferred to a new man less experienced ii
politics, for a short time a quiet member of the U.S. Senate
whose task it was to take over the discordant elements anr
build out of them a national policy. President Harding acceptcc
this new responsibility and began his administration undel
favouring auspices. An excellent impression was created through
U.S. NAVAL ACADEMY UNTERMYER
901
out the country by his choice of a Cabinet above the average,
several members being chosen in the face of strong opposition
from the professional politicians. The members were: Charles E.
Hughes, State; Andrew W. Mellon, Treasury; John W. Weeks,
War; Harry M. Daugherty, Attorney-General; Will H. Hays,
Postmaster-General; Edwin Denby, Navy; Albert B. Fall,
Interior; Henry C. Wallace, Agriculture; Herbert C. Hoover,
Commerce; James J. Davis, Labor. The new President early
showed tact and ability in leading his party in favour of con-
structive action. Within four months the epoch-making bill
providing for a Federal budget system was passed by Congress
and approved (June 9 1921). This was in line with the President's
constant appeal for economy, which led him also to urge post-
ponement of legislation for the grant of a Federal bonus to ex-
service men in view of the existing burden of taxation. He dis-
played keen interest in all attempts to restore, business to a
sound basis and urged prompt action in the assistance of the
railways. By nature conservative, he laboured to bring the
country back to a state of " normalcy," to use a favourite word
of his own. Treaties of peace negotiated with Germany, Austria
and Hungary were ratified by the U.S. Senate Oct. 18 1921.
Of world-wide importance was his call for a conference of
the different Powers bordering on and interested in the Pacific
Ocean, to be held in Washington and to discuss both Pacific
questions and the question of limitation of armament.
The conference assembled Nov. u 1921, " Armistice Day,"
and closed Feb. 6 1922. The participants were the United
States, Great Britain, France, Italy, Holland, Belgium, Portugal,
China and Japan. Important agreements were signed: to limit
construction of capital warships; against improper use of sub-
marines, and against gas warfare; for maintenance of Pacific
insular possessions; and on other questions involving relations
with Japan and China (see WASHINGTON CONFERENCE).
AUTHORITIES. I. Bibliographies: For general works and specific
references see: Channing, Hart and Turner, Guide to American
History (1912); and the footnotes and Critical Essay in F. A. Ogg,
National Progress, 1907-17 (1918). For the World War: H. H. B.
Meyer, The United States at War; Organizations and Literature (1917) ;
and A Check List of the Literature and other Material in the Library
of Congress on the European War (1918); A. B. Hart, America at
War (1918); C. M. Dutcher, A Selected Critical Bibliography of
Publications in English Relating to the World War (1918) ; S. B. Hard-
ing, The Study of the Great War (1918) ; A. B. Hart and A. O. Love-
joy, Handbook of the War for Public Speakers (4th ed. 1919); N. M.
Trenholme, A Syllabus of the Historical Background and Issues (1919).
II. General Histories: The New York Times Current History
(1914- ) ; Charles A. Beard, Contemporary American History, 1877
! 9 ! 3 (1914): F. A. Ogg, National Progress, 1907-17 (1918); P. L.
Haworth, The United States in Our Own Time (1920) ; F. L. Paxson,
Recent History of the United States (1921).
III. World War Histories: H. H. Powers, America among the
Nations (1917) ; John S. Bassett, Our War with Germany: A History
(1919); F. W. Halsey, The Literary Digest History of the World War
Compiled from Original and Contemporary Sources (10 vols., 1919
20) ; Frank H. Simonds, History of the World War (5 vols., 1917-20) ;
Harpers' Pictorial Library of the World War (12 vols., 1920); J. B.
McMaster, The United States in the World War (2 vols., 1918-20) ;
Brig-Gen. Charles G. Dawes, A Journal of the Great War (1922).
IV. World War Diplomacy: C. Seymour, The Diplomatic Back-
ground of the War (1916); Munroe Smith, American Diplomacy in
the European War (1916.); Lindsay Rogers, America's Case Against
Germany (1917) and The War Aims of the United States (1918);
James W. Gerard, My Four Years in Germany (1917) and Face to
Face with Kaiserism (1918); E. E. Robinson and V. J. West, The
Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson, 1013-1017 (1917); Brand Whit-
lock, Belgium; a Personal Narrative (2 vols., 1918); Elihu Root,
The United States and the War (1918); Henry Morgenthau, Ambas-
sador Morgenthau's Story (1918); James B. Scott, Diplomatic Cor-
respondence Between the United States and Germany 10141017 (1918) ;
Carl R. Fish, American Diplomacy (3rd ed., 1919); David J. Hill,
Present Problems in Foreign Policy (1919); Bernard M. Baruch,
The Making of the Reparation and Economic Sections of the Treaty
(1920) ; Adml. William S. Sims, TheViclory at Sea (1920) ; Johann H.
von Bernstorff, My Three Years in America (1920); Robert Lansing,
The Peace Negotiations (1921) and The Big Four (1921).
V. Biographies: W. R. Thayer, Theodore Roosevelt; an Intimate
Biography (1919); J. B. Bishop, Theodore Roosevelt and His Time
Shown in His Own Letters (2 vols., 1920) ; H. J. Ford, Woodrow Wil-
son: the Man and His Work (1916); W. E. Dodd, Woodrow Wilson
and His Work (1920) ; Joseph Tumulty, Woodrow Wilson as I Know
Him ( 192 1) ; C. Seymour, Woodrow Wilson and the World War ( 192 1 ) .
VI. Works of Public Men:- William H. Taft, Presidential Ad-
dresses and State Papers, 1000-1010 (1910) ; Tom L. Johnson, My
Story (1911); Robert M. La Follette, La Follette's Autobiography
(1913); Woodrow Wilson, The New Freedom (1913); also Selected
Addresses and Public Papers, ed. by A. B. Hart (1918) and State
Papers and Addresses (Review of Reviews, 1918); Theodore Roose-
velt, America and the World War (1915), The Foes of Our Own
Household (1916), Fear God and Take Your Own Part (1916), and
National Strength and International Duty (1917); H. C. Lodge, War
Addresses, 1015-1017 (1917) ; E. J. David, Leonard Wood on National
Issues (1920) ; Champ Clark, My Quarter Century of American Poli-
tics (1920); Warren G. Harding, Rededicating America (1920) and
Our Common Country (1921).
VII. Special Topics: C. R. Van Hise, The Conservation of Natural
Resources in the United States (1910); S. J. Duncan-Clark, The Pro-
gressive Movement; its Principles and its Programme (1913) ; B. P. De
Witt, The Progressive Movement (1915); A. B. Hart, The Monroe
Doctrine: an Interpretation (1916); W. R. Castle, Jr., Wake Up,
America: A Plea for the Recognition of our Individual and National
Responsibilities (1916); Theodore Roosevelt, The Great Adventure:
Present-Day Studies in American Nationalism (1918); F. A. Cleve-
land and J. Shafer, Democracy in Reconstruction (1919); Guy Emer-
son, The New Frontier: A Study of the American Liberal Spirit (1920) ;
J. H. Hammond, and J. W. Jenks, Great American Issues (1921);
Vice-Adml. Cleaves, A History of the Transport-Service (1921).
VIII. Compendiums, Documents and Chronology: American
Year Book (1910-19); New International Year Book (1909- );
New York Times Current History (1914 ) ; Literary Digest (1910 ) ;
McLaughlin and Hart, Cyclopaedia of American Government (3
vols., 1916); Committee on Public Information, War Informa-
tion Series; Political Science Quarterly, Supplements; Record of
Political Events (Annual); American Journal of International Law
(Quarterly). (A. B. H.)
UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY (see 27.736). The
expansion of the Naval Academy in the period 1910-20 began
before the entry of America into the World War. In 1912 the
six-year course (including two years at sea as " midship-
men ") was discontinued, and midshipmen were commissioned
ensigns immediately upon graduation from the Academy. By
Acts of Congress in 1916 and 1917, the number of annual
appointments to the Academy allowed to each senator, repre-
sentative, and delegate in Congress was increased from two to
five; presidential appointments from 10 to 15, and appoint-
ments of qualified enlisted men from 15 to 100. Thus the total
number of authorized appointments reached 3,126; and the
number of midshipmen increased from 758 in 1910 to 1,230 in
1916, and in 1920 to about 2,200. Since 1920, physically qualified
candidates have been allowed to enter either by examination
or by certificate from a recognized school.
As a war measure, the class of 1917 was graduated in March of
that year, and the class of 1918, after a period of intensive study, in
the following June. The course was reduced to three years; but by
cutting down examination periods, holidays, and reviews, and in-
creasing the academic year to nine months, practically the same
work was covered. In 1919 the four-year course was resumed.
Between Sept. 1917 and Jan. 1919, five reserve officer classes, com-
posed chiefly of former enlisted men who were graduates of technical
schools, were quartered at the Academy for periods of about three
months' training. In this way 1,622 officers were added to the
service as temporary ensigns. The post-graduate school for officers,
established in 1912 in the former marine barracks near the Academy,
was suspended during the World War, but reopened in 1919 with
about 50 student-officers. These spend a half-year or year at the
post-graduate school before continuing their studies in civilian
technical institutions. To provide for increased attendance, in 1918
two wings accommodating 1,100 additional midshipmen were added
to Bancroft Hall, an extension to the Marine Engineering Building
was completed in 1919, and a new Seamanship Building in 1920.
In this period, the discipline and the course of studies were modified
progressively to meet changed requirements. In 1919 the civilian
corps of instructors was reorganized with increased pay and system-
atic promotion. The staff of the Academy increased from 146 officers
and civilian instructors in 1910 to nearly 300 in 1921. (A. H. S.)
UNTERMYER, SAMUEL (1858- ), American lawyer, was
born at Lynchburg, Va., March 2 1858. He was educated at the
College of the City of New York and at the Columbia Law
School (LL.B. 1876). He was admitted to the bar in 1879 and
practised thereafter in New York City. Between that time and
the end of 1921 he was counsel in many celebrated cases cover-
ing almost every phase of corporate, civil, criminal and inter-
national law. As counsel for H. Clay Pierce he prevented the
Standard Oil Co., after its dissolution in 1910, from dominating
9O2
UNWIN URUGUAY
the Waters-Pierce Co. In the same year he effected the merger
of the Utah Copper Co. with the Boston Consolidated and the
Nevada Consolidated Co.'s involving more than $100,000,000.
In 1912, as counsel to the Kaliwerke Aschersleben and the
Disconte Gesellschaft in the controversy arising out of the con-
trol of the potash industry by the German Government, he
assisted in bringing about a settlement. In 1903 he undertook
the first judicial exposure of " high finance " in connexion with
the failure of the U.S. Shipbuilding Co., organized only a year
before as a consolidation of the larger shipbuilding companies
in America including that subsequently known as the Bethle-
hem Steel Co. As a result of the sensational exposures connected
with that company a reorganization was effected under the name
of the Bethlehem Steel Co., in which Mr. Untermyer became a
large shareholder. After this he conducted a number of similar
exposures. In 1911 he delivered an address, entitled, " Is There
a Money Trust? " which led the following year to an investiga-
tion in which he appeared as counsel, by the Committee on
Banking and Currency of the Federal House of Representatives.
This so-called Pujo Money Trust Investigation resulted in the
passage of a mass of remedial legislation. Mr. Untermyer for
years agitated before Congress and state Legislatures such
measures as the compulsory regulation of stock exchanges. He
for many years conducted agitations and wrote magazine articles
dealing with reforms in the criminal laws, the regulation of
trusts and combinations and other economic subjects. He was
counsel for many reorganization committees, including those of
the Seaboard Air Line, the Rock Island railway, the Central
Fuel Oil Co., and the Southern Iron and Steel Co. In 1915 he
acted as one of the counsel for the U.S. Government in the suit
brought against the Secretary of the Treasury and the Comp-
troller of the Currency by the Riggs National Bank of Washing-
ton, B.C., which charged there was a conspiracy to wreck it;
the defendants were cleared. He took an active part in prepar-
ing the Federal Reserve Bank law, the Clayton bill, the Federal
Trade Commission bill, and other legislation curbing trusts.
He was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in
1904, 1908, 1912, and delegate-at-large for the state of New
York in 1916. He was a strong supporter of President Wilson's
administration. After America entered the World War he was
adviser to the Treasury Department regarding the interpreta-
tion of the income tax and the excess profits tax laws. He was
appointed by President Wilson to serve on the U.S. section of
the International High Commission, which sat at Buenos Aires,
in 1916, for the purpose of framing uniform laws for the Pan-
American countries. In 1920-1 he was counsel for the Lockwood
Committee, appointed by the state Legislature to investigate
an alleged conspiracy among the building trades of New York
City. It was charged that labour leaders were using their power
by extorting bribes for the prevention of strikes, by preventing
independent bids and by forcing building awards to favourites.
Many illegal acts were disclosed and numerous convictions
secured. Robert P. Brindell, who was at the head of the labour
council of the building trades with a membership of 115,000 was
prosecuted by Mr. Untermyer, who conducted the case in per-
son as a special attorney-general, and convicted of extortion
and sentenced to from five to ten years in state prison. At the
end of 1921, when the prosecutions were being continued, more
than 600 indictments had been found as a result of the investiga-
tion and many more were said to be impending. There were
more than 200 convictions including pleas of guilty by employers,
labour leaders and others and over $500,000 had been collected
in fines. In connexion with the exposure of abuses and acts of
illegality among the labour unions, all unions in the state were
required, under the threat of criminal prosecution and of sub-
mitting to incorporation, to amend their constitutions and by-
laws by eliminating these abuses; this they all agreed to do. It
was shown that in many of the building trades both manufac-
turers and dealers, often with the collusive aid of labour leaders,
had organized to fix prices and prevent competition. Subse-
quent prosecutions established the fact that these and other
unfair practices were an important element in preventing build-
ing operations and increasing rental charges for dwelling property.
Public opinion, especially in view of the housing shortage,
reacted sharply to these revelations, and it was felt that Mr.
Untermyer's work in this connexion had been performed with
admirable public spirit, energy and courage. It was generally
believed, moreover, that the evils brought to light by the com-
mittee were not confined to New York, and a demand for similar
investigations arose in other parts of the country.
Mr. Untermyer was an ardent believer in the Zionist move-
ment and was President of the Koren Hayesod, the agency
through which the movement was conducted in America.
UNWIN, RAYMOND (1863- ), English architect, was born
at Rotherham, Yorks, in 1863, and educated at Magdalen College
school, Oxford. He received his earlier training in an engineer's j
office and later as an architect. He was for many years asso- ,
ciated in practice with Barry Parker in Buxton. Interesting
himself more particularly in housing as a social question he
acquired a reputation as an authority on the laying-out and
designing of " Garden-Cities," being responsible for the first
English example at Letchworth. The planning of many other
garden suburbs, villages and estates was carried out from his
designs. Amongst th'em are the layout and buildings at New
Earswick, Yorks, for the Joseph Rowntree Village Trust, and
the Hampstead Garden Suburb in the N.W. district of London.
In 1914 he was appointed the first chief town-planning inspector
to the Local Government Board, and, immediately on the out-
break of the World War, director of the housing branch under the
Ministry of Munitions. Here he was responsible for the layout
of many buildings for the new township of Gretna, and for
Mancot Village, Queensferry, and much other work. He alsol
during the war served on departmental committees dealing
with small holding buildings, building by-laws, and building j
materials research. After the war he was appointed chief archi-
tect dealing with site planning, and, subsequently, deputy
director of housing, under the Ministry of Health. He published |
Town-planning in Practice (translated into French and German),
and (with Barry Parker) The Art of Building a House.
URUGUAY (see 27.805). The pop. at the end of 1918, the
latest figure available, was 1,429,585. This represented a
growth of 34% since 1908. The average density increased from
12-9 per sq. m. in 1908 to 19-2 in 1918, the latter being greater
than that of any other S. American country.
The administration of President Claudio Williman (1907-11)
marked a definite period of progress and stabilization. Since
no serious armed attempt was made to overthrow the Govern-
ment, its efforts could be largely concentrated on educa-
tional progress and internal development. The first child-labour
legislation was adopted, the death penalty abolished and a
model penitentiary and a tuberculosis sanitarium were estab-
lished. The Agronomical Institute of the university of Monte-
video, which was opened on Sept. 15 1906, developed into a
National Agricultural College modelled on the best European 1
and U.S. institutions, and distracted the attention of the rising'
generation from revolution as a profession. The first chilled
meat plant was opened in 1907, and a large and thoroughly
modern packing and freezing plant at Montevideo in 1912.
In 1920 Uruguay had two freezing plants, 13 salting plants,
three canning and three tongue-preserving factories and a large
factory for liquid extract of meat. Through rail communication
between Montevideo and Rio de Janeiro was completed in 1911
by the connexion of various railways in southern Brazil, and so
increased the points of contact between Brazil and Uruguay.
The social and educational progress of the country continued
during the second administration of Jose Battle y Ordonez ( i ru i~
15), who succeeded Williman. Hours of labour were further
regulated, a National Insurance Bank was established and many
experts were brought from the United States and Europe (o
advance various phases of education, particularly industrial!
and agricultural. The first S. American International Con-
ference of Agricultural Defence was held at Montevideo on
May 2 1913, and $200,000 annually was appropriated for free 1
seeds for farmers. A law of July 12 1911 set aside Sioo.ooo
UTAH
903
Uruguayan gold for encouraging immigration. While only 262
immigrants arrived in 1908, the number reached 2,455 in 191
and 5,358 in 1913, a tribute to the continued stability and pros-
perity of the country.
In May 1910 ratifications were exchanged of the boundary
treaty concluded in Oct. 1909 between Uruguay and 'Brazil;
this settled several minor but long-pending questions in a sat-
isfactory manner. A subsequent treaty of May 7 1913, since
carried out, provided for delimiting and marking the bound-
ary. Brazil ceded to Uruguay " the waters and navigation "
of Lake Mirim and the Yaguaron river, and the contracting
parties agreed not to fortify their new frontiers.
Uruguay continued to prosper under her next president,
Feliciano Vieira (1915-9), who surrounded himself with able
advisers of the young and progressive group which continued to
dominate Uruguayan affairs. Most of them had Studied or
travelled abroad. Baltasar Brum, Vieira's successor in the
presidency, had been Minister of Foreign Affairs in the latter
part of Vieira's administration, when the growing pro-Allied
sympathies of Uruguay were crystallized by the entry of the
United States into the World War.
The Uruguayan Government, which had been pro-Ally, did
not hesitate to express its sympathy with the action of the
United States in declaring war, acting on the principle that
" any act perpetrated against one of the countries of America
in violation of the precepts of international kw as universally
recognized shall constitute an offence against all of them and
consequently cause a common reaction in all," a statement
largely inspired by dislike of Germany's submarine policy. On
June 19 1917 President Vieira issued a proclamation stating that
Uruguay would not regard as subject to the restrictions applicable
to a belligerent any American nation which, in defence of its
own rights, finds itself at war with nations of other continents.
A month later a U.S. squadron under Adml. Caperton visited
Montevideo and was received with great popular enthusiasm
and pro-Ally demonstrations; while the Luxburg disclosures
and the Argentine Congress's vote in Sept. (see ARGENTINA)
for a rupture of diplomatic relations with Germany further
stirred Uruguay. Finally, on Oct. 6 1917 President Vieira for-
mally broke diplomatic relations with Germany, having been
authorized to do so by a Congressional vote of 74 to 23, and on
Oct. 15 a presidential decree stated that the rules of neutrality
would not be applied to the Entente Allies. July 4 and 14 were
proclaimed national holidays, in recognition of the national
holidays in the United States and in France, and although no
military or naval aid was sent to the Allies, Uruguay's sympa-
thies continued with them until the end of the war. On
Nov. 9 1917 the eight German merchant vessels in Montevideo
harbour were seized by the Uruguayan Government and were
chartered by the U.S. Emergency Fleet Corp. A credit of 15,-
000,000 pesos (approximately 3,000,000 at normal exchange)
was advanced to England by the Uruguayan Government at 5 %,
to be used for the purchase of supplies in Uruguay, and a visiting
British warship was most cordially welcomed. No less than
five new branches of foreign banks were opened at Montevideo
between 1915 and 1921, one of them from the United States and
one from Canada. Uruguayan trade with the United States
greatly increased during this period.
For some time Battle y Ordonez and his followers had been
urging a new constitution to replace that promulgated on July
18 1830, and in 1916 a Constitutional Convention met to discuss
one which had largely been composed and influenced by Battle
himself. The convention concluded its task in Oct. 1917, and
the new constitution came into effect March i 1919. The most
important change in it was the definite separation of Church and
State, making all religions free. The Roman Catholic Church,
though no longer recognized as the state religion, was given
control of such places of worship as had been already wholly or
partly constructed by funds from the national treasury. Mem-
bers of the clergy may be chosen as representatives or senators.
Decentralization of the formerly strongly centralized Federal
Government was brought about by the installation of popularly
elected assemblies and autonomous councils of administration
to regulate the local affairs of the departments, with control over
the municipalities. The chief-of-police in each department,
however, is paid by the national treasury and is directly subor-
dinate to the president of the republic, who appoints and removes
him. For the first time in the history of American constitutions
the executive power is divided. It is shared between the presi-
dent (elected by direct vote for four years) and an administra-
tive board composed of nine members elected by a popular vote
for a six-year term, one-third of its members retiring every two
years. The president cooperates with this board, which directs
the affairs of the departments of Finance, Public Instruction
and Public Works, the president controlling those of the Interior,
Foreign Relations, War and Marine. Minority representation is
protected by a system of plural voting, and for the first time in
S. American constitutions the adoption of woman suffrage is
sanctioned for national or local elections, but a two-thirds
majority of all the members in each chamber of the Legislature
is required for its adoption. The General Assembly, composed of
two Houses, is charged with the interpretation of the constitution,
and also elects the justices of the Supreme Court. Perhaps the
fact that Uruguay spends more money on education than on her
combined army and navy (in 1915 there was one school in
Uruguay for every 900 inhabitants, 63 % of the children of school
age attending school), best illustrates her prospects of progress
under this new and liberal constitution.
Uruguay's youngest president, Baltasar Brum, took office on
March i 1919, shortly after travelling, while Minister of Foreign
Affairs, in the United States and throughout S. America. He
had developed a strongly pro-Ally and pan-American policy
while Minister of Foreign Affairs, and he surrounded himself
with an able and progressive cabinet. The visit of Mr. Bain-
bridge Colby, U.S. Secretary of State, to Montevideo in Dec.
1920, to return President Brum's visit to the United States two
years before, caused renewed expressions of pan-American
solidarity, which were intensified by the continued numbers of
young men and women sent to the United States to study and
the reduction of the average passenger voyage from New York
to Montevideo from 24 to 17 days. Uruguay ratified the Peace
of Versailles in 1919, and also concluded obligatory arbitration
treaties with Great Britain and Italy in that year.
Economics. The public debt of Uruguay was $129,774,119 in
1900 and $154,733,367 in 1916, which shows a very small relative
increase. Agricultural development favoured the increase of small
holdings and of peasant proprietors. In 1908 there were 43,874
rural holdings and in 1916 57,974. In 1916 there were 11,472,852
sheep, 7,802,442 meat cattle, 567,154 horses, 303,958 swine, 16,663
mules and asses, and 12,218 goats. The accompanying table, given
in U.S. dollars, contains the latest available statistics of foreign
commerce :
Imports into, and Exports from, Uruguay.
From or to
Imports
Exports
1907
1917
1907
1917
United States
Great Britain
(United
Kingdom)
Argentina .
Brazil .
France
$3-556,336
11,965,605
2,650,335
1,813,018
4,057,487
$11,009,259
6,054,393
8,421,124
6,677,020
1,429,274
$2,415,632
3-089,343
8,419,392
6,346,753
7,961,725
$26,218,746
19,358,161
12,376,146
1,299,622
16,180,680
The trade with Spain was not important. In 1907 Germany stood
second among the countries supplying Uruguay's imports. In 1917
she only supplied Uruguay with $106,733 worth of merchandise.
(C. L. C.)
UTAH (see 27.813). The pop. of Utah in 1920 was 449,396,
an increase over 1910 of 76,045 or 20-4%, a rate of increase
5-5% greater than that of the United States as a whole. The
density of pop. increased from 4-5 persons per sq. m. in 1910
to 5-5 in 1920. The urban pop. increased from 46-3% in 1910
to 48% in 1920.
Before 1891 the two political organizations in the state were
known as People's party and Liberal party, closely correspond-
ing to Mormon and anti-Mormon. These old names ceased to
be used in the decade 1910-20; there was an evident desire to
904
UTAH
forget the old feuds between Mormons and non-Mormons who
alike composed the Republican and Democratic parties, and
political divisions were no longer on religious lines. Utah has
been Republican since its admission as a state in 1896, excepting
in 1896, when the electoral vote was cast for Bryan, and in 1916,
when the presidential vote was for Wilson and a Democratic
governor and other state officers were elected.
Recent governors have been William Spry (Republican),
1909-17; Simon Bamberger (Democrat), 1917-21; Charles R.
Mabey (Republican), 1921- . Bamberger, the only governor of
Utah not connected with the Mormon Church, was born in Ger-
many of Jewish parents. Joseph Fielding Smith, president of
the Church of Latter Day Saints from 1901, died in Nov. 1918.
He was a nephew of Joseph Smith, founder of the Mormon
Church. His successor was Heber J. Grant.
The state's most important irrigation enterprise, the Straw-
berry Project, begun in 1906, was practically completed in 1918.
By means of a tunnel 4 m. long through the Wasatch Mts.,
water is brought from a drainage basin on the E. side of the
mountains into the Utah valley, 45 m. away. The reservoir
in Strawberry valley, covering 8,100 ac., 7,600 ft. above sea-
level, has a capacity of 280,000 ac. ft., of which only 75,000
are to be used annually until the project is enlarged. Use was
begun Sept. -1913, and in 1920 70,000 ac. were irrigated from it.
The state's irrigated acreage in 1909 was 458, 273; in 1919 722,-
772; and works existed capable of irrigating 944,727 acres. Two
canyons, Brice's and Little Zion, are reserved as national parks.
In Aug. 1909 Earl Douglass, a geologist, while conducting an
expedition sent out by the Carnegie Museum of Pittsburgh, dis-
covered in Uinta county the first complete skeleton of a dinosaur.
Excavations for its removal revealed a deposit, the most exten-
sive yet found, of fossil remains of extinct animals. The spot,
embracing 80 ac., was set aside in 1915 by the U.S. Government
and named Dinosaur National Monument.
Amendments to Constitution. Section 3 of Article 10 was amended
Nov. 8 1910 to provide that funds from the state tax for high
schools be apportioned among cities and school districts according
to attendance at high schools, so long as the schools are maintained
at a standard fixed by the state Board of Education. Section 4 of
Article 13 was amended to provide that after Jan. I 1919 metal-
liferous mines and mining claims be assessed at $5 per ac. and in
addition thereto at a value based on some multiple or submultiple of
net annual proceeds. All other mines or mining claims and other
valuable mineral deposits, including coal or hydrocarbons, are
assessed at full value, as are also machinery and surface improve-
ments. Article 22, Miscellaneous, was amended by adding Section 3
prohibiting after Jan. I 1919 the manufacture and sale of intoxicating
liquor containing in excess of one-half of I % of alcohol. Amendment
to Section 7, Article 13, approved by referendum Nov. 1920, pro-
vided for a minimum appropriation for school purposes from state
funds, >f $25 for each child of school age. Amendment to Section 5,
Article 16, gave the Legislature power to make recovery in fatal
cases definite, thereby eliminating long suits, enabling dependents to
obtain definite amounts without expense, and protecting them
against settlements at less than the law provides.
Government. By an Act of the Legislature, passed in 191 1 to take
effect in 1912, government by a board of five commissioners was made
mandatory in all cities of the 1st class; and in cities of the 2nd class
by a board of three commissioners; cities of the 3rd class remained
under mayor and councilmen. An Act of 1919 authorized levying of
taxes for libraries and gymnasiums in cities of the 3rd class and in
unincorporated towns.
Education. In igig'Utah enacted much legislation extending the
educational work of the state. Among things provided for were the
establishment of standard high schools in voting precincts having
1,200 or more school population; vocational education; part-time
schools for those excused for necessary employment; health educa-
tion supervisors and school nurses; care for physical welfare of chil-
dren of pre-school age; free dispensaries and clinics; Americanization
by requiring persons not speaking English to attend evening schools;
county public libraries; libraries and gymnasiums in cities of the
3rd class and unincorporated towns. By 1920 legal provisions had
been made for public schooling, including kindergartens, for all
children from 4 to 18 years old, and for supervision of the activities
of all children of school age for 12 months in the year. Class-room
instruction was not extended over the usual vacation periods, but
each student was to enroll for " out-of-school " activities in which
he and his parents might be directly interested. Credit for such work
systematically done was to be given on the school records. Improve-
ment of equipment and teaching staff resulted from consolidation of
many rural schools. While in 1909 685 public schools were reported
and in 1920 only 683, increase of enrolled pupils from 84,804 to
117,406 reflected the increased provision for public education. The
average attendance in 1920 was 97,008. The total expenditures of
1919-20 were $8,353,133. The total number of teachers in 1909
was 2,255 (1,645 women) and in 1920 3,739 (2,824 women). The
average salary of high-school principals in Salt Lake City in 1920
was $3,750; the lowest salary paid any teachers in the rural schools
was $502. The Branch Normal School at Cedar City, formerly
connected with the university of Utah, was transferred to the
supervision of the Agricultural College. There were in 1920 46 tax-
supported libraries, 22 of the buildings being Carnegie gifts.
Agriculture. The number of farms in Utah in 11920 was 25,662,
an increase of 18-4 % over 1909. The farm acreage was 5,050,410, of
which 1,715,380 ac. or 34% were improved. The value of lands and
buildings in 1920 was $243,751.758; of implements and machinery
$13,514,787; of live stock $54,008,183: showing respectively an
increase over 1910 of 107-4%; 2O2 '5% and 87-6%. The average
value of land and buildings per farm was in 1920 9,499 as compared
with $5,423 in IQIO. Of all farms operated by owners in 1920, 47 (> ",,
were mortgaged as compared with 28-9% in 1910. Of the 25,248
white farmers, 21,276 were native and 3,972 foreign-born. Of na-
tive white farmers 18,683 were owners, 268 managers, and 2,320 ten-
ants. Of foreign-born white farmers, 3,652 were owners, 25 mana-
gers, and 295 tenants. The 414 coloured farmers comprised 239
owners, 3 managers, and 172 tenants. There were 627 women
farmers, including 609 owners, I manager and 17 tenants.
Crops. The total value of crops in 1919 was $58,067,067, an
increase of 219% over 1910. In order of value the chief crops were
hay and forage; cereals; sugar beets; potatoes and other vegetables;
fruits and nuts; clover and alfalfa seed. As compared with that of
1909 the acreage of oats, 61,825, showed 23-5% decrease; wheat
268,457, increase of 50-5%; barley, 15,938, decrease of 40-4%. The
average yield of oats per ac. in 1919 was 27-9 bus.; of wheat 15-3 bus.;
barley 22-9 bus. The total acreage of hay and forage in 1919 was
549,967 with a total production of 1,031,609 tons. There were 12,047
ac. in potatoes, a decrease of 15.2% as compared with 1909; the
average yield per ac. was 136-8 bus. as against 169-5 > n I 99- The
production of strawberries in 1919 was 484,792 qt.; raspberries
363,801 qt. ; apples 759,696 bus. ; peaches 883,950 bus. ; cherries 123,-
477 bus. The acreage of sugar beets in 1919 was 93,359 as compared
with 27,442 in 1909, an increase of 240 per cent. In beet production
(1,338,000 tons) Utah ranked next to Colorado in 1920. In that year
there were sugar factories in 1 8 towns, and their product totalled
153,200 tons. The value of the sugar production in 1920 was ap-
proximately $30,000,000.
Live Slock. -On Jan. I 1920 the number of beef cattle was 397,563;
dairy cattle 108,015; value of beef cattle $16,806,429; dairy cattle
$5,821,441. The number of horses was 125,471 valued at $9,642,418;
of sheep 1,691,795 valued at $18,881,529; of goats 29,512 valued at
$253,100; of swine 99,361 valued at $1,551,880.
Industries. Important industries in 1920 were meat-packing;
creameries and condenseries; canneries; flour and cereals; candy;
salt; metal and sheet iron; cement and lime. The following table,
from the U.S. census of 1920, gives a comparative summary of
manufactures for 1919 and 1909:
1919
1909
Number of establishments
Wage-earners ....
Capital . _ .
Cost of materials
Value of products .
1,160
18,868
$140,785,034
$110,154,349
$156,933.071
749
11,78!
$52,626,640
$41,265,661
$61,989,277
Mining. The production of gold in Utah has been decreasing
steadily since 1908. In 1920 the value was $1,949,000. More than
half the gold of 1920 was from the Bingham district, about 30%
from the Tintic district, and the rest from Park City and other
camps. Most of the gold was produced from silicious, copper, and
lead ores treated at smelting plants. The largest producers of gold
were the Utah Copper Co., U.S. Mining Co., Deer Trail, Chief
Consolidated, Utah Consolidated, and Grand Central mines. The
value of silver output in 1908 was $4,479, 209 and in 1920 $12,664,000,
the latter a slight decrease from 1919. The Chief Cpnsolidated Mine
at Eureka continued to be the largest producer of silver in the state,
and the Tintic Standard followed closely. Althpugh production of
copper in 1920 was somewhat less than in 1919, it was considerably
greater than a decade before. In 1908 the copper output was valued I
at $12,851,377 and in 1920 $19,991,000. The Utah Copper Co. at
Bingham produced nearly 9,000,000 Ib. a month throughout the year.
In 1908 lead mined in Utah was valued at $3,728,655; in 1919
$6,562.940; in 1920 $10,939,000. The largest producers of lead were
the Utah Apex, U.S. Mining Co., Tintic Standard, Chief Con-
solidated, Utah Consolidated, Silver King Coalition, Daily Judge,
Ophir Hill, and Eagle and Blue mines. The largest increases were
those of Chief Comsolidated and Tintic Standard in the Tintic dis-
trict. The zinc product increased from $68,646 in 1908 to $323,465
in 1919 and $487,000 in 1920. In 1908 the production of coal was
1,846,792 tons; in 1918 the output of Carbon county alone was
4,607,192 tons; and in 1920 the total state production was 6,125,000
tons. (G. E. F.)
VACCINE THERAPY
905
VACCINE THERAPY. Since the discoveries of Pasteur it
has become recognized that a very large number of the
diseases from which human beings suffer are due to infec-
tion of the tissues by living micro-organisms, most of which
belong to the simpler forms of plant life.
Immunity from such infections may be natural or may be
acquired. By natural immunity we understand a natural re-
sistance to infection by certain micro-organisms which are known
to have pathogenic properties for other species of animals. It
is known, for instance, that microbes which produce a rapidly
fatal disease in one kind of animal are quite innocuous when
introduced even in enormous numbers into another kind.
As an example of an acquired immunity may be taken the
immunity conferred as a rule for a lifetime by an attack of
measles or chicken-pox. The individual who has once overcome
such an infection is usually immune from a further attack, even
though exposed to infection.
It is this fact which led Jenner to try to confer immunity
against smallpox by producing a modified mild " attack " by
vaccination with calf lymph. It is now admitted that such
vaccination does confer immunity, and that even should in-
fection occur the disease runs a mild course.
Since the discovery of bacteria as causative agents of disease,
much study has been devoted to the part played by the cells and
fluids of the tissues in recovering from bacterial infections.
Evidence has been sought for response on the part of the body
to the bacterial invasion. It is to Metchnikoff that we owe the
knowledge that the white blood corpuscles and other cells of the
body react to the introduction of bacteria into the tissues.'
Enormous numbers of these cells congregate at the site of inva-
sion and engulf the microbes (phagocytosis). As Sir John Burdon
Sanderson aptly put it, the white blood corpuscles act as the
policemen of the body.
It was soon learnt, however, that this is not the only way in
which the body reacts to microbic infection. Buchner was able
to show that the tissue fluids and the blood serum in particular
acquire new properties as a result of bacterial infection, properties
which render them highly injurious to the invading microbes.
It was shown, for instance, that if actively mobile typhoid
bacilli are brought into contact with the blood serum of a normal
individual the bacilli are but little affected by the serum. On the
contrary, if the bacilli are brought into contact with the serum of
an individual convalescent from typhoid fever their mobility
ceases, they are massed into clumps (agglutination) and finally
killed (bactericidal action) and dissolved (bacteriolytic action).
Sir Almroth Wright was able to demonstrate that a further
property is acquired by the serum, namely an increased power
to render the bacteria more readily ingestible by the phagocytic
cells (opsonic action). Exactly how and where these new proper-
ties are acquired is not yet known, but one of the most striking
facts emerging from the study of these reactions is that they are
directed against the particular micro-organism which has in-
vaded the tissues; the reactions are said to be specific. Thus the
! blood serum of a patient convalescent from typhoid fever, which
is strongly bactericidal for the typhoid bacillus, behaves like a
normal serum when brought into contact with any other kind of
bacteria. Similarly, while an attack of typhoid fever confers
i immunity against a second infection by the typhoid bacillus, it
confers no immunity from infection by other bacteria, even those
so closely related as the para-typhoid bacilli.
It must be admitted that recent work goes to confirm the
opinion that there is a concomitant non-specific response common
to the reaction against all microbic infections, but this does not
detract from the importance of recognizing the highly specific
| nature of these immunity reactions.
A very important step forward was taken when it was demon-
' strated that the body responds to the introduction into the
tissues of dead bacteria in the same way as it does when living
bacteria invade the tissues, for this made possible artificial
immunization. To attempt to confer immunity against any
microbic disease by the introduction of very small numbers of
even attenuated living bacteria is fraught with manifest dangers,
for the bacteria are capable of multiplication in the tissues and
are no longer under control. To attempt to confer immunity
against disease by the introduction of dead microbes into the
tissues is a different matter, for the dosage can be regulated and
the bacteria cannot multiply in the tissues.
Thus it was that Sir Almroth Wright proposed to confer im-
munity from typhoid infection by inoculation into the healthy
tissues of a standardized suspension of dead typhoid bacilli in
physiological salt solution (typhoid vaccine). The immense
benefit derived from such inoculations was fully demonstrated
during the World War 1914-8. Wright's studies in immunization
had demonstrated that it was possible to confer immunity
against microbic infections by the inoculation of bacterial vac-
cines into healthy individuals. It seemed at first that nothing
but harm could result from the inoculation of such vaccines once
the tissues had become infected. It appeared, indeed, as if to do
so were merely to add more poison to a system already being
poisoned. Such, however, is not the case. Pasteur was the first
to show, in connexion with rabies, that beneficial results could
be obtained by inoculating vaccine during the incubation period
of the disease. But it was the discovery by Wright that the
rapidity with which a specific response to the inoculation of a
vaccine occurs depends on the dose of vaccine given, and that
this response occurs very rapidly if the dose is an appropriate
one, which opened up the whole field of vaccine therapy. Wright
showed that the inoculation of too large a dose of vaccine can
lead to a state of lessened resistance to infection and that no
immunizing response follows. But this so-called negative phase
can be modified as regards severity and duration by the adjust-
ment of the dose, even to the point of its virtual disappearance,
and nevertheless a good immunizing response follows. And such
a satisfactory response occurs when vaccines are inoculated into
an already infected individual. This means that, if the gravest
generalized infections be excepted, there is not in microbic
diseases a wholesale poisoning of the tissues of the body. There
is infection of certain tissues and others remain healthy or, at all
events, capable of an immunizing response. And it is to the
power of these healthy tissues to respond that we turn in vaccine
therapy. Just as the tissues of a healthy individual inoculated
with an appropriate vaccine respond by elaborating protective
substances against the microbe or microbes contained in that
vaccine, and such response confers immunity on the individual,
so do the healthy tissues of an infected individual respond to a
vaccine containing the infecting microbe, and such a response
raises the resisting power of the individual to the infection.
Now infections by microbes can broadly be divided into two
classes: (a) generalized, and (6) localized. By a generalized
infection we mean that the microbes and their products have
ready access to the blood and lymph stream, and thus exert their
baneful influence not only locally but at a distance on various
tissues of the body. In a localized infection, on the other hand,
the microbes affect a particular region of the body only and the
remaining regions are not at all or only quite secondarily affected.
From what has been said before, it is obvious that in the first
class vaccine therapy has but a limited sphere of application; in
the second class it has a very wide one. For it is on the satisfac-
tory response of the tissues that the success of vaccine therapy
depends and this will bear definite relationship to the healthiness
of the tissues; further, the gravity of the infection must neces-
sarily enter into account, just as a small war calls for but a small
effort, whilst a great war, in which the life of a nation is at stake,
calls for a maximal and sustained effort.
When it is borne in mind that the substances elaborated in
response to the inoculation of a vaccine are largely carried to the
906
VACHELL VAIL
site of infection by the blood stream, it will be realized that the
success or failure of vaccine therapy depends largely on the blood
supply of the affected area. So long as the newly elaborated anti-
bacterial substances can come into contact with the bacteria,
success may be anticipated, but when barriers to their arrival
exist, success is limited or denied by the extent or completeness
of the barriers. Thus in acute lobar pneumonia the affected area
of the lung is occupied by an impenetrable clot of blood; little
good can therefore be expected from vaccine therapy once this
clot has formed and as long as it remains. But this does not
preclude the exploitation of vaccine therapy in pneumonia in the
earliest stages of the disease or after resorption of the clot has
begun. Fortunately, in the majority of infections there is no such
general disturbance of the blood supply to the infected area; in
such case it surely follows that a supply of blood rich in pro-
tective substances must constitute an advantage, as against a
supply of blood poorer in such substances. It will be realized
from these remarks that the utmost care is needed in the accurate
bacteriological diagnosis of each infection before vaccine therapy
is employed, and the vaccine must be prepared with care as to
sterility and specificity.
The administration of the vaccine needs the knowledge not
only of general medicine but of bacteriology and the principles
of active immunization against microbic infections.
The Vaccine. For practical purposes bacterial vaccine may be
defined as sterilized and enumerated suspensions of bacteria, the
liquid medium being either physiological salt solution or dilute
nutrient broth. The bacteria must be isolated in pure culture and
strictly identified by the usual tests. The microbes thus identified
are usually inoculated on to the surface of a solid medium (e.g.
agar-agar) and, after growth has occurred, the bacterial colonies are
floated off into sterile physiological salt solution. The suspension
thus obtained is placed in a hermetically sealed tube and thoroughly
shaken, if necessary by mechanical means, so as to break up the
colonies and obtain an even suspension. A small sample of the sus-
pension is then removed for enumeration, the tube once more
hermetically sealed and the whole placed in a water bath at 60 C. for
one hour. This temperature has been found to be sufficient to kill
most of the pathogenic bacteria without profoundly altering their
chemical composition. Sterility of the vaccine is not, however, pre-
sumed and each one is subjected to cultural control before being
certified sterile.
The enumeration of the suspension may be carried out in various
ways. The original method of Wright is as follows:
It has been the practice for some 25 years to enumerate the cor-
puscles of the blood in a counting chamber of known depth and
ruled with squares of known size. Wright, therefore, mixes an equal
quantity of blood and the bacterial suspension. Films of the mixture
are made and appropriately stained for microscopic examination.
An adequate number, about 500 usually suffices, of red blood cor-
puscles are counted in a series of fields of the microscope and at the
same time the number of bacteria seen is noted. The number of red
blood corpuscles per cub. mm. has previously been determined in a
counting chamber, so that all that remains to be done is to work out
the proportion of bacteria to red cells and so to arrive at the number
of bacteria per cub. mm. or cm. of the suspension. , There a're tech-
nical difficulties in the way of enumerating certain bacteria, e.g. the
tubercle bacilli ; in these cases the bacterial growth is weighed, and
the dosage, instead of being expressed in millions of microbes per
cub. cm., is given in milligrammes or their fractions, e.g. a usual dose
of a staphylococcus vaccine will be 250,000,000 cocci, whilst that of a
tubercle vaccine would be o-oooi milligrammes.
A vaccine made from cultures obtained directly from the patient
to be treated is said to be an autogenous vaccine. A vaccine made
not directly from cultures obtained from the patient but from
cultures of the same species of microbe as that which is infecting him
is termed a stock vaccine. In general it may be affirmed that
autogenous vaccines are nearly invariably to be preferred to stock
vaccines, whilst in the case of certain microbes they are indis-
pensable. Stock vaccines, however, are usually effective, save time
and expense and have very wide application. Latterly attempts
have been made to reduce the toxic action of the bacterial sus-
pensions and so-called sensitized and detoxicated vaccines have been
recommended, but it is doubtful whether these procedures con-
stitute a useful advance.
The accompanying table gives a summary of the microbes from
which vaccines are commonly prepared, together with the minimal
and maximal effective doses in which they are administered.
Vaccines are administered by hypodermic injection and the
inoculations are painless.
Where the minimal effective dose is employed the inoculation is
not followed by any local or constitutional disturbance. If there is
any sensible constitutional change, that change is in the direction of
increased well-being. When a medium dose is irioculated there may
Autogenous
Stock
Effective doses
vaccine
vaccine
Min-
Max-
advisable
adequate
imal
imal
million
million
Acne bacillus
In some cases
Generally
5
500
Staphylococcus .
Generally
5
1000
Streptococcus .
In most cases
i
50
Pneumococcus .
Generally
5
50
Influenza bac. .
Generally
If polyvalent
10
500
B. of Friedlander
Generally
1 t
5
IOO
B. coli
Generally
i
IOO
M. catarrhalis .
Generally
5
IOO
Bordet's bac.
Generally
5
500 >
Diphtheria bac.
Often
Often
10
*-*
50 '
Gonococcus
Generally
i
50
Actinomyces
Generally
i
25
Meningococcus .
Polyvalent
5
1000
M. melitensis
Generally
30
IOO
B. typhosus
Yes
10
IOO
B. paratyphosus A .
Yes
10
IOO
B. paratyphosus B .
Tubercle bac.
(?)
Yes
Nearly
10
'/MO.OOO
IOO
'/1000
always used
mg.
mg.
be a small amount of local tenderness and a transient aggravation
of the patient's symptoms, or slight constitutional disturbance,
malaise, headache and possibly a slight rise in temperature. But!
none of these negative phase effects are at all marked except where i
an excessive dose has been employed.
It is outside the sphere of this article to enumerate the various
diseases in which vaccine therapy finds application, but a few in
which vaccines have proved of exceptional value may be mentioned.
Boils, carbuncles and other staphylococcal infections usually yield
readily to treatment by staphylococcus vaccine. Erysipelas, puer-
peral septicaemia, acute surgical septicaemia and septic wounds are
conditions benefited by treatment with a streptococcus vaccine.,
Certain forms of rheumatism, arthritis and fibrositis are relieved!
and the progress of the disease is arrested by treatment with an
appropriate vaccine, and the same may be said in the case of certain
'cases of bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis and recurrent colds.
The distressing symptoms of inflammation of the bladder due to
infection by the bacillus coli are relieved and may entirely disappear
under treatment with an autogenous vaccine.
Tuberculous disease of the glands, skin and joints is amenable toj
treatment with a tubercle vaccine, and in rigidly selected cases the I
same holds good for tuberculosis of the lung.
It may be confidently asserted that, with increasing knowledge,!
vaccine therapy will find wider application and will become recog-i
nized as a valuable weapon in the combating of microbic diseases.
(A. C. I.)
VACHELL, HORACE ANNESLEY (1861- ), English novel-!
ist and playwright, was born at Sydenham, Kent, Oct. 30 1861.1
Educated at Harrow and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst,;
he received a. commission in the Rifle Brigade in 1883. In 1894!
he published his first novel, and in 1897 the first to make its
mark, viz. A Drama in Sunshine. Subsequent novels included
John Charily (1900); Brothers (1904) and The Hill (1905), both
Harrow school stories; The Waters of Jordan (1908) and The
Fourth Dimension (1920). He is the author of many plays, some,
such as Searchlights (1915) and The Case of Lady Camber (1915)1
original; others, such as Her Son (1907) and Quinncy's (1915),!
dramatizations of his own novels, or like Fishpingle (1916),;
afterwards issued as novels; whilst others again, e.g. Who is He?,
(1915) and The House of Peril (1919), were dramatized versions;
of novels by other authors.
VAIL, THEODORE NEWTON (1845-1920), American capitalist,
was born on a farm in Carroll county, O., July 16 1845. When a
child, he moved with his parents to New Jersey, studied at the!
Morristown Academy, and for two years studied medicine with :
an uncle. Meanwhile he had become interested in telegraphy.
In 1866 he went with his parents to a farm in Iowa, but two years
later became station agent and telegraph operator on the Union
Pacific at Pine Bluffs, Wyo. Then he was appointed clerk in the
railway mail service and his efficiency led to his being called to
Washington, D.C., in 1873, where he was made assistant-super-l
intendent of railway mail service, rising in 1875 to general super-
intendent. In 1878 he was made general manager of the Amer-l.
ican Bell Telephone Co., and for the next seven years was actively
engaged in the development of the telephone business, for which
he foresaw a great future. In 1885 he resigned from the Bell
Co., and was elected president of the newly organized American
VAMBERY VAN DYKE
907
Telephone and Telegraph Co., which in 1900 acquired the
American Bell Telephone Co. In 1887 because of ill health Vail
retired and spent the next nine years in travel and on his farm
at Lyndonville, Vt. During a visit to S. America he became
interested in traction problems and in 1896 installed an electric
railway system in Buenos Ayres, and later introduced telephone
systems in many S. American cities, enlisting British capital for
these enterprises. In 1904 he retired to his farm but in 1907 was
again induced to accept the presidency of the American Telephone
and Telegraph Co. When this company in 1910 bought control
of the Western Union Telegraph Co., Vail was made president of
the latter also, and introduced many changes, including " night
letters " at reduced rates. When in 1914, as the result of a
threatened suit by the Government, the Western Union was
again segregated, Vail remained president of his old company.
After the taking over of the wires in Aug. 1918 by the Government
as a war measure, fye was appointed adviser by the Postmaster-
General and urged unified control of all cables, telegraphs and
telephones. When the wires were returned in 1919 to private
ownership he was elected chairman of the board of directors of
the American Telephone and Telegraph Co. In 1920 the gross
earningsof the company were $io3,946,988,netearnings$7o,686,-
904, number of miles of wire owned 23,377,404. Vail died in
Baltimore April 16 1920. The value of his estate was estimated
at about $2,000,000. He left $100,000 each to Princeton and
Dartmouth, and $200,000 to be divided equally among Phillips
Exeter Academy, Middlebury College, Harvard, and the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology. To the last named he left also
his large collection of books on electricity.
See A. B. Paine, In One Man's Life (1921).
VAMBERY, ARMINIUS (1832-1913), Hungarian Orientalist
and traveller (see 27.876*), died at Budapest Sept. 4 1913.
VANBRUGH, IRENE (1872- ), and VIOLET (1867- ),
English actresses, youngest and eldest daughters respectively
of the Rev. R. N. Barnes, Prebendary of Exeter cathedral.
VIOLET VANBRUGH was born at Exeter June n 1867, and mar-
ried Mr. Arthur Bourchier, the actor, in 1894, their marriage being
dissolved in 1918. She first appeared in London at the Criterion
theatre in 1886, and later toured with Toole. In 1889 she was
with the Kendals both in London and in America, and in 1892
played Anne Boleyn at the Lyceum in HenryTrving's production
of Henry VIII. After her marriage she played leading parts in
many of her husband's productions, both in Shakespearean and
modern drama. Amongst her roles may be mentioned Queen
Katherine, Portia, Lady Macbeth (which she also played in 1911
at His Majesty's theatre), Yanetta in The Arm of the Law. and
the heroines of many modern comedies by Sutro, Henry Arthur
Jones and others.
IRENE VANBRUGH was born at Exeter Dec. 2 1872 and married
Mr. Dion Boucicault (b. 1859), the actor, in 1901. She first
appeared in London at the Globe theatre in Alice in Wonderland.
Like her sister she played with Toole, remaining with him for
four years and touring with him in Australia. Subsequently she
acted with George Alexander at the St. James's theatre, with
Arthur Bourchier at the Royalty and with Charles Wyndham at
the Criterion in Jones's play The Liars. Her first notable suc-
cesses were as Sophy Fullgarney in Pinero's The Gay Lord Quex
(1899), Letty Shell in his Letty (1904) and Nina Jesson in His
House in Order (1906). She also appeared with distinction in
various short plays by Barrie, especially Rosalind and The
Twelve Pound Look, and in other modern dramas.
VANCOUVER (see 27.883), in British Columbia, the chief
Pacific port of the Dominion of Canada, was estimated to have a
population of nearly 200,000 (the suburbs of North Vancouver,
South Vancouver and Point Grey included) at the end of 1920.
Vancouver proper had a population of 100,400 in 1911. As the
natural western outlet for the Prairie Provinces, Vancouver had
expected to gain materially by the opening of the Panama Canal.
Not until the spring of 1921 was the first cargo of wheat carried
to England by sea direct from Vancouver, but the success of that
experiment made probable a speedy development of a new trade
for the British Columbian port.
With one of the finest natural harbours in the world Vancouver
has grown in importance as a port during recent years. Already
the terminal point for British, Australasian and Asiatic terminal
lines, Vancouver was the prospective terminal in 1921 for a new
Pacific line to be inaugurated by the Canadian National Rail-
ways. Government contracts had then been let for further
improvements on Burrard Inlet (the chief of Vancouver's three
harbours) for greater dockage and for a system of car ferries
crossing the Inlet to carry freight from the city to North Van-
couver without transfer. In 1920-1 the Canadian Pacific rail-
way built a pier of concrete and steel, equipped with all modern
freight-handling devices, at a cost of $1,500,000.
The Dominion Government in recent years has erected a grain
elevator with a capacity of 1,250,000 bushels. Shipbuilding became
a prominent industry during the years of the World War and as
many as 5,000 men were at one time employed in the shipbuilding
yards. In 1920 Vancouver had approximately 543 industries em-
ploying 28,800 people. They included lumber and shingle mills,
pulp and paper mills, salmon, halibut and herring fisheries, foundries
and structural steel works, sugar refineries, shipyards, etc. The out-
put in 1917 was $57,172,309. Clearing-house returns for Vancouver
in 1919 were $577,670,063. In that year 108,111,090 ft. of lumber
were exported by sea. The customs revenue in 1920 amounted to
$9,202,940. Exports in that year were $39,535,283, and imports
$49,256,913. Shipping passing through the port in 1919 was approxi-
mately 23,000 vessels of 10,691,411 tons register. Building was
quiescent for several years preceding 1919. In that year the building
permits amounted to $2,271,411. Shaughnessy Heights is a wealthy
suburb developed since 1911 by the Canadian Pacific railway.
The foundation of the university of British Columbia brought
about a closing down of the British Columbia branch of McGill
University and a transfer of the staff, equipment, etc., of the latter
to the new college. The newly founded university made use at first
of temporary buildings in the city, but just before the war secured
extensive grounds for a campus and buildings at Port Grey. Con-
struction was delayed by the war but was begun in 1921.
Granville I., a large block of reclaimed land near the retail business
district, has of late years been providing excellent sites for industries,
such sites being served with trackage, wharfage, electric power, etc.
VANDERLIP, FRANK ARTHUR (1864- ), American bank-
er, was born at Aurora, 111., Nov. 17 1864. After leaving the
public schools he studied for a time at the university of Illinois
and at the old university of Chicago. In 1889 he became a
reporter on the Chicago Tribune and in 1890 was made its
financial editor, but resigned in 1894 to accept the associate
editorship of the Economist, a paper published weekly in Chicago.
His contributions to it attracted wide attention and he was fre-
quently called upon to deliver addresses. On March 4 1897 he
became private secretary to the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury,
Lyman J. Gage, and four months later was appointed by Presi-
dent McKinley assistant Secretary of the Treasury. On resigning
in 1901 he was elected vice-president of the National City Bank,
of New York City, and in 1909 president, serving in the latter
capacity for ten years. Before taking up his work in 1901 he
spent a year in Europe studying financial and industrial conditions.
When the War Savings Committee was appointed by Secretary
of the Treasury McAdoo, to promote the sale of War Savings
Certificates during the World War, he was made chairman,
serving from Sept. 1917 to Sept. 1918. He was chairman of the
board of directors of the American Industrial Corporation and
director in many organizations, including the Haskell & Barker
Car Co., the Midvale Steel & Ordnance Co., and the Union
Pacific R.R. Co. He was a trustee of the Carnegie Foundation
for the Advancement of Teaching. He was the author of The
American Commercial Invasion of Europe (1902, the result of his
studies in Europe); Business and Education (1907); Modern
Banking (1911) and What Happened to Europe (1919).
VAN DYKE, HENRY (1852- ), American writer, was born
at Germantown, Pa., Nov. 10 1852. He studied at the Brooklyn
Polytechnic Institute, and after graduating from Princeton in
1873 and from the Princeton Theological School in 1877, he
spent two years at the university of Berlin. In 1879 he was ;
ordained a Presbyterian minister, was for three years stationed
at Newport, R.I., and from 1883 to 1900 was pastor of the Brick
Presbyterian Church, New York City. In this capacity his;
preaching gave him a national reputation. From 1900 he was ;
professor of English literature at Princeton. During 1902-3
' These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
908
VAN HORNE VENEREAL DISEASES
he was moderator of the Presbyterian Church in the United
States. In 1908 he was appointed American lecturer at the
Sorbonne. He was a member of the American Academy of Arts
and Letters, and in 1909 was elected president of the National
Institute. In 1913 he was appointed by President Wilson minis-
ter to Holland and Luxemburg, but resigned in 1917. When
after the fall of Liege in 1914 von Jagow handed to Mr. Gerard,
the American ambassador in Berlin, the note to Belgium, offering
full reparation for damages, in case free passage to France were
granted German troops, Van Dyke flatly refused to act as inter-
mediary. From the first he championed the cause of the Allies
in the World War, and after America's entrance into the war he
served as a naval chaplain. Dr. Van Dyke was an eloquent
speaker. His books, both prose and in verse, give him a high
place in modern American literature. Among his best works are
his " outdoor essays," especially Little Rivers (1895) and Fisher-
man's Luck (1899). His publications include The Reality of
Religion (1884); The Poetry of Tennyson (1889); The Other Wise
Man (1896); Ships and Havens (1897); The Toiling of Felix, and
Other Poems (1900); The Poetry of the Psalms (1900); The Blue
Flower (1902); Days Off (1907); The House of Rimmon (1908);
Out-of-Doors in the Holy Land (1908); Collected Poems (1911);
The Bad Shepherd (1911); The Unknown Quantity (1912); The
Lost Boy (1914); Fighting for Peace (1917); The Valley of
Vision (1919); and Golden Stars (1919).
VAN HORNE, SIR WILLIAM CORNELIUS (1843-1915),
Canadian financier (see 27.894), died at Montreal Sept. u 1915.
VAN'T HOFF, JACOBUS HENDRICUS (1852-1911), Dutch
chemist and physicist (see 27.896), died at Steglitz, near Berlin,
March i 1911.
VASSAR COLLEGE (see 27.946). During the period 1910-20
the endowment of Vassar College grew from about $1,500,000
to $3,118,904.40 with 800 ac. in campus and farm. Student
enrolment is limited to 1,000, the number that may be housed on
the campus; but the pressure for admittance and the difficulty
of estimating withdrawals make it impossible to maintain this
limit with exactness, and the enrolment for 1921 was 1,106, the
faculty numbering 142. The funds available for student aid in
one form or another amounted in 1921 to $456,37^.55. Students
are admitted on passing the examinations set by the college
entrance examination board, or by an examination covering three
years of preparation in four selected subjects; this latter method
takes the place of entrance by certificate from approved schools.
The physical equipment of the college, exclusive of faculty
residences, includes 27 buildings, seven of them dormitories, and
a farm of 675 ac., with vegetable gardens and a model dairy.
Student self-government is in effective operation, the students
themselves assuming responsibility for most of the regulations
governing attendance and conduct, and for the management of the
Students' Building and the Good Fellowship Club House, and for all
extra curriculum activities, including the providing of various
money-making occupations for self-supporting students. The facts
that the price for rooms and board is the same for every student, the
rooms being selected by lot, that there are no sororities or other
clubs to which membership is not absolutely open, and that no
admission fee may be charged to any campus meeting, all help to
maintain a democratic spirit.
Among the notable war-time services of Vassar were the farm unit,
the reconstruction units, and the training camp for nurses. In the
summer of 1917 Vassar undertook the experiment of student labour
on the college farm. Its success led to many similar enterprises
throughout the country. Volunteers were accepted for the summer
of 1918 to work in two shifts of six weeks each. They were housed
in one of the campus buildings, paying their board out of their
wages, working eight hours a day, and undertaking every form of
farm work, as well as work in the model dairy, and drying, canning
and preserving in the college kitchens. The Vassar units for service
abroad, one under the American Red Cross, and a canteen unit
under the Y.M.C.A., were financed by alumnae and under-
graduates, with assistance from the Red Cross, and served in
France. The Red Cross reconstruction unit included trained nurses,
a dietitian, a doctor and social workers. Much of the rehabilitation
work at Verdun was in their charge. The summer training camp for
nurses was organized under the direction of the Red Cross and the
National Council of Defense. Five hundred graduates of colleges for
women entered upon a course of training for three months at Vassar
and two years in a hospital, leading to the degree of registered nurse.
One hundred and ten colleges were represented in this training camp,
the probationary nurses coming from 46 different states of the
Union and three British colonies. (B. J.*)
VAUGHAN WILLIAMS, RALPH (1872- ), English musical
composer, was born at Down Ampney, Oct. 12 1872. He was
educated at Charterhouse and Trinity College, Cambridge,
where he took the degree of Mus. Bac. in 1894. He studied fur-
ther at the Royal College of Music, and also at Paris and Berlin.
He took the degree of Mus. Doc. at Cambridge in 1901, and in
1919 received an hon. musical degree from the university of
Oxford. His works include Toward the Unknown Region (1907);
Willow-wood (1909); Sea Symphony (1910); On Wenlock Edge
(1911); London Symphony (1914; Carnegie award 1917) and
many fine songs, including arrangements of traditional melodies.
VAUGHAN WILLIAMS, SIR ROLAND LOMAX BOWDLER
(1838-1916), English judge, was born in London Dec. 31 1838,
the fifth son of the Rt. Hon. Sir Edward Vaughan Williams. He
was educated at Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford, where
he took his degree in 1860. He was called to the bar in 1861, and
was made a Q.C. in 1889. In 1890 he was raised to the bench of
the Queen's Bench division, in 1891 was transferred to the
Bankruptcy division, and in 1897 became a lord justice of appeal.
In 1906 Vaughan Williams was appointed chairman of the royal
commission on the disestablishment of the Church in Wales.
He retired from the bench in 1914, and died at Abingcr, Dorking,
Dec. 8 1916. His book TheLawand Practice of Bankruptcy (1870;
latest ed. 1915) is a leading authority.
VAZOV, IVAN (1850-1921), Bulgarian poet and writer, was
born at Sopot in Bulgaria in 1850, and received his first educa-
tion in the Sopot village school. Later on, he went to Russia to
continue his studies. His first literary efforts took the form of
essays and songs describing the sorrows of the Bulgars under
Turkish rule, their hopes for a free united Bulgaria, their dis-
appointment when the Treaty of Berlin divided the Bulgarian
people once again. His most important work is the novel Pod
I goto (Under the Yoke), which has been translated into many
European languages. Pod Igoto gives a simple and convincing
picture of village life in Turkish times and of the heroes of the
struggle for freedom. Among Vazov's other works are The New
Craves of Slivnitza (Scrbo-Bulgarian War of 1885-6); The Kaza-
larska Czaritza; Borislav and Towards the Abyss, two of his best
plays. Vazov, who identified himself with the sufferings and
joys of the people, is honoured throughout the country as the
national poet and as a true patriot. His jubilee was officially
celebrated ip 1920 and he was awarded a pension from the State.
He was the first Bulgarian writer whose works had been read
outside Bulgaria. He died at Sofia Sept. 22 1921.
VENEREAL DISEASES (see 27.983). There are three distinct
diseases included under the term " venereal " gonorrhoea,
syphilis, and soft chancre, of which the first two are of primary
importance in relation to public health. The advance in our
knowledge of venereal disease, its prevention and curative treat-
ment, during 1910-21, may be regarded as the outcome of
experience upon a large scale based upon the following dis-
coveries: (i) the specific organism of syphilis by Schaudinn; (2)
the inoculation of monkeys by Metchnikoff and protection there-
from by the application of a 33% calomel cream ointment; (3)
the application by Wassermann of the Bordet haemolytic test to
syphilis; and (4) the discovery by Ehrlich of " 606 " (salvarsan)
as a rapid curative agent of syphilis. All four discoveries may be
said to have laid the foundation of all modern methods of medi-
cally dealing with this disease.
The discussion of the whole subject at the International
Medical Congress held in London in 1912, and the change in the
attitude of a large section of the public and the press, eventually
led up to the appointment of a British Royal Commission in 1913.
The report of the Commission, published in 1916, was strongly
supported by a National Council for Combating Venereal
Disease, and ultimately an Act of Parliament was passed which
made provision for the carrying out of its recommendations.
Scientific Advances. During 1910-20 the so-called para-
syphilitic diseases, general paralysis of the insane, and tabes
dorsalis (locomotor ataxia), were proved to be the direct result of
VENEREAL DISEASES
909
active proliferation of the spirochaeta pallida, in the brain and
spinal cord respectively, of these two diseases. This knowledge was
due to the discovery by Noguchi and Moore of spirochaetes in
the brains of 12 out of 70 brains of persons dying of general paral-
ysis. Confirmation of this was soon at hand in all civilized
countries where these diseases occur. Mott was able to find the
spirochaete pallida in the brains of 66 out of too successive fatal
cases. Inasmuch as the cerebro-spinal fluid invariably gives a
positive Wassermann reaction in general paralysis, it may be in-
ferred that the spirochaete is always present. A large experience
in the services during the World War has shown that in spite of
modern energetic treatment a certain proportion of cases give a
positive reaction of the cerebro-spinal fluid, and there is evidence
to show that when generalization of the organism takes place in
the secondary stage, its implantation in the substance of the
central nervous system may occur; and it is these cases which
subsequently develop this fatal and incurable disease, general
paralysis; incurable because neither the mercury nor the arseno-
benzol compounds are able to enter the substance of the nervous
system and destroy the specific organism. This is a practical
point of the greatest significance, for it shows that the only way
to avoid this and other fatal incurable diseases is the adoption of
curative treatment in the primary stage, as emphasized in the
report of the Royal Commission. But even better is the adoption
of prophylactic measures, by which the organism is killed while it
is still on the surface of the body; for many persons may not
know that they have been infected owing to the fact that the
sore is not of a typical nature and in a number of cases is there-
fore regarded by the doctor or patient as a soft sore or chancroid;
consequently only local treatment is adopted; or it may be that
the sore causing little pain or discomfort leads to the patient
neglecting treatment until it is too late.
A. Marie and Levaditi have recently put forward the view
that there are two forms of specific organism a neurotropic
spirochaete, which seeks the nervous system, and a dermatotropic
one which seeks the skin. Although there are no morphological
differences discoverable in the organisms, yet certain clinical
epidemiological and experimental facts support this argument.
Prevalence. The returns of the Registrar General in England,
as was shown in the report of the Royal Commission, are liable
to many fallacies, which invalidate the accuracy of any deduc-
tions that could be made from them. The returns of deaths,
which may unquestionably be assumed to be due to syphilis with
the exception of general paralysis and aneurism, are very limited;
yet we know that a large proportion of the deaths from organic
brain and spinal cord diseases is due to this cause, likewise a
large proportion of valvular and other diseases of the heart.
Evidence was given at the Royal Commission showing that 5 %
of syphilitics subsequently developed general paralysis, also that
10 years is the average time for the brain symptoms to develop
and several years then elapse before a fatal termination. It
follows that the prevalence of syphilis in a community 12 to 13
years previously may be gauged by the percentage of deaths
from general paralysis in any given year. Possibly this would be
a more accurate method of estimating, to some extent, the prev-
alence of syphilis in a community than even the statistics
afforded by the early treatment centres, for a large number of
people suffering with the disease, even now, do not come under
observation on account of avoiding the social stigma.
Death from general paralysis is about four times as great in
men as in women; it may be assumed therefore that syphilitic
infection is four times as frequent in men as in women. The
incidence of general paralysis is about the same in all classes but
it diminishes as we rise in the social scale in women. The in-
ference is obvious as regards venereal disease and the social
status of women. In the juvenile form due to congenital syphilis
it occurs equally in the two sexes. Gonorrhoea, not being a
direct cause of death, although of many chronic and even fatal
diseases especially in women, rarely enters into the returns.
An attempt was made by the Royal Commission to estimate
! by the application of the blood test the prevalence of syphilis.
i Thus the present writer tested the specimens of blood withdrawn
from a vein by Sir John Collie from 500 apparently healthy men
applying for service in the L.C.C., and found that 9-2% gave a
positive reaction. These, and many other statistics from various
sources, notably hospitals, poor-law infirmaries, asylums for
lunatics, idiots and imbeciles, and institutions for the blind and
the deaf, published in the report, showed that a large percentage
of the population had been infected with syphilis, and that a
very large proportion of these people were suffering from a
disease or disability directly or indirectly due to infection.
From the mass of evidence collected it was roughly calculated
by the Royal Commission that probably 10% of the population
had been infected with syphilis. This corresponds with the
statistics of the United States:
" The results of a survey by the Wassermann test of adults
admitted to hospitals (apart from venereal clinics) in five large
cities of the United States showed 9-5 % positives out of a total of
15,264. Vedder obtained 13% positive reactions in 11,933 recruits
for the U.S. army in 1916, 15 % of 856 candidates for the police force,
and 5% of 3,203 candidates for commissions in the army. It is
worthy of note that in the same locality that gave 5-8 % positive
Wassermanns, Warthin found evidence of syphilis in 30% of post-
mortem examinations. Hence Jeans concludes that the minimum of
syphilitics in the United States is 10%, and the probable percentage
twenty." 1
It was assumed from the evidence before the Royal Commis-
sion that a much larger percentage of the people had suffered
with gonorrhoea; inasmuch as one attack of this disease does
not give immunity and relapses of an apparently cured infection
frequently occur, it follows that reliable statistics of admissions
for gonorrhoea are difficult to ascertain by the rate of admissions.
Altogether it would not be an unfair estimate to assume that
20% to 30% of the population prior to the World War had
suffered with venereal diseases.
The Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer of the Minis-
try of Health for 1920 stated that the Ministry had based its
policy upon the recommendations of the Royal Commission on
Venereal Disease, 1916. The principal recommendations were
thus summarized: (a) Confidential registration of cause of
death. (6) Extension of facilities for diagnosis, (c) Organization
by the local authority of means of free treatment for all
classes at convenient hours and under suitable conditions, (d)
Improved professional and public education, (e) A grant-in-
aid of 75% of total cost incurred in approved schemes. (/) Treat-
ment in army and navy, poor-law institutions, prisons, etc. (g)
Prohibition of all advertisements of remedies and unqualified
practice, (h) Recognition by the Government of the National
Council for Combating Venereal Diseases.
The Commission recommended that " no system of notification
of venereal diseases should be put in force at the present time,"
and they condemned " unqualified practice " by chemists,
herbalists and others as " disastrous " and " one of the principal
hindrances to the eradication of those diseases," and they stated
that " the most urgent requirement is to secure to every patient
the freest and earliest possible access to medical assistance when
there is suspicion of venereal disease. This implies, inter alia,
that all temptation for the patient to have resort to an unquali-
fied person shall be removed."
The National Council for Combating Venereal Diseases was
established to promote and assist by propaganda and lectures
the programme of the Royal Commission ; it had the approval and
support of the Local Government Board and of the Ministry of
Health. Still, in spite of moral teaching, lectures, propaganda
and early treatment centres, an alarming incidence of venereal
disease occurred in the British armies and in those of the Do-
minions during the World War. Some idea of the prevalence of
these diseases may be gained by reference to a statement by the
late Sir William Osier (Lancet, May 26 1917) :
"The last quoted figures for the British army at home are (Han-
sard, April 23): 71,000 cases of gonorrhoea, 21,000 cases of syphilis,
and 6,000 cases of soft chancre. In the Canadian army to March 31
1917, there have been 18,335 cases of venereal disease figures which
have stirred public opinion in the Dominions to boiling point."
1 Medical Science Abstracts and Reviews. Published for the
Medical Research Committee, vol. i., 1919-20, p. 397.
910
VENEREAL DISEASES
There are many facts which show that there has been, in
consequence of the war, and in spite of the application of the
measures recommended by the Royal Commission, a very
considerable increase in the prevalence of venereal diseases in
the United Kingdom (see evidence by Dr. Sequeira, Miss Ettie
Rout and others in the report of the Committee of the Birth-
Rate Commission).
Table i, taken from the Annual Report of the Chief Medical
Officer of the Ministry of Health for 1920, indicates the extent to
which the clinics were utilized in 1920. From this table it
TABLE I. Experience of British Clinics, 1920.
Number of persons dealt with for the
b
"o
a
first time.
^8
'o'
CO
0.2
c a
9
O
J-> U
a
8
Q
c
5X
b
c
gi
3"O
2 O
< <o
c
u o u
1*3
J3
y
"Q
E ui >*
c
Q.
<8j|
o
c
"3
l>
rt rt
2<
30
Z'c
W
U
o
O
H
O
H
H-o
8
1917
29,036
204,692
113
1918
26,912
806
17,635
45,353
6,622
51.975
488,137
134
1919
42,134
2,164
38,499
82,797
15,447
98,244
1,002,791
160
1920
42,805
2,442
40,284
85.53 1
19,654
I".S,I,S
1,488,514
190
appears: (a) that in the fourth year of the scheme there were
approximately 85,00x3 cases of venereal disease and 19,000 cases
which proved not to be venereal disease, the total number of new
cases being 105,000 and the attendances 1,488,000; (6) that there
was a rapid increase of " new " cases of venereal disease in 1918
and 1919 and a stationary position in 1920. The term " new
cases " can only be relative, and does not afford a basis for
calculations of incidence; (c) that if the army estimate of the
relative frequency of gonorrhoea and other venereal diseases
(2$ to i) be correct for the civil community, only a small propor-
tion of the cases of gonorrhoea in the country came under treat-
ment at the clinics; (d) that the total attendances (and the ratio
of attendances to patients) had increased greatly, and that the
number of persons who were apprehensive of their condition and
who came to the clinics for diagnosis had increased two facts
which suggest that the clinics were better appreciated.
The total expenditure of British local authorities was 116,000
in 1917-8, 214,000 in 1918-0, 287,000 in 1910-20; towards
which the Ministry of Health provided grants of 84,000,
145,232, and 224,716.
Owing probably to financial reasons and inefficiency of some of
the clinics there were indications of a change of policy by the
Ministry of Health, for in the above-mentioned report it was
stated:
" It cannot be too clearly understood that the best way of dealing
with most cases of these diseases is through the skilful private prac-
titioner. For a substantial portion of this problem the public clinic
should be looked upon as a temporary organization pending the time
when the practitioner is ready, available, competent, and properly
equipped to undertake effective treatment. Certain patients re-
quire hospital treatment, but the authority should not needlessly
establish institutions if and when the ordinary channels of medical
practice are available and reliable, or can be made so." . . . .
" I am bound to advise that if the work of these clinics is not
properly done if it is casual, superficial or perfunctory they should
be disapproved by the Ministry. It is better to have only a few clinics
well-organized and scientifically controlled than a large number
which are not thus administered. These statements indicative of a
change of policy in the future may find an explanation in a study of
the statistics (see Table 2) relating to the number of patients dis-
charged from venereal disease centres as having completed treat-
ment. This table shows that 29 % of syphilitics and 33 % of persons
suffering from gonorrhoea ceased to attend before completing a
course of treatment. Nearly three times as many as those who were
discharged after completion of treatment and observation and
accordingly can be definitely tabulated as cured and non-infective.
These facts seem to show the necessity of adopting some disciplinary
measures to combat the evil, such as exist in the United States."
Prevention. Sir Archdall Reid, in his work on the prevention
of venereal disease, complains that no reference was made in the
report of the Royal Commission of the value of Metchnikoff' s
discovery. The National Council strenuously opposed what they
termed " the packet system " but the facts had to be faced.
TABLE 2. Patients at British Treatment-Centres.
Syph-
ilis
Gonor-
rhoea
Total
(l) Number of persons dealt with dur-
ing 1919 and 1920
(2) Number of persons who ceased to
105,619
87,792
193,4"
attend :
(a) before completing a course of
treatment ....
(6) after completion of a course of
30,459
28,869
59,328
treatment, but before final
tests as to cure
(3) Number of persons discharged after
9-35
6,481
15,831
completion of treatment and
observation
(4) Number of persons who on the ist
8,240
13,300
21,540
of Jan. 1921 were under treat-
ment or observation
47,894
28,822
76,716
Early curative treatment and moral suasion by propaganda and
lectures had not effected the purpose which most of the members
of the Royal Commission believed and desired they would. Sir
Bryan Donkin, in a letter to The Times in Jan. 1917, first called
attention to the necessity of the adoption of immediate self-
disinfection in accordance with the discovery of Metchnikoff.
He cited the remarkable success attending the simple measures
of immediate self-disinfection adopted at Portsmouth by Sir
Archdall Reid. Reid states in his book that one in 1,000 solu-
tion of permanganate of potash, carried in a flat screw-stoppered
bottle with a swab of cotton wool, proved a simple and cheap
means by which he obtained successful results. The directions
were that the soldier should immediately after exposure to
infection thoroughly swab the exposed surfaces with the fluid;
and he states on p. 130: " Immediately venereal disease
vanished from my units. For six months not a single case
occurred. In two years and four months, during which quite
20,000 men must have passed through my hands, only seven
men were infected. Of the seven cases, six of gonorrhoea and one
of syphilis, all could be accounted for by drink or negligence."
A controversy as to the right or wrong of such treatment thus
arose which eventuated in a number of eminent medical men
leaving the National Council for Combating Venereal Diseases
to form the Society for the Prevention of Venereal Disease by
immediate self-disinfection. While not discouraging continuance
of efforts by moral persuasion, athletics, education and early
curative treatment, this Society realized that immediate self-
disinfection either by calomel cream or permanganate solution,
was essential supplement to the before-mentioned measures;
recognizing as the members of this Society do, that a large
proportion of the adult population are not, and in our present
social conditions, cannot or will not remain continent. It may
be assumed that both the societies are animated with the same
desire, and it was hoped that by the establishment of a special
committee of the Birth-Rate Commission in June 1920, in order
to take expert evidence on the value of the various measures for
the prevention of venereal diseases, unanimity on the part of the
two societies might arise. A report on " The prevention of
venereal disease " by this Committee was issued in Feb. 1921.
The report states (p. 21): " The Committee is of opinion that
any administrative or legal difficulties that may at present
prevent individuals, who desire to do so, from purchasing such
disinfectants from chemists, on their own initiative as a pro-
tection against venereal disease should be removed; and that the
section of the Act dealing with this matter should be rendered
more explicit and amended if necessary; " but up to June 1921
no result had been achieved as regards action by the Government
or by way of settling the essential point of difference between the
two societies.
The supporters of the S.P.V.D. maintain that if 183 curative
treatment centres (which cost the State 300,000 in 1920) are
necessary, a similar number of prophylactic centres are more
necessary. Now the National Council advised the Government
to establish what they call Early Ablution Centres where skilled
but delayed disinfection would be carried out. There are so
many obvious defects in this system when applied to the civil
VENEREAL DISEASES
911
population, together with the enormous cost which would be
thrown upon the present overburdened ratepayers, that even in
June 1921 there was only one in operation (in Manchester), and
only four other possible prospective centres. The London County
Council and many boroughs had refused to adopt this method of
dealing with these diseases, and most thinking people are of
opinion that the onus of keeping clean and thus avoiding the
spread of infection should be thrown on the individual who lays
himself open to infection by promiscuous intercourse. In re-
spect to prophylaxis therefore the policy of the National Council
had entirely failed to deal with the problem, and it was the con-
tention of the S.P.V.D. that the only practical preventive
measure is, " immediate self-disinfection " and that all hindrance
to facilities, such as the law forbidding chemists in England to
sell prophylactics for the specific purpose of rendering an indi-
vidual safe, when contemplating promiscuous sexual intercourse,
should be abolished.
The National Council and its supporters could not deny the
fact that immediate self-disinfection, if properly carried out, was
an efficient method of prophylaxis; but on moral grounds they
strongly objected to its employment, as condoning promiscuous
sexual intercourse and thereby leading to increased risk of infec-
tion and a false security, because it could never be carried out
efficiently by the civil population. Colonel Harrison, adviser to
the Ministry of Health, who was responsible for its application
in the army, supported the National Council in this contention.
He stated that his experience showed that he was wrong in his
estimation of the value of self-disinfection as a means of preven-
tion of venereal disease in the army, and that it did not meet with
the success that he anticipated. On the other hand there is the
experience of Sir Archdall Reid, and the equally successful
results obtained in the navy by Commander Boyden (see p. 227,
Report of Birth-Rate Committee, and Archdall Reid's Prevention
of Venereal Diseases, appendix pp. 437-442). Also Capt. Walker's
results: " During Aug. and Sept. 1917 (64 days) a little over
5,000 officers and men came on leave to Paris, of whom 1,038
developed venereal disease or about 20 per cent. This closed the
leave to Paris. Leave was reopened on Nov. 8 1917. ..."
" The actual results from Nov. 8 1917 to March 31 1918 was
stated by Capt. Walker to be only 3 % of infections among the
men on leave to Paris." This great reduction was the result of
prophylactic measures (Public Health, Sept. 1918). Although
on a small scale compared with those of Col. Harrison, these
results tended to prove that the personal equation plays an all-
important part not only in respect to the faith, intelligence and
desire of the man who employs self-disinfection as a means of
prevention, but in the faith, intelligence and desire of the com-
manding officers and medical officers whose duty it is to see that
the excellent army instructions, which were promulgated, were
enforced and the necessary disinfectants provided. Indeed, had
disciplinary measures been adopted and applied both to the
individuals who became infected and to the medical officer in
charge if carelessness or negligence in carrying out the instruc-
tions had been proved, far better results would no doubt have
been obtained. Moreover, early detection of the practice of men
seeking infection in order to escape service at the front, which
became so prevalent as to necessitate classification as " self-
inflicted wound," would have been easy and the practice pre-
vented. Again, it is argued against chemists being allowed to sell
specific prophylactics that it would lead to increase of venereal
disease by the assumption of the purchaser that they might serve
as a curative agent. Perhaps the strongest argument in favour
of the efficacy of the adoption of immediate self-disinfection as the
best means of prevention of venereal disease is the fact that at
Portsmouth, where Sir Archdall Reid carried on his work, the
Medical Officer of Health, Dr. Mearns Fraser, overcame the
opposition of clergy and others to this mode of treatment, and
advice and information on immediate self-disinfection was in
1921 given there by posters and on application to the Health
Department at the town hall.
The policy of the Ministry of Health was thus stated by the
Chief Medical Officer of the Ministry of Health:
Facilities are now being provided for disinfection, as well as
irrigation and other intermediate treatment, at the various kinds of
treatment centres approved by the Ministry and elsewhere under
medical supervision (Annual Report, 1920, p. 122).
The experience of the American army, with State control in
the United States, supports the view that, to make any system
efficient, disciplinary measures and notifications are desirable,
but this can only be done when all obstacles to prevention are
removed. Ignorance, prejudice and false sentiment must be
banished and the public educated to regard venereal disease like
any other infective disease:
' Prophylactic treatment stations were established during the war
in all the camps and in towns in the vicinity of camps in the United
States and in France. These stations were under the supervision of
American officers and in charge of carefully trained non-commis-
sioned officers. Soldiers were not only instructed in the course of
their training that prophylactic treatment does, in many cases,
prevent the development of venereal disease but they were also
under orders to apply for treatment after having exposed them-
selves. If a soldier_ developed venereal disease his record was
examined to ascertain whether prophylactic treatment had been
taken and if this duty had been omitted, the soldier was subjected to
trial by court-martial to ascertain why preventive measures had not
been undertaken and to undergo punishment in case neglect became
evident. Inquiry into the effectiveness of this system establishes the
fact that under favourable conditions, prophylactic treatment was
effective in over 90 % of the cases received. It was found that appar-
ent failures resulted from four causes: (a) delay in seeking treat-
ment; (6) incompetence on the part of the attendant giving the
treatment ; (c) previous history of venereal disease indicating a
recurrent attack; (d) false statements on the part of the soldier."
(" Combating Venereal Disease in Armies, "International Journal of
Public Health, published by the League of Red Cross Societies,
Jan.-Feb. 1921, vol. ii., No. I.)
State Control. The measures adopted in the United States
to control venereal disease are described in the reports of the
Public Health Service. These measures are as follows: (i)
Notification of cases of venereal disease to the health authorities,
the records to be secret; (2) isolation and treatment in detention
hospitals of infected persons who are unable or unwilling to take
measures to prevent their becoming a menace against others;
also measures for the suppression of prostitution; (3) educational
measures, including information of the general public concerning
the nature and manner of spreading of venereal diseases and the
steps to combat them; (4) extension of facilities for early diagno-
sis and treatment; (5) prohibition of prescribing by druggists.
These principles have been carried into effect in many of the
states by rendering persons who are a danger to the public health
on account of venereal disease subject to quarantine, and certain
standards are laid down which have to be followed before dis-
charging patients as non-infectious.
In Pennsylvania the following measures have been adopted.
The work of the Department has been divided into three parts:
medical, educational, and law enforcement There are certain
measures concerning the Medical Department, making for econ-
omy and efficiency, which are at variance with those adopted
by the British Ministry of Health. These are as follows:
There are 30 public clinics for the treatment of venereal disease,
over which the Department of Health has entire supervision and
for which it assumes all financial responsibility. In these clinics free
treatment is given to those patients whose economic condition will
not permit treatment either by private physicians or by clinics
charging a fee. Upon entrance to clinics, patients are questioned as
to their ability to pay for services. Those able to pay a private
physician are referred to outside doctors who are registered with the
clinics. If in position to pay only a small sum, they are referred to
hospital clinics which charge a nominal fee. Indigent patients are
treated free in the state clinics.
Continuance of treatment of a patient is insured by sending a
notice to return for treatment. If this does not effect a return, the
clinic makes use of the legal machinery at the disposal of the Depart-
ment of Health.
Through an Act of the State Legislature passed in 1921, there has
been placed at the disposal of the Department of Health a modern
4OO-bed hospital for the care and treatment of syphilitic patients who
are menaces to the public health.
Immediate treatment (venereal prophylaxis) for those exposed
to disease has been approved by the Pennsylvania State Depart-
ment of Health. Prophylaxis as used in the army by means of
stations is impractical in civilian life. Tubes containing material
for self-disinfection are given the Department's approval, after
VENEZUELA
being tested. The material usually employed is after the formula of
Metchnikoff. The tubes are on sale in drug stores.
Self-disinfection in Women. All authorities are agreed that
self -disinfection in women under most circumstances is not likely
to be attended by the same satisfactory results as in men, on
account of the different anatomical construction of the genital
organs. Dr. Morna Rawlins and Lady Barrett, in giving evidence
before the Birth-Rate Commission in England, said that they
would not recommend its use for several reasons. It would be
employed for contraconception, and if the permanganate solution
were used it might lead to the spread of the infection to the
uterus. Sir Archdall Reid in his book discusses the subject, and
refers to the opinion of Miss Ettie Rout, who was for years in
France with the New Zealand and Australian forces. Although
Miss Rout was not a doctor she had an extraordinary experience
and knowledge of the subject. She points out that there is far
more danger to women in outdoor relationships than in indoor
relationships, and she supports this statement by the fact that
the weekly average of soldiers infected was doubled and after-
wards still further increased when the licensed houses in Havre
were put out of bounds in April 1918, simply because immediate
self -disinfection was not available to the women (or to the men)
and they were not under medical supervision. Similarly in
Amiens, Abbeville and other places, the amount of disease
increased for the same reason. In her evidence before the
Committee of the Birth-Rate Commission sh6 stated that a weak
permanganate solution was in use at the St. Louis Hospital, Paris.
Syphilis and Pregnancy. Dr. Amand Routh, who has made
a special study of this subject, estimates that at least 20% of the
ante-natal and neo-natal deaths are due to congenital syphilis.
Experience shows that treatment of the mother is very satis-
factory, for she can be cured and the offspring prevented from
becoming congenital syphilitics.
Modern Curative Treatment. Sufficient time has now elapsed
since Ehrlich's great discovery of the arseno-benzol compound
known as salvarsan or " 606 " to appraise the value of this drug
or its equivalents in the treatment of syphilis. It was at first
believed that it would entirely replace the old mercurial treat-
ment, but the greatest success has been attended by a combina-
tion of the two. Numerous other arseno-benzol compounds of a
similar nature to the original " 606 " have since been introduced,
and, although it is generally considered that they have not such a
powerful influence on the disease, yet neo-salvarsan or its equiv-
alent preparations are now almost universally employed, be-
cause the technique of administration is so much simpler. When
salvarsan was introduced, a misapprehension of its curative effect
arose in the mind of the public and many members of the pro-
fession; for it was believed that a few intravenous injections of
the drug would suffice to effect a cure, and this might seem
probable if, in conjunction with the patient showing no active
symptoms, the blood previously positive in its reaction became
negative. Under such circumstances the patient believed, and
sometimes was led to believe, that no further treatment was
necessary. Experience has shown that not infrequently serious
consequences were the result. Therefore most authorities recom-
mend what is termed " intensive treatment," namely a course of
intravenous and intramuscular injection of an arseno-benzol
compound combined with mercury in the form of intramuscular
injections or inunctions. Periodic courses extending over two
years are required. The Wassermann reaction, of the blood is
taken before treatment is commenced and the strength of com-
plement fixation estimated before and after each course of treat-
ment. The curative effects of the drug can thus in a measure be
estimated. For ill-effects of salvarsan treatment and standards
of cure, see pp. 114-5, Annual Report of the Chief Medical
Officer of Ministry of Health, 1920. It will be observed that of
193,411 persons dealt with during 1910-20 there were 59,328
who ceased to attend before completing a course of treatment.
Many of these were still infective.
Evidence given before the British Royal Commission showed
that energetic " intensive treatment " employed in the primary
stage before the Wassermann reaction was positive and there-
fore the spirochaete had become generalized in the body, had
led to a complete cure in a number of cases. This was shown by
the fact that although the spirochaete of syphilis had been found
in the sore yet the Wassermann reaction was negative and re-
mained so. A still more convincing proof of cure, in such cases,
was the fact that re-infection has been known to occur. It is
necessary to state that, owing to faulty technique and short cuts
in performing the Wassermann reaction, cases have been reported
as negative by one observer and positive by another. In some of
these cases the patients were obviously suffering from disease,
the result of a previous infection, in others there was no clinical
sign. The Commission rightly laid stress upon the necessity of
employing a standardized method to avoid error and thus avert
very serious consequences, medical and medicolcgal. Most
authorities lay more stress upon the examination of the cerebro-
spinal fluid than the blood in diseases of the nervous system,
presumably of syphilitic origin, as a means of diagnosis. Ex-
perience shows that many persons may be in good health or
at any rate not suffering from any obvious clinical syphilitic
disease, and yet give a positive Wassermann reaction of the
blood, for the organism may be locked up in some functionally
indifferent tissue, but a positive reaction of the fluid shows that
the spirochaete is in the central nervous system and if it is not
causing any clinically recognizable symptoms there is a positive
danger that it may at any time do so. When once the cerebro-
spinal fluid is found to give a positive Wassermann reaction it is
doubtful whether any treatment will make it negative. This
fact shows how extremely difficult it is for the drug to attack the
organism when once it has gained access to the substance of the
central nervous system. It was for this reason that Swift and
Ellis introduced the treatment of general paralysis and tabes by
spinal intrathecal injections of salvarsanized serum; but it
was found to have no advantages over the usual methods of
treatment, and only a few authorities now employ it and claim
successful results.
All those who have had experience in the prevention and
treatment of venereal disease consider gonorrhoea and its com-
plications the most difficult to deal with. It is not implied there-
fore that the effects of gonorrhoea are so serious as syphilis, but
owing to the fact that the organism when it has invaded the
deeper structures is not easily eradicated, a patient thinking
himself cured, because he suffers no pain, may unwittingly infect
his wife or other women. As there are immense numbers of these
carriers it is easily seen how difficult is the problem of prevention
of gonorrhoea; and this difficulty is greatly increased by the fact
that this disease is not looked upon as serious; whereas all the
evidence given before the Royal Commission showed that many
serious diseases especially affecting women were due to gonor-
rhoeal infection. It is a frequent cause of disease of the repro-
ductive organs, and sterility is a result. Its ill-effect upon the
health and happiness of the nation is far greater than is generally
imagined. If the complex medical and social problem involved
in venereal infection is to be dealt with nationally on sound lines
it is essential that the full confidence and support of the public
must be obtained. This can only be done by getting the people,
as the late Sir William Osier said: " to realize that it is a great
communicable disease, many of whose victims are innocent."
The following works may be consulted for further information:
System of Syphilis (Oxford Press) ; The Report of the Royal Com-
mission on Venereal Disease with appendices (1916) ; Report on the
Prevention of Venereal Disease by the Special Committee of the
Birth-Rate Commission; Manual of Military Urology (American
Red Cross Association) ; Medical Science, abstracts and reviews,
published by the Council of Medical Research (vols. i. and ii.)l
Sir William Osier, " The Campaign against Syphilis," Lancet May 26
1917; Sir Archdall Reid, The Prevention of Venereal Disease; Reports
of the Public Health Service, U.S.A., 1920; Report of the Chief
Medical Officer of the Ministry of Health, 1920. (F. W. Mo.)
VENEZUELA (see 27.988). The permanent additions made
to the population of Venezuela by immigration during 1910-20
were slight. The official year book for 1912 stated that the total
number of persons arriving at Venezuelan ports in that year was
9,615, while the total departures were 7,981. It gave the ap-
proximate pop. of the republic as 2,632,754.
VENEZUELA
Venezuela's constitution of 1909 declared that the republic be
composed of 20 states, 2 territories, and a federal district. These
states made provisions regarding their boundaries and territo-
rial divisions by laws passed prior to March 16 1912. In Oct.
1912, the Federal district was made up of two departments,
Libertador and Vargas, which were subdivided into 20 parishes
or municipalities. The states had been divided into 147 districts
and these subdivided into 597 municipalities. The territories had
been organized into 10 municipalities. The Venezuelan consti-
tution of 1914 allowed the main territorial divisions to remain
as they were when established under the constitution of 1909.
On June 14 1916, Congress enacted an organic law for the Gov-
ernment of the Federal territory of Delta Amacuro, which di-
vided it into four municipalities and vested its government in the
president of Venezuela according to certain prescriptions.
Communications. Twelve railroads of some importance were
operating in Venezuela in 1920 with a total mileage of about 600 m.,
and an invested capital of some 200,000,000 bolivares. Steamships
plied up the Orinoco river to Ciudad Bolivar and thence to ports in
the interior. Some ocean vessels entered Lake Maracaibo. La Gua-
jra and Puerto Cabellp were ports of call for important American
and European steamship lines. During the rule of President Gomez,
beginning in 1908, considerable attention was given to interior com-
munications. Shortly after becoming president he conceived the
idea that the construction, improvement, and repair of important
Venezuelan roads was a most urgent public work. From Dec. 1908
to Dec. 1913, the construction or repair of several highways was
undertaken by the national Government. Among these were the
roads from La Guaira to Caracas, from Caracas to Guatire, and from
Rubio to Uraca, which was macadamized. In some years the ex-
penses for highway construction and maintenance constituted the
major portion of the expenditures of the Department of Public
Works. Plans were made for a comprehensive system of roads. On
Aug. II 1916, a presidential decree provided for the construction of
the great western highway from Caracas to San Cristobal through
the states of Miranda, Aragua, Carabobo, Cojedes, Portugesa,
Zamora, and Tachira. On Dec. 19 1915, another decree provided
for the construction of the great eastern highway from Caracas
through the states of Miranda, Anzoategui, and Bolivar to the
interior of Guiana.
Foreign Commerce. According to official statistics in 1913 the
total imports of Venezuela amounted to 93,420,225.90 bolivares.
(Nominal value $ . 193 or 9-4d.) The imports from the leading coun-
tries were as follows: 35,979,980.03 bolivares from the United
States; 22,260,593.57 from the British Empire; 13,404,073.91 from
Germany; 8,218,689.19 from Holland; 5,666,611.43 from France;
3,744,276.53 from Spain; 2,878,928.50 from Italy; 1,184,266.30 from
Belgium; and 66,575.84 from Colombia. In 1913 the total exports
of Venezuela amounted to 152,765,749.04 bolivares. The countries
taking the largest shares were: France, 51,751,523.27 bolivares;
the United States, 43,914,670.33; Germany, 28,827,814.24; England,
11,394,058.90; Holland, 3,675,353.30; Colombia 2,151,434; Austria-
Hungary, 2,051,273 and Italy, 1,308,325. According to statistics
compiled by the Pan-American Union, the chief imports into
Venezuela in 1918, exclusive of parcel post shipments, were as
follows: cotton textiles, 16,709,753 bolivares; drugs and medicines,
4,242,157; machinery, 3,190,315; flour, 3,039,409; automobiles and
accessories, 1,562,495; leather and leather goods, 1,135,198; paraffin,
1,625,949 ; wines, 1,303,388 ; stearin, 975,865 ; and soda, 921,384. The
total imports in 1918, according to official statistics, amounted to
77,244,950.23 bolivares. Imports from the chief countries were as
follows: United States, 46,564,983.71 bolivares; England, 22,396,-
903.23; Colombia, 2,264,753.23; Spain, 2,240,538.71; France, 1,770,-
621.41; Italy, 920,720.50 and Holland, 759,104.55. The chief
articles exported in 1918, according to figures compiled by the Pan-
American Union, were as follows: coffee, 38,568,176 bolivares;
cacao, 19,798,054; rubber, 6,947,320; sugar, 5,481,139; corn,
3,987,698; cattle and hides, 3,249,060; tobacco, 3,179,902; gold,
2,348,914; frozen beef, 2,545,935; asphalt, 1,560,193; and petroleum,
1,041,742. According to official statistics, the total exports of
Venezuela in 1918 came to 102,659,153.74 bolivares. The countries
taking the largest quota were: United States, 46,382,272.70 boli-
vares; Holland, 17,640,887.74; England, 17,098,261.82; France,
10,068,966.33; Spain, 8,913,919.10; Italy, 1,142,422; Cuba, 719,151.-
05; and Colombia, 612,203. During the World War the trade of
Venezuela with the Central Empires altogether ceased, while her
commerce with the Allies and with neutral Powers much increased,
the United States securing a large part of the trade.
Government. On May 18 1914, a Congress of Deputies from
the Venezuelan states adopted a new constitution for their union.
That constitution declared that the Venezuelan states recipro-
cally recognized their autonomy and equality, and that they
retained all sovereignty which was not delegated to the central
Government by the constitution. The states agreed to promul-
gate constitutions that would harmonize with the fundamental
law and agreed to see that the national constitution, laws, and
orders were obeyed. Early in June assemblies at the capitals of
the respective states ratified the new form of Government, which
was accordingly proclaimed in force June 13 1914. This con-
stitution provided that the right of suffrage was to be exercised
by male citizens 21 years of age or over. Foreigners who took
part in political controversies (contiendas) could be arrested,
confined, or expelled by order of the president. Executive power
was vested in a president and a cabinet of ministers appointed
by him. The president was to be elected for a seven-year term
by the secret vote of Congress. During the temporary absence
of the president from the capital his functions were to be exercised
by a minister whom he designated. Among the extensive powers
vested in the chief executive were the following: to administer
the Federal district and the two Federal territories; to issue
decrees and regulations for the better execution of the laws; to
negotiate loans as provided by Congress; to grant certificates of
naturalization; to appoint national officials whose appointment
was not otherwise provided for; to convoke an extraordinary
session of Congress; to declare war when authorized by Congress;
to negotiate treaties with foreign nations; and to proclaim martial
law throughout the republic. Article 137 of the constitution
stipulated that the provisional president and vice-presidents of
the republic should hold office until the new constitutional
functionaries were inaugurated. Article 138 stipulated that the
commander-in-chief of the national army should exercise his
functions until the inauguration of the constitutional president
of the republic. Legislative authority was granted to a Congress
composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. The Senate
was to be composed of two Senators from each state chosen by its
Legislative Assembly for three years. The Chamber of Deputies
was to be composed of members chosen from every state and
from the Federal district by popular vote for three years at the
ratio of one deputy to every 35,000 inhabitants. Congress was to
meet annually on April 19 at the capital for a session of 70 days.
Judicial authority was vested in a Supreme Court designated the
Corle Federal y de Casacion and in other tribunals established by
law. The Federal Supreme Court was to be composed of seven
judges who were to be elected by Congress for a term of seven
years. Clauses defining powers of this court provided that it
should take cognizance of accusations against the president and
other high officials. It was given jurisdiction over cases involv-
ing claims against the nation, cases relating to foreign diplomatic
agents in Venezuela, cases arising from contracts made by the
president, and cases involving conflicts between laws or decrees.
State or Federal.
Army and Navy. In 1912 Venezuela purchased a vessel of about
1,000 tons from the United States, which was re-christened the
" Mariscal Sucre " and made the flagship of the navy. About 1915
the Venezuelan navy was composed of two cruisers, three gunboats
and two transports with a personnel of a few hundred men. The
standing army was composed of some 9,000 infantry, artillery and
cavalry. In addition there was a reserve which was estimated to
consist of about 100,000 men. By a law published in June 1919,
military service was made compulsory for all adult male citizens,
with certain exceptions. Every man was obliged to serve in the
army or navy for two years in peace-time and during war at the
president's pleasure. Until they became 45 years of age those
soldiers were to compose part of the reserve. A decree of April 17
1920 provided for a military aviation school at Maracay.
Education. According to the official year book for 1912 there
were in that year in the republic 1,408 elementary schools attended
by 45,515 children. There were in attendance at 52 graded schools
4,853 pupils. On Dec. 19 1914 a fundamental law concerning educa-
tion was enacted. This law provided that primary instruction
should be compulsory and free for all children from 7 to 14 years of
age. Secondary education, furnished in lyceos and colegios, should
comprehend two successive courses: one of a general character, and
another of a special type giving training in philosophy and letters,
in physical and natural science, or in physical and mathematical
science. A decree of March 1915 provided that the national Govern-
ment should maintain a school of fine arts, furnishing instruction in
music, declamation and the plastic arts; commercial schools at
Caracas, Maracaibo, and Ciudad Bolfvar; a school of arts and crafts
for males and another for females; and a training school for nurses.
In 1916 decrees were issued which founded at-Caracas a number of
institutions for higher education, such as a school of political
VENEZUELA
science, a school of pharmacy, and a school of dentistry. Decrees
were issued in the following year which established in that city a
museum of natural history and an institute of fine arts. Besides the
facilities furnished by various educational institutions in the capital
city, there is the Universidad de los Andes at Merida.
Finances. The financial condition of Venezuela has improved in
recent years. On Dec. 31 1913, the total indebtedness of the Vene-
zuelan Government amounted to 176,460,251.14 bolivares. Of this
61,607,179.53 bolivares was domestic, while the balance was foreign
debt. The domestic debt was thus classified:
Bolivares
National domestic debt, consolidated at 6 % . . 54.699-59
Script at i % 38,165.62
National domestic debt, consolidated at 3% . . 59,960,572.36
National domestic debt, consolidated without interest 1,204,639.83
Current indebtedness 349,102.13
Total
The foreign debt was as follows :
National debt at 3 % by diplomatic conventions
Provisional script (Spanish) ....
Diplomatic debt at 3 %, issue of 1905
61,607,179.53
Bolivares
9,843,791.61
1 ,600.00
105,007,680.00
Total 114,853,071.61
In Aug. 1914 the Government of Venezuela issued a decree ordering
a reduction in the number of offices and a decrease of 25 % in official
salaries. This was followed by other economies. Claims of French
citizens against Venezuela amounting to 13,000,000 bolfvares were
adjusted by a protocol of Jan. 14 1915, at 3,000,000 bolivares. For
the satisfaction of this obligation a non-interest bearing debt was
provided, the arrangement .being that it was to be cancelled by
the payment by Venezuela of 57,692.31 bollvares monthly. The
national revenue for the fiscal year 1917-8 amounted to 53,253,-
686.06 bolivares; while the expenditures came to 52,948,924.48
bolfvares, leaving a surplus of 304,761.78. Revenues for that year
were derived from the following sources:
Bolivares
Customs duties, consular fees, etc. . . . . 24,544,127.42
Cigarette tax 6,317,345.85
Liquor tax 7.437>i83-9
Salt monopoly 6,725,814.75
Stamps 4,295.89i-95
Stamped paper 177,520.90
Inheritance taxes 179,965.92
Other sources 3,575,836.18
Total 53,253,686.06
On July 13 1919, the national domestic debt of Venezuela was as
follows :
Bolivares
National domestic debt, consolidated at 3 % . . 46,623,077.29
Script 2,098,652.50
Treasury bonds 349,102.13
Total
. * 49,070,831.92
Upon the same date the national foreign debt was as follows:
Bolivares
National debt at 3 % by diplomatic conventions . 9,208,291.61
Provisional script (Spanish) . . . . . . 1,600.00
Diplomatic debt at 3 %, issue of 1905 . . . . 84,511,750.00
Non-interest bearing diplomatic debt as arranged in
1915 230,769.12
Total 93.952.410.73
The total indebtedness of the Venezuelan Government on July 13
1919 thus amounted to 143,023,242.65 bolivares. The bolivar was
relatively stable during the World War. The exchange value of the
U.S. dollar measured in bolivares at different dates was as follows:
July 1914, 5.30; April 1917, 5.14; April 1918, 4.32; Jan. 1919, 4.25;
and Dec. 1919, 5.16. An official estimate in 1919 stated that
there were in circulation some 25,000,000 bolivares of bank-notes;
49,000,000 in silver coin ; while the gold in circulation and in reserve
came to 62,000,000 bolfvares. In July 1920 eight companies had
banks in Caracas. Two indigenous institutions were the Banco de
Venezuela with a capital of 24,000,000 bolivares and with more
than a score of agencies, and the Banco Caracas with a capital of
6,000,000. The Royal Bank of Canada had a bank in Caracas and
four branches in other cities. The National City Bank of New
York had a bank in Caracas and four branches in other cities and
towns. The Hollandische Bank voorWest-Indiahadabunkinthecaphai
city. The Mercantile Bank of the Americas of New York City had
established a central bank in Caracas with branches at La Guaira,
Puerto Cabello, and Maracaibo. The Commercial Bank of Spanish
America Limited affiliated with the Anglo-South American Bank
Limited with a capital and reserves of 200,000,000 bolivares, had
banks in Caracas and Puerto Cabello. The Deschanel International
Corporation of Venezuela, affiliated with a corporation of that name
in New York City, with a capital of some 1,260,000 bolivares, had
established banks in Caracas and La Guaira. Another important
institution of Venezuela was the Banco de Maracaibo, with a capital
of 937,5oo bollvares.
History. When in Nov. 1908, President Castro left Venezuela
to visit Europe, the first vice-president, Juan Vicente Gomez, a
wealthy land-owner and an efficient military leader, was given
the presidential power. In decrees of Nov. 23 1908, Gomez
appointed a general secretary and confirmed the existing Cabinet
appointments. On May 3 1900 he issued a decree announcing
that he was exercising the powers of President of Venezuela, and
after suppressing opposition to his rule in certain quarters, he
was acclaimed President Dec. 19 1909. Under the constitution of
1909, on Aug. 27 1910, Congress elected G6mez constitutional
President for four years. In June and July 1911, Venezuela
celebrated with appropriate ceremonies the centenary of her
declaration of independence. During the rule of G6mez diplo-
matic relations with foreign nations that had been ruptured were
resumed, and Venezuela undertook to pay her obligations to
foreign nations upon which payments had lapsed. Upon an
attempt of ex-President Castro to regain his power, President
G6mez issued a proclamation on Aug. 3 1913, announcing that as
the peace of the republic had been disturbed by Castro, he
(G6mez) was leaving the capital to undertake a campaign for the
restoration of public order. Upon the following day he entrusted
his authority to Jose Gil Fortoul, president of the council of
government. On Jan. i 1914, he rcentered Caracas at the head
of his army and at once reassumed the powers of President.
According to the constitution the term of office of President
G6mez ended on April 19 1914. Upon that day a Congress of
Deputies from the Venezuelan states adopted a provisional
constitutional statute for the Union. That statute declared that
all laws not inconsistent therewith should remain in force. It
further provided that this Congress should elect a commander-
in-chief of the national army at the same time that it elected a
provisional president of republic. Congress was also to frame a
new pact of union for Venezuela, which should be submitted to
the assemblies of the states for approval. The period of pro-
visional rule should last until the new constitution had been
ratified by the states and until the constitutional functionaries
had taken their posts. On the same day Congress elected Vic-
torino Marquez Bustillos, who had been Minister of War and the
Navy, provisional president. By a decree of the same day Pro-
visional President Marquez Bustillos appointed his ministers of
state, making Cesar Zumeta Minister of the Interior. Congress
elected General Gomez commander-in-chief of the national army.
On May 3 1915, the Congress chosen under the constitution of
1914 unanimously elected Gen. Gomez President of the republic
for the term ending April 19 1922. However, the President-elect
did not assume the presidency. The provisional president con-
tinued to exercise the president's authority while Gen. G6mez
remained commander-in-chief of the army with the title Presi-
dent-elect of the republic. Among the members of the first
Cabinet of Provisional President Marquez Bustillos were C.
Zumeta, Minister of the Interior; M. Diaz Dodriguez, Minister
of Foreign Affairs; Roman Cardenas, Minister of Finance, and
Felipe Guevara Rojas, Minister of Public Instruction.
Boundary Disputes. Protocols signed in Caracas in 1905 between
Brazil and Venezuela acknowledged those portions of the Brazilian-
Venezuelan boundary which had been surveyed by their com-
missioners as the true boundary line. In Feb. 1912, these nations
agreed to select commissioners to determine their boundary between
Cucuy and the Salto de Hua. In 1914 those commissioners pro-
ceeded to mark that part of the boundary line exactly. By a treaty
signed in 1881 Venezuela and Colombia agreed to submit their long-
standing boundary dispute to the arbitration of the King of Spain,
who was to fix the line which in 1810 separated the captaincy-general
of Venezuela from the viceroyalty of New Granada (Colombia).
The award of the Spanish monarch was given on March 16 1891.
Subsequently, however, a heated correspondence took place between
Colombia and Venezuela about this line, mixed commissions de-
limited a part of it, and Colombia proceeded to take possession of
regions which clearly belonged to her. Venezuela objected to this
action and at times war seemed imminent. By a treaty signed at
Bogota on Nov. 3 1916, the contending nations agreed to submit to
an arbiter the question whether or not Colombia had the right to
VENIZELOS, ELEUTHERIOS
enter upon the possession of territory that belonged to her by the
award or whether she should postpone such occupation until the
boundary line had been fully drawn. The parties agreed that both
states should remain, for the time being, in the possession of terri-
tories which they held at the date of the treaty. As arbiter they
selected the President of Switzerland, who, after pronouncing his
decision, was to appoint Swiss engineers to demarcate exactly the
boundary where it had not been surveyed. In July 1917, when
ratifications of that treaty were exchanged the parties changed the
arbiter to the Swiss Federal Council. On June 24 1918, that council
made known the regulations which should be followed in the arbitral
procedure. Both parties presented their last arguments to the
arbiter and a decision was pending at the close of 1920.
International Relations. Although Venezuela did not publish a
proclamation of neutrality upon the outbreak of the World War,
yet on Aug. 12 1914, the Minister of the Interior sent instructions to
officers of custom houses directing them to maintain neutrality in the
conflict. Seven days later, at the instance of the Minister of Foreign
Relations, the Minister of the Interior addressed to the chief execu-
tives of the states, the territories, and the Federal district, circulars
informing them that the Venezuelan Government would maintain
the strictest neutrality and directing them to prevent individuals
from aiding any of the belligerent nations. Upon being informed by
the U.S . minister of the rupture of diplomatic relations with Ger-
many, on Feb. 23 1917, Igriacio Andrade, Venezuela's Minister of
Foreign Relations, informed the envoy of the United States at
Caracas that his country would fulfill all her duties as a neutral and
would not relinquish any of her rights: " She wishes to preserve her
relations of peace and friendship with all of the belligerent nations
and to maintain the most perfect neutrality." Although the sym-
pathies of many of her intellectual leaders were with the United
States, yet Venezuela maintained her neutral policy throughout the
struggle. In March 1920, Venezuela's minister at Paris filed his Gov-
ernment's adhesion to the League of Nations.
See A ltd Comision International, Section Venezolana (Caracas,
1919); Annual Report of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign
Bondholders (London, 1910); Anuano Estadislico de Venezuela
(Caracas, 1915); Boletin Comercial e Industrial; Informaciones
Consulares y Comerciales publicadas par la Direction de Politico,
Comercial del Ministerio de Relaciones Rxteriores (Caracas, 1920) ;
Constitution de los Estados Unidos de Venezuela sancionada par el Con-
greso de Disputados Plenipotenciarios de los Estados en 1914 (Caracas,
1914); L. V. Dalton, Venezuela (London, 1912); Division Politico-
territorial de la Republica (Caracas, 1912) ; J. V. Gomez, Mensaje que
el General Juan Vicente Gomez, presidente provisional de la Republica,
presenta at Congreso National (1910-1); F. Guevara Rojas, El Nuevo
Regimen de la Instruction en Venezuela (1915); Itineraries de Vene-
zuela (1914); El Libra Amarillo de los Estados Unidos de Venezuela
(Caracas, 1910) ; Memoria que presenta el Ministerio de Obras
Publicas d las Cameras Legislativas (Caracas, 1911); Memoria que
presenta el Ministro de Relaciones Interiores al Congreso National
(Caracas, 1910); Monthly Bulletin of the International Bureau of
American Republics (Washington, 1910) ; Proceedings of the first Pan-
American Financial Conference (Washington, 1915); Pan-American
Union, Venezuela, General Descriptive Data (1909); Recopilacion de
Leyes y Decretos de Venezuela (vols. xxxiii., 1913). (W. S. Ro.)
VENIZELOS, ELEUTHERIOS (1864- ), Greek statesman,
was born at Mournies, in the island of Crete, on Aug. 23 1864, of
a family that emigrated from Mistra (near Sparta) to Crete in
1770. His father, a merchant of Canea, took an active part in
the Cretan patriotic movement and was therefore exiled by the
Turks in 1866, but returned to the island in 1872. Young
Eleutherios was educated in the schools of Syra and Athens, and
then studied law at the university of Athens, taking his degree in
1887. Returning to Canea, he took-up the practice of law, but,
like most Cretan lawyers of that day, he soon was drawn into
political life. In the insurrection of 1889 he was compelled to fly
from the island and take refuge in Greece; after tranquillity
was restored, he returned and was elected a member for Canea
to the Cretan Assembly. It was not till 1897 that Venizelos came
into prominence as one of the leaders of the Cretan uprising of
that year, which culminated in the removal of Turkish rule
from Crete (1898). Venizelos was in command of the insurgents'
camp on Akrotiri, which was shelled by the united European
squadrons on Feb. 21 1897. A few days later, he received at this
camp the British, French and Italian admirals, who came under
a flag of truce to negotiate a settlement between the insurgents
and the Turks. These two incidents form the first occasion when
Venizelos came into official contact with the Great Powers.
In 1898 Prince George of Greece landed in Crete as High
Commissioner of the Great Powers, and a few months later,
upon Sphakianakis' retirement, Venizelos became the head of
the Cretan executive. He soon found himself at variance with
the Prince, who inaugurated in Crete very much the same auto-
cratic policy that his elder brother, King Constantine, subse-
quently adopted in Greece in 1915-7. Finally, a complete rupture
took place in 1904 between the Prince and Venizelos; the Veni-
zelist party were defeated at the polls by the personal canvassing
of the Prince and the united efforts of the other Cretan party
leaders, already jealous of Venizelos' rising star. Venizelos then
organized a revolt at Therisso, which was partially successful
but which died out after a few months, yet not until it had made
the Prince's position in the island untenable. In 1905 the Prince
departed, resigning his office as High Commissioner, in which
he was succeeded by M. Alex. Zaimis. From 1905 to 1909
Venizelos' activities alternated between those of chief of the
Cretan executive and those of leader of the Opposition. More
than once during this period the Cretans came into sharp conflict
with the four Great Powers; but Venizelos' wisdom and modera-
tion prevented any rupture and maintained friendly relations
with the Powers.
In 1909 the Military League at Athens, which headed a
bloodless revolution against the existing political corruption and
Court favouritism in Greece, found itself in need of a sound polit-
ical adviser. As such, Venizelos went over to Athens at the
invitation of the League three times within four months. He
persuaded both the League and King George of the necessity of
convening a National Assembly for the revision of the Constitu-
tion, as the only safe and satisfactory way out of the dangerous
situation. The elections for this Assembly were held in the sum-
mer of 1910, and Venizelos himself (who had never ceased to
retain his Greek citizenship, while in Cretan political life) headed
the poll at Athens. His arrival at the Greek capital in Sept. was
greeted with tremendous popular enthusiasm. Such was his
unlimited mastery over Greek public opinion at that time, that
at a nod from him the Royal family would have been expelled
ignominiously. But Venizelos had come to Greece to establish
reform and pacific progress; and little as he respected any mem-
ber of the Royal family, he was fully conscious of the set-back that
Greece's internal tranquillity and foreign relations would receive
by a fresh change of dynasty or by the doubtful experiment of a
republic. His first great work in Greece was the revision of the
Greek Constitution, which was successfully accomplished in 1911.
Simultaneously, he was busily reorganizing the public services,
especially the army and navy, the former through a French, the
latter through a British, mission. Within the short space of a year
and a half he prepared the ground for the Balkan League, which
had hitherto been universally looked upon as a Utopian project.
By May 1912, the League was practically an accomplished fact,
but a fact so successfully dissimulated that the outside world
knew nothing of the League's existence. Only Russia, as the
traditional protectress of the Southern Slavs, was in the secret.
Other Greek statesmen, and notably Tricoupis, had worked for a
Balkan League but failed, partly, no doubt, owing to adverse
circumstances, but partly also because of Greek unpreparedness
for war and of the inflexibility of the Greek claims. Venizelos was,
it is true, favoured by circumstances the Balkan races just
then had been drawn together in self-defence against the newly
fledged tyranny of the Young Turks in Macedonia and Thrace,
while the military revolt of 1909 had swept the Greek political
stage clear of nearly all the corrupt parties, that hitherto had
blocked the wheels of the nation's progress. But even so, the
Balkan League would never have sprung into being but for
Venizelos' higher vision, and his supreme courage in consenting
to an alliance with Bulgaria, without a preliminary agreement as
to the division of the Turkish spoils in case of victory.
When the World War broke out, Venizelos hastened, in the
dark days which preceded the first battle of the Marne, to offer
Greece's aid and adhesion to the Entente. This courageous offer,
made at a time when the situation in France was so menacing,
was never forgotten by the Allies, though declined for the
moment on purely military grounds. A few months later (Jan.
1915) the Allies themselves asked for the cooperation of Greece
in their plans for the Dardanelles expedition, and promised
Greece, in exchange, extensive territory in Asia Minor. But
916
VENIZELOS, ELEUTHERIOS
Venizelos' decision to accept this offer was incontinently vetoed
by King Constantine; and Venizelos was forced to resign, though
supported by a strong parliamentary majority and an all but
unanimous public opinion. In the general election which followed
(June 13 1915), despite the desperate efforts of the King and his
party, the Venizelist party were returned with a large majority.
But, contrary to all constitutional requirements, three full
months were allowed to pass before Venizelos was summoned to
resume office, the King's illness being made an excuse. When
finally Venizelos formed his new Cabinet, the Dardanelles expedi-
tion had already failed, and another crisis was at hand. In the
preceding spring Serbia had driven back the Austrian armies out
of her territory; but now a fresh Austrian invasion was imminent,
and Bulgaria was plainly bent on revenging herself for her dis-
asters of 1913 by preparing to attack Serbia in the flank. Ac-
cording to the terms of the Greco-Serbian Treaty of 1913,
Greece would, in that case, be bound to come to Serbia's aid.
Bulgaria mobilized her army in Sept. 1915, and on the following
day Venizelos obtained the King's signature to the decree
mobilizing the Greek army. Two days later, Venizelos made an
important statement in the Greek Chamber, declaring that, if
Bulgaria attacked Serbia, she would have to face the Greek
army as well. This declaration was received by the Chamber
with loud cheers. King Constantine thereupon sent for Venizelos,
and, after telling him that he would never consent to Greece
drawing the sword against the allies of Germany, asked for his
resignation. To the Premier's remonstrance that, after the recent
verdict of the general election in favour of his policy, the Crown
was not entitled to refuse its sanction, Constantine replied that
in matters of foreign policy he did not consider himself bound to
follow the national will, feeling himself " personally responsible
to God alone." In the face of this attitude, Venizelos thought
it best to resign once more (Oct. 1915); and after a Zaimis
Cabinet had vainly endeavoured to obtain the support of the
Venizelist majority in the Chamber, the latter was dissolved
(for the second time within six months) and a new election
ordered for Dec. 19 1915. This time Venizelos, as a protest against
the King's unconstitutional proceedings, called upon his party
to abstain from the polls; and as a result, only 230,000 votes were
cast, as against 720,000 in the previous election. In consequence
of this abstention of the Venizelist electors, no Venizelist was
elected, and the new Chamber consisted almost exclusively of
the old politicians, whom the military revolt of 1909 had swept
out of politics.
Venizelos spent that winter and spring (1915-6) in endeavour-
ing, through the press (he founded a newspaper called the Keryx),
and by public mass meetings, to force the King to see the folly
of his course. But after the surrender of Eastern Macedonia to
the Bulgarians (Aug. 1916) he gave up all hope of converting
Constantine to his views. On Sept. 25 1916 he took ship with
his leading partizans for Crete, whence he sent out his proclama-
tion to the Greek people, calling upon all true patriots to disavow
Constantine and his fatal policy and to flock to the standard of
the Entente. Proceeding on to Salonika, he established there a
" Provisional Government of National Defence," which was in
Dec. 1916 duly recognized by England, France and Russia,
though not by Italy. His call for volunteers was responded to
with enthusiasm by all parts of Greece not held by Constantino's
troops, and 60,000 men were soon gathered at Salonika.
When at last England and France proceeded to dethrone
King Constantine, Venizelos returned to Athens a few days
after his removal (June 27 1917) and took over the government
of the whole of Greece. His first measure was to convoke the
Chamber elected in June 1915, whose dissolution by Constantine
in Nov. of the same year was considered as a violation of the
spirit, if not of the strict letter, of the Constitution. Venizelos
then ordered a general mobilization of the Greek army and for-
mally declared war against Germany and her allies. His path
was beset by many serious difficulties. The German propaganda
had done its work so thoroughly that a large section of the com-
munity were now entirely out of sympathy with Venizelos' war
policy. Nearly one-half of the officers of the army and navy
were against him and the Entente. These were given their
choice between adhesion to the new regime and dismissal from
the service. The large majority chose the latter; and thus 1,800
officers were retired on small pensions, and became a dangerous
leaven for all subversive activities against the Government.
Three distinct mutinies broke out while the newly mobilized
reserves were being moved to the front. A large proportion of the
public officials and judiciary were also disaffected; their removal
from their posts was a matter of elementary prudence for a
Government engaged in a war of such magnitude.
After the Armistice of Nov. n 1918, and the assembling of
the Peace Conference at Paris, Venizelos took up the diplomatic
struggle for the rights of Greece. Between Nov. 1918 and Aug.
1920 he and his colleagues of the Greek delegation were almost
continuously absent in Paris or London. He returned a few
times for a brief sojourn to attend the meetings of the Greek
Chamber; but there could be no rest for him until the Treaties
of Neuilly and of Sevres were finally signed. Never before had a
Greek statesman achieved such magnificent results for his coun-
try. Never before had a representative of a small nation won
such admiration or played such a brilliant part in a great inter-
national gathering. Yet no sooner was his triumph complete,
than an attempt was made upon his life by a couple of young
Greek naval officers (Tserepes and Kyriakos) ; and three months
later, the Greek elections gave a crushing majority to his political
opponents. Greek history is indeed full of such acts of popular
ingratitude to public men, from Aristides the Just down to
Charilaos Tricoupis.
Many explanations have been given of Venizelos' amazing
overthrow in the hour of his greatest triumph. He himself
attributed it to the war-weariness of the Greek people, that had i
been under arms with almost no intermission since 1912. His I
political enemies ascribed it to the determination of the Greek ,
people to " regain their liberties " and to punish his " tyranny."
It is, no doubt, the fact that a large section of the Greek people i
had been led to regard the situation in this light. The wildest
stories were circulated in the press about the oppressive character
of the Venizelist regime of 1917-20. Venizelos was accused of ,
having cast 80,000 people into prison, shot several thousands of
his political enemies, and dismissed 20,000 public servants. As a
matter of fact, the aggregate number of persons imprisoned or
interned or placed under police surveillance never exceeded 1,600. ;
The only executions were those of military ringleaders of mu- 1
tinies or military spies, after due public trial and conviction by \
courts-martial; the total number of these executions was 63. 1
There were also some 9,000 dismissals of public servants for politi-
cal reasons; but nearly all of these men were subsequently rein- i
stated by the Venizelist Government itself, after they had sworn
allegiance to the new order of things. When Venizelos' successors |
came into office in Nov. 1920 there were not more than 300 or;
400 of these dismissed public officials still out of service by their i
own choice. There were, nevertheless, numerous acts of petty I
tyranny and injustice, that could be laid at the door of the!
Venizelist administration, during Venizelos' prolonged absence |
at the Peace Conference. Some of his lieutenants abused their I
power or failed to prevent such abuse by others. Many notorious i
bad characters had managed to creep into posts of influence andj
used their position to wreak personal vengeance or to enrich;
themselves at the expense of the public or the public treasury, i
But it may be doubted if, even so, the elections would have gone
against Venizelos, had it not been for two other factors. One
was the sudden death of the young King Alexander a bare
fortnight before the election. This reopened the question of the !
succession to the throne; and although Venizelos, as a desperate
makeshift, proposed Prince Paul, Constantino's youngest son, as,
King, the utter insignificance of this boy candidate only threw;
Constantine's own claim to restoration into stronger relief and I
gave a fresh impetus to the efforts of his party. Had Alexander j
lived until after the election, Constantine would hardly have
succeeded in making his return good. The other factor in Venize-
los' defeat was the blind over-confidence of his partizans; manyi
Venizelists in Athens and the larger cities neglected to vote.
VERDUN, BATTLES OF
917
The total vote polled by the Venizelist party throughout Greece
was actually 436>?8i as against 525,642 cast for all the other
parties. Venizelos himself received a huge majority in Athens
and Piraeus, but was defeated by the vote of the rural population
of Attica. It is evident therefore that the large majority of
anti- Venizelist deputies returned to the Chamber (256 out of 369)
did not in any way correspond to a real anti- Venizelist majority
in the electorate at large. After the election, and Constantine's
return to Athens as King, a noticeable revulsion of feeling set in,
, especially in provinces where the anti- Venizelist vote had been
strong. But up to Sept. 1921, when the great Greek statesman
j was occupied in cementing his domestic happiness by a sec-
ond marriage in England, and the Greek army in Asia Minor
was engaged in costly military operations against Turkey by way
: of making up for the loss of his powerful diplomacy, Venizelos
himself had taken no further steps towards a restoration of his
active influence in the national politics. He had been left a
widower in 1895, with two sons, Kyriakos (b. 1893) and Soph-
ocles (b. 1895) ; and his second wife, to whom he became engaged
! in Paris in the summer of 1921, the wedding being 'celebrated on
1 Sept. 15 in London, was Miss Helena Schilizzi, heiress of a Greek
'iChiot family established in England.
See C. Kerofilas, Eleutherios Venizelos (1915); S. B. Chester, Life
\ of Venizelos (1921).
VERDUN, BATTLES OF (1916-7). On Dec. 6, 7 and 8 1915,
I the commanders-in-chief of the Allied armies on the western
'front, Sir Douglas Haig (Great Britain), Gen. Alexieff (Russia)
; and Gen. Cadorna (Italy) , met together at Chantilly for a con-
ference presided over by Gen. Joffre (France). The question to
be considered was the best method of applying the suggestion
'of M. Briand, who had been president of the council of French
ministers since Oct. 20 1915, for united action on an united front.
It was decided to start a general offensive simultaneously on all
fronts as soon as the British army had been able to obtain and
train the expected reinforcements, and as soon as the Russian
'army, which had been severely tried by the 1915 campaign, had
'been reorganized as to men and war material, and the French
' army had its full complement of heavy artillery, trench mortars
(and ammunition reserves. Until the fulfilment of these nec-
essary conditions it was impossible to fix a date for the offen-
|sive; it was, however, to take place as soon as possible. In the
event of the enemy foreseeing the Allied attack and attacking
lone part of the front first the defender should be assisted by his
1 Allies to their utmost powers.
On Feb. 18 Gen. Joffre chose the Somme as the theatre of the
; Franco-British offensive, and wrote to Sir Douglas Haig that
'the attack should take place about July i. But the German
'High Command had decided upon a winter offensive. Maj.-Gen.
i Erich von Falkenhayn, who had relieved Gen. von Moltke as
jcommander-in-chief of the armies in the field, was in reality
! generalissimo of the Central Powers; the Austrian High Com-
i mand had suggested to him that nearly the whole of the Austrian
: forces should be directed against Italy, and that nine new
'German divisions should be sent as reinforcements to the
'Russian front. When once Italy was put out of action 400,000
|Austrians would then be available to take part in the battle
against France. Falkenhayn, however, rejected this proposal
because he did not believe that a defeat upon a frontier of such
1 extent would cause Italy to lay down her arms.
At the end of Dec., in a memorandum to the Kaiser, Falken-
hayn reviewed the situation to the following effect. England, he
said, was the soul of the Entente and the implacable enemy of
Germany; she was exhibiting to-day the same tenacity that she
showed in her historical struggles against the Low Countries,
Spain, France and Napoleon. But in order to exhaust the re-
sources of Germany she could hardly count on anything but a
'war of attrition; and Falkenhayn recognized that in reality time
was on the side of the Entente. It was then necessary to strike a
blow at England. But where? It was not possible to bring about
!a decision in the East; any success would be purely of a local
i nature, without influence on the course of the war. In France
the marshy soil of Flanders was an obstacle up to the middle of
the spring; and as regards the British positions farther south,
the objectives were too distant and their conquest would necessi-
tate the employment of 30 divisions at least, which in point of
fact the German army did not possess, and experienced officers
were lacking to form the nucleus for new formations. Since
England was out of reach, it was necessary to deprive her of her
weapons, which were the Allied armies, and to give up the idea
of a direct attack against the British armies. " Obviously this is
a pity from the point of view of what our feelings are towards our
chief enemy in this war," said Falkenhayn, " but it is necessary
to accept the situation. Above all the enemy must be struck at
through submarine warfare carried out to its limit. There was
no sort of imprudence in risking the hostility of America. Be-
cause of the strong current of political opinion which is favourable
to Germany it is doubtful whether the United States could decide
to take any active measures on the European continent. It is
still more doubtful whether they would be able to intervene in
time with sufficiently strong forces. In order to destroy the
tools of England on the Continent, Austria-Hungary has de-
manded that Italy should be attacked. This scheme, however,
must be discarded: its realization would have as its only result
the securing of future advantages for Austria-Hungary, but it
would not have any immediate influence on the war taken as a
whole. Even if Italy abandoned the Entente (and this is difficult
to admit) her defection would not have an appreciable effect on
England. The military aid of Italy is so little, and Italy in any
case is so much under the thumb of England that it would be
strange to make any mistake in this appreciation of the situation.
Interior troubles which may be expected in Italy at no long date
will paralyze the power to fight in that country.
" The same thing," continued Falkenhayn, " applies to Russia.
Her internal distress will soon oblige her to change her tune. An
offensive on a grand scale is impossible for her in winter. In
addition strategic objectives are not to be found: the capture of
St. Petersburg would much complicate the question of supply;
an advance against Moscow would lead us into the desert; the
Ukraine is a granary, but we must wait for the settlement of the
Rumanian question before pursuing the occupation of it. All
the Allies then have been successively eliminated: only France
remains. France," Falkenhayn repeats, " has almost arrived
at the end of her military effort, with a devotion that has been
after all admirable. If her people can be made to understand
clearly that there is nothing more to be hoped for from a military
point of view, the worst will be over and England will find herself
without her best sword. A break-through carried out in mass,
an operation which is doubtful and beyond the power of our
forces, is not necessary in order to reach this end. Even by the
employment of limited effectives our aim can probably be reached.
Behind the French line on the western front there are objectives
which are within accessible range, and for which the French
Command would have to fight to the last man."
Falkenhayn saw then the solution in a terrible conflict of
attrition fought out on a limited front against the French
army by the German army; the latter holding the initiative in
attack could manipulate it according to circumstances and limit
itself in effort and in losses. Two objectives presented themselves,
Belfort and Verdun. The capture of either would have an
enormous moral effect in France. Between these two Falkenhayn
chose Verdun, for the following military reasons. " The French
lines here are still at a distance of about 20 km. from the German
lines of communication. Verdun is always the most powerful
point d'appui for every attempt of the enemy to make untenable
the German position in France and Belgium by the employment
of relatively weak effectives."
This noteworthy report by Falkenhayn is full of the most
detailed comments on the general situation of the Central Powers
and on the conduct of the war as seen at that time by the German
High Command. It displays naively his hate for England and
contempt for the United States. It should be compared with
William II. 's speech on June 15 1918 to the Great General Staff,
on the occasion of the anniversary of his coronation, when after
three victorious offensives he was persuaded of certain victory
9i8
VERDUN, BATTLES OF
and was already on the way to the Capital: " The German people
did not clearly see, when war broke out, what meaning it would
have. I see it very clearly. It was a question of a struggle be-
tween two conceptions of the world. Either the Prussian, Ger-
man, or Teutonic conception of the world, where right, liberty,
honour and morals should triumph, or the Anglo-Saxon concep-
tion, which implies abandonment to the idolatry of money. The
peoples of the earth work as slaves for their masters the Anglo-
Saxons, who hold them under the yoke. These twp conceptions
struggle one against the other. It is absolutely necessary that
one of the two should be overthrown."
In addition it is worthy of note that, in conjunction with the
detailed and fairly exact appreciation on the internal state of
Russia and Italy, a total misapprehension existed concerning the
material situation and especially concerning the moral of France;
the whole plan of campaign was based on the fact that France
was nearly at the limit of its effort towards the end of 1915, and
that it would only be necessary to create a certain friction on the
French front to bring about a rapid exhaustion of the army and
of the nation. Subsequent events showed in a striking way the
fallacy of this idea.
Besides the reasons given by Gen. von Falkenhayn there were
others which pointed to Verdun as the objective of a German
offensive. The German commercial element, whose influence
in the councils of the Imperial Government and amongst the
military High Command was considerable, had represented in a
memorandum to the Emperor the necessity of annexing the
Briey basin, the mineral wealth of which would be a happy
adjunct to the Sarre coal: this peace aim could be kept quiet, for
the war map was evidently to play the chief r61e in those future
negotiations which the supposed exhaustion of the Entente
seemed to foreshadow. Moreover, the Imperial Crown Prince
commanded the Army Group which was detailed to attack
Verdun, and the honours which were to come to him therefrom
would assure the future of the dynasty.
As soon as it was decided to attack Verdun local actions followed
one another along the whole western front in order to divert the
attention of the Allies; in Champagne, at Tahure, from Jan. 8-12,
an operation took place followed by important works which ac-
company the preparation of an offensive on a grand scale; on
Jan. 24 in Flanders at Nieuport and Hetsas; on Jan. 23 in Artois
at Thelus and at Givenchy on the 28th; in Picardy on the 2pth
at Frise; in Alsace at Seppois on Feb. 13.
The chief aim was not to reach the objective laid down for
each attack; it was a question of studying under what conditions
and to what degree the preparation, lasting several days, thought
up till then to be necessary, could be cut down by increasing the
number of batteries, and through the rapidity of the rate of fire,
of the German artillery. In 1915 the attacks carried out in
Artois and in Champagne by the armies of the Entente had
necessitated a preparation lasting from six to eight days. They
gave the enemy time to meet the attack. In 1916 the German
army was trying to regain the advantage of surprise.
Local Situation. During 1915 the French front at Verdun had
played only a severely defensive role, rigidly set down by the
High Command. The capture of Liege, Namur, Antwerp,
Maubeuge and several other siege forts in France, had forced the
admission that permanent fortifications had had their day.
Whilst generalizing too hastily about certain experiences, the
details of which were still not well known, it was admitted that
every limited objective on which modern artillery was able to
concentrate its fire should be smashed up in a few hours. Isolated
defence of strong points and entrenched camps was no longer
considerable; every detached fort became a nest for shells and
could be defended only by evacuating it and by fighting outside.
From this crept in the idea of submerging permanent work? in a
defensive zone, a " fortified region " making them a part of the
whole scheme of defence.
Further, in a decree of Aug. 3 1915 siege forts had been sup-
pressed with their autonomous organization within an enclosed
perimeter, which implied the consequence of an isolated defence.
This gave back to the armies powerful artillery immobilized in the
interior of the country (2,300 heavy guns with 1,600,000 rounds
and i, 800 field guns with 1,450,000 rounds) and territorial troops
which were needed for urgent work on the front. Under the
conditions under which the war was being fought it was inevitable,
and this decree seemingly marked the definite end of the per-
manent fortifications which were to render such great services
during the battle of Verdun.
Prolonged and well-directed bombardments by the most
powerful artillery left the armour-plated turrets intact; the
deep concreted shelters remained constantly in use, and the
troops found these instant and safe shelter hot food, provisions
in food and munitions which prevented them from reaching the
last extremity of exhaustion. The forts of old design needed
deepening considerably, but they served their purpose usefully.
One thing is certain, and that is that the officers commanding
sectors which were attacked did not pay sufficient attention to the
defence of the forts and fortified works.
The transformation of the entrenched camp of Verdun into
a " fortified region " modified considerably the conditions of
defence. The closed ring became an open chain; in addition, the
salient on the right bank of the Meuse was very exposed, and
quite rightly it appeared necessary to organize a second position
on the left bank of the Meuse which would enable the continuity
of the front to be reestablished, should it be necessary to aban-
don the whole of the right bank to the enemy. But the manual
labour and the engineering stores were lacking for the rapid
construction of these important works; in 1915 the preparation
for the offensive in Artois and Champagne had absorbed the
greater part of available material, and on the entire front the
requirements remained great, for every sector commander cried
out for manual labour and material for work which was always
urgent. The requirements of Gen. Herr, who commanded the
fortified region of Verdun, were met only very sparingly. To-
wards the end of 1915 he gave warning of the preparations for
attack opposite his front, but Gen. Gouraud made identical
remarks about the front opposite the IV. Army, which he was
commanding in Champagne, where the enemy was feigning the
preparation of an offensive. The French High Command be-
lieved, moreover, that in the event of Verdun becoming the
objective of the German offensive, that offensive would be made
on both flanks of the old entrenched camp: on one side between
the Argonne and the Meuse, on the other opposite St. Mihiel;
the salient formed by the French positions on the right bank
might then become untenable. It was hardly likely that the
German High Command would limit itself to a frontal attack
directed against a sector which was crowded with powerful and
permanent fortifications. It was in this sense that Hindenburg
himself addressed a reproach to his predecessor, and Gen. Herr
inclined to the same view. It was necessary then to concentrate
his efforts on the whole of the fortified region; this meant dis-
persal of effort, as the means at his disposal were very limited.
This scarcity had not only been pointed out to the Army Com-
mand, but to the French Government and to Parliament.
Colonel Driant, deputy of Nancy, had spoken to the Army
Commission, of which he was a member, about the dangerous
situation in which the whole defence of the French front in
Lorraine was left, without labour or material. Making these
complaints their own, the Army Commission had them trans-
mitted to the Minister for War, Gen. Gallieni, who asked Gen.
Joffre for explanations on Dec. 16. The next day Gen. Joffre
explained the arrangements that he had [taken on all the
French front, and stated a little quickly perhaps that they
were realized at Verdun; and he complained that the Govern-
ment might compromise discipline in the army if they welcomed
grievances and requests of his subordinates. General Gallieni
replied, in the name of the council of ministers, that the Govern-
ment retained all its confidence in the commander-in-chief, and
that there was no question of a conflict of authority.
Meanwhile the construction of narrow-gauge railways, and
the establishment of ammunition parks and new batteries, were
being disclosed in Champagne at the same time as in Lorraine,
and these indications became further noticeable in front of
VERDUN, BATTLES OF
Verdun, and particularly on the northern front. On Jan. 20
Gen. Joffre sent Gen. de Castelnau there on a mission. The
latter had been made chief of the staff of the group of French
armies with the consent of the Government. After having stated
that the resources placed at the disposal of Gen. Herr had been
utilized judiciously and to the greatest degree possible, Gen. de
Castelnau insisted that these resources should be increased; and
this was sanctioned. From Feb. i onwards work was pushed
forward actively, thanks to two reinforcing territorial divisions
but it was very late. The general effect of the measures under-
taken by the enemy made it clear that the attack would material-
ize on the northern face of the salient on the right bank, between
the village of Ornes and the Meuse. An army was concentrated
to the rear of the threatened region: four army corps and con-
siderable heavy artillery. The threat, however, on the Cham-
pagne front was not yet dispelled, and it seemed imprudent to
determine the position of these reserves prematurely by bringing
them into the line. As it was foreseen that the only standard-
gauge line of supply the line Verdun-St. Menehould would
be cut in case of attack, the Verdun-Bar-le-Duc road was wid-
ened to six and then to eight metres in order to allow the con-
tinuous passage of two files of vehicles. Mensien, a small metre-
gauge line, was improved so that the tonnage it could deal with
was increased from 400 to 1,800 tons a day. These communica-
tions indeed appeared to be extraordinarily inadequate in com-
parison with the German network of lines, comprising 14 ordi-
nary-gauge and 3 metre-gauge railways. They were, however,
sufficient for the supply of the French troops.
General Herr had only a total of nine active divisions and six
regiments of heavy artillery at his disposal on both banks of the
Meuse as against nineteen German divisions, supported by a
concentration of artillery hitherto unequalled.
The German line had been quiet for many months; to the
rear great preparations had been observed, but in the front
lines none of those approach works, considered as essential to the
execution of an attack, had been made. At this period of the
war, and for a long time after, it had been thought indispensable
to place the attacking troops at an assault distance of between
200 and 250 metres, sheltered in parallel take-off trenches, in
order to shorten as far as possible the distance to cover over open
ground, at the same time avoiding " prematures " of their own
artillery during the destruction of the enemy trenches and de-
fences; the attacker had taken care not to reveal his intentions
by digging these parallel trenches, which the French expected
in order to be certain of a coming attack; he remained in his
lines, at places 800 metres from the French trenches, because no
defender would be in a fit state to fire after such an unheard-of
bombardment as was being prepared; the French batteries
destroyed or disorganized were no longer to be feared.
The German Attack and its Progress. On Feb. 21, at 07.15
hours (7:15 A.M.), on a cold dry day, the German bombardment
began with great violence on both banks of the Meuse; it
stretched over a front of 22 km. and was particularly intense on
the northern front of the right bank.
Simultaneously, the destruction of the first and second posi-
tions was carried out by the medium calibre guns (150 mm.
210 mm.) and the fortified works by the large calibre guns
(280 mm., 305 mm., 380 mm. and 420 mm.). Six observation
balloons and numerous aeroplanes directed the fire on this
narrow zone. From 08.00 hours all telephonic communications
were cut everywhere; many shelters fell in; the barbed wire
disappeared; trenches and communication trenches were practi-
cally levelled out by the afternoon. The craters made by the
huge shells gave to all the countryside an appearance like the
surface of the moon.
At 1 6. oo hours the intensity of the bombardment reached its
zenith. At 16.45 the German infantry left their trenches be-
tween the Hautmont wood and Herbebois, on a 4-km. front.
Detachments of wire-cutters and pioneers, about 50 strong,
preceded the successive waves which followed one another at a
distance of 80 to too metres. The German officers had assured
their men that they would penetrate the French positions with
919
arms slung and without encountering resistance, as the artillery
bombardment would have destroyed everything, both men and
material obstacles. This assurance, however, had still to be
realized. The French heavy artillery, although it had recently
been reinforced, remained very inferior to that of the enemy and
caused him little damage. The field artillery on the other hand
opened fire at 13.00 hours, instead of commencing the bombard-
ment in the morning as was laid down in the orders of the Army
Group; it was increased at 16.00 hours and caused some losses
when the attack was launched.
Some elements of the trenches were still in being with their
defenders; groups came up out of the few shelters that were un-
touched, and they fought bravely, although scarcely under cover;
here and there a machine-gun came into action and inflicted
considerable losses on the massed enemy; on such a restricted
front, these local resistances were sufficient to delay the German
attack considerably, very feebly on the left, but a little more
strongly on the right. On the evening of the 2ist the first line
trench was captured on the attack front, and the Germans gained
a footing at certain points in the support trenches.
The following day, the 22nd, the German attack, led by the
VII. Reserve Corps, the XVIII. and III. Active Corps, slowly
followed up their success against the XXX. Corps under Chre-
tien, when the 72nd Div. under Bafst lost the village of Haut-
mont and the Caures wood, where, after a heroic resistance,
they lost Col. Driant and Maj. Renouard.
Of the 14 battalions which he had in reserve Gen. Chretien
had used 8, and he received a brigade, which nearly made up his
losses. His sist Div. under Boullange lost a little ground, but
its counter-attacks stopped the enemy.
However, on the 23rd the 72nd divisional commander, in-
fluenced by the loss of Hautmont which thereby threatened his
rear, evacuated the village of Brabant, which remained isolated
on the Meuse; he received the order to retake it but could not
succeed; the sist Div. lost the important position of Wavrille.
The whole of the French first position was captured, and the
line now ran through Samogneux, the Fosse wood and Ornes.
It was really the second position, which was linked up with the
first at Ornes.
The 24th witnessed the crumbling in of this line. Samogneux
was taken before dawn, the Fosse wood during the day; Beau-
mont, taken and retaken several times during the day of the
24th, fell during the night; and it became necessary to evacuate
Ornes, outflanked on all sides. Then the enemy reached the
heights of Talon and approached Douaumont. The situation
appeared so serious that Gen. Herr asked permission to evacuate
the Woevre plain and to draw back his front eastward to the
Meuse heights; Gen. de Langle de Gary, commanding the Army
Group, insisted on obtaining the sanction of Gen. Joffre for this
withdrawal; he hoped to hold on on the front Talon heights-
Louvemont-Douaumont-Vaux long enough to enable him to
evacuate the right bank, which he thought to be inevitable. He
even stopped on the left bank the elements of the XX. Corps
which were reinforcing the XXX. Corps under Chretien.
It was now a question of deciding on the abandonment of
Verdun. Should it be held at all costs and risk a disaster, if the
bridges over the Meuse should come under enemy fire before the
troops and artillery would have the time to cross them? Three
times during the course of this sanguinary battle the same
question arose, and three times Gen. Joffre settled the matter
with the same calm and imperturbable tenacity. He replied
to Gen. de Langle de Gary: " I approve in advance of the
decisions that you will take as regards the withdrawal to the
heights of the Meuse of the* troops dispersed in the Woevre, if
you judge it to be indispensable; you are the sole judge of the
necessities of the battle. But you must hold facing N. on the
front between the Meuse and Woevre with all the means at your
disposal. Use the whole of the XX. Corps without hesitation.
To engage it is necessary in order to enable the reinforcing divi-
sions to arrive; you must hasten their march to the Meuse."
General de Castelnau, his chief-of-staff of the army groups,
left during the night, and after his arrival at the headquarters
Q2O
VERDUN, BATTLES OF
of the Army Group he telephoned to Gen. Herr confirming the
orders of the commander-in-chief. On the 2 5th Gen. Joffre
telegraphed simultaneously to Gens, de Castelnau, Petain and
Herr: " Yesterday, Feb. 24, gave the order to resist on the right
bank of the Meuse to the N. of Verdun. Every commander, who,
under these circumstances, gives an order to retreat, will be
arraigned before a council of war."
It is true that great is the glory of those who carried out this
order, and who by their military prowess, their knowledge of their
men and their personal action, won this great battle. The chief
actor, who from the first act to the last scene of the drama never
ceased in removing from others the heavy burden of responsibility
that chief actor was Gen. Joffre. History must not forget this.
General dc Langle de Gary accordingly issued his orders: he laid
down that on the right bank they should hold fast facing N. ; the
movement of the XX. Corps, provisionally suspended, was to be
continued; he evacuated the Woevrc, however, withdrawing to
the fort of the Meuse heights.
General de Castelnau arrived at 7 A.M. at Gen. Plerr's head-
quarters, and his presence alone brought calm and relief. The
37th and iS3rd Divs. had been engaged as brigades and even
as regiments; these reinforcements had been sufficient to limit
the progress of an attack which had been carried out on too
narrow a front.
During the zsth the XX. Corps under Balfourier relieved the
XXX. Corps under Chretien, whose two divisions had lost 61 %
of their effectives (16,000 out of 26,000). The 37th Div. under
Bonneval, believing its right to be on the point of being outflanked,
evacuated the height of Talon and that of Poivre and withdrew
to the Belleville height, a withdrawal of seven kilometres. A
fortunate initiative stopped the enemy by an artillery barrage,
and enabled the 3Qth Div. to regain the great part of the ground
which had been given up. But if the enemy had been able to
fight desperately on that day he would have engaged untried
reserves at a propitious moment; he would at least have reached
the foot of the Belleville height, and this advance would have
made the occupation of the right-hand exceedingly difficult. On
the left bank the whole French line would have been taken in
rear and forced to retreat. As the German attacks were limited
between the Meuse and in the Woevre, the arrival of an adequate
number of reinforcements was sufficient to close the breach.
In the centre fighting had been continued the whole day round
Fort Douaumont; Number 1 55 turret had fired almost unceasingly
for four days; the fort had no garrison except the crew of 23 gun-
ners, who manned this work, and who, at the end of their tether,
slept after the fall of night. A patrol of the 24th Brandenburgers,
finding the drawbridge lowered, entered the fort and settled
themselves there without firing a shot. Such was the result of a
badly understood order, which converted entrenched camps
into fortified regions; it was due, perhaps, to insufficient liaison
between two units in the first line, who should have got into
touch in Fort Douaumont instead of maintaining themselves,
one to the E. and the other to the W. of the fort, which at the
beginning of the battle found itself 8 km. within the French
lines without a garrison of its own. It was for the local com-
mander to occupy it.; but the prejudice against permanent fortifi-
cation was such that no one on the spot thought about it. On
the evening of the 24th Gen. Chretien had, moreover, ordered
his sector commanders to occupy all works. The important work
of Hardaumont, which completed the defence of the Douaumont
and Vaux forts, had no garrison, and was likewise abandoned to
the enemy without the slightest resistance.
The day was a bad one. The capture of Douaumont was
announced to the whole world Jh a triumphal communique :
" To the E. of the Meuse, in the presence of His Majesty the
Emperor and King we have gained important successes. In a
vigorous advance the Brandenburg regiments reached the fort
and village of Douaumont, which they captured by assault."
This glaring travesty of the truth made this name symbolic of
a great victory; but when, taking up the challenge, the French
were to retake Douaumont, the value which the Germans gave
to its possession was to be the measure of their defeat.
General Joffre sent for Gen. Petain to come to Chantilly; the
latter had been supervising in the rear the training of divisions
sent back in succession to rest. After Joffre had given him his
instructions he sent him to take over the command of the army
in process of formation on the left bank of the Meuse, which was
to intervene when the right moment arrived. General de Castel-
nau thought that the moment had already arrived when Gen.
Petain appeared on the scene, as events were getting beyond the
powers of the cadre of the fortified region, whose general staff-was
not adequate to direct operations of such importance.
General Petain took over command on Feb. 26. He brought
the I. Corps under Guillaumat into line on the left of Balfourier's
XX. Corps. The front was immediately put into a state of
defence foot by foot, and vigorous counter-attacks were carried
out. The front was divided into sectors; the heavy artillery
which had arrived was assigned to each; the Bar-lc-Duc- Verdun
road (the sacred way) which was cracking up under the ever-
increasing weight of the motor lorries, was constantly repaired
by gangs of territorial troops and doubled by lateral tracks.
The situation remained confused; it was the German com-
munique which informed Gen. Petain of the capture of Douau-
mont, and then he was nervous about the forts of Vaux and
Souville, nearer to Verdun and not yet threatened.
The struggle was very lively on the Douaumont summit.
The French line went beyond the fort to the E. and to the W.
and hemmed it in ; it was round this point, now of first importance,
that the battle raged. It was only on March 4 that the line
became stabilized for some weeks at a distance of 200 metres
from the fort. There is no doubt that the counter-attacks carried
out rarely gained any appreciable ground, but they broke up the
German offensive, which was disconcerted by this new feature of
the defence. General Joffre reiterated the necessity of these
counter-attacks; he wrote to Gen. Petain on Feb. 27: " At the
present juncture of the battle, you feel as I do that the best
method of checking the effort, which the enemy will make, is to
attack in our turn." On March i he wrote: " You have now at
your disposal forces outnumbering those opposed to you . . .
above all it is necessary for you to take the initiative in offensive
actions with definite objectives in view."
The German attack now progressed on the right bank exceed-
ingly slowly. All along the Meuse it was harassed by the fire of
the defence, which caught it obliquely and even in rear.
At last the Crown Prince decided to broaden his attack fronts
on the left bank of the Meuse, attempting too late to rectify the
original error of his offensive.
On March 4 he asked his army groups to make a supreme
effort to take Verdun, " the heart of France." After a bombard-
ment lasting two days he attacked on March 6 with two divisions.
The French, however, had been expecting it for 15 days; after
a fair resistance they gave up the crossing of the Forges stream,
and that part of their line which was under the fire of enemy
guns from the right bank and which could no longer be held
except by very strong outposts. The following day the Germans
continued their advance, paying for their progress more and
more dearly, and they were stopped in front of Mort Homme.
From the 8th-nth the battle was extended simultaneously
on both banks. Unimportant progress was made on the left
bank, but Mort Homme held steadfastly, as did the Poivre '
height on the right bank. The Germans advanced to the out-
skirts of Fort Vaux, whose capture they announced in a new j
resounding communique : " Fort Vaux as well as the numerous i
adjoining fortifications has been captured in a brilliant night
attack by the Posen reserve regiments. ..." One can only
imagine that the German prisoners led into the fort must have
been taken for victorious attack troops. The next day the com-
munique had to be contradicted; the turretted fort had be-
come " a heap of ruins " and had been evacuated.
The first communique could very well have been the result
of a mistake, but the second was a lie. Evidence from both
sides, and notably from soldiers' letters, testifies to the desperate
character of the struggle during these days, and to the bravery
displayed by friend and foe alike. The French troops particularly
VERDUN, BATTLES OF (1916-17)
VERDUN, BATTLES OF
noticed the Bavarian troops among their enemies, whose blood
was shed unsparingly by the Prussian command.
General Joflfre thought that he had won the first trick in this
cerrible game. In historic words he thanked the soldiers of
Verdun. " Germany hoped," he told them, " that the capture
}f Verdun would strengthen the courage of her allies and would
:onvince neutral countries of her superiority. She had not
.eckoncd with you . . . the struggle is not over, because the
Germans must have a victory. You will take it out of their
lands. Of you it will be said: they barred to the Germans the
jtfay to Verdun."
The generalissimo dared then to tell his soldiers that the battle
.vould continue; he took up the challenge of the enemy, who
ittached a moral importance to the capture of Verdun, for want
of a strategical importance which it had not. The Germans had
dot obtained the rapid " break-through " which they had hoped
j'or, and their objective was limited to the capture of forts on the
ight bank of the Meusc, purely a local rectification of front.
They were reduced to give this objective an importance purely
Ictitious " Verdun, the chief stronghold of our chief enemy,
i he head and heart of France," etc., etc.
General Joffre's victory was enhanced by these same declara-
ions of the enemy. He frequently visited the front, for two or
hive days at a time. He kept Gen. Petain's second army under
|iis own immediate command, thus relieving of responsibility the
ntermediary " group of armies," a formation often useless,
ometimcs harmful, always heavy and slow, unless under the
ommand of a striking personality; as long as Verdun was to be
ihe sole theatre of operations Gen. Joffre was to exert there his
lirect personal action. He was thus able to calculate exactly
vhat forces he could employ there, because he had to keep in
eserve effectives necessary for the French offensive which was
icing prepared on the Sommc, according to the plan of operations
'leaded upon in Dec. 1915, and the execution of which he was
ollowing through impcrturbably. Sir Douglas Haig had been
(uitc willing to extend his front so as to free the X. French
Vrray, which force could then be employed as reinforcements
or Verdun; the British general offered to contribute directly to
he battle that was being fought; but Gen. Joffre declined his
Ifffer as he wished the whole of the British forces to be available
ior the forthcoming offensive.
j On March 12 and 13 the German bombardment was renewed
n both banks of the Meuse with great violence; on the i4th a
mall advance brought the attack line nearer to the Mort
lomme, but it was stopped by some successful counter-attacks.
. On the 1 6th the village and fort of Vaux successfully resisted
i -Solent assaults repeated five times. On the 2oth, however, after
furious artillery bombardment, the Germans seized the Avo-
ourt wood, poorly defended by troops, who apparently allowed
hemselvcs to be unduly influenced by jets of burning liquid
' used in great quantities. However, on the following days, the
ttackers attempted to debouch from the wood in vain; well-
ilirected artillery fire stopped any advance.
Prepared at leisure, a French counter-attack retook this wood
. n the 2gth; it created a salient in the lines and might serve as a
>ase for an advance which would embarrass the whole position.
v violent struggle lasted four days for the possession of this
;round, which finally remained in the hands of the French.
But against this the whole Malancourt salient fell into German
lands; the French were obliged to evacuate Bethincourt and to
all back on the S. bank of the Forges stream; they even lost the
ummit of Mort Homme.
On the right bank the end of March witnessed the gradual
dvance of the Germans, slightly going beyond the village of
^aux. On April 2, descending the slopes of Douaumont, they
eized the Caillette wood and crossed the Baril ravine; no de-
cisive line, nor any reserve troops, separated them any longer
rom Fort Souvillc. They had even gone beyond the barrage
ire of the French artillery.
At this moment the sth Div. under Gen. Mangin came into
ine, and forestalling the hour for relief hurled in its first regiment
o counter-attack. Uncertainty concerning the ground given
921
up deprived the artillery of all accuracy in its fire, which was not
able to support the counter-attacking line, but this uncertainty
was the same for both sides. It was above all necessary to stop
the enemy where he was, and then to drive him back. All
arrangements were made during the night, and the fight was
resumed on the 3rd with a first success of good omen.
On the following days the artillery was able to regulate its fire,
the Caillette wood was recaptured completely, all the approaches
to Souville and to the N. of Vaux were largely freed, in spite of
German reinforcements. It was noticeable that this division
had lost fewer men in recapturing the ground than the former
division in losing it. The idea gained ground of continuing with
the same troops so as to retake Douaumont.
The 5th Div. was sent back to rest, and the plan of attack,
which anticipated an advance on the part of the division on its
left, was drawn up. That division, however, lost ground instead
of gaining it, and the objective now to be reached was altogether
enfltche; as the adjoining divisions were not considered to be in a
state to take part in the operation, the base of the attack became
too narrow. Nevertheless it was launched on the 22nd about
midday. After a fairly satisfactory artillery preparation, with
magnificent dash it reached the fort in 1 1 minutes and occupied
the superstructure with the exception of the northwestern angle.
To right and left the objectives laid down were reached almost
entirely. The enemy, however, held on to the interior of the fort,
and the outside was soon swept by his artillery fire; the machine-
guns, in turrets which had not been knocked out, were soon
augmented by others brought gradually into action.
The German reinforcements came up after the 23rd, because
they were ready for this attack; the French reinforcements were
too far back, and the officer in control of the attack did not have
them under his orders. The struggle lasted two days, but the
fort was lost again on the 28th.
Then the struggle broke out anew round Fort Vaux. The
bombardment increased in intensity each day at the end of May;
Damloup was taken on June 2 and the fort surrounded on three
sides. The Germans finally occupied the superstructure, but
Maj. Raynal continued the defence with steadfast heroism.
The fort fell on June 7. Its fall uncovered Fort Souville,
already threatened by the German advance down the slopes from
Douaumont; Thiaumont farm fell, the Caillette wood was re-
taken; and it seemed as if the heroism of the French soldiers was
to be powerless in face of this advance, which appeared to be in
some way mechanical.
General Petain had taken over command of the group of
French armies in the centre, and Gen. Nivelle of the Verdun
army. General Petain had already drawn the attention of Gen.
Joffre to the gravity of the situation in May. He referred to it
again on June 1 1 , and insisted that the offensive to be undertaken
on the Somme should take place as soon as possible. General
Joffre replied the following day that he had made all his disposi-
tions with this end in view, but that it was necessary to continue
the struggle at all costs on the right bank, and even to risk the
loss of batteries which could hardly be withdrawn.
The German advance, however, continued on the right bank,
in spite of the energy of Gen. Nivelle, who repeatedly ordered
counter-attacks, both immediate and instinctive.
The whole effort of the attacker was concentrated on this
ground, an effort which amounted to a major operation having
as its first objectives the work of Froide Terre, the village of
Fleury and Fort Souville. Once that line was reached the old
forts on the height St. Michel-Belleville would be easily seized,
and the French would be hemmed in against the Meuse with
its bridges under German artillery fire. Nineteen regiments be-
longing to seven different divisions were to be engaged; the
reinforcements and reserves were brought up close to the front
line in order to take advantage of the first successes, and to insure
the strength and continuity of the effort. It was the most im-
portant and heaviest attack that Verdun had ever had to bear.
The artillery had been strongly reinforced, and began its
preparation from June 20 with an intensity hitherto unheard of.
On the morning of the 23rd the first-line trenches were literally
922
VERDUN, BATTLES OF
ploughed up, and the German infantry hardly found a single
defender at the beginning of the attack, which reached the Baril
ravine, Fleury, the Thiaumont work, and even penetrated the
moats or ditches of the Froide Terre work, where the advanced
elements had been taken prisoner. The French counter-attacks,
however, stopped the German attack. General Mangin, who
commanded this section of defence, launched unceasing counter-
attacks. They hurled themselves against the German attacks
but their advance at first was very slow; however, that of the
enemy was stopped and his will was soon to be conquered. The
stubbornness of the two adversaries was equal, and the course
of the battle reached a dead-lock, but it was felt that the battle
had already assumed another aspect.
However, on the evening of the 23rd the situation was serious,
as the German wave was very near to beating against the
Belleville height, the last stronghold to keep it from Verdun.
It reached the head of the ravines coming down from Froide
Terre towards the Meuse, and the Poivre height was in danger
of being submerged and its defenders taken in rear. General
Nivelle, commanding the army, conferred with Gen. Mangin.
Both were in agreement in thinking that it was necessary to
counter-attack to the utmost; the threatened front was in a
position of unstable equilibrium, and its only salvation was to be
found in a movement forwards; Gen. Nivelle approved the orders
issued in consequence. On his return to his headquarters he
found Gen. Petain, who satisfied himself that all measures were
ready for the evacuation of the right bank, prepared down to the
last detail. The positions for withdrawal by echelons were fixed
in advance, in such a way that this masterly retreat would not
leave a single trophy of war to the enemy. There was to be
found in Gen. Petain an admirable steadfastness of soul. With
the exception of Gen. Nivelle not one of his subordinates suspected
his fears. When he asked that opinion should be prepared for the
retreat to the left bank he was thinking of those at home; to his
soldiers and their officers he continued to show an impassive
countenance, and he kept on saying, " We shall have them! "
For the third time Gen. Petain pointed out the gravity of the
situation to the commander-in-chief. A third of the French
artillery was on the right bank and would be lost in case of a
reverse if it was not withdrawn before the German artillery
could fire on the bridges over the Meuse, and three days were
needed to carry out this withdrawal; it would be wise to begin it.
General Joffre, however, was imperturbable. He replied on
the 26th that the preparation for the Franco-British offensive
had commenced, and repeated that Verdun should be defended
on the right bank; should there be a loss of material as a result of
this decision the commander-in-chief would assume the entire
responsibility for it. When the telegram that he had ordered to
be written to the above effect was handed to him by his chief-of-
staff, the latter drew his attention to this decision and to the
responsibility which he was assuming thereby. " I have taken
many others," said placidly the general as he signed. He ex-
plained the general situation to the Minister for War, who had
invited him to hurry on the Franco-British attack; the launching
of the offensive had been subordinated to the reinforcement of
the British and Russian armies in men and material; the hour
had struck, and the guns on the Somme made their thunder
heard. The offensive, previously fixed for June 29, was postponed
till July i on account of bad weather, which hampered the artil-
lery preparation. But it was on that date that it had been fixed
by Gen. Joffre on Feb. 18, three days before the attack on Verdun,
which had not succeeded in advancing or delaying it a single day.
The French Counter-offensive. The end of June had witnessed
the arrest of the German advance by French counter-attacks.
The ground, which had been won at one blow on the 23rd, was
regained step by step; on the edges of the Thiaumont work the
conflict always remained fierce enough; vibrations on the front
decreased in magnitude, but its general tendency was towards the
N. and to the detriment of the assailant. The work or rather
the small protuberance which marked the site of the work
was taken and retaken to such a degree that it changed hands 16
times during the summer; the slight advances which had carried
the German line beyond the craters were gradually reduced, and
from this side the initiative in attack belonged to the French.
On the other hand the German offensive continued to progress
slightly in the direction of Fleury-Souville. The French had been
almost completely thrown out of the village, which they had
partly retaken on June 27.
The Crown Prince carried out anew a strong attack against
Fort Souville. On July u, after a violent artillery preparation
and a storm of asphyxiating shells which enveloped the attack
zone, he hurled 13 regiments belonging to 5 different divisions
in between the slopes E. of Thiaumont up to the Vaux-Chapitre
wood. The attack made a little progress on the nth, very little
on the i2th; a small detachment, however, was taken prisoner on
the superstructure of Fort Souville. Certain counter-attacks
organized unexpectedly had limited the gain of this strong
offensive, very costly as it was in men, to a depth of 400 metres
to the S. of Fleury on a front of 800 metres. By sheer tenacity a
well-organized counter-attack led to the recapture of all the
ground lost, resulting in the capture of many prisoners. After
July 20 it was the French who attacked, in front of Souville as
well as round Thiaumont. After the nth Mangin's command was i
increased on this sector, and this unity made possible the powerful i
concentrations of artillery fire. Local attacks could be preceded
by preparation on a large front, and thus leave the enemy un-
certain as to the precise point where the action would unfold
itself. Often several attacks would be carried out at the same
time several kilometres distant from one another.
These minor operations were organized in detail, and numerous
prisoners were taken along the whole front. This had its in-
fluence on the strength of the German troops, on their moral and
physical condition, and on the march of reliefs and bringing up of
supplies, which presented targets to the harassing fire carried
out at night. The trenches to be attacked were covered by the
fire of the 75*3, which put up a barrage behind and prevented the
escape of the defenders; at the same time the heavy artillery
pounded them, either killing or burying the defenders; before
the attack it often happened that whole detachments came out
and surrendered themselves, declaring the position to be unten-
able. The advance of the attack was preceded by artillery fire
from field guns which moved on at the same pace as the attacking '
infantry; this was the " creeping barrage," which made its
appearance after the end of June. The French thus obtained the
maximum results with the minimum losses. During the months
of July and Aug. they took 3,500 prisoners, and their advance
was continued.
The village of Fleury, retaken and lost again at the beginning
of Aug., remained in the hands of the French from Aug. 17 1
onwards. The whole of the Fleury-Thiaumont crater was French,
and the outskirts of Souville were well cleared on the north-east.
But the enemy now attacked Souville on the E., issuing from
Fort Vaux. He gained about 1,200 metres, and the pressure was
disturbing. The unity of command then made itself felt between
the Meuse and the Woevre, and produced its full results; at the
beginning of Sept. the enemy was thrown back from the posi-
tions which he had just taken, and confined to the outskirts of
Fort Vaux, from the other side of a crater whose inner slopes
provided a good position for the defence of Souville.
The French losses had been heavier than the German during
the first period, but the proportion was now reversed.
Hindenburg, who had just assumed command, proposed to the
Kaiser that the attacks should be discontinued, and explained
this decision as follows: " The battles which were fought in
this region exhausted our strength as does a wound that will not
heal. It was evident that this adventure did not leave us the
least hope from whatever point of view, and its continuation
cost us much more men than it did our enemy. Our advanced
positions were exposed everywhere to the enemy's flanking fire;
liaison with the front line was exceedingly difficult. The battle-
field was a veritable hell, and the troops considered it rightly as
such. To-day, after a retrospective study, I do not hesitate to
say that from the purely military point of view, it would have
been more to our advantage to improve our position in front of
VERDUN, BATTLES OF
923
; Verdun by voluntarily giving up the greater part of the ground
taken. However, in the autumn of 1916, I thought it necessary
to postpone that decision: we have sacrificed in this affair a great
part of our best troops, and up to that time we allowed our
people to hope that the struggle would terminate gloriously for
us. Further, if we had withdrawn at that moment, it might have
made the too facile impression that all our sacrifices had been in
vain. I wished to avoid that strain on the moral of our population,
which was already highly tried. In suspending our attacks on
i Verdun we counted on our adversaries themselves adopting, in
. this region, a purely defensive attitude; our hope was not
; realized. At the end of Oct. the French launched a counter-
attack on a large scale on the right bank of the Meuse; it was
boldly carried out and overwhelmed us. We lost Douaumont
i and we had not the troops to retake this monument of German
; heroism."
The conditions under which that action unfolded itself were as
follows: In front of Souville and of the line of forts a stout
barrier had been formed, which included several well-organized
positions; the battle had died down on the right bank, and the
French renewed the offensive from the Meuse to the Woevre,
j and regained their superiority over the enemy. On Sept. 13 the
; President of the French Republic came to bring to the martyr
town the cross of the Legion of Honour and the decorations
' which the sovereigns of Allied countries had conferred upon it.
i From the casemates of the citadel, during a ceremony of moving
simplicity, he pronounced an eloquent speech which consecrated
i the victory. But he had to keep all his fascination for the word
which was at last to be spoken. Events had proved that every
; well-organized attack always commenced with success, and that
it was exceedingly difficult to limit a victorious advance.
Now above all was it necessary to throw back the enemy from
I that barrier which had at last been remade. The hour had passed
I for those little attacks which aimed at the recapture of a few
i hundred metres; they had enabled them to get rid of successively
the small or large pockets which the German line had dug into
the French, but it was only by carrying the whole line forward
at one bound that ground could be gained to advantage. An
i operation on a grand scale was called for.
General Nivelle entrusted Gen. Mangin with the study of
this task. The latter considered the recapture of Douaumont as
a possible consequence of success; this scheme was adopted
after discussion, and the fort did not come into it except as one
of the objectives of the attack. The same applied to Fort Vaux.
The main object thus became the reconstitution in its integrity
of the barrier of forts round Verdun.
General Mangin had all the necessary means at his disposal to
bring this operation to a successful issue. He had a very powerful
mass of artillery 289 field and mountain guns (calibre 65 to 96
mm.) and 314 heavy guns (100 to 400 mm.); 3 divisions in the.
' front line, with 2 Senegalese battalions and i Somali battalion;
1 3 divisions under his immediate orders in the second line; while
the adjoining divisions on the front of attack each placed a
regiment in the line. The enemy opposed him with 7 divisions
but they were very dispersed in depth: 16 battalions were in the
first line; 6 in immediate support and in the zone to be taken;
1 1 in near support, which were all to be engaged on the evening
of the attack; 25 in reserve, who would later come up to fill in
the gaps. The French had located 209 German batteries (about
800 guns) capable of coming into action when the offensive
began. After three days of destructive bombardment they
feigned a general attack. The ruse was completely successful,
and 158 batteries were disclosed; these were under counter-
battery fire the next day, the day of the attack, to such effect
that only 90 batteries opened fire that day, and then only under
unfavourable conditions. The initial artillery superiority of the
Germans had then disappeared. This was foreseen in the scheme
of attack; the French commander knew that the means at his
disposal would be inferior at the beginning to those of the de-
fence, but would become superior during the action.
The infantry strengths were almost equal on both sides. The
disposal of the German divisions on very narrow fronts, and some-
what hemmed in, lent itself less to manceuvre than did that of
the French divisions, whose front was quite double, but above
everything else the experience of former actions had shown the
efficacy of the methods employed in this zone ; a barrage of field
guns falling behind the trenches nailed the defenders to them
whilst the heavy artillery and the trench mortars made them
indisposed for the fight. At the same time the fire of other heavy
guns filled up the openings of the deep shelters, which in times
of quiet served as strongholds for the defence; when the assault
waves started, preceded by the creeping barrage from 70 to 80
metres in advance, they would not find more than rare local resist-
ance, and would advance up to the deep shelters whose occupants
would be taken prisoner. General Mangin was able to inform
Gen. Joffre and Gen. Nivelle that two hours before the attack
22 German battalions had been almost completely wiped out.
As far as the forts were concerned they were laid open; it was
impossible to determine their capture with the same degree of
certainty as that of the conquest of ground, but the occupation
of the superstructure was certain and the capture of the whole
appeared to be a matter of two to three days at the most.
If a success of this nature could be foreseen with such certainty,
it was not due to an accumulation of material of war, since, at
the beginning of the struggle the German artillery was undeni-
ably much superior in numbers, in range, in rapidity of fire, and
even in calibre (with the exception of a few French guns of 400
and 370 mm., whose fire was solely directed against the forts);
nor was it due to the employment of masses of infantry which
would overwhelm the enemy by sheer weight of numbers, since
the density of the attack was thin so as not to expose more men
to loss than those actually required to obtain the desired result.
It was due to the use of logical methods, of well thought-out
artillery bombardments, which gave them a superiority over the
enemy and which compensated in large measure for inferiority in
numbers and material; it was due, too, to the dash of the French
troops and their confidence in their leaders. It was, however,
further due to a perfect understanding in the command. The
army commander provided his subordinate, who was in charge of
the attack, with all the means at his disposal, and if they were
not available he could ask for them from headquarters. Another
factor was a thorough knowledge of the particular zone, and the
experiences gained in this zone by the same leaders and the same
staffs, who had been on the spot during a bitter struggle that
had lasted several months. The result was assisted by the
mistakes of the enemy, who had practically everywhere only one
line of defence, in front of which he had been able to set up only
elementary obstacles. These conditions were to be found again
on the same field of battle two months later; but they were
exceptional and weighed very heavily in favour of the French.
The artillery preparation, which commenced on the 2oth and
continued to the 24th with increasing intensity, produced its
usual effects. The Germans gave themselves up singly or in
little groups; a strayed carrier-pigeon brought in a message of
distress from a battalion commander, who said that his troops
were not in a state to fight. Finally, at 11.40, the artillery
lengthened its fire and the French infantry left their assault
trenches. A dense fog hid their advance from the enemy, who
did not open fire till 12 minutes after zero time, when the two
front waves had crossed his first trenches. The objective was
reached in an hour, and it was consolidated very rapidly. In the
first instructions the pause was to have been for half-an-hour;
the commander of the groups of armies, considering it advisable
to consolidate the position, the conquest of which was practically
certain, had insisted that it should be much longer, and after
discussion had finally fixed the pause for two hours. The bom-
bardment, however, had been most thorough; a 42o-mm. shell
had brought about an explosion which was followed by a fire;
one would have thought that it would have been a great advan-
tage to hurry on and to profit by the confusion. Gen. Mangin,
too, had fixed the time for consolidation as one hour.
The 38th Div. under Guyot de Salins formed the left wing.
His colonial Moroccan regiment penetrated into Douaumont
fort, which the Germans had evacuated the day before owing to
924
VERDUN, BATTLES OF
the threat of explosion but were occupying again. They were
putting their machine-guns into position, but the rising tide of
the assailants overwhelmed them.
In the centre the dash of the I33rd Div., known as " La Gaul-
oise," under Passaga, had overcome all obstacles; and it had
established itself in the angle N.E. of Douaumont and by the
pool at Vaux. On the right, in front of the 74th Div. under
Lardemelle, the artillery preparation had been insufficient
against some centres of resistance, and the advance had been
more difficult. More powerful artillery, which had become
available, smashed the framework of the fort; long-range guns
enfiladed the casemates (the surface which faced Verdun was
covered with only ordinary masonry instead of being concreted) ;
and finally the advance in the direction of Douaumont enabled
field guns to be brought into action on the only position from
which they could fire on the very steep slopes to the E. of the
fort, whose communications were thus cut. The pressure of the
infantry continued after the gth Div. under Audlauer had re-
lieved Lardemelle's division; the enemy evacuated the fort and
Gen. Audlauer installed himself there on the 3rd. He occupied
the villages of Vaux and Damloup.
The recapture of the Douaumont and Vaux forts was an
important event, which consecrated the victory of Verdun in the
eyes of the whole world; 6,000 prisoners emphasized it. This
great success, however, called for its complement.
On Oct. 21 Gen. Mangin had pointed out to Gen. Nivelle the
necessity which obtruded itself, after the capture of the objec-
tives assigned for the operation on the 24th, of seizing the
crater Douaumont-Hardaumont and the Poivre height, both of
which had direct observation into the positions which were to be
conquered, and of clearing the way round Fort Douaumont.
General Nivelle then considered a combined operation, but he
was very limited by the means at his disposal. The front of
attack must not be beyond that of one for three divisions, but it
might be possible to have a break of continuity in the centre.
The ammunition would be only that which could be economized
out of the daily allowances. General Mangin, however, insisted
on the advantages of an attack from the Meuse to the Woevre,
even should it be necessary to wait for the necessary troops and
munitions. It was this scheme which the command finally agreed
to. Before Mangin's group the German front was held by five
divisions in the front line and by four in the second; the latter
could intervene in one night, 247 batteries having been identified
(960 guns approximately).
The French attack had 4 divisions available in the first line,
4 in the second, and 740 guns. It was, accordingly, inferior to the
defence, but it could count on the results obtained on Oct. 24.
The artillery in actual fact rapidly established a superiority over
the German artillery, thanks to deeper penetration; 13 German
artillery officers were captured, whose evidence confirmed in
detail this undoubted superiority. As far as the infantry is
concerned the smashing in of the front trenches led to the com-
plete destruction of the 13 battalions defending them, and to the
partial destruction of the 13 battalions in support in the zone to
be conquered, so that the attack could then meet the slight
initial numerical inequality.
The enemy, forewarned by the experience of Oct. 24, had
organized three lines of resistance defended by a network of
barbed wire; further the distance of the final objective introduced
a greater element of chance; it was, accordingly, necessary to
have more elasticity in the mechanism of the creeping barrage
and to vary its application. It was laid down in the attack orders
of Mangin's group that: " Each objective must be seized at the
first onset and with one bound the pace to be 100 metres in four
minutes. The infantry to be preceded at a distance of 70 to 80
metres by percussion shell and at 150 metres by shrapnel, time
and percussion. Further, when circumstances demand it and
when it is possible, owing to long-range observation, artillery
fire will be carried out in conjunction with the advance of the
infantry; general officers commanding divisions will organize,
with this end in view, the closest possible liaison between
infantry and artillery."
The great obstacle to the organization of the attack was the
state of the ground, which was frightfully cut up by 10 months of
repeated fighting; in the slushy clay, where the water oozes out
at any altitude, the shellholes, nearly touching one another, were
at this time covered with ice. Without a complete fitting up of
the ground every attack would come to grief in the mud. It
was necessary to construct 25 km. of roads, several of which were
planked with wood, 10 km. of Dreauville line, and a very great
number of telephone systems. Everywhere supply and ammuni-
tion dumps had to be made and camouflaged battery emplace-
ments; water tanks and pipes had to be fitted up, etc., etc. The
inclemency of the weather, very severe on the Meuse heights,
made these works particularly arduous. All the soldiers, however,
realized their necessity, and they were completed in five weeks
with wholehearted self-denial and with great spirit by the divi-
sions who succeeded one another in this zone, right up to the time
when the attack divisions went into line.
On Dec. 15, about 10.00 hours, the French regiments, after
as complete an artillery preparation as was possible, issued from
their trenches and attacked from the Meuse to the Woevre. On
the left, the I26th Div. under Muteau seized Vachcrauville
and the Poivre height, where it established itself; the 38th,
under Guyot de Salins, once again on the ground of its former
exploits, seized Louvemont; the 37th under Garnicr-Duplcssis
advanced as far as the Caurieres wood, fighting step by step; the
I33rd (" La Gauloise ") under Passaga captured the Hardau-
mont work and the village of Bezouvaux. The advance, which
had slowed down at certain points, carried the attack on the
i8th to the second objective. At the same time, after the ijth,
offensive reconnaissances had gone right beyond their objectives,
and, protected by their creeping barrage, destroyed guns and
captured prisoners to the number of 11,387, including 284
officers. By adding the number of killed and seriously wounded
the total losses of the enemy could not be estimated at less than
25,000, on a front of 10 kilometres. One hundred and fifteen
guns were taken and destroyed, and the defence of Verdun was
now established on the narrowest part of the Meuse heights and
in an excellent position.
The moral effect of this victory was great on both sides.
Ludendorff speaks of it in the following terms: " The blow
which we then received was a particularly hard one. We suf-
fered great losses and also lost important positions. The
effort exerted during the year had been too great. The
elasticity of our troops had been weakened by the immobility
of the defence, by the powerful artillery of the enemy, and in
consequence of our own losses. On the western front we were
completely exhausted."
The Germans drew many useful conclusions from these events,
and recognized noticeably the impossibility of reducing the
defence to lines of regular trenches, too visible targets for the
opposing artillery. The French learnt from them the brilliant
confirmation of the methods employed on Oct. 24. Without in
any way decrying this success, it should be remarked that the
most distant objectives (3 km.), which according to the fixed
time-table should have been reached in a few hours, had been
conquered only on the fourth day. Indeed, this was not the
condemnation of the methods used, nor of the time-table fixed
in advance in particular; but it went to show the necessity of
foreseeing that this time-table could not be followed, and that it
was necessary to manoeuvre, because the advance does not always
develop with mechanical precision. On Dec. 12 Germany, for
the first time, made overtures for peace, overtures which ap-
peared to slacken the energies of the Government, of the armies
and of the peoples of the Entente.
In thanking his victorious troops Gen. Mangin enumerated
the results obtained, and the hopes that they could picture in the
future. He added these words: " Admitting themselves incapa-
ble of conquering us on the field of battle, our savage aggressors
dare to hold out to us a clumsy snare in the shape of a premature
peace. While still picking up new arms they cry ' Kamerad.'
You know that gesture. Our fathers of the Revolution refused
to treat with the enemy as long as he was soiling the sacred
VERDY DU VERNOIS VERMONT
925
ground of our country, as long as he was within our natural
frontiers, as long as the triumph of right and of liberty over the
tyrants was not assured. And we will never treat with that
perjured Government to whom treaties are but a scrap of paper,
with assassins and butchers of women and children. After the
final victory, which will render them incapable of doing hurt, we
will dictate to them our will. To their hypocritical overtures
France has replied through the muzzle of your guns and by the
points of your bayonets. You have been good ambassadors for
the Republic; she thanks you."
Capture of Mart Homme, Height 304 and Chaume Wood. The
Verdun front remained comparatively quiet until the middle of
the summer of 1917, when it was livened up in Aug. with a bril-
liant stroke by the II. French Army under Guillaumat. The
French command had provisionally given up the offensive on a
large scale having as its object the break-through, whether
immediate or as a consequence to the slow using-up of the enemy.
It contented itself with attacks with limited objectives, having as
their aim the improvement of part of the front whilst inflicting
on the enemy losses more considerable^ than their own. The
French command was able to carry through these local actions
with extremely powerful forces, and thus assured their success.
The operations on Aug. 20 had as its object the improvement
of the French positions between Avocourt and Bezouvaux.
From the I3th onward artillery preparation was begun; 2,400
guns, 1,100 of which were large-calibre guns, were employed.
On a front of approximately 20 km. on the Meuse four army
corps were deployed, two on each bank, each having two divi-
sions in the first line and two in the second. The army kept two
divisions in reserve. To meet this attack, so long and carefully
prepared, the Germans had six divisions in the front line, three
on each bank. The front held by a division was 3 km. on the left
bank and 2,800 metres on the right. Behind them were five so-
called " divisions of intervention," two on the right and three on
the left bank, with one division in army reserve in the vicinity of
Montmedy. The defence had 380 batteries (about 1,500 guns).
The French artillery, which thundered for eight days, acceler-
ated its fire on the 2oth at 04.00 hours. At 04.40 it lengthened and
the infantry assaulted, preceded by their creeping barrage. The
enemy did not start his counter-barrage until 12 minutes after-
wards. On the left bank the XIII. Corps seized all its objectives
in the Avocourt wood and to the E. of Height 304, which fell
after open fighting. The XVI. Corps captured Mort Homme
and made numerous prisoners in its deep tunnels; the Moroccan
division under Degoutte took Cumieres, the Corbeaux wood and
the Oie height. On the right bank the XV. Corps captured the
Talon height after daybreak and the important position of
Height 344, then advanced in the bend of the Meuse as far as
Champ and Champneuville. The XXXII. Corps under Passaga
captured the German positions to the S. of Beaumont Fosse wood
and the outskirts of the Chaume wood.
The rapidity of the advance had disconcerted the enemy; the
counter-attacks prepared in advance could not materialize, and
the " intervention " divisions contented themselves by remaining
where they were. During the night, however, the Germans
attempted to react, without success.
On the 2ist the French XV. Corps took Samogneux and the
XVI. Corps the Oie height and Regneville.
On the 24th the famous position Height 304 fell. All the
French objectives were reached. Seven new German divisions
were hastily called up to hold the front, which became definitely
stabilized on the left bank on the 24th. On the right bank the
XXXII. Corps improved its positions in the direction of Beau-
mont and the Chaume wood on Aug. 26 and Sept. 8. On Sept. 9
a violent attack against Height 344 was repulsed. The captures
amounted to 9,100 prisoners, 30 guns and 22 mine-throwers.
Verdun was to a great extent cleared by this very successful
operation. (C. M. E. M.)
VERDY DU VERNOIS, JULIUS VON (1832-1910), German
general and military writer (see 27.1019), died Sept. 30 1910.
VERGA, GIOVANNI (1840-1922), Italian novelist (see 27.-
1021), died at Rome, Jan. 27 1922.
VERHAEREN, EMILE (1855-1916), Belgian poet (see 27.-
1023), produced in 1912 a tragedy, Helene de Sparte, which was
performed in German and Russian, besides French. His later
poems include Les Rythmes souverains (1910); Les Villes &
pignons (1910); Les Fleurs du Soir (1911); Les Plaints (1911)
and Les Bles Mouvants (1912). On the outbreak of the World
War Verhaeren came to England, where he received hon.
degrees from various universities. During his exile he published
Les Ailes rouges de la Guerre. He was killed at Rouen while
attempting to enter a moving train, Nov. 27 1916.
VERMONT (see 27.1025). The pop. of the state was 352,428
in 1920 as compared with 355,956 in 1910, a loss of 3,528 or i %.
This was the first time that the pop. had been less than in the
preceding decade, though several times the gain had been very
slight. The movement within the state was distinctly toward
the urban districts. Of the total pop. of 1900 22 % lived in cities
and villages of 2, 500 and over, in 1920 27-8%, and in 192031-2%.
Of the 14 counties only six show an increase in population. The
number of towns showing a decrease was 1 86 in a total of 248.
There is no radical change in the character of the population,
the proportions of native and foreign remaining about the
same, with a tendency toward increase of Canadian immigrants.
The following are the cities having a pop. of 5,000 or over and
the percentage of increase for the decade:
1920
1910
Percentage
increase
Burlington .
Rutland
Barre .
St. Albans .
Montpelier .
22,779
H.954
10,008
7,588
7,125
20,468
13,546
io,734
6,381
7,856
n-3
10-4
-6-8
18-9
-9-3
Agriculture. The number of farms in Vermont in 1920 was
29,075 as against 32,709 in 1910, a decrease of 3,634 or n-i %, but
the acreage of improved land increased from 1,633,965 in 1910 to
1,691,595, a gain of 3-5 %. The value of all farm property was $222,-
736,620, an increase over the 1910 figures ($145,399,728) of 53-2 %.
Of this value $82,938,253 was in land and $76,178,906 in buildings.
The average value per farm was $7,661, with $2,853 in land and
$2,620 in buildings, respective increases of 72-4%, 59-8% and 58-1 %
over the 1910 figures, which were $4,445 for all property, $1,785 for
land and $1,657 f r buildings.
In 1919 the leading crops with their yields and values were as
follows :
Crops
Acreage
Quantity
Value
Cereals, total
Corn
Oats
Hay and forage .
Vegetables .
Miscellaneous crops .
Fruits ....
133,621
21,186
83,097
991,757
3,916,959 bus.
937,375
2,396,349 '
1,748,358 tons
$5,171,758
1,687,275
2,396,349
29,581,464
7,387,254
3,622,443
1,957,515
The total number of cattle in 1920 was 435,480, including 14,200
beef cattle and 421,280 dairy cattle. Dairy cows numbered 290,122.
The value was $28,502, 803 for all cattle, and $23,027,209 for dairy
cows. The production of milk for 1919 was 122,095,734 gallons.
The total value of all dairy products, excluding home use of milk and
cream, was $27,207,813. For 1917 the reports show a value of dairy
products handled in factories of $13,372,838. Vigorous efforts were
being made to develop cooperative marketing, especially of dairy
products. A decision of the Interstate Commerce Commission in
1916 abolished the leased-car system of shipping milk, and made
possible the open-car system. This made it practicable to ship in
smaller quantities. A state law was passed providing that any
corporation using the word " cooperative " in its business name must
provide (i) that voting shall be based on the number of shareholders
and not of shares held; (2) that interest or dividends on paid-up
capital shall be limited to 6%; (3) that a reserve fund shall be set
aside, not less than 16% of the net profits annually, until the fund
amounts to not less than 30 % of the paid-up capital stock ; (4) that
the remainder of the earnings shall be distributed by uniform
dividend on the basis of purchase and sale through the corporation
by shareholders or the amount of raw material furnished; and
(5) that not more than 10 % of the capital stock shall be owned by
any one member. Under this law there were, in 1920, 29 cooperative
dairy plants incorporated, of which 27 had already begun business.
The Commissioner of Agriculture estimated in that year that one-
third of the entire dairy products of the state was being marketed
through these plants. In addition to this movement there was being
organized, in 1920, the Vermont Cooperative Creameries, Inc., a
federation of cooperative enterprises for the purpose of securing col-
926
VERRALL VILLA
lectively certain services beyond 'the reach of the separate plants,
such as the buying of supplies, the selling of products, and stand-
ardized accounting.
Manufacture. The reports for the five-year period 1914-9 show
a substantial increase in the manufacturing activities of the state,
due in large measure to demands of the World War. The number
of establishments increased from 1,772 to 1,790, or 1%; persons
engaged from 37,217 to 38,845, or 4-4%; salaried employees from
2,726 to 3,550, or 30-2%; wage earners from 32,704 to 33,491, or
2-4%; capital increased from $79,847,000 to $134,314.391. or 68-2 %;
value of products from $76,990,974 to $168, 108,072, or 1 18-3 %; value
added by manufacture from $34,285,254 to $72,935.491. or 112-7%.
In 1919 Vermont had 15 manufacturing industries the value of whose
products were over $1,000,000 each, namely: marble and stone;
woollen and worsted goods; paper and wood pulp; lumber and
timber products; machine tools; butter; condensed milk; flour-mill
and grist-mill products; other food preparations; knit goods;
foundry and machine cars; general ship construction and repairs by
steam railway; furniture planing-mill products; bakery products.
History. In 1915 a workmen's compensation law was en-
acted, denying common-law defences to those employers who
did not elect to operate under the provisions of the law. The
statute covers all public and industrial employment except
domestic service and cases where 10 or less are employed.
Beginning in 1912 a series of Acts was passed leading to the or-
ganization of a state Board of Charities and Probation and more
systematic provisions for the care of dependent, neglected and
delinquent children. This movement has been extended to
include widows' pensions in certain cases. In 1917 an important
step was taken in the direction of coordinating the work of some
of the many state departments, commissions, and boards. A
state Board of Control was established by law, composed of the
governor of the state, the state treasurer, the auditor of accounts,
the director of state institutions, and a fifth person to be ap-
pointed biennially by the governor and Senate. This Board of
Control meets regularly once a month. All state boards, insti-
tutions, commissions, officers and departments, other than
judicial officers, must make monthly reports to the Board of
Control. The Board has general supervisory powers over the
various state activities, and may investigate any phase of
their work. The Board makes its report biennially to the state
Legislature.
Following an extensive educational survey, the public-school
system of the state was radically reorganized m 1915, making the
seventh form of administration that has been tried since 1845. Under
the system adopted the office of state superintendent was abolished.
In its place was established a State Board of Education consisting of
five members appointed by the governor, one each year for a five-
year term. This Board has general powers of supervision and
management of the public educational system, and employs as state
commissioner of education a trained and experienced educator, whose
term of office is indefinite, being removable by a majority vote of the
Board. The Board also appoints a number of superintendents with
powers of supervision, and the state commissioner has power to
appoint a suitable number of state supervisors when approved by the
Board. The supervisors cooperate with the superintendents and
supplement their work.
In 1919 the Legislature authorized the state Board of Health to
divide the state into 10 sanitary districts, and to appoint for each a
district health officer in place of the town health officers. This Act
entirely reorganized the public health work of the state. The district
officers are full-time officers and serve under the pay of the state.
The public health work is much more effectively carried on than
before, being after 1919 under five separate divisions, each under the
direction of an expert supervisor.
Up to the signing of the Armistice Vermont had supplied for
the World War over 15,000 men. Some of this number had gone
across the line and enlisted with the Canadian forces before the
spring of 1917. Of those in service more than one-half were sent
over-seas. The deaths were: killed in action, 119; died of
wounds, 47; total deaths, 612. The total wounded were 778.
Total casualties recorded were 1,390.
The state has remained consistently Republican in politics
since 1856, not excepting 1912, the year of the Progressive
party campaign. The recent governors of the state, all Repub-
lican, have been: John A. Mead, 1910-2; Allen M. Fletcher,
1912-5; Charles W. Gates, 1915-7; Horace F. Graham, 1917-9;
Percival W. Clement, 1919-21; James A. Hartness, 1921- .
(G. G. G.)
VERRALL, ARTHUR WOOLLGAR (1851-1912), English clas-
sical scholar, was born at Brighton Feb. 5 1851. He was the son
of a solicitor, and was educated at Wellington and at Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he graduated as second classic in
1873, becoming fellow and tutor of his college. He published
editions of many classical plays, especially the Medea, Agamem-
non and Choephoroe. In 1895 appeared Euripides the Rationalist,
followed in 1905 and 1910 by editions of most of Euripides'
plays. He was an original critic, with views of his own, often
expounded in the Classical Review and other journals. In Feb-
ruary 1911 he was appointed to fill the new King Edward VII.
professorship of Literature at Cambridge, which had been en-
dowed by Sir Harold Harmsworth, later Viscount Rothermere.
He died at Cambridge June 18 1912.
VICTOR EMMANUEL III. d86 9 - ), King of Italy (see
28.28). When in 1915 Italy declared war on Austria, the King at
once went to the war zone, remaining there until the Armistice,
appointing his uncle Ferdinand, duke of Genoa, Royal Luogo-
tenente of the kingdom to act in his stead. At the front he lived
in a most unassuming manner at the " Villa Italia " near Udine,
and after Caporetto near Padua, constantly visiting the trenches
and the most exposed positions, as well as the military hospitals.
He took the deepest interest in everything concerning the army
and the welfare of the troops; but, although nominally command-
er-in-chief, he never interfered with the conduct of the opera-
tions nor in the matter of appointments, and he allowed himself
only the same amount of leave as any other soldier. After the
conclusion of the Armistice he returned to Rome on Nov. 14
1918 and had a triumphant reception. He visited Paris and the
French front with the Crown Prince (Dec. 19-21), and sub-
sequently London.
After the birth of his son and heir Umberto, Prince of Pied-
mont (Sept. 15 1904), the King's family was increased by two
more daughters, Giovanna, born Nov. 13 1907, and Maria, born
Dec. 26 1914. He was devoted to his wife and children, and to
study; and he took a special interest in numismatics, having in
1910 and 1913 already published two volumes of his monumental
work on the coins of Italy, the Corpus nummorum italicorum.
After the war he made over to the nation a large number of royal
residences in various parts of Italy, a heritage of the days when
Italy was divided into a number of separate states, each with
one or more royal or ducal palaces and villas. Among the most
famous of these are the Pitti Palace in Florence, the villas of
Castello, La Petraia and Poggio a Cajano in the neighbourhood
of that town, the royal palaces of Milan, Venice, Genoa, Naples,
the villa Capodimonte near Naples and the "Neapolitan Ver-
sailles " at Caserta. Some of these buildings were turned into
hospitals and homes for war victims, and others into museums.
VIENNA (see 28.50), the capital of the Austrian Republic, is
situated in Lower Austria, but under the Constitution has in all
matters which concern itself the status of an independent Terri-
tory. Under these special conditions, the Gemeinderat (or city
council) exercises the rights of a Diet (or states assembly). In
1910, Vienna had a pop. of 2,031,498, but in 1920 only 1,842,005.
In 1910 86-9% of the inhabitants were Roman Catholics; 3-7%
Evangelicals; 8-6% Jews and 0-7% of other faiths. The propor-
tion of males to females was in 1910 1,000 to 1,086; in 1920,
1,000 to 1,163. The non-German minority shown by the cen-
sus of 1910 (98,430 Czechs and 8,954 others) greatly decreased
after 1918.
VILLA, FRANCISCO (1872- ), Mexican bandit and revo-
lutionary, was born Dec. 4 1872 at Las Nieves, Zacatecas. He was
outlawed for murder, and a price was put on his head by Presi-
dent Diaz. He joined Madero in 1910 for the sake of immunity,
served under Huerta, and in 1914 joined Carranza, but quar-
relled with him over military jealousies and presidential aspira-
tions. He opposed Carranza in the Convention at Aguasca-
lientes, led a campaign against him and occupied Mexico City in
April and again in Nov. 1915, but was defeated by Obregon and
driven to the border, where surrender under guarantee was
denied him. On Jan. 12 1916 he led the Santa Ysabel massacre,
in which a special train carrying a party of American mining
VILLARI VIRGINIA
927
men was held up and 19 of the number shot, and also the raid on
Columbus, Tex., in March 1916, when the city was fired and 17
of the inhabitants killed. A punitive expedition under Gen.
Pershing crossed the border March 16, and operated in the bor-
der states for n months, but did not succeed in capturing Villa.
After Obregon's seizure of the presidential power in 1920 Villa
was eliminated from political and military activity, and settled
in the hacienda La Canutilla, Durango. (H. I. P.)
VILLARI, PASQUALE (1827-1917), Italian historian and
statesman (see 28.76), was invested in 1910 with the order of
the Annunziata. He died at Florence Dec. 5 1917.
VINCENT, GEORGE EDGAR (1864- ), American educa-
tionist, was born at Rockford, 111., March 21 1864. He was a son
of John Heyl Vincent (d. 1920), a bishop of the Methodist Epis-
copal Church and one of the founders of the Chautauqua
Assembly in 1874 (see 6.19). After graduating from Yale in 1885
he began editorial work and in 1886 was made literary editor of
the Chautauqua Press. Henceforth he was active in the work
at Chautauqua, was president of the Chautauqua Institution
from 1907 to 1915 and thereafter honorary president. In 1892
he was appointed fellow at the university of Chicago, receiving
his Ph.D. in 1896. He taught at Chicago as instructor, assistant
professor, associate professor, and from 1904 to 1911 as professor
of sociology. He was dean of the junior colleges from 1900 to
1907 and then for four years was dean of the faculties of arts,
literature and sciences. From 1911 to 1917 he was president of
the university of Minnesota. In 1917 he was chosen president of
the Rockefeller Foundation in New York City; he had been a
member of the General Education Board since 1914. He was
author of An Introduction to the Study of Society (1895, with
Albion W. Small) and The Social Mind and Education (1897).
VINOGRADOFF, SIR PAUL (1854- ), Anglo-Russian jurist
(see 28.100), was knighted in 1917. His more recent works
include Common Sense in Law (Home University Library, 1914),
Self -Government in Russia (1915), and editions of various works
for the British Academy and Selden Society. During the World
War he gave valuable assistance to the British Foreign Office
in connexion with Russian affairs.
VINTON, FREDERIC PORTER (1846-1911), American por-
trait painter (see 28.101), died in Boston, Mass., May 19 1911.
VIRGINIA (see 28.117). The pop. in 1920 was 2,309,187; an
increase since 1910 of 247,575, or I2 %> as against an increase for
the decade 1900-10 of 207,428, or 11-2%. Negroes numbered
690,017, as compared with 671,096 in 1910. The urban pop.
(in places having more than 2,500 inhabitants) was in 1920
29-2% and in 1910 23-1% of the whole.
The pop. of the principal cities and its increase were:
1920
1910
Percentage
Increase
Richmond .
171,667
127,628
34-5
Norfolk
"5,777
67,452
71-6
Portsmouth
54,387
33,190
63-9
Roanoke
50,842
34,874
45-8
Newport News .
35-596
20,205
76-2
Petersburg .
31,012
24,127
28-5
Lynchburg .
30,070
29,494
2-O
Danville
21,539
19,020
13-2
Alexandria .
18,060
15,329
17-8
The great increase in Newport News, Norfolk and Portsmouth was
largely due to industries related to the World War.
Agriculture. In 1920 Virginia ranked as twenty-third state in
value of agricultural products, $187,038,000 as compared with
{100,531,000 in 1908. The production of the staple crops was:
1920
1909
Corn (bus.) .
50,100,000
38,295,141
Wheat "
11,425,000
8,076,989
Oats "...
4,818,000
2,284,495
Rye "...
864,000
438,345
Barley "...
405,000
253,649
Buckwheat (bus.)
540,000
332,222
Tobacco (Ib.)
I77;390,ooo
132,979,390
Hay (tons) .
1,235,000
823,383
Peanuts (bus.) .
4,416,000
4,284,340
Potatoes "
13,608,000
8,770,778
Cotton (bales) .
19,000
10,480
An important element was the increased activity of the State
Department of Agriculture. In addition to seed testing and the
inspection of fertilizers a division of markets was established and
plants were opened to supply lime to farmers at cost. Fruit crops in
1920 were large, the production of apples being 15,210,000 bus.,
peaches 1,470,000 and pears 296,000.
Minerals. The mining and quarrying industry in 1919 showed a
considerable increase since 1909 in the number of enterprises, a slight
increase in the capital invested, and a large increase in the value of
products. But there was a decrease in the number of individual
mines and quarries and a slight decrease in the number of persons
engaged in the industry. The statistics were:
1919
1909
Per cent
Increase
Enterprises ....
Mines and quarries .
Persons engaged
Wage earners
Capital ....
Value of products
202
216
15,537
H.547
$57,035.775
29.363.449
15
244
15,960
15.257
$55-992,693
8,795,646
34-7
-ii-S
-2-7
-4-7
1-9
233-8
Virginia in 1920 was the leading state in the production of iron
pyrites and soapstpne, third in the production of lime and man-
ganese, and sixth in mineral waters. The figures for mining and
mineral water industries in 1919 were as follows:
Estabs.
Capital
Product
Coal ....
109
$48,978,261
9,111,454 tons
Iron ....
!4
895,555
308,000
Manganese
47
2,489,400
13,665 "
Mineral waters
18
848,283
1.745,105 gal.
Pyrites
5
2,550,854
143,427 tons (1918)
Soapstone .
4
617,887
$527-524
Millstones, and sand
and gravel
6
522,152
$733,074
Slate ....
3,654,000
$264,275
Miscellaneous ores .
1,587,491
1,313439 tons
Lime ....
26,700 "
Manufactures. Manufacturing industries made less progress
than agriculture between 1910 and 1920. The following statistics
for 1919 are the preliminary figures of the I4th Census; those for
1909 from the I3th Census:
1919
1909
Establishments .
Capital invested .
Materials ....
Value of products
Value added by manufacture
Wage earners (average)
5,603
$464,517,000
372,041,000
641,810,000
269,769,000
119,368
5,685
$216,392,000
155.320,000
219,794,000
108,719,000
105,676
Government. Between 1910 and 1920 10 amendments to the
state constitution were adopted. Local government was the subject
of four amendments. In 1910 the state constitution was amended
to permit the re-election of county treasurers and commissioners of
revenue, and in 1912 another amendment permitted the re-election
of city treasurers and commissioners of revenue. In 1912 the
Legislature was empowered to classify cities according to population
and to provide forms of city and town government, but cities with
over 50,000 pop. were permitted to have special forms of government.
Under this amendment the Legislature provided for general charters
under the commission, or manager, form, but in 1920 another amend-
ment was ratified which permitted Legislature to provide special
forms of government for any city on condition that the sections of
the constitution regarding franchises, changes in city boundaries,
public debts and the assessment of property were not violated. In
1920 another amendment removed the requirement of residence
within the municipality as qualification for appointment to office in
a city government when technical training was requisite. In 1920,
also, the construction of roads was made a proper subject for state
debt, and other amendments bearing on education were adopted.
Finance. The valuation of property assessed for taxation in 1910
was $756,194,480; in 1920 it was $1,459,762,653. In 1910 the.public
debt was $24,956,959 ; in 1919 it was $23, 561, 823. In 1910 the state's
income and disbursements combined were $11,333,490; in 1920 they
were $18,442,324. The long-standing controversy between Virginia
and West Virginia concerning the division of the state debt as it
existed in 1860 was finally settled in 1915 by the Supreme Court of
the United States. The amount to be assumed by the state of
West Virginia was fixed at $12,393,929 (see WEST VIRGINIA). Be-
tween 1910 and 1920 notable reforms were made in taxation and
financial administration. A special tax commission was appointed
in 1910 to recommend measures for the segregation of property for
taxation. In 1912 the commission recommended the establishment
of a permanent tax commission with power to investigate and to
submit plans. A second special commission was then appointed;
in 1915 a majority report recommended a revision of assessments
928
VIRGIN ISLANDS
under a permanent tax commission, and a minority report favoured
immediate measures for segregation. The minority report was
adopted, and the tax laws were revised as follows: the state levy on
on real estate and tangible property was restricted to educational
purposes, and state and local levies on intangible property were
apportioned at 65c and 3Oc per $100 respectively; a permanent
tax board was created consisting of the governor, the auditor, and the
chairman of the State Corporation Commission, with power to
employ assistants, whose duties are to collect information relating to
taxation, to make recommendations to the Legislature, and to super-
vise the work of local tax boards. In 1918 local governments were
denied the right to levy income taxes, and in the same year a special
tax of eight cents per $100 was levied, four-eighths of which was to
be applied to state elementary schools, three-eighths to the con-
struction of roads, and one-eighth to the eradication of tuberculosis.
In 1919 an additional tax of seven cents was levied for roads. In
1916 a commission on efficiency was constituted to recommend more
efficient methods of state and local financial administration, and in
response to its recommendations a state budget law was enacted in
1918 which gave the governor large powers over appropriations from
the state treasury.
Education. The school revenue, which in 1910 was $4,407,853,
amounted in 1920 to $13,791,864, the expenditure per capita of
attendance increasing from $14.77 to $39.48 and the length of the
school term from 140 to 147 days. In this period the number of
state high schools of all grades increased from 360 to 394. In 1912
an additional state normal school for the training of teachers was
established at Radford. In 1918 a general property tax was added
to the existing sources of school revenue which yielded approximately
$660,000. In 1918 school attendance of all children between the ages
of 8 and 12 for 16 weeks was required. Teachers' pensions have been
provided for, and the pensions disbursed in 1920 amounted to $10,-
ooo. In 1918 the Legislature provided for an Educational Com-
mission to make a survey of the educational laws and conditions and
to make recommendations for reform and improvements. Its report
was made in 1920, and in accord with its recommendations the
Legislature in that year submitted for ratification the following
amendments to the constitution: legalizing the membership of
women on school boards, removing the limitation on county and
district school tax rates and all limitation on the Legislature in
enacting compulsory attendance laws, and giving the Legislature
the power to fix the duties of the State Board of Education. Among
statutes enacted in 1920 looking to the improvement of the school
system were laws encouraging a nine months' term in rural com-
munities, making the school age 7 to 20 years, provision for a school
census, encouragement of rural high schools, conferring on the
state superintendent the right to nominate candidates for positions
as teachers, provision for physical education and medical inspection,
and placing the state institutions of higher education on an all-year
basis of operation.
History. In 1912 the work of children under 12 years of age
in coal mines was prohibited and the id-hour day for children
in factories was extended to workshops and mercantile estab-
lishments, with the exception of packing and fruit industries
between July i and Nov. i, mercantile establishments in towns
of less than 2,000 pop., and Saturday work in mercantile estab-
lishments. In 1918 the mimimum age for employment was
raised to 16 years. In 1914 the commitment of insane criminals
to asylums by judicial investigation and order before trial for
the crime committed was provided for, and in 1916 the State
Bfcard of Charities and Correction was required to register all the
feeble-minded in the state, to take measures for their commit-
ment to asylums, and to instruct parents in the care of feeble-
minded children; it was also authorized to supervise private
institutions for the feeble-minded. Two institutions for the
feeble-minded are supported by the state, one for white patients
near Lynchburg and one for negroes near Petersburg. In 1916
the office of public defender for cities of 50,000 or more pop.,
with the duty of defending the poor in lawsuits, and state com-
pensation was authorized for attorneys appointed by courts to
that duty. In 1918 a Mothers' Pension law was enacted which
allowed city and county governments to make payments to wid-
ows with children under 16 years of age. In the same year the
principle of the uniform Family Desertion Acts was adopted,
and an Industrial Commission was provided to administer a
workmen's compensation system.
Three sanatoria for the treatment of tuberculosis have been
established, the Catawba Sanatorium in Roanoke county (1909),
Blue Ridge Sanatorium near Charlottesville (1920), and Pied-
mont Sanatorium for negro patients near Burkville (1918). In
1918 a state orthopaedic hospital was established at Richmond.
In 1914 the Virginia Home and Industrial School for Girls, a
private institution, became the property of the state, and since
then three other reformatories have been taken over. In 1919
the State Prison Board was reorganized and reforms in prison
management were adopted, notably better medical care of
prisoners, investigation of their mental condition, provision for
recreation, and elementary and industrial education. In 1914 a
State Forestry Commission was established. In 1916 the State
Board of Health was given control over all water supplies which
might endanger public health. A state art commission was con-
stituted in the same year.
In the World War Virginia supplied 81,140 men to the army,
navy and marine corps and subscribed $263,948,400 to the
Liberty and Victory loans.
In every state and national election between 1910 and 1920
the Democratic party had a majority. In 1909 William Hodges
Mann (Dem.) was elected governor, his term being from 1910-4;
he was succeeded by Henry Carter Stuart (Dem. 1914-8, and in
1917 Westmoreland Davis (Dem.) was elected, his term of
service beginning in 1918. (W. K. B.)
VIRGIN ISLANDS (see 28.126). The group of the Virgin Is.
formerly known as the Danish West Indies was purchased by
the United States from Denmark in 1917 for $25,000,000, the
formal transfer taking place March 31 of that year. This group
consists of the islands St. Croix, St. Thomas and St. John, to-
gether with about 50 smaller ones, most of them unnamed and
uninhabited. These and the islands Vieques and Culcbra ceded
to the United States by Spain in 1898 now compose the Virgin
Is. of the United States. The language of the people is English,
although the islands had been under the Danish flag for 245
years. The total area of the three principal islands is about
132 sq. m.; St. Croix, the largest, had, according to the U.S.
census of 1917, a pop. of 14,901; St. Thomas had 10,191; and St.
John, 959, a total of 26,051, of which 7-4% were white, about
80% negroes and the remainder of mixed races. Illiterates con-
stituted 24-9% of the pop. 10 years of age and over. The largest
city in the islands, Charlotte Amalie, on the island St. Thomas,
had in 1917 a pop. of 7,747. The other towns, Christianstcd and
Fredericksted on the island of St. Croix, had pop. of 4,574 and
3,144 respectively; these three towns embrace approximately
60% of the total population.
The principal industry, the production of sugar, rum and mo-
lasses, is confined to St. Croix. The importance of St. Thomas is due
to its magnificent harbour, where the repairing and provisioning of
vessels constitute practically the sole industry. In 1920 the U.S.
Shipping Board completed an oil-fuelling station here with a capacity
of 110,000 bar. St. John and St. Thomas produce the finest bay oil
and bay rum in the world. In 1918 exports of bay rum amounted to
26,531 gal. valued at $29,101, and in 1919 these returns were more
than doubled. There were, in 1917, 430 farms containing an area of
69,892 ac., which was 82-4% of the total land area. There were
6,084 persons, or 41-6% of the working population engaged in
agriculture and animal husbandry, and 380 persons in fishing.
The total trade of the islands in 1919 was valued at $4,196,037,
compared with $3,141,775 in 1918. Exports advanced from $1,249,-
346 in 1918 to $1,919,525 in 1919, while imports increased from
$1,892,429 to $2,276,512. The major portion of this commerce was
with the United States, being in 1918 more than seven times as great
as with all foreign countries, and in 1919 about four times as great.
The total exports of the islands to the United States in 1918 were
valued at $1,137,501, 82% being sugar, compared with $1,593,13
in 1919, of which sugar constituted 88 % Of the other exports to the
United States the chief were rum, hides and skins, and cabinet
woods. Of exports to foreign countries in 1919, spirituous liquors
to Denmark constituted about 44% and bay rum about 18%. The
principal imports from the United States are breadstuffs, meat and
dairy products, iron and steel products, cotton manufactures and
coal. Since 1918 fuel oil from Mexico has constituted a large propor-
tion of the imports. Many of the provisions imported are resold as
ships' stores, while nearly all of the coal and fuel oil imported are
used for bunkering ships at St. Thomas.
Since the transfer of the islands from Denmark, their administra-
tion has been under the U.S. Navy Department. The first governor
was Rear-Adml. James H. Oliver, who was relieved April 8 1919 by
Rear-Adml. Joseph W. Oman, U.S. navy. The latter was succeeded
in April 1921 by Capt. Sumner E. W. Kittelle. When the United
States took over the islands educational facilities were limited, but
steps have been taken to improve conditions. Improvements have
been made also in the municipal hospitals and along sanitary lines
generally, especial attention having been paid to infant welfare
work. (W. R. MA.)
VISTULA-SAN, BATTLES OF THE
929
VISCONTI-VENOSTA, EMILIO, MARQUIS (1829-19x4), Italian
statesman and diplomat (see 28.129). After representing Italy
at the Algeciras Conference the Marquis Visconti-Venosta
retired into private life, but on account of his great experience,
profound legal and political culture and sound judgment, he
was often consulted by his Government, especially on questions
of foreign affairs. He explicitly approved of Italy's declaration
of neutrality on the outbreak of the World War. He died in
Rome Nov. 28 1914.
VISTULA-SAN, BATTLES OF THE. In the Austro-German
autumn campaign of 1914 against Russia (see EASTERN EURO-
PEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS; also Map, PLATE I., under same
heading), the battles of the Vistula and the fighting on the
San, with the battle of Chyrow, from Sept. 9 to Nov. 5, form a
series of operations which are described below.
The retreat of the Austro-Hungarian armies in the middle of
Sept. to the San and the area around, and S. of Przemysl had
hardly been completed when the Russian forces made ready to
cross the San at its mouth with a view to enveloping Dankl's
army, both at that point and on the left bank of'the Vistula.
After the recent heavy fighting, in which Austria-Hungary
had drawn upon herself alone the whole weight of the superior
force of Russia, her army was exhausted and anything but fit
to hold the San against the on-coming, steadily increasing mass
of Russians. And yet if they were allowed to advance any
further, not only would the Austro-Hungarian army be shat-
tered but one of the main German industrial areas Upper
Silesia would be in danger. For the protection of this area and
the support of her ally, it was necessary for Germany to send
immediate reinforcements. Negotiations to this end began be-
tween the two army commands by the middle of September.
Considerable portions of the German VIII. Army had been
set free after the successful battles on the Masurian lakes.
While the Austro-Hungarian armies were shaking off the enemy,
a IX. German army under the command of Gen. von'Hindenburg
had been constituted in S. Poland and Upper Silesia out of the
German XI., XVII. and XX. Corps, the Guard Res. Corps and
a combined Corps, together with the 8th Cav. Division. This
army was drawn up for deployment along the line Przynow-
Lelow-Wolbrom-Cracow by the end of September.
On Sept. 16, protected by the Przemysl fortress, which was
left to its fate, and the bridgeheads of Sieniawa and Jaroslaw,
evacuated on Sept. 18 and 20 respectively, the Austro-Hungarian
armies resumed the retreat which led them back to the line of
the Dunajec, the Biala, and the farther side of the Carpathian
ridge, by the end of the month. The Russians attempted no real
pursuit, but sent only weak forces after them to beyond the
Wislok. They regarded the Austro-Hungarian army as worn-
out, and turned their attention to preparing a powerful push
through Poland into the heart of Germany.
The Austro-Hungarian armies, after re-establishment, were
to join the German IX. Army in a new offensive which aimed at
beating the Russians and relieving Przemysl.
The Austro-German Advance on the San-Vistula Line (Oct. g
1914). The idea underlying the new offensive was as follows:
Hindenburg's army was to advance on the stretch of the Vistula
between Zawichost and Ivangorod and envelope the Russians
from the north. The Austro-Hungarian armies were to advance
with a small group on the N. bank of the Vistula, but with their
main forces to the S. of the river by way of Rzeszow and Krosno
to the San and on Przemysl, while the II. Army moved forward
correspondingly in the region S. of Przemysl.
The Russians were well aware of these measures, and as soon
as the advance of the Allies began they abandoned the siege of
Przemysl and withdrew their forces remaining in Galicia to the
San and to the E. and S. of Przemysl, where they fortified their
positions. Their main strength they concentrated in the first
instance at Ivangorod, and later at Warsaw, in order to fall on
Hindenburg's northern flank and thus compel the Allies to retire,
early as Sept. 22 the latter received the first news of the for-
.tion of a Russian IX. Army in the region round Ivangorod,
.d from this time reports kept pouring in of the shifting of
xxxn. yt
strong Russian forces northward. It therefore became incumbent
upon the Austro-Hungarian army to make a vigorous onslaught
on the Russians, in order to contain as large a number of their
forces as possible. The demand thus made upon it that army was
in a position to meet only conditionally owing to the superiority
of the Russians, who had meanwhile been reinforced by Siberian
and Caucasian troops.
While on Oct. 4 the main forces of the Austro-Hungarian armies
were advancing eastward S. of the Vistula, the German XI.
Corps at Opatow and the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and ;th Cav.
Divs. at Klimontow on the N. of that river came upon the enemy
and drove him behind the stretch of the San between Sandomierz
and Zawichost by Oct. 5. The Austro-Hungarian main forces in
the area S. of the Vistula encountered at first only Russian
cavalry. Until the San was reached only comparatively slight
resistance was offered by the Russians. Only the IV. Army, of
which the command had been taken over by the Archduke
Joseph Ferdinand in the beginning of Oct., and the N. wing of
the III. Army had to battle with and overcome strong Russian
forces round Rzeszow, Lancut, and Barycz on Oct. 7 and 8.
The I. Army, after some brief combats, was able to drive over
the San the portions of the Russian V. Army which had remained
in the angle of the San and Vistula. By Oct. 10 the Russians
were over the San and behind Przemysl, with the exception of
parts of the Russian III. Army, which held out until Oct. 12
at Jaroslaw on the W. bank of the San.
While the advance was still in progress news came of a north-
ward diversion of the Russian V. Army. Large Russian forces
were also debouching from Ivangorod and Warsaw. All the
indications pointed to the fact that the Russians had transferred
their centre of gravity to the Warsaw-Ivangorod stretch of the
Vistula. The original plan of forcing the Vistula with Hinden-
burg's army between Zawichost and Ivangorod could not now be
carried out. Instead, while the Austrian I. Army advanced
gradually down the Vistula to the mouth of the Kamienna,
Hindenburg was to cross the Vistula below Ivangorod, having
first driven the Russian forces from Warsaw and Ivangorod back
across the Vistula. The Austro-Hungarian main army was to
make a vigorous effort to force the San and once more push on
toward Lublin and Chelm.
Battles of Warsaw and Ivangorod (Oct. lo-Nov. f). The ad-
vancing corps of Hindenburg's army came into contact with
large Russian forces to the S. of Ivangorod and Kalwarija and
at Mszczonow-Grojec, and these they drove back on Oct. 10.
South of Warsaw, where the resistance offered was only slight,
the German corps gained ground, taking Blonie; but at Ivangorod
and Alexandrya the attacks of the III. Caucasian Corps made
things very uncomfortable for them.
The Russian offensive advance across the Vistula below
Zawichost seemed to be getting well under way. The German
IX. Army was reinforced without delay by two divisions on its
right wing, and three more divisions of the I. Army were pushed
forward into the Radom- Ilzanka area. To Hindenburg's left
wing were sent two Landwehr Brigades and the Austro-Hun-
garian yth Cav. Div., which, with the German 8th Cav. Div. was
formed into a Cav. Corps under Gen. von Korda.
The fighting persisted stubbornly on both sides. In view
of the constant Russian reinforcements, Hindenburg could
achieve a decisive success neither at Warsaw nor at Kalwarija or
Ivangorod.- When, on Oct. 15, his left wing was forced back at
Blonie-Grodisk, the Allied Army Commands were more and
more inclined to think that the Russian main attack was about
to be launched from Warsaw with two armies, the II. and V.
Armies. The Allies decided to meet this attack by the German
IX. Army on the line Lowicz-Skierniewice-Rawa-Nowemiasto-
Radom. The Austro-Hungarian I. Army meanwhile was to
concentrate seven divisions in the Radom-Ilzanka sector in
readiness for an attack on Ivangorod. This concentration of
the I. Army was completed by Oct. 21. The IX. Army held its
ground against the numerical superiority of the Russians until
Oct. 19, when, after Korda's Cav. Corps had dispersed a Russian
Cav. Corps near Sochaczew, it retired to the above line.
930
VISTULA-SAN, BATTLES OF THE
Simultaneous attempts to force the San were made by those
portions of the Austro-Hungarian I. and IV. Armies posted on
the lower San, but though partial successes were achieved, no
tangible results were possible in view of the Russians' powerful
counter-attacks, particularly as the Russians had succeeded in
taking the W. bank of the San at Bicllny, Zarzecze and Mona-
sterz. For this brought the X. Corps of the Austro-Hungarian I.
Army over to the W. bank of the Vistula, and the IV. Army had
to take over the defence of the whole line of the San. To the W.
of Warsaw the Russians were extending still further westward,
and bringing up forces to the Lower Bzura, where the Russian
I. Army was being formed.
On Oct. 21 Hindenburg and Dankl were grouped for attack
in the order arranged, and on the 22nd Dankl advanced to the
assault. In the battle of Ivangorod which followed (Oct. 22-7),
some fine initial successes were obtained by the I. Army and the
German Guard Res. Corps fighting on its left wing, but the 3yth
Honved Div., fightingonthe right wing, was placed in a very criti-
cal position by the extremely violent attacks of the Russian XXV.
and XIV. Corps. Embittered fighting persisted for the next few
days on the I. Army's front. On Oct. 24, Hindenburg was attacked
along the whole of the front by the Russian II. and V. Armies,
but was able to repulse all their assaults. On Oct. 26 the Rus-
sians drove their right wing forward through Gadin, Osmolin
and Lowicz. Here four Russian Corps forced back two German
Landwehr Bdes., Korda's Cav. Corps and some German Land-
sturm. Hindenburg's main force, four Corps strong, was opposed
by six Russian Corps, and the seven Austro-Hungarian Divs.
posted in the direction of Ivangorod had to cope with double
their own numbers.'
As there was no prospect of a successful issue, and as an
enforced retreat had in places already set in, the battle was
broken off on Oct. 27. Leaving Dankl's army to put up an ob-
stinate resistance along the line Kiclce-Gura-Opuczna-Opatow-
Sandomierz, Hindenburg led his army back to the line Sieradz-
Jedrziejow. The Guard Res. Corps was to remain on the left
wing of the I. Army, while Field-marshal Lt. Frciherr von Haner's
Cav. Corps, newly formed out of the 2nd, 3rd and oth Cav.
Divs., was to constitute a liaison between the two armies.
Battle of the Opatowka (Oct. ji-Nov. 2). The Russians pursued
the Austro-Hungarian I. Army with their IX. and IV. Armies,
the German IX. with their V. and II. Armies. Meanwhile the
newly formed I. Army on the Russian right wing advanced on
Kutno. By Oct. 30 the Austro-Hungarian I. Army had reached
its position and strengthened it technically against all emergen-
cies. On Oct. 31 the columns of the Russian IX. Army appeared
at Opatow and proceeded to attack violently both there and on
the Opatowka. At Kielce the fighting was of secondary im-
portance, but E. of Opatow the Russians were aiming at a break-
through. On Nov. 2 Dankl's right wing retired behind the
Koprzywianka, exposing the flank of the Austro-Hungarian IV.
Army fighting on the far side of the Vistula.
In view of the vigorous Russian pursuit and the impossibility
of holding the Koprzywianka any longer with troops that were
already greatly exhausted, the. Austro-Hungarian higher com-
mand agreed to the retreat behind the Nida proposed by the I.
Army command. On Nov. 3 the I. Army with the Guard Res.
Corps, reached the area W. of the Czarna and Czarna Nida and
on the 4th shook off the Russian IX. Army completely. On
Nov. 5 the army crossed the Nida and on the 6th continued its
march into the area round Cracow.
The German IX.' Army, which remained practically un-
molested during the whole retreat, commenced its further retire-
ment to the Silcsian frontier in the night of Nov. 3 and 4, arriving
there on the 5th.
Battle of Chyrow (Oct. ij-Nov. 2). The Austro-Hungarian II.
Army had advanced to the S. of the III. Army, without en-
countering enemy opposition, but under the most unfavourable
conditions imaginable. The leading division reached Kroscienko
on Oct. 9, only to find the Chyrow defile, through which the
advance to the area E. of Przemysl was to be made, blocked by
the Russian XXIV. Corps. Gen. von Tersztyanszky's column
(the IV. Corps), which had pushed on further to the E., reached ,
Turka after taking the Uszok pass by hard fighting.
The II. Army came up against strong enemy forces, firmly
established in well-prepared positions on the heights S. of Stary
Sambor, and on those opposite the S. wing of Borocvic's army.
With its main force, the VII. and XII. Corps, the II. Army
attacked the enemy's position S. of Czyszki, on both sides of the
Blozewka hollow and at Starasol. Tersztyanszky's group,
coming from the S. was to take the heights S. of Stary Sambor
and push forward with one column (the 38th Honved Inf. Div.
and sth and 8th Cav. Divs.) through the Bystrycza valley to
Sambor. Working in harmony with this attack, the S. wing of I
the III. Army, which was opposed by numerically superior i
Russian forces, was also to push forward. Gen. von Borocvic !
reinforced this wing by bringing up the III. Corps and the 23rd ]
Honved Inf. Div. from the area N. of Przemysl, where they had
just driven the Russians across the San. The II. Army aimed at
forcing a decision with Tersztyanszky's group. But while the
preliminary battles were being successfully conducted there, a
heavy Russian counter-attack set in in front of the left army
wing. This led to very heavy fighting on the heights S. of Stary
Sambor, at Slochynia, Blozcw Gorna and Towarnia, and necessi-
tated the putting in of all available reserves. The right army wing
was able to achieve some successes in fighting down the Russian
opposition, but an advance on the left wing by the XII. Corps |
was quite impossible, for there the Russians were doing their i
utmost to break through to Chyrow and Dobromil. The 2oth I
Honved Inf. Div. and 34th Inf. Div. fighting on that wing had I
to be withdrawn to the area E. of Towarnia and toward Blozew
Gorna, and from Grodowice to Slochynia, and even after the j
i7th Inf. Div. came on the field they could not stand against the
overwhelming onslaught. Just when the situation looked most
threatening, the i2th Inf. Bde. of the III. Corps arrived on the
battlefield, and although not able to turn the scale it relieved the
pressure on the Honved Inf. Div., which was the most exhausted.
On the morning of Oct. 16, the Russians were resuming their
attacks, when the III. Corps made its counter-attack directed
against the heights of Czyszki, Guty and Wcgrzcliska. But
though the coming into action of the III. Corps brought some
relief to the fighting divisions, no success could be expected in
view of the continuous vehement Russian attacks, and more
especially, the devastating flank fire from the Czyszki and
Magicra heights. To conquer these heights Boroevic now brought
up the XL Corps also to the area S. of Przemysl. But in the
night of Oct. 17-8, the Russians once more pushed forward with
strong forces into the Blozewka hollow, and threw back the 2^nd
Inf. Div. onto the heights E. of Nowcmiasto. The 34th Inf.
Div. was likewise forced to give ground, and Blozew Gorna
was given up to the enemy. On Oct. 10, the XL Corps, advanc-
ing through Stroniowice and Tyszkowice on Mizyniec and
Chodnowice, flung themselves into the battle, and drove the
Russians back. Close by, a little further S., the 44th Inf. Div.
stormed the Magicra height, and the advance of the III. ( '<
was made considerably easier. When the 23rd Honved Inf. l)iv.
attacked from Byblo, it carried the whole front with it. The 2 2nd I
Inf. Div. recaptured Sanoczany, the 6th Inf. Div. seized B!"
Gorna, and the z8th Inf. Div. worked its way through to the, 1
edge of a wood opposite the Wegrzcliska height. The danger of a
break-through now seemed to be finally averted.
Meanwhile Tersztyanszky's group on the right wing of the
II. Army had also had some hard battles. In the Bystn /a
valley the 38th Honved Inf. Div. column, which had gone on
ahead, succeeded in beating back through Zalokicc, Podbuz a ml
Uroz the Cossacks who had been pushed forward to protect the
Russian left wing. But on Oct. 18 the Russians brought up new
forces through Boryslaw with which to attack this column in
flank, whereupon the column had to be taken back to the heights
W. of Zalokiec and Podbuz. In the meantime Gen. Hofmann'sl
Corps, destined for the defence of the Carpathians, which had
advanced over the Beskid Pass on Oct. 8, had taken Stryj and
despatched a group to Drohobycz. This group came up in front
of Drohobycz on Oct. 21, but the Russians in the meantime had
VITAMINE
93i
attacked Gen. Hofmann with greatly superior forces, so fhat the
detachment sent to Drohobycz had to intervene at Stryj. It
was therefore unable to procure any relief for the II. Army
particularly as Gen. Hofmann had also been forced to retreat.
Simultaneously with this, the attack along the whole front of
the II. and III. Armies was continued. In the case of the III.
Army this culminated in the attempt to capture the Czyszki
heights and in the defence of the Magiera height against the
Russians who were longing to regain it, while the II. Army aimed
at relieving the enemy pressure on the right wing. But by Oct.
23 the great numerical superiority of the Russians at this point
had become evident, and the II. Army command found it neces-
sary to bring back the IV. Corps consisting of the 38th Honved
Inf. Div., the 3ist Inf. Div. and the ist, sth and 8th Cav. Divs.
without delay to tlje heights N.E. of Turka. The XII. Corps was
to remain on the heights W. of Stary Sambor, and the IV. Corps
was brought up from the III. Army to fill the gap between the
two. The Russians kept touch with the retreating divisions but
for the moment attempted no sort of pursuit.
The III. Army, stricken with cholera and short of munitions,
had not been able to achieve any real success up to Oct. 26. On
the afternoon of that day a general attack was delivered by the
III. Army with the object of relieving the II. Army, but as this
also failed almost completely the front was technically strength-
ened and the reserves were taken out of it and placed at the
disposal of the II. Army.
Meanwhile the Russians had not molested the II. Army's
right wing to any extent, but directed their energies toward the
gap between the IV. and XII. Corps, where they hoped to break
through. Their attack on Oct. 26 across the Holownia height
had begun to look like a break-through, when Field-marshal St.
Krautwald's group of the III. Army, together with two newly
arrived Landsturm territorial brigades and a few march battalions,
came to the rescue. The IV. Corps, as soon as it had recovered
a little from the recent heavy fighting, went over to the attack,
and took the Bzeniec, Podzemen and Zwihonka heights.
The attack by Krautwald's group and the IV. Corps had good
results. By Oct. 31 the Russian VII. Corps had been driven
from the stubbornly defended Holownia height. As this attack
progressed, the XII. Corps and, shortly after, the III. Army
joined in. On the morning of Nov. 2, the whole of the II. Army
was engaged in the attack. Hofmann's Corps, which had retired
Skole after the abortive advance on Drohobycz, also joined in
.e renewed attack on Stryj. The XII. Corps came up close to
,ry Sambor and up to the Kundieska height. The IV. Corps
iproached the strong Russian position Lisyj height Zalarski
ight and the heights E. of Podbuz.
Just as the battle at Chyrow seemed at last to be taking a
favourable turn, after the II. Army had received reinforcements,
and the reconstruction of the railways leading to Chyrow and
Przemysl promised a considerable improvement in the service of
munitions and supplies, there came the order to retire, an order
totally unexpected by the troops of the II. and III. Army
engaged in the attack.
The army higher command had already informed the army
commands on Oct. 27 of the unfavourable situation in the bend
of the Vistula, and announced the possibility of the breaking off
of the battle. The position of the armies fighting on the San, at
Przemysl and at Chyrow, had been made untenable by the
withdrawal of the German IX. Army and the Austro-Hungarian
I. Army from the line Sieradz-Kielce, and from the Opat6wka to
behind the Nida practically to the Silcsian frontier. In spite
of the successes just achieved on the S. wing, therefore, the
Austro-Hungarian armies had again to be led back, in view of the
general situation. In Upper Sjlesia, in the Cracow area and in
Western Galicia, a new grouping of the Austro-Hungarian
armies was to be undertaken, under the protection of the Carpa-
thian ridge, in readiness for a new offensive in better circum-
stances in conjunction with the German IX. Army which was
also to be reorganized.
The retreat was begun in the night of Nov. 2-3, by the left
wing of the Austro-Hungarian IV. Army, and by the right wing,
now amalgamated with the III. Army. Both these and the II.
Army broke contact with the enemy in the night of Nov. 4-5.
(E- J-)
VITAMINE, the term now employed to designate certain
substances contained in foods. The exact nature of these
substances is not known, but they have been shown to be neces-
sary to the normal development of young animals (including
children) as well as to the maintenance of health and well-being
in adults. They are very labile substances which, existing
abundantly in raw foods, especially in uncooked fruits and
vegetables, become seriously attenuated or altogether destroyed
by cooking, desiccation, dccortication and other refining processes.
There are probably a great many vitamines in natural foods
live or quick foods, as they are called but up to the time of
writing three only have been isolated. These are (i) the anti-
scorbutic factor; (2) the water-soluble B.; (3) the fat-soluble A.
The Anti-Scorbutic Factor. As long ago as 1734 J. E. Bach-
strom observed that the disease known as scorbutus or scurvy
appeared to be related to the ingestion of salted, preserved and
dried foods. The disease in question was alarmingly prevalent
among mariners on long distance sailing vessels, and the British
navy was annually decimated by this scourge. The introduction
of fresh vegetables and fruits into the dietary of the sailors was
found to afford them complete protection against the disease, but
the knowledge thus empirically gained was not followed by any
scientific investigation, and though the door was thus widely
opened to the discovery of vitamines, these important substances
were destined to lie perdu for nearly 200 years. This anti-scorbu-
tic factor is the most fragile of the three which have so far been
isolated. It is present in large quantities in all uncooked fruits
and vegetables, and it is interesting to note that the popular idea
that foods which have been kissed by the sun have a greater
value than those which have not, finds some justification in the
fact that vegetables grown above ground are much richer in the
anti-scorbutic factor than root vegetables. This factor is well
represented in fresh milk, but boiling, pasteurization, or evapora-
tion completely destroys it.. The activity of the anti-scorbutic
factor is much increased by germination; thus, beans, peas, or
the grains of wheat or barley in the ordinary dry quiescent state
contain no anti-scorbutic factor, but if they be placed in water
and allowed to germinate, they immediately acquire this vita-
mine in large quantities. There is a practical application of this
interesting fact which should not be lost sight of by travellers in
inaccessible regions.
The Water-Soluble B. Prof. Gowland Hopkins of Cambridge
published in 1912 an article entitled " Feeding Experiments
Illustrating the Importance of Accessory Factors in Normal
Dietaries," 1 in which he called attention to the serious effects
upon the health of animals which resulted from the absence from
their food of certain hitherto unrecognized principles. In the
following year Casimir Funk 2 claimed to have isolated a " Factor
X " which corresponded to the absent principles described by
Hopkins to which he gave the name of Vitamine, in the mistaken
belief that the factor in question contained an amino-acid. In
spite of its faulty derivation the name caught on, and the word
vitamine is now employed to include any of those essential
substances which Hopkins unfortunately described under the
term " accessory." The experiments of these two observers
showed that the absence of the factor now known as the Water-
Soluble B. was the cause of the disease known as beriberi, which
a Dutch physician, Dr. C. Eykman, had in 1897 associated with
the custom of eating polished or decorticated rice by the natives,
to the exclusion of all other foods. Beriberi is a disease of the
nerves, and it was found that other similar affections of the
nerves, pellagra for example, could be experimentally produced
by withholding this vitamine, and cured by reinstating it in the
dietary; hence the term " anti neuritic " by which it is sometimes
known. This factor is essential to the normal growth, develop-
ment and well-being of young animals. It is present in great
1 Journal of Physiology (1912), p. 425.
2 Ueber die physiologische Bedeulung gewisser Msher unbekannten
Nahrungbestandteile der Vitamine. Ergebn. fhys. (1913), 13, p. 125.
932
VOGUE VOLUNTEERS
abundance in all quick or natural foods, in grains and eggs. It is
also present in the brain, liver, sweetbread and kidneys of animals,
whereas from muscle or ordinary meat it is relatively absent.
Yeast contains this vitamine in large quantities. In the vege-
table kingdom, the leguminosa? afford it, uniformly distributed
throughout their substance; whereas in cereals it is confined to
the outside covering; hence the importance of unpolished rice
and whole meal bread. It is soluble in water, especially in slightly
acidulated water, and in alcohol, but not in fats. It resists a
relatively high temperature; it is present for example after
boiling for a short period, but is destroyed at 120 C.
This vitamine, as indeed the whole conception of vitamines in
general, was first described in 1901 by Dr. Eugene Wildiers of
Antwerp (1878-1908) under the name of Bios. 1 In a paper which
appeared in La Cellule (Louvain) on April 2 1901 entitled
" Nouvelle substance indispensable au developpement de la
levure," this young Belgian observer set forth a good deal of the
knowledge which we now possess, but no notice was taken of his
work, and his conclusions were arrived at independently by a
different route about 12 years later.
The Fat-Soluble A. In the year 1913 the third vitamine was
described by McCollum and Davis. 2 Its absence was shown to
provoke a disease of the eyes, characterized by cedcma of the
lids, ulceration of the cornea, blindness and ultimately death.
These lesions, even when in an advanced state, were cured by the
exhibition of the vitamine. The absence in some degree of this
factor is held responsible by some for the disease known as
rickets. Its presence is certainly necessary to the growth and
normal development of young animals. It is found (a) in certain
animal fats, i.e. milk, butter and glandular tissue; (6) in the
green leaves of edible plants. It is thus interesting to note that
though present in essential organs or so-called " noble " tissues,
it is absent from connective tissue and reserve tissue, such as lard
or the subcutaneous animal fats. Olive oil and other vegetable
oils do not contain this vitamine, whereas cod-liver oil contains
it in large quantities. Fat-Soluble A. is soluble in oil, but not in
water. It resists high temperature better than the other two.
Such was the state of our precise knowledge in 1921 concerning
these elusive substances. If only from the confused and cacophon-
ic nomenclature, it is evident that this knowledge was still in a
very embryonic state. That there is, in this matter, a very wide
field of interesting and fruitful research awaiting us is obvious
from the fact that the discovery of the vitamines has entirely
altered our conceptions of the causes and origins of disease.
Until lately disease was regarded as a sin of commission by some
unseen and subtle agency; the vitamines are teaching us to regard
it in some degree at any rate as a sin of omission on the part of
civilized or hypercivilized man. By our habit of riveting our
attention upon microbes and their toxins we had sadly neglected
the side of the question which concerns itself with our own de-
fences. We sterilized our children's milk against the bacillus,
and in so doing we deprived it of its vitamines and thus lowered
the resisting power of the victim, not to one microbe only, but to
all. The importance of vitamines has taught us that the nat-
urally nourished child is practically immune from the majority
of the diseases which in spite of our bacteriological and hygienic
knowledge have been raising the infant death-rate to a figure
which was as surprising as it was appalling. But it is to be
remembered that in order to attain to this immunity a child must
be born healthy; it must have been suitably nourished during its
intra-uterine life, and this can only be attained by feeding the
prospective mother upon foods which contain the necessary
vitamines in such an abundance as will satisfy the physiological
needs of two. The gross diseases due to absence of vitamines,
such as scurvy, beriberi, pellagra and xerophthalmia, called the
" deficiency diseases " (maladies de carence} are characterized by
symptoms which are acute and unmistakable, but it is certain
that long before these acute symptoms appear there will have been
1 " Vitamines el Stomatologie," par H. Allacys, " Revue Beige de
Stomatologie," No. 9, Sept. 1920, p. 377.
2 " The Necessity of Certain Lipins in the Diet during Growth,"
Journ. Biol. Chem. (1913), p. 167.
a general ill-defined departure from normal health, called by the
French carence Jritste or hypo-carence, and the condition may
never pass beyond this stage. It is thus not only futile but
actually dangerous to seek to estimate, as has often been done,
the minimum amount of vitamine which will insure protection
from obvious disease. What is required is not the minimum but
the optimum. Amongst these conditions of hypo-carcnce may
be mentioned the majority of the maladies due to the deficient
action of the internal secretory or endocrine glands, such as the
thyroid, thymus, supra-renals, pituitary, gonads and others,
which have already been shown to suffer severely from depriva-
tion of vitaminous foods. In the same category of hypo-carcnce
are also to be placed many of the so-called metabolic diseases
such as gout, arthritis, diabetes and others. These may be
occasioned directly by the vitamine deficiency, or indirectly by
starving one or more of the endocrine glands of the all-essential
principles. As might easily be supposed, this relative lack of
vitamines is peculiarly liable to show itself in the gastro-intestinal
tract. Digestive difficulties and intestinal inertia, appendicitis
and colitis have been shown in a great number of cases to have
been due to a lack of vitamines in the ordinary foods, a fact of
which anyone may convince himself in the matter of the widely
distributed disease known as intestinal stasis or chronic constipa-
tion. It has often been remarked that dental caries or defective
teeth is an evil which has seemed to be very much on the increase
during the last 20 years; the period, that is, during which all fresh
and unsterilized foods have been withheld from the young in
order that they may be fed on devitalized pap which, in addition
to requiring no mastication, is, by boiling and other culinary
processes, completely deprived of the vitamine content so neces-
sary to the proper development and eruption of the teeth them-
selves. Vitamines have already revolutionized our ideas on
dietetics. The erstwhile stereotyped proportions of the proximate
principles, proteins, carbohydrates, fats and salts which were
considered essential to bodily health have been so altered by the
discovery of the vitamines that the whole question will have to be
investigated and studied afresh, and the ineffable theory of
calories which was based on the curious assumption that the
behaviour of food in the human body was identical with its
behaviour in a test-tube, will retire to the limbo of things well
forgotten. The discovery of the vitamines presents would-be
scientists with a much-needed lesson in humility. It reminds us
that, in evolving man, Nature provided him with the foods
necessary to his growth, development and well-being, and that
in interfering with these natural foods by cooking, sterilizing and
refining, he has sacrificed their efficacy, sometimes to his greed,
but more often to his arrogant assumption of superior knowledge,
with the result that he has not only promoted the prevalence of
preventable disease, but has actually created others which but
for his misdirected energy would have had no existence.
REFERENCES. Report on Vitamines, Medical Research Com-
mittee (British Government, 1919); Weill and Mouriquand, Alimen-
tation et maladie par carence (1919); Dr. G. Houbert, La question I
des vitamines (1920) ; Raoul Lecoq, Les nouvelles theories alimen-
taires (1920). (L. Wi.)
VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848-1914), !
French author (see 28.172), died in Paris in 1914.
VOLUNTEERS (see 28.208). The reorganization of the Volun-
teer Force in Great Britain, founded in 1859, as a Territorial
Force fully constituted with staffs, troops and services, took place
in 1908; and when this was completed, no units of the Volunteers |
continued in existence as such, except a few companies in the I
Isle of Man. The Volunteer Act, however, was not repealed.
At the outbreak of the World War, the existing organization j
of the British army, consisting of Regulars, Special Reserve, and
Territorial Force, filled up its establishments generally, and the
Territorial Force formed duplicate units, while the depots and
surplus resources of the Regular army and Special Reserve
formed the nucleus of the " New Armies." But over and above
these, which were normal, or derived from normal organizations,
there began in Aug. 1914 a widespread effort throughout Great
Britain to prepare for the contingency of invasion by voluntary
VOLUNTEERS
933
military training. Everywhere local units sprang up. These had
no official status, all expenses being privately borne; and the
organization and administration were vested in local com-
mittees.
In Nov. 1914, the British Government, realizing the necessity
for making every provision for a possible invasion, granted
recognition to these voluntary formations under the title of
Volunteer Training Corps. They were affiliated to a body in
London called the Central Association Volunteer Training Corps,
which was made responsible by the War Office for their training
and administration. A uniform enrolment form was prescribed,
and the following conditions of service were imposed by the
Army Council: (i) that only those should be enrolled who,
through age, were not eligible to serve in the Regular or Terri-
torial armies, or were unable to do so for some genuine reason,
and in the latter event agreed to enlist if called upon to do so
later; (2) that it should be open to army recruiting officers to
visit the corps at any time, and to recruit any eligible members
whose presence in the corps could not be justified; (3) that no
form of attestation involving an oath should be permitted.
Clothing, equipment, arms and financial assistance were not
provided by the Government; local appeals for funds were issued,
and met with considerable success, many municipalities making
generous grants. Whenever they were available, exempted men
with military experience were appointed instructors. Buildings
for drill purposes were hired where they were not lent by Terri-
torial Force associations, and miniature rifle ranges were con-
structed. Some corps, owing to the patriotic generosity of
individuals, were provided with uniforms of green-grey, as well
|as rifles. Every volunteer was supplied with a red brassard worn
Km the left arm when he was in plain clothes, inscribed with the
letters "G.R.," showing his status as a combatant.
Many feared that this volunteer movement might provide a
hiding place for shirkers from military service, but on the con-
trary, it proved a most powerful recruiting organization; over a
million men passed through its ranks into the Regular army, the
preliminary training they had received as Volunteers contributing
imatcrially to their efficiency. By the end of 1915, some of the
corps had attained considerable proficiency in elementary drill,
but the shortage of arms, and the inexperience of many of the
instructors, militated against a high standard of efficiency.
The Volunteers were eager for the status of soldiers; and in
March 1916, the King invited lords-lieutenant of counties to
submit offers from corps willing to enroll under the Volunteer
[Act of 1863. The response was general. In May 1916, regulations
ifor the reconstructed Volunteer Force were issued, which provided
(for the raising of Volunteer regiments on a county basis under
county commandants. Owing to the wide distribution of the
I personnel of various battalions, a uniform strength could not
ibe insisted on, but minimum and maximum establishments
were laid down. The force was to be called out for actual mili-
tary service only in the event of imminent invasion, as notified
'by royal proclamation, although at other times voluntary offers
tof temporary service either by corps or individuals could be
:accepted. Motor corps, field ambulance sections, and certain
ispecialist units such as signal and electric light companies, were
subsequently formed in order to complete the defence schemes
for the commands.
. The original organization proved unsatisfactory, as it called
for no medical examination and imposed no drill obligation.
In Jan. 1917, under powers conferred by a Volunteer Act passed
in 1916, it was therefore decided to form special sections of the
Volunteer Force, with qualifications as follows:
Section A. Men over military age, free from organic disease, who
kwere able to stand service conditions in garrisons at home, to march
iat least 5 m., to see to shoot with the aid of glasses, and to hear well.
jln addition they had to be free to vacate their civilian employment
on the occurrence of a national emergency.
Section B. Exempted men of military age, with practically
the same conditions as Section A.
Section C Lads under military age, but of not less than 17
i years, of the same physical standard as for A. and B.
Section D. Men who were not eligible for, or were unwilling
i to become, members of Sections A., B., or C.
Section P. Special constables, who, in the opinion of the chief
constable of the county could undertake this duty without interfer-
ing with the proper performance of their duties as special constables.
Section R. Men employed in Government departments, on war
work, and railway employees.
Officers and men of Sections A., B. and C. were required to
sign an agreement to serve for the duration of the war, and to
carry out a definite number of drills per month, becoming liable
to penalites under the Army Act if they failed to fulfil their
obligations. The sum of 2 was granted to the Territorial asso-
ciations concerned for each Volunteer on his satisfying the
prescribed authority that he had attained the requisite standard
of efficiency. It was then the duty of the association to provide
him, as a first charge on the grant of 2, with uniform, the balance,
if any, being available for general administrative purposes.
The retention of Section D. men, who undertook no obligation,
was a weakness to the force, and Sections P. and R. were also
of little value, as they could not be depended upon to be
available when required, and afforded to many a means of avoid-
ing' military obligations. Just before the Armistice, War Office
instructions were issued ordering the discharge of all Volunteers
over 55 years of age, and also of all who refused to agree to serve
for the duration of the war. This would have had the effect of
reorganizing the force on a really sound basis.
In Sept. 1916, the general administrative control of the re-
constituted Volunteer Force was transferred to the director-
general of the Territorial and Volunteer Forces at the War Office,
the local administration in 'the counties being undertaken by
Territorial Force associations, in consultation with county
commandants. The Central Association Volunteer Training
Corps then became mainly an advisory body. A senior staff
officer for Volunteer services was appointed to each command and
was made responsible to the general officer commanding-in-chief.
Voluntary efforts of service by corps or individuals were
accepted by general officers commanding-in-chief of commands,
and all kinds of pre-emcrgency duties were undertaken. When
so employed, Volunteers were not entitled to army pay and
allowances, but received iree travelling warrants, and an allow-
ance at the rate of sd. per head for each complete period of six
hours worked; this amount being paid to the corps for the
provision of rations. The following were some of the duties thus
undertaken. There was a complete scheme for guarding the
various lines of communication by Volunteers, and many men
carried out this guard duty on a " rota " system, which enabled
them to carry on their normal work as well. A large amount of
trench digging, principally in connexion with the London de-
fence scheme was also undertaken. Much useful pre-cmcrgency
work was performed by the R.A.S.C., M.T. (V), in evacuating
ambulance trains, distributing men arriving home on leave from
the different theatres of war, conveying wounded to and from
hospitals, and in the provision of transport necessary in the train-
ing of other branches of the force. The services of the R.G.A. (V)
were in some cases utilized, on a " rota " system, in manning the
guns of batteries on the coast at night, men attending at 7 130 P.M.
and leaving at 5 A.M. the following morning. And Volunteers,
especially in London, were employed on anti-aircraft duties.
Service in the Volunteer Force was not allowed to interfere in
any way with the operation of the Military Service Acts, which
subsequently withdrew a large number of the original Volunteers.
These men were replaced by others, who, though fit and capable, _
were very busily employed on work of national importance, and
were not only for the most part lacking in enthusiasm, but had
little time for training. The Military Service Act of 1918 made
service in the Volunteer Force compulsory for men exempted by
military tribunals. This, of course, meant the administration of
conscripts into a so-called " Volunteer " Force.
The formation of special service companies of the Volunteer
Force for a limited period of whole-time service, replacing
personnel of T.F. cyclists battalions on the E. coast, was under-
taken in June 1918. In almost every county the Volunteers
were most desirous of carrying out this duty. But the minimum
period of service was fixed at two months, and strict medical
limitations were laid down. Consequently there was difficulty in
934
VORARLBERG VOSGES, BATTLES IN THE
obtaining the necessary number. The total so employed was
484 officers and 7,777 other ranks, which was considerably short
of requirements.
In Nov. 1918, the Volunteer Force consisted of: n companies
of R.G.A.; ii engineer corps; i signal and transport column;
63 motor volunteer corps (R.A,S.C., M.T.) (V); 282 infantry
battalions; i pioneer company, and 22 medical corps; with a
total strength of 254,826 all ranks. In Oct. 1920 the War Office
issued instructions for the disbandment of the Volunteer Force.
These instructions excepted the R.A.S.C., M.T. (V), of which
the strength was: 468 heavy sections of transport, 79 light
sections of transport, 92 sections of transport for field ambu-
lance, 3 sections of transport for motor air-line sections, and
7 sections of transport for signal companies. These units were
required for special transport duties, and were not disbanded till
March 311921, when they received the special thanks of the Army
Council. As a mark of appreciation of the services rendered by
the Volunteer Force, the Army Council decided to allow officers
to retain honorary rank on retirement, and granted them the
right to wear uniform on special occasions. (R. E. G.)
VORARLBERG (see 28.211). The pop. in 1910 was 145,408;
in 1920 only 133,033 (132 persq. mile). In 1900, 88% of the area
was productive, and of this 51-3% was grazing land, 29-4%
forest, 15-3% meadow, 0-5% gardens, and 3-45% arable.
Vineyards occupied less than 0-1%. The most important towns
are Bregenz, the capital (pop. in 1920 12,102, the town itself
7,488); Dornbirn (13,764); Feldkirch (4,593); Bludenz (5,488).
Riedcn, the suburb of Bregenz, is a manufacturing centre.
VOSGES, BATTLES IN THE, 1914-8. The Vosges mountains
(see 28.214) rise sharply to the N. of Bclfort. From the groups of
the Ballons, which reaches a height of more than 1,200 metres,
the main ridge runs N. by the Drumont, the Grand Ventron
(1,309), and the Hohneck (1,366). North of the Bonhomme pass
(949) the ridge falls gradually to 558 metres at Saalcs, near the
headwaters of the Bruche, one of the Alsatian tributaries of the
Rhine. From the Saales gap the ridge rises to Mont Donon and
Prancey, each over i ,000 metres high, and is prolonged through a
series of vast forests as far as the Saverne valley. From the
Ballon d'Alsace to the Donon, the Vosges form a mass of moun-
tain with steep slopes, narrow deeply cut valleys and swiftly
flowing torrents, a terrain always difficult and often impossible
of passage away from the roads. The summit of the ridge
generally takes the form of a swollen saddle, wooded in places
but usually covered with the large grassy swards known as the
Chaumes (Calvi Monies). These Chaumes are wind swept all
the year round, very hot in summer and very cold in winter, and
the snows which cover them completely from Oct. onward only
disappear in early June. Both slopes of the ridge are clad with
magnificent fir and pine forests, which end just below the crest
in a thin ledge of bushes bending before the wind. The fall of
these slopes is steeper on the Alsatian side than on the other;
immediately below the crest a cliff of granite rocks or sandstone
falls almost vertically, often in the southern part of the Vosges,
for some 250 metres. From the foot of this wall begins a gentler
slope extending all the way to the Rhine valley. On the Lorraine
side, however, the mountains descend much less steeply in a
series of ridges towards the Moselle and the Meurthe. The
points of passage, formed by the roads crossing the ridge, acquire
considerable importance owing to the absence of such crossings
"elsewhere. These points 'of passage, moreover, are not numerous.
In the group of the Ballons the pass of Bursang, with the smaller
passes of Oderen and Bramont, lead from the Moselle valley
to the Thann valley. At the foot of the Hohneck the pass of the
Schlucht leads from Gerardmer to Munster and Colmar; to the
N. the Bonhomme and Louchpach join the valleys of the Vologne
and the Weiss. The pass of Ste. Marie unites Ste. Marie-aux-
Mines and Schletstadt; the gap of Saales leads from Prorenchers
to Schismeck; and, lastly, a road which passes over the summit
of the Donon leads from Celles to Molsheim and Strasbourg.
The only railways across the Vosges were the two main lines from
Strasbourg to Nancy, by Saverne, and from Mulhouse to Belfort
by Dannemarie, together with the narrow gauge railway from
Gerardmer to Munster. On the French side of the Vosges small
branch lines ran up into the mountains to St. Die, Gerardmer,
Cornimont and Bursang, and other branch lines on the Alsatian
side ran from the Strasbourg-Mulhouse railway to the heads of
all the Vosges valleys.
The frontier imposed on France in 1871 by the Treaty of '
Frankfort reached the crest of the Vosges, after cutting the gap of
Belfort at the Ballon d'Alsace, and followed the watershed as far
as the Donon; thence it changed direction from N. to N.W., and
following a purely artificial line left all the upper Saar valley to
Germany, cut the Scille at two points, and reached the Moselle
2,000 yd. below Pont-a-Mousson. From the military point of
view this frontier left French Lorraine in a regular salient.
General Sere de Rivieres, the far-sighted and skilful creator of the
French defensive system, had therefore been compelled to go
back to the Moselle to organize the barrier blocking the roads
from the frontier. This barrier consisted of the two fortresses of
Epinal and Belfort, connected by a line of forts along the upper
Moselle. The importance of Belfort lay in the fact that it formed
the right flank pivot of the whole defensive system, blocking as
it did the gap between the Jura and the Vosges, and commanding
the ground as far as the Swiss frontier. On their side the Germans
had progressively strengthened the line of the Rhine by construct-
ing the fortress Istein facing Mulhouse, improving the old strong-
holds on Huningen and Neubrisach, and turning Strasbourg into
a great entrenched camp, extending its action by means of the
forts of Mutzig and Molsheim as far as the Bruche valley.
VOSGES, BATTLES IN THE
935
The Position in the middle of Sept. 1(114. The work carried on
by either side for 40 years had made of the Vosges region a
military area in which it was impossible to move without en-
countering some natural or artificial obstruction, defended on
one side or the other by numerous garrisons. It was there,
nevertheless, that hostilities between Germany and France
actually started in the early days of Aug. 1914. After a few weeks
fighting, however, the main offensives had been stopped in one
place or another; and the position of the two adversaries towards
the middle of Sept. was as follows:
On the western slope of the Vosges the Germans had been
checked and obliged to retire on Sept. 7. In the Luneville area
they had maintained their hold on the Parois forest and Badon-
villers. North of St. Die, which they had evacuated on the irth,
they held the Ormont ridge and the vicinity of the Saales gap.
On the Vosges crest their occupation of the Violu and the Bern-
hardtstein secured to them the pass of Ste. Marie-aux-Mines; a
little further to the S. they held the Tete-de-Faux, commanding
the Bonhomme pass. The pass itself was in the hands of the
French, who, since the withdrawal of the army of Alsace, held
all the crest from there to the south. The German counter-
offensive had been stopped on this side facing the Schlucht on the
summit of the Luige ridge, commanding the valleys of the Weiss
and the Fecht; at Metzeval, blocking the upper Fecht valley, the
Grand Ballon de Guebwiller was held by French outposts, and
a I French division occupied the Thur valley as far as Thann,
the gate of the Sundgau. In the Sundgau itself the outpost
line of the Belfort garrison had been pushed forward to Lauev,
Mortzwiller, Dieffmatten, Traubach, Gommersdorf, Ballersdorf,
Suarce, and Rechezy.
On the French side the forces in the Vosges consisted of three
infantry divisions and ten Alpine groups, forming, under the
command of Gen. Putz, a " Vosges group " attached to the army
of Gen. Dubail. The troops in the gap belonged to the Belfort
garrison and were under the governor-general Thevenet. On
the German side the troops holding the gap of Saales belonged to
von Falkenhausen's army detachment. Those in the Upper
Vosges and the Sundgau belonged to the army detachment under
von Gaede. Both consisted principally of Ersatz and Landwehr
troops, von Gaede's strength being equivalent to five divisions.
From mid-Sept, onward the operations in the Vosges assumed
the character of local and disconnected actions, always bloody
and often prolonged. These actions may be dealt with here in
succession, in each of the secondary theatres the region of St.
Die, the eastern slope of the High Vosges, and the Sundgau.
The Region of St. Die. The Ormont ridge, on which the
Germans halted after their retirement, was too close to St. Die
to be left by the French forces in their hands, and on Sept. 17
the 1 5 2nd were ordered to drive them from it. The task was no
easy one, and for three days the gallant regiment of Gerardmer
vainly attempted to maintain their footing on the slopes, which
were stubbornly defended and swept by machine-gun fire. On
the aoth it delivered a new surprise attack without preliminary
bombardment from W. to S. The hostile resistance was as
stubborn as ever, but after immense exertions two companies
gained a footing on the summit, and despite fierce hand-to-hand
fighting and heavy counter-attacks, the mountain remained in
French hands at the price of 600 dead.
At the end of Oct. serious fighting took place around the Ste.
Marie-aux-Mines pass for the possession of the Tetc-de- Violu,
commanding the pass to the west. After a series of actions,
lasting from Oct. 31 to Nov. 12, the French Alpine troops held
the hill, the pass itself remaining in the hands of von Gaede's
Landwehr men.
On Dec. 2 Alpine troops stormed the Tete-de-Faux facing the
Bonhomme pass on the Alsatian slope, thus securing the pass.
On Christmas eve violent hostile attacks, intended to dislodge
them, were repulsed by the bayonet and destroyed by the French
artillery, and the enemy retired leaving over 500 dead.
The early months of 1915 were passed by both sides in en-
trenching themselves, but in April violent combats broke out
for the possession of the promontory of the Ban-de-Sapt, N. of
St. Die, between Saales and Moyen Mautiers; the trenches were
so close together and so strong that both sides had recourse to
underground warfare. German and French mines and counter-
mines were exploded one after the other, destroying the defences,
and blowing great craters, the possession of which was hotly
contested, with bomb and bayonet. After some months of this
the French at the end of July had definitely secured possession
of the Ban-de-Sapt by their occupation of hill 627, dominating
the promontory and the hamlet of Launois in advance of it.
From now onward the positions on both sides were stabilized,
and remained so for three years, during which trench mortars
and machine-guns were daily in action, and frequent patrol
encounters took place, without the fighting ever becoming as
intense as during the first year of the war.
In Nov. 1917 the French were relieved by the Americans in
the St. Die sector, where the division under Menohery completed
its training and underwent its baptism of fire.
The Eastern Slope of the High Vosges. On the eastern slope
of the High Vosges, between the Schlucht and Cernay, position
warfare bpgan in Sept. 1914. Trench systems were gradually
dug and often hewn out of the rock. On the crests they were in
places so near as to touch each other, and bristled with accessory
defences. Elsewhere they were farther apart, separated by
valleys and deep ravines. The German positions facing W. were
close up against the mountains, but the Alsatian plain behind
them facilitated the supply of materials, artillery and reinforce-
ments, and by affording convenient billets rendered easier the
task of the command. The French had the advantage of the
ground, but there was no inter-communication between the
valleys, the heads of which they occupied. The roads leading to
the rear were poor, and the supply of ammunition and material
of all kinds was proportionately difficult. Bivouacking on the
crest was uncomfortable and even impossible in cold weather,
while the exercise of command was much impeded by the poverty
of communications.
The fighting in this region was necessarily of a local character,
and exercised no influence on the general course of the operations;
but owing to the stubbornness of the two adversaries its intensity
was often such as to involve losses quite disproportionate with
any possible results. On the French side the army detachment
of the Vosges, under Gen. de Maud ' Huy, thus became the VII.
Army, which included practically all the available Chasseurs
Italiens, while on the German side von Gaede's detachment
also increased to the size of an army, in which some of the best
troops of the German Empire often fought.
These local combats attained their greatest intensity during
1915, and the names of the sectors in which they took place,
such as the Fecht and Linge valleys, and Hartmannswillerkopf,
appeared in the communiques for several months.
A severe winter, to which the troops were not yet inured, had
for a time suspended operations, but at the end of Feb. 1915 the
Germans became active in the Fecht valley, and after several
vain attempts to push their line forward in front of Munster they
occupied the Reichackerkopf on March 21. On April 17 the
French retaliated by occupying the Schnepfenrieth, and a few
days later the Sillackerkopf; once in possession of these two
heights they drove the Germans from Steinbruck on the Fecht
and advanced to the outskirts of Metzeral. During the whole of
May fighting went on on both banks of the Fecht, and the French
succeeded, after great efforts, in getting up sufficient artillery to
render the valley untenable as far as Munster. They then be-
tween June 19 and 23 captured Metzeral and Sondernach, and
picked up over 700 prisoners in the bottom of the valley. During
the course of the following weeks the Germans made several
attempts to recapture these villages, but without success, and
eventually they turned their attention to the Linge ridge further
to the north, activity in the Fecht being henceforward confined
to artillery and patrols.
The Linge is a spur, some 3,000 ft. high, situated in front
of the main ridge between the Weiss and Fecht valleys. The
Germans had occupied it in Sept. 1914, and had constructed a
maze of trenches with a thick belt of barbed wire and flanked by
936
VOSGES, BATTLES IN THE
redoubts of machine-guns. Owing to the fact that the Linge
hindered inter-communication between the upper Weiss and
upper Fecht, the French decided in July 1915 to occupy it. The
pperation was an extremely difficult one, for it was necessary for
them to come down from the heights, pass through a marshy
valley, and scale steep rock-strewn slopes under hostile machine-
gun fire; moreover the troops and supplies necessary for the
operations had to be brought up from the rear by inferior mule
tracks. After ten hours' intense bombardment, the assault was
delivered on July 20 1915, and the struggle swayed to and fro
uninterruptedly until the end of August. On this small peak there
fell more than 50,000 shells; 7 German brigades came into action
one after the other against 16 French Chasseurs battalions and 2
infantry regiments, and at the end of severe and costly fighting
both sides remained face to face on the crest in trenches which
were held unchanged until the end of the war.
The Hartmannswillerkopf, or, as the French soldiers soon
began to call it, the " Vieil Armand," is a spur 95 metres high,
thrown out to the N. of Cernay into the Alsatian plain by the
Molkenrain (1,125 metres), itself an offshoot from the^Ballon de
Guebwiller (1,425 metres), the highest peak in the Vosges. This
spur, with its steep slopes, commands the village from which it
takes its name, at a distance of some 700 yards. Its sole advan-
tage from the military point of view lies in the fact that it affords
good observation over the Alsatian plain, from Isenheim to
Mulhouse. The French* therefore had advanced their outpost
line up the Thann valley by Wilier and Goldbach to the summit
of the spur. Its possession by the French naturally annoyed the
Germans, and on one wintry day in Jan. 1915 they surprised and
captured the French post on the summit, and installed themselves
there. In a short time they succeeded in transforming the position
into a practically impregnable fortress. Trenches and belts of
wire were constructed on all the crests, dug-outs were tunnelled
out on the steep eastern slopes, a road was constructed to the
summit, and aerial cable set up for the transport of supplies, and
concrete shelters for troops and munitions erected, while sub-
terranean passages gave access to all the advanced posts.
The loss of the Hartmannswillerkopf caused no apprehension
to the French, who still remained in possession of the Grand
Ballon and of the Molkenrain, nor could it even be said to cause
them any real inconvenience, as they had no intention of taking
the offensive in Alsace. Unfortunately pride spoke louder than
reason, and a series of useless struggles, which the higher com-
mand did not intervene to stop, were undertaken to recover the
lost position. The fighting went on for months under very diffi-
cult conditions for the French. On the slopes facing Goldbach
the heroism and self-sacrifice of the French troops in their hastily
dug trenches were unevenly matched against the facilities for
defence and attack which had been accumulated by the patient
labour of their enemies. Attack and counter-attack alternated
during the whole of 1915, and French and Germans alike suffered
fearful losses.
Of all these fruitless combats of 1915 the most characteristic
were perhaps those which took place at the very end of the year.
The 7th, I3th, 27th, and 53rd battalions of Chasseurs and the
I52nd Infantry Regt. on the French side were engaged against
the German i2th Landwehr Div., the i87th Ersatz brigade and
parts of the igth Reserve Division. On the cold winter morning
of Dec. 21 the i52nd dashed forward under a crushing fire from
trench mortars and machine-guns. Its waves advanced, broke,
reformed, and advanced again, destroying with bombs every
obstacle in their path; decimated but triumphant they reached
the summit and even passed beyond it in their rush, chasing the
routed enemy down the further slopes. At the end of the day the
exhausted victors, who had made more than 1,500 prisoners,
halted and passed the night where they were, without even being
able to reform. The Germans meanwhile were concentrating a
powerful artillery and massing their reserves to recover the lost
ground. The German counter-attack took place on the morning
of the 22nd. The French 15 2nd, extended in one long, thin line
which was outflanked and broken through by the enemy, was
exposed on the steep slopes to a hostile bombardment to which
their own guns could not reply; it struggled desperately all the
morning, although the men, exhausted by the previous day's
fighting, had to make head against the onset of fresh hostile
troops thrown in in whole battalions. After eight hours' fighting
the heroic regiment was surrounded in the depths of the ravines,
and amid the tangle of rocks was entirely overwhelmed. Forty-
eight officers and 1,950 men were killed or taken; the rest cut
their way out at the point of the bayonet, and rejoined the
reinforcements which, though too late to succour their comrades,
still held the summit of the " Vieil Armand." The Chasseurs
hung on to the crest, and the fierce struggle continued for several
more days until the Germans outflanked their position on the
north and forced them to retire to their original lines.
A protest was made by the French Parliament against these
useless sacrifices of Dec. 1915, and the Minister of War inter-
vened to forbid all local actions not demanded by strategic
considerations, and serving no purpose but to increase casualties.
This put an end to the fighting which had made the name of the
Hartmannswillerkopf famous throughout the world, and from
now until the end of the war the two adversaries remained facing
each other on the crest, and no further action took place save
harmless exchanges of rifle fire. The actions of the Lingc and the
Hartmannswillerkopf had in this one year of 1915 cost thousands
of human lives. Nowhere on the front had there been displayed
more courage, more tenacity, more self-sacrifice, but the results
had been absolutely nil.
From mid-Sept. 1914 onward neither of the two adversaries
was in a position to manoeuvre offensively in the High Vosges.
The strategic defensive was here imposed on both alike by the
course of the campaign, and by the local conditions. In the
circumstances the task of the commanders was simply to observe
the enemy, to strengthen their own positions, and to remain
prudently alert without undertaking any local offensives which
could only be foredoomed to failure.
The Germans, who disposed of ample resources and good
communications in the Rhine valley, should have been content
to hold the mouths of the Vosges valleys in strength, while
keeping their reserves billeted in the Alsatian plain ready to
manoeuvre if necessary against any isolated columns which
attempted to be debouched from the mountains. The French on
their part had an excellent opportunity of applying to the exist-
ing situation on the Vosges crest the defensive principles adopted
so successfully by Marshal Berwick in the Alps in 1709. A sys-
tem of solid defences at the heads of the valleys, covered by small
advanced posts and supported in rear by well sheltered reserves
which could be rapidly moved to any threatened point, would
have needed for its successful application a good road running N.
and S. on the western slopes of the mountains and connecting up
the roads to the various passes. Unfortunately no such lateral
road existed, so that the Fecht and Thur valleys were absolutely
isolated from each other. This fact explains, though it does not
excuse, these attacks on the Linge and the Vieil Armand, which
eventually assumed proportions far greater than had been
originally intended.
In this respect however the situation began to improve after
the spring of 1915. The Governor of Belfort then took in hand the
construction of the good and well-concealed road between
Massevaux and Wilier, connecting the Doller and Thur Valleys.
Later the commander of the VII. Army constructed another
from the Thur valley road at Kruth along the heights, below the
crest which passed behind the Schlucht and extended as far as
the Luchpach pass. This new road, together with a few cross
tracks, supplied the long-felt need of a lateral line of communica-
tion between Massevaux and the Bonhomme pass. It thus
became possible to construct strong defensive systems on the
heights, and to erect quarters for the reserves and supply parks
served by aerial cables further back. A narrow-gauge railway
was made from Bursang to Wesserling, so that by 1916 the VII.
Army in the Upper Vosges was sufficiently well equipped to be
able to fulfil its role with complete security. The Germans, on
their side, refrained henceforward from partial attacks which
could lead to no useful result. The sector thus became one of the
VOSGES, BATTLES IN THE
937
quietest on the western front, and up to the end of the war no
further fighting took place apart from artillery activity and
patrol encounters. Morton's American division came into line
here for the first time in 1918, prior to taking part in the decisive
battles in that year on the Mouse.
Operations in the Sundgau in front of Belfort. The headquar-
ters of the syth Div. had been transferred to Dannemarie on
Sept. 18 1914. When this transfer had been completed, the
offensive reconnaissances of the Belfort garrison were pursued
with renewed vigour; they were even pushed as far as Altkirch
and Waldighoffen, and their advance facilitated the occupation
by outposts of the passages of the Largue between St. Ulrich and
Seppois and the garrisoning of Pfetterhouse by custom-house
officers from Chavannate. Toward the end of Sept. the organiza-
tion of the Belfort garrison was unexpectedly changed by the
departure of the active brigade which the Governor was ordered
to despatch to the Meuse within 24 hours, and by the demands
on its magazines made by the generalissimo in order-to increase
the reserves of the armies in the field. Batteries of 155 mm.
short guns were formed from the artillery in the fortress; the
stocks of 75 mm. ammunition were almost entirely depleted, and
the loss of the active troops was not completely compensated for
by the insufficiently trained territorial battalions which took
their place, though the numbers in cither case were about equal.
As against this the Germans in the Sundgau were receiving im-
portant reinforcements; and the French reconnaissances, in the
Course of their daily encounters, met with an ever-increasing
resistance. In view of these circumstances the Governor of
Belfort mads a careful calculation of his forces, and toward the
end of Oct. proceeded to redistribute the troops which he consid-
ered could bs allotted to the defence of the forward positions,
leaving in the fortress only the minimum consistent with safety.
According to these arrangements the 57th Div. remained
between Guvenhattcn and Strueth as the centre, and, so to
speak, the spinal cord of the new disposition. A northern group,
equivalent in strength to a mixed brigade, held the interval
between Guvenhatten and the Doller on its left, while a similar
group was established on its right to occupy the front from Strueth
to Pfetterhouse. The infantry of these two groups consisted only
of territorial battalions, and the artillery of a few 75 mm. guns
borrowed from the 5/th Div., and some 90 mm. batteries formed
from the reserve artillery of the fortress. All units were ordered
to fortify their positions and to cover their fronts by means of
heavy and medium calibre batteries borrowed from Belfort.
Two divisions of French reservists and territorials were thus
in close contact with the enemy on a front of 20 m. a line which
would have been far too thin but for the fact that its flanks rested
to the frontier and on the mountains, and its rear on Belfort.
But the main strength of the dispositions lay in the fact that
Belfort remained, for all the troops drawn from the garrison and
operating in front of the forts, a centre of command which unified
all their efforts, and a point of support which could sustain or
receive them in case of need.
The new distribution of the French forces in the Sundgau
marked the opening of a period of activity which was employed
in consolidating the ground held, in rectifying the line, and
carrying out small and methodical advances as far as the in-
creasing hostile resistance permitted, until the limit of expansion
permissible and the limited forces available was reached. The
northern group first strengthened its position at Thann, estab-
lishing its heavy artillery on the heights of Roderen, and then
established itself solidly on the left bank of the Soultzbach. It
then swiftly assumed the offensive on Nov. 7 ; by the joth it had
pushed forward beyond Michelbach and thus rendered it im-
possible for the enemy to pursue his attacks against Thann,
which was now in a pronounced re-entrant and could hencefor-
ward only be bombarded. On Dec. 2 Aspach-le-Haut fell to the
combined efforts of the troops from Thann and those from
Belfort, but the northern group was held up before Aspach-le-Bas
and the Kalberg, which the Germans had converted into a
regular fortress. It therefore turned its attention to the right
bank of the Doller, occupied Pont d'Aspach station, penetrated
on two separate occasions into Burnhaupt-le-Haut, but without
being able to remain there, and finally established its right early
in Jan. 1915 at the S.E. angle of Langelittenhag wood.
Meanwhile, in a series of successful operations, the 57th Div.
had occupied Hecken, Falkwiller, Gildwiller, and penetrated into
Buchwald and Keibacker woods. The advance of the northern
group to Langelittenhag secured the division's left, and shortly
after its front was firmly established on the eastern edge of the
forest between the Soultzbach and the Spcchbach. Beyond this
forest lay the village of Ammertzwiller, which was strongly
fortified and held; an attempt to storm it on Jan. 25 1915 failed
owing to want of effective artillery support and lack of munitions,
.and was not repeated, and in front of Dannemarie, the villages of
Balschwiller, Ueberkummen and Eglingen were taken and the
57th Div.'s front was pushed forward to the far bank of the
Rhine-Rhone canal.
On the right of the 5-th Div. the southern group, which was at
first almost completely isolated, also set to work to gain ground
by small partial offensives; the infantry advanced by slow de-
grees, consolidating the ground gained at each stage, and thus
gradually succeeded in settling and straightening the general line
of the front. On the extreme right it was pushed forward to the
middle trench of the Largue, below Largin mill. At the same time
the position of Pfetterhouse was put in a state of defence, and a
155 mm. battery was placed in position on the slopes S. of the
village for counter-battery work against the hostile artillery near
Mornach. In front of Seppois the occupation of the Largue valley
was completed by the capture of the Entre-Largues salient,
which encroached on the heights of Biscl, and further to the N.
the southern group's outposts occupied a line in front of and more
or less parallel to the Seppois-le-Bas-Largitzen road.
North of Largitzcn the line of advanced posts was at first
drawn in rear of a group of lakes in the middle of Hirtzbach wood.
Later, when the southern group was reinforced, infiltration
northward became possible, and the front was pushed forward to
the eastern edges of the communal forests facing Carspach and
Hirtzbach. Then on Jan. 25 1915, while the 57th Div. attacked
Ammertzwiller, the southern group cooperated by advancing S.
of the canal, the hostile positions were overrun and our troops
crossed the Aspach road, but the check to the 57th Div. leaving
them in a salient, they had to be withdrawn, having effected only
a small permanent advance in Carspach wood. The action of
Jan. 25 1915 was the last effort made to carry out an advance in
the Sundgau. The outpost line of the Belfort garrison had then
been advanced to a front from N. to S. along the edge of the
Brickerwald in front of Michelbach, thence by Pont d'Aspach
station, the S.E. corner of the Langelittenhag, the eastern edges
of the Buchwald and of Gildwiller wood, Eglingen, the salients
of Carspach wood and the communal forests, the crest of the
slopes between Seppois and Bisel, the Entre-Largues and Largin
mill. To the N. this outpost line joined with that in the Petit
Doller, in front of Thann; to the S. it rested on a tongue of
Swiss territory known as the Bcc-du-Canard, between the Ban-
holtz and Courtavon wood.
The Belfort garrison had employed the offensive-defensive
method to the utmost possible limits in carrying on operations
for five months, despite the constant depletion of its forces and
munitions by the High Command, and in establishing itself
firmly between the Petit Doller and the upper Largue; its re-
sources in men, artillery and ammunition were too small to allow
of more being done. The objects laid down by the governor in
the dark hour at the end of 1914 had, moreover, been practically
achieved. The fortress had been made strong enough to inspire
a salutary fear in the Germans; the gap was barred and the
barrier had been pushed far enough forward to secure Belfort
against possible bombardment, save from the ineffective bombs
of raiding hostile aircraft. Finally the Belfort troops had set foot
as conquerors on the soil of Alsace that soil whose inhabitants
had twice been rendered desperate by the French retirements;
they had re-established the prestige of their country at little cost
in blood, and had had the honour of restoring to France a portion
of her beloved lost provinces.
938
VOYSEY
From Jan. 1915 onwards, only patrol actions, exchanges of
rifle fire and intermittent bombardments either of the trench lines
or of the billets and communications in rear, disturbed the calm
of the upper Alsatian front. Belfort was shelled from long range
but remained inviolate. The front itself underwent no change,
and in the hour of victory in Nov. 1918 it was still as the garrison
of Belfort had made it at the end of 1914, close on four years
before. For all that time the pivot on which rested the right
flank of the Allied armies had remained firm, and these armies
had been able to carry on their operations with no fear for their
communications, while the centre of France, secured against
attack, had been able to turn all its resources towards winning
the war. (F. T.)
VOYSEY, CHARLES (1828-1912), English theistic preacher, was
born in London March 18 1828. Educated at Stockwell grammar
school and St. Edmund Hall, Oxford, he was ordained in the
Church of England and held various curacies up to 1860, when
he became curate of St. Mark's, Whitechapel. Thence he was
ejected fqr heterodox doctrine, and went to St. Mark's, Victoria
Docks, and later to Healaugh, near Tadcaster, where he was
first curate and then vicar. But in 1869 he was summoned before
the chancery court of the diocese of York for heterodox teaching,
and deprived of his living. He appealed to the privy council, but
the decision was upheld. He then established a theistic church
in London, where he continued to preach and teach up to the
time of his death. He died at Hampstead July 20 1912.
WAGES
939
WAGES. In the following article, which should be read
in connexion with those on COST OF LIVING and PRICES,
the changes in wages during 1900-20 are considered.
United Kingdom. In the movement of wages in
recent years it is specially important to distinguish between rates
' of wages and earnings. Rates of wages are time-rates, sums
1 payable for work in a definite time (hour, week consisting of a
j recognized number of hours and, rarely, a longer period) or piece-
rates (sums payable for the performance of a definite task, or
' as additions to or in combination with time-rates, when the rate
depends both on the quantity produced and the time taken in
I producing it). Earnings are the sums actually received by an
employee, generally computed for a week or a year; the term is
I used specifically when the amount received on piece-rates is in
I question, and is also used to include payments for overtime in
: the case of time-workers. Time-rates are generally stated for
| the normal week or if the rate is an hourly one, as in the build-
ing trades, both for the hour and for the normal week; to get a
comparable statement for piece-rates it is necessary to compute
', the average earnings of a number of men who worked normal
[ hours. In modern times a statement of time-rates generally re-
[ lates to rates agreed to by associations of employers and em-
j ployees or umpired by the Government; these are frequently
j minimum rates and the relation between minimum rates and the
average of those actually paid to a group of work-people can
I only be ascertained by special inquiries, such as those undertaken
by the Board of Trade in 1886 and 1906.- The assumption has to
be made that between such inquiries average rates have kept the
| same proportion to minimum rates, which is only true over a
I short period and in the absence of disturbing causes. For piece
I payments the assumption that earnings move by the same per-
( centage as the rates can never yield more than an approximation
to the facts, and during the war such an assumption would be
I completely invalid even if reference was only made to earnings in
I a normal week, since there were very important changes in facil-
| ities for production, in the effort put into the work and in the
nature of the work. In the absence of any general information
| about earnings, statistics in the war period must be confined to
j statements of time and piece-rates, which do not give a true pic-
I ture of the economic position of the working class in that time;
! in 1920, however, industry was more nearly normal and overtime
j was relatively uncommon, so that a comparison of rates in 1920
I and 1914 is not altogether misleading. In making such a com-
parison the general reduction of hours in 1918 and 1919 must
be borne in mind; generally at the dates of reduction piece-rates
and hourly rates were raised so as to give approximately the same
earnings for the reduced as for the longer week, and weekly rates
were the same before and after the reduction, but in some in-
dustries an increase for the week was arranged at the same time.
Table i shows the general movement from 1890 to 1914.
The first column, computed from the XVII. Abstract of Labour
Statistics, gives the average of a number of changes of time and of
piece-rates. The second and third columns depend on additional
data (see Bowley, Elementary Manual of Statistics, 1920, and
Wood, Statistical Journal, 1909, p. 103, and 1912-3, p. 220), and
give the computed averages based on the numbers in various
occupations at the different dates, thus allowing for the relative
increase of numbers in the better-paid industries. These figures
should be taken in conjunction with the change in retail prices
I (see COST OF LIVING); the rise in wages from 1902 to 1913 was
neutralized by the falling value of money.
Average annual earnings, allowing for unemployment and
overtime, for all wage-earners in the United Kingdom (excluding
shop assistants), men, women, boys and girls, are estimated at 51
in 1913 (Change in Distribution of National Income, Bowley, 1920,
p. 13); average family earnings were probably between 95 and
100 annually. For full week's work the average earnings of a
were about 313., for a woman 143., for a boy us. 6d., and for a
girl 8 shillings. There were very few changes between 1913 and
the outbreak of the war.
Table I. Estimates of money earnings of all wages earners in the
United Kingdom (expressed as percentages of their level in 1913).
Not allowing for
changes in rela-
tive numbers
Labour
Abstract
Allowing for changes in rela-
tive numbers
Bowley
Wood
1890
86
83
83
I
87
84
83
2
86
84
83
3
86
84
83
4
85
84
83
5
84
84
83
6
85
84
83
7
86
85
85
8
89
88
85
9
91
90
88
1900
95
95
91
i
94
94
91
2
93
92
90
3
92
91
90
4
92
90
90
5
92
90
89
.6
94
92
93
7
97
97
97
8
96
95
95
9
95
94
94
1910
95
95
95
i
95
96
2
98
99
3
TOO
IOO
The dates and amounts of increase of rates of wages in the
period 1914-20 may be illustrated by the records in a number of
selected industries. The summary in Table 2 is taken from
Bowley's Prices and Wages in the United Kingdom, 1914-1920
(1921), pp. 105-6.
Table 2. Estimate of movements of time-rates (for normal week)
and of piece-rates in the United Kingdom, 191420.
(Average rates expressed as percentages of those in 1914).
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
I92O
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
Bricklayers
IOO
103
1 08
123
1 60
1 88
228
Bricklayers' labourers
IOO
103
"3
133
1 80
225
284
Printers (compositors)
IOO
IOO
105
I2O
'57
196
246
Railwaymen
IOO
no
I2O
155
195
225
280
Dock labourers
IOO
IOI
130
15
193
209
266
Cotton operatives
IOO
105
no
no
157
202
205
Woollen and worsted
operatives
IOO
"5
126
144
164
196
239
Engineering artisans
IOO
no
in
134
173
199
231
Engineering lab&urers
IOO
. .
. .
154
213
255
39
Shipbuilding:
Platers' time-rates
IOO
. .
130
169
193
223
Coal-mining
IOO
113
129
136
187
224
260
Aug.
May
Agriculture:
?54
Aug.
England and Wales
IOO
112
189
226
277
General rough aver-
age of percentages
IOO
105
"5
135
i/5
2IO
255
to
to
to '
110
I2O
260
The increases in the first two years of the war often took the
form of a weekly war-bonus of the same amount for artisans and
labourers (in some cases greater for the latter) to meet the rise of
food prices (see COST OF LIVING and PRICKS). In 1917 the usual
method of changing miners' wages by percentage was replaced
also by flat increases of 2s. or 33. a shift to all underground workers,
and no percentage increase was given till March 1920. In en-
gineering and other trades in which munition work formed an
important part an addition of i2i% to time-workers and 7!% to
piece-workers reckoned on weekly earnings was awarded in
940
WAGES
1917-8, but all time-rates (artisans and labourers) in engineering
had been raised 75. weekly before this award, and after it subse-
quent increases were a flat weekly rate for time-workers and piece-
workers alike. Before the war certain proportions had been
established, by the working of economic forces modified by
collective bargaining, between the earnings (whether time or
piece) in various occupations and industries; the effect of these
uniform increments was to modify these proportions very consid-
erably. Some of the results are evident from Table 2 (p. 939)
and can be studied also in the subsequent tables. In the six years
building and engineering and dock labourers' wages had increased
by a markedly greater percentage than those of building or
engineering artisans or of compositors. In 1914 the bricklayer's
labourer's wage was two-thirds of the bricklayer's, in 1920 it was
nearly nine-tenths. To some extent the result was due to a defi-
nite effort to raise the standard of living of the lowest-paid
workers; the minimum rates fixed by the Trade Boards were in
1920 generally three times those in 1914; agricultural wages in
Dorset were raised from about 145. to 465. but in Yorks from
about 2 is. to only 495. No such tendency, however, is observable
in the cotton industry, where the old method of percentage
changes has been maintained; in the woollen industries perccn-
I tage changes are still the rule, but increments are not given on
the amount by which any pre-war earnings exceeded 30 shillings.
In the reductions made in the early part of 1921 there was an
expressed desire on the part of the workers that decreases should
i be uniform for all grades; reductions on this basis tend to restore
the pre-war proportions.
Most wage arrangements from 1917 to 1921 were dominated
by the increase and subsequent decrease in the cost of living.
The woollen industry was the first to arrange changes by a defi-
nite formula relating them to the official index number of that
cost (Sept. 1919). The railway agreement of Jan. 1920 included
a similar formula, and some other industries have followed the
same plan. Generally the increase on wages is somewhat less
by the formulae than if the percentage changes of the index
number were applied to the whole of standard wages, e.g. the
railwayman gets only is. when the index number rises 5% of its
1914 level, which would only be sufficient if his standard wage
was 255. or under, if the official index truly measured the cost of
living; a fall in prices is therefore to the advantage of persons
whose wages are thus determined.
Besides the movement already described there has been a
tendency to remove local and occupational differences in wages
by levelling up lower rates to higher. As a result of the Transport
Workers' Inquiry (1920) the rates in all ports were raised to 8s.
for the four hours half -day, whatever the previous amounts, and
some differential payments for special work were abolished.
In successive awards of minimum wages in agriculture the
county minima show less deviation. In 1917 the increases since
1914 in all engineering wages were levelled up to 75. whatever
the previous advances, but this award and subsequent national
flat increases do not include all increases; nominally the rates in
Jan. 1920 were pre-war time-rates + 73. to make permanent time-
rates, + 263. 6d. war wage, + 125% on earnings. Actually the
average of 120 districts for ironfounders shows an increase of 8s.
8d. in permanent time-rates and that of 189 districts for turners
an increase of 95. 2d. ; these increases in the averages arise from
the fact that in the districts where wages were much below the
average in 1914 the increases were 125. or more, and throughout
the list it is seen that the lower the wage the greater the increase.
In the printing trade before the war wage changes were made by
local bargaining, but in May 1919 the districts in England and
Wales were arranged in six groups and the London district, and
the standard rates were fixed at 775. 6d. (minimum time-rate,
compositors, jobbing) in London, 753. in Liverpool and Man-
chester, and 35. less in successive groups till in the lowest it was
60 shillings. Subsequent wage changes have been flat national
increases, amounting by June 1920 to 173. 6d. Prior to the grad-
ing there was considerable variation within each group. In other
industries, also, there has been a tendency to standardize wages
in groups of localities and to make changes nationally. The
movement is partly connected with a desire to establish a national
minimum and to raise the wage of the worst paid, and partly to
avoid competition from low-paid districts and a consequent
cutting of rates. It is doubtful how far the pre-war rates were
differentiated by economic causes, the local demand for the prod-
ucts of the industry, the possibility of family earnings because
of the presence of other trades, the relative cost of food and rent,
and how far by accident and custom. It is certain that where
real wages were specially high the most skilled workmen were to
be found. The partial removal of these differences must have
wide-reaching effects on local distribution of industry, whatever
their cause. Also the change in the proportion of wages of differ-
ent grades, discussed in the previous paragraphs, must tend to
diminish the supply of skilled labour.
The rates expressed by the percentages in the preceding tables
are all for the normal week. After the Armistice English work-
men were at first more anxious to secure better conditions of work
than higher wages, especially as it was not then anticipated that
prices would rise further. In 1918 and 1919 an 8-hour day was
generally adopted. More correctly this should be described as a
48-hour week in many industries; e.g. in textile factories 48 hours
are distributed between Monday to Friday and Saturday morn-
ing, whereas in building and dock labour overtime is payable
after eight hours on any day and there is a Saturday half-holiday;
the normal week is 44 hours. In mines, hours per shift were
reduced from eight to seven, and, if 1 1 shifts are worked in a
fortnight, weekly hours from 44 to 38 J. In many industries work
is done in two spells instead of three in a day, work before
breakfast being abolished; this tends to diminish lost time, but
in other cases the time lost in starting and stopping is taken out
of a shorter day and is relatively more important. There are no
sufficient figures to show what has been the net effect on output,
but if output per hour of nominal work has neither increased nor
diminished, and there are no compensating factors, wage-cost per
unit output rose in the six years 1914 to 1920 not in the rates 100
to 255 or 260 as in Table 2, but ibo to 280 or 290, since weekly
hours have diminished more than 10%.
In the following paragraphs details of wage changes are shown
for a number of industries, in illustration of the general move-
ments now outlined.
Time-rates. In Table 3 illustrative figures are given. London
builders' summer hours were reduced from 50 to 44 weekly be-
tween July 1919 and July 1920. Leeds and Birmingham turners'
hours were reduced from 53 to 47 and Manchester printers.' from
50 to 48 between July 1918 and July 1920. London dockers'
daily hours were reduced from 10 to 8 between July 1918 and
July 1919. No other changes of hours took place in the period.
Turners' rates are typical of artisans in the engineering trades.
Table .?. Illustrative standard time-rates of wages.
July
1909
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
London
Leeds Birming-
ham
Manches-
ter
Port of
London
Brick-
Brick- layer's
layer labourer
Turner
Printer
(composi-
tor)
Docker
Hourly rates
lo^d. 7d.
iijd. 8d.
li|d. 8d.
I2'<1. gd.
I3fd. lod.
I 5 id.' Hid.'
2id. I7d.
28d. 25d.
Weekly rates
345. 373.
373. 383.
403. 403.
4 is. 433.
493. 513.
573." 593.'
OSS. Txl. 1 673. 6d.'
763. 6d.' 783. 6<l '
Weekly
rates
363. 6d.
383. 6d.
383. 6d.
403. 6d.
503.
703.
75s.
923. 6d.
Daily
rates
Ss-
53. lod.
6s. 4d.
6s. lod.
73. lod.
I os. 6d.
us. 8d.
1 6s.
1 In these cases I2j% was added to the weekly earnings, whether
they were as here stated for normal hours or increased by overtime.
Thus the bricklayer's effective rate in July 1918 was iS-gd. per hour.
Building. The general movement of builders' wages in (he
United Kingdom is shown in Table 4 (XVII. Abstract of Labour
Statistics, Cd. 7733, p. 66; Labour Gazette, May 1919, p. 172, Aoril
1920, p. 170, and Feb. 1921, p. 62). The increase from 1909 to
the end of 1913 was 4-4%- The lesser percentage for weekly
than for hourly rates, shown in Table 4, is due to the reduction
WAGES
Table 4. Average of rates in a large number of towns.
941
Bricklayers
Painters
Builders' Labourers
Hourly
Weekly
Hourly
Weekly
Hourly
Weekly
Amount
Per-
cent-
age
Amount
Per-
cent-
age
Amount
Per-
cent-
age
Amount
Per-
cent-
age
Amount
Per-
cent-
age
Amount
Per-
cent-
age
1 1914 Aug. 4
1919 April 30 ....
1 1920 Feb. 29
I 1920 Dec. 31
9-9d.
i8-6d.
22-od.
27\Sd.
IOO
1 88
223
278
403. yd.
8 3 s.' 7 d.
loos.iod.
IOO
206
248
8-8d.
i7-9d.
2i-sd.
27-id.
IOO
203
244
308
363. 3d.
8is. sd.
qgs. ^d.
IOO
224
274
6-sd.
i4-9d.
I8. 5 d.
23-8d.
IOO
229
284
365
26s.nd.
70s. 3d.
873. 3d.
IOO
261
_324
of hours. It will be seen that nearly the same number of pence
per hour was added in each occupation; and consequently the
percentage increase is the greater the lower the initial wage.
Engineering. Similar figures are given in Table 5 for engineers.
The increase from 1909 to the end of 1913 was 3-6%. During
1915 increases of 35. or 45. were given to the majority of artisans
and labourers in the engineering trades on time-rates, and 7i%
or 10% on piece-rates and in 1916 a similar increase on time but
not on piece. In April 1917 permanent time-rates 75. (in some
tases 8s.) and piece-rates only 10% above the pre-war level were
arranged for both artisans and labourers, merging the former
increments. War bonuses were subsequently granted as follows:
April 1917 53., Aug. 1917 33., Jan. 1918 53., Aug. 1918 33. 6d.,
pec. 1918 55., Dec. 1919 55., March 1920 and May 1920 each 33.
and 7!% on piece-rates.
Table 5. Average of weekly time-rates (including bonuses) in a
large number of towns.
Turners
Moulders
Labourers
Amount
Per-
cent-
aee
Amount
Per-
cent-
age
Amount
Per-
cent-
age
19 14 Aug. 4
1919 April 30
1920 Feb. 29
1920 Dec. 31
3s. ird.
~6s. lod.
82s. sd.
8os . 2d.
IOO
197
212
220
415. 8<l.
793. loci.
853. 6d.
92s. 3d.
IOO
192
206
221
22S. lOd.
58s. 3d.
633. i id.
703. 4d.
IOO
255
280
3"4
In addition to these increases, aggregating 393. 6d. for time-
workers and 25% for piece-workers, an addition of I2j% on
weekly earnings was granted to skilled munition time-workers in
Oct. 1917, and a similar 7J% to piece-workers in Jan. 1918. This
new increase was extended during the early part of 1918 to
unskilled munition workers, to all engineers, to builders first on
munition work and then to all, to iron and steel manufacturers,
and to a number of allied trades.
By June 1920 a turner's wage for a normal week of 343. in 1914,
had increased to at least 733. 6d.+i2j% = 82s. 8Jd. Alabourer's
wage had increased from 225. to 693. 2jd.
Hours in engineering were generally reduced in Jan. 1919 from
S3 or 54 to a uniform 48 weekly.
The increases awarded to piece-workers were less than those to
time-workers because the former were during the war able to
work with greater facility and to make a great amount of over-
time. The earnings of time-workers were also greater during the
war; that is indicated by the above rates for normal hours.
Railways. Earnings of all workmen employed by railways
averaged 253. 4id. in a selected week in Dec. 1909, and 255. iod.,
'263. 8Jd., 273. 4jd., 273. nd. in successive Decembers; the increase
from 1909 to 1913 is 10% (XVII. Abstract of Labour Statistics,
p. 66). The average for a normal week, however, when overtime
earnings are omitted, and men employed in railway workshops
are excluded, is estimated at only 263. 6d. at the end of 1913.
A flat increase was given to all grades in Feb. 1915 of 33. to
men earning less than 303., 23. to those earning more. In Oct.
1915 this was raised to 53. for all, in Sept. 1916 to IDS., in April
1917 to 153., in Nov. 1917 to 2is., in April 1918 to 253., and in
Nov. 1918 to 333.; at the last-named date the average wage for
the normal week was about 595. 6d.
In Aug. 1919 for drivers and firemen, and in Jan. 1920 for
other grades, new standard rates were established at about 385.
above the pre-war level, and at the same time wages of the worse-
paid grades and districts were levelled up. In Jan. 1920 a sliding
scale of wages was introduced by which all wages were to rise or
fall is. weekly for every five points that the cost-oMiving index
number rose or fell above its level in Dec. 1919 (125% above the
pre-war level), but wages were not to fall below certain levels well
above those of 1914. In addition to these changes a general
increase was granted in June 1920 varying from 2S. to 73. 6d. or
8s. 6d. and perhaps averaging 43. 6d. Under the cost-of-living scale
wages were raised 35. in April, 23. in July, 2s. in Oct. 1920 and is.
in Jan. 1921 and reduced 43. in April 1921.
In 1919 the week was reduced to 48 hours, beyond which
overtime rates were payable (see Labour Gazette, Oct. 1919,
p. 416, and June 1920, p. 290).
Agriculture. In England and Wales the average cash weekly
wages of ordinary agricultural labourers were estimated in 1907
at 143. gd., earnings (including piece payments, etc.) at i6s. 8d.,
and allowances in kind (including low rent) at iod., making
173. 6d. in all (Cd. 5460). Cash wages rose about 3^% by the
end of 1913 according to one estimate (XVTI. Abstract of La-
bour Statistics, p. 66) which gives 153. 3d., but are computed at
155. iod. (with allowances at is.) in the estimates quoted in the
Report of the Committee to Inquire into the Cost of Living of Rural
Workers (Cmd. 76, p. 23, 57 sea.) ; in this report estimates are also
given for 1918. By April 1915 average cash wages had risen to
i/s. iod. and by Aug. 1917 to 223. 3d. (Laboiir Gazette June 1915,
p. 200 and July 1917, p. 239). In Aug. 1917 a minimum rate
of 255. (to include the estimated value of allowance) was estab-
lished by Parliament; in the summer of 1918 minimum rates were
established for each County ranging from 303. to 365.; in May
1919 the range became 363. 6d. to 423.; in May 1920 a further
increase was given, especially large in the lower-paid counties,
making the range 423. to 483., and in Aug. 1920 they were further
raised by 43. (in two counties 45. 6d.), making the range 463. to
523.: the lower rate applied to 35 out of 32 counties, and 523. was
paid in Cheshire alone, where the recognized hours were 54. In
the fixing of minimum wages the hours of work corresponding to
them are defined and overtime rates are payable for additional
hours; in June 1919 the summer week was 54 and the winter 48
hours, and in Oct. 1919 summer hours were reduced to 48.
Piece-Rates Cotton. In the cotton trade no alteration was
made in the method of arranging wage changes during the war.
The wages of the great majority of operatives are paid by piece-
rates, which are fixed in relation to standard lists, and changes are
made by adding a general percentage to all rates depending on
the standard. In recent years local differences have been merged
and piece-rates in Lanes, and Cheshire move in accordance with
percentage changes either in the preparing and spinning Bolton
or Oldham lists or with the Blackburn and uniform weaving
lists. Table 6 shows the changes from 1909 to 1921. Changes
took place only at the dates shown till after April 1921. In July
1919 the weekly hours were reduced from 55! to 48, and piece-
rates were raised in the ratio 215:245 (= 48: 54-7) to compensate.
If the hourly output had been exactly maintained, the increase
above the standard would have been 1725% in May 1920.
Earnings, however, depend not only on piece-rates but also on
the number of hours and efficiency of work, and are affected by
modifications of machinery and in management. The Labour
Gazette gives monthly statistics of earnings from which it can be
judged that (after an acute depression at the beginning of the war)
they rose more rapidly than piece-rates in 1916 and 1917. Sub-
sequent movements are indicated by Table 7 (Bowley, p. 179).*
1 These are the earnings of all persons employed by certain firms
and are affected to some extent by changes during the war.
942
WAGES
Earnings increased as rapidly as rates in 1919 and the first half
of 1920, after which there was a depression in trade.
Table 6. Piece-rates of cotton operatives. (Percentages of
recognized standards.)
Preparing &
Spinning.
Weaving.
1909
1912
1915 June
ig;_6 Jan
105
no
no
115
IOO
105
105
no
no
1917 Jan
Feb
lulv .
"5
125
125
"5
"5
125
Dec
140
1918 June
Dec
1919 July
1920 May
165
215
245
.V5
Table 7. Piece-rates.
Piece-
rates
Earn-
ings
IOO
IOO-
133
142
157
143
Aug
1919 Tan
157
205
205
156
215
211
July
233
2H
220
228
1920 April
May
June
233
300
3OO
239
310
302
Wool and Worsted. In these industries the organization of
wages and their changes is less standardized than in the cotton
industry, and a much larger proportion of operatives are paid by
time. Between 1909 and 1914 we have to depend on employers'
statements to the Board of Trade (Labour Gazette, monthly) of
average earnings, and from these it appears that earnings in-
creased in the ratio 93 to 100 in these five years, whether owing
to changes of rates or to better trade.
During the war earnings advanced very rapidly owing to the
great demand for woollen goods, and the following figures relate
to time-rates for the normal week or to piece-rates.
The most complete statement for the first three years of the
war relates to the Huddersfield district. Here weekly bonuses
were given to all workers (whether on time- or piece-rates) in
rough proportion to their pre-war earnings, as follows: April 1915
6d. to 2s., Jan. 1916 6d., April 1916 is. to 23., Oct. 1916 is. to
as.; in Jan. 1917 the bonuses were increased especially to those
with the highest earnings and the aggregates since July 1914
were 35. 6d. to all earning los. weekly or less before the war, 53. to
those earning between ids. and 155., 6s. 6d. to women earning
over 155. and to men earning 155. to 205., and los. to men earning
over 20 shillings.
In June 1917 a common system was arranged for most of the
districts and occupations in the Yorkshire woollen and worsted
industries. Instead of the war bonuses 50% was added to the
time-rates customary before the war and this was increased
successively to 60% in Oct. 1917, 72!% in March 1918, 8iJ%in
Aug. 1918, 104! % in Nov. 1918 and 107% in Feb. 1919; after
March 1918 the percentage was only given on 303. if the basic
rates exceeded this sum. Male piece-workers were given igths
and female piece-workers |5ths of these sums, the percentages
being based not on piece-rates but on pre-war earnings. In
the spring or summer of 1919 an additional 10% was added to the
basic rates. From Sept. 1919 the increases were related to the
cost-of-living index number, and the addition moved upwards 10 %
on the original basic rates for every complete 10 points added to
the cost-of-living number, these increments were at first not
applied to the 10% added in 1919, nor to the excess of basic wages
over 305., and consequently rates moved rather less rapidly than
the cost of living as officially measured. In Dec. 1920 the " cost-
of-living" wage was 175% of the basic rate, and owing to other
changes the whole increment (to operatives where pre-war earn-
ings were under 305.) reached 216% for time-workers, 181% for
male piece-workers and 190% for female piece-workers.
Hours were reduced in March 1919 from 55? to 48 weekly, and
in compensation piece-rates were increased 15% in addition
to the increments already described, while weekly time-rates
remained unchanged.
Coal-Mines. The majority of men working in or at coal-mines
in the United Kingdom are paid piece-rates, which used to be
increased or lowered by agreed percentages in the various dis-
tricts at frequent intervals, subject to a minimum day's payment
for underground workers. The percentage levels reached in
the principal districts from 1909 to 1917 are shown in Table 8.
Table 8. Piece-rates in coal-mines (expressed as percentages of
their amount) in July 1914.
-o
.1
c
+J
Si
l2
tfi
a
1
Q
J
o
r>
i
"S
j2
o
a
3
H
03
J3
1
o
j=
c
|
<u
IM
Q
^
o
3
o
c
Q
u.
1
1
CJ
o
End of 1909 .
86
92
91
8 9
86
90
1910 .
87
91
91
91
86
90
1911
84
88
91
90
86
89
1912 . .
92
93
94
95
97
94
July 1914 .
IOO
IOO
IOO
IOO
IOO
IOO
1915
109
107
nsf
in
118
"3
1916 .
141
I2O
132
136
129
Feb. 1917
'47
132
132!
146
136
136
In Sept. 1917 the adjustment by percentages in the different
districts was given up, and, the mines being controlled by the
Government, uniform movements over the whole country were
arranged. In Sept. 1917 and also in June 1918 uniform increases
of is. 6d. per day or shift were granted to all men, and a further
increase of 2s. in Jan. 1919 resulted from the reports of the
Coal Industry Commission. Evidence to this Commission
showed that the average of all workers before the war was 6s. 6d.
per shift and in Nov. 1918 as a result of the percentages increases
and the bonuses of 33. was 123. 6d. In July 1919 the maximum
time of a shift was reduced from eight to seven hours, piece-
rates being increased to compensate for the shorter time. In
March 1920 an increase of 20% on the wages paid before Sept.
1917 was added, bringing the average to nearly i~s. a shift; in
Oct. 1920 after a strike further increases in proportion to any
increase in output were arranged; in the early months of 1921 the
demand for export coal fell off, and when control was removed on
April i the miners refused to work at the lower rates offered.
Iron and Steel Manufacture. Wages in these industries are
generally related by a sliding scale to the selling price of the
product. The movements in different districts have been so
divergent that it is not possible to give a summary account of
their results, but the following figures are illustrative.
In Cleveland (Yorks) ironstone mining, on Aug. 1917 piece-
rates had risen 60% over those of July 1914; from that date to
April 1920 the same additions were made as in coal-mining.
In Cleveland and Durham pig-iron manufacture, blast-furnace
operators' wages were in successive Julys, 1915 to 1919, respec-
tively 8, 31, 44, 57, and 92% above July 1914, and in Oct. 1919
108% above. In Nov. 1919 a new percentage basis was changed.
In addition a bonus of 50!. per shift was added in Feb. 1915 and
raised to tod. in April 1917, and a war wage of is. 6d. per shift
was added in Aug. 1918.
In Northumberland, Durham, and Cleveland iron manufac-
ture, iron millmen's rates were in Julys, 1915 to 1920, respectively
7^> 5) 67J, 82!, 1475, and 187 J% above those of July 1914; some
bonuses were granted but merged in subsequent increases.
Minimum Wage under the Trade Boards Acts. Under the
Trade Boards Act of 1909 minimum wages were established in
the following industries. Chairmaking (1910), lace finishing
WAGES
943
(1911), paper box making (1912), tailoring (1912), confectionery
(1915), shirtmaking (1915), tin box manufacture (1915), hollow
ware (1916). Under a subsequent Act of 1918 new powers were
given to the Ministry of Labour, and a number of other indus-
tries in which the organization of the workers was imperfect
and the wages low were included in the scope of the Acts.
The Acts are not confined to women's wages only, but affect
numbers of men in tailoring and other industries.
The hourly rates fixed in 1912-6 for women varied from 2jd.
to 3id., the lowest in 1914 being zfd. The rates rose gradually
during the war, but in many cases, owing to the higher earnings
possible to women in munitions and other work, more than the
minimum rates were in fact paid. More considerable increases
took place in 1919 and 1920, and by the end of 1920 8|d. or gd.
was the common rate. A normal week, usually 48 hours, has been
fixed, after which higher overtime rates are payable. Piece-rates
arc fixed so as to give an average worker more than the minimum
time-rate.
Wages in other Countries. Apart from the United States, there
are very few authentic computations of the general movement of
wages or earnings during the war. Sporadic statements of
wages in particular industries exist, but they are of little use
when a general view is desired. So- far as the information goes it
indicates that wages in the neutral and Allied countries followed
much the same course as in the United Kingdom. The nominal
weekly rates increased later than prices in 1914-8 and gained
rapidly (in spite of reduction of hours) in 1919-20, till at the be-
ginning of the depression in the autumn of 1920 it was doubtful
whether wages expressed in commodities were higher or lower
than in 1914.
The following paragraphs summarize the available statistics.
For their relation to prices see COST OF LIVING.
Nonvay. Up to the summer of 1918 wages as a whole appear to
have increased about 90% since 1914. For April 1919 we have de-
tailed statements such as follow, which indicate a general increase
of 160 to 180 %. Wage rates are compared with those in 1914 taken as
loo. Bricklayers, urban 254, rural 271 ; carpenters, urban 282, rural
279; bricklayers' labourers, urban 291; excavators, urban 301, rural
281; urban painters 281, bakers 288, shoemakers 309, tailors 244,
carters 282, dressmakers 238, laundry workers 229; agricultural
labourers (not provided with food and lodging) 279 ; State employees,
railway guards, etc., 276, gangers and pointsmen 264, head engine
drivers 231, assistants 261, postmen 258. By new collective agree-
ments in April and May 1919 hourly earnings in factories were
increased till in July 1919 they are stated at 341 (1914 = 100), but
weekly hours were reduced from 55^ to 48. Unskilled labourers' rates
are stated as 388 in Nov. 1919.
Finally an employers' association estimated that in May 1920
skilled adults' hourly wages were 382 in export industries, 398 in
other industries, 349 in handicrafts, and for women generally 407, as
compared with too in 1914.
Denmark. Hourly wages generally: 1914, 100; 1918, second
quarter 170, third quarter 200; 1919, first quarter 224, second 257,
third 338, fourth 352; 1920, first quarter 358, second 376, third 398.
During 1919 daily hours were reduced till they were generally 8 in
1920 as compared with 10 in 1914. In 1919 (third quarter) hourly
wages on the same basis were for male workers, skilled 330, unskilled
366, and for women 353. In April 1920 collective agreements made
future changes proportional to the cost of living.
Greece. The Minister of National Economy (Greece) gives the
figures shown in Table 9 for Athens as corresponding closely with
those for other parts of Greece.
Table Q. Wages in Greece.
Drachmas
Daily wage-earners:
1914
1920
Dockers ....
3-50 to 4
30 to 40
Bricklayers
4 to 4-75
18 to 20
Carpenters
4 to 7
18 to 25
Painters ....
5 to 6-50
20 to 25
Smiths ....
4 to 6
15 to 20
Printers ....
3
171025
Turners ....
3-80 to 6-50
8 to 15
Boiler-makers .
3-50 to 6-50
12 to 15
Fitters ....
2-50 to 6-50
6 to 16
Tailors ....
6 to 7
25
Miners ....
3 to 5
5 to 10
Monthly wage-earners:
Corn mill workers .
100 to 140
305 to 420
Textile operatives .
180 to 200
720 to 820
Germany. It is estimated that earnings including overtime had
increased 34% in industries generally between March 1914 and
Sept. 1916, while hourly rates had probably increased 25%. In
Sept. 1918 the average daily wage of male adults is stated as 12-46
marks and of women 6-01 marks, compared with 5-17 and 2-28 marks
in March 1914 (241 and 264 if the earlier wages are taken as 100).
The Federal Statistical Office gives weekly earnings for male adults as
35 marks for the year ending July 1914; if this is taken as loo subse-
quent figures are Aug. 1919 286, Feb. 1920 486, Nov. 1920 686.
Factory inspectors at the end of 1919 reported a tendency to approxi-
mation between wages of unskilled and skilled workers.
Austria. The Austrian Trade Union Commission reported that in
Oct. 1920 men's wages (in currency) were from 22 to 27^ times the
rates in July 1914 and women's 20 to 25 times.
New Zealand. The Official Year Book for 1919 contains an elab-
orate analysis of the minimum wages payable from 1901 to 1919 in
26 occupations. Wages do not necessarily move exactly with their
minima, but in unskilled trades they are in fact generally the rates
paid. The results are shown in Table 10, the level in 1911 being taken
as 1000 in each occupation.
Table 10. New Zealand. Minimum hourly rates.
General
Skilled
occupations
Semi-
skilled
occupations
Unskilled
occupations
average
(weighted in
proportion
to the num-
bers in oc-
cupations )
1901
929
915
940
932
1905
964
939
955
954
1910
992
991
IOOI
996
1912
1009
1006
1004
1006
1913
1024
1067
1025
1036
1914
1073
1078
IIO2
1087
1915
1073
1086
III3
1094
1916
1095
1147
H93
1152
1917
1124
1188
1250
I2OO
1918
1208
1247
1297
1258
1919
1352
1439
1451
1418
The occupations included are bakers, boiler-makers, bookbinders,
paper- makers, bootmakers (male), bricklayers, builders' labourers,
butchers, carpenters, coach-builders, coal-miners, drivers (horse),
engineers, fell-mongers, flour millers, freezing works employees, fur-
niture makers, grocers' assistants, iron and brass moulders, painters,
plasterers, plumbers, seamen, slaughtermen, tailoresses, waterside
workers, and woollen mill operatives (male). The Year Book for
1920 (p. 279) gives statistics for average wages in all but the small-
est factories and workshops (Table n).
Table n. New Zealand. Average annual wages.
Males
Females
Amount
Percentage
Amount
Percentage
1900-1
1905-6
1910-1
1915-6
1918-9
81-9
88-5
115-1
133-5
159-4
71
77
TOO
116
139
3i-3
41-9
50-6
56-7
68-8
62
83
IOO
112
136
Australia. The Official Year Book for 1920 contains two state-
ments relating to recent movements of wages from which Tables 12
and 13 are compiled. About 240,000 males and 80,000 females of
all ages are included in the returns.
Table 12. Australia. Average annual payment per~employee.
Males
Females
Amount
Percentage
Amount
Percentage
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
123-3
126-9
128-0
133-7
143-5
146-1
97
too
IOI
105
113
115
^47-7
49-5
50-2
50-8
54-5
58-4
97
IOO
IOI
103
no
118
Table 13. Australia. Average weekly wages in industries.
Adult Males
i
Adult Females
Rate
Percentage
Rate
Percentage
1914 April
1914 Dec.
lyiS
1916
1917
1918
1919
s. d.
55 2
55 7
56 6
60 8
64 2
66 5
74 II
IOO
IOI
1 02
no
116
120
136
s. d.
27 2
27 5
27 4
28 5
30 5
31 9
j57 i
IOO
IOI
IOI
105
112
117
137
(A. L. Bo.)
944
WAGES
United Slates. That a large proportion of unskilled workers
in the United States was paid wages, even in 1921, far too low
for decent self-support is a fact confirmed by many wage investi-
gations and well known even to those only slightly familiar with
industrial conditions. Before the era of unprecedentedly high
prices caused by the World War, it was the consensus of expert
opinion that a weekly wage of $8, or more, was necessary under
urban conditions for the maintenance of a self-supporting woman
in simple decency and working efficiency, and that a man with a
wife and three children needed $15 to $20 weekly. Yet a study
made in 1914 of women's wages in the United States led to the
conclusion that 75% of female wage-earners received less than
$8 weekly, 50% less than $6 and 15% less than $4; and that the
incomes from these wages were further reduced approximately
20% through lost time and unemployment. The pay of un-
skilled male workers was at a correspondingly low level. Frank
H. Streightoff, in his discussion of American standards of living,
estimated that at least 6,000,000 adult males, married as well
as single, received less than $600 a year, or $12 a week. More
intensive investigations bore out these figures. The U.S.
Immigration Commission in 1907-10 studied many typical
households of both native- and foreign-born, in 16 industries,
and found that more than half the male heads of families earned
less than $500 a year, and nearly two-thirds less than $600. The
New York State Factory Investigating Commission examined
the pay-rolls of over 2,000 stores and factories during the
autumn, winter and spring of 1913-4, a year which may be
regarded as normal, and found that of 57,000 women and girls,
approximately 34,000, or 60%, earned less than $8 in a typical
week. Of 14,000 married men, 7,000 earned less than $15. The
causes of these low wages were: the lack of strong labour or-
ganizations and collective bargaining among this group of wage-
earners; the belief of unskilled women wage-earners that their
work was temporary;- and the competition of married women
who were only partially self-supporting; also a failure on the
part of employers to recognize a relation between wages and
productivity. In the United States, until the outbreak of the
World War, the situation was further complicated by the stream
of immigration, which furnished an abundant supply of cheap
labour and provided still another barrier, in the shape of diver-
gent language and customs, in the way of union organization.
During the war the wage level was appreciably raised, but
owing to the great rise in prices that accompanied the change
it is doubtful whether real wages were materially increased,
except perhaps in a few war industries and in certain occupations
covered by especially liberal Government wage awards. The aver-
age rate of wages failed to keep pace with the rising cost of living.
Between Nov. 1918 and Jan. 1919 a study by the New York
Industrial Commission of the earnings of 32,000 women in the
same industries which had been covered by the Factory Investiga-
ting Commission in 1913-4 indicated that 60% of those in fac-
tories and 61 % of those in stores received less than $14 a week,
the equivalent of $8 in 1913. The average weekly wage of both
sexes in many representative New York factories was $24.83 in
Sept. 1919, while in eight large industries for which data were
collected by the National Industrial Conference Board, the
average weekly wage for male workers was $24.24 in Sept. 1918
and $23.37 in March 1919. In the skilled trades the effect of
trade unionism was to increase wage rates: union minimum rates
as provided in agreements with employers rose above the 1913
rate 99% for hourly rates and 89% for full-time weekly rates,
exclusive of overtime, paid for at an increased rate.
The demand for increased wages has been the most frequent
cause of strikes since 1915, as was to be expected in a time of
steadily advancing living costs. Many of the strikes or threatened
strikes were settled by Government agency. Considerations
which influenced the arbiters were: the concept of a minimum
living wage; increases in the cost of living; the desire for stand-
ardization, both within a given industry and in a given terri-
tory; increase in productive efficiency; and the effect of overtime
work in increasing weekly wages. The National 'War Labor
Board created a Cost of Living Section associated with the
Bureau of Labor Statistics. The minimum requirement for an
average American family of five members was found to be, for
New York City, in June 1918, $1,350 to $1,400; in Dec. 1918,
$1,500. Therefore, if the eight-hour day were observed, 55-60
cents an hour would be the lowest which might properly be
received by the breadwinner. It was, however, expected that
overtime would be worked, and lower rates were set, 40-45
cents an hour.
Before the war there were inequalities in wage rates in different
parts of the country and between union and non-union workers;
the tendency of war-time adjustments was to establish standards.
But the rates of pay of the unskilled rose more rapidly than
those of the skilled. Wages of unorganized common labourers
increased 100 to 200%. These men had formerly been paid less
than enough to maintain an " American standard of living."
During the war there was such a demand for their services that
wages rose as employers bid against each other. In certain cases
the Government agencies fixed arbitrary standards to prevent a
flow of labour back and forth between localities and between
establishments. There were great differences in wage increases
gained by skilled workers. The least increases were in the build-
ing trades, which before the war had been among the best-paid
employments; but men engaged in shipbuilding received in-
creases greater than the average for the trade. The U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics estimated that the cost of the working-class
standard of living doubled between 1913 and 1920. The cost of
food increased 118%, as calculated from the prices of 22 food
articles reported to the Bureau. The accompanying table shows
the increase per cent for both cost of living and wages. This wage
index is computed by the present writer on the studies of wages
in 12 important industries, made by the U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics. The index number computed is a simple, unweighted,
arithmetical average of average full-time wages, with 1913 used
as a basis. Increases in the trades studied were as follows: bakery
trades, 1913 $18.14, I9 2 $41-28; boot and shoe, 1913 $17. 28^
i920$29-32; building trades, 1913 $24.33, *92 $44-i8; cotton
manufacturing, 1913 $10.17, 192 $29.05; iron and steel, 1913
$28.47, 1920 $68.84; metal trades, 1913 $21.62, 1920 $42.37;
mill work, 1913 $14.48, 1920 $41.19; printing, 1913 $19.56, 1920
$35.89; silk manufacturing, 1913 $12.39, 1919 $21.99; woollen,
1913 $10.14, 19 20 $35-i8; farm labour, without board, 1913 $7.58,
1920 $16.24; railroads, 1913 $21.94, Jan. 1920 $25.91.
Cost of Living
Wages ,
1913
1914
1915
1916
IOI7
100
103-0
107-4
II3-3
140-5
loo
100-2
103-3
H7-5
J 34'4
1918
1919
1920
165-8
190-2
208-2
157-5
185-5
206-4
The increase of the cost of living was in advance of the in-
crease of wages for the whole period from 1913 through 1919,
except possibly during 1916. The discrepancy was greatest in
1918. The purchasing power of wages, measured by the cost
of food, fell more in 1917 than in any year since 1890. The drop
was one of 17-7% in the purchasing power of 1913. From the
middle of 1008 to the middle of 1921 the purchasing power of
wages continued to be less than in the period 1890-1907. The
purchasing power of wages (" real wages ") was greatest in 1896
and in 1900. Total " real income," however, was not necessarily
greatest in these two years, due to changes in the volume of
employment. It appears that the prices of labour are influenced
by the changes in business conditions, but to a less degree than
the prices of commodities. In general, the average wage declined
after 1893, recovered in 1896, and dropped again for the years
1897 and 1808. In 1899 the wage began to advance, halted in
1904, and dropped slightly after 1007; beginning with 1909 the
upward course was resumed, with a slight drop in 1914. This
upward movement continued to 1920, and was especially rapid
after 1916. In the various industries there were differences in
the degree of the movement of wages. The fluctuations in the
WAGE-SYSTEM IN INDUSTRY
945
iron and steel industry were numerous, as were also those in silk
and cotton manufacturing. On the other hand, changes in the
bakery and building trades were less noticeable. However, no
industry escaped a reduction in wages after 1893, and none
failed to register a large advance after 1916.
From 1914 to 1918 the purchasing power of hourly wages
seems to have decreased considerably. But, due to steadiness of
employment and to the overtime worked, actual weekly earnings
may have increased. In 1919 and the early part of 1920 wages
and wage rates rose more rapidly than the cost of living. The
conservative and carefully compiled budget for 1918, drawn up
by the Philadelphia Bureau of Municipal Research, specified
$1,637 as necessary to support a family of five in the " mini-
mum standard of health and comfort." This standard is lower
than the " standard of health and decency " adopted by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics. Cost of living is no higher, and may
be lower, in Philadelphia than in other industrial centres. The
Philadelphia budget in Nov. 1919 required $1,803 and in Aug.
1920 $1,988. If the increase was distributed evenly throughout
the nine months, the average wage in manufacture was insuffi-
cient to support this standard. The deficiency in the case of
textiles was between $450 and $570; in boots and shoes and paper
manufacturing and in printing, more than $400; and in furniture
manufacturing, more than $700. By 1920 the situation was better;
although only in one industry studied, the manufacture of rubber
goods, was the average full-time yearly income able to support
[the standard. If retail prices of food are taken as an index of
living costs, union hourly real wage rates in 1918 were 20% lower
than the average for 1890-9, and full-time real union weekly
earnings probably 25% lower, due to the decrease in the number
of hours worked. Allowance must be made for the fact that food
prices rise more rapidly than cost of living as a whole, and for
ithe fact that the figures here refer to union scales of wages, which
often represent the minimum wage actually paid. The total
(income of most workers increased during the war period, due to
isteady employment; to the overtime work, usually at increased
rate of pay; and to the fact that the war called into industry
Imore members of the family than are ordinarily wage-earning.
It is necessary to call attention to the fact that unemployment
thas never been taken into consideration in computing " real
iwages." Until a coefficient of unemployment has been found,
no chart of " real wages " will be able to show the actual state
of well-being of the wage-earning class. The average retail price
oljfood in 1920 was 103% higher than in 1913. During 1920 it
continued to rise; the highest point reached was 119% higher
than in 1913, in June and July 1920. After that the prices fell
and reached a point in April 1921 52% greater than in 1913.
According to the philosophy of employers, as living costs fall,
wage rates also should fall. However, by April 1921 earnings
had already decreased owing to the decrease in available employ-
ment. It is not agreed that the 1913 standard of living was
adequate: workers who have .emerged from the "minimum of
subsistence " level are loth to return to an acceptance of insuffi-
cient purchasing power.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported changes in rates of
5 between July i 1920 and March 31 1921. The total num-
l;ri of changes reported was 2,714, of which 1,689, nearly two-
lliinls, were increases. Two-thirds of the increases in the three
ths of 1921 were in the printing and publishing industry.
largest number of decreases were in the textile industry.
The largest number of decreases reported were in Jan. 1921, the
largest number of increases in July, Aug. and Sept. of 1920. The
most frequent cut in wage rates was between 10 and 20%; 30%
also was reported in a large number of cases. It must be re-
. membercd that per capita earnings decreased still further, due to
the decrease in the volume of employment. Under the agree-
ment between employers and union in the men's clothing industry
in Chicago, wages were reduced in April 1921 5% for those who
had received a 5 % increase in 1919 and 10% for all others, except
that no wages were to be reduced below $15 for the full-time
week. In the same month the board of referees in the ladies'
garment industry in Cleveland ordered the restoration of the
July 1919 wage scale, with some exceptions. The reasons given
were, first that the cost of living had not continued to rise as had
been expected but had fallen, and, second, the serious business
depression. To secure the workers continuity of income, the
employer was ordered by the award to retain the satisfactory
worker 20 weeks in each half-year or to pay an unemployment
benefit of two-thirds the weekly wage, the employer's liability
to be limited to 7!% of his direct labour cost for the guaranteed
period. In July 1921 the U.S. Railway Labor Board, after
hearings, ordered a 12% reduction in wa.ges on 102 railways.
Babson's Statistical Organization -reported the total earnings
of employees in the manufacturing establishments in New York
State in July 1921 as the smallest since May 1919. According
to this study, wages reached a peak in Dec. 1918 at 120% greater
than in June 1914, and again in Sept. 1919 at 129%, from which
they rose to the highest peak in March and June 1920 with 177%.
By April 1921 they had fallen to 95 % greater than in June 1914.
REFERENCES. The most comprehensive studies of wages in the
United States are those made by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,
and published in special bulletins and in the Monthly Labor Review.
Wages of farm labourers are reported to the Department of Agricul-
ture. Wages of railway employees are published by the Interstate
Commerce Commission. See generally Alexander M. Bing, War Time
Strikes and their Adjustment (1921) ; David Friday, Profits, Wages and
Prices (1920) ; Frank H. Streightoff, Distribution of Incomes in the
United States (1912); National Industrial Conference Board Re-
search Reports, 20, 31. Also the following articles: I. M. Rubinpw
" The Recent Trend of Real Wages," American Economic Review
(vol. iv., Dec. 1914) ; F. W. Jones, " Real Wages in Recent Years "
(ibid., vol. vii., June 1917); C. E. Persons, " Woman's Work and
Wages in the United States," The Quarterly Journal of Economics
(Feb. 1915)- (J. R. Co.)
WAGE-SYSTEM IN INDUSTRY. The normal systems of
payment for the work of persons employed in industry under
the capitalist system are wage-payment and salary-payment.
It is not easy to draw an absolute line of distinction between
these two forms of payment. Wages are usually paid weekly,
and salaries over a longer period monthly, or quarterly, for
example. There are, however, cases of weekly salaries, and of
wages paid monthly. Moreover, a good many of the supervisory
grades in various industries are paid what is called an " upstand-
ing wage," which in many of its conditions approximates rather
to the salary basis of payment than to the wage as ordinarily
understood. Usually the salary-earner possesses a higher status
and a slightly greater measure of security than the wage-earner.
Wages arc, as a rule, paid only for hours actually worked, sub-
ject-to the conditions mentioned below, and any period of illness
or suspension of work for any cause, whether under the worker's
control or not, involves a cessation of the payment of wages.
Salary-earners, on the other hand, are in many cases paid during
periods of sickness, and are usually paid for a full week, or month,
even if some spells Of enforced absence from work or failure of
work due to some other cause are included. There are, however,
very many intermediate varieties between the continuous salary
paid throughout the whole year, and the wage paid only for hours'
actually worked. The salary-earner, it should be remarked, is
usually entitled to a longer period of notice, from a month up-
ward, than the wage-earner, who can usually be dismissed or sus-
pended on a week's notice or less. The period adopted as a basis
for the calculation of wages differs from trade to trade, and even
from district to district or factory to factory within the same trade.
In some cases the basis is hourly, in others a weekly rate of wages
is laid down. In either case, there may be, but in the majority of
cases is not, what is termed the " guaranteed week," that is, a
guaranteed minimum weekly payment, irrespective of the num-
ber of hours of employment which the employed person is actually
able to secure. In certain other cases, notably that of the dockers,
there is the " guaranteed day," but not the " guaranteed week."
The demand for greater measure of security than is afforded by
hourly payment, without any guarantee of the week or the day,
has increased, and a number of trades have secured concessions
giving them guarantees of one sort or another.
Broadly speaking, the methods of remunerating the wage-
earner under the wage-system can be divided into two main
946
WAGE-SYSTEM IN INDUSTRY
groups: (i) time-payments, and (2) " payment by results,"
although there are many intermediate varieties, and disputes
often arise on the question whether a particular system is or is
not to be regarded as " payment by results."
(1) Under the time-work (or " day-work ") system, the work-
er's remuneration varies with the time which he actually spends
on the employer's business. Thus, carpenters and joiners in
certain districts in the building industry in Great Britain have a
time-rate of 2s. an hour, and the majority of grades on the rail-
ways have time-rates varying from 655. per week upward. These
time-rates are practically always fixed in relation to a definite
number of hours in the week, and if a larger number of hours has
to be worked, the hours in excess of the standard week are
termed overtime, and are usually remunerated on a slightly
higher hourly rate " time and a quarter," " time and a third,"
" time and a half " or " double time," for example. Extra pay-
ment is also frequently made for work done during the week-end
or at night (" night-shift "). The time-work system operates
throughout a large number of trades, including the greater part
of the building industry and the railway and road transport
services, and almost the whole range of non-manual employment.
In many other industries it is found side by side with various
systems of " payment by results." In almost every time-work
industry there are some piece-workers; and in almost every
piece-work industry some time-workers. A particularly ob-
noxious form of time-work is that known as " task-work,"
under which the worker is required to perform a definite amount
of labour in return for a time wage, but receives no additional
remuneration for higher output. This is strongly opposed by
trade unions and does not prevail at all in organized industries
in Great Britain.
(2) Under the term " payment by results " are comprehended
many different methods of wage payment, the common factor
among them being that, to a greater or Jess extent, the worker's
earnings under them vary with the amount of output which he,
either individually, or in conjunction with a group of his fellow-
workers, is able to produce. The amount of work produced may
not be the sole factor determining his remuneration under a
system of "payment by results"; for such systems are very
frequently, and in the organized trades usually, accompanied by
guaranteed minimum or standard time-rates, which the worker
is entitled to receive irrespective of the actual output which he
produces. Strongly organized trade unions in many industries
have consented to accept " payment by results " only on the
condition that the standard time-rates of wages shall be guaran-
teed irrespective of output (e.g. engineering).
The simplest form of " payment by results " is that known
as " piece-work." Under this system, a price is fixed for each
unit of the commodity upon the production of which the worker
is engaged, e.g. if the worker is turning out screws, a price will
be fixed per hundred, or per gross of screws, this price being
calculated, in theory at least, according to the time which is
estimated to be necessary for the performance of the operation
in question. Sometimes, as in the " time logs " in the tailoring
trade, the piece-work price is expressed not in terms of money,
but in terms of hours, and the worker is paid for so many hours
at the standard rate, irrespective of the time actually occupied
on the job. " Straight " piece-work systems vary very much in
complexity. Where the operations are simple, and the character
of the goods produced uniform, piece-work prices can be laid
down with almost mathematical accuracy; but as soon as pro-
vision has to be made for a wide range of different products
complications almost inevitably arise. These complications are
of two kinds. The cotton industry in Great Britain is almost
entirely a piece-work industry; but, despite the immense variety
in the types of cotton goods produced and the variation in the
times required for the spinning and weaving of different types of
goods, piece-work rates can be devised to correspond with prac-
tically mathematical accuracy to the time required for the job
because of the high degree of standardization at which the
industry has arrived. The piece-work lists agreed to by the
weaving trade unions and the cotton manufacturers are immensely
complicated, and only skilled technicians are able to understand
them. The universal acceptance of piece-work in the cotton
industry is mainly accounted for by the fact that, under the
system which has been adopted, a given amount of effort can be
approximately relied upon under normal conditions to produce
equivalent earnings.
This is much more difficult to secure in such an industry as
engineering, where the products are far less uniform and where
also the machinery which the worker is called upon to manipu-
late is far less standardized, so that it may take very different
times to do the same job on two different machines. The fixing
of piece-work prices in the engineering industry in Great Britain
is thereiore a constant source of friction, and it has been found
impossible to express, in any tables corresponding to the cotton
piece-work lists, the fair remuneration for most forms of work on
engineering products. Piece-work prices in the engineering in-
dustry are a constant subject of workshop and trade-union
bargaining, and there is a strong resistance in many sections of
the industry to the introduction of piece-work, largely because
there is not, as in the cotton industry, any simple method of
arriving at a fair price, and the system thus produces constant
allegations of " speeding up " and " price-cutting " on the one
side, and of " speeding down " and " restriction of output " on
the other. Where, owing to special circumstances, it is regarded
as impossible to fix in advance a piece-work price for a particular
job, the worker, especially in the engineering and shipbuilding
industries, is sometimes paid what is called a " lieu rate," e.g.
" time and a third " or " time and a half " for the hours actually
occupied on the job in lieu of a fixed piece-work price.
The other main system of payment by results is the system of
" bonus on output." Under this system the worker is normally
paid a time-rate irrespective of output; but, if the output exceeds
a given minimum, an additional bonus, calculated upon this
excess output, is paid. There are literally hundreds of different
methods of calculating this bonus. The system to which the
greatest attention has been attracted in recent years, both in
Great Britain and in America, is the " premium bonus system "
in its various forms, of which the two best-known are the " Hal-
sey " and the " Rowan " premium bonus systems. Under both
these systems, a " basis time " is fixed for the accomplishment
of the piece of work in question. If the work is done in less than
the basis time, the workman is paid, over and above his time-
rate of wages, which is guaranteed, a bonus, proportionate in one
way or another to the time saved. The effect of this method of
payment is that, under both the Halscy and the Rowan system,
the labour cost of the job to the employer falls with every in-
crease in output, while at the same time the earnings of the
workman increase, but not in proportion to the increase in
output. The simpler of the two best-known premium bonus
systems is the " Halsey " system, so called after its inventor Mr.
F. A. Halsey, an American efficiency engineer. Under this
system, the workman is paid a fraction, usually either a third or a
half, of his time-rate for time saved. Thus supposing the time
allowed for an operation is 12 hours, and a worker, whose time-
rate is a shilling an hour, docs it in 9 hours, he will be paid at his
time-rate for the 9 hours, and in addition will receive payment
for a further hour or for an hour and a half, according to the par-;
ticular variety of the system adopted.
The Rowan system is more complicated. The simplest way
of explaining it is to say that for every 10% that is saved on the
time allowed, the workman receives a 10% increase in earnings.
The more complicated way is to quote the quite unnecessarily
abstruse formula which is usually adopted by those who desire
to explain the system. This formula is as follows:
Time saved
Bonus = .rr 7 X Time taken.
Time allowed
There are all manner of modifications of these two systems,
in the direction both of greater simplicity and in that of greater
complexity. The advocates of " scientific management " have
been especially active in devising fresh variations in the method of
payment, intended to stimulate the workers' productive efficiency
WAGE-SYSTEM IN INDUSTRY
947
in the fullest degree. Efficiency engineers often contend that it is
necessary to work out a different formula for each type of opera-
tion in order to apply in each case precisely the right stimulus to
increased output. Most of these systems are based in one way or
another on the premium bonus system in one or other of its two
forms, or on the so-called "differential piece-rate" system
advocated by Mr. F. W. Taylor, the founder of " scientific
management." Under this system, two different piece-rates are
fixed for the same job, and at the same time a standard output
per hour is laid down. When the worker reaches or exceeds the
standard output he is paid on the higher piece-rate; when he falls-
below the standard of output he is paid on the lower piece-rate.
Day-work rates are not guaranteed. The object of this system
is stated to be the elimination from the job of the less efficient
worker by discouraging him with the offer of a lower piece-work
price. It is impossible to attempt to chronicle the many different
bonus and piece-work systems which have been put forward in
Great Britain and America. The Ministry of Munitions in
England, during the World War, accumulated a list of many
hundreds of different systems which were actually in operation
in the British engineering shops alone. It is particularly in the
engineering and kindred industries that this wide diversity of
forms of wage-payment exists.
It should be noted that both the piece-work system and the
various bonus systems and adaptations of them can be operated
cither on an individual or on a collective basis. Under the
individual system a single worker is remunerated in accordance
with his individual output. Under the collective system a group
of workers is treated as a unit, and the piece-work price or bonus
is paid in respect of the output of the whole group. Collective
systems are most often found where the work itself necessarily
involves collaboration, and where it is therefore difficult or
impossible to separate the individual contribution of the workers
engaged upon it (e.g. " squad " or " gang " work). It has, how-
ever, been applied also in a large number of cases over a consid-
erably wider area in the form of an output bonus paid on the
work of a whole shop or factory. In these cases, bonus is some-
limes paid only to workers directly engaged on production; but
in other cases auxiliary workers, such as foremen, millwrights,
maintenance workers, and even workers on the staff, may share
in the pool. Many such systems were adopted in shell factories
Jin various countries during the war.
A variety of collective " payment by results " is that which is
known as the " fellowship " system. Under this system, the
workers themselves form groups on a voluntary basis, and share
out among themselves, either through the office of the firm, or
fcy a subsequent re-division of the sums paid through the office,
their collective earnings. This system usually operates among
"fellowships" of skilled workers in a particular craft or in
closely related crafts.
There are many different ways of sharing out the payment
made under collective systems of " payment by results." The
most usual method is that each worker included in the group
shares in the payment in proportion to his time-rate and to the
hours worked on the job. Sometimes, however, the pool, or any
urplus over the time-rates of the workers concerned, is equally
shared, and sometimes regard is paid only to one or other of the
two factors mentioned above. In a few cases a specially large
share in the pool is offered as an inducement to a leading worker,
ar to a few leading workers; but the system in this form approaches
the system of " sub-contracting," which is universally objected
to by the trade-union movement.
" Sub-contracting " is usually understood to mean a system
under which one worker undertakes a piece of work which re-
quires the coordinated labour of a group of workers. The sub-
contractor receives the whole sum paid for the execution of the
job, making, subject to any limitations that may be laid down
in his contract, his own wage contract with the workers under
liim, and retaining any surplus for himself. Often a sub-con-
tractor, himself paid " by results," remunerates the workers
under him on a time-work basis. It is generally recognized that
the sub-contracting system is open to grave abuse, and with the
advance of trade-union organization it has been gradually
eliminated from industry, surviving only in a comparatively small
number of cases. The outstanding instances of it in the past
have been the " butty " system in the mining industry, which
still exists in one or two British coalfields, and the methods of
payment which used to be adopted in many sections of the iron
and steel industry.
Distinct from both the piece-work system and the various
bonus systems is the system of " commission," which is applied
in a certain number of occupations. Under this system the worker
receives a commission on " takings " or on profits either as his
sole mode of remuneration, or as an addition to a minimum wage
or salary. This is the position of most workers in the insurance
business, and of a number of managerial and semi-managerial
workers in the distributive trades. It is also found occasionally
in other occupations.
The attitude of employers and workers towards these various
systems of wage-payment differs widely from case to case.
Recently, attention has been mainly concentrated on the
endeavours of employers to introduce systems of " payment by
results ". into industries in which time-work systems are at
present largely in operation, e.g. building, engineering, ship-
building. Usually these attempts have met with strong trade-
union opposition. It must not, however, be concluded that
employers are universally favourable or trade unions universally
opposed to " payment by results." The position differs from
industry to industry. In the textile industries, and in a number of
the less-organized occupations, " payment by results " has been
introduced and maintained not merely with the acquiescence,
but often at the instance of the workers, who have seen in it an
opportunity of securing higher earnings. At the other extreme,
the worst forms of " sweating " in industry are very frequently
found in conjunction with the time-work system of payment.
In the past, trade unions have usually favoured, or at least not
opposed, " payment by results " in those industries in which a
standard of measurement can be found of such a character as to
insure that, under normal conditions, a given amount of effort
expended will result in a given amount of output,, and therefore
of earnings under the system. On the other hand, the unions
have generally been opposed to the introduction of " payment
by results " in those industries in which no such standard can be
laid down, as well as in other cases where it has been contended
that " speeding up," consequent upon the inducement offered
for higher output, would have the effect of impairing the quality of
the work done (e.g. building). Where " payment by results "
has been accepted in industries of this latter type, a struggle has
often followed over the question whether the right of the or-
ganized workers to bargain collectively over the fixing of piece-
work prices or " basis times " shall or shall not be recognized.
This struggle is still in progress over a wide range of industries;
but the fixing of piece-work prices and " basis times " is still
normally done by the employer or his representative, subject
only to protest by the workers or their representatives.
It should be noted that the growth of " scientific management "
has given a great impetus to the introduction of " payment by
results," and has also considerably affected the methods adopted
by employers in fixing piece-work prices or " basis times." In
the great majority of factories, other than textile factories, in
which systems of payment by results are in operation, piece-
work prices are still fixed in a very haphazard fashion, and modi-
fied from time to time in accordance with actual experience of
their working. But, where one feature or another of " scientific
management " has been introduced, experiments have been
made designed to introduce a greater scientific accuracy into the
fixing of prices and times. The methods which have been in-
troduced with this object are mainly those of " time study " and
" motion study." " Time study " means an attempt, by actual
observation of the doing of a particular job, either by a selected
worker or in a number of selected cases, to fix the time which
ought to be occupied in the doing of it by a normal worker.
" Motion study " means the observation of the doing of a job
with a view to eliminating all surplus motions, arid to the laying
948
WAGNER WALLACE
down in detail of the method by which it can be done with the
maximum of efficiency and in the least possible time. The former
method has been adopted by a number of firms in Great Britain,
the latter in comparatively few cases. Both are largely in opera-
tion in America. " Time study " and " motion study " are
usually resented by the workers employed, and are regarded as
devices adopted by the employer with a view to " speeding
up." It is also contended that both, and especially " motion
study," result in making work more monotonous and in taking
such variety of initiative as remains to the worker under modern
factory conditions out of his hands and in concentrating control
in the hands of a small body of expert rate-fixers, or " time-
study " and " motion-study " experts.
Where piece-work or bonus systems are in operation, friction
is very likely to arise because there is a constant suspicion on the
part of the workers that the employer is endeavouring to " cut "
piece-work prices and to " speed up " the slower workers to the
pace of the more rapid. Employers, on the other hand, allege
that workers deliberately slow down with a view to forcing up
piece-work prices. It is impossible to estimate the relative pro-
ductivity of workers under time-work systems and under systems
of " payment by results "; but it may be taken as certain that no
system of " payment by results " which has yet been devised has
succeeded in eliminating friction or the possibility of "price-
cutting " on the one hand, and " restriction of output " with a
view to securing higher prices on the other. Perhaps the nearest
approach to the elimination of these two factors is in the cotton
industry; but the comparatively smooth working of the piece-
work system in this case is mainly due to the peculiar stand-
ardized character both of the product and of the machinery.
The cotton " price-list " system cannot readily be adapted for
use in the majority of industries.
REFERENCES. There are only two books (jiving a general survey
of the various wage systems. These are (l) Methods of Industrial
Remuneration by D. K. Schoss (Williams and Norgate), which was
written a good many years ago, and is now in many respects out of
date, and (2) The Payment of Wages by G. D. H. Cole, which is the
most recent study. See also, for conditions in England, Industrial
Democracy by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, and The Works Manager
To-day by Sidney Webb. There is an immense literature dealing
with scientific management in relation to " payment by results."
Reference may be made especially to Scientific Management and
Labour by R. F. Hoxie; Scientific Management by C. B. Thomson;
Scientific Management by F. W. Taylor; Scientific Management by
H. B. Drury; Efficiency and other works by Harrington Emerson;
Work, Wages and Profit by H. L. Gant; and A Rational Wages
System by H. Atkinson. For premium bonus systems, see The Pre-
mium System of Paying Wages, published by The Engineer; The
Rowan Premium Bonus System by W. Rowan Thompson ; and The
Premium Bonus System, Report of an Enquiry, published by the
British Trades Union Congress. A great deal of information will
also be found in the following reports issued by the Board of Trade:
" Report on Collective Agreements " (1910) and " Report on
Standard Piece-Rates." Unfortunately, however, no new or revised
editions of these have been issued since some years before the \var.
See also the Final Report of the Commission on Industrial Relations,
published by the U.S. Government in 1915. (G. D. H. C.)
WAGNER, ADOLF (1835-191 7), Germaneconomist(iee28.23S*),
died in 1917.
WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823-1913), British biologist,
(see 28.275), died at Broadstone, Dorset, Nov. 7 1913. In 1910 he
received the O.M. Among his latest publications were The
World and Life (1910) and Social Environment and Moral Prog-
ress (1912).
WALLACE, SIR DONALD MACKENZIE (1841-1919), British
author and journalist, was born Nov. n 1841, the son of Robert
Wallace of Boghead, Dumbartonshire. He was educated at the
universities of Edinburgh, Berlin and Heidelberg and at the
Ecole de Droit, Paris. Even in his Edinburgh days he spent his
vacations abroad and became proficient in modern languages,
and when he completed his legal studies at Heidelberg he was
already 28 years of age and was contemplating a career as a
German professor in comparative law. He was, however,
invited by a friend to visit Russia, and became so much interested
that he remained there for-six years. His 'Russia (1877), a volume
dealing comprehensively with the country, had a great success,
and was at once recognized as a classic; it was translated into
many languages and was revised and reissued by its author both
in 1905 and 1912. Shortly after its first appearance Mackenzie
Wallace became correspondent of The Times in Petrograd; in
1878 he was moved in a similar capacity to Berlin, thence to
Constantinople, and after the battle of Tel-el-Kebir (1882) to
Egypt. From 1884-9 he was in India as private secretary to the
Viceroy, Lord Duffcrin, and to his successor, Lord Lansdowne.
He accompanied the Tsarevich Nicholas during his Indian tour
1890-1 and the Duke of Cornwall (afterwards George V.) during
his colonial tour in 1901. From 1891-9 he was director of the
foreign department of The Times. In 1899 he undertook the
editorship of the New Volumes (issued in 1902 as the zoth
edition) of the Encyclopedia Britannica, which had been pro-
jected by The Times as a supplement to the gth edition, with
Dr. A. T. Hadley, then president of Yale University, as his
American co-editor; but he felt somewhat overpowered by his
task, and after April 1900, when Mr. Hugh Chisholm was
brought in by The Times to assist his labours, Sir Donald left
the editorial work in the sole charge of his younger colleague.
He was made by Edward VII., with whom (as with Queen
Victoria) he had long been on confidential terms, one of his
official household, and was also included in that of George V.
He had been created K.C.I.E. in 1887, and was made K.C.V.O.
in 1901. In addition to his book on Russia he published Egypt
and the Egyptian Question (1883) and The Web of Empire (1902).
He died at Lymington Jan. 10 1919. A thorough diplomat of
wide culture and personal charm, and one of the most remarkable
linguists (speaking some twenty languages) and raconteurs of
his time, he was also one of the most modest and unselfish of
men. He was probably better informed than any other man of
his day in the secret history of international politics, but he was
also discretion personified in using his knowledge. One of his
last important pieces of work for The Times was in 1905 at the
Peace of Portsmouth (N.H., U.S.A.), which he attended as its
correspondent, and he was able there to give valuable advice,
in carrying the negotiations to a successful issue, to the Russian
delegates, with whom he exercised considerable authority.
WALLACE, WILLIAM (1860- ), British musical composer,
was born at Greenock July 3 1860, the son of a doctor in good
practice. He was educated at Fcttes College and Glasgow
University, where, with the view of entering the medical pro-
fession, he graduated M.B. in 1885 and M.D. in 1888. He
afterwards specialized in ophthalmology, studying at the Munr-
fields eye hospital, and also at Paris and Vienna. His inn .:<]
education was partly received at the Royal Academy of Music,
but he remained there for less than a year, and was largely self-
taught. His orchestral works include The Passing of BI-.
(1892); The Creation, a Symphony (1809); Pcllcas and Mdr
(1900); and the symphonic poems, Wallace (1905) and I
(1009). He also published some fine songs and collection
songs (often to his own words), including Freebooter Songs (i^^l
and Lords of the Sea (1902) and Three Songs of Blake. Ife \v;i
a period secretary of the Philharmonic Society. In additi.
being a connoisseur of art in most forms, Wallace publ:
several literary works of distinction. Of these The. Dhini
render was a mystery play; his books on musical history
theory, The Threshold of Music (1908) and The Musical F<i<
its origin and processes (1914), are both important in their
Also he translated the operatic texts of Strauss's /'Y;r< <
Berlioz's Faust, Le Chemineau, Muquctle and the poems of many
songs by Sibelius and Weingartner. At one time he edite<!
New Quarterly Musical Review, and he was a frequent contri!
to various magazines. During the World War he entered^^M
R.A.M.C. as a captain, and acted as ophthalmologist t<>
Colchester military district, inspector of ophthalmic centr
the Eastern Command, and ophthalmological specialist for the :
London district, and he published various articles in scicntifu
journals on the vision of the soldier and war injuries to tin
In this way he made effective use of his earlier profcssiona
training. He married in 1905 Ottilie, daughter of Lord M'Laren
herself a sculptor who had been a pupil of Rodin; as deputj
These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
WALLENBERG WARD, G.
949
assistant director of the W.R.W.S. she also did useful work in
the war, and was given the O.B.E.
WALLENBERG, KNUT AGATON (1853- ), Swedish states-
man, was born in 1853, the eldest son of Andre Oscar Wallenberg
(1816-1886), who in 1856 founded Stockholms Enskilda Bank.
He went through the training of a naval officer, but in 1874
joined the directorate of the bank, was managing director during
the years 1886-1911, and became chairman in 1917. This bank,
under the control of K. A. Wallenberg and his brother Marcus,
a prominent place in the Swedish banking world and in the
dustrial life of the country. Through their good connexions
iroad both brothers contributed much toward enabling Sweden
establish good economic relations with other countries. Both
,ve played an important role in the developing of the iron-ore
.dustry in northern Sweden. K. A. Wallenberg, in conjunction
with the Credit Lyormais, introduced Swedish bonds into the
French market in 1890, and during two decades he cooperated
powerfully in taking up Swedish, Norwegian, Danish and Finnish
state loans. In the Banque d'Etat de Maroc, which resulted
from the Algeciras Conference, K. A. Wallenberg had a hand as
member of the governing board in Paris, a position in which he
succeeded in 1920 by his brother Marcus. K. A. Wallenberg
concerned in the founding of the Banque des Pays du Nord
Paris in 1911, and also in that of the British Bank of Northern
mmerce in London in 1912, which in 1920 was amalgamated
with C. J. Hambro & Son as Hambro's Bank of Northern Com-
lerce, known as Hambro's Bank Ltd. since July i 1921. He
,s a member of the town council of Stockholm from 1883-1914,
member of the First Chamber of the Riksdag from 1906-19,
chairman of the Swedish Bankers' Association (" Svenska
bankforening ") from 1909-14, and a member of the Stockholm
Chamber of Commerce from 1912-4 and again from 1918 on-
wards. He was one of the founders of the commercial high school
(" Handelshogskolan ") in Stockholm and its first donor. When
Hammarskjold formed -his Government in 1914 (see SWEDEN),
K. A. Wallenberg joined it as Foreign Minister, retaining this post
until 1917. In 1918 he and his wife devoted 25 million kroner
to the " Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation," the purpose
of which was to further religious, social, scientific and educative
movements and to support trade and industry.
' His brother, MARCUS WALLENBERG (1864- ), became an
officer in the navy, and, after juridical 'studies and practice,
joined the directorate of Stockholms Enskilda Bank and became
managing director 1911-20, and later chairman. He founded or
reorganized a large number of industrial enterprises, taking a
chief part, for instance, in the financing of the mining-fields of
northern Sweden, and founding in 1905 Norsk Hydro-elektrisk
Kvaelstof Aktieselskab in Norway, of which he became chair-
man. He was one of the founders of the Norwegian Central Bank,
of the Swedish Bankers' Association, and the Industrial Union
of Sweden (" Sveriges industriforbund "), besides having taken
the initiative in founding the Taxpayers' Association (" Skatte-
betalarnes forening ") in 1920. He became a member of several
committees on banking and stock exchange questions, and a
member of the Economic Council. The Swedish Government
sent him to London as Swedish negotiator in 1916-7 and 1917-8
for bringing about an agreement with the Allied Powers regarding
trade and shipping and finance questions. He was a member of
the Neutral Powers' financial section of the Supreme Economic
Council from Feb. to June 1919 in Paris, took part in the meeting
at Amsterdam in 1919 which arranged for the International
Financial Conference in Brussels in 1920, at which he was
Sweden's representative. He was a member of the Committee
of the Economic and Financial section of the League of Nations.
WALLER, LEWIS (1860-1915), English actor (see 28.283),
died at Nottingham whilst on tour Nov. i 1915, shortly after
making a striking success at Wyndham's theatre, London, in
Gamblers All. His wife, whose stage name was Florence West,
died Nov. 14 1912.
WALSH, WILLIAM JOHN (1841-1921), Roman Catholic Arch-
bishop of Dublin, was born in Dublin Jan. 30 1841, and was
educated at St. Laurence O'Toole's seminary, Dublin, afterwards
entering the Catholic University and St. Patrick's College,
Maynooth. In 1867 he became professor of dogmatic and moral
theology at Maynooth, was appointed vice-president of the col-
lege in 1878, and in 1881 succeeded Dr. Russell as its president.
Four years later he became Archbishop of Dublin on the death
of Dr. McCabe. Archbishop Walsh, besides being an energetic
worker and writer, was a keen politician, and was conspicuous
for his extreme Nationalist opinions. He was one of the witnesses
before the Parnell Commission of 1888-9, an d served on many
committees and boards, chiefly educational, becoming in 1891 a
commissioner of education in Ireland. He would have nothing
to do with the suggestion for settling the difficulty of Catholic
higher education in Ireland by establishing a Roman Catholic
faculty of theology in Trinity College, an institution which he
attacked as a centre of Protestant influence, and insisted on the
need for a university with a " Catholic atmosphere." In 1908
he became a member of the Dublin Statutory Commission ap-
pointed under the Irish University Act, which established the
Catholic National University, of which he became chancellor.
In proportion as the Nationalist party seemed disposed to
compromise with the Government, Dr. Walsh drew away from
it; and after the concessions made to Ulster in 1914, and more
especially after the rebellion of 1916, he threw his influence more
and more on to the side of the extremists. In the election of Dec.
1918 he voted for a Sinn Fein republican candidate.
Dr. Walsh produced various volumes of addresses on religious
and educational subjects, and also published A Plain Exposition
of the Irish Land Act of 1881 (1881) ; The Queen's Colleges and the
Royal University of Ireland (1883-4); The Irish University Ques-
tion (1897); and two attacks on Trinity College, Dublin, Trinity
College and the University of Dublin (1902) and Trinity College
and its Medical School (1906). He died in Dublin April 9 1921.
WALSINGHAM, THOMAS DE GREY, 6m BARON (1843-1919),
was born July 29 1843. He was educated at Eton and Trinity
College, Cambridge, and succeeded his father in 1870. He was an
enthusiastic entomologist and sportsman, and for some years
travelled widely, making collections of specimens of all sorts,
many of which he presented to the natural history section of the
British Museum. In 1876 he was made a trustee of the British
Museum ; he was also a fellow of many learned societies and high
steward of the university of Cambridge. He died Dec. 3 1919.
WARBURG, PAUL MORITZ (1868- ), American banker,
was born in Hamburg, Aug. 10 1868. After graduating from the
Realgymnasium in 1886 he entered a banking house. From 1889
to 1892 he studied banking in England and France; then for the
next ten years was engaged in the banking business in Hamburg.
In 1902 he went to New York, where he became a member of the
banking house of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. He was naturalized in 1911.
He was an early advocate of a centralized banking system in the
United States and in 1914 was appointed by President Wilson
one of the original members of the Federal Reserve Board.
In 1916 he was appointed vice-governor of this board, suc-
ceeding Frederick A. Delano, and in 1917 was reappointed.
In 1918, at the end of the period of his appointment, he retired,
wishing to relieve the Administration of any embarrassment
that might follow his renomination. Considerable opposition
to his holding the place had arisen after America's entrance into
the World War, because of his German birth. On accepting the
Government office he had resigned from Kuhn, Loeb & Co., as
well as from numerous directorates, including the National Bank
of Commerce, the U.S. Mortgage & Trust Co., Wells, Fargo
& Co., the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co., the
B. & 0. R.R. Co., the National Railways of Mexico, and the
Rockefeller Foundation. He was the author of Essays on Bank-
ing Reform in the United States (1914).
WARD, SIR ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- ), English man
of letters (see 28.319), was knighted in 1913. His history
Germany iSig-iSgo (ist vol. 1916, 2nd vol. 1917) was a notable
addition to his published works, together with various chapters
in the Cambridge History of English Literature.
WARD, GENEVIEVE (1837- ), English actress, was born
in New York March 27 1837, the daughter of Col. Samuel Ward,
950
WARD, SIR J. G. WAR GRAVES
and at the age of 18 married Count Constantine de Guerbel.
She studied singing in Italy and in Paris, and made her first
appearance under the stage name of Ginevra Guerrabella at
Bergamo in the opera Stella di Napoli (1855). She further ap-
peared at Milan in Lucrezia Borgia (1856), in Paris in Don
Giovanni (1859), in London in Robin Hood (1861) and in New
York in La Traviata (1862). Loss of voice due to an illness
obliged her to leave the operatic stage in 1862 and for some
years she taught singing in New York, but in 1873 she came to
England and began a long dramatic career, appearing first at the
Theatre Royal, Manchester, as Lady Macbeth. In March 1874
she first appeared in London in The Prayer in the Storm and later
played with Charles Wyndham in The Hunchback and at Drury
Lane as Rebecca in Ivanhoe (1875). Her most popular success
was as Stephanie de Mohrivart in H. C. Merivale's and F. C.
Grove's Forgct-Me-Not, produced by herself at the Lyceum
theatre, London, Aug. 21 1879, and subsequently played over
2,000 times all over the world. Increasing years found her
talents as an actress in full vigour, specially in Shakespearean
parts, and as late as 1920 and 1921 she repeated her old roles of
Volumnia in Coriolanus and Margaret of Anjou in Richard III.
at the " Old Vic " theatre in London. On her 84th birthday,
March 27 1921, she was created D.B.E. She published a volume
of reminiscences (with Richard Whiteing), Before and Behind the
Curtain (1918).
WARD, SIR JOSEPH GEORGE, BART. (1857- ), New
Zealand statesman, son of Thomas Ward, merchant, was born at
Emerald Hill, Melbourne, April 26 1857, and was privately
educated in Melbourne and at the state school, Bluff, N.Z. His
first employment in New Zealand was as a boy of 13 in the de-
partment over which he was afterwards to preside as Postmaster-
General with conspicuous success for more than 20 years. At
the age of 21 he started business on his own account as a produce
merchant, and began a connexion with municipal politics which
lasted many years. He entered Parliament as Liberal member
for Awarua in 1887, and retained the seat for more than 30 years.
On the formation of the Ballance Ministry in 1891 he joined it as
Postmaster-General, and filled the same office in successive Liberal
administrations until 1912, and afterwards for four years in the
National Government (1915-9). The value of his energy and
enterprise in this capacity was acknowledged even by his oppo-
nents. In 1901 the success of his efforts to give New Zealand
penny postage was rewarded by his being made a K.C.M.G., and
at various postal conferences he distinguished himself by his
pioneer advocacy of an All-Red Cable service and universal
penny postage. In the Scddon Government he held other im-
portant portfolios, which included those of Colonial Treasurer and
Minister of Railways, and his appointment as Minister of Public
Health (Nov. 8 1900) is believed to have been the first such
appointment in the world.
After Seddon's death, Sir Joseph Ward, who had on several
occasions filled the position of Acting Premier during his late
leader's absence from New Zealand, succeeded to the Premier-
ship Aug. 6 1906 and held it till his resignation March 28 1912.
(For his principal achievements in that capacity, the gift of a
battle-cruiser to Great Britain and the institution of compulsory
military training, see NEW ZEALAND.) After acting as leader of
the opposition till Aug. 1915 Sir J. G. Ward joined with Mr. Mas-
sey, the Reform party's leader, then Prime Minister, in forming
the National Government, in which the Reform and the Liberal
parties were equally represented in order to avoid party strife
for the period of the war. In the National Government thus
established Sir J. G. Ward's principal office was that of Finance
Minister. With Mr. Massey he went to London to represent New
Zealand at the Imperial War Cabinet and War Conference
meetings of 1917 and 1918; and he also attended the Peace
Conference at Paris in 1919 as a member of the British Empire
delegation. Shortly after his return with Mr. Massey from
Paris Sir J. G. Ward dissolved the coalition by resigning his place
in the National Government (Aug. 22 1919), and at the general
election at the end of the year his party was defeated and he him-
self lost his seat. His own defeat was due in part to a sectarian
agitation directed against him on the ground of his alleged bias
as a Roman Catholic in favour of those of his own faith.
In addition to the occasions already mentioned Sir J. G. Ward
represented the Dominion at the Imperial Conferences of 1907,
1909 (Defence) and 1911. At the 1909 Conference he strongly
supported the ideal of an undivided Imperial navy. He was ap-
pointed to the Privy Council in 1906, and received a baronetcy
in 1911. During his various Imperial missions he received the
freedom of London, Edinburgh and other British cities, and !
the hon. degree of LL.D. from the universities of Cambridge i
and Edinburgh and Trinity College, Dublin. He married in
1883 Theresa Dorothea de Smith (C.B.E. 1919), and had a
family of four sons and one daughter.
WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841-1913), American geologist
and sociologist (see 28.320), died in Washington, D.C., April 18
1913. His numerous minor publications, together with biographi- ;
cal notes, were issued under the title Glimpses of the Cosmos, 6
vols. (1913-8), the last five volumes posthumously.
WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS. HUMPHRY WARD] (1851-1920), ;
English novelist (see 28.320), died in London March 24 1920. |
Since 1910 she had published The Case of Richard Mcyncll (1911),
a study of Modernism and in a sense a sequel to Robert Elsmcre;
The Mating of Lydia (1913); The Coryslon Family (1913); Delia
Blanch/lower (1914) ; ElthamHouse (1915) ; A Great Success (1915);
Lady Connie (1916); Missing (1917); The War and Elizabeth
(1918); and a posthumously published novel, Harvest (1920).
She had also in 1918 published her memoirs, A Writer's Recollec-
tions, and during the World War she undertook, for propaganda
purposes and with a view to enlightening the American public, a
journey through the English munitions areas and two journeys in
France, the results of which were published as England's Effort
(1916); Towards the Goal (1917) and Fields of Victory (1919).
From the great fatigue of the second French journey, undertaken
in winter and in her 67th year, she never entirely recovered. Her
work for children has been commemorated by the raising of a
fund to further endow the Passmore Edwards Settlement, in
Tavistock Place, London, re-named after her the Mary Ward
Settlement.
WARD, WILFRID PHILIP (1856-1916), English man of letters,
was born at Ware Jan. 2 1856, the second son of William George
Ward (see 28.321). Educated at St. Edmund's College, Ware,
Ushaw College, Durham, and the Gregorian University of Rome,
he became lecturer in philosophy at Ushaw College in 1890, and
examiner in mental and moral science to the Royal University
of Ireland 1891-2. In 1906 he became editor of The Dublin
Review. He was the author of numerous books: The Wish to
Believe (1884); The Clothes of Religion (1886); W. G. Ward and
the Oxford Movement (1889) ; W. G. Ward and the Catholic Revival
(1893) ; Lives of Cardinal Wiseman (1897), Aubrey de Vcrc (1904),
Cardinal Newman (1912), and several volumes of essays. He
died in London April 8 1916. A biographical notice of him,
written by his wife, JOSEPHINE MARY (b. 1864), daughter of J. R.
Hope-Scott, was published as a preface to his Last Lectures (1916).
Mrs. Ward was also the author of several distinguished novels,
including One Poor Scruple (1899); The Light Behind (1903);
Great Possessions (1910); The Job Secretary (1911) and Not Known
Here (1921).
WAR GRAVES. I. BRITISH FORCES. One of the most in-
teresting pieces of organization resulting from the World War is
represented in the Imperial War Graves Commission, which was
constituted on behalf of the Governments and peoples of all
parts of the British Empire, and charged with the care in per-
petuity of the graves of their sailors and soldiers.
History. Early in Sept. 1914 a mobile unit, under the com-
mand of Maj.-Gen. Sir Fabian Ware, was formed in France, with
the approval of Lord Kitchener, by the British Red Cross Society
to search for " missing" on the line of the British retreat from
Mons, along which the Germans were then being forced back.
While similar work was being carried out from Paris, also under
the auspices of the British Red Cross Society, this mobile unit
operating between Lille and Amiens was found marking and
registering graves in that area when the British army moved
WAR GRAVES
north from the Aishe. Sir Nevil Macready, then Adjutant-
General to the British Expeditionary Force, perceiving that both
the unprecedented number of casualties and the personal interest
of the whole British public in the New Armies would demand
attention to the graves of the fallen beyond that which was pro-
vided for in the existing organization of the Adjutant-General's
Branch, transformed this unit, in Feb. 1915, into a department
of his branch. The work increased so rapidly that it was soon
found necessary to promote the department" to the status of a
Directorate of the British Army, and later to create a corre-
sponding department of the War Office, with the title Directorate
of Graves Registration and Enquiries.
By the autumn of 1915 the number of registered graves
scattered over the countryside or situated in established com-
munal or British military cemeteries had reached considerable
proportions. Discussions therefore took place between the
British officers responsible for the organization and the French
Government, with a view to insuring the permanency of the
British graves and cemeteries and their security from disturbance.
The result was the passing of the French Law of Dec. 29 1915,
one of the most generous and interesting enactments made by
one nation on behalf of others. The law provides that all Allied
graveyards on the soil of France shall be acquired by the Govern-
ment of the Republic at its own expense and that the rights of
ownership shall be enjoyed in perpetuity by the Allied nations
concerned. This practical tribute to the valour of the British
armies was profound in its effect on the relations between the
two Allies during the war.
Under this law it was possible for an " association reguliere-
ment constituee " by an Allied government to be entrusted with
the care of its graves in France. The result was the establishment
in Great Britain (Jan. 1916) of a National Committee for the Care
of Soldiers' Graves, the presidency of which was accepted by the
Prince of Wales. In its establishment there was to be found the
germ from which developed the Imperial War Graves Commis-
sion, a body of wider powers and much deeper significance.
By May 1916 the extension of the fighting to more distant
battlefields than France and Belgium had very greatly increased
the work of the department. In the same month Graves Regis-
tration units were established in Egypt, Salonika, Mesopotamia
and E. Africa. The large and rapidly growing number of cas-
ualties made it evident that the care of the graves after the war
and the erection of permanent memorials would be a task too
extensive for a body with the limitations of the National Com-
mittee to undertake. Among these limitations was the lack of
direct representation of the Dominions and other parts of the
Empire, whose soldiers were falling and being buried side by
side with those of the United Kingdom. The first Imperial
Conference since the beginning of the war was to be held in
March 1917, and it was felt that this was an opportunity of
suggesting to the Governments of the Empire the creation of an
Imperial body responsible equally to the British and Dominion
Parliaments, to whom the great work could be entrusted. In a
memorandum addressed to the Prime Minister, dated March 15
1917, the Prince of Wales, as president of the National Committee,
suggested that the formation of " a joint Committee of the
Governments of the Empire, or a statutory body of Commis-
sioners somewhat on the lines of the Development Commission,"
should be proposed to the forthcoming Imperial Conference.
The question was accordingly laid before the Conference on
April 13 1917, when a resolution was passed praying His Majesty
to grant a Royal Charter for the constitution of an Imperial War
Graves Commission, which should be empowered to care for and
maintain the graves of those fallen in the war, to acquire land
for the purpose of cemeteries and to erect permanent memorials
in the cemeteries and elsewhere. The charter was passed under
the Great Seal on May 21 1917, and the Commission, of which
the Prince of Wales became president, was duly established.
Constitution. The provisions of the charter stipulate that the
members of the Commission shall be:
"The persons for the time being holding the offices of: Our
Principal Secretary of State for War (ex-officio Chairman), Our Prin-
95i
cipal Secretary of State for the Colonies, Our Principal Secretary
ot State for India; and First Commissioner of Our Office of Works
and Public Buildings, . . . and such persons as may be appointed
by the Governments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa, and Newfoundland ..." and " such other persons, not
exceeding the number of eight in all, as may from time to time be
appointed members of the Commission by Royal Warrant under the
sign manual of the Sovereign for the time being."
The nomination by the Britjsh Overseas Dominions of their
representatives and the selection of non-official members of the
Commission were completed in Oct. 1917, under the chairmanship
of the then Secretary of 'State for War (the Earl of Derby), and
the persons nominated were appointed by Royal Warrant on the
26th of that month. In every case the Dominions nominated their
High Commissioners or official representatives in London.
The first non-official members were: Sir William Garstin,
Harry Gosling, Rudyard Kipling, Gen. Sir C. F. N. Macready
(then Adjutant-General to the Forces, subsequently succeeded in
that office by Lt.-Gen. Sir G. M. W. Macdonogh, who was ap-
pointed to fill one of the vacant unofficial memberships, thus in-
dicating that the Adjutant-General for the time being should
always be a member of the Commission), Gen. Lord Plumer,
Adml. Sir Edmund S. Poe, Maj.-Gen. Sir Fabian Ware (subse-
quently appointed permanent vice-chairman).
One of the first duties which the newly formed Commission
had to perform was, in the words of the resolution of the Imperial
Conference on April 23, " to prepare an estimate of the probable
cost of carrying on the work entrusted to them and to submit
the same to the Governments of the United Kingdom and Over-
seas Dominions with their recommendation as to the proportion
that should be borne by each."
The Commission's deliberations on this question resulted in
the double proposal laid before the next Imperial Conference on
June 17 1918, that 10 per grave should be taken as the probable
cost of the construction of cemeteries, and that the cost of
carrying out the decisions of the Commission should be borne
by the respective Governments in proportion to the numbers of
the graves of their dead. It is hardly necessary to emphasize
the significance of the 'adoption of this proposal; a precedent
may thus have been established with far-reaching effects; at any
rate a most interesting experiment in cooperative administration
among the nations of the British Commonwealth had been
initiated. It is based on the principle that each shall be finan-
cially responsible in proportion to the amount of service rendered
on behalf of the whole. In this connexion it is important to note
that estimates are presented yearly in identical form to each of
the participating Governments, the respective Parliaments being
asked to vote a proportion of the total in accordance with the
decision of the Imperial Conference of 1918 referred to above.
The Commission administer the grants in aid thus received
"hrough a finance committee, which meets regularly at short
ntervals and on which the British Treasury is represented.
The principle of complete cooperation runs through all the work
of the Commission, the participating Governments being repre-
sented in the administrative personnel, both in London and
abroad, on the same proportional basis as has been adopted for
:he sharing of expenditure.
Policy. While their constitutional history was thus develop-
ng, the Commission were busy arranging for the discharge of
their responsibilities. One of their first acts was to lay down as a
;uiding principle that the graves of all ranks and ratings should
>e treated on a basis of absolute equality.
With this principle as a foundation on which to build, the
'ommission, desiring that the various proposals which had been
placed before them as to the best method of discharging their
responsibility should not become the subject of controversy,
nvited Sir Frederic Kenyon to report to them, the following
>eing the terms in which the matter was referred to him:
" Sir Frederic Kenyon's duties will be to decide between the vari-
ous proposals submitted to him as to the architectural treatment
tnd laying out of cemeteries, and to report his recommendations to
he Commission at the earliest possible date.
" I. He will consult the representatives of the various churches
and religious bodies on any religious questions involved.
952
WAR GRAVES
"2. He will report as to the desirability of forming an advisory
committee from among those who have been consulted, for the
purpose of carrying out the proposals agreed upon.
" The Commissioners are of opinion that no distinction should be
made between officers and men lying in the same cemeteries in the
form or nature of the memorials."
The recommendations of Sir Frederic Kenyon's report, which
were adopted by the Commission, may be briefly summarized as
follows:
1. That the principle of equality of treatment should be expressed
bv the erection of uniform headstones over the graves of all officers
and men who, in the words of the charter, may have died from
wounds inflicted, accident occurring or disease contracted while on
active service during the war.
2. That each cenetery should have a great memorial stone and a
tall cross as central monuments.
3. That isolated graves should be concentrated into selected
cemeteries.
It remained for the Commission to put the scheme into
execution. Officials were appointed and made responsible for
the organization and carrying out of the work in the different
areas, and by the spring of 1918 the new establishment was on a
practical basis. 1 In France and Belgium the preparation of
architectural designs was entrusted to Sir Edwin Lutyens, Sir
Reginald Blomfieldand Mr. Herbert Baker; in Egypt, Macedonia,
Italy and the United Kingdom to Sir Robert Lorimcr; in Gallipoli
and Palestine to Sir John Burnet; and in Mesopotamia to Maj.
Edward Warren. In each of these areas there were assistant
architects responsible to the principal architects named.
Work. The type of regimental headstone finally selected by a
committee consisting of Sir Frederic Kcnyon, Sir C. J. Holmes,
Mr. D. S. MacColl and Mr. Macdonald Gill, was of a design
frequently found in churchyards in the United Kingdom. The
dimensions are: height 2 ft. 6 in., breadth i ft. 3 in., thickness
3 inches. Each stone as a rule bears at the top the badge of the
regiment or unit. Then follow the military details with the name
of the deceased and the date of his death, below which is carved
the symbol of his faith, while at the foot of the stone is engraved
a personal inscription chosen by the next-of-kin.
Of the two central monuments the great altar-like Stone of
Remembrance, designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, bears the
inscription chosen by Mr. Rudyard Kipling, " Their name
liveth for evermore." The other memorial is the great Cross of
Sacrifice designed by Sir Reginald Blomfield, to the shaft of
which is fixed a crusader's sword of bronze. (See Plate.)
The preparation of cemetery registers, which will present a
complete record of the fallen, is also a feature of the Commission's
work. Each register will as a rule contain a map showing the
situation of the cemetery, a plan giving the position of the grave,
and an alphabetical list of those buried or commemorated in the
cemetery, with a short addition, generally giving, among other
details, age and parentage furnished by the next-of-kin.
To these duties must be added that of honouring the dead
who have no known graves. This is no small task, for of these
there are more than 250,000 and the precise form of the memorials
was still in 1921 under consideration.
Nor did the Commission's responsibilities end here, for the
commemoration of the navy's dead was also entrusted to them.
In each of the three ports which throughout Britain's naval
history have been intimately associated with the sea service
a site was chosen for the erection of a memorial (which will also
act as a sea-mark), bearing the names of those lost or buried at
sea. These memorials were designed by Sir Robert Lorimer in
consultation with the Board of Admiralty.
With equal generosity Belgium made provision similar to
that of France for the acquisition of land for British cemeteries
on her territory. Other countries followed the lead of France
and Belgium. Measures of similar intent were passed by Italy
in June 1918, and by Greece in Sept. 1920, while in Nov. 1918 the
Egyptian Government promised to present to the Commission
as a free gift the land on which British or Dominion soldiers were
buried, as also did the Government of Palestine in Nov. 1920.
1 The head office was set up in London, which will remain the
permanent headquarters of the Commission.
Several of the enactments described above were followed by
treaties or agreements. In Nov. 1918 an Anglo-French Agree-
ment was signed enabling the Commission to act in France. An
mportant clause provided for the establishment of an Anglo-
French Committee (of which distinguished French and British
officers are members), to represent the Commission in their
relations with the French authorities, and to present claims for
.and for cemeteries, or for memorials by which some gallant
exploit or feat of arms may be commemorated.
The Commission is represented by similar agencies with similar
powers in Belgium, Greece, India, Canada, Malta, Gibraltar,
Palestine and Mesopotamia. The Canadian Agency is responsi-
ble to the Commission for the entire execution of its purposes in
Canada, the United States of America and Siberia; a committee
established in India, in consultation with the Indian Govern-
ment, is in the same way responsible for that country and Aden.
The unprecedented nature of the task with which the Commis-
sion was charged is obvious; its complexity and magnitude will
be realized when it is remembered that the 600,000 known graves
for which they were responsible were scattered all over the world
in many different countries with different laws and customs,
some of them the enemy countries with whom special provisions
were made in the Treaties of Peace to ensure the graves being
respected; and there are no less than 15,000 burial places in
different parts of Europe and the East where British sailors and
soldiers rest, the great majority being in civil cemeteries contain-
ing small groups of graves, but some 1,500 of them being ceme-
teries of considerable size, the largest containing 12,000 graves.
As has been seen, the permanent construction work carried out in
these cemeteries is of a simple but durable kind, but the Com-
mission's gardeners set to work immediately after the Armistice,
without waiting for the erection of the permanent headstones,
planting shrubs, grass and flowers, taking as their guiding principle
the words of Sir Frederic Kenyon's report: " There is no reason
why cemeteries should be places of gloom; but the rcstfulness of
grass and the brightness of flowers in fitting combination would
appear to strike the proper note of brightness and life." It is
hoped that these cemeteries may become a permanent landmark
in the history of civilization.
\\hcn the Commission's policy was first announced it met
with some criticism, particularly as regards equality of treatment
as expressed by the principle of uniformity. This criticism found
expression in a motion in the House of Commons. The debate
which took place on this occasion (May 4 1920) has been de-
scribed as one of the most moving in the history of. the British
Parliament. The result, by which the motion was negatived
without a division, must have removed from the minds of the
commissioners any fear that the sympathy of the country wa
not with them in the course they were pursuing.
II. FOECES OF FRANCE AND THE UNITED STATES. While, as a
rule, the Allies adopted similar methods of commemorating the
fallen to those described above, the great differences in the
numbers of their casualties and in the conditions obtaining in
the different countries rendered certain divergences unavoidable.
France, on whose soil lay over three million dead, was faced
with the problem of honouring her fallen soldiers without clogging
the wheels of industry and agriculture, which were beginning
to revive under peace conditions, even in the devastated areas
where the graves lay thickest. The British helped to solve the
difficulty by concentrating all isolated graves into cemeteries
which would forever mark the British battle-line. The French
adopted the further expedient of giving the ncxt-of-kin the op-
portunity of having their dead re-buried at the State's expense
in the churchyard or burial-ground of their native place, while
those who were left would rest in great national cemeteries
constructed by the State as a lasting monument to the heroism
of the soldiers who died for France.
Many of the fallen soldiers of the American Expeditionary
Force were borne back across the Atlantic to rest in their native
land. The execution of this difficult task demanded careful
organization, and it says much for the enthusiasm and the
capacity of the staff of the Cemeterial Branch of the American
WAR GRAVES
673 PRIVATE
HAM P. BRITTON M.M.
ROYAL FUSILIERS
16TH AUGUST 1916
IN THE MIDST OF LIFE
WE ARE IN DEATH
"CROSS OF SACRIFICE" (BRITISH)
WAR HEADSTONE (BRITISH)
THEIR NAME LIVETH
FOR EVERMORE
'STONE OF REMEMBRANCE" (BRITISH)
WAR LOAN PUBLICITY CAMPAIGNS
953
'ar Department that it was carried out with so much success;
would have certainly been impossible but for the fact that
icrican death casualties did not amount to much more than
e hundred thousand, a comparatively small number compared
with that of the British Empire, whose losses approximated to
the enormous total of one million men. It is probable that the
American War Department would have hesitated before under-
taking a task even of the magnitude mentioned had it not been
for the fact that, before a single American battalion had left the
shores of the United States, a pledge had been given that no
American soldier who died fighting for his country and for the
liberties of nations should be left to lie on foreign soil except at
the express wish of his next-of-kin.
Many Americans were taken from British military cemeteries,
'here they were buried under stress of battle with their British
rades-in-arms. It was hoped that the empty spaces left after
removal of such French and American soldiers would be
rked by memorials which would remind posterity how the
ies of France, America and the British Commonwealth
;ht and fell together in the defence of a common ideal.
'hose Americans left to rest in France were grouped together
in three or four great cemeteries, the land being acquired by the
French Government on behalf of the sister Republic under the
law of 1915. The plan of construction of these cemeteries is
based on the principle of uniform treatment of the graves, a
principle which has for some considerable time found favour in
America in the planning of cemeteries. Indeed the United States
may justly claim to be the first nation to put this conception into
practice, the most notable example being Arlington National
Cemetery, where the men who died in the Civil War and in the
Spanish-American War of 1898 lie buried. It is possible that the
[conspicuous success with which Arlington Cemetery has been
[designed had a share in influencing the Imperial War Graves
[Commission in the construction of the British war cemeteries on
somewhat similar lines. (F. W.)
WAR LOAN PUBLICITY CAMPAIGNS. In connexion with
this account of publicity relating to war financing in Great
! Britain, the article LIBERTY LOAN PUBLICITY CAMPAIGN and the
United States section of the article SAVINGS MOVEMENT will
; afford a broad view of the activities in these two countries.
[Prior to the outbreak of war in 1914, Government loans in Great
Britain were subscribed by a very limited circle of large invest-
ors, businesses and corporations. Publicity in connexion with
the floating of thcrn began and ended with the issuing of a pros-
jpectus, its publication in the Press, and its distribution by a
: limited number of bankers and stockbrokers. In order, however,
to raise the vast sums of money required by the Government
(for the prosecution of the war, other and far bolder publicity
methods had to be inaugurated during 1914-9. It was necessary
to appeal to a very much wider circle of subscribers a circle
gventually no narrower than the whole population of the British
(slands and to urge investment in War Loans as a patriotic
duty. The first attempts at the application of modern methods
}f publicity to the flotation of War Loans were on a limited
;cale, being hampered by official reluctance to depart from tra-
ditional procedure and a prejudice against any lapse from official
' dignity." A slight expansion of newspaper advertising, at first
not widely departing from mere " publication of prospectus "
advertising, and the use of posters displayed in the streets and
bn hoardings, marked the beginning of a new state of things.
(The work of the War Savings Committee from 1916 onwards,
:ogether with news of the successful publicity work in the U.S.,
lelped to reconcile British officialism to an increase of activity
,n this direction.
By the time the so-called " Victory " Loan was floated, early
n 1917, newspaper advertising had increased both in volume
.md effectiveness. Many more posters appeared on the hoard-
ngs. The services of local authorities were invoked, and public
neetings were held, up and down the country, at which speakers
jlrew attention to the country's pressing need of money and
jippealed openly for subscriptions. A great mass meeting in
(Trafalgar Square, held under the auspices of ministers of religion,
was an outstanding publicity feature in connexion with the Vic-
tory Loan and was the forerunner of many similar gatherings.
It was, however, in connexion with the campaign for National
War Bonds, which were first offered to the public in Sept. 1917,
that organized publicity on behalf of British war-loan sub-
scriptions displayed the fullest measure of its possibilities and
achieved its greatest success. The National war Bonds were
short-dated securities continuously on offer in contrast to
earlier loans the subscription lists for which had remained open
only for some weeks. They were introduced by Mr. Bonar Law,
the then Chancellor of the Exchequer, in order to inaugurate a
period of " continuous borrowing " to provide a method by
which the public could subscribe each week the weekly cost, or
more than the weekly cost of the war. It was hoped by this
means to avoid the dislocation of the money market and the
inflation of currency (due to borrowing from banks for purposes
of subscription) which had been found to attend the previous
" closing date " loans.
Despite attractive terms the subscriptions for National War
Bonds for the first two or three weeks were distinctly disap-
pointing. Starting at an exceedingly low weekly total the re-
ceipts rapidly fell, and it says much for the extent to which
publicity methods had already justified themselves that in Nov.
1917 the Chancellor of the Exchequer, faced with the prospect of
the failure of the whole new scheme of continuous borrowing, saw
fit to appoint Sir George (then Mr.) Sutton, the chairman of the
Amalgamated Press Ltd., as Director of Publicity for the War
Bond campaign with an entirely free hand as to methods
employed, and, within very wide limits, a free hand as to expend-
iture. The result was a complete change, from the first week of
Dec. 1917, when the War Bond publicity campaign could have
been said to be really started.
The backbone of the campaign was undoubtedly newspaper
and periodical advertising. This advertising was practically
continuous, though very widely varied. The appeal of it was
cast and recast in a hundred ways. It struck first the finance
note, the self-interest note, the explanatory " see what you get
and what security " note, and then the loftier note of patriotism,
of service, of exhortation to duty. The advertising was intensely
human, written to appeal not merely to business men but to the
people at large. It reached its highest pitch of emotional appeal
during the terrible spring of 1918 when the Germans, pushing far
into the Allied lines, threatened Amiens, and the whole British
nation hung breathless upon the march of events. During those
dark weeks the War Bond advertising told, almost day by day,
the story of England in terms of Belgium; pointing out the inevi-
table and hideous consequences of defeat, and urging the duty of
supporting with money the brave men then fighting.
Another point to be noted about the press advertising was its
topicality. Appropriate " copy " was actually kept standing
for immediate publication in the event of certain contingencies
such as a great victory, or (on the other side of the picture) the
air-bombing of important British towns.
It was recognized that in order to sustain interest in War Bonds
over a long period the steady appeal of the press advertising
required reinforcing by periods of special activity. The necessary
stimulus was obtained by the organization throughout the coun-
try of special " weeks " euch as " Tank Weeks "- - " Business
Men's Week " " War Weapons Weeks " " Feed the Guns
Weeks." The main features of these were similar. They consisted
essentially in the provision of some spectacular feature round
which the appeal for subscriptions could centre. Tanks, for
instance (then just newly invented), each with an officer and
crew, took up their stand for a week at a time in the leading
towns and cities. Officials of the Bank of England and of the
Post Office accompanied the tanks, and very many million
pounds' worth of bonds were sold by them.
The effect of the visit of a tank to a town was that for one
week at least that town talked and thought of nothing but War
Bonds. Local papers devoted columns to descriptions of the
amount of business done, and local firms and business men vied
with each other to subscribe the largest amounts.
954
WARRE WARREN
Leaflets (which were frequently dropped from aeroplanes in
order to obtain the maximum of spectacular effect), posters,
speakers, etc., were, of course, supplied by the Director of
Publicity for each tank in each town.
" Feed the Guns " weeks were run on the same principle, the
tanks being replaced by giant howitzers fitted with an ingenious
device whereby the bonds sold could actually be stamped in the
breeches of the guns themselves.
" Business Men's Week," which was held simultaneously
throughout the country, and " War Weapons Weeks," which
were worked town by town, were run somewhat differently. In
both these cases the cities and towns of the country were assessed
to subscribe amounts calculated on a basis of 2 los. od. per head
of population, and this amount instead of being expressed in
figures was expressed as some definite weapon of war which the
amount in question would suffice to purchase. Thus a large city
would be asked to subscribe sufficient in a week to purchase
one or more battleships, a smaller town enough to purchase a
cruiser, a township enough to purchase a squadron of aeroplanes,
a village enough for a howitzer.
This dramatic method of presenting each community with an
opportunity to achieve concrete expression of its duty as a com-
munity brought splendid results. Scarcely a town or city in the
country failed to perform its task, and during very many of the
weeks sums far in excess of the assessments were subscribed.
Liverpool, for instance, asked to purchase a battleship, invested
sufficient during its week to purchase no less than six!
All these separate campaigns of special weeks were " led off "
by spectacular displays in Trafalgar Square, London, which was
transformed for each occasion into something resembling a huge
circus. Tanks or guns, as the case might be, were " parked " and
surrounded with skilfully built imitation trenches and entangle-
ments; barriers and huts were erected, painted scenery was
provided to form a background, giant posters almost hid the
facades of the National Gallery and the buildings surrounding
the Square, and hundreds of thousands of people were attracted
of a class which could probably not have been reached by any
other form of appeal. Vast business was done during these
Trafalgar Square weeks, sums running into many millions being
invested during each. So great was the enthusiasm roused that
some business firms actually marched down their employees
with bands and flying flags to make their purchases of bonds
during the prevailing excitement.
Not content with waiting in Trafalgar Square for subscrip-
tions to come to them, two of these huge tanks snorted and
puffed, day by day, through the streets of the city, calling at the
offices of the leading insurance firms to collect applications for
War Bonds. As a tank docs not move swiftly it was necessary to
limit this privilege of a " personal " call to firms desirous of
investing 50,000 or over.
Government carrier-pigeons were also used, with great success
from the point of view of publicity, to bring in applications from
a distance to Trafalgar Square.
Another important publicity aspect of these special weeks was
the opportunity each provided for an important official opening.
Thus " Business Men's Week " was preceded by a great public
meeting in the Connaught Rooms at which the Chancellor of
the Exchequer was the chief speaker and to which all the leading
bankers of the kingdom were invited. It is probable that from
the financial point of view no more influential gathering than
this has ever taken place. " Feed the Guns Weeks " were intro-
duced by another great meeting at the Guildhall, addressed by
the Chancellor of the Exchequer and the Rt.-Hon. A. J. Balfour.
The extent of the response to these special weeks was enor-
mous, as may be judged by one of them only, the " Business
Men's Week," which brought in 160,000,000 nearly eight
times as much as the average weekly total.
Apart, however, from greatly increased purchases, these
special weeks, " booms," and " stunts " were very valuable as
yielding a continuous " news " story. The problem before the
publicity director was to maintain interest in War Bonds week
after week and month after month ; and had the campaign once
been allowed to become a matter of routine, lacking new incidents,
the " news " story of it would perforce have dropped out of the
columns of the press. As it was, so great was the variety and so
many the incidents that a full-size news agency had to be in-
stalled at headquarters, where a large stalf was kept busily
engaged in collecting news by telegram and telephone from all
over the country and passing it on to the press.
A successful publicity device was the inter-town War Bond
Race. The race, of course, was to secure the largest total of
local holdings in War Bonds, and, promoted and fostered by
the Publicity Director, it went gaily on for months the varying
position of the leading cities, now one leading, now another,
forming for over a year an almost staple article of news.
Many other publicity devices were employed, among which
the following may be noted:
(i). Arranging with the Postmaster-General to adopt a can-
cellation mark carrying the words " Buy War Bonds," so that
practically every citizen received a daily reminder of his duty
on the envelope of every letter received. (2). A letter signed by
the Chancellor of the Exchequer urging investment as a patriotic
duty sent out by the Bank of England with each dividend on a
Government security. (3). A letter signed by the chairmen of
banks to the individual depositors urging that deposits should be
reduced and the money invested in War Bonds. (4). A letter
sent out by limited liability companies simultaneously with the
dispatch of their dividend warrants, urging that the amount of
the dividend should be at once invested in War Bonds.
These letters ran, of course, intomany millions, and the drafting,
preparation, and printing of them was not the least arduous of
the tasks which the Publicity Director and his staff had to face.
After the Armistice a closing date for War Bonds was an-
nounced, and a very extensive final appeal was organized which
brought the total of investment in them up to the magnificent
figure of 1,600.000,000 subscribed in under 17 months.
The publicity in connexion with War Bonds more than justified
itself. It established the feasibility of the hitherto untried system
of continuous borrowing; it secured a total of subscriptions far
in excess of anything that the Chancellor of the Exchequer had
contemplated; and it did, in fact, finance the war to a finish.
Publicity in connexion with post-Armistice loans not ;i lily
the Thanksgiving Loan of 1919 (popularly termed the " Joy
Loan ") was conducted on similar lines. War, which altered
and remodelled so much that had appeared fixed, certainly j
brought a new spirit and a new method into the floating of
Government loans in Great Britain. The success achieved was
so marked as to make it unlikely that any future Chancellor of
the Exchequer would embark upon any big loan issue without
first . assuring himself of the services of the most influential
publicity adviser. (G. A. S.)
WARRE, EDMOND (1837-1920), English educationist, was
born in London Feb. 12 1837, the son of Henry Warre, of Bindon
House, near Wellington. He was educated at Eton and Balliol
College, Oxford, where he had a distinguished career, taking a
double first (1856 and 1859). In 1859 he was elected a fellow of
All Souls. He went to Eton in 1860 as assistant master, and in
1884 was elected Headmaster, a position which he retained until
1905. After a period of retirement he was in 1909 appointed
provost of Eton in succession to Dr. James Hornby, but during
the greater part of his provostship he was incapacitated by ill
health from taking any very active part in the government of
the school. He was an hon. chaplain to Queen Victoria (1885-
1901), and later occupied the same office in the households of
King Edward VII. and King George V. He was created M.V.O.
in 1901, C.B. in 1905, and C.V.O. in 1910. He died at Eton Jan.
22 1920. He took much interest in sport at Eton, and the high
standard of rowing to which the Eton eights attained was due
in a large measure to his coaching. His 45 years' connexion with
Eton thoroughly identified him with its traditions and ideals,
and, without being remarkable either as scholar or as teacher, he
wielded a personal influence which has seldom been surpassed.
WARREN, WHITNEY (1864- ), American architect, was
born in New York City Jan. 29 1864. After studying at the
WASHINGTON, B. T. WASHINGTON (D. C.)
Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, under Daumet and Girault (1885-
1894), he began the practice of architecture in New York, later
becoming associated with Charles D. Wetmore under the firm-
name of Warren & Wetmore. They specialized in railway archi-
tecture, hotels, business buildings and residences, and were
architects for the New York Central, Michigan Central, Canadian
Northern, and Erie railways. Their numerous structures in
New York City include the Chelsea docks and the hotels Belmont
(1905), Vanderbilt (1910), Biltmore (1912), and Commodore
(1016). During and following the World War, Warren supported
actively the claims of Italy in the Adriatic. He was an intimate
friend of d'Annunzio, and was appointed diplomatic representa-
tive in the United States of the " Free State of Fiume." In 1920
he was chosen by the International Committee to reconstruct the
library of the university of Louvain, destroyed by the Germans
in 1914. He was a member of the Institut de France, the Aca-
d6mie des Beaux Arts, the Royal Academy of St. Luke (Rome),
and other foreign academies. He was the author of Les Justes
Revendications de I 'Italic: la Question de Trcnle, de Trieste et de
\l' Adriatique. Many of his addresses, delivered 1914-9, were
I published and widely distributed.
WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO ( c. 1850-1915),
American negro teacher and reformer (see 28.344), died at Tus-
kegce, Ala., Nov. 14 1915, as the result of a breakdown due to
overwork. His last public address was delivered on Oct. 25
before the national conference of Congregational churches in
New York City. At Tuskegee he was succeeded by Robert R.
Molon. lie was the author of My Larger Education: Being
Chapters From My Experience (1911) and The Man Farthest
\Down; a Record oj Observation and Study in Europe (1912).
See D. F. Riley, Life of Booker T. Washington (1916).
WASHINGTON, District of Columbia (see 28.349), the capital
city of the United States, increased in pop. from 331,069 in 1910
to 437,571 in 192, a gain of 106,502, or 32-2% as compared
rwith 52,351 or 18-8%, in the preceding decade. Of the 1920
fcwp. 326,860 were white, 109,966 negro and 745 of other races
(chiefly Chinese, Japanese, Filipino and Indian). With the
entrance of the United States into the World War in 1917
Washington not only assumed new importance among world
capitals, but it became the centre from which practically every
significant activity in the United States, commercial and indus-
trial as well as military and naval, was directed. Existing
Government bureaus were expanded beyond precedent and many
[new ones were created. These activities brought to Washington
Iwithin a single year 60,000 new residents, a large percentage of
whom remained after the war came to an end. An acute shortage
jof housing facilities developed, and the Government was forced
Jto commandeer every available building, as well as to construct
a number of new ones.
Buildings. rln order to carry on the war work of the Government
la number of temporary office buildings for the use of various depart-
ments were erected on the Mall between 3rd and gth Streets. On B
Street N.W., between 171)1 and 2ist Streets, two large structures of
the factory type, of cement and iron, were erected for the War and
Navy Departments. One of the largest buildings in the capital, the
Arlington Building, of stone and iron, was erected (1919) on the site
of the old Arlington Hotel on Vermont Avenue and H Street N.W.
for the use of the War Risk Bureau. Most of the other buildings
1 meted during the war period were of a temporary character,
(ing designed merely to meet an emergency. Of this class were
-he Government hotels on the Union Station Plaza erected for war
workers as late as 1919 and in use in 1921. There were in all 14 of
these emergency buildings, two of which \vere used for administrative
purposes. Among the new permanent buildings were the City Post
Dffice (1914), near the Union Station; the building for the Depart-
ment of the Interior (1917), occupying the block between E, F, i8th
incl igth Streets N.W. ; the Bureau of Engraving and Printing
1914). I4th Street between C and D Streets S.W.; the Treasury
Department Annex, on Pennsylvania Avenue opposite the Treasury
Building. The capacity of the Navy Yard was increased by the
ion of three large buildings for a machine shop, gun shop,
md joiner shop. New buildings were leased by the Government for
;:he Department of Commerce, Department of Labor, Railroad
Administration, Bureau of the Census, branches of the Department
riculture, and other executive organizations. Near Brightwood,
I 4 m. north of the city proper, is the Walter Reed General
Hospital, first established in 1905 for the U.S. army. To extend its
955
capacity, a number of additional buildings were constructed during
the war, mostly of a temporary or semi-permanent character. The
grounds embrace 97 ac. and it is next to the largest army hospital in
the United States, the maximum capacity being 2,650. The grounds
and buildings cost $2,575,000. In the Mall, adjoining the Smithson-
ian Building on the west, is the Freer Art Gallery (1920), built at a
cost of $1,000,000 and donated to the Government by Charles Lang
Freer of Detroit, Mich. In 1921 the construction of the $5,000,000
Shrine of the Immaculate Conception, in the grounds of the Catholic
university, was begun, and the erection of the Episcopal cathedral of
St. Peter and St. Paul, at Mt. St. Alban, was well under way. When
completed it will have cost $5,000,000. In a commanding position
at i6th and S Streets N.W. is the House of the Temple (1915), head-
quarters of the southern jurisdiction Scottish Rite Masons. It is of
white marble, of Egyptian and Grecian architecture, 212 by 217 ft.
in size, and cost $1,000,000. The Pan-American Building, a white
marble structure on I7th Street N.W., at the entrance to Potomac
Park, was dedicated in 1910. It cost $1,100,000, of which the
American republics contributed $250,000 and Andrew Carnegie
$850,000. Near it are the Red Cross Building (1917) and the build-
ing of the Daughters of the American Revolution (1910), both in
white marble. The Georgetown, or Key Memorial, Bridge, which
spans the Potomac river at Georgetown, was expected to be completed
in 1922, the estimated cost being $2,100,000. It is of reinforced
concrete with seven arch spans, one of which is 208 ft. in length. Its
total length, including piers, is 1,452 ft. 9 in.; the width of deck is
70 feet.
Streets and Parks. Much improvement has been made in the
thoroughfares and parks. The flats and lowlands along the Potomac
river have been beautified and provided with picturesque driveways.
Provision has been made for new parks and additions to those already
existing. Asphalt pavement has been laid on 172 m. of city streets
and avenues. The principal business section of the city now includes
Pennsylvania Avenue from the Capitol to the Treasury Building.
F, G, and H Streets running east and west, 7th, gth and I4th Streets
running north and south and Connecticut Avenue. A zoning law of
1920 restricts certain businesses to prescribed areas, and regulates
the height and character of new structures.
Monuments. The Lincoln Memorial, occupying an elevation in
Potomac Park near the Washington Monument, was practically
complete in the spring of 1921 at a cost of about $3,000,000. It is a
rectangular edifice of white marble surrounded by 36 Doric columns,
one for each state of the Union at the time of Lincoln's death. The
principal interior feature is a marble statue of Lincoln by Daniel C.
French; on the walls within are lettered the Gettysburg Address
and phrases from the second Inaugural Address. The memorial was
designed by Henry Bacon and erected under the direction of a com-
mission appointed by Congress in 1911. Across the Potomac river,
in Arlington National Cemetery, are the amphitheatre and chapel
erected at the instance of the Grand Army of the Republic in
memory of all soldiers, sailors, and marines who have fought under
the flag of the United States, and also intended to provide a place of
assembly for the observance of Memorial Day. The amphitheatre is
an enclosure with a colonnade of white marble; the turf is left un-
covered and open to the sky. The chapel has a seating capacity of
5.000. The two buildings were completed shortly after the outbreak
of the World War at a cost of $825,000. Statues and monuments
erected during the decade 191020 include Christopher Columbus by
Lorado Taft, Union Station Plaza; John Paul Jones by C. H. Nie-
haus, Potomac Park; a monument to Maj. Pierre Charles L'Enfant
who designed the plan on which the city has been built, in Arlington
Cemetery; the Butt-Millet Fountain, Daniel C. French, sculptor,
Thomas Hastings, architect, erected near the Washington Monu-
ment as a memorial to two men who lost their lives in the " Titanic"
disaster (1912) and the James McMillan Fountain, Herbert Adams,
sculptor, Thomas Hastings, architect. The Grant statue, nearing
completion on the east front of the Botanic Garden, is the work of
Edward P. Casey, architect, and Henry M. Shrady, sculptor, and
will have cost about $240,000. During the World War the statue
of Frederick the Great, in the Army War College grounds, was
removed. Flannery's Abraham Lincoln, at John Marshall PI. and
D Street, also removed, was to be replaced.
Education. The Wilson Normal School, nth and Harvard
Streets, was erected in 1913 at a cost of $257,000, and an expenditure
of $1,493,000 was made for the site and building of the New Central
High School (1916), at nth and Clifton Streets. The enrolment
in the graded schools in Jan. 1921 was 53, 840, and in the high schools,
8,735. There were 2,096 teachers 1,442 white, 654 negroes. More
than one-third of the pupils were negroes.
Manufactures. In 1919 there were in Washington 595 manufac-
turing establishments (exclusive of Government industries) whose
products were valued at $68,826,570, of which $37,886,470 was
added by manufacture. There were engaged in those industries
14,101 persons, whose salaries and wages amounted to $18,856,410.
In value of products there was an increase of 137-5% over 1914,
and in salaries and wages an increase of 119'!%. Some of
the principal industries in 1919 were: newspapers and periodicals,
$11,898,000; bakery products, $10,626,000; meat-packing, $5,012,-
ooo; ice cream, $4,101,000. Statistics of governmental industries
are shown in the table at the top of page 956.
956
WASHINGTON (STATE)
Census
Year
Persons engaged
Expenditures
Cost of
Materials
Total
Wage- Earners
Total
Salaries
Wages
1919 .
1914 .
1909 .
22,423
11,639
11,47
20,169
10,614
10,657
$59,074.889
17,862,758
15,508,250
$3, 540.566
1,122,927
1.016.745
$29,794,728
10,614,466
10.663,040
$25,346,438
5,902,954
3.807,626
The figures are in each case for n establishments, and include
principally engraving and printing, instrument manufacture, and
the naval gun factory. The marked increase in the figures for 1919
was due to the abnormal activity brought about by the war.
History and Finance. During the participation of the United
States in the war there was employed in the Government depart-
ments a maximum of 117,760 civil service employees, but this
number had been reduced in 1920 to 86,846. The personal U.S.
income taxes collected in the city of Washington in 1918 amounted
to 8,669,100. Local taxes collected in 1920 amounted to nearly
$3,000,000 on personal property and $8,633,278 on realty. The
total value of assessable real estate was 426,623,630. The amount
contributed by Congress for municipal expenses was more than
$8,000,000. In 1920 private building operations amounted to
$22,638,862, and for the 10 years 1910-20 to over $151,000,000.
During the war the District of Columbia furnished 24,853 troops
and subscribed $127,129,650 for the purchase of Liberty and Victory
Bonds and War Savings Stamps, and for contributions to Y.M.C.A.
and other war funds. (J. C. P.*)
WASHINGTON (State) (see 28.358). The pop. in 1920 was
1,356,621, an increase of 214,631, or 18-8%, over the 1,141,990 of
1910, as against an increase of 120-4% in the preceding decade.
The density of pop. was 20-3 per sq. m.; in 1910 17-1. The
urban pop. (in 35 places of 2,500 or more) was 55-2% of the
whole, as against 53 % in 1910. The pop. of the eight cities having
more than 15,000 was:
1920
1910
Increase
per cent
Seattle
Spokane
Tacoma
Everett
Bellingham
Yakima
Walla Walla
Aberdeen
315.312
104,437
96,965
27,644
25-585
18,539
15,503
15,337
237,194
104,402
83-743
24,814
24,298
14,082
19,364
13,660
32-9
15-8
11-4
5-3
31-7
19.9
12-3
The most significant change in the characteristics of the pop. was the
increased number of Japanese and especially of Japanese women.
In 1900 there were 5.617 Japanese, or i-i % of the total pop., 96-7 %
being males. In 1910 the Japanese had increased 130-2% to a total
of 12,929, which was still I-I % of the total pop., 86-9% being males.
In 1920 there were 17,114 Japanese, or 1-3 % of the total. The rate
of increase was 32-4% and the percentage of males had declined to
65-3. One reason for the proportional increase of females was the
privilege, prior to the legislative session of 1921, of acquiring title to
land in the names of native-born children of Japanese parents.
Agriculture. During the decade 1910-20 the number of farms
increased from 56,192 to 66,288; the acreage of improved land from
6,373,311 ac. to 7,129,343 ac.; the value of all farm property from
$637,543,411 to $1,057,429,848. The average value of land per acre
in 1910 was $44.18; in 1920 $60.22. The following table shows the
change in acreage, production, and value of the chief crops for the
decade 1909-19.
Acreage
Production
Value
Wheat . . <
1919
2,494,160
41,837,909 bus.
$91,206,642
1909
2,118,015
40,920,390
35,102,370
Oafe J
1919
191,673
8,073,481
8,073,481
Wlllb . . ^
1909
269,742
13,228,003
5,870,857
Barley . . j
1919
1909
84,568
171,888
2,249,856
5.834,615
3,374,792
3,331,930
Indian corn . <
1919
1909
34,799
26,033
901,905
563,025
1,623,433
404,367
Potatoes . <
1919
55-132
5,866,710
12,320,093
1909
57,897
7,667,171
2,993,737
Hay and forage <
1919
1909
1,064,130
742,741
2,013,913 tons
1,399,597
47,717,065
17,200,252
Sugar beets . <
1919
1909
5,363
1.270
46,386
6,556
500,969
38,007
Crops of increasing importance are bulbs, flowers, vegetable seeds,
flax, filberts, and English walnuts. Prohibition increased enormously
the demand for berry-juices. Three-fifths of the loganberries pro-
duced in the United States come from Washington (1,157,778 qt. in
1919, valued at $208,402). The evergreen wild blackberry (supposed
to have been introduced from Hawaii) is spreading through the river
valleys, and the fruit is shipped in carload lots to the canneries.
In 1919 the state ranked first in the production of apples and third
in hops (1,615,761 Ib., valued at $727,092). The growth of the chief
orchard crops between 1909 and 1919 was as follows:
Production
Value
Apples . . . <
1919
1909
21,568,691 bus.
2,672,100
$38,823,641
2,925.761
Peaches . . j
1919
1909
1,544,859
84,494
3,321,449
118,918
Pears . . . [
1919
1909
1,728,759
310,804
3,025,331
328,895
Plums and Prunes <
1919
1909
785,920
1,032,077
1,532,546
600,503
The following table shows the growth in number and value of
domestic animals during the decade 1910-20.
Number
Value
Horses -|
1920
1910
296,381
280,572
$25,069,336
29,680,849
Mules /
1920
23,091
2,93.Ni3
1910
12,185
1.7/6.297
Milch cows . . <
1920
1910
289,635.
186,233
23.64,537
7,988,133
Sheep ... |
1920
1910
623,779
475-555
7,750,407
1,931,17
Swine . . . <
1920
1910
264,747
206,135
5,049,249
L927
In 1917-8 condenseries used 205,657,654 Ib. of whole milk to pro-
duce 1,844,097 cases of condensed milk, valued at $8, 870,^25.
Cream and butter were sent to the cities from 1 10 creameries. In
1919 in 19 factories the production of cheese was 2,004,365 lb. r
valued at $348,669.
During the decade 1910-20 the irrigated farms increased from
7,664 to 13,271 ; irrigated acreage from 334,378 ac. to 529,899 acres.
The Reclamation Service of the Federal Government has impounded
the waters in Keechelus Lake (Kittitas county) and other lakes toserve
large projects in the Yakima valley. The Kittitas county project
under the state law was designed to reclaim 70,000 ac. ; the Klickitat |
county project to irrigate 90,000 acres. The largest enterprise is the
Columbia Basin project, to utilize the waters of Pend Oreille lake
and river for the irrigation of 1,750,000 acres.
Mining. The value of gold production decreased from $840,0001
in 1911 to $280,000 in 1919. The amount of silver produced increased
from 230,000 oz. to 299,000 oz. ; copper from 196,000 Ib. to 1 ,320,000 !
Ib. ; lead from 848,000 Ib. to 1,700,000 Ib. ; zinc from 25,000 Ib. to
39,000 pounds. Coal mined in 1911 was 3,573,000 tons; in 1919;
3,100,000 tons. During the decade 1910-20 five new cement plants:
were established in the state, and large quantities of Portland cement
exported. Of increasing importance are clay products, such as
paving brick, sewer pipe, and terra cotta.
Manufactures. The following table shows the growth of manu-
factures 1909-14.
1914
1909
Number of establishments
Wage-earners (average)
Capital
Salaries
Wages
Cost of materials ....
Value of products ....
Value added bv rran'ifnrt'.re .
3,829
67,205
$277,715,262
11,504,088
51,703,052
136,609,309
245,326,456
108,717,147
3,674
69,120
$222,261,229 ,
9,826,579
49,766,368
117,887,688
220,746,421 I
102,858,733!
The chief items were lumber and timber products, flour-mill and
grist-mill products, slaughtering and meat-packing, butter, cheesei
and condensed milk, printing and publishing, malt liquors, canning 1
and preserving. In 1914 the state ranked twenty-third in value of'
products and twenty-seventh in number of wage-earners.
Water Power. Chief Engineer Merrill, of the Forest Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, has prepared a chart showing the
distribution of water-power resources in the United States. The
total represents 54,000,000 H.P. Washington is shown to exceed all
other states, with 16% of the total, California being second with
14-5% and Oregon third with 12-3 per cent. Efforts were being
made in 1921 to secure Government control of trunk lines for the
distribution of hydro-electric power.
Ports and Commerce. During and immediately after the World
War the commerce passing through the district of Puget Sound was
second only to that of New York. A law approved on March 14 1911
WASHINGTON CONFERENCE
957
authorized the organization of ports, and where these are made
coextensive with the areas of first-class counties they become ports
of the first class. These have elaborate powers of taxation and
management. Seattle, Tacoma, Aberdeen and other cities have taken
advantage of this law to improve their harbours and to build great
wharves and other conveniences to handle the increasing commerce.
Highways. The state has embarked upon the task of providing
in extensive system of improved roadways. These include the
hington link of the Pacific Highway, intended to extend from
lea to the Straits of Magellan, another highway around Puget
~<>mid to the. Pacific; and highways across the Cascade Range and
rn Washington. The Federal Government maintains the Mt.
ier National Park and the Olympic National Monument.
rts were being made in 1921 to preserve the Mt. Baker and
rhe Mt. Adam national parks. National forests include 12,000,000
ic. within the state. The Legislature has created a state Park Board
mthorizcd to receive lands for parks and to preserve strips of native
orcst growth along the highways.
History. Ernest Lister, Democrat, became governor in 1913
md was reelected in 1916. He died June 14 1919, and was
iuccceded by Lt.-Gov. Louis F. Hart, Republican. Governor
was elected to succeed himself in 1920. He recommended
vhat is known as the Governor's Administrative Code of 1921,
>ne of the most significant changes in the state government
its organization. It was enacted by the Legislature, and
nany boards of commissioners were abolished. The work
I ormerly in their hands was entrusted to appointive officers.
I Commerce with many nations developed rapidly during the
lecade 1910-20. In Seattle there were in 1921 24 resident con-
[luls representing foreign countries. By far the greater number
if vessels coming to ports of Puget Sound were under the Japa-
.icsc flag. Branches of Japanese banks were established. In 1921
he Legislature passed a law restricting alien ownership of land,
imed especially at the Japanese. It provides that: an alien shall
lot own land or take or hold title thereto; no person shall take
r hold land or title to land for an alien; land now held by or for
.liens in violation of the constitution of the state is forfeited to
nd declared to be the property of the state; land hereafter
onvcycd to or for the use of aliens in violation of the constitution
r of this Act shall thereby be forfeited to and become the prop-
rty of the state. The word " alien " is so denned that it docs
ot include an alien who has in good faith declared his intention
o become a citizen of the United States, but does include all
ther aliens and all corporations and other organized groups of
ersons a majority of whose capital stock is owned or controlled
y aliens or a majority of whose members are aliens. During the
Vorld War many yards were established for the building of steel
nd wooden ships. A special railway was built into the spruce
crests of Clallam county to get materials for airplanes. The
'cdcral Government established a permanent cantonment at
I'amp Lewis, near Tacoma. A naval training station was estab-
\ shed on the campus of the university of Washington in Seattle.
Progressiveness was shown in such legislation as the working
len's compensation law (1911), initiative and referendum (1913),
Ipcall of public officers (1913) and aid for destitute mothers
1915). To meet the high cost of government the Legislature in
J92i enacted laws levying a poll-tax on every person between the
iges of 21 and 50, and a tax of one cent on each gallon of gasoline
ised by motor vehicles; the tuition charges in state institutions
' F learning, and the fees for licences for automobiles and for fish-
ealcrs and others were also increased.
During the World War the state supplied to the army 4S,iS4
ten; navy 11,887; and marine corps 1,767. The state's sub-
:riptions to the Liberty loans were: First, $17,070,650; Second,
38,481,100; Third, $42,907,950; Fourth, $70,189,650; Fifth,
4.5,024,150. (E. S. M.)
WASHINGTON CONFERENCE, 1921. Preliminary invita-
ons to a conference at Washington on the limitation of
ational armament were issued by President Harding on
uly 10 1921 to Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. On
ug. 1 1 formal invitations were sent to these Powers, to China,
nd later to Belgium, the Netherlands, and Portugal, Presi-
ent Ha'rding having been authorized by Congress, in an amend-
icnt to the Naval Appropriations bill signed July n 1921, to
rrange for the Conference. The President made it plain that
he regarded disarmament questions .as closely linked with the
Pacific and Far Eastern problems. As American delegates
Mr. Harding designated Secretary of State Hughes, Elihu
Root, Senators Lodge and Underwood; the British Empire
was represented by Mr. Balfour, Lord Lee of Fareham, Sir
Auckland Geddes and Sir Robert Borden, as principal dele-
gates; France by Premier Briand, M. Viviani, M. Sarraut,
and M. Jusserand; Italy by Sig. Schanzer and Sig. Ricci; Japan
by Prince Tokugawa, Admiral Kato, and Ambassador Shide-
hara; China by Mr. Wellington Koo and Mr. Sze.
The Conference assembled Nov. 12 1921, was addressed by Mr.
Harding, and elected Mr. Hughes as its chairman. The latter
at once placed the American proposals on naval disarmament
before the gathering; they were so precise and far-reaching as
to cause general surprise. Reviewing the failure of previous
attempts at disarmament and emphasizing the existing oppor-
tunity, Mr. Hughes proposed that there should be a naval
" holiday ": " for a period of not less than 10 years there shall
be no further construction of capital ships." He then presented
a definite plan for the scrapping of certain of the older capital
ships and of capital ships under construction, and the restriction
of capital ship replacements by an agreed maximum of ton-
nage, as follows: for the United States and Great Britain
500,000 tons each, for Japan 300,000 tons a " 5-5-3 " ratio.
Discussion of the tonnage allowance for France and Italy was
reserved for later consideration. The directness with which
Mr. Hughes stated his case struck a note which evoked hearty
response from the delegates and the public, and he was at
once supported by the British delegation. " We can no longer
content ourselves," Mr. Hughes said, " with investigations,
with statistics, with reports, with the circumlocution of in-
quiiy. . . . The world wants a practical programme which
shall at once be put into execution." At the second plenary
conference, held Nov. 15, the representatives of France, Japan,
and Italy also accepted the principles of the Hughes pro-
posals, leaving the technical details for consideration by the
experts.
In the plenary session of Nov. 21 the subject of military
armament was introduced by Mr. Hughes, who said that the
United States had followed its traditional policy of reducing
its own regular military establishment to the smallest possible
basis. He recognized, however, the special difficulties existing
in Europe. M. Briand explained the attitude of France as based
on her need for security in Europe; expressing the readiness of
his country to take any steps necessary to 'ensure peace, he
emphasized the necessity of a genuine atmosphere of peace,
a " moral disarmament," before physical disarmament could
be attempted. This atmosphere, he maintained, was lack-
ing chiefly because of what France regarded as the warlike
attitude of Germany, the carefully maintained system which
made it possible for her suddenly to convert a huge number
of " civilians " into troops, and the availability of her war
industries. France, he claimed, had already reduced her army
by a third and was planning to reduce it by a half. Complete
demobilization, however, was impossible for her under the
conditions existing in Germany and Russia. M. Briand con-
cluded with an appeal for the moral support of France by other
nations, and this evoked a sympathetic response from the
other delegates. Sig. Schanzer of Italy, however, made plain
the desire of his country that "the general limitation of land
armaments may become a reality within the shortest space of
time." The result of the attitude of France was to establish
the impracticability of discussing any definite plan for the
limitation of armies. A sub-committee was appointed, however,
to consider the questions of air-craft, poison gases, and the
rules for the conduct of war.
The agenda of the Conference were dealt with by two com-
mittees of the whole, one composed of the delegates of the five
principal Powers to deal with limitation of armament, the other,
composed of delegates of all nine Powers, including China,
Belgium, the Netherlands, and Portugal, to deal with matters
affecting the Pacific and the Far East.
958
WASHINGTON CONFERENCE
Meetings of these committees and their sub-committees, be-
ginning with their first sessions, Nov. 14 and 1 5, were held in the
Pan-American Building and were not open to the public. Lengthy
sions, of which six were held. The decisions reached were in regard
to navies, including submarines; poison gases; the Pacific Ocean
and its islands; and Chinese affairs.
communiques were published on the progress of the discussions,
and their results were reported formally at the open plenary ses-
The committee on armament discussed fully the maximum
tonnage and ratio of capital ships to which each Power should
WASHINGTON CONFERENCE
959
itrict itself; and on Dec. 20 a provisional agreement was
reached. Japan maintained (Dec. 20) that 60 per cent of the
quota proposed for the United States and Great Britain on
-5-3 pl an was insufficient for her defensive needs, and
.ed that it be increased to 70 per cent; her delegates were
icially unwilling to sacrifice the " Mutsu," a new capital
ip (in large measure paid for by popular subscription) which,
under the Hughes plan, would have to be scrapped. This
obstacle was overcome by permitting Japan to retain the
"Mutsu," on condition that an older ship, the " Setsu," should
be scrapped. This change gave Japan two post-Jutland ships
and an increased capital-ship tonnage, to offset which it was
agreed that the United States should complete two ships still
in process of construction, and that Great Britain should con-
struct two new vessels not to exceed 35,000 tons each. In
replacement tonnage the ratio was to stand thus: United States
ind Great Britain 525,000 tons each, and Japan 315,000 tons
i ratio of 5-5-3- This agreement was stated to be contingent
apon a suitable arrangement for France and Italy, who had
lljeen offered a replacement tonnage of 175,000 each. But M.
iSarraut, representing France, held out for an aggregate of
350,000 tons, to be constructed on a replacement basis from
[1925 onwards. The controversy was finally laid before M.
Briand, who had returned to France; he agreed to accept for
France the capital-ship ratio of 1-75 as against 1-60 for the
United Slates and for Great Britain, but made his consent
:onditional on the obtaining of a larger proportion of auxiliary
:ral't and submarines, which were regarded by France as purely
I defensive weapons. " The idea which dominates the Washington
Conference," he telegraphed, " is to restrict naval armaments
Iwhich are offensive and costly. But I do not believe that it
|!s the programme to deny to a nation like France, which has a
arge extent of coasts and a great number of distant colonies,
the means of defending its communications and its security."
The French reply settled the problem of capital ships, but
|l warm controversy was provoked over submarines, Mr. Bal-
iour, on behalf of the British delegation, proposing the complete
ibolition of the submarine, on the ground that it was an
Inhuman agent of warfare, effective only in illegal attacks upon
hommcrce. Mr. Hughes proposed a reduction of submarine
.onnage for the United States and Great Britain to 60,000
ppiece, and approximately the status quo for France, Japan,
knd Italy (31,500 for the first two, 21,000 tons for the last).
IBut the French delegates refused to accept less than 90,000
tons for submarines and 330,000 for cruisers and auxiliary
[:raft. Mr. Balfour then made it plain that, failing action against
[:he submarine itself, Great Britain could accept no limitation
for anti-submarine craft.
As a result, the treaty, as finally agreed upon by the five
Inajor Powers, did not include limitation of total tonnage of
liubmarine or auxiliary craft. Limits, however, were placed
Lpon the total tonnage of aircraft carriers and upon individual
j:onnage of capital ships and cruisers, as well as upon the calibre
l)f guns carried.
The failure of the British attempt to abolish the submarine
ras mitigated by the passage of a series of resolutions presented
jy Mr. Root and later embodied in a treaty. As accepted, they
itated the rules of international law as to " visit and search "
>n the high seas, and declared that belligerent submarines are
lot exempt from these rules. They invited the adherence of all
:ivili/,ed Powers to this statement. In the third place, they
ecognized that the use of submarines as commerce destroyers
ras practically impossible without violation of these rules,
jind that prohibition of such use should be accepted as a law of
iiations; they declared the assent of the contracting Powers
uo such prohibition and invited that of all other nations. No
lefinition of a merchant ship was adopted. In the fourth place,
pey declared that commanders of all ships transgressing inter-
lational rules should be subject to punishment for piracy.
Vircraft limitation was rejected by the Conference, after a
Uchnical report of the sub-committee had declared limitation
o be impracticable, but an inquiry commission was appointed.
The abolition of the use of poison gas in international warfare,
on the other hand, was advocated by the Naval Committee
Jan. 7 1922, on the motion of Mr. Hughes, and prohibition
of poison gas was embodied in a treaty.
In respect of the problems of the Pacific one of the most important
accomplishments of the Conference was the drafting of a new treaty,
presented at the plenary session Dec. 10 1921, between the United
States, Great Britain, France and Japan. It pledged each to respect
the rights of the others in relation to their insular possessions and
insular dominions in the Pacific, to accept mediation in case of
controversy over these possessions, and to open frank discussions
if their rights were threatened by any other Power. The treaty was
to remain in force for 10 years, and upon its ratification the Anglo-
Japanese Alliance Vas automatically to be terminated. A reservation
accompanied the treaty embodying provisions to the effect that it
should not be deemed an assent on the part of the United States to
"mandates" granted in the Pacific under the Peace Treaty of Ver-
sailles, and should not preclude agreements relative to mandated
islands.
The reservation also excepted from arbitrable controversies ques-
tions lying within the domestic jurisdiction of the contracting Powers.
To the treaty was later appended also a second agreement, denning
the phrase " insular possessions and insular dominions " in such a way
as to exclude Japan proper from its scope. The representatives of
the United States and Japan also signed a treaty regarding Yap,
according to which the United States was to have free access there on
a footing of entire equality with Japan in all that related to cable
and radio service, and received certain privileges and exemptions in
relation to electrical communications. Subject to various conditions
the United States consented to the administration by Japan of the
mandated islands in the Pacific north of the equator.
Chinese problems were presented Nov. 16 1921 by Mr. Sze in the
form of ten points, which the Conference was asked to adopt. They
called for recognition of the territorial integrity and political and
administrative independence of China, the "open door ' neutrality,
and the complete removal of all political, jurisdictional, and adminis-
trative restrictions upon the Chinese Republic.
The general attitude of the Conference towards China was crys-
tallized Nov. 21, when four resolutions presented by Mr. Root were
adopted. They declared the intention of the Powers' to respect the
sovereignty, the independence, and the territorial and administrative
integrity of China, their desire to maintain the principle of equal
opportunity for the commerce and industry of all nations, and their
agreement not to seek special rights or privileges. Details of specific
arrangements to be enforced led to long discussions. A resolution
was adopted (Dec. 24) proyiding for the voluntary withdrawal of
foreign post offices from China Jan. I 1923, on condition that China
should maintain efficient service and continue the supervision of
the foreign co-director general. The problem of extra-territorial
rights could not be settled definitely, but it was referred to an inter-
national committee for intensive study and report within a year.
The demand for the withdrawal of foreign troops from China was
referred to a sub-committee, and finally it was agreed that, while the
principle of withdrawal was accepted, the issues raised should be
made the subject of inquiry, in order to determine the conditions
upon which withdrawal must depend. On the other hand the
Powers passed a resolution urging China to reduce the large military
forces maintained by the military governors. The relinquishment
of foreign leaseholds in China was not actually secured (though
Great Britain announced her readiness in this respect if other
countries would join her) ; but China's fight for " open diplomacy "
was virtually won when a resolution was passed (Dec. 8) pledging the
nine Powers not to enter into any agreement that might impair the
force of the four Root resolutions. As regards the customs tariffs,
the demand for China for complete autonomy was not granted, nor
the request made, in view of the nation's financial necessities, that
her quota be raised from 5% to 12^%. It was decided, however,
that China's customs revenue should be increased by $46,000,000
silver annually, through an advance to 5% effective, a surtax of
23%, and a surtax not exceeding 5 % on luxuries. Other resolutions
included agreements that foreign radio stations should transmit
only Government messages, that there should be no unfair dis-
crimination in railway rates, an expression of hope that the railway
system might be unified under Chinese Government control, and an
agreement for the establishment of a Board of Reference for Far
Eastern Questions.
. The question of the Japanese occupation of Shantung entailed long
negotiations, which at times seemed dead-locked, especially those
relating to the Tsing-tao-Tsinan-fu railway. Largely through the
mediation of Mr. Hughes and Mr. Balfour a separate agreement
was finally reached between Japan and China and signed Feb. 4.
It provided for the return to China of the former German leasehold
and 5O-km. zone in Shantung, and the withdrawal of Japa-
nese troops and gendarmes; China was to purchase the Tsinan-fu
railway for $30,000,000, but, before complete redemption, there
were to be appointed a Japanese traffic manager subject to the
direction of the Chinese managing director, a Japanese accountant,
and a Chinese accountant of equal rank. Japan renounced all rights
960
WATERHOUSE WATER SUPPLY, MILITARY
to foreign assistance stipulated in the Chinese-German Treaty of
1898, and relinquished the maritime customs at Tsing-tao and former
German public properties. As to Siberian problems, Baron Shide-
hara made a full statement to the effect that it was "the fixed and
settled policy" of Japan to respect the territorial integrity of Russia,
and to observe the principle of non-intervention in the internal affairs
of that country, as well as the principle of equal opportunity for the
commerce and industry of all nations.
The decisions taken by the Conference were embodied in seven
treaties and various supplementary resolutions. (l) Five-Power
Naval Treaty, designating specifically the capital ships to be retained
by each of the contracting Powers and determining the ratio of
capital ship replacement: 525,000 tons for the United States and
Great Britain, 315,000 tons for Japan, 175,000 tons for France and
Italy each or 5-5-3-1-66. This treaty also limited the tonnage
of individual capital ships to 35,000 and the calibre of guns to 16
inches; individual cruisers were limited to 10,000 tons and their
guns to 8-in. calibre. Aircraft carriers were limited in general to
an individual tonnage of 27,000, with a total tonnage of 135,000 for
the United States and Great Britain, 81,000 for Japan, 60,000 for
France and Italy each. With certain exceptions, the status quo was
to be maintained with regard to fortifications and naval bases in the
Pacific. (2) Five-Power Treaty Relating to the Use of Submarines
and Noxious Cases in Warfare, embodying the resolutions described
above. Accompanying these treaties were two resolutions for a
commission of jurists to consider amendment of the laws of war and
limitation of their jurisdiction. (3). Four-Power Treaty, between
the United States, Great Britain, Trance, and Japan, relating to
insular possessions and insular dominions in the Pacific, accompanied
by the declaration of the United States. (4) Four-Power Treaty,
between the same Powers, relating to the foregoing, and defining
"insular" so as to exclude Japan proper from its scope. (5) Nine-
Power Treaty, relating to principles and policies to be followed in
matters concerning China, as described above. This was supple-
mented by ten resolutions embodying the decisions taken as to a
Board of Reference, extra-territoriality, foreign postal agencies,
foreign armed forces, unification of railways, Chinese military forces,
existing commitments of China or with respect to China, the Chinese
Eastern Railway. The treaty embodied the Root resolutions as its
Article I, and strongly emphasized the principles of the "open
door." (6) Nine-Power Treaty, relating to Chinese customs tariffs.
(7) Chinese-Japanese Treaty, regarding Shantung. Two other
treaties connected with the work of the Conference were: United
States-Japanese Treaty, regarding Yap; and the Six-Power Treaty,
allocating German cables in the Pacific. The Conference on Limita-
tion of Armament was formally terminated Feb. 6 1922. On
March i th; U. S. Senate ratified, by a vote of 67 to 22, the treaty
with Japan regarding Yap. (C. SEY.)
WATERHOUSE, JOHN WILLIAM (1847-1917), English painter
(see 28.370), died in London Feb. 10 1917.
WATERLOW, SIR ERNEST ALBERT (1850-1019), English
painter (see 28.381), died at Hampstead Oct. 25 1919.
WATER SUPPLY, MILITARY. The problem of military water
supply bears the same relation to similar work in civil life that
military bridges do to those of ordinary construction; that is to
say, although the ultimate object, and the underlying principles,
are the same, the circumstances of construction are so different
that the whole subject requires separate consideration. It has
been long recognized that military bridges form a distinct branch
of the art of war. Experience now points to the fact that water
supply must be similarly treated. Of its great importance there
is no question. The whole of the military operations in a cam-
paign may turn on its adequate provision. The health and com-
fort of the troops and animals depend on this more than on any
other supply question. Railways demand its provision, both in
quantity and quality. It is therefore a matter both of operations
and of administration, besides being an engineering problem of
the utmost complexity.
In the following account of the most recent experience and
practice connected with this subject, the purely engineering
aspects of the problem will not be considered, and hydraulic
calculations, sources of supply and the calculations entailed, well
sinking and boring, pipe line design, reservoir dams and all other
similar purely engineering technicalities will be omitted. It is
proposed to consider the matter only in its military subdivisions.
I. Personnel. The duties of officers and other ranks charged with
water supply are broadly to carry out the engineering work involved
in the obtaining and storage of water, and in the arrangements for
insuring its purity till it reaches the custody of the troops supplied,
and also to control all means of its distribution. There should be in
all this organized work every care taken to ensure standardization of
practice; there must be an adequate and competent executive staff,
and efficient subordinates. On the staff of the engineer-in-chief of
an army there should be an officer of high rank and of water experi-
ence, especially in charge of the whole control from the front to the
base. There should be water engineers, under the chief engineers
of the various formations, whose duties will be not only to carry out
work actually ordered, but to reconnoitre, think out schemes, and
generally to have such a grasp of the technicalities of the problem in
relation to the whole military operations, that their advice may be
of value to the army, corps and divisional commanders in consider-
ing the possibilities of operations. It is obviously of the very utmost
importance that the general staff should keep the water engineers
informed, to the fullest possible degree, as to impending develop-
ments, so that water policy may be framed accordingly.
As a general rule the field units of engineering carry out water
supply as part of their normal duties, but in large operations they
may be so fully occupied otherwise that it is necessary to provide
special units for water duties. These would comprise (a) \\atcr
supply companies, each about 8 officers and 250 other ranks, for gen-
eral water work; (b) lorry or barge purification units, each 5 officers
and 1 20 other ranks, for operating purification plant; (c) \\ater con-
trol units, each I officer, 46 others, for provision of turn cocks, j
at water points, etc.; (d) water transport companies, 7 officers, 300
others for distribution by rail, road or canal, and (c) well-boring
sections, each 2 officers and 74 others for wells.
The equipment for these will vary according to the circumstances
of the country. Obviously the water transport con-panics \\ill have
to be provided with many motor lorries fitted with tanks, and the
purification companies with mobile laboratories. The above approxi-
mate sketch of the various units required will, however, indicate the
nature of the equipment to be provided.
_ II. Quantities to be Provided. In any water supply scheme the
aim should be to provide as much water as can be advantageously\
used, for abundant supply means health and comfort. But concur-
rently, there must be rigid control of distribution so as to ei
reduction of waste. In giving, therefore, certain approximate esti-!
mates of quantities required, it must be noted that, in hot din ales
especially, circumstances may call for considerable modification.
Men require, in semi-permanent camps with water-borne sev.
baths, etc., 30 gal. per head per diem; in standing ran ps, wi;
water-borne sewage, 15 gal.; in temporary camps, 5 gallons. The!
absolute minimum is I gal. at rest, and on the march for periods not "
exceeding three days at a time $ gallon. Horses in temperate climates I
drink 6 to 10 gal. a day and the absolute minimum is 3 gallon
horse drinks 3 gal. at a watering, and takes 6 minutes to drink il . In
hot countries and with much work horses may require more than ID
gallons. Oxen and mules drink as much as horses, sheep and pigs
about I gal. per diem, camels 10, with 20 every third day. A camel
takes 20 minutes to water and drinks in two bouts with an interval of
JO minutes.
In hospitals and standing camps allow per diem, for each slipper
bath 200 gal., W. C. 30, lavatory basin 20, urinal 40, yard tap 40, each
vehicle washed 10 gallons.
On railways each broad-gauge locomotive needs 7,000 gal. per
diem, each metre-gauge locomotive 2,500, 6o-cm. -gauge I
Horizontal stationary engines of compound modern type need 2 gal.
per H.P. hour, and for the non-condensing type 4 gallons. I'or
broad-gauge locomotives an alternative figure is 120 gal. per train
mile. They require also for washing out about 3,000 gal. every 7 or
14 days. Boilers require about 20 gal. per H.P. hour under ni i
conditions. Petrol and oil engines require for cooling at rate of 7 gal.l I
per H.P. hour and 35 gal. tank capacity per 6 H.P.
III. Distribution under varying Tactical Conditions. (a) When a
forced landing is contemplated, arrangements must be made fo>
borne water, in quantities much in excess of requirements, for
accidents are almost certain to happen to some of the water-bearini;
vessels. Even if it is known that water does exist on shore,
precautions are necessary, for, in event of hostile resistance, it is
more than likely that a retreating enemy will damage the exi
supplies. Parties of engineers, provided with the proper plant and
tools, must be told off beforehand for water-supply work on !an<
and extra water carts, pack animals with filled recepta< ' ,
should accompany the troops.
(b) When disembarkation takes place on friendly territory,
watering arrangements standpipes, fillers for water bottles, troughs
for animals must be provided near the points of concentration.
The sites for such filling points must be carefully chosen so as not to
impede concentration. Such work as this should be carried out by an
advanced party of engineers, assisted by any local help available.
(c) For troops on the march, in a country reasonably well supplied.
the procedure is for an engineer officer with a party of men equij
for testing the quality, and noting the quantities of water, to
ahead, fix watering places for men and animals, if possible impmvi;
the local conditions and generally make all arrangements so that
everything may be ready in plenty of time before the troops arrive.
But if the march is in a land that has no natural supplies or where
the quality and quantity is doubtful, the problem is different. The
first thing to establish is an initial watering point (I. W. P.) or points,
as far forward as possible before the advance takes place. Water
must be collected there in temporary tanks and so arranged that
lorries can be filled quickly therefrom and dispatched regularly.
WATER SUPPLY, MILITARY
961
^ arrangements for the reception of the lorry-borne water
t be provided at forward-water points, where the tank lorries
be quickly emptied into other improvised tanks whence they
be drawn by the troops in their water carts. At J gal. per man
5 per horse per diem a division requires about 300 tons of water
this means 150 to 300 lorries according to the state of the roads,
lorry doing one trip per day. With pack animals, in countries
e no roads are available, the same principles apply, only in
ition to the contents of the receptacles carried for the troops, an
iwance must be made for the carrying animals' own requirements.
(d) During position warfare there are three areas to be con-
~ :red forward, concentration, and back. The forward area, i.e.
tveen front line and the rear of the heavy artillery zone, will
juire only drinking water for the fighting troops. This will be
istributed (apart from any existing sources) usually from water
-rts or lorries filling at " points " in rear. Tank trucks on light
ilways and pipe lines to water points may possibly be used, but
is is not so usual. While existing supplies should be utilized as
,uch as possible, it is obvious that the greatest precautions against
intamination are imperative. Distribution by water carts (holding
8 gal.) and water lorries, i.e. ordinary motor lorries fitted with
or more tanks, can be made where roads exist with sufficient
rity against hostile fire. They convey water from the supplies in
to storage tanks of temporary construction. These "spill tanks"
the forward area should be small, numerous, and not too near
"i other so as to distribute risk of damage by hostile action.
Itered positions, convenient for the troops, should be selected for
r location. In some soils (e.g. in chalk) it is possible to mine
rground tanks holding large quantities, and to bring supplies of
iter on light railway trucks. With heavy batteries in the vicinity
light railways such tank trucks can be used to deliver water to
lividual units. Storage for the daily supply must be arranged in
ich cases. A piped supply to a forward area is hardly practicable
tthin 5,000 yd. of the line, where shelling is active. Such a system
quires much care in maintenance, will be subject to great risk of
.mage and therefore to waste of water, hence it should not be adopt-
without fnll consideration of other alternatives. If adopted the
:eral plan should be very simple, with as few branches as possible
main lines. It is better to construct radiating lines from the
ce rather than multiply branches. All pipes should be buried
ith 3 ft. of cover ; although this involves their being out of sight, it is
disadvantageous than the exposure to shrapnel and frost. Pro-
:ed shelters for pipe repairs and maintenance parties, together
:th supplies of tools and special fittings, must be arranged at inter-
along the lines. As frequent breaks may be expected, frequent
ige points must be provided ; these will generally be a series of
.1 tanks, say 400 gal. each, dug in and fed direct from the mains.
:h points must be arranged to serve an area of the defence or made
the supply of dressing stations, etc. The ground must be well
ined and all possible protection from shell fire must be given.
: last stage of the travel of the water consumed by the troops in
front line must be by manual labour. Receptacles such as petrol
i may be used, and when filled may be carried to forward dumps
pack animals, tram lines, etc., so as to minimize hand carriage
much as possible, but in the last resort men have to be carriers.
.t the battle of Messines pipe lines were used to take water forward
n catch pits on the Kemmel Hills, from sterilizing barges on the
', and from existing lakes, the quantity being 45,000 to 60,000 gal.
[y. Arrangements were made to transport the water to the troops
pack animals and carrying parties. During the attack, water
:hed the troops within 20 to 40 minutes of the capture of ppsi-
s. This is one instance out of many which illustrate the applica-
pf the principles above generally described.
It is in the concentration area (the line of demarcation between this
ad the forward area being taken as the rear of the heavy batteries)
lat the main source of .supply and main arrangements for distribu-
on to the forward area will be carried out. There will be in addition
ctensive arrangements for troops in reserve, casualty clearing sta-
ons, etc. Whether a comprehensive pipe system should be con-
:ructed, whether there should be a number of pumping stations, or
nether there should be one or two main installations, are matters
hich will have to be carefully considered in the light of local cir-
amstances and available labour and plant. In any case a thorough
,'stem of control with personnel trained in manipulating the
arious valves governing the branches, and a time-table giving
quitable distribution, will have to be organized. The concentra-
on area will be divided up into water areas with water "points"
hence fighting units can draw their supplies by means of their water
irts, but there will be casualty clearing stations requiring special
ttention where water should be laid on to standpipes near kitchens,
blution rooms, operating rooms, etc.
In the back areas the circumstances resemble those of a semi-
errnanent camp. The requirements will be for divisions in billets,
enforcement camps, schools of instruction, etc., and the arrange-
lents only differ from those in regular encampments in cases where
i villages, etc., it is found more convenient to have water cart
oints rather than piped supplies laid on to camping grounds.
(e) Before and after an attack the water supply arrangements
iclude the supply during concentration, and keeping up supply as
ie troops advance. In the former case the work is very much as
xxxii. 31
already described for position warfare. Every endeavour must be
made to develop resources rapidly and secretly on all parts where
attack is contemplated, and the most thorough training must be
given to the technical troops in the rapid extension of the water
system. In Palestine prior to the great attack, material was brought
during night to the farthest advanced positions, and concealed in
orange groves, etc., while the personnel was drilled in rapid laying of
pipes and erecting of pumping plant. The supply after the initial
advance will depend on the nature of the country and the initial
success, and the most complete and accurate intelligence of the
water resources of the country is of paramount importance. While
the construction of pipe lines in the rear of an advancing army may
be of the utmost value in securing a position won (as at the Somme
in 1916), it is hopeless with a rapid advance (as in Palestine in 1918),
so that in this case either independent sources of supply must be
relied on, or transport by lorry must take place, and this places a
tremendous strain on the transport organization and is. therefore, not
lightly to be considered. Where pipe lines are decided upon, it is
well to take them in entirely fresh installations rather than attempt
to extend existing systems.
(/) A few details may be added of various constructional matters
common to all phases of operations.
" Filling points " are tank and standpipe installations where water
carts, lorries, " dixies " and water bottles are filled. Preferably
there should be separate standpipes and approaches for carts and
for lorries, so that the one may not impede the other, but all the
standpipes should be such as can be equally used by either. There
should be provision off the main road for waiting vehicles (within
call of the " point " police).
As there is a limit to the number of horses that should be watered
at _ one point, it is best to establish numerous small "watering
points," with 2OO-ft. run of troughs as a maximum, and to locate the
positions of the stables accordingly. The troughs should be near a
road, but not next a main road where strings of horses would impede
traffic, and, above all, horses must not cross a road to reach the
troughs. The approaches to the troughs and the standings must be
well made, drained and fenced in ; otherwise the whole place becomes
a morass. The frontage for each horse at the trough is about 2|
feet. In an actual instance 6,000 cavalry horses per hour were
watered at 500 ft. of trough, using both sides. This works out at 12
horses per ft. of double troughing, each horse being 5 minutes inside
the enclosure. Probably the best figures for general use are 6 min-
utes each horse and 2j ft. frontage. If watering is to be on both
sides the trough should be at least 3 ft. wide. Canvas troughs
(600 gallons) _ are 36 ft. long, and should be in strong framing.
Where, as is often the case in Oriental countries, water lies deep
below the ground, necessitating the use of pumping machinery, the
watering of large numbers of animals becomes exceedingly difficult.
In the Palestine campaign the water distribution unit was I lift
and force pump, with hose, and I 6oo-gallon trough, which unit with
good management could water some 1 80 horses or 54 camels per
hour. Only 18 camels can use a trough at the same time, and each
relay takes 20 minutes to water. The requirements of a division
are about 100,000 gallons a day, so each field company of Water
Engineers carried 12 water units, or 36 per division. For the men's
drinking water 10 large canvas tanks each holding about 1,500
gallons are needed. For storage, while at rest, large canvas bucksails,
specially proofed and holding some 7,000 gallons, are useful, but it
has been found better to construct tanks of masonry or planking and
to reserve canvas tanks for mobile use. Copper vessels, holding 12
gallons, called fantassis, were used for camel transport.
Some notes may here be given about Oriental methods of raising
water. The shadoof is a bucket hung by a rope to a horizontal swing-
ing pole, slung from a vertical standard and weighted at the end
furthest from the bucket. It can raise about 1,500 gallons an hour
from a depth of 6 feet. The Persian wheel or sakkieli, a system of
small jars working on an endless band round a vertical wheel above .
a well, and actuated by oxen or camels turning a horizontal wheel,
can raise 3,000 gallons an hour from 40 feet. The charsa, or skin
bag, worked by a bullock hauling a rope attached to the bag over a
pulley above the well, can raise 1,500 gallons from 40 feet.
IV. Distribution in Standing Camps and Cantonments. This is a
comparatively easy problem. Certain quantities of supply will have
to be assumed, in accordance with experience in similar cases, at
various points, and then the sizes of the pipes can be calculated by
ordinary hydraulic rules. But it is well to keep the sizes of the pipes
fairly uniform, giving rather larger than the calculated diameters,
both because the data on which the calculations are based are at
best conjectural, and because it is well to avoid a multiplicity of
different sizes. In designing the system it should be arranged that
" dead ends " of pipes are avoided, i.e. that the possibility of water
remaining stagnant in an isolated length of pipe should be reduced to
a minimum. Supply will be from an existing town main, or from some
independent source (well, river, etc.) whence the water is pumped
to an overhead service reservoir that overlooks and can supply by
gravitation the whole system.
V. Purification of Water. A safe water may be turbid in appear-
ance and even disagreeable to taste and therefore repulsive; a
dangerous water may be clear and palatable and therefore attractive.
War experience has shown that few waters are so foul that they
962
WATSON WATTERSON
cannot be rendered safe by suitable treatment. The aim of purifica-
tion is to obtain an effluent which is not only safe, but is palatable, of
good appearance and attractive.
Water for horses is not usually purified. Almost any clear river or
pond may be used in the crude state, and the instinct of the animals
often leads them to refuse a contaminated water, even if it looks
pure. In many cases in Flanders in the World War water from
ponds and marshes, though foul and repulsive, was made quite
potable by simple treatment. The military value of this fact is
evident. Broadly speaking the purifying processes are those which
remove suspended matter, and those which render innocuous bac-
teria which would be harmful.
English waterworks practice in civil life relies almost entirely on
the action of the gelatinous film forming on the surface of a sand
filter, for removing bacteria, but the processes of sedimentation,
filtration and oxidation, which purify water in natural streams and
lakes, can be imitated by artificial means working more rapidly than
the ordinary sand filter process. Sedimentation can be accelerated
by the addition to the water of an alum solution. Filtration can be
effected by passing the water under some pressure through a po-
rous medium; oxidation of bacteria by agents such as chlorine in
measured quantities. In the field the steps taken are to precipitate
the suspended matter by alum solution and then to treat the clear
water by chlorination. The former process, though helpful in the
latter treatment, is not in itself sufficient to produce a potable
water. Chlorination is generally effected by introducing into the
water a solution of calcium hypochlorite (bleaching powder) by
means of the Horrocks apparatus. This is designed so that a test
may be readily applied by men of intelligence to ascertain the condi-
tion of the water as regards free chlorine, and to calculate from this
the amount of bleaching powder which must be introduced in order
to destroy bacteria.
The apparatus for chlorination consists of a box containing six
cups to be filled with the water, two tin spoons each holding 2
grammes of bleaching powder, a special cup for the chloride of lime
solution, glass bottles containing a test solution of zinc iodide and
starch (which has a certain colouring effect on water containing free
chlorine), pipettes, stirring rods, etc. The method of using is to put
varying quantities of the test solution in each of the six cups of water
and observe after half an hour. From the coloration of the water,
bleaching powder in proportionate quantities is added for every 100
gal. of water in the chlorinating tank.
Poisons can be removed from water by various chemical processes,
though it may be easier and cheaper, and certainly safer, to trans-
port other water by road or rail rather than trust to remedial
measures. A contaminated well can be rendered usable in a few
days by cleaning out and continuous pumping, and in the case of
organic pollution by the addition of large quantities of bleaching
powder, followed by pumping out after a period of rest.
VI. Plant and Machinery. The British service water cart
(Mark VII.) holds 118 gal. and consists of a galvanized iron cylin-
der, together with filtering apparatus, two pumps, a box for small
stores, a sterilizing kettle, the whole being mounted on a wooden
frame with cranked axle and wheels for horse draught. The two
filters are placed on the frame in front of the cylindrical tank and
can be used either separately or together. Each consists of a steel
cylinder in which is contained a cloth-covered steel reel and a
chamber for the clarifying powder.
Tank lorries are ordinarily improvised from ordinary motor
lorries by mounting two 3OO-gal. tanks anchored to a wooden frame
bolted to the chassis, with a 2-in. pipe connecting the tanks and a
2-in. draw-off. These tanks should have internal baffle plates to
reduce the swaying action of the water in travelling. Another
method is to sling canvas tanks from framing on the lorry.
The Norton tube well, a perforated tube with hard driving head,
and driven by blows from a " monkey," is useful in obtaining
supplies near the surface in certain soils. Used with a lift and force
pump they are suitable for small installations, but they only yield
200 gal. per hour. They were very useful in the cavalry operations
in the Sinai peninsula, where water was, by their use, frequently
obtained in the dry beds of wadis.
The lift and force pump, which is an article of store, can lift
water through a suction hose from 2028 ft. and force it to a height
of 60 ft. above its former level. It consists of a horizontal barrel 4$
in. bore with a double piston working with a 4-in. stroke and oper-
ated by a crank pivoted above the barrel and worked by manual
power. The suction hose comprises four 12-ft. lengths of prepared
hose, internally wired, and at the end there is a strainer, a perfo-
rated steel drum. The delivery hose consists of one 3O-ft. length of
2-in. canvas hose. This pump is very handy and easily worked by
unskilled labour.
Other pumps for manual power are the semi-rotary for small
deliveries up to 30 gal. a minute (an ordinary piston and plunger
pump) and the chain helice pump, which is an endless chain, or spiral-
ly wound band, with a weight at the end suspended and worked by a
vertical wheel at the top of the well. The surface tension of small
quantities of water adhering to the links of the chain, or the spiral
band, is not broken in the rapid movement of the rising chain until
it is discharged at the summit of the circuit. It is a very simple
form of pump, but only suitable for small discharges.
Of the many patterns of power pumps there are comparatively
few that meet the needs of an army in the field, in respect of being
easily transported, reasonably free from chance of breakdown, and
economy of fuel. It is important that the types used in the field
should be few and that parts should be standardized so as to facilitate
repairs. There should always be a number of spare parts accom-
panying each machine, and there should be other spares kept for
general use at store depots. All suction and delivery connexions
especially should be standardized. As a motive power, high-speed
internal combustion engines are generally of most use, if properly
connected with the pump and operated by competent personnel.
Slow and medium-speed oil engines may be found very useful.
A pumping set will generally consist of (i.) prime mover, direct
gear, or belt coupled to (ii.) pump with valves, strainer, suction
piping and foot valves (iii.) starting gear for engine or motor, set of
spanners, etc. Different classes of pumps will be required for delivery
to tanks near the supply, hasty installations on pipe lines, deliberate
installations for rest camps, etc., and pumping from deep wells.
The variety of pumps suitable for each class is considerable. Men-
tion, however, may suitably be made of the air lift pump, which, on
account of its having no working parts below ground, and for several
other reasons, is the most useful form of pump for military work.
Such a pump can be mounted on a lorry and can go round a scries
of wells, pumping from each the day's supply into an extemporized
reservoir and then going on to the next. It is a device for raising
water by compressed air introduced in a vertical tube connected with
the rising main, either concentrically with that pipe, or in a separate
tube parallel to it. The utility and efficiency of this device has been
amply tested in war, and much attention and valuable experience
has been devoted to the theory and practice of its use.
As regards pipe-laying, cast iron pipes, though ordinarily used in
civil water supplies, with their lead joints are unsuitable for military
work because of the relatively heavy weight as compared with steel
tubes of the same diameter; also they are brittle and unsuited for
rough handling, and the jointing takes more time than the screwing!
up of steel tubes. The latter should, therefore, be invariably used in
the field. As a rule they are not made of larger diameters than 6 in.,
but larger pipes can be obtained, and many miles of lo-in. and 12-in.
pipes were put down in the Sinai peninsula in 1916. For most pur-
poses wrought iron screwed and socketed piping is suitable; the
British standard threads for the pipe ends should be insisted on,
and the whole should be capable of standing a test of 300 Ib. per
sq. in. (ogo-ft. head). If in mountainous country (as with the British
in Italy, where heads of 2,000 and 4,000 ft. had to be negotiated),
the pipes must be of the hydraulic type, with special joints.
Many special fittings are required with a pipe system, elbows, tees,
crosses, etc., and many devices for control and delivery, such as
valves, taps and stop cocks. The main point to remember is that 1
there is no economy in having inferior and cheap fittings, for the \vaste ;
of water which follows their use costs far more than the extra cost of
water and more reliable articles. (G. K. S. M.)
WATSON, JOHN CHRISTIAN (1867- ), Australian politi-j
cian, was born at Valparaiso, Chile, April 9 1867, when his
parents were on their way as emigrants to Australasia. He was
educated at the public school of Oomaru, N.Z., and as a boyi
began work as a compositor. He also made an early entrance into
politics, attaching himself to the Labour party, which came into
prominence during the great strike of Australian dock and trans-
port workers. He was president of the Sydney Trades and,
Labour Council in 1890. From 1894-1901 he was a member of|
the N.S.W. Legislature, where he opposed plural voting andi
inclined towards protection as a means for keeping up the white j
man's wages. Consequently after federation, as a member of|
the Commonwealth Parliament he gave his support to Sir
Edmund Barton and Mr. Deakin and exacted in return legisla-
tion in labour interests. For a short time in 1904, on the resigna-
tion of Deakin, he formed a Labour Ministry, but resigned after
a few months, though he continued to lead the Labour party until
a tariff, of which he could approve, had been passed by Mr.
Deakin in 1908. He then retired from public life.
WATSON, SIR WILLIAM (1858- ), English poet (see
28.414), was knighted in 1917. His later poems include The
Heralds of the Dawn (1912); The Muse in Exile (1913); Retro-
gression (1916); The Man Who Saw (1917) acd The Superhuman
Antagonists (1919).
WATTERSON, HENRY (1840-1921), American journalist
(see 28.418), was among the first to urge, in 1911, the nominationj
of Governor Woodrow Wilson as Democratic candidate fori
president. In Aug. 1918 he retired from active editorship of the
Louisville (Ky.) Courier- Journal, remaining " editor emeritus."
On March 2 1919 a special edition of this paper was published,
containing tributes from his admirers throughout the world.
WATTS WEBER
963
In April he severed all connexion with the paper because of its
support of the League of Nations which he opposed. He died
at Jacksonville, Fla., Dec. 22 1921. He was the author of Old
London Town (1910); History of the Manhattan Club (1915) and
'' Marse Henry": an Autobiography (1919).
WATTS, SIR PHILIP (1846- ), British naval architect, was
irn in Kent May 30 1846, and was educated at the College of
'aval Architecture, becoming a constructor to the Admiralty up
1885. From 1885 to 1901 he was director of the War Shipping
ipartment of Armstrong, Whitworth & Co. at Elswick (subse-
lently returning as a director of the company in 1912); but in
:poi he was appointed Director of Naval Construction at the
iralty. This post he held until 1912, when he was succeeded
Sir Eustace Tennyson d'Eyncourt (b.i868) and became Ad-
T to the Admiralty on Naval Construction. In this capacity
played an important part when the World War came, and it
as his fate, as the designer of the first " Dreadnought," to see
ie use that was made of the fleet which he had brought into
ing in previous years. He was a member of the royal commis-
>n on the Supply and Storage of Liquid Fuel (1912), and of the
luncil of the Royal Society. He was created K.C.B. in 1905.
WATTS-DUNTON, [WALTER] THEODORE (1832-1914), Eng-
man of letters (see 28.422), died at Putney June 6 1914.
WAY, SIR SAMUEL JAMES, IST BART. (1836-1916), Austra-
lawyer and politician, was born at Portsmouth April 1 1 1836.
went to Australia in 1853 and was called to the South Austra-
bar in 1861, becoming Q.C. ten years later, Attorney-
neral in 1875 and Chief Justice of S.A. in 1876. He entered
House of Assembly 1875, and in 1890 was lieut.-govcrnor.
administered the government of the Colony ten times be-
:en 1877 and 1890, and in 1897 became the first representative
f the Australasian Colonies on the Judicial Committee of the
ivy Council. He was created a baronet in Aug. 1899. He did
.uch to help Australian sheep-breeding, and introduced the
iproved Shropshire sheep into Australia. He died Jan. 6 1916.
WEAVER, JAMES BAIRD (1833-1912), American lawyer
d political leader (see 28.439), died at Des Moines, Iowa,
'eb. 6 1912.
WEBB, SIR ASTON (1849- ), English architect, son of
[ward Webb, a distinguished engraver and painter, was born
London May 22 1849. His architectural education was in
che office of Banks & Barry (the latter the son of Sir Charles
Barry), but it was to his own self-study and in particular to
his power of sketching during his many travels, rather than to
iiis pupilage instruction, that his expression in design and plan-
ling are to be ascribed. One of his earliest commissions, on
stablishing himself in practice, was the restoration of the impor-
tant Norman church of St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield (1880), a
(work which lasted through several years. But Webb's peculiar
listinction lies in the large number of important buildings for
vhich he has been responsible. Many of these were the result
)f competitions and include the Victoria Courts at Birmingham,
:he Assurance offices in Moorgate St., and the Christ's Hospital
chool at Horsham, all carried out in partnership with Mr.
ingress Bell. His roll of important buildings is a long one, and
[nay well be headed by the completion of the Victoria and
Ubert museum, South Kensington, and its close neighbours
he Royal College of Science and the Imperial College of Tech-
liology. The first of these was the successful design in a very
Leenly contested competition. The plan has the merit of being
imple and easy to grasp; the long vistas it presents, the octagon
lall, and the galleries are treated boldly and with dignity of
>roportion. The Admiralty entrusted to Sir Aston the new
iritannia Royal Naval College at Dartmouth, and, in conjunc-
ion with Mr. Ingress Bell, he carried out the Royal United Serv-
ce Institution building, Whitehall, and that for the university
>f Birmingham. The National Monument to Queen Victoria,
ipposite Buckingham Palace, was, again, the result of a competi-
' ion, and included a fine but simple lay-out of the Mall and
ither approaches to the site occupied by the central feature
vhich embodies the noteworthy sculptural work of Mr. Brock.
The unworthy setting and background offered to this fine monu-
ment presented by the cement-fronted elevation of Bucking-
ham Palace, for which John Nash and, later, Blore were respon-
sible, led to the long talked of recasting of the front toward the
Mall, and this work was placed in the hands of Sir A. Webb.
He also designed the entrance from Charing Cross to the Mall,
which is ingeniously masked by a building with curved front-
ages, in order that the change in the line of access at this point
may not be noticeable. He was responsible for a large number
of private houses including Yeaton-Pevery, Shrewsbury and
for churches both new and restored in Worcester, Burford
and Witley, and the French Protestant church, Soho. In 1902
Webb was elected president of the Royal Institute of Brit-
ish Architects, and in 1905 was presented with the institute's
gold medal. He was made a Royal Academician in 1903, re-
ceived his knighthood in 1914, and in 1919, on the death of
Sir Edward Poynter, was elected president of the Royal Acad-
emy. This was an unusual honour to be awarded to an arch-
itectural member, and one for which in the long history of that
society there had only been one precedent that, of James
Wyatt in 1805, and even in his case the election was never
officially confirmed.
WEBB, SIDNEY (1850- ), British Socialist and author
(see 28.455). From 1909, when Mr. Webb, with his wife, Bea-
trice, was actively organizing opinion in favour of the Minority
Report of the Poor Law Commission, he continued to play an
influential part in the Labour and Socialist movement. He
became one of the commissioners under the Development Act
in 1913. His election upon the national executive of the Labour
party in the early part of the World War brought him into a
still closer connexion with the responsible leaders of Labour,
and two years later the entire constitution of the Labour party
was remodelled and a programme constructed (Labour and the
New Social Order), which was closely in accord with Mr. Webb's
views and policy. During the war Mr. Webb and his wife
served on numerous departmental and other committees. In
opposition to the majority report of the War Cabinet Committee
on Women in Industry, Mrs. Webb put forward a Minority
Report which was afterwards (in 1919) published separately.
At the general election of Dec. 1918 Mr. Webb stood unsuccess-
fully as Labour candidate for London University (in which he
held the professorship of Public Administration), being second
in the poll. In the coal crisis of the spring of 1919 he was ap-
pointed a member of the Coal Industry Commission and also
put forward in evidence a complete scheme of nationalization of
the coal-mines. In the same year he was appointed to the
Central Committee set up under the Profiteering Act of 1919.
Among the publications of Mr. and Mrs. Webb after 1906, the
following were the most important: English Local Government:
The Manor and the Borough (1908); The Break-up of the Poor
Law and The Piiblic Organization of the Labour Market (1909);
English Poor Law Policy (1910); The State and the Doctor (1910);
The Story of the King's Highway (1913); The History of Trade
Unionism (new and revised ed. 1920); A Constitution for the
Socialist Commonwealth of Great Britain (1920) and The Con-
sumers' Cooperative Movement (1921). Mr. Webb also produced
Grants in Aid (1911); How to Pay for the War (1916); The Works
Manager To-day (1917); and The Story of the Durham Miners
(1921). Mr. and Mrs. Webb were concerned in the founding
of the weekly New Statesman in 1913, and have been since 1895
active movers in the development of the London School of
Economics and Political Science (university of London).
WEBER, SIR HERMANN (1823-1918), British physician,
was born at Holzkirchen, Germany, Dec. 30 1823, the son of a
German father and an Italian mother. He studied medicine at
Fulda, Marburg and Bonn, where he took his M.D. degree in
1848. His residence at Bonn brought him into touch with the
English colony there, and through this connexion he received
the position of house physician at the German Hospital, Dalston,
London. When this appointment came to an end, he started
in private practice, having become a naturalized British subject,
and studied at Guy's Hospital with the object of obtaining an
English qualification (1855). Weber came into great promi-
964
WEDMORE WELDING
nence as a pioneer of the open-air treatment for tuberculosis,
and himself spent many winters in Switzerland in charge of
patients. In 1899 he was appointed a delegate to the Berlin
congress on the prevention of tuberculosis, and the same year
was knighted. He retired from practice at the age of 80, but
retained his health and vigour till his death, which took place
in London Nov. n 1918, in his 9$th year.
WEDMORE, SIR FREDERICK (1844-1921), English art critic
and man of letters (see 28.466), was knighted in 1912. He pub-
lished that year his Memories, a book of reminiscences, social
and literary. He also published Painters and Painting (1913)
and a novel, Brenda Walks On (1916). He died at Sevenoaks
Feb. 25 1921. His daughter, MILLICENT WEDMORE (b. 1879),
herself the author of two volumes of verse, helped him to edit
during the World War Poems of the Love and Pride of England.
WEEKS, JOHN WINGATE (1860- ), American public
official, was born at Lancaster, N.H., April u 1860. He grad-
uated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1881, served two years
as midshipman, then resigned from the navy and became a
civil engineer. From 1886 he was assistant land commissioner
of the Florida Southern Railroad. In the latter year he helped
to organize the banking and brokerage firm of Hornblower &
Weeks, Boston, Mass., of which he was a member until 1912.
His interest in the navy meanwhile continued. In 1890 he
joined the Mass, naval brigade, was made captain, and during
the Spanish-American War commanded the second division of
the auxiliary U.S. naval force on the Atlantic coast. From 1894
to 1900 he wasamemberof the Mass, military advisory board and
of the military board of examiners; in 1896 he was a member
of the board of visitors of the U.S. Naval Academy. He was
elected alderman of Newton, Mass., in 1900, was nelcctcd for
two terms, and then elected mayor (1903-4). In 1905 he was
chairman of the Mass. Republican State Convention. During
1905-13 he was a member of the national House of Representa-
tives and as a member of the committee on banking and cur-
rency took an active part in framing the Aldrich-Vrecland Cur-
rency bill. In 1913 he entered the U.S. Senate, succeeding
Winthrop Murray Crane, but was defeated for reelection in
1919. As a member of the Senate committee on military affairs
during the World War he took part in investigations which
resulted in a reorganization of the ordnance and quartermaster
departments as well as the aircraft production board. In
1921 he entered the Cabinet of President Harding as Secretary
of War.
WEISMANN, AUGUST (1834-1914), German biologist (see
28.499), died at Freiburg-in-Baden Nov. 6 1914. His latest
publications were an estimate of Darwin's work and Die
' Sclcctionstheorie, both published in 1909.
WEISS, BERNHARD (1827-1914), German Protestant New
Testament scholar (see 28.499), died in 1914.
WEKERLE, ALEXANDER (1848- ), Hungarian statesman
(see 28.500), was again appointed prime minister on Aug. 20
1917, and resigned in a public sitting of Parliament in 1918
(see HUNGARY). At the time of the Bolshevist rule in Hungary
he was held prisoner as a hostage.
WELBY, REGINALD EARLE, IST BARON (1832-1915), English
civil servant, was born at Harston, Lcics., Aug. 3 1832. He was
educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and accepted
a Treasury clerkship in 1856. There his financial ability soon
showed itself and his rise was rapid, especially after W. E.
Gladstone became Chancellor of the Exchequer. Finally in 1885
he became permanent secretary to the Treasury. He was made
K.C.B. in 1882, G.C.B. in 1892, and a peerage was bestowed on
him on his retirement. After that event he became an alderman
of the London County Council and in 1899 was elected its
chairman. He died in London Oct. 30 1915.
WELDING (see 28.500). This article discusses Electric Weld-
ing and Gas- Torch Welding. For Thermit Welding, see the
separate article THERMIT AND THERMIT WELDING.
(i) ELECTRIC WELDING. An important development known
as Spot Welding has taken place in recent years. It is a
modification of the Thomson process, peculiarly applicable to
uniting overlapped sheets of metal by welded " spots " or
localized areas of union of the sheets in place of riveting
them. It has the merit of leaving little or no projection or
deformation on the outer surfaces of the sheets so united.
FIG. i.
FIG. 23.
FIG. zb.
The machine for such work is called a " spot welder," and usua..,,
has two electrodes arranged in a vertical line, one above the oilier.
The electrodes consist of short, heavy, blunt copper bars, E f
(fig. i) (water-cooled in the larger machines); the upper electro
E is made movable up and down under control of a manua
operated pressure lever, L, or by a piston actuated by air or \
pressure controlled by a valve. The opposed ends of the electr_ n
which bear upon and form contact with the sheets to be united, i
usually chamfered or given the form of frustums of shallow cot
This reduces resistance loss in t he electrodes and adds to their rigid-..
and durability. The electrodes, as in other resistance welders, an.
made the terminals of the heavy secondary circuit of a \M I
transformer, T, the usual single turn of large section. The cu
is large, but is delivered to the work at low voltage. The weld which
unites the sheets is a spot, usually round in form, confined in extend
to the area covered by the ends of the electrodes. The opposed faced
of the sheets are thus locally and quickly heated to welding tem-
perature, and the pressure of the electrodes causes complete union:
such welded spots are successively made at intervals over anyi
extent of surface of the sheets, as in riveting (see fig. 2, a and hi.
While spot welding has been found to be best adapted to the union ol
overlapped sheets or edges of comparatively thin metal, plates of 1
in. or more in thickness may be spot-welded by heavy welders com
structed for the purpose. In some of these, for mechanical and elecl
trical reasons, two spot welds are made simultaneously by the sameji
current passed in series through two spots covered by two pairs ol
opposed electrodes connected in series in the welding circuit. An-;
other form of welding, known as " projection " welding, is akin tr
spot welding, differing therefrom, however, in the use of elect rod<
faces which do not in themselves determine the welded area or spot i
and in permitting the instantaneous union of plates or pieces a!
many parts of their surfaces. This is accomplished by forming raised]
spots or projections on one or both pieces, which when brou;J
gether form the paths for current and consequent development ol
welding heat irrespectively of the other parts of the plates, and ir-
respectively also of the electrode contact with the sheets, such cpn-(
tact covering a wide extent of the pieces to be welded, and serving
to press them together as the projections between them becorm
heated and softened.
Roller Welding. Roller welding, applicable to forming contii
lapped seams in sheet metal work, has attained in late years
considerable importance. In this operation the overlapped ed. <
the sheets to be united are passed steadily between an upper co
roll with an edge of the width of seam weld desired, and a condi:
mandrel, plate, or similar copper roll forming the under electrode
The weld so formed is a line or strip of a width determined by tin
width of the contact surface of the welding roll. Thin steel tube;
with lap welds are made by this method, and it has also found ap-
plication in the construction of thin metal containers such as stee
thermos bottles, the parts of which are united without solder.
Snap Welding. This term is now commonly applied in connex
ion with the Thomson resistance process to welds made by i
contact of the pieces during heating, followed by quick applicatior
WELDING
965
of heavy pressure to force the heated surfaces together. With iron
and steel the method secures a very strong weld and the heating is
confined closely to the weld itself. Moreover, there is a saving of
time and often of energy.
Percussion Welding. If an electric condenser of large capacity be
discharged by wire terminals of relatively small section made to
approach each other in line, the discharge occurs with a flash of light
at or before actual contact, depending on their potential difference.
With sufficient capacity of condenser the restricted areas of the op-
posed ends of the discharge wires are brought superficially for an
instant to a high temperature, and if immediately pressed into firm
contact will weld or unite. In percussive or percussion welding the
condenser (or, better, a polarization battery of limited capacity) is
charged from any suitable source of electric energy and its terminals
attached to the work pieces, which are then brought into percussive
contact, as by arranging to have one of them fall toward the other
from an appropriate height determined by experiment. The per-
cussion may be assisted by a weight or spring suitably adjusted.
The discharge occurs as above described, and the heated opposed
surfaces are brought instantly together by the forcible impact. A
weld may thus be obtained between the pieces. The rise of tem-
perature is confined almost entirely to the thin layer of metal forming
the joint. The heating effect is thus more local than in any other form
of welding. It is applicable to small work and it extends to a con-
siderable degree the practical possibilities of electric welding. The
stored energy of an electro-magnetic circuit may also be employed
for the instantaneous discharge demanded by percussion welding.
Electric Arc Welding. Stimulated in large measure by the need
of rapid ship construction in the World War, and the modern exten-
sion of electric supply, that form of fusion welding in which the
electric arc is employed has in the past few years grown rapidly in
importance and extent of application. Many forms of arc-welded
joint in steel structures have already been to a degree standardized.
The arc terminal applied to the work (usually the negative electrode
when direct current is used) is a wire or rod of mild steel, mounted in
a suitable holder manipulated by the operator, upon whose skill the
perfection of the work largely depends. These electrode wires
ordinarily vary in diameter according to the scale of the work or
current strength used, and range from ^ in. to & in. or more. As
the welding wire is rapidly consumed in the operation of fusing a
joint, it is constantly fed forward. Automatic arc welders have
been devised and in these the arc separation is controlled automat-
ically and the wire also fed automatically from a reel. In operation
the arc voltage may be from 10 to 20 volts and the current traversing
the arc may be from 80 to 200 amperes or more. The welding is
attended by much sputtering and projection of fused and super-
heated globules of iron from the end of the wire electrode toward the
cooler and heavier masses of the work pieces. In fact, the deposition
of metal on the work is possibly due to a jet of iron vapour from the
electrode wire, carrying fused iron globules as a result of explosive
boiling of the iron. This action would be a natural consequence of
the central area of the end of the electrode wire being at the highest
temperature, as it loses heat by radiation less readily than the outer
surface of the wire at the arc. This central area reaches a temp-
erature of about the boiling point of iron. The temperature of
the arc is so high that the surface of the work pieces, however mas-
sive such pieces may be, is penetrated and fused so that incorporation
of the metal of the work and that from the welding electrode wire takes
place. The welding may be regarded as a progressive filling or plaster-
ing action by condensed iron vapour and fused iron. The operation is
facilitated by coating the electrode wire lightly with mineral films,
such as lime, which probably act by furnishing volatile material
which adds to the stability of the arc. Depending on the strength of
current in the arc and the skill of the operator, from I Ib. to 2 Ib. of
metal per hour may be deposited in effecting the welds, and about
80 % of the metal of the wire used enters the welds, the remaining
20% being vapourized, burned into oxide, or scattered in small
globules. When plates of over -fg in. in thickness are to be butt-
welded they should be bevelled before abutting them, so that a
groove of not less than 60 flare shall be provided, to be filled with the
fused metal (see fig. 3.). Where the plates meet at an angle, as
in fig 4, the fused metal is deposited either at a or b, or both.
FIG. 3.
FIG. 4.
Arc welding can be carried on even upon the under side of the
work (such as a boiler or tank in situ). In this case the electric arc
is at the upper end of the welding wire, and the disadvantageous
position results in the rate of forming the welds being about 60 /
of that in ordinary work. The actual rate at which seams can be
made in arc welding naturally depends upon the thickness 1 of the
plates to be united, the kind of joint to be made and other condi-
tions. With automatic machines on small work it may rise to about
2 ft. per minute, while in heavy work by hand operation it may not
exceed 2 in. per minute. Ordinary arc welds on steel may possess a
tensile strength of as high as 50,000 Ib. per sq. in., but there is almost
negligible elongation. Cast iron is amenable to arc welding when
proper precautions are taken. Likewise bronze and copper may be
arc-welded, a favourable condition for which is preheating of the
work pieces. Arc welding has usually been done by the use of direct
current, and special dynamo generators are constructed for supplying
the current, such generators having been designed with regulating
characteristics suitable to welding. The alternating-current arc
is, however, adaptable to welding, provided the frequency is not
too low. Arc welding covers a large field of application, constantly
extending. It is employed in the construction of tanks, and is espe-
cially useful in caulking the seams of tanks which must retain
oil or thin liquids without leak. It is revolutionizing the fabrication
of many structures of iron and steel, and is much used for repair
work. It is readily applicable to joining broken pieces and to re-
placing metal worn away in use, of which the restoration of rail
surfaces of tramways in situ is now a familiar instance. It is generally
found to be less costly in application than the other forms of fusion
welding, such as that by the use of oxygen blowpipe or thermit
welding. (E. T.)
(2) GAS-TORCH WELDING. Gas-torch welding is variously
known as " autogenous " welding, " oxy-acetylene blowpipe "
welding, " hot gas flame " welding, " fusion " welding, and
other terms which are more or less inaccurate, general, and con-
fusing. The gas combinations more commonly used for torch or
blowpipe welding are either oxygen-acetylene or oxygen-hydro-
gen. Of these two, oxy-acetylene is in more general use for
welding, while oxy-hydrogen, on account of its longer flame, is
generally used to supply heat for steel-cutting torches. The
oxy-acetylene flame has a maximum heat under ideal conditions
of about 3,400 C., and oxy-hydrogen about 2,000 C.
FIG. i. Principle of the low pressure or
injector type of gas torch.
The use of a blowpipe or torch in some form was known to the
ancients, but the high-temperature gas flame is a development
of the last quarter of a century, and especially the past ten years.
The application of the oxy-acetylene torch to metallic welding
dates experimentally from 1901 and commercially from 1903;
Edmond Fouche, Paris, who did considerable experimenting in
conjunction with Ficard, is generally credited with making the
first really practical torch. The early torches used both oxygen
and acetylene under high pressure, but this proved too danger-
ous, and a low-pressure or injector type was next used. Follow-
ing this was the Gauthier-Ely positive or medium pressure
torch, which used both gases under moderate and independent
pressure. The injector and the positive-pressure types are the
ones now in commercial use. The development of the latter is
largely due to Augustine Davis and Eugene Bournonville.
FIG. 2. Principle of the medium
or positive-pressure type of gas torch.
The fundamental principle of the low-pressure or injector type of
torch is shown in fig. I. The acetylene enters at A and the oxygen
966
WELFARE WORK IN INDUSTRY
at B. The acetylene, at less than i-lb. pressure, goes to chamber C,
from which it is sucked by the oxygen, under 5 to 3O-lb. pressure,
pouring out of nozzle D, and is carried along with the oxygen into
the mixing chamber E. The thoroughly mixed gases issue from the
nozzle of the torch, where they are burned.
Carbureting device which positively and
r intimately mixes the two gases in proper proportion
^- /OXYGEN
Oxygen needle
Valvej
Acetylene needle
Valve
\ACETYLENE
The two gases strike
together at right angles
creating a vortex which
insures intimate mixture
The diameters of the parts in the carbureting device
are proportioned to each size of lip, to deliver proper
volumes of gas for each size of flame produced
| luminous Cone of Flame
Secondary reaction. Hydrogen and carbon
monoxide burn, taking the necessary oxygen
from the air and produce water vapor and
carbon dioxide.
FIG. 3. A typical positive-pressure gas torch
The positive-pressure torch principle is illustrated in fig. 2. Here
the oxygen, at from I to 14-lb. pressure, enters at A, and the acety-
lene, at from I to 24-lb. pressure, enters at B. The oxygen enters
the small chamber C and thence out through the centre hole. The
acetylene goes to chamber D and also out through the centre hole.
The two gases start to mix at E and are thoroughly mixed in the
channel F in the torch nozzle G. A typical positive-pressure torch
is shown in fig. 3. Torches are made with tips set at various angles
from 90 to straight, the latter being principally used in welding and
cutting machines. Where the work is heavy the tips are water-
cooled. In welding very thin metal the edges are often turned up or
" flanged " and the torch used to fuse them together without using
any additional metal. On heavier work the edges to be welded are
V-eed out at an angle of from 60" to 90", and this channel is filled
in by using a welding rod or wire, care being taken to obtain perfect
fusion between the old metal and new. Welding of this kind is
progressive, as the welder gradually works along the channel, filling
Oxygen Tank Valve
OXYGEN REGULATOR
^.--Tankor High-
Pressure Gage
Tank or High-
Pressure Gage
Connecting Nut---
Adapter ;
Safety Valve-
Outlet Connection
V- Gutting
Nozzle
-Torch
Head
TORCH
Cutting Valve
Acetylene Hose_.--
FIG. 4. Typical oxy-acetylene cutting unit
as he goes. The torch is given a weaving motion from side to side in
order to fuse the sides of the V and to puddle in the added metal
from the rod. On all torch welding work allowance must be made
for expansion and contraction, and on repair work of complicated
design, like an automobile cylinder, preheating with charcoal, gas-
and-air torches, or other means is usually necessary. Preheating is
also sometimes resorted to in order to save the more expensive gases.
Nearly all of the common medals may be welded with the gas torch,
though some are more difficult than others. Steel ship or boiler plate
is about the easiest, though aluminium, cast iron, copper, and many
alloys present no serious difficulties.
The set-up for a welding outfit is practically the same as that of the
one for cutting shown in fig. 4. A cutting torch, however, differs
from a welding torch in that it has a separate high-pressure oxygen
vent. The cutting of steel and wrought iron is based on the fact that
a jet of oxygen directed on to a previously heated spot of steel
causes it to ignite and burn away rapidly in the form of iron oxide.
The oxide runs or is blown out of the cut or " kerf," in a stream,
provided the torch is fed along properly. The tips used for cutting
may have one or several heating jets preceding or surrounding the
cutting oxygen jet. Only steel or wrought-iron can be successfully
cut on a commercial scale, though channels or slots may be melted in
any metal. A typical job of steel plate cutting is shown in fig. 5,
and a typical cutting torch in fig. 6. Cast iron is cut with difficulty,
and only by using a special tip and highly preheating the oxygen in
a positive-pressure torch or by using an excess of acetylene and an
unusually large tip on the low-pressure types.
FIG. 5. Cutting through a steel plate
CUTTING OXYGEN
CONICAL
GROUND
SEAT
COPPER
TIP
CUTTING .
JET OF ?M
OXYGEN ,',
? ACETYLENE ;
'REHEA'
OXYGEN
y. OXYGEN CUTTING
Si
SET TRIGGER VALVE
OXYGEN CUTTING
PREHEATING PACK ' NG
FLAME
' PACKING
CUTTING VALVE NUT
TRIGGER
(Remains in Open Position)
PREHEATING ,OXYGEN VALVE
OXYGEN
ACETYLENE
ACETYLENE VALVE
VALVE
REMOVABLE PLUS
SPRING
FIG. 6. A typical cutting torch
The same sources of gas supply are used in cutting as in welding.
These are commonly cylinders or drums containing the gases under
pressure up to 225 Ib. per sq. in. and from 100 to 300 cu. ft. capac-
ity for acetylene, and 1,800 Ib. per sq. in. and from loo to 200 cu. ft.
capacity for oxygen or hydrogen. Acetylene, however, may be
generated on the premises, in which case the pressure must not exceed
15 Ib. per square inch. Obviously pressure as great as that mentioned
for cylinders must be reduced for use in the torch and for this pur-
pose regulators are used which automatically keep the gases supplied
to the torch close to the pressure for which they are set. Gas-torch
welding machines that are practically automatic are in use in many
large plants for straight or circular seam welding of drums, cylinders,
tubes, kettles and the like. Cutting machines are much more
commonly used than welding machines. The cutting machines
range from the simple, hand-fed, straight-line cutters to complicated
motor-driven automatic machines that will cut rounds, squares, ovals
or other patterns. One type of cutting machine is made on the panto-
graph principle, and by following a template or pattern the operator
can use two torches and cut two separate steel plates at once. A
cutting machine will, as a rule, cut a narrower and more even kerf
than can be done by hand. Under favourable conditions a machine
can be made to cut a kerf not over -fa in. wide, while a careless or
inexperienced operator with a hand torch may cut a kerf J in. or
more in width. (E. Vi.)
WELFARE WORK IN INDUSTRY. Human beings possess
intelligence, and their well-being depends on psychological as
well as on physiological make-up. Mental and physical activity
are necessary to health. From the industrial point of view both
require to be maintained in order to ensure the efficiency which
represents for the employer a contented personnel, and for the
employed not merely physical health, but a "worth while" life.
WELFARE WORK IN INDUSTRY
967
The development of industrial processes brought about dur-
ing the last century and a half by the application of mechanical
power has introduced greater variations into the conditions of
life and of work than formerly existed. During the period while
control was being established over the efficiency of mechanical
devices, the relation of the worker to these devices, and study of
the efficiency of human beings in relation to altered conditions
of work, were largely neglected. Nevertheless, industrial develop-
ment in England, as elsewhere, has been followed step by step
by "occupational" legislation, controlling employment in fac-
tories, mines, workshops and other places, aimed at protect-
ing physical health. But knowledge of how to protect health
lagged for many years behind the rapid alterations which were
taking place; and the hurry onward to develop wealth-produc-
ing industries left no time for taking full advantage of what
knowledge did exist. Certainly no organized effort was made
during the igth century to acquire new knowledge, and little
or no recognition was given to the new psychological influences
brought into existence even though their effect upon the workers
was manifested in riots and strikes.
The commencement of the 2oth century saw a few far-seeing
employers coming to appreciate that their workers were individ-
uals with whom personal contact must be established and main-
tained, and that modern industrial concerns were far too large
to permit of this contact being established by a busy works
manager. These employers delegated this side of their duties
to definite persons, entrusted with supervision of the welfare of
their workers. The result of this action was in every case
markedly successful, and 30 British factories in 1913 sent rep-
resentatives to a conference held at York. Nevertheless, pre-
vious to the World War the possibilities of welfare work were
undeveloped. One of its results has been to attract more and
more attention to its importance.
Welfare work, as such, may for convenience be considered
alone. In practice it cannot be separated from supervision
of health. The difference between health supervision and wel-
fare is the difference between supervising the health of domestic
animals such as prize cattle and of human beings. Mere pro-
vision of healthy surroundings and of means for personal hygiene
does not meet the needs; there must be appeal to and cooperation
with those concerned. The true spirit of industrial welfare work
cannot be fostered merely by enforcing compliance with legal
requirements. Welfare work means something different; it
means educating and training each individual worker to take
an intelligent interest not only in his own health and efficiency
but also in that of his fellow workers, and in that of the industrial
establishment of which he forms a part. Legal requirements
can but seldom go further than fixing a minimum standard of
accommodation needed; they cannot deal with the personal
idiosyncrasy of workers, or establish a code of healthy etiquette,
or ensure personal cooperation.
The unprecedented demand in the United Kingdom for muni-
tions during the World War called for action to meet varying
needs more rapid and elastic than that of ordinary peace re-
quirements. In 1915, on the formation of the Ministry of
Munitions, Mr. Lloyd George appointed the Health of Muni-
tion Workers' Committee who promptly recommended the
adoption of welfare supervision for munition workers, using the
following words of a well-known employer in support: " If
the welfare workers have the confidence of the employees, , and
are always in touch with them, they will naturally be the medium
whereby matters occasioning dissatisfaction or misunderstanding
can be investigated and put right. By suggesting and advising
upon improvements in conditions of work that may be helpful on
the business side, by initiating and supervising recreative and
other clubs, societies and classes, by visiting the sick, by endeav-
ouring to foster the spirit of good fellowship amongst all grades of
employees, and by being ready to give advice and assistance in
matters affecting individual employees personally and privately
by these and other methods welfare workers may find means
of giving practical effect to the desire of employers to realize
their obligations towards their workers." The Committee also
issued a series of valuable memoranda dealing with workers'
food and industrial canteens; employment of women and of
juveniles; hours of work; industrial efficiency and fatigue;
sickness, injury, and special industrial diseases; ventilation and
lighting; washing facilities; and eyesight in industry. These
various memoranda formed the basis of work undertaken by a
special section established in the Ministry of Munitions en-
trusted with the welfare and health of workers.
Officers of the factory department (lent for the purpose by the
Home Office) directed the work, which is historically important
since thereby the foundations of industrial welfare were laid,
and for the first time official propaganda going ahead of legal
requirements and statute law were largely and successfully
employed. The work was essentially advisory rather than puni-
tive; it aimed at pointing out the lines reforms should take, and
assisting and expediting in every way the carrying out of improve-
ments. The following memoranda, issued by the Ministry of
Munitions, indicate the scope of the work which was being
initiated:
I. WELFARE FOR WOMEN AND GIRLS
The experience which has now been obtained in National and
other factories making munitions of war has demonstrated that the
post of welfare supervisor is a valuable asset to factory management
wherever women are employed. Through this channel attention has
been drawn to conditions of work, previously unnoted, which were
inimical to the well-being of those employed. The following notes
have, therefore, been prepared for the information of employers who
have not hitherto engaged such officers, but who desire to know the
position a welfare supervisor should take and the duties and author-
ity which, it is suggested, might be delegated to her.
It has generally been found convenient that the welfare supervisor
should be directly responsible to the general manager, and should
be given a definite position on the managerial staff in connexion with
the Labour Employment Department of the factory. She is thus
able to refer all matters calling for attention direct to the general
manager and may be regarded by him as a liaison between him and
the various departments dealing with the women employees. The
duty of a welfare supervisor is to obtain and to maintain a healthy
staff of workers and to help in maintaining satisfactory conditions
for the work. In order to obtain both a satisfactory staff from the
point of view of health .and technical efficiency, it has been found
to be an advantage to bring the welfare-supervisor into the business
of selecting women and girls for employment.
Her function is to consider the general health, physical capacity
and character of each applicant. As regards those under 16 years of
age, she could obtain useful advice as to health from the certify-
ing surgeon when he grants certificates of fitness. The manage-
ment can, if they think fit, empower her to refer for medical advice to
their panel doctor other applicants concerning whose general fitness
she is in doubt. The selection of employees furnishes the welfare
supervisor with a valuable opportunity for establishing a personal
link with the workers. Her function is thus concerned with selec-
tion on general grounds, while the actual engaging of those selected
may be carried .out by the overlooker or other person responsible
for the technical side of the work. In this way both aspects of
appointment receive full consideration.
The management may find further that it is useful to consult the
welfare supervisor as to promotions of women in the factory, thus
continuing the principle of regarding not only technical efficiency
but also general considerations in the control in the factory.
The welfare supervisor should ascertain what are the particular
needs of the workers. These needs will then be found to group
themselves under two headings :
(a) Needs within the factory Intramural Welfare.
(6) Needs outside the factory Extramural Welfare.
Intramural Welfare.
The welfare supervisor may be made responsible for the following
matters:
(a)'General behaviour of women and girls inside the factory.
While responsibility for the technical side of the work must rest
with the technical staff, the welfare supervisor should be responsible
for all questions of general behaviour.
(6) Transfer. The welfare supervisor would, if the health of a
woman was affected by the particular process on which she is en-
gaged, be allowed, after having consulted the foreman concerned,
to suggest to the management the possibility of transfer of the
woman to work more suited to the state of health.
(c) Night Supervision. The welfare supervisor should have a
deputy for night-work and should herself occasionally visit the
factory at night to see that satisfactory conditions are maintained.
(d) Dismissal. It will be in keeping with the general suggestions
as to the functions of the welfare supervisor if she is consulted on
general grounds with regard to the dismissal of women and girls.
968
WELFARE WORK
(e) The maintenance of healthy conditions. This implies that
she should, from the point of view of the health of the female em-
ployees, see to the general cleanliness, ventilation and warmth of the
factory and keep the management informed of the results of her ob-
servations.
(/) The provision of seats. She should study working conditions
so as to be able to bring to the notice of the management the necessity
for the provision of seats where these are possible.
Unless the factory is a small one it would hardly be possible for
the welfare supervisor to manage the canteen. The management will
probably prefer to entrust the matter to an expert who should satisfy
the management in consultation with the welfare supervisor on the
following matters :
1. That the canteen provides all the necessary facilities for the
women workers; that is to say, suitable food, rapidly and punctually
served.
2. That canteen facilities are provided when necessary for the
women before they begin work so that no one need start work with-
out having taken food.
3. That the canteen is as restful and as comfortable as possible
so that it serves a double purpose of providing rest as well as food.
Supervision of Ambulance, Rest Room and First Aid. While not
responsible for actually attending to accidents, except in small
factories, the welfare supervisor should work in close touch with the
factory doctor and nurses. She should, however, be responsible for
the following matters:
1. She should help in the selection of nurses, who should be
recognized as belonging to the welfare staff.
2. While not interfering with the nurses in the discharge of their
professional duties, she should see that their work is carried out
promptly, and that the workers are not kept waiting long before they
receive attention.
3. She should supervise the keeping of all records of accident
and illness in the ambulance room.
4. She should keep in touch with all cases of serious accident or
illness.
It would further be useful if she were allowed to be kept in touch
with the Compensation Department inside the factory with a view
to advising on any cases of hardship that may arise.
Supervision of Cloak-rooms and Sanitary Conveniences. The wel-
fare supervisor should be held responsible for the following matters :
1. General cleanliness.
2. Prevention of loitering.
3. Prevention of pilfering.
The management will decide what staff is necessary to assist her,
and it should be her duty to report to the management on these
matters.
Provision of Overalls. The welfare supervisor should have* the
duty of supervising the protective clothing supplied to the women for
their work.
Extramural Welfare.
The welfare supervisor should keep in touch with all outside
agencies responsible for :
1. Housing.
2. Transit facilities.
3. Sickness and maternity cases.
4. Recreation.
5. Day nurseries.
In communicating with any of these agencies it will no doubt
be preferable that she should do so through the management. 1
Records.
A. The welfare supervisor should for the purpose of her work
have some personal records of every woman employee. A card-
index system is recommended.
B. The welfare supervisor should have some way of observing
the health in relation to the efficiency of the workers, and if the
management approved this could be done :
(a) By allowing her to keep in touch with the Wages Department.
She could then watch the rise and fall of wages earned by individual
employees from the point of view that a steady fall in earnings may
be the first indication of an impending breakdown in health.
(b) By allowing her to keep in touch with the Time Office she
should be able to obtain records of all reasons for lost time. From
such records information can be obtained of sickness, inadequate
transit and urgent domestic duties, which might otherwise not be
discovered.
(c) By keeping records of all cases of accident and sickness occur-
ring in the factory.
II. WELFARE SUPERVISION FOR BOYS
The suggestions contained in this memorandum are founded on
the experience of employers who have in actual operation the whole
or part of the scheme. Nothing is suggested that has not been proved
to be successful in its result.
1 The work referred to above as " extramural " was the direct
outcome in many of its features of the activities initiated by the
Women's Employment Committee, appointed at an early period of
the war by the Home Office and the Board of Trade.
The essence of the scheme lies in placing on some member of the
staff the responsibility for the general well-being of the boys.
In large firms there is enough work to occupy the whole time of an
officer.
In smaller firms various alternatives have been adopted:
1. The services of an officer are shared by two or more firms.
2. An officer already on the staff is given special duties as
regards the boys.
3. An officer is specially appointed, but has placed on him other
duties in addition to those connected with the supervision of the
boys.
Among the duties performed by such an officer the following are
the more important of those usually placed upon him:
Engagement. I. He will keep in touch with the employment
exchanges and the special advisory committees frequently attached
to such exchanges. In this way he will secure valuable information
relating to the health and school career of the boy.
2. He will interview boys and parents, explain to them the nature
of the work and the importance of good time-keeping, and will take
up references.
3. He will arrange for suitable boys to be brought before the
heads of departments who will decide whether the boys shall be
engaged. In some cases the actual engagement is left to him.
4. He will see that an Engagement Form is filled up; and in the
case of indentured apprentices, carry through the indenture.
5. He will, especially during the first weeks of employment,
keep in close touch with the boy, and assist him in the various
difficulties which confront a boy on first entering industry. He will
consult with the foreman as to the suitability of the boy for the work
on which he is engaged.
Progress and Discipline. I. He will receive reports from foremen
on the boys' progress; will consider complaints, and, in the event of
threatened dismissal, will see the boy before a decision is reached.
(In no case has the Department discovered any evidence to show that
focemen resent this procedure.)
2. He will see the boys from time to time and afford them
opportunity of making complaints to him.
3. He will send reports to parents on the boys' general progress,
wages, and time-keeping; and occasionally visit their homes.
4. He will discuss with heads of departments schemes of transfer,
promotion and training. In the case of indentured apprentices he
will see that undertakings are carried out.
Continued Education. I. He will consider schemes for securing
attendance at Continuation Classes.
2. He will offer inducements to secure regular attendance.
3. He will discuss with the Education Authority:
(a) The question of technical training in the cases of boys who are
learning a trade.
(6) The question of general education of other boys.
4. He will obtain from the head of the school reports on the boys'
progress and attendance.
Health. I. He will endeavour to become acquainted with the
information contained in the report of the school doctor.
2. He will be present at the medical examination of the boys at
the factory, and note the doctor's recommendations.
3. He will give special attention to ailing boys and cases of
sickness, and endeavour to ascertain the cause.
4. Where lodgings are in demand, he will keep a list of suitable
lodgings.
5. He will endeavour to secure that the boys obtain suitable
food ; and may be made responsible for the general supervision of
the canteen and messroom, and for the arrangements for heating
carried food.
6. He will be responsible for seeing that boys obtain First Aid
in case of accident; and may be entrusted with the duty of super-
vising the First Aid equipment.
7. He will encourage boys to use overalls ; will see that the wash-
ing and sanitary arrangements are adequate and in good condition,
and will supervise order and decency in their use.
Thrift. He will be responsible for the initiation and carrying out
of thrift schemes, as for example:
1. By the voluntary stoppage of a certain weekly sum from
wages.
2. By weekly collection.
3. By payment of good conduct bonus to the boys' credit.
Recreation. I. He will be responsible for organizing outdoor
games; and for the management of a recreation room, if such exists.
2. He will consider the question of forming a Cadet Corps or
Scout Troop.
Records. He will keep systematic records of each boy.
The work was throughout closely interlocked with action
taken from the summer of 1915 onwards by the Central Control
Board (Liquor Traffic) to establish and maintain (by themselves
or through agents) refreshment rooms for the sale or supply
of refreshments. Employers in England were during the war
stimulated to pursue welfare schemes and erect canteens by
being permitted to write off expenses against excess profits duty.
WELLHAUSEN WEMYSS
969
Welfare schemes were found to be best conducted through
the assistance of welfare committees elected by the workers
themselves and representative of all classes of labour employed.
In this way is obtained from the beginning the support and
cooperation of those for whom the work exists. A strong wel-
fare committee is invaluable; through it an ambulance corps
and shop committee for accident prevention can be formed;
sickness and emergency funds can be raised and administered;
recreation, mental and physical, can be organized; grievances
Teal and imaginary, can be settled; order and discipline main-
tained; etiquette and a high moral tone established; and canteen
complaints discussed and remedied.
A standard has been suggested for the staff necessary for a
welfare department, as follows:
Welfare supervisors for women and girls: up to
300 workers, one welfare supervisor
a further 300 workers, one assistant supervisor
a further 450 workers, a second assistant supervisor
a further 600 workers, a third assistant supervisor
Total 1 ,650 women and girls, one senior welfare supervisor and 3
assistants. After this number one assistant should be added for
every 600 workers. '
Welfare supervisors or apprentice masters for boys: up to
100 boys, one welfare supervisor
a further 200 boys, one assistant supervisor
a further 350 boys, a second assistant supervisor
a further 500 boys, a third assistant supervisor
Total 1,150 boys, one senior welfare supervisor and 3 assistants.
After this number one assistant should be added for every 500 boys.
Welfare supervisors for men: These officers are usually combined
with those acting for boys; and in such cases the scale suggested in
the case of women and girls may be taken as a guide. Examples of
officers acting for men only are not yet sufficiently numerous to base
a scale upon.
While activity on these lines (which came to an abrupt ter-
mination on the cessation of hostilities) was still in progress, the
Home Office in 1916 consolidated much of the ground won by
obtaining powers under the Police, Factories, etc. (Miscella-
neous Provisions) Act, Section 7, enabling the Secretary of State
by order to require occupiers of factories to make reasonable
provisions relating to " arrangements for preparing or heating,
and taking, meals; the supply of drinking water; the supply of
protective clothing; ambulance and first-aid arrangements; the
supply and use of seats in workrooms; facilities for washing;
accommodation for clothing; arrangements for supervision of
workers." Under these powers a number of orders were made
referring to:
Ambulance and First-Aid at blast furnaces, copper mills, iron
mills, foundries and metal works.
Ambulance and First-Aid at saw-mills and wood-working
factories.
Drinking water.
Dyeing, use of bichromate of potassium or sodium in.
Fruit preserving.
Glass bottles and pressed glass articles, manufacture.
Laundries.
Oil-cake mills.
Seats in shell factories.
Tanning, use of bichromate of potassium or sodium in.
Tin or terne plates, manufacture of.
All textile factories, printworks, bleaching and dyeing works,
and rope-spinning works with reference to providing protec-
tive clothing, cloakrooms, messrooms, washing facilities,
seats, First-Aid and ambulance.
Not only did the Home Office through these orders proceed
to enforce the provision of welfare accommodation but the way
was prepared for further action by issuing a series of valuable
advisory pamphlets, well illustrated, which set forth in a practical
way how the orders can be complied with. The titles of these
pamphlets suggest their contents: Welfare and Welfare Super-
vision in Factories and Workshops; Messrooms and Canteens at
Small Factories and Workshops; Protective Clothing for Women
and Girl Workers; Seats for Workers in Factories and Workshops;
First-Aid and Ambulance in Factories and Workshops; Ventila-
ion in Factories and Workshops.
Evidence of the way in which the extension of welfare work
,s been stimulated is to be found in the coming into existence
('.) the Welfare Workers' Institute with headquarters at
n, Adam St., Adelphi, W.C.2, and (ii.) the Industrial Welfare
Society, 51, Palace St., Westminster, S.W.i. Both bodies have
a large membership and local branches in industrial areas;
women supervisors mainly support the former and men the latter.
Both publish good monthly journals, Welfare Work and The
Journal of Industrial Welfare. The effect now exerted upon con-
ditions of labour, social contentment and general betterment
in industry is hard to overestimate.
Reference has so far been confined to the welfare movement
in reference to factory employment, where it has been most
pronounced; but action has not been confined entirely to this
field. As long ago in England as 1872 the Metalliferous Mines
Regulation Act called for the provision of accommodation for
enabling persons employed in metalliferous mines to dry con-
veniently and change their clothes. In 1910 the Mines Accidents
(Rescue & Aid) Act gave power to make orders relating to:
(a) The supply and maintenance of appliances for use in
rescue work and the formation and training of rescue brigades.
(6) The supply and maintenance of ambulance appliances
and the training of men in ambulance work.
The Coal Mines Act of 1911 contained, too, an important
clause providing for accommodation and facilities for taking
baths and drying clothes where the majority of workmen em-
ployed in a mine desire such. Unfortunately this clause was a
dead letter except at some half-dozen collieries. But under the
Mining Industry Act, 1920, welfare work for miners should
receive a great impetus. This Act provides a fund, derived
from a levy of id. a ton on the output of each mine every year,
to be applied for purposes connected with social well-being,
recreation, and conditions of living of workers, and with mining
education and research. This fund may amount to about
1,000,000 a year and its allocation is entrusted to an expert
committee. The result cannot fail to be of intense interest.
For welfare work in the United States, see section V. of the
article UNITED STATES.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Welfare Supervision, Health of Munition Work-
ers' Committee. Memo.' No. 2. 1915 (Cd. 8151); Final Report of
Health of Munition Workers' Committee 1918 (Cd. 9065) ; Hand-
book for Welfare Supervisors and Apprentice Masters, Ministry of
Labour, 1919; Collis, E. L., Welfare Work in factories, Jnl. of Royal
Sanitary Institute, June 1919; Anderson, A. M., Welfare in Factories
and Workshops, Jnl. of Industrial Hygiene, Aug. 1920. See also
INDUSTRIAL MEDICINE. (E. L. C.)
WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS (1844-1918), German biblical scholar
and Orientalist (see 28.507), died in 1918.
WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866- ), English man of
letters (see 28.514), published subsequently to 1910 a long list
of notable novels, including The New Machiavelli (1911);
Marriage (1912); The Passionate Friends (1913); The Wife of
Sir Isaac Harman (1914); The Research Magnificent (1915);
The Soul of a Bishop (1917); Joan and Peter (1918). He also
produced, in fiction form, a discussion on immortality, The
Undying Fire (1919); a philosophic work, God, the Invisible King
(1917), and a number of books and pamphlets suggested by the
World War. Of these, Mr. Brilling Sees it Through (1916) was
serious fiction, whilst An Englishman Looks at the World (1914),
The World Set Free (1914), The Peace of the World (1915), etc.,
were war pamphlets. He also published two humorous stories
in 1915, Boom and Bealby, and in 1919-20 he completed his
encyclopaedic Outline of History, which was first published in
monthly parts. In 1921 he published The Salvaging of Civil-
ization. (See ENGLISH LITERATURE.)
WEMYSS, FRANCIS WEMYSS-CHARTERIS-DOUGLAS, IOTH
EARL OF (1818-1914), British politician, was born at Edinburgh
Aug. 4 1818, and was educated at Edinburgh, Eton and Christ
Church, Oxford. He entered the House of Commons in 1841 as
Lord Elcho, as Conservative member for E. Glos., holding the
seat until 1846. From 1847 to 1883, when he succeeded his father
in the peerage, he sat for Haddingtonshire and from 1852 to
1855 was a lord of the treasury. Lord Wemyss was best known
for the part he took in encouraging the Volunteer movement
(1859). From 1859 to 1879 he commanded the London Scottish,
and was also one of the founders of the National Rifle Associa-
970
WERNER WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
tion (1860), presenting it with the Elcho challenge shield for a
yearly competition. He retained his vigour and energy almost
till his death, which took place in London June 30 1914, at the
great age of ninety-five. He was succeeded by his fourth but
eldest surviving son, HUGO RICHARD, LORD ELCHO (b. 1857).
WERNER, ANTON ALEXANDER VON (1843-1915), German
painter (see 28.523), died in Berlin Jan. 3 1915.
WERNHER, SIR JULIUS CHARLES, IST BART. (1850-1912),
British S.A. financier, was born at Darmstadt in 1850, entered a
banking house in Frankfort, and early in 1870 came to London
as a clerk. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War he
returned to Germany to take his place in the army, and was
present at the fall of Paris. At the end of 1871 he was sent by
Mr. Jules Forges, diamond merchant of London and Paris, on a
mission to Kimberley. There he remained till 1880, when he
was transferred to London as English representative of the firm
of Forges and Wernher, interested not only in diamonds but in
the gold mines of S. Africa. In 1888, when the Kimberley
diamond mines were amalgamated by Cecil Rhodes and Alfred
Beit, he became a life governor of the De Beers Corporation.
Beit was now a member of his firm, and in 1889, when Forges
retired, the name of the firm was changed to Wernher, Beit & Co.
(see 3.659). Out of his enormous fortune, Sir Julius Wernher,
who was created a baronet in 1905, spent large sums on public
objects, including education; he gave 10,000 to the National
Physical Laboratory and, with Beit, endowed the S. African
University with 500,000. He died in London May 21 1912.
WERTHEIMER, CHARLES JOHN (1842-1911), art collector,
was born in London Feb. 17 1842, of German- Jewish parentage.
He early devoted himself to the collection of china, pictures and
objets d'art of all kinds, travelling widely with this purpose in
view, and amassing a wonderful collection. He suffered a con-
siderable loss in 1907, about 40,000 worth of treasures being
stolen from his London house on Feb. 12. He died in London
April 25 1911. His collection was sold after his death and
realized a very large sum.
His brother, ASHER WERTHEIMER (1844-1918), entered his
father's art galleries in Bond Street, and later assumed control
of the business. He made many noteworthy purchases, the
most famous being the acquisition of the Hope collection of
Dutch pictures (1898) and, in conjunction with M. Seligmann of
Paris, the Cheremeteff collection of Sevres porcelain (1906),
which was exhibited in Bond Street. He died at Eastbourne
Aug. 9 1918. By the terms of his will, the splendid series of
portraits of the Wertheimer family by J. S. Sargent was left
to the nation, after the death of his wife.
WESTERMARCK, EDWARD ALEXANDER (1862- ), Fin-
nish anthropologist, was born at Helsingfors Nov. 20 1862. Edu-
cated at a lyceum in his native town and at the university of
Finland he became professor of moral philosophy at his own
university; but he came to England about 1890 and in 1907 was
appointed professor of sociology at the university of London.
He made a special study of primitive marriage and ethical
origins and has published The Origin of Human Marriage (1889) ;
The History of Human Marriage (1891) ; The Origin and Develop-
ment of the Moral Ideas (1906); Marriage Ceremonies in Morocco
(1914) and other scientific papers. .
WESTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS, 1914-8. The
story of the successive campaigns in Belgium and France during
the World War, embracing the continuous struggle on the west-
ern front from Aug. 2 1914 to Nov. n 1918, is dealt with
below under four main sections, representing the phases into
which it naturally divides itself: viz. the "open" warfare cam-
paign of 1914, which ended without decisive victory to either
side in the open field and left the armies " stabilized " on a con-
tinuous line from Nieuport to the Swiss frontier; the three years
of trench- warfare campaigns, 1915-7; the great German offen-
sives of March-July 1918, which, breaking the stability of the
trench-warfare system, re-introduced a condition of semi-open
warfare; and finally, the allied offensive which synchronized at
its outset with the last German attack effort, and closed with
the Armistice at n A.M. on Nov. n 1918.
I. THE CAMPAIGN or Auc.-Nov. 1914
France's Defence Problem. During the years which followed
the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1, a guerre de revanche for
the reconquest of Alsace and Lorraine was very frequently dis-
cussed in France. But it implied aggressive action against
Germany, and those who judged with reason and not with
sentiment knew very well that such action was impossible. In
fact, Germany, at every international crisis that arose, asserted,
sharply and menacingly, her readiness to accept a challenge,
while France prudently yielded and avoided a conflict.
It may be observed that, under similar military systems
that is, under laws of universal military service the effort of
France could not surpass the effort of Germany, for France
counted less than 40 million inhabitants against the 65 to 70
millions of Germany. Presuming equality of national effort,
the vis viiia of France in relation to that of Germany would be
in the proportion of 4 to 7 ; and this calculation makes no allow-
ance for the fact that in Germany all factors combined to exalt
the army, to intensify war preparation, and to produce solid
cadres and reserves, while in France the tendency of politics wa
to depreciate the army and to lower its quality, to minimiz
its training periods, and to depress its military spirit. It is not
unfair to say therefore that the possible warlike power of Ger-
many was at least double the possible warlike power of France.
If, next, we cast a glance at the theatre of the possible war, we
see at once that France had no natural frontier with respect
Germany, and was obliged to make good this defect by a syster
of fortresses and entrenched camps a form of defence which it
is exceedingly difficult to maintain at such a level as to be capa
ble of resisting at any moment an artillery that itself is con
stantly evolving in the direction of increased power. On th
side of Germany, on the other hand (even leaving out of con
sideration her first-class fortresses, for which money was neve
lacking), there was a line of defence of the very first order, the
Rhine impossible to turn even if the neutrality both of Holland
and of Switzerland were violated, for its flanks rest on the Alps
and the sea. There are not in Europe two lines of defence of this
value, and it was reinforced by a chaplet of entrenched camps.
Supposing then that, in spite of the conditions mentioned,
France somehow contrived an initial superiority, her penetrative
effort could in no case pass the Rhine, while, in a German pene-
tration of France, Paris was within measurable reach.
From the point of view of numbers, the French alliance with
Russia might seem at first sight not only to redress the balance
but even to weigh down the scales heavily in France's favour.
The effective utilization of these numbers was, however, sub-
jected in practice to grave limitations. The strategic conditions
of what came to be called the eastern front are discussed in the
article EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS, and here it is
only necessary to say that these conditions and in particular the
paucity of railway communications and of rolling-stock in Rus-
sia evident from a glance at any map of central and eastern
Europe left it within Germany's power to use by far the greater
part of her forces in an initial campaign against France. These
forces might, from the relation of the two populations concerned
and the characters of their respective politics, attain a figure
almost double those of France. In such a contingency, the
French armies almost might be crushed under a very considerable
numerical superiority; the Germans could sweep up to Paris;
and there probably the war would end. Germany would rapidly
bring back her armies to deal with Russia, aided both by the
general E.-W. orientation of her railways and by their perfect
technical preparedness. That the German plans did not always
take this form, that the soundness of its principle was a matter
of considerable controversy, within the German General Staff as
well as in military publications, and that the numerical German
superiority was not in fact attained, may be freely admitted.
But, as the most dangerous alternative that France had to con-
sider, this plan was found to be taken on the logical basis upon
which the military policy of the defence should be build up.
Whether Germany's own allies would cooperate in such an in-
vasion, and if so, to what extent, was doubtful. Austria's main
WESTERN EUROPEAN FRONT
CAMPAIGNS (NORTH)
PLATE I.
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
971
effort would have to be made in the East; and as regards Italy,
it was known that her obligation under the Triple Alliance
would become operative only if one of her Allies was defending
itself against attack. On the other hand, the Entente Cordials
between England and France had enabled the latter to concen-
trate her naval effort in the Mediterranean, and the details of
possible cooperation on land, for some years before 1914, had
been studied by the British and French general staffs in concert.
But England reserved to herself complete freedom to decide for
or against intervention if and when the case arose. It was not
till Aug. 2 1914 that Sir Edward Grey engaged that the British
navy would protect the Channel coast of France, and not till
the actual violation of Belgian neutrality by Germany that the
British Government declared war on their own account.
Armies require, for their operations, zones with fronts pro-
portionate to their effectives, for it is obvious that they should
neither occupy a space so vast as to deprive them of the density
necessary for powerful action, nor on the other hand be so over-
crowded that their component parts cannot each contribute at
the proper time its share in the effort towards a common object.
The proper width of these zones depends on the balance of many
factors between two reasonable limits; but, above all, it is neces-
sary that all the elements that are to be brought into action at
the same time should have at their disposal enough routes, more
or less parallel, leading to the objective, and that these routes
should be approximately at deploying interval apart. Now if
Germany attacked France without violating any neutralities,
the available width between Switzerland and Luxemburg was
practically the same as it had been in 1870. The frontier had
changed its position. It is true that Strassburg and Metz were
comprised no longer in France but in Germany, and to that
extent Germany had gained. But, apart from the fortresses, this
frontier was only a conventional line, devoid of strategic interest.
The space available for the deployment of the armies, and the
distance in a straight line from one neutral frontier to the other,
had not altered. Further, not all this space was equally utiliz-
able; the Vosges region, for instance, which was very unsuitable
for military operations, formed a large part of it. Thus if the
available zone of the Franco-German frontier had seemed some-
what cramped even in 1870, it was far more so and was be-
coming impossibly so for the much larger armies of 1914.
If the Germans violated no neutrality, it was out of their power
to bring into play the ensemble of their attacking forces, and this
fact gave to the French army presumed to be numerically
much inferior an immense advantage. With its fortresses of
Belfort, Epinal, Toul and Verdun, the French front of contact
was very strong, and moreover, organized both to resist any
brusque attack of the nature of a " bolt from the blue " and to
enable the French army on mobilization to concentrate close up
to the frontier without fear of being disturbed. Such, at any rate,
was the adopted French view, though the experience of the war,
which brought into play destructive engines of a power formerly
unimagined, suggests grave doubts as to its accuracy.
In any case, it was clear that, if the Germans wished to obtain
in a short time a success decisive enough to put France out of
action, or at least to cripple her sufficiently to enable a large part
of their forces to be sent against Russia, the violation of one
or another national neutrality was a necessity for her that of
Switzerland if it was decided to envelop the French right, that
of Belgium and of Luxemburg if the French left was to be the
object of the -manoeuvre. It was not necessary to violate the
neutralities of both flanks, but military opinion was divided as
which would be selected. Each had its partisans in the Ger-
nan General Staff, and neither possibility was ignored by the
French. At first sight, the passage through Switzerland might
eem the more difficult. But, examined more closely, it loses
nost of its difficulties. For, in effect, the operation would' con-
sist in slicing off such a corner of Switzerland as would give the
necessary number of roads, railways and Rhine passages (which
ould, of course, be multiplied in the sequel). For this, the Jura
gion alone would be enough; and the Swiss forces, massed on
flank of the invaders, would be held in check by another
army, presumably Austrian. For it must be borne in mind that
the Swiss army could not have been mobilized and concentrated
quickly enough to hold the line of the Rhine in sufficient strength
to bar access, and that Switzerland possessed not a single fortress
to support it. On the other hand, the probability of the Belgian
route being the one chosen as it was was indicated by the sys-
tematic and prolonged German preparation of rail facilities on
that front.
Thus, for many years, it had been regarded as certain that
part of the German army of invasion would traverse either
Belgium or Switzerland. But it was not possible to foresee the
proportioning of forces that would be adopted by the Germans
on the thus extended front, for the high development of their
railway network, and the consequent flexibility of their concen-
tration transports, gave every facility for changes of plan and
variants. Further, it was naturally to be presumed that they
would make efforts to secure in advance the agreement of the
state whose territory they proposed to borrow, and the success
or otherwise of these diplomatic moves would necessarily react
on the proportioning of forces on the military front. And this
was true whether the Germans sought by way of Belgium to
reach Paris and deal France a mortal blow by capturing the
capital, or by way of Switzerland to cut France in two. In either
event, the French armies of the eastern frontier, once turned,
would have no alternative but retreat.
The French General Staff naturally foresaw that, since the
holding of Russia would devolve upon Austria, the French army
would probably have to struggle alone against greatly superior
German forces (possibly against a preponderance of almost 7 to
4, as previously stated). The first effort must be directed to-
wards establishing a well-prepared and fortified front, propor-
tioned to the forces available, and to locate this as near to the
Alsace-Lorraine frontier, whence the enemy could launch a
direct attack at any moment, as was possible without exposing
the army to the risk of a surprise. In the next place, the possi-
bilities of attack through both Belgium and Switzerland must be
guarded against. To extend the line of battle sufficiently to
secure both approaches, or even one of them, in an adequate
manner, would involve such a weakening of the whole front as
would enable the enemy to attack anywhere with a certainty of :
finding only a third to a quarter of the French forces against him.
Any such plan was contrary to all the principles of war, and
therefore unthinkable. A completely defensive line must extend
from Dunkirk to the Vosges, the Donon, and thence, in order to
guard the Swiss frontier as far as Bellegarde, to the Rhine; at
the rate of one army corps to 7-5 km. of front, this line (750 km.)
would require 100 army corps, without reckoning reserves, to
secure it or more than four times the whole of the numbers
available. If the violation of Belgium could be taken as certain
the Swiss frontier need not be considered; the line would then
run from Belfort to Dunkirk, a length of 550 km.; but 73 army
corps more than the entire French army would even so be
required for its defence. However, if the French staff acted on
this assumption, the German army would undoubtedly aban-
don the Belgian plan and advance through Switzerland; in which
case the French army would be turned on the right in such a way
that the forces sent to secure the northern frontier could not
possibly arrive in time to stop the enemy from crossing the plains
of the Sa6ne and coming down into the basin of the Seine.
Such a disposition was therefore impossible. The French force
must occupy the centre of the line, in Alsace-Lorraine, which
was the part most threatened, and be ready to oppose on the
north or the south according to the enemy's decision. Accord-
ingly, the following dispositions were made. They are the key
to the whole of the first period of the war.
The choice of the first line of defence, to be held against direct
attack, was determined by the necessity of fixing it at a sufficient
distance from the fortress of Metz, the outer defences of which
almost touched the frontier, so that the zone of action of the
entrenched camp extended into French territory in the Woevre
plain, which could not be defended. The most advanced line of
battle considered practicable was that of the Meuse slopes,
972
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
which dominate the Woevre and continue into the neighbour-
hood of Verdun. This accordingly became an entrenched camp,
which had to be raised to the highest pitch of efficiency as a
counter to Metz, the "loaded pistol pointed at the heart of
France." The line of battle was based on Verdun, and, con-
solidated by forts constructed on the Meuse slopes, passed in
its natural course through Toul and then through the good
defensive positions afforded by the left slope of the valley of the
Moselle. Between Epinal and Mirecourt these heights lay fur-
ther from the river, and accordingly the French line drew away
from Epinal to arrive at a hill called the Cote deVivine. Thus
the entrenched camp of Epinal, on the Moselle, lay in the ad-
vance of the battle-line, and enabled an offensive flank move-
ment against the left of the enemy attack to be made under the
protection of its artillery. Behind this first very solid line, which
could be held by forces very inferior to those of the enemy, a
whole series of positions were available in case of a retreat, in
the valleys of the rivers flowing south and north.
The front being rendered secure from direct attack, there re-
mained the question of the two flanks, in the event of an invasion
by way of either Belgium or Switzerland. Facing the road from
Switzerland there was a great concave arc of positions com-
manding the plain of the Saone and based on entrenched camps,
i.e. Belfort, Epinal, Langres and Dijon. In front of these stood
Besancon, in a position to divide and delay the invading stream.
Facing the Belgium road, with Verdun, which acted as a sort of
left shoulder, as the starting point, was a returning arc marked
by the entrenched camps Reims, Laon and La Fere. In advance
of these positions Maubeuge played a part corresponding to
that of Besancon on the other side.
The enemy must take a certain line to traverse either of the
neutral countries, even supposing that he met with no opposi-
tion. This would allow time for the French reserves to form, and
for the first-line army to concentrate along the Verdun-Toul-
pinal line, to prepare positions facing N. on the left flank of an
invader from Belgium or facing S. on the right of an invader
from Switzerland, and to be ready to attack, in either event, at
the favourable moment. Reason and prudence dictated these
dispositions, in view of France's isolation, separated as she was
from her Russian ally, and of the fact that Germany and Austria
had the advantage of " interior lines."
The dimensions of the two flanks^from Verdun to Reims-
Laon-La Fere, and from Belfort to Epinal-Langres-Dijon,
respectively were in accordance with the resources provided
by the French recruiting laws in force for some years after 1872;
but they had become insufficient for those given by the law of
1889, which greatly increased the military sacrifices demanded
from the nation and added considerably to the war effectives.
The result was that the flank facing an attack from Belgium,
instead of ending at the Laon-La Fere system, which was becom-
ing useless, was prolonged as far as Paris, which, as an immense
fortified camp, must, by the mere fact of its presence, play a
supremely important part, as was seen in 1914. Compared with
this great entrenched camp, Reims itself was quite secondary.
As for the other flank, it could be continued indefinitely beyond
Dijon, by means of the formidable defensive positions provided
by the mountains of the Cote-d'Or, which commanded the
plains of the Saone. No new fortifications had been considered
necessary. The line of battle opposed to Metz could also,
because of the increased military resources, be prolonged N. of
Verdun, still keeping the edge of the Meuse slopes up to Stenay
and even beyond, so as to constitute a threat to the German
right, on condition, however, that this right did not extend into
Belgium. In the event of a turning movement by way of Bel-
gium, the French left was not to go beyond the Verdun shoulder,
and thence would trend away into a defensive, refused flank.
An alternative policy, that of entering Belgium and by rein-
forcement enabling the Belgians to hold the line of the Meuse,
was the subject of a good deal of consideration in French military
circles before the war. It involved, however, an extremely com-
plex problem. The attitude of Belgium on the question of admit-
ting French and British forces had been one of marked reserve,
although there had been pourparlers at different times between
the Belgian and the British authorities; and in fact it was not
till Aug. 4 1014 that Belgium asked for the support of England,
France and Russia, undertaking herself the defence of the forti-
fied places. Yet, even had Belgium accepted British and French
aid earlier and a united Allied front been formed along the Meuse,
the strategic situation thus created would have been very difficult,
owing to a cause which was operative whether the French ad-
vanced to the Belgian Meuse or not. The line of the Meuse runs
N.-S. between Mezieres and Maestricht, while the direction of
the frontier between Mezieres and the Vosges is substantially
E.-W. A German concentration in the region Aachen-Trier
would therefore occupy a zone midway between these two lines,
and could act in the direction of either as circumstances dictated.
Thus, whether the French army, flung northward, was to go as
far as the Belgian Meuse or only to the French territory adjacent,
was certainly a question of very great local significance, because
the 3oo-km. line of defence from the angle to the sea, destitute of
natural defences and weak in artificial, was distinctly inferior to
the short, strong, well-fortified line Givet-Namur-Liege. But
it did not alter the fact that the German forces concentrated
between Aachen and Trier might, after perplexing the defence
by demonstrations, fling their weight upon the line between
Mezieres and Verdun, break it by means of superior numbers,
and so gain a position not only between the separated halves of
the French but also nearer to Paris than either.
These conditions, together with Belgium's hesitating attitude,
practically imposed the defensive principles upon which the
French General Staff must proceed. Obscured as they were by
the dramatic events of Aug. 1914, by the glorious insistence of
Belgium, the French offensives into Alsace, Lorraine, and Ihe
Ardennes, the tidal wave of the German I. and II. Armies trav-
ersing the Belgian plain and northern France, it was neverthe-
less on these principles that the German effort was shipwrecked.
For in Sept. 1914 the breakwater of the defence was established
solidly on the line, marked substantially by the Vosges, the
natural defences of Lorraine, the C6te de Meuse, Verdun, the
Montagne de Reims and the advanced defences of Paris, which
strategic reasoning had already indicated as the basic line of
defence for France in the given conditions.
These conditions include other alternatives than the one
selected by the Germans; and it may be asserted that, given the
fact of Belgium's resistance and of England's intervention, the
course taken by the Germans was as against the alternative of
a violation of Swiss neutrality, which would have occasioned
much less concern to England than that of Belgium, and even
as against that of a frontal forcing of the Lorraine defence, which
perhaps was not as invulnerable as it was believed to be the
course which was the least disadvantageous for France.
(H. BE.)
The French "Plan 17." The characteristic of all French plans
of concentration up to those bearing the No. 16 was that they
were all applications of the defensive principles outlined above,
differing only in detail, and providing for an initial defensive
phase of operations out of which an appropriate counter-offensive
would arise when the occasion was ripe. From 1912 onwards,
however, a new school of thought had begun to prevail in the
French General Staff. The teachings of Colonel (afterwards
General) Loiseau de Grandmaison, the constant improvement of
the mobilization scheme in details, the sharper tone of policy
and sentiment after the Agadir crisis, all combined to create a
"younger school" in the staff which did not admit that the army
was so inferior in power or war-readiness that the defensive need
be assumed a priori, as had hitherto been the case. Military
France, like the rest of military Europe, was caught by a wave
of enthusiasm for the offensive per se; doctrines and text-books
were revised, senior officers, and generalissimo-designate, having
predilections, real or alleged, for the defensive, were got rid of;
and as soon as it became clear that the process of mobilization and
concentration had been sufficiently accelerated, "Plan 17" was
drawn up, with the immediate general offensive in full force as
its keynote.
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
973
"Plan 17," issued to commanders-designate of armies and
their chief-of-staff in Feb. 1914, was based on certain assump-
tions which may be summarized as follows: On the right wing,
the hypothesis of a German invasion through Switzerland was
assumed to be so improbable that only an echelon of three re-
serve divisions, and these available for active operations towards
Belfort, was allotted to that flank. On the left flank, the prob-
lem was far more delicate and difficult, as it depended on whether
or not Belgian neutrality would be violated, and, if so, how far
N. the right of the German forces would extend. It was involved
with two other questions, that of the attitude of Belgium and
that of the strength of the German army; neither of these was an-
swered very definitely, and the assumptions of the plan proved
substantially incorrect. Belgian aid was not counted upon
indeed, in one important detail provision was made for the case
of the Belgians not interfering with a German march-through
and the German army for battle purposes was assumed to con-
tain only some 20 or 21 active corps, the reserve divisions, it was
thought, not being available till after an interval, and then only
for subsidiary functions such as sieges and railway guarding.
The conclusion drawn was that the German right, in case Belgian
territory was taken in, would extend to the limit of the Ardennes
i.e. the Belgian Meuse at the farthest, if as far. But the
hypothesis of a frontal attempt of the Germans to break through
between Longwy and the Vosges, without touching Belgian
territory, was the basis of the plan; and the measures to be taken
in case Luxemburg and the Belgian Ardennes came into the
theatre of war were embodied in a "variant." It was supposed,
in addition, that attempts might be made by the Germans in
Lorraine or the Woevre to break into the French concentration
areas in the first days of hostilities; and a very strong protective
system (drawn back in the Woevre out of range of a sortie from
the Metz outer defences) was provided against this emergency,
the augmentations of the peace effectives brought about by the
" Three Years Law " having made this possible. On to this pro-
tective system, constituted by one corps of each front-line army,
the remaining corps were to graft themselves as they arrived,
and the whole was to be ready for active operations on the
1 2th day of mobilization. It was assumed correctly that the
Germans would attack, and incorrectly that their attack
would be a simultaneous onset of fairly evenly distributed
forces; and it was argued that a French offensive, debouching
with startling rapidity, would create a situation with which the
German military system was not elastic enough to deal.
These active operations, if Belgian territory remained un-
touched, were to be a general offensive of four armies with
another immediately behind them, directed eastward from the
Meuse below Verdun and northeastward from the Nancy- Vosges
front, northward from Belfort; and, if Luxemburg and Belgium
were infringed, an equally general offensive with all five armies
in line, those of Alsace and Lorraine directed as before, but those
of the Woevre and the middle Meuse northeastward and even
northward according to the positions found to be occupied by
the German right. In either case the central army, besides
helping its neighbours as required, was to drive back all sorties
from Metz and begin the investment of that place.
The dispositions of the plan were as follows: The /. Army
(five corps, two cavalry divisions and army artillery) was to
attack with its main body from the concentration area west of
the Vosges in the direction Baccarat-Saarburg-Saargemund;
the right, VII. Corps and a cavalry division based on Belfort, to
advance into upper Alsace, rouse the population to a revolt, and
hold as large a German force engaged as possible; between the
VII. Corps and the main body, a smaller force in the Vosges was
to maintain liaison and by descents into Alsace to cooperate with
the advance from Belfort.
The //. Army (five corps, two cavalry divisions and army
artillery), grouped initially about Nancy and Luneville, on the
left of the I., was to attack in the direction Chateau Salins-
Saarbrucken. The improvised fortifications of Nancy in the
first stage, -and a group of reserve divisions issuing therefrom in
the later stages, were to protect the left of this army against Metz;
and the I. Army, developing its advance along the Vosges, was
to guard the right, cooperating in the battle of the II. Army with
all the forces not absorbed by the flank along the Vosges. !
The ///. Army (three corps, three reserve divisions, one
cavalry division and army artillery) was to connect this " prin-
cipal attack" in Lorraine with the other "principal attack"
mentioned below, first by holding the Cote de Meuse between
Verdun and Toul, next by repelling sorties from Metz and
blocking up the west front of that fortress, and lastly by giving
support to the attacks of the neighbouring armies.
The V. Army (five corps, two reserve divisions, one cavalry
division and army artillery) had to deal with two alternatives,
those of violation or non-violation of Belgian territory. In the
latter case, it was to drive eastward from its concentration area
N. of Verdun and the Argonne across the Meuse, dropping in
its progress a flank-guard to watch the Belgian frontier; its ob-
jects were to defeat and drive northward all German forces en-
countered, and to storm or invest, according to circumstances,
the fortifications of Thionville (Diedenhofen), guarded and as-
sisted on its right by the III. Army. In the first alternative, it
was to be so disposed that it could both attack northeastward
on Neufchateau and Florenville in the Ardennes, and guard its
left rear with a special detachment.
The IV. Army (three corps, one cavalry division and army
artillery), concentrated behind the III., was the general reserve.
It was destined to be used either on the right -or on the left of
the III. Army according to which of the two "principal" attacks
Lorraine or Ardennes needed additional weight. If the offen-
sive of the V. Army was directed upon Neufchateau and Floren-
ville, the IV. Army was to come in between the V. and the III.,
and fight its way in the direction of Arlon. Behind the right were
to be three reserve divisions, ready to follow up the VII. Corps
and take over the guard of the Rhine as it advanced. Behind the
left, but not definitely allocated to the V. Army, were to be three
more reserve divisions about Vervins, with a somewhat indeter-
minate mission. A corps of several cavalry divisions was to
form about Mezieres in the first days of mobilization on the left
of the protective system, and thereafter to operate eastward or
northeastward into the Ardennes as required. Its supporting
infantry was to occupy the bridges between Dinant and Namur
if the Belgian Government did not do so.
This was the plan which was carried into effect when war
came in August 1914. As early as Aug. 2, it was decided to act
on the hypothesis of a German movement through the Belgian
Ardennes, the seizure of Luxemburg by the German advanced-
guards on that day being a sufficiently suspicious indication.
But during the following days the French General Headquarters
were confronted with a mass of definite and indefinite informa-
tion which it was hard indeed to appraise; On the protective
line, apart from two severe local fights, at Mangiennes in the
Woevre and Lagarde in Lorraine the first a French, the second
a German victory there were no events and no important indi-
cations. To the N. of the left flank, want of liaison, and, it must
be added, of mutual confidence, made it difficult for the French
to gauge exactly what the Belgian army would do, and especially
what was happening at Liege. That fortress was attacked on
Aug. 5, and its capture (see LIEGE) was announced as a fait
accompli on Aug. 7, yet for many days thereafter the gathering
masses of the Germans between Aachen and the Ardennes
seemed to make no move.
The British Expeditionary Force (four divisions and a cavalry
division) was about to land in France, but it was not comprised
in "Plan 17." A secret appendix to the plan, known to a few,
provided for a hypothetical " Army W." landing from overseas
and proceeding to the region of Valenciennes and Maubeuge,
but the way in which this army (should it materialize) might
best be employed could not be seen until the role of the French
V. Army had become clearer. Meantime, it was to double the
part of left echelon which was assigned to the French reserve
formations about Vervins.
But meantime, the troop-trains were arriving in the concen-
tration areas, and the broad " Plan 17 " had to be replaced by an-
974
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
operation order "No. I." On the morning of Aug. 8, therefore,
General Joffre, general-in-chief of the " Armies of the North-
East," issued his specific instructions.
The French Offensive. The enemy, it seemed, had grouped
his main forces in the region of Metz, in front of Thionville
(Diedenhofen), and in Luxemburg, with some 12 divisions in
Lorraine and Alsace and an undetermined force which included
parts of 10 divisions in the Liege and Ardennes regions. This
main force (Metz-Luxemburg) seemed to be pointing westward,
but might equally well swing southward, pivoting on its forti-
fications. The French armies were, consequently, to take the
offensive which was to be a.s foudroyante as possible and with
all forces in combination to seek to bring the enemy to decisive
battle, resting their right flank on the Rhine. In order to ensure
simultaneity and unison in the battle effort, it was laid down that
the left wing armies might have to hold back, so as not to become
involved in battle with German masses traversing the southern
Ardennes or northern Woe'vre, or both, before the right wing had
advanced and made effective contact with its opponents.
The I. Army (Gen. Dubail), composed as in "Plan 17," was,
instead of merely cooperating with and flankguarding the II.
(as in the plan), to become the main offensive element in Lor-
raine and Alsace. Its VII. Corps, with a cavalry division, was to
break into upper Alsace at once from Belfort, to drive back all
forces it met, and, progressively reinforced by the three reserve
divisions from Vesoul, to gain ground towards the fortified
barrier Strassburg-Molsheim, destroying bridges and blocking-
up bridgeheads on the Rhine as it advanced. The main body of
the army, with a frankly E.N.E. direction, was to push towards
the front Fenestrange (Finstingen)-Saarburg-the Donon, and
to drive back its opponents on Strassburg and into lower Alsace.
The //. Army (Gen. de Castelnau), composed as in the plan,
was now to play the part of auxiliary to the I. Its first objective
was to be the front Delme-Salins-Dieuze, and its axis Chateau
Salins-Saarbriicken. It was to flankguard towards Metz, and,
moreover, to leave two of its five corps in the region of Toul at
General Joffre's disposal.
The ///. Army (Gen. Ruffey), constituted as in the plan, was
disposed in the Woe'vre facing Metz, and was to be ready either
to counter-attack any German forces emerging from the Metz
region or to take the offensive northward, with its left on Dam-
villers, according to the situation. The two corps taken from
Castelnau would probably be employed in concert with this
army, either in repelling a counter-offensive from Metz or in a
northward movement.
The roles to be given to the IV. and V. Armies were now
defined more precisely. The IV. (Gen. de Langle de Gary) was
to group itself between Argonne and Meuse, and the V. Army
(Gen. Lanrezac) to condense between Vouziers and Aubenton,
ready either (a) to attack any German army which traversed
the Meuse between Mezieres and the line Damvillers-Mont-
faucon or (b) to cross the Meuse themselves for the Ardennes-
Arlon offensive. The II. Corps, hitherto the left wing of the pro-
tective system and attached to the V. Army, was now added to
the IV. Army and directed to hold firmly to the northern outliers
of Verdun and the left flank of Ruffey's army. Beyond the flank
of Lanrezac was the group of reserve divisions about Vervins;
the cavalry corps operating E. of Mezieres and Montmedy was
expected, if and when forced back over the Meuse, to take posi-
tions about Marienburg and Chimay. The role of "Army W."
was as yet quite unsettled, as also was that of the Belgians.
Such was the order which initiated the " Battle of the Fron-
tiers," the opening of the World War on the western front. The
intentions may be, and have been, criticized, but they are clear.
The general offensive of the French right wing, fixed for the i2th
day of mobilization (Aug. 14), was directed N.E. and E.N.E.
into the Rhine lands behind Strassburg and Molsheim, with a
subsidiary effort in Alsace which would make good a front facing
Molsheim-Strassburg-Neu Breisach and the upper Rhine forti-
fications, and, in case of success bringing the I. Army to behind
Strassburg, besiege that fortress. The general offensive of the
left was to be timed to coincide with the decisive phase of the
operations of the right, but placed according to the progress of
the main enemy armies which were presumed to have their right
flank not farther N. than Mezieres and their left flank on or in
the fortified region Metz-Thionville.
But the possibility of arranging for the whole system to take its
time from Dubail was made doubtful by a geographical factor the
Meuse. Had the areas in which the IV. and V. Armies were to act
formed a single region, it would have been different, but the critical
question was how to get these two armies over the Meuse at the
exact moment determined by events in Lorraine, which might also
be the very moment at which the German masses from Luxemburg
themselves arrived on the river. It was this disturbing factor, quite
as much as any events to the N. of Mezieres, which governed the
development of the French scheme. The details of this develop-
ment, so far as concerns the left wing, are extremely complex and
must be studied in the documents reproduced in F. Engerand's
Briey, Joffre's Preparation de la guerre et conduits des operations,
Lanrezac's Le plan de campaigne franfais, and the anonymous
Le Plan XVII. (publ. Payot). Here only a summary can be given.
By Aug. 13, the eve of the day fixed originally for the general
offensive, the order of Aug. 8 had ceased to apply integrally to the
left wing. While Dubail and Castelnau were to advance on the front
Donon-Saarburg-Saarbriicken, as previously indicated, and a new
and stronger army of Alsace under Gen. Pau was to carry out that
part of the scheme which the VII. Corps had just attempted with
disastrous results (see FRONTIERS, BATTLES OF THE : section Alsace),
Ruffey, de Langle de Cary and Lanrezac were directed according to
a new scheme which was independent in time as well as place of
operations in Lorraine. It was now clear that the German northern
group was stronger than had been supposed, but the evidence of its
intention to cross the Meuse above Liege and sweep round through
the Belgian plain seemed less convincing than the probability of its
descending southward, and the French Command, after much
interchange of views with Lanrezac, decided to push part of the
V. Army northward into the region W. of Givet as a defensive
precaution, and with the remainder and the IV. and III. Armies to
carry out a series of preparations which would suit either of two
hypotheses. If the Germans moving westward through the Ardennes
were well advanced, they were to be struck by an offensive against
the front, flank and rear, as soon as they were thoroughly invoked
in the crossing of the Meuse; if, as now seemed more probable, they
were grouped with greater density in the northern and northeastern
parts of the Ardennes, there would still be time for the V. and IV.
Armies to advance before battle, not only over the Mouse, but also
over the Lemoy and the lower Chiers. In that event the III. Army,
which, with various mobile forces belonging to Toul and Verdun
and the corps of the II. Army reserved to the general-in-chief by
the order of Aug. 8, could assemble a considerable force, was to
divide into a defensive group facing Metz and an offensive group
which would aim northward, conforming to the right of the IV.
Army, which would make good the lower Chiers; while the V. Army,
holding defensively on the Meuse at Givet, was to reach the front
Beauraing-Gedinne-Paliseul-Cugnon.
On Aug. 14, the offensive in Lorraine opened. Its progress was
slow, but not marked by any untoward incidents up to Aug. 19.
It was independent of events to the left of the Moselle except in so
far as sorties might emerge from the S. and S.E. fronts of Metz,
against which contingency the defensive group of the III. Army,
the two reserved corps near Toul, and the echeloned left wing of the
II. Army, were an adequate safeguard. On the other wing, however,
obscurity still prevailed. Though Lanrezac was becoming more and
more uneasy as to his left flank, and the Belgians, standing on the
Geete line, called for support, nothing positive as to the German
dispositions revealed itself, but on the evening of the I5th the veil
was, partly at least, torn away. The part of Lanreza:'s army which
was stationed in the angle of the Sambre and Meuse became engaged
with a large force of the enemy at Dinant. This consisted in'reality
only of cavalry and light infantry, but was estimated by the French
commander, Franchet d'Esperey, as an army corps at least. At the
same time, information came in tending to show that the Germans
in the Ardennes included sixteen divisions. Moreover, the impression
was formed both by Franchet d'Esperey opposing them and by the
French cavalry commander skirting their southern flank, that the
Dinant Germans were flankguarding a much more considerable force
engaged in passing the Meuse below Namur; and Lanrezac energeti-
cally insisted on the fact that such large enemy forces could not
conceivably be intended to operate entirely on the right bank of the
Meuse. A remarkable absence of troops, at the same time, was
reported by the French aviators reconnoitring the Arlon region.
Thereupon Joffre formed a new plan. The V. Army, except one
corps (already attached to the IV.), and its two reserve divisions,
reinforced by one of the reserve corps on the Moselle and by forces
from Algeria, newly arrived, was to join the forces already in the
angle of the Sambre and Meuse, and to cooperate with the Belgians
and the British both of which armies now for the first time figured
in the scheme of operations in attacking the front and outer flank
of the German "northern" forces, while the IV. Army was to
prepare to debouch from the front Sedan-Montmedy in the direction
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
975
of Neufchateau against, the " southern " enemy group (formerly
presumed to be the " main " one) advancing from Luxemburg on the
front Sedan-Damvillers; and the offensive portion of the III. by
Etain and Jametz, was to be ready to march on Longwy, to break
into the rear of this force. But this manoeuvre was merely sketched
out by preparations, and next day the veil descended again. The
supposed movement of German masses over the Belgian Meuse
was unconfirmed, and indeed denied; and without for the moment
devoting more attention to the details of the cooperation to be
obtained between the three distinct and independent commands
W. of the Meuse (especially as Sir John French indicated Aug. 21 as
the earliest date at which the British could come into action),
Joffre's headquarters merely sent the cavalry corps withdrawn from
the Ardennes to get into touch with the right of the Belgian posi-
tions on the Geete and as a precaution against minor inroads
through the Belgian plain into the industrial region of Lille began
the transfer to Arras of some ill-equipped territorial divisions, which,
under General D'Amade, had hitherto watched the Italian frontier.
It was to the proposed offensive of the IV. and especially of the
II. Army that Joffre devoted his principal attention. For, on the
estimate which had been formed of the German strength which,
however, was radically incorrect because it ignored the presence
of reserve corps in immediate proximity to active corps it seemed
to certain of the directing brains at Vitry-le-Francois that the more
forces the Germans placed west of the Belgian Meuse the slighter
would be the resistance to be expected about Neufch&teau and
Longwy and the better the chances of cutting the enemy in two by
the offensive directed on these points.
From day to day the situation developed without becoming quite
clear (for the Germans veiled their dispositions with the utmost
success), and Joffre held stubbornly to the conception of his Neuf-
chateau-Longwy offensive. Lanrezac's anxieties and those of the
Belgians increased, but they served only to confirm the impression
that the drive into the Ardennes would, if properly timed and
directed, reap a great harvest; and the declaration of Sir John
French that he would not be able to begin operations till Aug. 23,
instead of Aug. 21, caused the scheme of a combined operation N.
of the Sambre to recede still farther into the background. On
Aug. 20, Joffre, estimating that all the German forces destined for
the Meuse had by that time passed out of the region Audun-le-
Roman, Arlon, Luxemburg, gave the orders which launched the
IV. Army into the Ardennes and the III. on Virton and Longwy.
The period of nuances was at an end. On that very day, on the
one flank, Dubail's and Castelnau's offensive, which had penetrated
to Morhange, Saarburg and the Donon, met defeat (see FRONTIERS,
BATTLES OF THE: section Lorraine). Castelnau drew back hastily
towards Nancy-Luneville; Dubail, in spite of the exposure of his
long right flank in the Vosges (which Pau's methodical advance
from Belfort had done little to shorten), took down his left more
steadily; but almost in a moment both were back in their concen-
tration areas, followed by the eager enemy. On the other flank,
the German masses facing the Belgian army front, hitherto screened
by their cavalry, had at last declared themselves on Aug. 18, and
the Belgian army, threatened with separation from Antwerp, yet
most unwilling to give up the expectation of British or French
support on its S. flank, was falling back from one position to another.
Its decision to close up northward and fall out of the main opera-
tions was, it must be recognized, put off to the last possible moment,
but the disconnectedness of the Allied movements left no alternative.
For at that date Sir John French was not ready; and in the angle
of Sambre and Meuse, Lanrezac, a prey to new and not ill-founded
anxieties regarding his liaison with de Langle de Gary, was, with
Joffre's approval, standing fast till Aug. 23, the date British coopera-
tion should arrive.
In spite of the anxieties and disappointments caused by these
vents, Joffre held firmly to his intention. On the morning of Aug. 2 1
he executive order for which the IV. and III. Armies were waiting
was sent. For the situation was now clear, and the plan of breaking
through between the German manoeuvre-masses and their fixed
pivot, which in one form or another had been consistently followed
in the period of obscurity, seemed destined now to have its reward.
But there was one fundamental miscalculation. The old error which
had led the professional soldiers of Napoleon III.'s day to regard the
Prussian citizen-army as a " sort of militia," had reappeared in the
form of a contempt for " reserve " formations. It was a mere
matter of calculation that Germany's resources permitted her to
create such formations; but that they should figure in the masse de
choc was regarded as incredible. Yet it was true; and thus, instead
of meeting a battle-army of 42 to 50 divisions with an array of 73
French, 6 Belgian and 4 British, as anticipated, the Allies encoun-
tered in reality one of 77 divisions, i.e. an equivalent instead of a
much inferior force. This was especially important as bearing on
the prospects of success in the Neufchateau and Arlon directions.
Strength was encountered where weakness was expected, and the
relatively small numerical superiority of the attack did not suffice.
The story of the battles of Longwy and the Ardennes, of Charleroi,
and Mons, will be found in detail in the article FRONTIERS, BATTLES
OF THE. Here it must suffice to say that the French offensive into
the Ardennes and towards Virton-Longwy-Audun-le-Roman met
with general failure, and in some places with disaster; that the
German II. and I. Armies, swinging on Huy as a pivot, swept down
upon the French V. Army at Charleroi and the British Expedi-
tionary Force at Mons, and bore them back; and that on Aug. 25
at 22 :oo hours (10 P.M.) Joffre's orders were issued for a general
retreat. The German plan of campaign had prevailed, and the
German Command had the initiative in its hands.
At this point, then, the story of the operations is most conveniently
told from the point of view of that side which dictated their course.
The German Plan of Campaign. For the Germans, a war
against France was essentially part of a two-front war. The
resources of the country not being equal to simultaneous offen-
sives against France and Russia, the choice had to be made
between (a) standing on the defensive against France while
seeking a decision in battle in the East, (b) waging a defensive
war on both fronts, and (c) striving to crush France while stand-
ing on the defensive in the East. Of these (b) was held to be
excluded by the presumed impossibility, for an industrial state,
of enduring a long war, as well as by obvious military objections;
(a) was never completely excluded, and had until some ten years
before the war been the fundamental war-plan of the German
General Staff; while (c) had in those last years obtained general
acceptance, owing to the difficulty, for Germany, of waiting till
the slow-moving Russians could be brought to action and de-
feated in a battle of the first magnitude. Whether, in view of the
increased strength of the defensive on the one hand and the
increased war-readiness of Russia on the other, the adoption,
once more, of alternative (a) was not the best policy for Ger-
many in the circumstances of 1914, is an open question; but, in
fact, (c) was maintained and carried into effect.
But this increased readiness of Russia made it imperative for
the Germans to protect East Prussia by a force at least sufficient
to offer a step-by-step defence of that province and also, with
their main armies reduced to that extent, to obtain a decision of
the war in the West at the earliest possible moment, so as to re-
lease the greater part of the forces which had gained it for service
in the East. The proportioning of means to the two theatres,
therefore, was a very difficult problem, admitting of many a
priori solutions, which might bring either victory or ruin.
The solution that found most adherents was that of Count
von Schlieffen, chief-of-staff of the German army, in the first
years of the present century. 'On assuming office, he had both
restudied the draft plans of campaign and the tactical doctrines
in vogue, and he had come to these conclusions: (a) that an
offensive of maximum power, carried so far as to put France out
of action definitively, was the only way to secure freedom of action
in the East; (b) that this offensive, to secure the result aimed at
nothing less would suffice must be developed on so broad a
front as to grip and out-wing the most northerly and the most
westerly points of France's defensive dispositions; (c) that a
maximum density must be sought for on the right wing, even at
the cost of exposing Lorraine and the Rhine lands to invasion.
The first of these considerations led to the acceptance con-
trary to all the traditions of the German army of the principle
that not only active, but reserve, Ersatz and every other cate-
gory of soldier must be effectively used. Schlieffen even pro-
posed an intimate mixture, practically an amalgamation, of
active and other elements, and aimed at putting into the field
in case of a single-front war, it is true no less than 114 divisions
against France. The second consideration led to" the idea of a
swing through Belgium and northern France far wider than that
which was actually carried out. The route of the outer flank,
which in spite of its extension beyond all probable French de-
fences was to have a defensive echelon following on, was to
touch Dunkirk, Abbeville, Rouen and pass round by Chartres,
far to the W. of Paris which would be invested automatically
so as to march in upon Auxerre and Troyes from the east. The
line Ghent-Maubeuge-Thionville was to be reached on the 22d
and the line Amiens-Rethel-Thionville on the 3ist day of mo-
bilization; that is, not hurry but certainty and power were to be
the executive rules.
The third consideration, however, led to an even more remark-
able result than the second. Of the 114 divisions no fewer than
101 were to operate N. and W. of the Thionville pivot, Lorraine,
976
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
Alsace and the Rhine lands being committed to 13, of which two
were allocated to the fortresses. The leitmotiv of extreme density
on the right occurs in all Schlieffen's drafts and schemes. " Macht
mir nur den rechten Fliigel stark " were his half-conscious dying
words. In a second scheme, based on the two-front war, which
provided for a defence force in East Prussia approximately equal
to that which von Moltke actually placed there in 1914, the total
force was lessened to that extent, but the ratio of about seven
divisions N.W. of Thionville to one S.E. of that pivot was
maintained.
When von Moltke, the younger, succeeded Schlieffen, the
above plans were gradually blunted, first because the idea of
making the active army a simple kernel for soldiers of all cate-
gories was accepted only in part, and secondly because the grow-
ing war-readiness of the French army, the fever of offensive
spirit that had obviously seized it, and after 1013 its very high
peace-strength, made it increasingly likely that the French
would open the war with a determined offensive into Lorraine
and the Rhine lands. In these circumstances so drastic a deple-
tion of the forces to the left of Metz as that contemplated by
Schlieffen did not commend itself to Moltke, who found a com-
promise in allocating one-quarter of the whole available force,
instead of one-eighth, to the defensive (or defensive-offensive)
front, and holding large quantities of empty rolling-stock on the
Rhine in readiness to transfer a proportion of this quarter to the
right wing as soon as circumstances should allow this to be done.
The amplitude of the swing was, however, undeniably dimin-
ished thereby.
In one point, Schlieffen and Moltke were agreed the neces-
sity of pushing out beyond the line of the Belgian Meuse. In
both schemes therefore the quick seizure of Liege and a deploy-
ment foreground beyond that fortress figured as an indispensable
preliminary to the operations proper.
The German plan, to which effect was given in August 1914,
provided as follows: (a) A protective system was formed all
along the line, consisting, not as had been expected of complete
formations, but of single brigades of infantry (with a proportion
of other arms), brought up from their peace stations without
waiting to receive and equip their reservists. These brigades
took over from the local troops the positions of the line that
their respective army corps were to occupy, and their reservists
rejoined by parties, (b) There was a concentration of the re-
mainder of each corps, after mobilization in the usual way, be-
hind its own representatives in the protective system. This
concentration of the active corps was completed by the I4th day
of mobilization (Aug. 15). (c) Concentration of reserve corps,
as a rule immediately behind or to a flank of the corresponding
active corps, was completed by the i6th day (Aug. 17). (d)
Concentration of other formations, Ersatz divisions and mixed
Landwehr brigades, was completed from the nth to the I7th
day. (e) The six advanced, peace-strength brigades of the corps
intended to assemble about Aachen were employed as a striking
force under General von Emmich, which without waiting for
siege artillery was to attempt to storm Liege at once, if the Bel-
gians did not agree to let the Germans pass. The German ulti-
matum to Belgium was handed in late on the evening of Aug. 2
(ist day of mobilization), and required an answer within twelve
hours. There is reason to believe that, on Belgium's refusal, a
proposal was made to Holland to allow the use of the Maestricht
tongue as a gateway into the Belgian plain, but, whether this be
so or not, it was only on the evening of the 3rd day of mobiliza-
tion that the striking force crossed the frontier.
The order of battle, and allocation of the German forces N. of
the pivot, was as follows: I. Army (General-Oberst von Kluck),
five corps, assembled behind the Maestricht tongue (Jiilich-
Krefeld area); II. Army (General-Oberst von Billow), seven
corps, including one attached from I. Army, assembled facing
the Liege frontier (Aachen-Malmedy-Euskirchen) ; III. Army
(General-Oberst von Hausen), four corps, assembled in the area
St. Vith-Wittlich-Bittburg; IV. Army (Duke Albrecht of Wiirt-
temberg), five corps, assembled in the area Luxemburg (seized
Aug. 2)-Trier-Diekirch-Wadern; V. 'Army (Wilhelm, German
Crown Prince), five corps, assembled in the area Metz-Thion-
ville-Saarbrucken.
Thus twenty-six active and reserve corps (52 divisions) with
a number of Landwehr brigades to follow were allocated to the
five armies of the moving wing, of which nearly half were to cross
the Meuse between Namur and the Dutch frontier as soon as
the way was clear. The remainder were to traverse the Ardennes
from E. to W. in echelon from the right (III. Army) and to pre-
pare to wheel gradually S.W. in proportion to the progress of the
I. and II. Armies on the other side of the Meuse.
The 2nd Cavalry Command was of three divisions in front of
the I. and II. Armies; the ist Cavalry Command of three divi-
sions in front of the III.; the 4th Cavalry Command of two divi-
sions in front of the IV. They were individually responsible to
the Supreme Command, except when from time to time placed
at the disposal of certain armies. Similarly, the armies were in
principle directly subordinate to the Kaiser's headquarters, i.e.
to General-Oberst von Moltke, Chief of the General Staff, unless i
temporarily paired, as was the case at the outset, with the I. and
II. Armies, of which Billow was in general charge.
The organization of the forces E. and S.E. of Metz was some-
what different. Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria, was ap- j
pointed not only Chief of the VI. Army, but " Commandcr-in-
Chief in the Rhine lands," a title with wider implications than
that of an army commander, and his task included the pro- j
tection of the left flank of " the Army " or " the main forces." |
He had under him his own VI. Army (five corps, of which four i
were Bavarian), the VII. Army of General-Oberst von Hccrin- |
gen (three corps) and the 3rd Cavalry Command (three divi- |
sions), in addition to the war garrisons of Metz, Strassburg, and ,
the upper Rhine defences (Neu Breisach, Istein). These 16 I
active and reserve divisions were to be supplemented a few days j
later by 6 Ersatz divisions, and mixed Landwehr brigades, ,
which were grouped in some cases in "Landwehr Commands." |
In all, the formations assigned to the western theatre of war
comprised 68 active and reserve divisions, 6^ Ersatz divisions,
17^ Landwehr brigades and 10 cavalry divisions.
The First Operations of the Germans. The first operations to
be carried out were: (i) The seizure of Liege and of as large a
foreground as possible beyond; (2) the securing of the left flank
of " the Army," and the attraction of as many French divisions
as possible to Lorraine and Alsace, by the living and passive j
forces under Prince Rupprecht. Both these essentials having
been provided for, the five armies (I.-V.) were to proceed at
once to the main task, which was to be a great " wheel through
Belgium into France, pivoting on Thionville-Metz," in which
wheel the II. and I. Armies were to govern the pace. The II. i
Army was to swing on the arc Liege-Wavre, the I. following in
echelon on the arc Tongres-Brussels, flankguarding towards \
Antwerp, whither, it was presumed, the Belgian field army
would retire. No very distant objectives were fixed. When
Liege and the region W. of the Meuse had been occupied, and i
the cavalry divisions of the I. Cavalry Command had fixed the
situation of the Belgian army, of the British forces expected to
land at Ostend, and of the French forces which might be pushed i
into Belgium from the S., specific orders could be given. Mean- 1
while, the problem was to deploy the two highly condensed armies ;
of Kluck and Billow on the W. side of the Meuse, in spite of
Liege and of the Belgian field army. On this, as the I. and II.
Armies were to give the time to the rest, the whole movement
depended; but while the III., IV. and V. Armies awaited devel- '
opments, the 2nd and 4th Cavalry Commands were to push
through the Ardennes and towards Damvillers, in order to clear
up the situation in the Meuse valley from Namur to St. Mi- j
hiel a mission which naturally brought about a series of
conflicts with the French cavalry, and, above Stenay, with the ;
French protective infantry system in the Woevre. In point of
information, this cavalry activity probably yielded only con- 1
firmations of the obvious, but it was invaluable in veiling the \
.army movements when later these were begun.
The Liege operation is described under LIGE. There was no
surprise, Belgiurn having mobilized her available forces at an early
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
977
date in the European crisis; and five out of six brigade attacks on
the night of Aug. 5-6 failed. One, however, penetrated into Liege,
and for some days neither the German nor the Belgian, British or
French Commands seem to have been able to form a clear view of
the situation, as the fort-ring held out. Reconnoitring patrols of the
German 2nd Cavalry Command, which passed the Meuse near the
Dutch frontier simultaneously with parts of the attacking force,
learned nothing of the Belgian dispositions, and the main body
remained near its bridge. On Aug. 8 the situation at Liege was
clear enough to enable the cavalry to push westward, and in the days
following it established the front of the Belgian field army as lying
approximately on the Geete line from S. of Jodoigne to Diest. But
on Aug. 12, the attempt of the Germans to work round to the left
of this position was checked in a severe local action at Haelen. The
Liege forts, meantime, had to be reduced by super-heavy siege
artillery, one by one, and it was not till Aug. 15 that the masses of
the German I. and II. armies were able to begin to cross into the
area comprised between Liege and the Geete. The resistance of the
Liege forts had put back the start of the great wheeling movement
for four days.
Thus the difficult and essential preliminary operation of seizing a
bridgehead beyond the Meuse did not pass off quite according to
programme. It had_ often, been alleged that the Germans had
obtained a long start in their concentration by means of surreptitious
mobilization. That this was not actually the case has been shown
by a study published in 1920 by the Belgian General Staff ; but even
had 'such a mobilization taken place, it would not have helped to
solve the problem of Liege. All that infantry could contribute to its
solution, the first six peace-strength brigades contributed. The rest
was a matter of siege artillery, and it must be regarded as a seri-
ous flaw in Moltke's plans that this artillery did not put in an ap-
pearance on Aug. 6 instead of on Aug. 10.
On the other flank, the operations in Lorraine and Alsace, which
were to maintain the ",pivot" of the wheel against French attack
proceeded more favourably than had been anticipated too favour-
ably, as the sequel was to show. The problem was difficult, and
a priori reasoning could not assist its solution materially. For here,
much more than on the Belgian flank, events depended upon the
independent will of a great enemy army which was equally capable
of the offensive or of the defensive-offensive; and although the
tendency of French military thought in the last years before the
war had evidently been towards the former, it was not clear how far
this tendency had actually gone. Prince Rupprccht's task included
not only the maintenance of the Metz Thionville pivot but the
attraction of as large a force of the French as possible; and if their
old policy of defensive-offensive still held good, then, in order to set
up this attraction, he must attack. If not, although attack would
not be necessary, a much larger proportion of the total force than
that which Schlieffen had thought sufficient would have to be
allotted to the front E. of Metz. For Schlieffen had reckoned with
certainty on a defensive-offensive policy in his opponents, and had
argued therefrom that no deep inroad of large forces into the Rhine
lands would in fact be attempted by the French, when a tidal wave
of seventy to a hundred German divisions was advancing through
northeastern France. But the situation was quite different if the
French offensive in full force was to be launched at the outset, while
the tide in the N. was still dammed up. For these reasons, Prince
Rupprecht was given about one-quarter of the total available forces,
and instructed: (a) to take the offensive over the Lorraine frontier
in order to draw upon himself as much as possible of the enemy's
forces, in the 'event of these being handled according to the old
policy; (6) to prepare a great defensive system, Metz-Lower Nied-
Saar-Vosges-Strassburg, against the contingency of an immediate
powerful offensive of the French ; (c) in the latter event, to suspend
the offensive initiated in accordance with (a), and to draw back from
line to line till the Saar was reached, where a standing defence
would be made in conjunction with counter-attack on the French
left from the Metz-Nied system. In the least likely alternative of
only minor forces of the French being met with in Lorraine, Prince
Rupprecht might utilize the Metz system to cover the transfer of
part of his forces W. of the Moselle for co5peration with the V.
Army. Upper Alsace was to be held against light forces, but evacu-
ated step by step if seriously invaded. The VI. Army with the 3rd
Cavalry Command was assembled accordingly in Lorraine, the
VII. Army (minus two expected Italian cavalry divisions) in Alsace;
and mobilized and civil labour on a large scale was employed in
creating the " Nied " position, which ran from where the newest
Metz works touched that river to its mouth N.W. of Saarouis.
The French I. and II. Armies, ready for operations as soon as the
Germans, spared the latter the necessity of testing their intentions
by advancing on Aug. 14 in great force. Accordingly, the German
VI. Army drew back from position to position, while the VII. Army,
which had defeated the first inroad of the French VII. Corps at
Mulhausen, likewise drew back gradually before the army of Pau,
dispatching part of its forces by Zabern to the upper Saar to assist the
VI. Army's defence, and preparing with the remainder to hold the
line Schirmeck-Molsheim-Strassburg firmly. But this withdrawal,
after making all preparations for the offensive in the first place, was
only unwillingly and half-heartedly carried out by Rupprecht's
headquarters. And when, on Aug. 17, news arrived from Moltke
that the French advance into Lorraine was, after all, not their main
offensive, Rupprecht determined to fight on the line of his rear-guards
on Aug. 20. Thus, just at the moment when the French had decided
to push their offensive without further hesitation, the Germans
changed their policy into one of flank attack. The battles of Mor-
hange (Morchingen) and Saarburg followed (see FRONTIERS, BATTLES
OF THE: section Lorraine), in which the Germans were victorious.
A hot pursuit was initiated, and with that disappeared for the time
being all possibility of drawing off any part of Prince Rupprecht's
forces for the benefit of the " Army." Moltke's rolling-stock on the
Rhine waited in vain. The Commander-in-Chief in the Rhine lands
had brilliantly performed both his tasks, but he had become a
commander of two ardent armies who could see only the enemy in
front of him.
The German Advance through Belgium and France. Once the
Liege foreground had been secured, and the pivot of Thionville-
Metz been made firm, there was no need, in Schlieffen's opinion,
for overhaste in the development of the main operation, which
required principally power. Moltke, on the other hand, sought
to remedy the reduction of power on the striking wing by urging
it to speed. This was not easy, for the administrative and tech-
nical marching arrangements required for drawing the five or
six corps of the I. Army through the narrow tunnel between
Liege and the Dutch frontier were complicated, while Billow's
II. Army displayed no great energy in crossing the Meuse above
Liege. Thus the Belgian main army was left undisturbed on the
Geete the most forward position which it could safely adopt
in view of the risk of being outflanked by a German movement
through Dutch territory till Aug. 19, when, threatened with
severance from Antwerp, it began to retire westward with but
little fighting. Even then, however, the task of, the German I.
Army was by no means clear. The possible arrival of a British
Expeditionary Force on its outer flank was a standing menace,
and until the true right flank of the system, Billow's II. Army,
had begun its advance in earnest its protective echelon (I. Army)
could not operate to any purpose. On the evening of Aug. 19
the 1 8th day of mobilization the outer flank of the wheel had
only reached the line Thildonck-Tirlemont (I. Army)-Sart Rib-
sart-Mehaigne (II. Army), while the armies traversing the
Ardennes were at Marche (III.) and Bastogne-Arlon (IV.)
respectively. The V. Army was just beginning to draw out of
the Thionville area towards Longwy. On Aug. 20, learning that
a large French army had been assembled in the Charleroi region,
Billow prepared its encirclement by beginning to wheel-in not
only the II. Army's right wing but the I. Army (then under his
orders) as well; but as the cooperation of the III. Army moving
on Dinant was intended, that army, as well as the I., had to be
given time, and the concentric blow upon Lanrezac was fixed for
Aug. 23, while the left wing of the II. Army was to attack Namur
from both banks of the Meuse. Had these measures been carried
out, the " vast wheeling movement" would, on the 22nd day of
mobilization, have occupied the line Nivelles-Charleroi-Dinant-
Neufchateau-Arlon-Thionville instead of the line Ghent-E.
front of Maubeuge-Sedan-Thionville, as Schlieffen had planned
for that day. But the fact of being a few days in arrear was of
small importance relatively to the fact that, instead of contin-
uing to swing out, the German line would be beginning already
to roll in. The essential principle of the movement, that of out-
flanking not only the momentary position, but also any and every
position of the enemy's left wing, was sacrificed. The British
Expeditionary Force, unlocated. lay outside instead of inside
the scope of the wheel.
But during Aug. 20-23 events crowded upon one another at
almost every point of the German line. The left wing of the II.
Army stormed Namur, with the powerful aid of the super-heavy
artillery (this time deployed from the outset), while the right
became engaged front-to-front with Lanrezac (see FRONTIERS,
BATTLES OF THE: section Charleroi). The I. Army, advancing in
echelon to the battlefield indicated by Billow, but seeking still
to preserve both its rearward echelonment and its power of
extending outwards, came into contact, with its left wing, with
the British Expeditionary Force in the neighbourhood of Mons
(see FRONTIERS, BATTLES OF THE: section Mons). Meanwhile,
the German III. Army, drawing out of the W.S.W. direction in
order to cooperate in the battle proposed for Aug. 23, had lost
978
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
touch with the situation of Billow's army (apparently through
the neglect of the latter to keep Hausen posted as to events on
the Sambre), and the IV. Army in the heart of the Ardennes
had already begun to wheel forward and southward in order to
protect Hausen's left when it received the full weight of the
French IV. Army's offensive from the Chiers. Lastly, the V.
Army, on which a defensive attitude was at first imposed by the
Supreme Command, managed to convert its defensive, flushed
by success in the battle of Longwy, into a flank offensive which
threatened to create a gap between the five armies and the
Thionville-Metz pivot, on which they were to wheel. (See
FRONTIERS, BATTLES OF THE: section Ardennes.)
Thus, at almost every point, local situations and the initiative
of army commanders and troops turned the smooth and regular
tide into a series of eddies. On the German side, as on that of the
Allies, the northern half of the battle of the Frontiers was a
chain of fierce local battles which only a very strong Higher
Command could take in hand, either to straighten the links or
to reforge them in a different pattern.
From that point to the battle of the Marne, the contest is less
between schemes, less even between armies, than between the
capacities of the two Supreme Commands.
At the head of the German armies was a man in indifferent health,
by nature kindly rather than insistent, one for whom responsibility
was rather a burden than a source of strength. He carried, moreover,
the strain of watching and attempting to direct affairs on the eastern
front. His opponent was a different man and differently placed.
Essentially authoritative in temperament, sound in health, and
concerned with one task only, Joffre was a commander in the full
sense where Mpltke was a responsible adviser only. Leaving the
details of planning to his staff, and in particular to General Berthelot,
Joffre devoted himself entirely to the r&le of commanding. His
personal activity in the days after the battle of the Frontiers is
astonishing, but it is essentially of the moral and not the operative
kind deciding, encouraging, punishing the r61e of King William I.
in the war of 1870-;!, and one which the Emperor William II. was
unable to sustain in 1914. Add to the factors weighing against
Moltke, the prestige and confidence of his army commanders, most
of whom had won victories, none sustained defeat, whereas no
French subordinate general had obtained an important tactical
success, and it is evident that the higher control was necessarily
firmer on the side of the French than on that of the Germans.
The prevailing impression on the German side after the battles
along the frontiers was that a decisive victory had been won, and
that the next phase was to be one of exploitation. The consequences
of this impression, which soon penetrated to General Headquarters,
were: (a) the decision to send six corps (two from each portion of
the line) to the East Prussian front ; (b) freedom of action granted to
the V. Army to cut loose from contact with Thionville and join in the
general pursuit by a movement round the N. of Verdun; (c) non-
interference with Prince Rupprecht's pursuit in Lorraine; and (d) a
new orientation of the I., II., III., IV. and V. Armies, which,
abandoning the " wheel," were to advance in line in a general S.W.
direction, with the I. Army heading for the lower Seine, the II. for
Paris, the III. for Chateau-Thierry, the IV. for Epernay, and the V.
for Vitry-le-Francois, the last-named flankguarding against Verdun
and the first preserving a defensive echelon on its right.
The new orders were issued on Aug. 27, after the battle of Lan-
drecies-Le Cateau had accounted for all undisclosed British forces
and established the feebleness of the French cordon to the left of
them, while the III. Army was well S. of Rocroi and the IV. bordered
the Meuse from Sedan to Stenay. They were not executed with the
certainty and confidence of an exploitation. The V. Army, in the
act of letting go its connexion with Thionville-Metz, had on Aug. 25
exposed its left flank to a very sharp offensive of the defensive
portion of the French III. Army now styled " Army of Lorraine,"
under General Maunoury, whose progress had been stopped only
by orders from Paris. The French III. and IV. Armies, quickly
rallied from their Ardennes-Longwy defeats, gave ground only
slowly and with frequent counter-strokes (see FRONTIERS, BATTLES
OF THE: section Ardennes), and the German III. Army was con-
tinually drawn southward, off its line of advance, to assist the IV.
in real or supposed crises. Thus a great gap opened up between the
III. Army and the II.; and the latter, uneasy as to its left flank,
gradually drew away into a southerly direction, while Kluck's I.
Army continued S.W. on Amiens. Almost immediately thereafter,
the I. Army began to come into contact with French forces, dis-
tinctly superior in number and in quality from those hitherto met
on this outer flank. While driving these back in various minor
actions, and expanding ever westward in so doing, it was suddenly
checked and caused to swerve southward by demands for assistance
from the II. Army, which, unsupported on its left by the III., found
itself counter-attacked, with a vigour that had not been observed
since Charleroi, by Lanrezac (see GUISE, BATTLE OF). This crisis,
like similar crises on a smaller scale in the area affecting the IV. and
III. Armies, passed away after a time, but the disintegration of the
German mass-movement had now reached a climax. Apart from
regulating special questions between armies as they arose, the
German Higher Command had not intervened in the conduct of
operations since its instruction of Aug. 27. On the night of Aug. 31,
the I. Army, in the vain hope of seizing the left flank of the British
or of Lanrezac, had pushed its left far to the S. to the Aisne below
Soissons, while its right was in the Lassigny hills and W. of Mont-
didier and even farther north. The II. Army had not progressed be-
yond the Guise-St. Quentin battlefield, its front facing due S.
between Essigny-le-Grand and Vervins; the III. Army on the
contrary was on the upper Aisne on both sides of Rethel, the IV.
astride the northern Argonne between Semuyand Buzancy, theV.
wrapping itself round the N. side of Verdun while still maintaining
considerable forces in the Woevre facing the E. front of that fortress,
and the C6te de Meuse. Two corps had left for the eastern front,
belonging not to the subsidiary armies in Lorraine but to the striking
wing. One corps had been left to face the Belgians in Antwerp, one
and a quarter corps to besiege Maubeuge, other detachments here
and there to guard lines of communication or to invest small French
forts such as Givet. The only new forces on their way to the West
were the two divisions of the IX. Res. Corps and certain Ersatz
brigades, all of which were needed to support the. dangerously weak
cordon of the III. Res. Corps facing Antwerp and to be on the spot
in case of a Russian and British landing at Ostend, rumours of
which at this time filled western Europe.
In Lorraine, the pursuit from the battlefields of Morhange and
Saarburg had led the German VI. and VII. Armies in a southerly
direction, substantially on Rambervillers and Charmes. Forced to >
condense into two mam groups by the fort of Manonviller a work
condemned as useless by peace-time critics and by the forest of
Parroy, they had exposed their right flank to counter-attack by the |
restored army of Castelnau, which held the fortifications N. and E.
of Nancy and the north flank of the so-called Trouce de Charmes.
This French counter-stroke not only gravely imperilled Prince
Rupprecht's army for Manonviller resisted long enough to act as
an anvil to Castelnau's hammer but deprived the German Com-
mand in Lorraine of its initiative. With that loss, it forfeited all
real power of holding larger French forces in its front; and though j
the German Supreme Command, in the same confident general
instructions of Aug. 27 which initiated the southwestward pursuit ;
of the I.-V. Armies, ordered the Bavarian Prince to break through |
the French line in the direction of Neufchateau on the upper Meuse, I
it soon appeared that Joffre had the " inner line." He could take
troops from Lorraine for other service, while his opponent could
only continue costly holding attacks that did not hold.
On Sept. I the German Supreme Command gave up the con-
ception of a general southwesterly pursuit, which, by its incidents,
had not only lost its direction but brought the armies into a very
irregular array and resumed the original conception of the wheel ;
pivoting on Thionville, or rather, in the new situation, on the troops ;
of the V. Army facing the N. side of Verdun. By now, however, I
with losses and detachments, the frontage of such a sweep was i
reduced by the front of a whole army, if not two armies. The
appearance of French active and reserve forces N. of Paris made it
clear that a protective echelon such as had always been prescribed
and rarely formed by the I. Army would have to follow the rear of '
the army on the outer flank, and, moreover, the gap between the j
II. and III. Armies must be closed. The new general instructions, |
therefore, prescribed that the II. Army should steadily drive the
French in a southeasterly direction, followed in echelon by the I.,
which was to watch Paris and break up the communications leading
thither. But almost immediately after the I. Army, still well in I
advance of the II., received this order, one of its corps, exploiting 3
local advantage, crossed the Marne at Chezy and Chateau-Thierry, j
and Kluck determined to support it rather than withdraw it. The
Supreme Command made no protest, all the more so as he reported
evidences of real dissolution in the ranks of the retreating enemy.
Kluck pushed on. The echelon facing Paris was maintained, but it
was growing thinner and thinner. On Sept. 4 the Supreme Com-
mand, in increasing uneasiness, limited the offensive front still more.
Not only was the I. Army to stand fast between the Oise and the i
Marne, but the II. Army was to wheel outwards and fill the space
between the Marne and the upper Seine. The III. Army, now i
become the operating wing, was to march on Troyes and to the E. I
thereof, continuing in close liaison with the IV. and V. while the '
Lorraine armies were to renew their attempt to break through the '
upper Moselle front.
The final phases of the battle in Lorraine represent the endeavour
of exhausted forces to carry out their part in this scheme. The
central and western portion came to nothing, for although Kluck
began at 23:00 hours (n P.M.) on Sept. 5 to counter-march his
army so as to fill the space between the Oise and the Marne, now j
guarded only by the last relic of his echelon, and Billow gained
ground between the Marne and the Seine as far as Montmirail and
the marshes of St. Goud, General Joffre had, on the afternoon of
Sept. 4, issued the command to his armies to face about and attack.
The Preparation of the Counter-Offensive. While on the Ger-
man side we see the battles of the frontiers followed by a high-
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
979
spirited chase in which the driver was able to keep little more
than the semblance of order in his team, on the French side the
picture is one of an astonished and confused, but in no sense a
routed citizen-army, too clear-sighted to believe itself betrayed
and yet too ignorant of the ensemble to see where miscalculations ,
had led to disaster. In the hands of one who had specialized in
the art of inspiring confidence, whose silence even was imper-
turbable, and whose career had been spent not in technical
subtleties of operations but in varied branches of administration,
it had every chance of early recovery, provided that it was han-
dled according to a definite policy and not exposed to incidents.
This definite policy was laid down in a general order of Aug. 25,
which began with the phrase: " As it has proved impossible to
carry out the projected offensive, the next operations will be
regulated so as to constitute on the left, by means of the IV.
and V. Armies, the British army, and new forces from the eastern
front, a mass capable of resuming the offensive while the others
hold up the enemy for the required time." Following this cool
and convincing statement, the detail paragraphs prescribe a
retreat to the line Braye-sur-Somme-Ham for the British, to
Vermand-Moy for the offensive portion of the V. Army, to La
Fere-Laon-Craonne-St. Erme for the defensive wing of that
army, to the middle Aisne for the IV. Army and to the Argonne-
Verdun line for the III. " From this situation the offensive will
be resumed," said the order. On the left of this line a barrage
against cavalry inroads was to be formed between Picquigny
and the sea, and either between Domart and Corbie or between
Picquigny and Villers-Bretonneux there was to be formed a new
army, soon to be designated the VI., and composed, as regards
its staff and several of its divisions, of the troops which had just
defeated the left of the German Crown Prince as it sidled past
Etain. This was to be ready for action on Sept. 2, and the
direction of its offensive would be either St. Pol- Arras or Arras-
Bapaume, according to the position of the extreme right of the
Germans. The British would attack on Bertincourt or Le Cate-
let, according to the situation, the V. Army wing on Bohain.
The right of the V., the IV., and the III. were to defend the line
laid down and eventually to attack from it. To the I. and II.
Armies went the laconic instruction, " the role of these armies is,
to endure."
But the pressure of the German pursuit in its first freshness
did not admit of the British coming to a halt on the line ordered,
and when the elements of the new VI. Army began to assemble
about Amiens the battle had passed far to the south of them.
Similarly, with the V. Army, the battle of Guise, which may be
considered as a section of the proposed general offensive, led to
small results because the British element was wanting on its
outer flank. The controversies which have arisen as to the rapid-
ity of the British retirement from the battlefield of Le Cateau to
behind the Oise need not here be discussed, for it is more than
doubtful in any case whether the state of the French army, in its
ensemble on Aug. 31, justified the risk of incurring final defeat.
Be this as it may, Joffre put aside all temptations to exploit the
local successes at Guise on the Meuse, and in a new general order
of Sept. i laid down that the VI. Army and the British having
insufficiently checked the enemy's turning movement, the whole
system must pivot about its right continuing to retreat, until the
left of the V. Army should be free from the menace of envelop-
ment. Then the armies would take the offensive, this time
utilizing the position of the III. Army, protected by Verdun on
the N. and the Cote de Meuse on the E., to strike the chief blow.
The position from which the offensive would be resumed was
now well back from Paris, which was to be left to itself (though
Joffre suggested that its troops might cooperate in the general
offensive), the V. Army behind the upper Seine (Nogent), the de-
tachment Foch (IX. Army) and the IV. Army behind the Aube
and S. of Vitry, the III. Army, augmented by defence troops
borrowed from the Cote de Meuse and possibly by troops from'
the Lorraine front, N. of Bar-le-Duc. The British and the VI.
Army were to constitute with Gallieni's local troops a Paris
group which should hold the Seine from Melun to Juvisy, and
the E. and N.E. fronts of Paris.
Thus was prepared the initial situation of the battle of the
Marne. The scheme as outlined at first underwent many modi-
fications, due to the ardent initiatives of Gallieni in Paris, and of
Sarrail, commander of the III. Army, S. of Verdun, as well as to
other causes. These are discussed in the article MARNE, BATTLE
OF THE. Here it is not necessary to analyse too closely the form
projected for the battle. Essentially, the fact to be retained by
history is that a great army, in retreat after failure, could be
energized, ordered to turn about, and launched to the attack,
by a modern commander-in-chief whose influence must filter
through a complex hierarchy before reaching the fighting soldier.
Many had believed this to be an impossibility, and they were
proved wrong. The operative scheme of the battle of the Marne
and even its apparent barrenness of specific military results, are
of insignificant importance compared with the fact that the bat-
tle of the Marne was actually fought. (X.)
The " Race to the Sea" The establishment of the German
defensive on the line of the Aisne, prolonged across the plain of
Champagne, which ended the Marne battle, did not put an end
to the Anglo-French offensive. The front between Compiegne
and Verdun was stabilized here and there, but the battle of
movement continued at the free extremity, that is, to the W. of
Compiegne, and beyond. This new offensive has improperly
been called the " Race to the Sea." In reality it was not a ques-
tion of reaching the coast as quickly as possible, so as to obtain
there an absolute protection against turning movements. If it
had been so, the shortest line for the Allies, and the easiest to
hold, would have been that of the Somme, from Compiegne to
Montdidier and Amiens. To the estuary of the Somme, this line
does not measure much more than 100 km., while the line from
S. toN., which was that of the actual " Race to the Sea," ended
N. of the Yser and was nearly double that length, presenting
features of very various nature, among which some entirely
lacked defensive value.
The truth is that the offensive, which was throughout the
policy of the French Command, did not stop at the Marne vic-
tory. On Sept. n, when the VI. Army (Maunoury) arrived at
Compiegne, the Commander-in-Chief gave the order for this
force to place immediately as many troops as possible on the
right bank of the Oise. On Sept. 17 he indicated his plan by
ordering the formation, on the left wing, of a force capable of
parrying a flanking movement by the enemy as the best pre-
caution to be taken. But Sir John French has stated that on the
very next day (Sept. 18) General Joffre informed him that he was
developing a new plan which aimed at attacking and enveloping
the German right flank. The enemy, moreover, showed by his
method of occupying the ground that the initiative no longer
rested with him.
At the extreme end of the Allied line on the Oise the valley of
the Aisne cleaves its way through a forest-clad massif, cutting
it in two S. of the Aisne; the larger part of this mass consists of
the forest of Compiegne and the northern part is the forest of
Laigne. If the Germans, very skilled in turning forests to mili-
tary account and manoeuvring in them, had retained any hope
of resuming the offensive against the Allied left flank, they
would have occupied the forest of Compiegne in order to make
it the starting point of their turning movement and force the
Allied left to retreat towards Paris. But they abandoned that
front; nor did they retain the forest of Laigne, on the plateau to
the N. of Attichy. The offensive impulse in the World War was
thus on the side of the Allies and they kept it until the fatal day
of Russia's defeat on the eastern front. Until that time every
attack which resulted in the gain of ground came from the Allies,
who, save for a few occasions, methodically pushed back the
enemy from one entrenched position to another. The Germans
had later to defend their right flank, more and more threatened
as it became more and more prolonged. And, as the best way of
arresting the progress of the Allies would have been to strike at
their offensive, they tried without ceasing to outflank them,
while they were resisting in front.
Thus the " Race to the Sea," viewed as a whole, consisted in
establishing an offensive Allied flank against the German right,
980
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
and, this flank being always unsupported at one extremity, in
German efforts to seize this extremity from two directions. These
attempts, on either side, taking place farther and farther from
Compiegne, appeared as a "Race to the Sea"; but in reality
neither side was deliberately making for the coast. The S.-N.
direction taken by the line of contact was not sought by either
opponent; it resulted from the balance of forces.
It is evident that, whatever resources on either side were fur-
nished by reserves and new formations, the extension of the
front of contact over a length of 200 km. was only possible on
condition of leaving much thinner forces on the stabilized front
than had been required for the battle of movement, from Aug.
20 to Sept. 12. In proportion as the lines extended to the N.,
transferences took place, depleting the line from Belfort to
Compiegne, as had already been done in the Vosges and in
Lorraine, to enforce the regions where the struggle was being
carried on in open country.
As regards such transferences, the advantage was with the
Germans, because they occupied the interior of the angle whose
apex points to Compiegne, while the Allied troops had to be
moved around this point.
On the German side, the manoeuvre brought 18 new army corps
into the line. On the Allied side it resulted in the transference
of the II. Army (de Castelnau) between the Oise and the Somme;
the formation of the X. Army (Maud'huy), N. of the Somme,
and the VIII. Army (d'Urbal), which included the Belgian army,
brought back from Antwerp; and lastly in the shifting of the
British army into Flanders. To these transfers and new crea-
tions must be added various formations constituted on the spot,
of which the most important was a group of territorial divisions
placed under the orders of General Brugere. Some of these for-
mations had already joined in the offensive after the battle of
the Marne, notably at Amiens, which they had cleared of the
German units scattered through Picardy and Artois. This
ensemble was placed under the command of General Foch, but
was only brought to completion by degrees. The successive steps
will now be described. '
The first offensive action against the German right began on
Sept. n, in accordance with the order given by General Joffre.
It was carried out by the VI. Army, with one additional corps
on the right bank of the Oise. It immediately encountered ener-
getic resistance on the Aronde, a small tributary prolonging the
depression of the Aisne valley on the opposite side of the Oise.
On the northern bank of this stream wooded heights extend be-
tween Compiegne, Lassigny and Noyon, and surround Ribe-
court names which all became famous during the war.
The VI. Army had a difficult task in the subduing of them, and
could hardly have achieved it, threatened as it was with an at-
tack in flank, without the help of the II. Army (de Castelnau),
which, detraining in the Clermont-Beauvais area, had to cover
30 or 40 km. in order to outflank the German right. At the same
time the cavalry and the territorial divisions of General Brugere
extended the movement towards the north.
The resulting battles were prolonged until the end of Sept.
with alternations of success and reverse, through Lassigny, Roye,
and Chaulnes, as far as Peronne. From Peronne to Lassigny,
where the wooded hills ceased, the terrain consisted of undulating
plains, where no line of battle could be found. It was thus the
balance of forces that determined the front of contact, which
was gradually fortified on either side.
On Sept. 24 the French retook Peronne and lost it again.
This little place, in a hollow, offering no possibility of outlook or
of action outside its walls, had no military value. The positions
which should have been occupied in the circumstances were the
heights of the Somme above Peronne which formed a very con-
siderable obstacle. The great value of this line, especially facing
eastward, owing to the command of the country in that direction
given by the heights, did not escape the German staff, and for a
long time their efforts were directed towards preventing the
Allies from securing the heights, by the defence of improvised
fortifications, at some distance in front of them. Later it will
be seen how these lines were linked up with that of the Ancre.
It will now be shown how, after the preliminary fighting, the
German front became established between the Aisne and the
Oise. A salient is always a weakness. The front was fixed from
E. to W. along the Aisne; and the flank resolving itself into a new
front running N. and S. the German line exhibited a right-angle
salient pointing towards the forest of Laigne. It was very largely
to smooth out this salient that the line was traced behind the
forest in such a way as to form a great arc instead of a point.
South of the portion of the line of the Somme between Peronne
and Ham it was necessary to connect this arc with the fortified
line S. of Peronne; the line Chaulnes-Roye-Lassigny was thus
strongly indicated as the connecting line.
On Sept. 23 there was fighting near Lassigny, on Sept. 25 near
Roye, and on Sept. 29 in the same places and also at Chaulnes,
where the Allies were repulsed, as they were at the salient itself.
On Oct. i the fighting-line extended to near Arras. It will be
seen how it came to be fixed on the N. of Peronne.
The old fortress of Arras, which was no longer more than
half fortified, but whose citadel had been maintained in good
condition, was a point d'appui for the Allies. The interval, 40
km. wide, between Arras and the Somme, provided some fea-
tures which were favourable to the establishment of a line.
First, near Arras, there was the little valley of the Crinchon.
The stream itself is unimportant, but its banks afford positions
which are good in default of better ones. Next, a connecting
line had to be ensured over about 15 km., from N. to S., across
the undulating plateau, to the course of the Ancre, which forms
a deep ravine both above and below Albert. The river bends
in a S.W. direction as far as Corbie on the Somme.
Thus the line traced by the depression favourable to a line
of resistance forms a series of zigzags: the Ancre near Albert, the
Somme from Corbie to Peronne, the Somme from Peronne to
Ham; It was because of this peculiarity that the Germans, when
they were defending the line of the Ancre, opposite Albert,
could not make use of the section of the Somme between Peronne
and Ham, because it was 20 km. to the rear. Their solution con-
sisted therefore of drawing a line through the Corbie salient,
behind which lay Combles, transformed into a magazine and
supply depot. This brought them in front of the section of the
Somme between Peronne and Ham.
During the " Race to the Sea" the fighting round Albert and Arras
(see ARTOIS, BATTLES IN) began at the end of Sept. and on Oct. I
respectively. The X. French Army then came into the line. The
Germans were already strongly entrenched on the Thicpval plateau,
opposite Albert, where they were to pile up the defensive works
which the British were to capture, one by one, two years later.
On Oct. 2-3 the X. Army (Maud'huy) made an effort to seize
the German flank at its northern extremity by moving forward to
Douai, where there had been for some time a detachment of the
territorial army, which did not succeed in maintaining its hold.
But the Germans opposed with heavy forces of infantry and cavalry.
The French were pressed back; the enemy occupied Lens and made
a vigorous but unsuccessful attack on Arras. For a long time after-
wards the Allies' line left Lens in possession of the Germans, lying
farther westward on a line from Arras towards B6thune. Arras was
included indeed, but the important positions of Vimy and Notre
Dame de Lorette, of which the Germans would not lose hold, were cut
off. Their importance consisted in their facing N.E. and later their
capture necessitated long and painful effort.
The German cavalry was in all the country which lay beyond in
the N. ; it occupied Ypres and Bailleul, and sent out patrols still
farther forward. The situation was very difficult for the Allies, and
its improvement was an urgent matter. The VIII. Army (d'Urbal)
had its base at Dunkirk, but it was still inadequately constituted.
The French cavalry and General Brugere's territorial divisions were
maintaining an arduous and very fatiguing struggle. At that mo-
ment the British army, which could now be withdrawn from the
Aisne, as that front was strong and solid and could be held by a small
force, was summoned N. Reinforcements were also brought from the
eastern area, and lastly the Belgian army, no longer of any use in
Antwerp, came to take its place in the ensemble. The story of the
siege of Antwerp and of the escape of the Belgian field army from the
place is told under ANTWERP.
At the time of the fall of Antwerp Sir John French and General
Joffre met at Doullens, on Oct. 8. The British II. Corps arrived on
Oct. 12 near Bethune and Aire, and was able to attack the enemy's
flank in a combined operation with the X. French Army. The
III. Corps detrained at St. Omer on Oct. 12 ; the I. followed. Finally
the IV. Corps, supporting the Belgian army in its retreat, would
rejoin the rest.
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
981
It is evident that if the organization and transport of the new
irmy corps which were to swell the forces of Sir John French had
>een accomplished more quickly, and the N. of France occupied
tarlier, that region would have been more easily freed from the
memy invasion, and the blow at his flank aimed at by the Com-
nand would have resulted instead of the " Race to the Sea." But
t must not be forgotten that Great Britain created this new army
ib oi)o a stupendous military effort and that armies cannot be
mprovised. Until about Oct. 8, the Germans had only cavalry in
he regions around to the north of Lille. It was then strengthened
>y the arrival of a strong army corps, which came from the neigh-
raurhood of Antwerp by way of Courtrai.
The Lille Question. On Oct. 8 the enemy arrived before Lille. The
ortress closed its gates and resisted with the few troops that it
assessed. The Germans did not trouble to attack it in earnest.
They contented themselves with bombarding the town from a
iistance and demolished about a thousand houses. On Oct. 13,
ifter five or six days of bombardment, Lille yielded. This short
esistance was not useless, for it enabled the British army to take up
ts position behind Lille and to consolidate it. The question of
Jlle gave rise to much discussion in France. The arguments cannot
* examined here, but a few words must nevertheless be said on the
ubject. If it had held out longer, it might have formed part of the
lattleline, like Reims, in which case it would inevitably have been
iestroyed, and with it the industrial towns of Roubaix and Tour-
:oing. Should the sacrifice have been made? The British front
vould have gained about 15 km. on the E. but the general line would
lave passed along the Yser on the N. and through Arras on the S.
ust the same. It would, moreover, have been difficult to find a good
:onnecting line to link up Lille and Arras, across country very ill-
Idapted for defence, especially in the southern half. If the defence
if Lille had been included in the general scheme of operations from
he beginning, a very strong garrison must have been left there,
proportional to the extent and number of works of the entrenched
amp. It would have had to be an immobili/ed force whose task
vas to immobilize an enemy force also, as at Maubeuge. But it
voiild not, any more than Maubeuge, have hindered the enemy's
urning movement. Thus, to assume the resistance of Lille, until
he arrival of the British army at the beginning of Oct., is to assume
hat it could have sustained a siege and bombardment from the last
veek in Aug. onwards that is, for over 40 days. The fate of other
solated fortresses, such as Liege and Antwerp, leaves no doubt that
his would have been impossible.
On Oct. 12 a junction was effected between the Belgian army,
etreating towards Ypres with the French marine fusiliers, and the
I. British Corps (General Smith-Dorrien) in the region between
Jethune and Bailleul, along the canal and the Lys, while the III.
Dorps (General Pulteney) marched on the left of the II. towards the
ine running from Armentieres to Ypres, to occupy the heights of
Vlessines, later so fiercely disputed. On Oct. 13 the British cavalry,
vhich held the left of the advance, took the heights which stretch
'>etween Cassel and Messines (Mont Noir, Mont des Cots, etc.) and
vhich are of great military importance. On Oct. 14 the II. Corps
:ntered Bailleul. The same day General Byng's cavalry division
irrived at Ypres, with a French territorial division.
i Definition of the Front of Contact. Although the struggle never
:eased and a great German offensive was immediately prepared
In Belgium against the left of the line, at Ypres, on the Yser, the
' Race to the Sea " must be considered to have ended on Oct. 15
:9i4, the date on which the Allies occupied the whole front
rom Ypres to the sea. At that date the left, on the Yser, was
it Nieuport, and possessed a bridgehead at Lombartzyde in
idvance of the line of the river and near its mouth. The Yser
ront passed through Dixmude. To the S. of that town it is
lelimited partly by the course of the river, which spreads out
ike a fan a little farther to the S., partly by the Ypres canal, after
>assing the ancient fort of Krocke. Then it goes beyond the
anal to the villages situated farther E. on the stream of the
it. Jean, in order to arrive at the heights which surround the
msin of the Yser and its tributaries, reaching them at Gheluvelt,
m the road from Ypres to Mcnin. It held the crest and the
icights as far as Messines. The French were on the left, from
N'ieuport to Dixmude; the English on the right, on either side of
[ypres: the Belgians were between the two, their feeble effectives
j iccupying only a small portion of the front.
From the beginning the Yser front was well selected and lent
tself well to defence, not so much owing to the obstacle formed
)y the Yser, as because the country behind, much cut off by
vater-courses, was very ill-adapted for an offensive by large
nasses. At the same time, this part of the front, which was
:ntirely defensive, had not its full value until it was flooded.
The dykes were burst open on Oct. 22, the floods then gained
jround little by little as they rose higher. The effect was not
obtained very rapidly, because the whole volume of water in
the basin is not great. It did not hinder the enemy from crossing
the river below Dixmude on Oct. 26, and penetrating thence to
a depth of 4 km. till he was stopped by the lines in the rear, and
especially by the railway embankment. But two days later the
Germans were forced to retreat, partly by the Allied counter-
attacks, partly by the water, which was spreading and rising.
The part of the line which passed in front of the Ypres canal near
the little river St. Jean could not be made very solid, but it was
necessary in order to form a link with the Gheluvelt heights.
But the true line of battle, which overlooked a large stretch of
country to the E., was only attained in the last phase of the war,
with the capture of the entire line of heights in the direction of
Staden, at least as far as Westroosebeke, the point where the
ridge is crossed by the high road from Ypres to Ghent. Also,
during the whole of the first period of the struggle, the British
army was always very vigorously attacked around Ypres and
at Ypres itself. The most important point d'appui was the por-
tion of the heights lying directly to the S. of Ypres, Wytschaete
and Messines, that is, the eastern end of the line of the Monts
de Flandre, which run from Messines to Cassel and appear
again farther on to the N. of St. Omer. These hills are of im-
mense importance in the whole defence of Flanders. This was
seen in the last phase of the war, when they fell into the hands
of the enemy as far as Bailleul, and it took very hard fighting and
the greatest energy to arrest his progress in this direction and to
stave off still more fatal consequences.
Between the promontory of Messines and the cliff formed by
the heights of Notre Dame de Lorette and of Vimy, above the
plain of Lens, stretched a sector with a front of nearly 50 km.
which afforded no continuous line of any length, and included
only isolated strong-points, sometimes in a position favourable
to the Allies, sometimes to the enemy. Those most useful to the
Allies were the ridges of Messines and Vimy. The first was taken
by the Allies on Oct. 15 1914; the second was at first occupied by
the French, and later their success was repeated by the British.
The French front line passed 2 km. to the west of Notre Dame
de Lorette, the key to the position. The attack on this point
began on Oct. 20; but the conquest of the whole ridge necessi-
tated efforts which were renewed up to the middle of April 1917.
In the plain, about midway between Messines and Arras, is
a point relatively stronger than the rest, owing to the canals
and marshes which protect its approaches. This is the little
town of La Bassee, occupied and strongly fortified by the Ger-
mans; and for a long time it delayed the progress of the British
army. Tne difficulty of the advance towards Vimy was very
largely owing to the part played by La Bassee in preventing the
British in the plain of Lens from taking part in it, in striking at
the rear of all their attempts in the neighbourhood of Lens,
especially those which aimed at outflanking the town on the
north. But hard as were the local struggles in the Messines-
Vimy sector, no great action ever developed there until 1918:
first, because as regards an Allied action a great offensive in the
direction of Lille, would have been very risky unless it was led
up to by a more strongly protected movement either to the S.
in the region of Arras, Peronne and Ham, or in the N. towards
Belgium; secondly, because as regards a German action, the
sector to be conquered to carry out a flank offensive against the
Allied left was that of Ypres and the Monts de Flandre.
Such was the real meaning of the German project Nach Calais!,
which cost the army of William II. so dearly. For the Germans, to
engage themselves in the Messines-Vimy sector, in order to reach
St. Omer, would have been to run into the jaws of a pair of pinchers
formed on the N. by the Monts de Flandre and on the S. by the
ridge of Vimy-Notre Dame de Lorette, extending to the S. of
Bethune and Brie. It would have meant the formation of a salient,
which would be more vulnerable the farther it was pushed in the
direction of Calais. The result of all this was that almost up to the
end of the war the front passing through Armentieres and Arras
underwent very little change.
It has already been related how the front was determined first
between Arras and Albert, then S. of Albert in front of the Somme
between Pdronne and Ham, and lastly as far as the salient opposite
the forest of Laigne. The attack on this very strongly fortified part
of the German front was only begun in the early part of Dec. 1914.
982
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
At that time the French still held Thiepval wood on the enemy slope
of the Ancre. Farther S., some fluctuations occurred on the plateau,
in the region of Chaulnes and Roye. But there was no great action
other than the Anglo-French general offensive, which developed
between July 1916 and March 1917.
All this leads to the conclusion that the last half of Oct. 1914 may
be considered to mark the end of the " Race to the Sea," and the
establishment of equilibrium, except for local fluctuations, along the
whole length of the immense line of contact. (H. BE.)
II. TRENCH WARFARE, 1915-17
While weary British troops were handing over their lines in
the salient to their French comrades at the close of the first
battle of Ypres (see YPRES AND THE YSER, BATTLES OF) and
they had time to think of other things than the grim struggle
that had just ended, it dawned upon them that the war in
the west had entered upon a new phase. The trench barrier
had been completed from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier,
and a war of movement and manoeuvre, for which most of
them had been trained, had become impossible. This was
a development which had not been foreseen by the military
world of Europe and it took it by surprise. For the Germans
this surprise was less unpleasant in the winter of 1914-15
than for the French and the British. When their second
great effort to win the war in the west had failed they had
decided to adopt a defensive policy in France and Belgium
while they attacked in the east. Therefore they could regard
the difficulties of attack upon trench lines and the restrictions of
manoeuvre with some complacency, while they were better pre-
pared for the new type of warfare than were either of their
opponents, more particularly the British. The fortifications of
the French and Russian frontiers had compelled the Germans
to study closely the art and science of siege warfare and to make
preparations for such warfare. They had assimilated the expe-
riences of the Russo-Japanese War and had learnt from them to
their profit. Therefore trench mortars, hand and rifle grenades,
searchlights and pistol lights, and the possibilities of mining,
were to them no novelty; and having the plant ready for the man-
ufacture of the material required for siege warfare, and consid-
erable stocks of such material already in store, it was not difficult
for them to meet quickly the demands made by their soldiers in
the trenches on the western front.
The British army was in very different case. Its chiefs before
the war believed that it would be employed only in a war of
movement, and the study of siege warfare had been confined to
a small body of engineers, amongst whom it was largely theoret-
ical. All the money to be found for the Army Votes had been
used in the training and equipment of the Expeditionary Force,
and there was none left for the provision of the material re-
quired for the attack of fortresses. The cost even of hand gre-
nades, with which experiments had been made when the reports
of British observers in Manchuria came home, was held to be
prohibitive. For these reasons the winter of 1914-15 was for
the British infantry in France and Flanders a period of unmiti-
gated suffering. The ebb and flow of attack and defence had
left the Germans almost everywhere along the. British front in
possession of the higher and drier ground, while in the low-lands
of Flanders water was found at a few feet and even sometimes
a few inches below the surface; under incessant rain, parapets
melted away unless held up by sand-bags constantly replaced,
but the British army had not sand-bags in sufficient quantities.
The construction of communication trenches was all but impos-
sible, and material had to be brought up to the front lines by
parties floundering through the mud at night. Lying in sodden
trenches, before an enemy who possessed weapons which they
had not, the British infantry endured at this time a longer
and in many respects a severer test of their constancy than in
some of the worst crises of the war. The strain upon the French
was less severe because a small part only of the French army had
to endure the incomparable mud of Flanders, and from the
first it was better provided with H.E. shell, while the greater
military resources of France made it possible to meet the new
conditions more readily.
Operations in 1915. While the soldiers in front were enduring
and slowly learning to mitigate the horrors of trench warfare,
those behind were planning. There were not lacking active
brains in Paris and in London who saw that the assaults upon
the ever-widening barriers of barbed wire and the evermore
serried lines of trenches must prove a slow and bloody business.
These brains sought eagerly for a way round the barrier which
would lead to a speedier and less costly victory, and so began
the controversy between " Easterners " and " Westerners "
which endured while the war lasted. There were signs 'early in
1915 of preparation for an Austro-German attack upon Serbia;
and Mr. Lloyd George, inspired by his friends in France, pro-
posed at once to save a weak Ally and to attack the weakest
link in the opposing chain by transferring the bulk of the British
army to the Balkans and reinforcing it with the New Armies as
they became ready for the field. Both the French and the Brit-
ish commanders-in-chief hotly opposed this proposal. The lines
of communication through Serbia were long and difficult, and
it was very doubtful whether they could be made to maintain.
an adequate force. The transference of the British army to the
Balkans must in any event have taken many months, during
which it would have been condemned to an inactivity of which
the enemy on the inside of the circle, with not only shorter but I
better communications, would certainly have profited. Thei
Balkan enterprise was therefore condemned, and the immediate,
outcome of the controversy on the British side was the starting
of the Dardanelles adventure.
Joffre's plan was simpler. He desired to attack on the western
front at the earliest possible moment and with all possible force.)
It was argued at the time, and has repeatedly been argued
since, that it would have been better to have awaited the develop- 1
ment of the British army and the increase of the Allied artillery!
and the improvement of their stock of munitions, and to havei
employed the interval in gaining advantages over less for-
midable foes in other theatres of war. To these arguments
Joffre's answer was that the Germans were in occupation
of a great part of France, that near Noyon they were only 50
miles from Paris, on the Somme they were barely 20 miles from
Amiens, the main junction connecting the British and French in
Flanders and Artois with the remainder of the French troops,
while farther N. they were little more than 40 miles from Calais.
At the beginning of 1915 he was assured of a definite numerical
superiority over the Germans in the W., but the Germans hadi
not nearly reached the limits of their man-power, and they might,
at any time call a halt on the Russian front, and by reversing the
process which they had carried out after the first battle of Ypresi
bring back troops to France. A successful German attack at
any one of a number of parts of the western front might gravely
cripple the Allied armies, for German guns might be brought up
to within range of Paris or of Calais, or the enemy might again,
occupy Amiens. The French commander-in-chief maintained!
that the security of the western front must be a paramount con-i
sideration in Allied strategy, and that to secure the position in,
the W. it was necessary to drive the Germans farther back.;
Sir John French was in general agreement with Joffre's views.
He at first desired a combined naval and military attack upon;
the coast of Belgium, but on receiving representations fromj
Lord Kitchener that neither the men nor the munitions required;
for this operation could be made ready in time, he abandoned
this proposal and set himself whole-heartedly to cooperate in
Joffre's plans. These plans comprised a grand attack by the
British army N. of the La Bassee canal and by the French
northern group of armies under Foch on the front between the
La Bassee canal and Arras. The hope was that this attack!
would give the Allies the Vimy Ridge and compel the Germans toj
evacuate Lille. In order that Foch might have the forces neces-!
sary for such a battle it was agreed between the commanders-in-j
chief that the British should relieve the French troops, who had
occupied the Ypres salient when Haig's men had been with-
drawn from it after the first battle of Ypres. Sir John French;
had at the end of 1914 received one more regular British division,
the 27th, made up by Kitchener from foreign garrisons, while
another, the z8th, arrived early in January. The ist Canadian
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
983
Div. disembarked in France in the second week of February.
; This gave him a total of 13 infantry and 5 cavalry divisions,
! besides a number of selected territorial battalions. These rein-
forcements allowed him to form his command into two armies,
the first under Sir Douglas Haig and the second under Sir
: Horace Smith-Dorrien, and at the same time to extend his front
[gradually N. into the Ypres salient.
A further integral part of the preparation for the spring cam-
paign consisted of a number of attacks intended to divert the
enemy's attention from the Artois front and to gain experience
in the tactics of trench warfare. One of these attacks was carried
out by the French during the winter against the salient of St.
Mihiel, when they learnt that the position (which appears from
a map to be almost untenable) could with the aid of trenches and
: barbed wire be made very formidable. Other attacks were
made in Champagne on either side of the Perto and in Flanders.
In the latter of these British troops cooperated by a minor
attack opposite Wytschaete, which had very little success. In
fact on the whole the Germans gained the chief success in this
preliminary sparring, for in the middle of Jan. 1915 they made
an attack uport the lines which had been held during the battle
of the Aisne by the British army, N. of that river near Soissons,
and drove the French back to the S. bank. -
The British army, which like other European armies, had
been trained to believe in the supreme virtue of attack, had
since the beginning of the war, with the exception of the short
period of the advance to the Marne and the Aisne, been com-
pelled to fight defensively, and Sir John French desired to give
it a wider experience of attack upon entrenchments. For this
[purpose he had been carefully saving up artillery ammunition
by strictly limiting the amount to be expended in the routine of
trench warfare, and he calculated that he would have sufficient
it his disposal to allow him to engage in a considerable battle
, early in March. He entrusted the execution of this battle to
Sir Douglas Haig's I. Army, which was directed to attack the
'German lines near Neuve Chapelle, an operation which it was
hoped would result in a favourable position for the further
battle which was to be undertaken later in cooperation with
Foch. The battle of Neuve Chapelle opened on Mar. 10 with
what was in those days held to be a very heavy bombardment.
'This bombardment was followed by an infantry assault, which
'was at first successful, and carried the village of Neuve Chapelle,
but was soon brought to a standstill by the enemy's machine-
guns. In this battle the British first experienced the difficulty
of bringing up reserves at the right time through roads blocked
by the debris of battle and over ground scarred by trenches and
torn by shell-fire. On the whole, however, both the French and
the British were impressed by the result of the bombardment,
which was held to promise great things when there should be
more guns and more ammunition. Preparations for further
battles therefore went forward.
The Germans, guessing what was on foot, were not slow to
interfere with these preparations. On April 17 a portion of
Smith-Dorrien's II. Army attacked and gained a footing upon
Hill 60, an important feature on the S. face of the Ypres salient.
The Germans, counter-attacking, promptly regained possession
of the hill and followed up this success by a far more serious
enterprise on April 22. By then Foch's preparations for the
attack on the Vimy Ridge were far advanced, and to obtain
the troops he needed for the coming battle he had greatly
weakened the French forces left in the N. portion of the Ypres
salient. Against this portion the Germans launched waves of
poison gas discharged from cylinders, which completely over-
whelmed the French troops, who had no protection against this
utterly unexpected barbarity. The flank of the ist Canadian
Div. was completely exposed, and for a short time a definite
Breach was created in the Allied line. Fortunately the Germans
;were unprepared for the extent of their success, and had not the
; troops at hand to take immediate advantage of it, while the
j gallantry of the ist Canadian Div. and the 28th Div. held the
enemy at bay until reinforcements could be brought up. The
first complete British territorial division to arrive in France, the
46th North Midland Div., was fortunately in the neighbourhood,
and these and other reinforcements, some contributed by Foch
from the reserves he was holding in readiness for his battle,
sufficed to save Ypres and to patch up a new line.
But the second battle of Ypres, if it did not give the Germans
all the success they might have attained had they been ready to
follow up the first success gained by the employment of a
method of attack which no civilized nation had conceived to be
possible in modern war, at least gained a great part of their pur-
pose by weakening the forces and exhausting the meagre supply
of ammunition which the Allies were accumulating for their
projected battle.
That battle began on May 9 with an attack by the I. British
Army under Sir Douglas Haig on either side of Fromelles, and
an attack by the I. French Army, commanded by General
d'Urbal but under the direction of Foch, on a much wider front
which extended from the Scarpe to the N. of the Souchez. The
British attack made very little progress and it was soon evident
that the preliminary bombardment had not sufficed to destroy
sufficiently the enemy's defences, or, what was of greater im-
portance, to overcome his machine-guns. Sir John French,
however, felt himself bound by his agreement with Joffre and
Foch to keep the enemy occupied on his front as long as possible,
and the battle of Fromelles became merged in the battle of
Festubert by bringing the front of attack slightly S. into what
it was hoped would prove more favourable ground. The experi-
ence of Festubert was, however, hardly more favourable than
that of Fromelles, for again the German machine-gunners
checked all real progress, while the lack of artillery ammunition
became more and more felt. The situation was made more
difficult in this latter respect by renewed German attacks in the
Ypres salient upon the II. Army, now under the command of
Sir Herbert Plumer. The situation of the British army in
Flanders was somewhat eased by the arrival of five more divi-
sions of territorials, followed by the first of the New Army divi-
sions, the gth, but it was lack of shell rather than lack of men
which forced Sir John French to stop his attacks, and the
battle of Festubert petered out on May 25.
Meanwhile, on the British right, Foch was making encourag-
ing if slow and very costly progress. In the battle of Souchez
the villages of Ablain St. Nazaire, Carency, Neuville St. Vaast
and Thelus were carried by d'Urbal's men, who fought their way
doggedly up the W. slopes of the Vimy Ridge. The French found
the German machine-guns to be the chief obstacle to progress and,
the prime cause of casualties, particularly in the villages, in which
the enemy's machine-gunners fought indomitably from cellar to
cellar and in a certain elaborate series of works which became
known to fame as the Labyrinth. The French had by this time
embodied the flower of the manhood of the nation in their army,
and the splendid gallantry with which Foch's regiments fought
their way forward in the battle of Souchez, enduring tremen-
dous losses but ever gaining ground, if only at the rate of a score
or two of yards per day, towards the crest of the Vimy Ridge,
was never surpassed in the whole long war. When the British
ceased their attacks on May 25, Foch had made enough head-
way to encourage him to believe that he could gain the whole
ridge, and he determined to continue the battle alone. But for
this he wanted more troops, and an extension of the British front,
which would set free Frenchmen, while both he and Joffre were
fearful lest the New Army divisions preparing to leave England
should be sent to the Dardanelles. The French commander-in-
chief therefore wrote, at the end of May, a letter to Kitchener
which contains the key to the developments of the following
months. It ran as follows:
" The retreat of the Russian army, consequent upon the temporary
failure of its offensive, will doubtless allow -the Central Powers to
withdraw, at least for a time, a certain number of army corps which
they will be able to use on another front, but it is probable that
the greater part of these will be required to meet the situation
created by the entry of Italy into the war. 1 The situation of the
Russians, who will be for some time to come unable to undertake a
decisive offensive, and the difficulties of ground which the Italian
1 The Italian troops crossed the frontier at midnight May 24-25.
9 8 4
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
theatre of war presents until the Italian armies are able to debouch
into the plains, show clearly that the principal effort of the Allies
must be made in France. The developments of Arras ' have proved
that it is tactically possible to break the German front, but that for
success an even more powerful effort is required, and that it is
necessary to attack simultaneously at a number of points. France
has at the present time 2,200,000 men engaged on her N.E. front
and has reached the limits of her man-power. She can maintain her
armies at their actual figure but she cannot increase them. The
solution of the problem is then in the hands of England. If she
sends us her New Armies we shall be able to make not only an
English and a French effort but an English effort and two French
efforts simultaneously at the most favourable moment and with
great power. The British forces, reinforced by the New Armies, will
be given zones of operation proportionate with their strength. They
will retain their present zone, extending it on both flanks to the N.
of Ypres and to the S. of La Bass6e canal, and they will take over the
zone to the S. of Arras towards the Somme. They will thus lie on
either side of the French X. Army, which will hold the front of
attack which it has organized. The alternation of French and
British troops has always given the best results. The principal effort
of the English armies will be directed between the left of the French
X. Army and the La Bassee canal and will extend to the N. of the
canal ; thus it will be linked up with the French attack in the neigh-
bourhood of Arras.
" Of course, if the Germans are compelled to fall back before all the
British forces are in line, their whole strength will be directed towards
exploiting the success won in the direction of Antwerp and of
Brussels. We owe it to ourselves and to our Allies to make a great
effort now. It is therefore at the present time of the highest im-
portance that the New British Armies should be dispatched as
rapidly as possible and at dates and under conditions fixed before-
hand, so that definite plans of operations may be drawn up in agree-
ment by the two commanders-in-chief. I am firmly convinced that
our action will be decisive, if it is combined and coordinated."
This letter shows that Joffre had not, at the end of May,
much hope that Foch would capture the Vimy Ridge, but the
latter's fiery spirit would not permit him to admit failure while
the prize seemed to be within his grasp, and he persuaded thecom-
mander-in-chief to let him continue the battle. So the battle of
Souchez, which had begun on May 9, dragged on until July 13.
Twice Foch's men won their way to the crest of the ridge, only
to be driven back, a.nd at last Joffre called a halt and decided to
prepare for the greater effort of which he had written to Kitch-
ener. In that letter Joffre had indicated that he proposed to
renew the attempts on the Arras front to take the Vimy Ridge,
while the British army fought on the left of the French X. Army,
but he had said nothing about the second French effort. This
he designed to be the principal blow to be delivered in Cham-
pagne, to the E. of Reims. To obtain the French troops for
this campaign he required the British army to extend its front
to the right and left, and also to relieve de Castelnau's VI.
Army on the Somme front. The remainder of the summer was
occupied by these changes, which became possible as the New
Army divisions arrived from England. The 2nd and 3rd of these
reached France, disembarked at the end of May, and 6 more
before the end of July, so that by then the 4 divisions and the
cavalry division of Mons had in u months increased to 28
divisions and 5 cavalry divisions. These reinforcements enabled
a British III. Army to be formed under Sir Charles Monro,
which took over some 17 miles of, front from a point to the S. of
Arras as far as the Somme, eventually extending its lines to the
S. of that river. Haig's I. Army prolonged its right S. of the La
Bassee canal to the neighbourhood of Lens, and thus found it-
self facing the open plain of Loos, while Plumer's II. Army
relieved the remaining French troops in the Ypres salient and
brought its left into contact with the right of the Belgians.
While these movements were in progress, vast preparations
were taking place on the battle-front. Guns, trench mortars,
shells and military stores of all kinds had accumulated in hith-
erto undreamt-of quantities. Joffre and his staff had it in their
minds at this time that they were engaged in operations in the
nature of a huge siege, 'and that the essential was to blow a prac-
ticable breach in the enemy's lines through which the infantry
could be poured to the assault. A study of the previous battles
of trench warfare had convinced them that with sufficient guns
and sufficient ammunition this was possible. The output of the
1 The battle of Souchez.
French factories had been increased enormously, and though the
British Ministry of Munitions had hardly yet begun to be pro-
ductive, still the supply of heavy guns and shells for the British
army had been greatly increased and it was equipped to reply
effectively to the German gas. For these reasons the hopes
which Joffre had expressed in his letter to Kitchener were
very generally shared in the Allied armies. The one fly in the
ointment was that there had been a renewal in the British
Cabinet of the controversy between the " Easterners " and the
" Westerners " and Mr. Churchill had pressed with all his elo-
quence and skill for a decisive campaign which should open the
road to Constantinople. The result was a compromise, and
three of the New Army divisions had gone to the East. Some
compensation for this was obtained by the arrival of two more New
Army divisions in France, and by the formation of a Guards'
division, which had been made possible by the creation of new
battalions of Guards and the replacement of those already in
France by other battalions. This gave Sir John French an ad-
ditional army corps, which he kept in his hands as a reserve.
Joffre opened his autumn campaign on Sept. 2^5. In addition
to his great attack in Champagne, Foch with the French X.
Army attempted once more to storm the Vimy Ridge, while
Haig's I. Army attacked between the La Bassee canal and Lens,
in conjunction with a secondary British attack to the N. of the
canal and demonstrations on the front near Armcntiercs. 'I 'In-
general plan of the N. battle was that Foch, having carried the
Vimy Ridge, should advance E. to the S. of Lens, while Haig
pushed E. through Loos to the N. of Lens and joined hands with
Foch beyond that town. In this way the Allies would avoid the
mass of ruined buildings and miners' cottages which composed (he
town and would form admirable refuges for the German machine-
gunners. The tactical methods to be employed on both the
S. and N. battlefields were similar in conception, that is to say,
there was to be a great rush forward of the assaulting infantry
as soon as the attack had been adequately prepared by the
artillery, and the reserves were to follow hard after the first-line
troops. Only in the matter of the preparation of the ati
was there any essential difference in the methods to be cmpl<
by the British and the French. The former had determine
replace an intense bombardment by a discharge of gas from
cylinders similar to that from which they had suffered in 1 In-
second battle of Ypres.
Of the British share in the general plan, the demonstrate
in front of Armentieres proved quite ineffective, while the attack
N. of the La Bassee canal failed. On the front opposite 1.
however, the discharge of gas surprised the Germans and over-
came the resistance of their first-line troops, though it c.-u
some casualties among the British themselves and made it
difficult to direct the attack. Despite this, the first wave of
British infantry passed through and beyond Loos, when it
appeared that they only needed the prompt arrival of the
reserves to secure a very considerable success. Sir John French
had, however, kept these back until he saw how the battle
progressed, and when they arrived late in the evening the New
Army division which formed two-thirds of the reserve found
great difficulty in making their way through the confusion of the
battlefield under conditions entirely strange to them, and were
unable to confirm the first success won, so that, though Loos
was held, German counter-attacks recovered a considerable part
of the ground gained, and in particular the important Hill 70,
which dominates Loos on the north. Worse still, Foch's attack
on the Vimy Ridge failed almost completely and the Germans
remained in possession of the crest. This alone condemned the
N. attack to failure, for the British front of battle was not large
enough to insure a breach in the enemy's defences sufficiently
wide to be exploited successfully. The remainder of the battle
of Loos, which lasted until Oct. 15, resolved itself into the repulse
of a number of fierce German counter-attacks, which ended in
mutual exhaustion, with the British in possession of the salient
extending round Lens to the La Bassee canal.
The great battle in Champagne was an even more severe dis-
appointment, because more had been expected. The first news
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
985
I rom the field aroused high hopes. The first two German lines
hf defence were carried on a wide front, and many prisoners and
fc^jns were captured, while on the fourth day of the battle the
iird German line, which was believed to be the enemy's last
.ystem of defence, was for a time breached near Sainte Marie;
>ut again the solution of the problem of bringing up reserves
it the right time and in good order was not found, while the
memy's reserves, which came up fresh through country which
md not been fought over, arrived in time to fill the breach.
The battle of Champagne ran on into Nov., developing into a
erics of struggles for tactical points of importance, but ended
vith no material change in the position won by the French at
he end of the fourth day of the battle.
So the campaign of 1915 closed on the western front, with the
Ulies still asking themselves how it was possible to get through
he trench barrier and drive the Germans from France and
Jelgium. The great bombardment followed by the assault in
nass had failed, and some other method of attack was required.
Ere the year closed a new problem had developed in the Near
(last, which had its repercussion on the western front. German,
Kustrian and Bulgarian forces had overrun Serbia, and the
jUlied Governments had decided to send a relief expedition to
I Salonika. Part of the troops required for this new enterprise
lame from the Dardanelles, but more were needed and these
jiad to be supplied from the western front. Five divisions of
French troops under the command of General Sarrail were
Lrdered off, and were accompanied by the three British divisions
lithe III. Army which had been holding the line S. of the Somme,
the 2yth, 28th, and 22nd. It was also decided to spare the two
jlivisions of Indian infantry which had proved such a timely
jeinforcement at the time of the first battle of Ypres, the horrors
If another winter of trench warfare in Flanders, and they were
tent off to Mesopotamia. This reduction of the British army was
made good by the arrival in France before the end of the year of
jhe 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divs. and the i6th Irish Div., and
If the 2ist, 23rd, 24th, 25th, 26th, 36th and 38th New Army
Divs., so that the strength of the British army in France and
fielgium stood at 36 divisions and 5 cavalry divisions, a combat-
[nt strength of about 750,000 men. The Allies on the western
[rant had therefore at this time about 3,100,000 men, opposed
lo 2,000,000 Germans. These figures gave rise to anxious dis-
lussion as to what superiority of numbers was necessary to
Insure success under conditions of trench warfare, and whether
nd how the Allies could obtain the necessary superiority.
I While these discussions were going on important changes took
j'lace in the Allied Command. Joffre had hitherto been nom-
pally chief of the French General Staff. He was now definitely
ppointed commander-in-chief of the armies of the N.E., with
I.e Castelnau as his chicf-of-staff. In the British army Sir John
'rench was brought home to command the troops in Great
iritain and was succeeded by Sir Douglas Haig, with General
Uiggcll as his chief-of-staff, while Sir William Robertson, who
ad been chief-of-staff to French, became chief of the Imperial
ieneral Staff at the War Office.
Operations in igi6. In Dec. 1915 the first serious attempts
p obtain unity of action between the Allies took place, and a
onference of commanders-in-chief and chiefs-of-staff of the
'.ritish, French, Belgian, and Italian armies, attended also by
spresentatives of the Russian and Japanese armies, was held
t Joffre's headquarters. At this conference it was agreed to
[ttack the enemy as early in 1916 as possible, sufficient time
eing allowed for the training of the New Army divisions that the
Iritish army was receiving, and for the reequipment of the
Kussian armies. These plans, however, never matured, because
Ibe enemy anticipated them, and it is therefore unnecessary to
2fer to them further.
; During Dec. 1915 and Jan. 1016 the Germans developed
jonsiderable activity along the front and made local attacks at
Meuport on the North Sea coast, against more than one point
i the Ypres salient, at Givenchy on the Vimy Ridge front, on
he Somme, and in Feb. on the Alsace front. The majority
f these attacks took the form of experiments in various methods
of bombardment which the Germans wished to test in view of a
greater effort which they were planning. There had not been
wanting signs that the enemy were preparing an attack on the
Verdun sector; and considerable anxiety having been expressed
as to the adequacy of the French defences on that part of the
front, General de Castelnau was sent thither by Joffre, and he
ordered certain improvements, but the time was lacking to give
full effect to his recommendations (we VERDUN). In fact, the
Allied defences at this period of the war were notably inferior
to those of the Germans. The Allies had spent the greater part
of 1915 either in carrying out the vast preparations necessary
for an attack in trench warfare or in attacking, and had little
energy or labour left for the elaboration of defences. The Ger-
mans on the other hand had been on the defensive throughout
the year, and they enjoyed the great advantage of being able to
employ upon their entrenchments forced labour from Belgium
and the occupied provinces of France, and the large number of
prisoners they had captured on the Russian front. Further,
they had immediately behind their zone of battle the forests of
Alsace and of the Ardennes, which provided them with an almost
unlimited amount of timber. The Allies could only find labour
either at the expense of the fighting troops or of the munition
factories, and the British army was forced to import the greater
part of the timber it required. It was not until much later in the
war, when elaborate arrangements were made for the provision
of native labour, and for the exploitation of the French forests,
that conditions became at all equal in these respects.
It was the superior strength of their defences which enabled the
Germans, while inferior in numbers on the whole front, to con-
centrate sufficient force for a great attack upon one part of that
front. That attack opened on a front of nine miles on the banks
of the Meuse opposite Verdun on Feb. 21, 5 German divisions
attacking 2 French divisions. The enemy at once gained a
startling success, penetrating the French defences, and on the
fourth day of the battle capturing Fort Douaumont, one of the
chief of the outlying works of the fortress of Verdun. This suc-
cess was greater than any yet gained by the Allies in attack,
though their relative superiority in men on the battle-fronts had
been far greater than that of the Germans at the beginning of
the battle of Verdun. The Germans won their successes mainly
by the skilful handling of their medium and heavy guns, of which
they had assembled a great number for the attack. They had
before the war made a much closer study of the use of heavy and
medium howitzers, both for field and siege warfare, than had
either the British or the French, and they had numbers of gun-
ners highly trained in their use, while careful experiments in
bombardment, carried out before the battle, bore good fruit. It
is to these causes that the tactical success won by the Germans
in the first days of Verdun may be attributed. At Mons 5
German divisions had attacked 2 divisions of the British II.
Corps, but the Germans had not had time to bring up their
heavy artillery and at the end of a day's fighting had done little
more than drive in the British outposts, while at Verdun, with
the help of a mass of heavy guns, 5 German divisions had over-
come 2 French divisions and gained such a position as menaced
seriously the French fortress. The result was, therefore, a tac-
tical victory for the German artillery.
Joffre dealt with the crisis promptly. De Castelnau was sent
again to Verdun and arranged with Langle de Gary, who com-
manded the group of armies of the Centre, a command which
included Verdun, as to the disposal of the reinforcements which
were hurrying to the battle-field and as to the methods of defence.
Joffre also sent with these reinforcements General Petain, who
arrived on Feb. 26 and assumed command in the battle-zone.
The German attempts to gain ground beyond Douaumont were
repulsed, and the French commander-in-chief had time to look
round and survey the whole position. He had at once realized
that the enemy was in deadly earnest. " C'est la bataille,"
was one of his first remarks when he heard of the German attack.
He had immediately requested Haig to relieve his X. Army on the
Arras front, and had asked Kitchener to hasten the dispatch of
British reinforcements to France. Two more New Army divi-
986
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
sions and i Territorial division had reached France from England
in January, while 3 more New Army divisions and 3 more Ter-
ritorial divisions from England were to be in France before the
end of May. The Dardanelles Expeditionary Force was being
rapidly reorganized and refitted in Egypt by Sir A. Murray,
and 2 British, 4 Australian, and i New Zealand divisions were
expected to come from that country to the western front before
the end of June. Haig had lost in Jan. one more division, which
had gone to Salonika, but reinforcements would give him by
the middle of the year an increase of no less than 15 divisions
to his strength in Dec. 1915.
Both commanders-in-chief were agreed that the principles on
which the plans of battle in 1915 had been drawn up required
modification. It was seen that the analogy of the great siege did
not hold, that something more was required than to blast a great
breach in the enemy's lines and then to launch a great assault.
The something more was the defeat of the enemy's reserves,
which came up fresh and in good order to meet troops when the
assault had been thrown into some confusion. It was agreed,
therefore, that the first object of battle should be to draw in and
exhaust the enemy's reserves, and that until that object had been
achieved no decisive success could be expected. So long as the
enemy continued to attack Verdun, it would, on this principle,
be to the advantage of the French to endure these attacks pro-
vided always that the enemy gained no success which would
affect seriously the strategical position on the whole front, and
provided that the exhaustion of the French man-power was not
excessive. Joffre therefore proposed to fight defensively at
Verdun as long as possible, but to be ready to strike back as soon
as the situation there appeared to him too dangerous, or as soon
as the French army was approaching the limits of endurance. He
therefore asked Haig not only to relieve the French X. Army but
to prepare to attack N. of the Somme on a front as wide as
the resources of the British army would permit, and undertook
to support that attack with a French attack S. of the river on a
scale which would depend upon the effect of the battle of Verdun
upon the French army.
The Germans had at this time arrived at a very similar theory
of battle. The chief of their General Staff, Falkenhayn, has
said that he believed the strain of the war upon France to be
such that a break might occur if the strain could be increased.
This was not an unduly optimistic appreciation of the position
if it be remembered that in the previous May Joffre had told
Kitchener that France had then reached the limits of her
capacity to expand her military forces. Materially Falkenhayn
was not far wrong, but he understood the psychology of his
enemies no better than other Germans, and he failed to appreciate
the spirit of France. The maxim of Verdun " on ne passera
pas " became for France an inspiration as potent as the influ-
ence of Jeanne d'Arc. The object of the Germans in the battle
of Verdun was to bleed France white, while the object of the
Allies during that period was to wear down the military power
of Germany as the preparation for striking the coup de grace.
So upon both sides the theory of the war of exhaustion developed.
During March, April and May the struggle for Verdun con-
tinued, the Germans in their several attacks gaining sufficient
ground to encourage them to make a new effort now on the right
bank of the Meuse, now on the left. During all this fighting the
reputation of two of the defenders of Verdun increased steadily,
and in May General Petain succeeded to the command of the
group of armies of the Centre, General Nivelle taking his place
in command on the actual front of battle.
Between Jan. and July the British strength in bayonets and
sabres grew from 450,000 to 660,000, and there was a more than
corresponding increase in artillery and aircraft. This enabled
Haig to fall in completely with Joffre's wishes, and as soon as the
relief of the French X. Army was completed he set about prepar-
ing for the great attack on the front N. of the Somme. The
growth of the armies made necessary the creation of a IV. Army
under the command of Sir Henry Rawlinson. The III. Army was
now commanded by Sir E. Allenby, and Sir Charles Monro, who
had gone out to supervise the evacuation of the Dardanelles,
returned to command the I. Army. British troops now held a
continuous line from the Yser canal to the Somme, and were
actively preparing to take upon themselves more of the brunt
of the war on the western front, a burden of which nearly seven-
eighths had hitherto fallen on their French comrades. This
preparation entailed enormous labour, for it not only involve
the accumulation of immense stores and piles of munitions oi
all kinds on the selected front of attack, the construction ol
miles of roads, railways and trenches and many other prelim-!
inaries of a great attack in trench warfare, but also the comple-
tion of the training of hitherto untried troops. The British arm\
was, in fact, in process of becoming a national army. The old
regulars were now little more than a small leaven of the whole
lump, and though the new troops arrived in France with consider-
able knowledge of their duties as cavalrymen, infantrymen;
gunners and airmen, they had had little opportunity of learning
to work together as part of a great machine. The problem oi
training was the more complicated because of the great varietj
of new weapons and methods which had been developed sine
the outbreak of war; and to teach each part of the army the]
powers and limitations of every other part, and the whole to worlj
together in combination, was a very heavy task. To this tasl^
Haig at once addressed himself, and formed behind the line:
schools of instruction in every branch of trench and battle war
fare, while careful arrangements were made for the training li
attack of divisions when out of the line. All this busy worl
behind the lines did not mean any cessation of activity on th<
front, and during these months of preparation a long series o
raids into the enemy's trenches were planned and executed, raid:
which gave the new troops valuable experience and kept thd
enemy on continual tenterhooks.
In the latter part of May the German Crown Prince redouble!
his attacks on the Verdun front, and on the 2ist the Germans
stormed the Mort Homme hill on the left bank of the Meuse-
for which they had been struggling for weeks. Petain at ond
called Joffre's attention to the gravity of the situation, anc
pressed for an early beginning of the counter-offensive on th<
Somme, but Joffre was anxious to give Haig as much time a|
possible for the training of his troops, and made Petain emlun
yet longer. Fire from the Mort Homme hill had long impe-dn
German progress on the right bank of the Meuse, but with thi
hill in their possession the enemy in the beginning of Jun
began to press hard on that bank and on the 7th captured For
Vaux. Thereupon Petain renewed his representation to Foch
who in consultation with Haig decided that the battle of th
Somme should begin on July i. The preliminary bombardmenj
was begun a week earlier, on June 24, the day on which th
Germans, after capturing Fort Thiaumont, stormed the villag
of Fleury and attained the farthest point in their pr<
towards Verdun. While this preliminary bombardment was i
progress, a bombardment so intense that the guns could be 1
in England, no less than 70 raids were carried on the Britis
front between Ypres and the Somme, and gas was disch;
into the enemy's lines from 40 different points. The troops wliic
were about to attack the German trenches from Gommecourt t
the Somme included the flower of British manhood, and no nior
splendid body of men has ever gone forward to battle. Britis
aircraft had already gained the ascendancy over the enemy'
airmen, and the British army was now well equipped wit
machine-guns, trench mortars, bombs, gas-projectors, and a
other new appliances which experience of trench warfare ha
shown to be necessary; the tunnellers had proved themselves t
be more than a match for the enemy's mines, and for the fir-
time in the war there was a sufficiency of heavy and medium gun
and an assurance of an adequate if not abundant supply c
shells. Expectation therefore ran high.
The results of the first attack were a heavy disappointment
The main attack was delivered by Rawlinson's IV. Army betwtr
the Ancre and Maricourt, about a mile N. of the Somme, win T
they joined hands with the French VI. Army commanded I>
General Fayolle, who was to attack astride the river under th
general direction of Foch. This main attack was combined wit
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
987
a subsidiary attack by the IV. Army N. of the Ancre, and yet
another by the III. Army upon the Gommecourt salient. Upon
July i both the subsidiary attacks and the whole left of the
main British attack failed completely and with heavy loss, but
the right of the main attack and the whole of the French attack
e such good progress as to warrant the continuance of the
battle. The British failures were in the main due to want of
rience in the artillery. More than two- thirds of the British
tteries engaged had been created since the outbreak of war,
at that time they did not possess sufficient ammunition to
such practical experience in intense bombardment as the
ans had given their gunners before the battle of Verdun.
ie chalky soil of the Somme hills lent itself to the construction
deep dugouts, of which the enemy had a great number, and
prevent his men from coming out of these in time to meet the
ritish infantry special and very accurate methods of artillery
iparation were required. In default of these the infantry yet
found themselves checked on the greater part of the front
the deadly German machine-guns, and it was mainly through
devoted valour of the infantry through the first days of the
tie that the gains made by the right of the IV. Army were
rmed and extended. The first successes won by Foch's men
ing the river itself were greater and were obtained at less
it, partly because the Germans, overrating the effect of the
ttle of Verdun, had not expected attack from that quarter,
partly because of the better preparation of the attack by the
inch artillery, the French having a far larger number than the
ritish of trained gunners for the expansion of that arm. The
n of the first days of this great battle is that the creation of
armies during the course of a war is an even more intricate
and difficult business than had been imagined, even by those who,
knowing some of the difficulties, had undertaken the creation of
Kitchener's armies with devotion and enthusiasm.
One of the results of the events of the first days of the battle
was that Sir Douglas Haig decided to divide his fighting front
between two armies. He directed Rawlinson with the IV. Army
to exploit the advantages won on the right, and formed on his
left a V. Army under Sir Hubert Gough which was to keep the
enemy busy on its front and act as a pivot to the IV. Army. The
ibattle was fought out in three phases, the first being the struggle
[up the slopes from the valleys of the Ancre and of the Somme to
the S. crest of the Somme plateau, the second the struggle for
possession of the plateau, the third phase consisting of the ad-
vance down the N. slopes. The first phase was consummated by
a brilliant night attack by the IV. Army on July 14, and on July
[17, the British and French troops N. of the river were abreast
[of the French S. of the Somme, who had for some time been
established opposite to Peronne. The whole front of attack
icould again move forward together. The second phase con-
stituted a long series of fierce struggles, the Germans bringing
i up more and more troops and disputing every yard of ground, so
it was not until Sept. 9 that tne British, with the French on
jtheir right, were able to look down upon the N. slopes of the
plateau and the plains beyond.
By this time two of the objects for which the battle had been
fought were gained. The Germans, forced to transfer troops to
the Somme, had to relax their pressure on Verdun. The French
retook Fort Thiaumont on June 30, while throughout July they
slowly regained part of the ground which had been won from
them, and on Aug. 17 drove the enemy out of Fleury. Verdun
was no longer in danger, and Petain and Nivelle were able to
: plan at leisure counter-attacks on a more extensive scale. The
second object of the battle of the Somme, the exhaustion of the
i enemy's reserves, was being obtained as surely. When the battle
began, the front attacked by the British was held by 6 German
divisions, that attacked by the French by two. In the 2 months
36 German divisions had been engaged on the British front, 18 on
rthe French. In the 6 months of Verdun the Germans had em-
ployed 43 divisions in battle, so that their defence on the Somme
was far more exhausting than their attacks at Verdun.
i At the end of Aug. the failure of Falkenhayn's plans was
[publicly admitted by his supersession by Hindenburg, with
Ludendorff as his chief assistant. The latter, after visiting the
fields of Verdun and the Somme, found the German position on
the western front to be one of great gravity, and the chief
problem confronting him to be how to stop " the progressive
falling off " of the German fighting power. The situation of the
Allies had improved marvellously since June, when men were
wondering how long it would be before the Germans entered
Verdun. Not only had Verdun been saved and the Germans been
forced to fight desperately on the defensive, but the Italians had
driven back the attacking Austrians in the Alps and had then
passed themselves to attack on the Isonzo. On the Russian
front Brussilov had won great victories on the Bukovina, and
Rumania had entered the war, too late certainly to profit by
Brussilov's success, but none the less adding apparently another
ally to those who confronted the Central Powers. The whole
machinery of the Allies was, for the first time, simultaneously
at work, and Joffre's strategy appeared to be triumphant.
It was in these encouraging circumstances that the third phase
of the battle of the Somme began on Sept. 15. The attack of that
day was made famous not only by the successes won, which
were considerable, but by the fact that tanks then made their
first appearance in battle. There has been much controversy as
to the wisdom of this step (see TANKS). The experts have
maintained that the value of this invention was discounted by
premature use, that it should have been kept in reserve to
surprise the enemy when large numbers of the new weapon were
ready, and that it should have been first used on ground more
favourable than a shell-torn battlefield. It was decided to employ
tanks in the Somme battle for two reasons. Firstly, so much
having been gained at great cost, the moment seemed to have
come to press the enemy with every available means. The chief
obstacle to the progress of the infantry continued to be the
German machine-guns, and tanks were reputed to be the ideal
means of overcoming machine-guns. If it would have been
foolish not to have pressed the advantage won, it would have
been criminal to have withheld from the sorely tried infantry
the protection and aid which was at hand. The second reason
was that experience was required in the use of tanks in battle.
It was necessary to learn both how the tanks would comport
themselves when put to the highest test, and how they would
work in combination with infantry and artillery. The effective
cooperation of infantry, tanks and artillery undoubtedly went a
long way towards winning the war in 1918, but it is a legitimate
belief that this cooperation would not have resulted unless ex-
perience had been gained in 1916.
Despite the employment of tanks, and despite the splendid
valour of the infantry of the New Armies, the resistance of the
enemy was not broken in the third phase of the battle of the
Somme. The days were growing shorter and the weather became
uncertain, while the enemy, drawing troops from all parts of the
front to prevent his line from breaking, fought with fine courage.
By Nov. 17, when rain and mud put an end to the battle, the
Germans had engaged no less than 127 divisions. The enemy's
reserves had indeed been worn down; in the valley of the
Ancre he was hemmed by Cough's V. Army into an awkward
salient, but the weather had broken and it was too late to reap
the harvest on the battle-front. The first fruits of the Somme
were garnered elsewhere.
On Oct. 24 Nivelle began an attack on the right bank of the
Meuse, and on the following day recaptured Fort Douaumont.
This conspicuous success was followed by the recapture of
Fort Vaux on Nov. 2. The battle ended in a complete victory
for the French, 6 French divisions overcoming 7 German di-
visions at surprisingly small cost. Nivelle and Mangin, who
commanded the army corps engaged, became the heroes of
France. The victory was largely due to the skilful handling of
massed artillery, and the Nivelle method became famous. Its
fame was extended when, on Dec. 14, a second attack won an
even more brilliant success, which made Verdun quite secure and
brought in 11,387 prisoners and 115 guns, again at small cost.
When the statesmen of Paris and London compared the results
of these two battles at Verdun, which had resulted not only in
98,8
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
important gains of ground but in the capture in a few days'
fighting of more than 17,000 prisoners, with the slow bludgeon
work of the Somme in which the British army in four and a
half months had captured 38,000 Germans at a tremendous
price, they began to think that they had at last discovered the
man for whom they were looking so anxiously.
Operations in igif. On Nov. n 1916 Joffre assembled his
second conference of commanders-in-chief to consider plans for
the following year. It was agreed that the Germans were in
great difficulties on the western front, and that the situation of
the Allies was more favourable than it had ever been. The
fighting strength of the British army had grown to about
1,200,000 men, and it was known that considerable further
reinforcements would reach France during the first few months
of the year. The fighting strength of the French army had been
increased by the incorporation of native troops to about
2,600,000, so that, including the Belgians, the Allies disposed of
about 3,900,000 men against about 2,500,000 Germans.
Joffre declared that the French army could maintain its
strength for one more great battle, but that thereafter it must
progressively decline, as France had no longer a sufficient
number of men of military age to replace losses. He therefore
warned Sir Douglas Haig that during the coming year the burden
must fall more and more upon the British army, a position which
the British commander-in-chief readily accepted. Germany had
recently created a number of new divisions, some of which had
been employed against Rumania, but it appeared probable that
the transfer of these divisions to the western front would be
delayed if Russia was able to be active on the eastern front, and
of this the great improvement in the supply of munitions for the
Russian army held out promise at this time. It was also agreed
that, in view of the probable decline in strength of the French
army later in the year and the promised reinforcement of the
British army, the relative superiority of the Allies on the western
front would be greater in the spring of 1917 than at any time
which could be foreseen with certainty. For all these reasons it
was decided to take the earliest possible opportunity of pressing
the advantage won by the battle of the Somme, and of continu-
ing the process of exhausting the enemy's reserves as prepara-
tion for an effort which should be decisive. All the armies of the
Entente were to be ready to attack in the first fortnight of
Feb., the British army between the Vimy Ridge and Bapaume,
the French armies between the Somme and the Oise; and the
French attack was to be followed soon after by another in
Champagne to the W. of Reims. It was further understood
between Joffre and Haig that these attacks would, if necessary,
be followed by further attacks by the British army in Flanders.
During the winter the British army was to do its utmost to
press the enemy on the Somme battlefield, and to prevent him
from recovering from his embarrassment there.
The underlying ideas of this plan were primarily that the
policy of exhausting the German reserves should be resumed at
the earliest possible moment, and secondly that the utmost
effort should be made to complete the work begun on the Somme.
The commanders-in-chief believed the situation to be such that
victory could be won in 1917, but they were under no illusion
as to the possibility of ending the war by one great blow to be
delivered in the spring. Joffre followed up the results of this
conference by issuing general instructions embodying the
decisions reached, and in these instructions he directed that the
first British and French attacks, that is to say, those to be
delivered between Vimy and Bapaume and between the Somme
and the Oise, were to be ready by Feb. i.
No sooner were Joffre's plans completed than a series of
intrigues against the French commander-in-chief came to a head.
A number of officers of the French General Staff regarded with
dismay a proposal to give more and more of the task of consum-
mating victory to the British army and less and less to the
French army. They found many supporters among the politi-
cians in Paris, and these were reinforced by others, who feared
that the " war of exhaustion " and the process of wearing down
the enemy's reserves would end in exhausting France before it
exhausted Germany. The cry therefore went up that it was
time to have a change in the Higher Command. Foch, whose
bloody assaults upon the Vimy Ridge had not been forgotten,
was held to be too much of a " hammer and tongs " fighter, and
he was placed on half-pay, while the state of the defences of
Verdun before the German attack began was brought up against
Joffre. So he was given a marshal s baton and an honorific
position in Paris, and Nivelle reigned in his stead.
The new commander-in-chief at orce made a drastic change
in Joffre's policy and plans. He proposed to increase the weight
of the French attack; and in order that he might obtain the
French troops necessary he proposed that the British should
relieve the French VI. and XX. Armies and extend their front S.
across the Somme as far as the Amiens-Roye road. In return
he proposed that Haig should modify his plans for keeping up the
pressure on the Germans on the Somme battlefield during the
winter, and that the date of the combined attacks should be!
postponed until Mar. 15. This meant a delay of six weeks in
launching the attacks planned by Jcffre, and the enemy would be
given time to recover from the effects of the Somme. But it
became clear, as Nivelle's plans developed, that there was to be
an even more complete change of plan than this. He proposed to
apply on a great scale the methods he had employed with such
success at Verdun, and to return to the policy which had been
discardsd after the failure in Champagne in 1915. He intended,:
by skilful employment of a great mass of artillery, to overcome:
the enemy's resistance in his front lines, and then to pour in tof
the assault a great reserve which should break through the trench!
harrier completely and so change the whole strategical position
on the western front.
Early in Dec., 1916, there had been a change of Government
in Great Britain, and Mr. Lloyd George had become Prime
Minister. He had made up his mind that the Somme had been a
costly failure, and was eagerly looking for some method of win-
ning the war which should be speedier and less costly in life than
that of a " war of exhaustion." He therefore welcomed a general
who promised a short, sharp and decisive battle, which would be
over, one way or the other, within a comparatively short time.
So at a conference held at Calais at the end of Feb. 1917, it was
agreed between the British and French Governments that the
British army should be placed under the general direction of
Nivelle for the forthcoming operations. This decision violated a
fundamental principle of military organization. A general of
division is-not, while still in command of his division, placed
also in command of an army corps which includes other divisions,
for the good and sufficient reason that if his attention is absorbed
by the details of one unit or of one part of the front, he cannot
simultaneously give proper attention to the other units or to
other parts of the front. The right course would have been to
have given Nivelle the general charge of the whole western front
and to have appointed another commander-in-chief for the French
army. The results of this mistake soon became apparent. On
the last day of the Calais Conference news arrived from the
British V. Army that there were signs of a German withdrawal
in the valley of the Ancre. Some time before, the British airmen
had discovered that a great new system of defensive work
been constructed by the enemy covering Douai, Cambrai am)
St. Quentin, the system which became known to the Allies as the
Hindenburg line; and not long after the report from the Ancrc
came in there were indications that the Germans were preparing
to retire from the whole of the Somme battlefield into this line
But Nivelle, not being in close touch with happenings on the
British front, did not believe in a German retreat, and issuec
to Haig orders which were not compatible with the changec
situation, and in certain matters went far beyond the agreement
reached in Calais. This led to friction, which was adjusted at r
further conference in London. By then it had become apparent
that the Germans were in retreat on the whole front betweer
Arras and the Aisne near Vailly. The Germans, relieved fron'
pressure on their front during the winter, had prepared for theit
retreat systematically and brutally. The whole country which
had been in their occupation W. of the Hindenburg line was
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
989
devastated, villages were burnt, roads and railways destroyed,
fruit trees cut down and everything of any value was removed,
and min >,s which exploded at a touch were prepared with diaboli-
cal ingenuity. In these circumstances a rapid pursuit became
impossible and the Germans were able to delay the advance of
the Allies by rearguards, while they removed their heavy artillery
and established their main bodies in the Hindenburg lines.
This manoeuvre, planned and successfully carried through
by Ludcndorff, effected a great change in the situation to the
benefit of the Germans. Not only did it materially shorten their
front and thereby enable them to increase their reserves, but
their troops exchanged the battered defences of the Somme
battlefield with its awkward salients for the strongest lines which
had yet been _built upon the western front. Further, the enemy
had withdrawn from a considerable part of the front which
Nivelle had intended to attack, and this made necessary a fur-
ther postponement of his battles, but he still adhered to the main
features of his plan. In the altered circumstances grave doubts
arose in the minds of some of the senior French generals as to the
feasibility of this plan, and when these came to the ears of the
French War Minister, M. Painleve, he assembled a Council of
War on April 6, on the very eve of the offensive, at which criti-
cs of the plan were presented by certain of the commanders
ho were to take a leading part in its execution. Nevertheless,
te French Government decided not to interfere with Gen.
ivelle. It is difficult to conceive of a more unfortunate prelude
a great battle. However, these doubts and hesitations of the
leaders were not known to the rank and file of the army or to the
French people; and when, on April o, the spring campaign began
by an attack by Allenby's III. Army on the enemy's lines E. of
Arras, and by the Canadian corps with one brigade of the 5th
Div. on the Vimy Ridge, and met with an immediate success,
hopes soared high. The French public was deeply impressed by
the rapid capture of the Vimy Ridge, which had for so long
resisted Foch's attacks, and great things were expected when the
French army advanced.
The second of Nivelle's blows was delivered by the group of
armies of the centre, now under Franchet d'Espercy, against the
German front in the neighbourhood of St. Quentin; but Franchet
d'Esperey was here in contact with a part of the main Hinden-
burg line, and he had neither the time nor the means to prepare
effectively for an attack upon their formidable defences. The
operations of the centre group of armies, which had been intended
to be an important part of Nivelle's programme, dwindled there-
fore into little more than a demonstration, which took place on
April 14 and had no material results. Nivelle's main battle,
which took place on the front between Reims and Anizy, began on
ril 16. It had been planned that the assaulting troops should
the first day of battle break through the first three German
ines. The attack was made by Mangin's VI. Army and Mazel's
V. Army, with Duchesne's X. Army and a mass of cavalry in
reserve ready to exploit their success. Antonine's IV. Army
struck in to the E. of Reims on the iyth. The left of Mazel's
attack failed almost entirely; and elsewhere, though the first
German line was captured, little progress was made beyond it.
The dream of a rapid rupture of the enemy's front had to be
abandoned, and a fresh plan of battle had to be formed.
One of the first results of the failure of Nivelle to realize his
hopes was that he had to request Haig to press his attacks to the
E. of Arras with all possible vigour, so as to keep the largest
possible number of Germans occupied in that quarter. This
entailed a prolongation of the battle of Arras into a period when
gains became small and were only purchased at great price.
None the less Haig decided that the situation made it neces-
sary to support the French with all his power, and he fought
on till May 17, by which time the British front was estab-
lished some 4 m. to the E. of Arras and in the plain to the E.
of the Vimy Ridge. While Haig was thus battling in the N.,
Nivelle on the Aisne front had brought his X. Army into his
front line, and by slow and bitter fighting had won his way up the
Chemin des Dames ridge, of which he captured the eastern portion.
Early in May it was quite evident that there was no prospect of
such a break-through as had been planned, and on the isth the
French Government replaced Nivelle by General Petain, while
General Foch, recalled from semi-retirement, became chief of the
staff in Paris. Petain's first task was to wind up the operations
on the Aisne front, and the battle ended definitely on May 20.
The spring campaign had proved a failure in comparison with
what might have been, and still more in comparison with what
Nivelle had promised, but its results were far from being insig-
nificant. The German retreat in March, which was a direct con-
sequence of the battle of the Somme, had at last brought about
the attainment of one of the objects for which Joffre had been
striving for so long. The Allies had now more elbow room on one
of the most vital parts of their front, that which covered directly
the roads to Amiens and Paris. Had the Germans in March igiB
started from the positions which they held in Feb. 1917, and
had their attacks progressed at the same rate, they would have
entered Amiens on the second day of the battle, which would
have ended with the German guns bombarding Abbeville and
communication between the French and British armies severed.
It is therefore not too much to say that the retreat which was
forced upon the Germans by the battle of the Somme saved the
Allies in the following year. But how much greater might the
results have been if the plan formed by Joffre and Haig in the
previous Nov. had been followed if the Germans had been
pressed on the Somme battlefield during the winter, and if they
had been attacked early in Feb. before their plans for retreat
had been completed. Despite all the difficulties with which the
successful conduct of that retreat by the Germans had con-
fronted them, the Allied armies had in the battles of April and
May captured 62,000 prisoners, 446 guns, and 1,000 machine-
guns, and had gained positions of the first importance; 57 divi-
sions had been compelled to fight upon the French front and 99
on the British front. Had Nivelle been content to follow Joffre's
example, and to prepare methodically for the exhaustion of the
German reserves without overtaxing the endurance of the sorely
tried French army before attempting to break through the ene-
my's lines, he might have claimed a conspicuous success for his
first campaign. But the hopes which he had roused had been
extravagant, and the dejection when they were not realized
was correspondingly great. The dejection was increased by the
news of the Russian revolution, and by exaggerated reports of
the losses in the Aisne battles; and it was hardly alleviated by
America's entry into the war, for it was well understood that
American troops could not be ready to take their places in the
firing line during 1917. The immediate consequence of this
dejection was the outbreak of a series of mutinies in the French
armies, which so affected the moral of the French troops that
Petain found it necessary to appeal to Haig to keep the enemy
engaged while he restored the confidence of his men.
If the attention of the Germans was to be occupied by the
British armies it was necessary that they should be forced to
fight. Upon any part of the British front S. of the point where it
bends S. from the Belgian frontier N.W. of Lille it was possible
for the Germans to repeat their manoeuvre of March and avoid
a battle by retiring into another system of defences, for in doing
this they would be merely abandoning a portion of French terri-
tory which was of no great value to them, while they might by
this method economize sufficient troops to enable them to fall
upon the French. On the Belgian front they could not fall back
without risking their hold upon the ports of Ostend and Zeebrugge,
which were to them important bases for their submarine cam-
paign, and without endangering the security of the chief aero-
dromes from which their air attacks upon England were made.
For these reasons Haig decided to press the enemy with all his
available means upon the Belgian front, and on June 7 he began
this campaign with the battle of Messines. This battle was most
skilfully and thoroughly prepared by Sir Herbert Plumer, and
was fought and won by his II. Army. The battle began with the
explosion of a number of huge mines, the secret of which had
been preserved by constant and devoted watchfulness on the part
of the miners, who had tunnelled beneath the enemy's lines
many months previously and awaited patiently the opportunity
990
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
for their use. The effect of these explosions, combined with a
very skilfully planned bombardment of massed guns of all
calibres, was such that, except in the right of the attack in the
neighbourhood of Messines, the infantry, for once, had little to
do. The whole of the Messines- Wytschaete ridge was captured
at comparatively very light cost, and the Ypres salient, a name
of ill omen for the British army since Oct. 1914, disappeared.
The strength of the British army in combatant troops was now
at its greatest. Haig had 64 divisions and 10 cavalry divisions
under his orders, and a mass of heavy artillery, tanks and aero-
planes. It was well that this was so, for the army was to be
called upon to endure greatly while Petain and his men got their
second wind. Nor was it only the situation on the western front
which called for resolute action, for the condition of the Russian
army was far more critical than that of the French army. Kor-
nilov had, on July i, begun an offensive, and if he was supported
and encouraged by success in the W. it was still possible that
the Russians might continue to be a powerful factor in the war.
With these heavy responsibilities on his shoulders,- Haig be-
gan on July 31 the second battle of Ypres, with a great attack by
the V. Army, which had been moved N. for the purpose. This
attack was combined with a subsidiary attack by the French
IV. Army under General Antoine on the British left. The object
was to gain possession of the Passchendaele ridge, so as to be
able to sweep with gun-fire the plains beyond it toward Zee-
brugge and Ostend. This achieved, a combined naval and
military attack, which had been secretly prepared in England,
was to be made on the Belgian coast, which it was hoped would
gain possession of the ports and so relieve the British Admiralty
of some of the many anxieties caused by the German " U "
boats. In preparation for the landing the British took over from
the French the lines on the Belgian coast near Nieuport and
moved other troops up to the coast behind these lines. The
position at Nieuport, which consisted of a narrow strip of ground,
with the Yser at its back, was not easy to hold against deter-
mined attacks, and before the British preparations for defence
were completed the Germans attacked and captured the lines
E. of the river. This was an inauspicious beginning, but worse
followed, for the weather broke immediately after the battle
began and then followed a rainfall unprecedented for August.
The plan of battle was to deliver a series of blows, each with
an objective limited by the support which the artillery could
give without changing position. It was believed that the expe-
rience of Messines and of Verdun had shown that this would
allow the infantry to reach their objective without heavy loss.
Ludendorff, however, met this method of attack by a new method
which he called the elastic system of defence. He made no
attempt to hold his front lines in strength, but withdrew the
bulk of his infantry from the zone which would be most heavily
bombarded and relied mainly upon machine-guns in concrete
" pill-boxes " to break up the British infantry attack, and upon
counter-attacks by the troops whom he had held back. But it
was less this method of defence than the mud of Flanders which
prevented British progress. The opening battle of July 31 gave
the British possession of the whole of the Pilken Ridge, of the
German first line of defence between Nordshoote and Klein
Zillebeke, a front of 10 m., and of most of the German second
line, but it was not until Sept. 20 that the enemy's third line
was penetrated, and not until Oct. 4 that the British were estab-
lished on the high ground between Broodseinde and Becelaere.
The difficulty of getting guns and ammunition forward through
the slough of mud prevented the delivery of a rapid succession of
blows, each with a limited objective, as had been planned, and
in the event a more terrible strain was imposed upon the British
troops than in any other battle of the war. As in the case of the
battle of the Somme, the first fruits of the third battle of Ypres
were reaped elsewhere than on the battle-front. The Germans,
forced to send more and more troops into the fiery furnace which
blazed in the Ypres ridges, were, compelled to leave the French
alone, and Petain had time to restore the confidence of his army.
Part of his method was the delivery of very carefully prepared
attacks on a comparatively small front, supported by a great
mass of artillery which should leave the infantry little more to
do than to occupy the ground won. The first of these attacks
was delivered by Guillaumat's II. Army on the Verdun front,
and was completely successful, ending with the French in pos-
session of all the ground which the Germans had won in 6 months
fighting in 1916. This was followed by a more important attack
delivered on Oct. 23 by Maitre's VI. Army, which gave the
French the whole of the Chemin des Dames ridge, and resulted
in the capture of 11,000 prisoners and 200 guns. Then and not
till then Petain expressed himself as satisfied that his immediate
purpose was achieved.
The British troops, struggling in the mud of Flanders, could
not be told the reasons which had called for a supreme effort from
them, and the terrible struggle through the mud, unrelieved by
any conspicuous success, was a heavy strain upon them. As
events turned out it would probably have been wiser to have
brought the third battle of Ypres to a close immediately after
the French had won the Chemin des Dames, but at that time
the British were within a short distance of the crest of
the Passchendaele ridge, while information received at G.H.Q.
showed that the strain upon the German army had been far
greater and that there had been a very appreciable lowering
of the moral of the German troops. Haig had yet another blow
in preparation. The continued bad weather and the slowness
of the progress had caused the abandonment of the project of
landing on the Belgian coast, and all hope of driving the Germans
from the Belgian ports had gone, but there still appeared to be
an opportunity of profiting from the exhaustion of the German
reserves before the winter gave them a period for recovery, as
it had after the battle of the Somme. A final reason for
continuing -the struggle was that on Oct. 24 an Austro-German
attack had been launched in Italy, and at Caporetto had broken
through the Italian lines. It was therefore of importance to
keep up the pressure upon the Germans on the western front.
So the third battle of Ypres was continued, until the ridge and
village of Passchendaele were captured on Nov. 3.
A fortnight later Byng's III. Army attacked the German front
opposite Cambrai. This battle opened a new era in trench war-
fare. One of the outstanding difficulties which the trench
barrier had created was that it had hitherto eliminated one of
the chief resources of generalship, surprise. The time and
labour required to prepare for a great bombardment, and the
accumulation of the huge stores of material of war on the selected
front of battle, made it impossible to conceal intentions from the
enemy. But at Cambrai these difficulties were overcome by
using a great number of tanks, brought up secretly to take the
place of the bombardment in breaking the enemy's defences.
The attack was made upon one of the strongest parts of the
Hindenburg system, but the tanks successfully broke through,
and the surprise was complete. At Messines the guns had left
nothing for the tanks to do, and in the third battle of Ypres
they had been defeated by the mud of Flanders, but at Cambrai
they came into their own. One thing alone was lacking as far
as their part in the battle went. The cooperation between the
tanks and the artillery in the later stages of the attack was not
complete, so that numbers of tanks fell easy victims to the
German guns, a lesson of which advantage was taken in 1018.
Of greater importance was the fact that 6 French and 5 British
divisions had been transferred to Italy to help the Italian army
to stem the disaster of Caporetto, so that Haig had not the
troops to complete and extend the first successes won at Cambrai.
It is a typical illustration of the advantage which their central
position conferred upon the Germans that several of the British
divisions which would have been invaluable at Cambrai had not
reached the Italian front at the time when the Austro-Germans
were checked on the Piave.and the battle of Caporetto came to
an end. So the German counter-attacks won back a good part
of the ground which Byng had gained in the first advance, and
the battle of Cambrai ended on Dec. 7 in one more disappoint-
ment for the Allies.
The campaign of 1917 on the western front had been fatally
hampered by the change of plan which had been made by
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
991
Nivclle when he succeeded Joffre. That change had permitted
Ludendorff to prepare for and carry through the retreat into
the Hindenburg line, and had postponed the date of the Allied
offensive from Feb. i, the date fixed by Joffre, until April 9
a delay of nine precious weeks. As Joffre, had anticipated,
it had been necessary for the British army to bear the brunt of
the fighting, but it would have done so under very different
conditions if the Germans had been hustled back into the
Hindenburg line, as they were in Sept. 1918, and if Messines
had been fought at the beginning of April, and the third battle
of Ypres had begun on May 30 instead of July 31. The battle
of Cambrai might then have synchronized with the last offensive
of the Russian army, and the combined effect might well have
een such as to have saved that army from dissolution, for
dequate French and British reserves would have been available
France to support Byng's attack, and the war might have
tided victoriously in the autumn of 1917. As it was, the battles
1917 showed clearly that the solution of the problems of
ench warfare at which Haig and Joffre had arrived was correct.
It was first necessary to exhaust the German reserves and then
to strike a surprise blow or series of surprise blows. Cambrai had
shown how surprise might be achieved. But all this experience,
which had been purchased at great cost, had been acquired too
late to be put to profit in 1917, owing to the fatal delay in
opening the campaign of that year. The collapse of Russia was
definite and complete, and the Germans were transferring their
divisions from E. to W. as rapidly as their railways could carry
them. The French divisions had since the middle of the year
been gradually reduced in strength, as France had no longer the
men to replace the losses in the ranks, and now Petain found
himself compelled to cut down the number of his divisions. The
British army was not receiving from home the men to fill the
gaps caused by the bloody fighting of Passchendaele; and Haig,
early in 1918, was compelled to follow the example of the French
and reduce the strength of his divisions, while n British and
French divisions had been removed to Italy. True, American
troops had reached France, but it was improbable that they
would be able to take their place in the line of battle before the
middle of the summer. In April 1917 there were in France and
Belgium 64 British, 108 French and 6 Belgian divisions, or 178
in all, opposed to 128 German divisions. At the end of the year
there were 59 British, 98 French and 6 Belgian divisions, a total
of 163, opposed to 175 German divisions. Further, the British
and French divisions were considerably weaker at the end of the
year than they had been at the beginning, though this was
offset, to some extent, by a corresponding reduction in the size
of the German divisions. Most important of all, there were
still large German reinforcements, which might amount to as
many as 40 divisions, and did, in fact, amount to 32, ready to
come across from the Russian front. The Allies could only obtain
reinforcements in the shape of formed divisions by withdrawing
troops from Palestine and Salonika, and to this their statesmen
were opposed. So fate decreed that at the very time when the
Allies had at last found out how to breach the trench barrier, they
were thrown willy-nilly on the defensive, and had to prepare to
meet the greatest effort which Germany had yet made in the
west. (F. B. M.)
III. GERMAN OFFENSIVE, 1918
The military situation of the Central Powers at the end of
the year 1917 and the beginning of 1918 has been thus described
by Ludendorff in his Memories of the War:
" Throughout the latter half of 1917 I had strained every nerve to
bring about the results that had now been attained, sparing myset
no more than I spared others. The western front had held, the Ital-
ian army was defeated and the Austro-Hungarian armies m Italy
were inspired with new courage. The Macedonian front was holding
out. In the east the armistice negotiations were finished and the way
to peace lay open to the diplomatists. Negotiations at Brest
Litovsk were to begin about Christmas. There was a prospect ot
our winning the war. Only in Asia Minor had there been any hitch,
but the great events in Europe had pushed into the backgrot
Under the influence of this hopeful outlook the German
Supreme Command decided in favour of a decisive battle in the
western theatre of war in the spring of 1918. This decision was
justified in the first place by the collapse of Russia. Fortune had
favoured the Central Powers there, apart from their own military
successes. Yet these might be regarded by them as having made
good fortune deserved. The problem of a " war on many fronts "
had been clearly comprehended, and the principle of first com-
pleting the work that had to be done in the east had been con-
sistently maintained. But the fortunes of war are seldom all on
one side as Hindenburg and Ludendorff were to discover. The
peace negotiations in the spring of 1918 dragged on so long in
Trotsky's hands that not only did a new appeal to arms, though
a brief one, become necessary, but the final result was merely an
" armed peace." This involved keeping strong German forces
tied up in the east to secure the treaty and profit by it, and pre-
vented the best use being made of these forces in the decisive
battle of the war on French soil. But the fact remains that the
chief presupposition indeed, the indispensable one on which
the Supreme Command founded their project was the breaking
up of the enemy in the east. By the end of March 44 divisions
had gone to the west, followed in April and May by 15 other
divisions, among which were 3 of cavalry.
It was a question of considerable importance whether, and to
what extent, the participation of the Austro-Hungarian forces in
the coming decisive battle would be possible. The Italian army,
though not destroyed by the short autumn campaign of 1917,
had been so thoroughly beaten, and was so unstrung morally, that
it might reasonably be neglected as a military factor for the next
few months. The offensive there had also had the important
result of drawing off n French and English divisions from the
French theatre of war to Italy. The duration of Italy's collapse
was, of course, uncertain. It would presumably end automati-
cally when the Central Powers dropped their menacing attitude.
All the more was it important to maintain this. But it was not
considered necessary to keep German fighting forces in the
Italian theatre of war to this end. The moral of the Austro-
Hungarian army had risen so markedly since the success of the
last offensive that it seemed equal to carrying out this task
without German support. The 6 German divisions in Italy were
accordingly withdrawn during the winter, and were in the
French theatre of war by the end of March. The German
Supreme Command would have liked to use the Austro-Hungarian
army to still greater advantage in the general scheme by bringing
over a number of good fighting divisions and some heavy artillery
to take a direct part in the forthcoming battles in France. This
had been agreed upon in principle at a conference between
Ludendorff and General von Arz on Nov. 3. The matter was
further discussed in writing up to the beginning of Jan. 1918.
But in the meantime other influences were at work, opposing the
designs of the two Supreme Commands. According to Gen. von
Arz the Austrian Emperor and Empress were averse to sending
Austrian troops to fight on French soil against the French ; and the
non-German nations of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, sup-
ported by the Social Democrats, were strongly opposed to taking
part in the war in the west. The German Supreme Command,
on being informed of this, sent Gen. von Cramon, their repre-
sentative with the Austro-Hungarian army in the beginning of
1918, " a definite order to insist upon a binding declaration."
Arz replied that no Austro-Hungarian divisions would be available
until peace had been concluded with Russia and Rumania, but
that artillery could be sent, though it would be deficient in muni-
tions. This offer was accepted. 1 General von Cramon succeeded
in persuading Hindenburg and Ludendorff, in spite of the doubts
which these proceedings had aroused in them, to make another
request for the cooperation of Austro-Hungarian divisions in the
western theatre of war. But Cramon's intervention with General
von Arz in the meantime did not succeed. General von Arz
explained to him in the end in strict confidence that it would not
be agreeable to those in high places if infantry were sent to the
west. As a last resource now the German Supreme Command
tried to stir up its ally to an attack in Italy. On March 15
l Von Cramon, Unser Oesterreichisch-Ungarischer Verbundeter,
p. 6. The number of heavy batteries sent was 46.
992
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
Hindenburg implored General von Arz to arrange for an im-
mediate offensive by the Austro-Hungarian armies in Italy, to
relieve the German army in its difficult decisive battle. After
some hesitation Arz replied on March 27 that he would rally all
the means at his disposal and deliver a blow against Italy at the
end of May which should completely break her.
Germany was thus left to carry out the decisive battle on
French soil on her own resources. There were three enemies to
be reckoned with: England, France and America. The British
had borne the chief burden of the fighting during the latter half
of 1917, when the great battle in Flanders had towered over all
other events in significance. In spite of the lost ground in the
Ypres sector, and the unavoidably heavy loss in fighting power, it
could in the end be registered as a German victory in so far as
the English had failed to achieve their strategic aim, the destruc-
tion of the German submarine base in Flanders. For the estima-
tion of future prospects, at least as important as this happy issue
was the apparent failure of the British attack system with its
unreserved employment of masses in a battle of materiel, and its
methodical conduct of the offensive as a series of thoroughly
prepared attacks with objectives limited in space and, once
chosen, rigidly adhered to. It was believed that this system
revealed a lack of capacity for operative manoeuvring inherent
in British leadership and in the British army. The tank battle
at Cambrai in Nov. was looked upon as a further proof of this.
Should the Germans succeed in bringing about a war of movement
again in the west, their conviction was that they would prove
themselves superior to the British.
Contrasted with the powerful effort that the British had put
forth to gain the victory in Flanders, the ends for which their
French allies were striving in the second half of 1917, after the
failure of the great Aisne offensive, were apparently more modest.
The local attacks to which they confined themselves at Verdun
and later in the Laffaux corner turned out favourably for them,
it is true, and inflicted considerable losses on the Germans. But
on the whole their cautious strategy led to the deduction that the
moral depression of the French nation and the army, which had
set in after the battle of the Aisne, and was not hidden from the
Germans, had not been overcome. Not that the German Com-
mand was likely to regard the spirit of France as permanently
paralysed; on the contrary it was considered certain that the
French army, in the following spring, would enter the struggle
for final victory completely refreshed and stronger than before.
In comparison with England she was the militarily stronger op-
ponent, more skilled in strategy and tactics, and more dangerous.
When it had to be decided upon which of the two the German
blow was next to fall, a success over the British therefore sug-
gested itself as being more easily and certainly obtainable. Added
to this there was the consideration decisive from a political
standpoint that the principal enemy, England, would probably
be more inclined for peace when she herself had suffered a crush-
ing defeat. In this respect the estimated value of the respective
opponents had altered considerably from that made by Falken-
hayn, which had passed muster two years earlier. The war in
which England was fighting with her own forces on the European
continent was, since the battle of the Somme, no longer a " side
show." She was, on the contrary, now conducting it with all her
available forces, with the utmost tenacity and with her own wea-
pons. For the rest it might be assumed that when the German
" hammer blow " fell on the one enemy, the other would not
stand idly looking on, but would either directly assist his ally or
proceed to a relief offensive. One hammer blow would not suffice.
A general battle was therefore launched. Ludendorff dwelt on
this in making his report to the Kaiser on Feb. 13 1918 at Schloss
Homburg, when he said:
" The battle in the west which the year 1918 will bring presents
the biggest military problem ever set before an army. France and
England have grappled with it in vain fora years. . . . It must not
be imagined that we are going to have another such offensive as in
Galicia or Italy. It will be a stupendous struggle, beginning in one
place and continuing in another, and will take up a long time."
As regards the relative strengths of the two sides, the German
High Command cherished no illusions as to any marked numerical
superiority for their own forces. The strength of the German
army in the west was brought up to 194 divisions by the addition
of divisions brought up from the eastern and Italian theatres.
The Entente forces in France in Feb. 1918 were estimated at
167 divisions. If the n French-English divisions in Italy, which
were easily available, were added to these, there remained only a
slight superiority in the number of divisions on the German side.
In artillery the German western army was not even quite as
strong as its opponents. Ludendorff based his decision on the
theory that the totals of the two fighting forces would balance
each other. A factor which counted for much with the Germans
was the physical condition of the army. An offensive attack best
suited the character of the nation and the tradition and training
of the troops. It was the more powerful form of warfare. Ger-
many owed to it all her previous tangible successes. The ordinary
citizen could see, through all his heartfelt longing for peace, that
his efforts could only be rewarded when Germany had overthrown
her enemies. Here and there, it is true, the same disintegrating
influences which were undermining the war spirit at home could
be seen at work in the army. But the influence of the good ele-
ments, which far outweighed the rest, stamped the whole as an
excellent body of men. Their " will to win " was not indeed
inspired purely by victory for its own sake. The attack was
longed for also as a deliverance from the terrible battering which
they had endured for years with resignation and with courage.
It now became supremely important to find out the precise
moment at which the American forces would actively intervene.
In a review of the situation drawn up by the German Supreme
Command in the winter of 1917-81! was stated:
" The United States are forming an army of about 50 divisions,
of which three only have as yet landed in France. One of tin
at the front to be trained. The two others are in need of more training
behind the front. By the spring of 1918 the American forces in
France may reach a strength of about 15 divisions. The mass of the
divisions will only be suitable for use on quiet fronts. Only the 3
divisions now in France may be expected to take part in a spring
offensive. The corps of officers is not yet trained for war on a large
scale. On these grounds the independent use of large American units
in difficult positions will be out of the question at present. The
drafting of reserves and the arming and equipment of the American
troops are good. Training is still inadequate. But the first regiment
put in at the front fought well during a German attack, and it is
therefore to be expected that the American soldier, after more
training and experience, will prove himself a worthy opponent."
In another calculation, made in Dec. 1917, the Supreme
Command estimated the whole of the American forces that had
been landed in France up to the spring at 450,000 men at most.
A larger number was not to be expected on account of the lack of
shipping for transport. The mass of this army could not be ready
for an attack by the spring of 1918. The value of the Americans
at first would therefore lie in their power to set free English-
French divisions on quiet fronts. As a matter of fact this calcula-
tion of the American strength was too generous. The total
number of Americans landed in France up to the end of March
1918 has been stated by the American Secretary of War at just
under 370,000. Of these only 144,000 were included in the 5
fighting divisions. The fact that the Germans did not at once
realize the full extent of the increase in American transports, from
April onward, in response to the urgent demands of England and
France, does not actually affect their review of the situation at
the end of 1917 and the beginning of 1918. When Hindenburg
and Ludendorff resolved on the decisive attack they were entitled
to hope for so crushing a victory over the English and the French
by beginning operations early that the palm of victory could not
be snatched from them again even by very considerable masses of
American troops, whose intervention would only become effective
in the later war of movement. Supposing as a basis for the
actual starting-point of the offensive the Germans to be in
possession of the line Doullens-Amiens by the beginning of April,
which was within the realm of possibility, the annihilation of
the British army might be completed within that month.
Meanwhile the battle against the French would have broken out
in full force. During the months of May and June a decisive
defeat had to be inflicted on them also. If that succeeded, the
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
lericans whose troops were for the most part not yet suffi-
:ntly trained for a war of movement would merely be swept
ito the general debacle. Entirely inexperienced in the leading
of great masses, they would hardly change the decrees of fate.
The Germans had of course to take into account the fact that
-even a complete military victory by the Central Powers in 1918
the continent would not end the war, so long as the will of
lyd George in. England was- unbroken. Again, should the
tente by a great effort succeed in readjusting the situation on
continent, the war of starvation could be carried on with
ater effect in proportion as the submarine menace diminished.
ie question was therefore whether the Central Powers, after
subduing their enemies on the continent of Europe, could still
hold out economically. The opening of the Ukraine had come so
late that it was extremely doubtful whether its resources would be
available in time to stave off the threatened economic collapse of
the nations of the Quadruple Alliance. Ludendorff had no illu-
sions upon this point, being convinced that it was absolutely
I essential to have his military offensive in the west accompanied
and supported simultaneously by a political offensive on a
large scale on the English home front. This would be directed
toward bringing about the fall of Lloyd George and persuading
the English nation to accept rather Lord Lansdowne's efforts in
the direction of peace. It was for the political leaders to call into
being and carry out a propaganda offensive of this nature. The
commander-in-chief could only demand it and this he did.
As early as the middle of Jan. 1918, Ludendorff had handed in
to the Imperial Chancellor, with a strong personal recommenda-
tion, a memorandum for a German political offensive drawn up
by Colonel von Haeften. But this urgent warning to the political
leaders of the State met with no response. The politicians were
unmoved. Once more, on June 3 1918, Ludendorff made another
passionate appeal to the Chancellor to undertake a political
offensive against the English home front, again sending a memo-
randum by Colonel vori Haeften, which this time included a
detailed plan of campaign. But it was unavailing.
The question arises here whether the German Supreme Com-
mand would not have done better, at a moment when they were
militarily strong, to attempt their utmost to induce the political
heads of State to prepare the way for peace. Ludendorff 's pub-
lished memoirs show that it was never opposed to efforts aiming
at an honourable peace that would safeguard the existence of the
German Empire. But all the attempts in this direction made by
the political leaders found the Allied Governments unresponsive,
and were regarded merely as signs of internal weakening in the
Central Powers. Ludendorff was to see for himself, shortly
before the beginning of the great spring offensive, how little the
attitude of the Entente statesmen had changed and how hopeless
and damaging the renewal of any such attempt would prove.
According to a credible report from a neutral country, Washing-
ton's readiness to enter into official peace negotiations depended
upon the following preliminary conditions: the unconditional
evacuation of northern France and Belgium; the payment of
reconstruction expenses; Alsace and Lorraine to be made inde-
pendent; the annulling of the treaty of Brest Litovsk, just
1 concluded in the east; reference of all eastern questions to a peace
conference to be summoned by the Entente; and a complete
change of the Government system in Germany on lines to be laid
. down and enforced by President Wilson later. A commander-
in-chief who, in the spring of 1918, should have pressed the politi-
cal leaders to pave the way for peace negotiations under such
conditions, without having tried for a decision on the field, would
have been cursed by his fatherland.
Plan for a Break-through at St. Quentin. Suggestions for
an offensive had been made by the higher command of Prince
Rupprecht of Bavaria's army group after the English offensive
in Flanders had died down in the beginning of Nov. 1917. The
suggestions culminated in the proposal to launch the main attack
from the Armentieres-La Bassee front in the direction of
Hazebrouck against the right flank and rear of the British, on the
assumption that they would certainly concentrate their forces
in Flanders in the coming spring for a renewed break-through
xxxii. 32
993
operation in the direction of the German submarine base. The
Allies would then obviously be in a difficult operative position.
The mass of their fighting forces would be crowded up on the
extreme N. wing of the whole western front. To bring up strate-
gic reserves would take time. On their left flank and rear lay the
sea. For the British in particular, strategically less trained as
they were, it would not be easy to deploy their closely packed
masses in the direction of the right flank and to cover their
threatened communications, all the more so as a large part of
their non-mobile righting material was rigidly fixed. Tactically
the prospect of breaking through the front was a good one, since
the attackers would be faced by few positions technically very
strong. It was, however, recognized that the country would be a
difficult one in which to follow up the attack, which would be
hemmed in between two commanding ranges of hills, and still
further confined to the left by the La Bassee canal. It would
therefore have to advance mainly in the wet Lys depression, and
the ascent to the Bailleul and Hazebrouck heights would have to
be carried by fighting. On account of the wet ground the opera-
tion would probably have to wait until the middle of April.
General Ludendorff fully acknowledged the advantages of the
proposed operation, but laid stress on the serious difficulties
presented by the ground, and above all on the point that the
attack, being dependent on the weather, could not be made early
enough. He considered that an attack in the region of St.
Quentin offered better prospects. When the line of the Somme-
Peronne-Ham had been captured, the attack could proceed in
a N.W. direction, resting its flank on the Somme, and might
succeed in rolling up the British front. The higher command of
Crown Prince Rupprecht's army group held to its own point of
view, however, that the attack on the line Armentieres-La Bas-
see in the direction of Hazebrouck code name "St. George"
was to be preferred on tactical and strategical grounds to any
other offensive setting in farther to the south. Their reasons were
thus stated in a memorandum of Nov. 20:
" In consideration of the general political situation and the appear-
ance on the scene of the Americans, the attack should clearly be
made as soon as possible. On the other hand a decisive effect can
only be attained if the objective, i.e. the mass of the British army, is
securely united in massed groups in Flanders. This condition of
security can only exist when the British in Flanders are preparing to
attack. Our offensive can only set in when this has become a cer-
tainty. The British must .attack in Flanders again in the coming
year. They are forced to do so by our submarine base. We may
therefore count on it with certainty and make a strategic use of the
situation. Side by side with these considerations arises that of the
difficult nature of the ground in the Lys depression, which makes it
imperative not to attack too early. From previous experience and
observation it would appear that considerable difficulty may be
expected with the ground and the water up to about the middle of
April. . . . The British in Flanders have similar ground conditions
to consider. If they proceed to the offensive, our attack at Armen-
tieres Estaires would presumably be possible also. We should do
best therefore both as regards the operative effect and the state
of the ground to wait until the British attack in Flanders. It will
then be necessary at first for us to give way before the enemy offen-
sive in Flanders and so far as possible on the French front also.
If we accept the defensive battle, we shall have to tie up such strong
forces in the process that we shall not be powerful enough for an
attack. We can without hesitation afford to retire as far as the line
Vladsloe-W. of Roselare Werwicq, as the submarine base will
still be covered."
Opposition was also raised in some quarters to an attack from
the La Bassee canal front to the corner of Bullecourt, on the
ground that it would come up against a strongly fortified system,
and that no rapid result at the start could be expected. The
enemy would, it might be assumed, gain time for bringing up his
reserves from the north and the south. " Unless the circum-
stances change considerably in our favour there is a danger of the
operations resulting in a pocket being formed in the front and not
in a decision in the war of movement."
The idea of an attack delivered from the II. Army's front
code name " Michael " was criticized as follows by the higher
command of Prince Rupprecht's army group:
" Decisive operations by the II. Army can only aim at a break-
through of the enemy front and the attainment of the best possible
results in the war of movement against the enemy's reserves. The
994
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
Somme an unusually powerful obstacle will serve as a support
for the left flank. The main idea of an operation on the II. Army
front must therefore be to break through the enemy front in the
first place, in order to protect the left flank against the French anc
roll up the enemy front toward the north. The operation would
then be continued in the area between the Somme and the Pas de
Calais against the enemy forces there, as a war of movement with a
N.VV. direction. The enemy would have his back to the sea. There
would be a prospect of a decisive victory if the operation were
pushed far enough forward. The progress of the operation in detail
after the successful break-through would depend upon the measures
taken by the enemy, and cannot be foreseen. Operations of this
order presuppose strong forces, considerably stronger than would
be necessary for the " St. George " scheme. The advantages of this
scheme are that in the II. Army area operations are possible at all
seasons; that the enemy positions excepting those S. of St. Quentin
are not strongly built up and are but thinly occupied at the mo-
ment ; that the question of strong enemy reserves need hardly be
considered, as the British will make their attack in Flanders, and
the French are not likely to make theirs against the II. Army. If
the French should prepare an attack at St. Quentin, the German
attack would have to set in farther to the north. The disadvantages
are that the operations would lead through the ruined tract of coun-
try 'Alberich,' 1 and would involve crossing the wide area of the
Somme battle, strewn with positions and craters; that the II. Army
front runs from N.W. to S.E., while the direction desired for the
main operation is N.W. It therefore becomes considerably more
difficult to roll up the enemy front towards the N.W. after the suc-
cessful break-through.
" The attack would first have to be made in a W. direction as far as
the Somme, and could only later develop toward the N.W. A certain
amount of time would necessarily be wasted before the operation of
movement came into swing. This would give the enemy an oppor-
tunity of bringing up his reserves, the network of railways being
favourable for the purpose."
Although General Ludendorff and the chief of the general
staff of Rupprecht's group of armies, General von Kuhl, were
agreed on the main point that the offensive should be directed
against the British, the chief of the general staff of the German
Crown Prince's army group, Count von der Schulenburg, held
at first a directly opposite view, considering an attack on the
French to be the better policy. " England, with her dogged
self-confidence," h'e said, " is not k'kely to end the war on account
of a partial defeat of her army. She will be more inclined for
peace when the power of the French is broken by a heavy defeat."
Count Schulenburg's proposal was " to attack in the Argonne
and to the E. of it, and simultaneously to carry out a strong
attack from the St. Mihiel region in a W. direction. The objec-
tive of the attack would be Verdun, and, if possible, the de-
struction of the portion of the French army enveloped by the
attack. The wooded, indistinct character of the deployment area
would make it easier to hide the preparations for attack. The
attacks would have a good chance of success if managed as a
surprise. The French would never get over the loss of Verdun.
If the seizure of the fortress were combined with a decisive
victory over a portion of the French army, which would mean
depriving the French of the possibility of a really promising
offensive in 1918, the French nation and its army would be
swept by a great wave of depression:
" The British are certain to attack in Flanders if we attack the
French at Verdun. A French offensive may be predicted with equal
certainty if the British are attacked. If the Supreme Command is
not in a position to execute a big attack, and at the same moment
fight a defensive battle in another place, there remains the possibility
of evading the enemy attack on the threatened front by retreating.
This could be carried out by the VII., Land III. Armies, and also to
a limited extent in Flanders presumably, but not E. of the Argonne
or on the V. Army's front."
The armistice concluded with Russia on Dec. 15 made a
considerable difference in the general situation. Russia no longer
counted as a military factor, and the balance of power in the
western theatre of war had now readjusted itself in favour of the
Germans in consequence. All the reports received pointed to the
conclusion that the Entente Powers would for the present
limit themselves to a strategic defence, and would refrain from a
great offensive until strong American forces became available.
This was all the more probable because the effect of the sub-
marine war so far could not apparently be considered so successful
1 "Alberich " was the code name for the destruction of the ground
surrendered on retreat to the Siegfried positions in the spring of 1 9 1 7.
as to force Great Britain to undertake the destruction of the
German submarine base in Flanders at an early date. This
change in the situation removed the principal presupposition on
which Gen. von Kurd's proposed offensive at Armentieres-La
Bassee in the direction of Hazebrouck was based. The close
massing of the British main forces in Flanders in the coming
spring could not be relied on. It was far more likely that the
Allies would distribute their reserves behind the front and place
them in readiness round important railway junctions. It could
not be denied that the operative conditions for a break-through
in the St. Quentin region might also be unfavourably affected.
The possibility of a French relief offensive had still to be faced.
In these circumstances Ludendorff refrained from laying down
any definite direction for the attack against the British for the
time being, reserving his decision until he could see how the situa-
tion developed. On one point only did he insist the moment
of the offensive must be fixed as early as possible on account
of the Americans. With this in view the Supreme Command
issued an order on Dec. 27 1917 for the preparation of several
attacks on different parts of the front. The preparations were
to be pushed forward so as to be complete by the end of March, j
Count Schulenburg's original proposal an enveloping opera* !
tion at Verdun had not yet been rejected, but was for the !
present only to be treated as a rough draft, the German Crown i
Prince's group using it as a foundation for an offensive from ;
Champagne and the W. of Verdun on Clermont, and Duke
Albrccht's group for an attack over the Meuse, S. of Verdun
(code name " Castor and Pollux ").
On one point the Supreme Command was now quite clear.
The offensive must not take the form of a battle of materiel, ;
such as the Allies had over and over again attempted, invariably j
without results. German aims would not be furthered by an
offensive which condemned the forces to months of strain. The !
break-through must be made to lead up to a decisive operation in
the open field. This could only be done if the enemy's trench j
system were overrun so rapidly that the reserves he had brought
up could not arrive in time to intercept the blow behind the !
dinted-in front. A prompt and complete success was only con-
ceivable at the moment of the surprise. This could only be
attained by observing the strictest secrecy with the troops
concerned in the attacks. Each army must be convinced that
the attack which it was preparing was intended to be the one ;
actually selected. To this end all preparations for attack, in
respect of laying out communications, shelters, aerodromes, etc., ;
were to be spread over the whole army front as far as possible.
The placing of the troops in readiness was to come later, and was
to be undertaken outside the selected battlefield by various large
groups which could be quickly and secretly formed up for deploy-
ment in different directions by train and by night marches.
Another feature was to be the deception of the enemy, who was
to be perplexed by the semblance of an attack on the whole army
;ront (artillery registration and so forth), by partial actions with
imited objectives, and by feints of great attacks in other places.
All the attack preparations were to be carefully observed on the
ground and from the air, to see that they were not attracting
attention. Although it might be impossible to prevent the enemy
Tom discovering the direction of the attack in time, it might
reasonably be hoped to keep him in uncertainty as to the move- i
ment and the scope of the attack, and the form which it was to I
take. Success therefore depended very considerably on the most
rapid execution of the attack itself.
On Jan. 24 the Supreme Command decided which of the
attacks should be carried out. The choice fell on the " Michael "
operation in the zone of the XVII., II. and XVIII. Armies. I j
At the same time the XVIII. Army was ordered to be trans-
r erred to the German Crown Prince's group of armies with the
Dmignon brook for its northern boundary.
In preparing for the Michael attack, the XVIII. Army's
direction was to the N.E. of Bapaume, the II. Army's to the N.
of the Omignon brook, and the XVIII. Army's to the S. of the
Omignon brook on both sides of St. Quentin. The XVII. Army
was to prepare a simultaneous attack S. of the Scarpe (code
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
995
name " Mars South "), and the VII. Army another S. of the Oise
across the front of the Crepy group (code name " Archangel ").
The Michael operation was to take place about March 20, the
Mars South and Archangel attacks a few days later after the
regrouping of the necessary artillery and mine-throwers. The
aim of the Michael attack was to be a break-through of the
enemy front as far as the Somme on the line Ham-Peronne, and
an advance, in conjunction with the Mars attack, on the right
back of the Somme through Peronne-Arras. The Archangel
attack had merely to 'make a diversion, and try to seize the
heights E. of the Oise-Aisne canal.
The Supreme Command also gave instructions that prepara-
tions for the attack over the Lys depression at Armentieres-
Estaire (St. George I.) and towards the Ypres salient (St. George
II.) by the VI. and IV. Armies were to be pushed forward so as
to be completed by the beginning of April. The idea of an envel-
oping attack at Verdun (" Castor and Pollux ") was allowed to
drop, as the chief of the general staff of army detachment C. had
held out only very moderate hopes of success for an offensive S.
of Verdun across the Meuse. On the other hand, in the event of
great French attack in Champagne, there was some thought
of letting the III. Army fall back within certain limits, while the
I. Army delivered a flanking counter-attack.
Ludendorff thus held fast to his plan of directing his offensive
blow against the British. In choosing the Michael instead of the
St. George operation, he was influenced chiefly by the fact that it
would be independent of seasons and weather conditions and
could therefore be carried out earlier. The tactical attack would,
moreover, fall on a particularly weak spot in the enemy's front.
The idea of a diversion on a large scale, to take place either
before or simultaneously with the Michael operation, was aban-
doned, as it seemed necessary to use all the available forces for
carrying out successfully the one great blow as planned. On the
other hand the Supreme Command arranged for deceptive
measures to be taken at various points on the armies' front, e.g.
& lively artillery battle on the St. George and Archangel fronts;
partial actions on the I. and III. Armies' fronts, particularly at
Verdun; a long-range artillery battle on the Lorraine front.
These commenced in some cases in the beginning of March, and
were continued in the days immediately preceding the battle and
until after it was well started.
On March 10 Hindenburg sent out a definite order fixing the
morning of March 21 for the attack. According to this order
the centre of gravity of the operations lay in the XVII. and II.
Armies both at the beginning and during the later development.
After achieving the first great tactical aim the cutting off of the
British in the Cambrai sector, the offensive was to be carried
N. of the Omignon brook in the direction of Albert-Arras and
beyond, where the British front was to be dislocated by the VI.
Army. The XVIII. Army was only required to cover the left
flank S. of the Omignon brook, and to this end to take possession
of the Somme and of the Crozat canal. Its deeply echeloned
right wing could be extended northward to Peronne in case of
necessity. An additional order from the German Crown Prince's
army group in the meantime paved the way for the idea of a new
move by the XVIII. Army by contemplating the possibility of
its advance over the Somme and the Crozat canal. General von
Hutier, commanding the XVIII. Army, at once grasped this idea
it had probably occurred to him before and, in a document
handed in to the army group on March 15, proposed as the
XVIII. Army's task " as soon as the Somme and the Crozat
canal had been crossed, to draw upon itself the French reserves
designed for the support of the British and beat them, and to
break the communications between the British and the French.
. . The sooner the army reached the line Chaulnes-Roye, the
more chance would it have of meeting the French while they were
still deploying, and the better the prospect of bringing about the
war of movement." The Higher Command of the army group
passed on the proposal with the additional note: " the more the
French counter-offensive spends itself on Rupprecht's army
group, the more effectually will the proposed operation hit the
French. The enemy will be quick to recognize its decisive meaning
and the threat to his capital. We may, therefore, expect a very
strong resistance, and on that account the operation must be
launched by powerful forces."
Ludendorff's attitude toward this proposal is not known. It
would appear from a conversation over the telephone with
General von Kuhl on March 20 that he had already weighed
the possibility of accommodating himself to the idea if circum-
stances so shaped themselves, since he now intimated his inten-
tion of fixing the centre of gravity for the advance of the XVII.
Army in the direction of St. Pol, and that of the II. Army in
the direction of Doullens-Amiens in case the XVIII. Army
should meet with strong French opposition on the line Bray-
Noyon if not earlier.
The peace training of the German General Staff was based on
the strategic and tactical principles of its former chief of many
years' standing, Count Schlieffen. Although a declared champion
of the Cannae idea, the Count had also definitely accepted the
break-through in his reflexions and teachings, though only under
the conditions of a war of movement. In choosing the spot for
the break-through Count Schlieffen considered the tactical weak
spot within the enemy's lines to be of the first importance as a
clue. At the same time there must be the possibility of following
up a successful assault and break-through by an operation in a
useful direction. He therefore considered a simultaneous attack
against the whole enemy front to be the best means of breaking
through, as by this their forces would be tied up, the reserves
engaged and the shifting of troops to another place prevented.
When Ludendorff in 1918 was faced with the problem of the
break-through, it was not under the conditions of a war of move-
ment. The outward appearance of the war had fundamentally
changed in the war of positions which had lasted for years. The
defence was established along the whole front in a modern field
position constructed according to a technique based on experi-
ence. The German attacking force was therefore confronted
everywhere with the task of overcoming the opposition of the
enemy in its tactically strong positions. For this he needed at
whatever point the break-through was attempted the means
employed in siege warfare, in particular a large quantity of heavy
artillery and flame-throwers. For all that, however, the enemy
positions were not everywhere equal in their tactical power of
resistance. The ground, constructional work, density of occupa-
tion, formation of reserves, and value of the defence troops,
showed many points of difference, and admitted of the sorting out
of strong and weaker portions of the front. Ludendorff formed
his decision quite in the spirit of Schlieffen's teaching. He, too,
spied out the enemy's weakness. For the choice of the English
front the leading political motive was probably primarily respon-
sible, but the decision also happened to be in agreement with the
military considerations. For although the British and French
troops, in respect of their power of resistance, in tactical defence
might be assessed at equal value, the British were inferior to the
French in the skilled handling of masses, in the art of defensive
battle and in power of strategic manoeuvre. The weak points
within the I4o-m. British front in question, Armentieres-La
Bassee and St. Quentin, had undergone an exhaustive critical
examination by the Higher Command of Rupprecht's army group.
If Ludendorff decided to attack at St. Quentin it was because he
would be hitting the enemy at his weakest point.
Military critics have raised the objection that Ludendorff let
himself be swayed too much by tactical considerations and
neglected the demands of strategy, seeing his own task from the
very beginning only as a battering performance, consisting of a
succession of independent hammer-blows. There is nothing to
support such views. Rather is it evident that Ludendorff, here as
always, was basing his strategy on the prospect of a promising
tactical battle in complete accordance with the Schlieffen ideas.
The attack delivered from Lens in the direction of St. Pol, as
recommended by the French Gen. Buat, was extremely difficult
tactically and did not offer any guarantee of a prompt initial
success. But on this everything depended. Moreover, Luden-
dorff, in placing the attack where he did, had had visions of one
great definite strategic aim, to break through the front of the
996
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
British army on its S. wing, cut it off from the French, and by
pressing on its right flank and attacking it from the front cause it
to waver and fall to pieces and force it back to the coast. What
was that but a " Cannae operation," in which a natural ob-
stacle the sea took the place of Hasdrubal? A second natural
obstacle the Somme was to serve the German left wing,
advancing in deeply echeloned formation, as a protection against
a French flank attack. The difficulties presented by the un-
avoidable traversing of the ruined Alberich area, and the Somme
battlefield with its craters, were fully recognized, particularly as
regards shelter and the bringing up of fresh drafts. These diffi-
culties would diminish, however, as soon as the operation reached
out into the country as yet untouched by battle, to the W. of this
zone. Only in case that did not succeed would the disadvantages
of this wilderness as a permanent stopping-place become evident.
On one point indeed, and that the most vital, did Ludendorff's
procedure differ from Schlieffen's form of strategy. The German
attack was directed, not against the whole enemy front, but
against a limited section only. The perfectly obvious reason for
this was that the fighting forces and battle requirements came
nowhere near being sufficient for such an undertaking. The
question is, whether it would have been possible and desirable to
carry out the Schlieffen idea in a general sense, if not literally.
The aim of the attack on the whole front was to engage all the
enemy's forces, particularly his reserves, who might otherwise in
due course intercept and choke off the break-through, just as it
became ripe for operative development. Ludendorff saw the
danger of this quite clearly, and sought to avert it by feint
attacks on as many parts of the front as possible, by threats of a
great attack and by partial actions on a small scale. These
measures undoubtedly had a great temporary effect. Petain
refused to send more than 3 divisions to Haig's hard-pressed
front on March 24, on the ground that Ludendorff's main attack
was to be at Reims, where the artillery battle had already begun.
But the effect of these measures lasted only a short time, of
course, and were limited as to material. The enemy's reserves
were not absorbed, but could still, though after much delay,
be moved and brought up to the decisive battlefield. It would
certainly have been more in accordance with the Schlieffen idea
if, alongside of these feint attacks and reaching beyond them,
a serious diversion had been undertaken shortly before the main
attack began. It would have had to be carried out by a strong but
strictly limited number of troops, to give promise of a prompt
initial success and to have a limited objective. For this purpose,
so far as the British front was concerned the " St. George "
operations across the Lys depression were not possible, on account
of the season and weather conditions. In Flanders the circum-
stances were similar. There remained only the VI. Army front
between the La Bassee canal and Arras. It may be questioned
whether the attack, which was tactically very difficult here,
would have succeeded to a sufficient extent in its object of tying
up the strong enemy reserves. There were, in any case, important
reasons for the decision not to make a preliminary diversion at
this point in order to have a more powerful force to put in to the
decisive battle itself.
On the French front things were essentially different. It was
of the utmost importance that if the proposed operation were to
succeed it should be secured from a strong flank attack by the
French, and not be brought to a standstill by a relief offensive
on a large scale. It is known that Ludendorff had intended the
VII. Army to execute a diversion. But this was to take place
after the great offensive had begun, and could not therefore have
the effect of drawing off strong reserves of the enemy in a
wrong direction and holding them fast there. The diversion
would also be too closely in touch with the main attack as re-
gards space. Several places had been proposed for a German
diversion on the French front, such as the Chemin des Dames
region and Champagne. Verdun was less suitable on account
of the large force that would be required. The front of Duke
Albrecht's army group in Alsace (Breuschtal) also seemed suit-
able. If the attack were made there the French reserves would be
far away from the critical point of the coming decisive battle.
As far as the actual number of good attack divisions was con-
cerned there were ample forces available. The spring offensive
opened on March 21 with 62 divisions. Up to the close on April
5, 92 divisions had been put in, and even so not all the divisions
available for attack purposes had been used up. This powerful
mass would probably have been even more effective if it had not
been used exclusively and directly for the break-through opera-
tion itself, but had been devoted in part to putting the French
reserves into fetters at another place. General Buat even goes so
far as to say that only by a series of diversions, delivered simul-
taneously or in rapid succession in different places, could the
operative success of the break-through have been guaranteed.
He admits however and herein lies the point of the decision
that this method was impracticable for Ludendorff owing to lack
of sufficient forces. For it was a question not only of having in
readiness the required number of divisions but the massing of
artillery, flame-throwers, airmen, munitions, motor columns and
numerous other necessities of war. Of these the Supreme Com-
mand had not enough available for the furnishing of a powerful
diversion immediately before or at the time of the main attack,
if this was delivered on the scale planned. A diversion was there-
fore only conceivable in the event of a reduction of area or material
in the main attack. But any reduction of this sort would have
lessened the chance of a great and rapid victory on the spot
selected, the indispensable condition of the undertaking.
The conclusions are that not only was the application of
Schlieffen's theoretical ideal form for an operative break-
through the attack on the whole front out of the question for
Ludendorff, but the attempt to conform to the underlying idea in
a modified form by executing a diversion on a large scale was not
to be recommended in the spring of 1918, since the forces were
insufficient. In practice the disciple was forced by existing
circumstances to fall short of the master's theoretical standard
laid down in time of peace.
But is it, as Buat thinks, the fact that the idea of the operative
break-through was foredoomed to failure? Strategy is a system
of makeshifts. This fundamental saying of Moltke's was fully
appreciated by Count Schlieffen. Ludendorff had to act in
accordance with it. If the enemy's reserves could not be tied up
in another place and kept away from the scene of the main battle,
and if, therefore, they might be expected to turn up there sooner
or later, the work of the battle and the execution of the operative
scheme would certainly be made more difficult. Whether the
attacker, in spite of this, would have the strength to achieve not
only a tactical victory, but the complete strategical success,
which involved the destruction of the enemy, was the supreme
question which only the god of battles himself could answer. If
the reward due to his passionate efforts was withheld, he would
have to moderate those efforts and reconcile himself to closing
down the offensive and accepting the battle of materiel and its
attendant overstraining of his forces. The first great hammer-
blow would then at least have had the effect of a diversion. It
would have accomplished its aim according to the Schlieffen idea
of operations by shattering and absorbing a large portion of the
enemy fighting forces. It was then for the command to show its
skill in launching, as quickly as possible, a new attack to bring
about a decision with the yet unused forces from another well-
selected and prepared position.
This then was the problem of the break-through as it presented
itself to the German Supreme Command.
The Great Battle. As the Germans had not the means for
equipping all the divisions on the western front equally, and as
the essential value of the different divisions also varied for rea-
sons connected with drafting, they were forced to limit them-
selves to a certain number of those which seemed most suitable
for the purpose of the attack. These were the so-called mobile
divisions. Altogether S 2 of these divisions were made available
for the beginning of the Michael operation. Besides these there
were 10 divisions in the line directly taking a part in the attack,
making in all 62 divisions. They were distributed as follows:
XVII. Army, 15 mobile divisions and 2 divisions in the line;
II. Army, 15 mobile divisions and 3 divisions in the line; XVIII.
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
997
Army, 19 mobile divisions and 5 divisions in the line. The
Supreme Command had kept 3 mobile divisions for the time
being at its own direct disposal. These were brought up to the
region of Douai shortly before the beginning of the offensive so as
to be more readily available for carrying out the Mars attack,
for which they were originally intended.
The bringing up of the attack formations that were destined
at once for the offensive began at the end of Feb. and was com-
pleted according to plan. On March 10 the bringing up of muni-
tions began. During the last few nights the artillery, flame-
throwers and divisions were formed up for deployment. On the
morning of March 21 came the attack, delivered simultaneously
by all three armies on the whole front over 47 m. wide from
Croisilles to La Fere. It came as a surprise to the British III. and
V. Armies. Contrary to the expectations cherished, the offensive
made less progress in the first days in the case of the XVII. Army
and the right wing of the II. Army than on the left wing of the
II. Army and particularly in the case of the XVIII. Army, on
account of the powerful British resistance. The cutting-off of
the Cambrai salient failed because of the enemy's timely evac-
uation. In consequence of this the Supreme Command on the
afternoon of March 22 ordered the XVII. Army to extend the
success of the II. Army by an attack aimed particularly in the
direction of Bapaume, and to prepare for the attack on both
sides of the Scarpe (Mars) with strong forces to the N. of it.
When it became evident, on the morning of March 23, that
the XVIII. Army and the left wing of the II. Army were ad-
vancing unchecked towards the W. and would in all probability
reach their nearest objective, the Somme, on that very day, an
order was issued for continuing the operation, as soon as the
line Bapaume-Peronne-Ham should have been won. " The
XVII. Army will attack with strong pressure in the directions
Arras-St. Pol, the left wing in the direction of Miraumont.
The II. Army will take the direction Miraumont-Lihons; the
XVIII. Army will take the direction Chaulnes-Noyon and will
send strong advanced troops through Ham." The three divisions
held in reserve were now given to the XVII. Army.
Through this order the whole operation was pushed a long way
to the left. The XVIII. Army, which was originally to have
extended its front northward to Peronne on reaching the Somme,
thereby releasing forces from the II. Army to carry on the attack
N. of the river, had now instead to cross the Somme and advance
its right wing in a slightly S.W. direction toward Chaulnes.
There were thus portions of the II. Army left S. of the Somme as
well as the XVIII. Army. The Somme was therefore no longer
used as a support against a French flank attack, for the offensive
now took a N. direction along the whole front, N. and S. of the
river, with the operative aim of separating British and French.
This most fateful decision of March 23 arose from the tactical
consideration of exploiting the XVIII. Army's comparatively
easy success to the benefit of the general battle situation, by
making a rapid forward push. Had the XVIII. Army stopped at
the Somme and the Crozat canal, as was originally^ intended,
extending with its right wing only northward to Peronne, its
fine initial success would have had no effect on the advance of the
attack farther to the N., which had up till then not quite come up
to expectation. If, on the other hand, it had carried its attack
across the Somme and the canal toward the W., in conjunction
with the S. wing of the II. Army, the enemy, who was still holding
out against the XVII. Army and the N. wing of the II. Army,
would have been threatened on his right flank. From the strate-
gical standpoint the decision was even more difficult and more
vital. The fundamental idea of the Michael operation had from
the first always been that of beating the British and the British
only. The French were only to be held off from intervention by
flank action. To this end the whole of the XVII. and II. Armies
were to find a field for operations to the N. of the Somme. The
reinforcements sent by the Supreme Command were also to
follow in this direction, being mainly disposed in echelon in rear
of the II. Army's left wing for the purpose of taking over the
flank protection down the Somme from Peronne. At a later stage
there were probably some portions of the XVIII. Army similarly
engaged N. of the Somme. This whole strategical idea would
have fallen to pieces if the strong natural obstacle of the Somme
had been relinquished as a support at this point. It was clear
that the left wing of the armies, entrusted with the offensive
solution of its task on the far side of the Somme and the canal,
would very soon not only draw upon itself considerable enemy
forces, but would gradually have to prepare for a counter-offen-
sive steadily increasing in strength. It had therefore to be rein-
forced from the reserves, which thus, as well as a portion of the
II. Army, were no longer available for use in the direction fol-
lowed by the main operation. But despite these apparent
disadvantages the decision must be approved from the strategical
standpoint also. The position of the XVII. Army and the north
wing of the II. Army, as it was on the morning of March 23,
made it doubtful whether the strong enemy resistance here could
be broken in time to arrive at operations in the open field at all
before the arrival of enemy reinforcements. There was a danger
that not only the British but the French might throw strong
forces on to the battlefield N. of the Somme, and so block the
break-through in or close behind the British trench system.
This was made easier by the contact with the positions E. of
Arras, which had been maintained. The Somme at Peronne
or farther to the W. would then serve the defender just as
well for a safe support as the attacker had hoped it would
serve him. It would also form an excellent obstacle for the
front farther on up to Ham. As the direct intervention of the
French, according to the way in which things turned out, had
to be reckoned with, everything depended on hindering them
from carrying it out systematically. The French must be caught
up into the whirlpool of destruction. But this could only be
done by forcing their Bray-Noyon front and attacking impet-
uously in the open.
In the days that followed Geri. Ludendorff held stubbornly
to his operative aim of separating the British and French. The
distribution of the reserves that had been brought up later was
organized accordingly. The centre of gravity of the XVII.
Army's advance, originally directed toward St. Pol, was now, on
March 24, shifted more to the S. toward Doullens. The course of
the battle on the whole front, up to March 25 inclusive, justified
the expectation of achieving its ambitious aim. As the XVII.
Army had pushed its way through the whole system of enemy
positions and had advanced with its S.wing to beyond the Ancre,
it too began to operate in the open field. The situation was now
such as to warrant the attempt to dislodge the enemy front, both
at Arras and farther to the N., by frontal attacks; and the Mars
attack on both sides of the Scarpe was fixed for March 28.
The first faint doubts as to the possibility of carrying out the
main operation to its full extent might have been aroused by
the experiences of the XVII. Army on March 26. Its S. wing, on
which everything depended, gained very little ground beyond
the Ancre. As, however, in the meantime the II. Army's right
wing had achieved the difficult crossing at Albert, there was hope
that the XVII. Army's advance would also quickly get into its
stride again. On all the rest of the front the brilliant progress of
the offensive so far, particularly the impetuous forward push of
the II. Army in the direction of Amiens and that of the XVIII.
Army toward Montdidier, raised expectations of a continuation
full of promise. Ludendorff proposed to bring about the separa-
tion of his opponents by a gradual concentration of the II. and
XVIII. Armies against the French, and to this end the Somme
below and at Amiens had to be reached and also the Avre. But
the far-reaching aims of the Supreme Command were not to be
realized. On March 27 the XVII. Army's offensive came to a
standstill, and the next day brought the failure of the Mars
attack on both sides of the Scarpe. At this point, therefore, the
operation against the British was finally abandoned. Ludendorff
derided to attack their front as soon as possible in a different
place, and ordered the immediate preparation of an attack on the
VI. Army's right wing on the Lys front in the direction of
Hazebrouck. It would, however, probably be 8 or 10 days before
this could begin. Otherwise the continuation of the Michael
operation, as it had turned out, seemed to promise success only
998
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
in the direction where there was still movement, that is, on the S.
wing of the II. Army and with the XVIII. Army. As the inter-
vention of the French so far gave the impression of being pre-
cipitated, it was concluded that the opponent had not yet fully
organized his forces. The point was to keep him from doing so
now. The cooperation of the II. Army's N. wing, now held fast
on the Ancre, in the forward wheel toward the Somme below
Amiens, could indeed no longer be counted upon. It seemed,
therefore, all the more urgent to get possession of Amiens, the
strategically important railway junction, by the quickest means,
and also to cross the Avre. The centre of gravity of the offensive
was therefore laid exclusively on the inner wings of the II. and
XVIII. Armies in the next few days, all reserves being switched
off in that direction. However, no real progress could now be
made in the direction of Amiens. A last attempt on April 4 broke
down before the enemy resistance, which had visibly increased.
The close of the Great Battle left the Germans in possession
of a narrow salient stretching far out toward Amiens. This
position had its dangers, which necessitated perpetual watching,
and kept strong forces tied to the spot. On April 24 the II. Army
tried to improve its positions between the Somme and the Avre
by a partial attack, which after a passing success at Villcrs-
Bretonneux ended in a recoil. After this for a long time no
important battle actions took place on this section of the front.
The Michael operation had not achieved the full operative
success, but had nevertheless dealt the British a heavy blow and
crippled their fighting power for a long time to come. More than
40 British divisions were seriously affected, and also about 20
divisions of the French army which had been drawn in.
In the light of subsequent criticism, the question arises whether
General Ludcndorff's leading idea would not have had more
chance of being realized if the decision of March 26 had limited
the objectives aimed at in one direction or the other. Persistence
in the double intention of dividing the opponents and simul-
taneously dislodging the British at and N. of Arras by frontal
shock had the effect of dissipating the still available attack
energy of the reserves, and made it impossible to focus on a single
object the largest possible part of the forces still capable of a
great effort. In view of the general outlook the only limitation
worth considering was one which would have facilitated the
progress of the Michael operation by temporarily renouncing the
Mars attack and the proposed frontal attacks farther N. which
went with it. The danger then would have been that the British,
not being threatened from the front, would throw all their
available reserves on to the battle-field as it now stood, and also
release forces from their front for the same purpose. It would be
the task of the XVII. Army and the portion of the II. Army
fighting on the Ancre to continue their attacks and so draw these
forces upon themselves, preventing a flanking attack against the
German main operation in the direction of Amiens. It was for
the moment less important to gain much ground in the direction
of Doullens, provided that the decisive blow on Amiens on both
sides of the Somme were kept going. Supposing that the 5
divisions which had been put into the attack on both sides of the
Scarpe had been used in the continuation of the Michael opera-
tion with the XVII. Army and on the right wing of the II. Army
from March 27 on, it would have been possible by this time to
shift a number of reserves toward the S. to the decisive wing. A
portion of these reserves did gradually find their way to the wing
S. of the Somme a few days later, together with a number of
divisions which had been engaged in the previous fighting. But
they arrived too late, and the offensive had meanwhile come
to a standstill. The conclusion is that events might have shaped
themselves more favourably, from an operative standpoint, if
the decision of March 26 had limited itself to the separation
idea, laying increased stress on this at the cost of the intention
to break up the whole British front at the same time.
Finally, there is no doubt that the Germans, by their last
attempt to get possession of Amiens, put too great a strain on
their available forces. However strong the grounds for this, it
should have been of supreme importance to the Germans to
avoid the wearing effect on their fighting force of a battle of
material. This would have been easier to accomplish if a decision
had been made by the end of March to close down the Michael
operation. Instead, the attack on April 4 placed the inner wings
of the II. and XVIII. Armies in the salient over against Amiens
on both sides of the Avre in so difficult a fighting position that,
whatever the result, the reserve strength which was still coming
in had to be committed and was used up.
German Attacks April, May, and June. Closely connected
with the Michael offensive, which came to a standstill on April 5,
was the VII. Army's Archangel attack which followed. Between
April 6-8 the right wing of this army threw back the enemy
from its positions S. of the Oise through Amigny and Coucy le
Chateau to beyond the Ailette. The ground gained made an
improvement in the difficult rearward communications of the
XVIII. Army's left wing. Following immediately upon this came
the resumption of the great operations by the Georgette attack
on the Lys front. General Ludendorff had had this attack in
view since the end of March, and had prepared it at first as a
diversion only. When it became clear in the beginning of April
that the Michael offensive would not lead to a complete operative
success, the Georgette attack was extended in its scope and aims
to an operation for forcing a decision. It was proposed to break
through the British-Portuguese front in the direction of Haze-
brouck-St. Omer and then to continue the operation through
St. Omcr-Bethune and as far to the S. as possible. The VI.
Army was to attack on the front Armentieres and the La
Bassee canal with its centre of gravity on Hazebrouck; the left
wing at first only to wheel in on the general line Aire-Bethune-
La Bassee canal; the centre to push through toward Hazebrouck
and the heights W. of it and to seize the canal crossings between
St. Omer and Aire; the right wing to take possession of the
commanding heights to the E. and S. of Godewaersvelde and
then to take the direction of the barrier of heights at Cassel.
The IV. Army, attacking one day later from the line Hollcbcke-
Frclinghcm, was to attach itself with a strong left wing. Armen-
tieres was to fall by envelopment. Beyond all these there was a
proposal for the IV. Army to attack in Flanders from the
Houthoulst Forest in the direction of Popcringhe, with the
object of cutting off the Ypres salient.
The enemy's situation seemed favourable to the Germans.
The British had hardly any more fresh reserves to draw on, so
that the only reserve to be considered consisted of divisions worn
out by fighting. The Portuguese stationed on the Lys were not
credited with any great power of resistance.
Seventeen divisions from the VI. Army and 4 from the IV.
Army were placed in readiness, and the necessary artillery was
brought up, some of it being obtained by regrouping from the
Michael front. In the course of the operation 14 more divisions,
mostly from the zones of the XVII. and II. Armies, were put in.
The attack by the VI. Army, beginning on April 9, took the
opponent at first by surprise. On this same day the whole
stretch of the Lys at Sailly was conquered. But the battles of
the next few days, though successful, were obstinate and costly,
and already it appeared doubtful whether the attack would de-
velop into a break-through. The left wing had not succeeded
in taking Festubert and Givenchy or in reaching the canal. On
the other hand there could be no question of stopping the
offensive immediately, as the inner wings of the VI. and IV.
Armies were still fighting in a difficult tactical position. Their
position improved, however, with the seizure of the Neuve
figlise and Bailleul heights, but in general the gains of ground
were only local. The advantages of the initial surprise were
forfeited and the opponent found time to organize his resistance
more and more thoroughly. The hope of being able to set the
interrupted operation in motion again by a surprise assault on
the Belgian front, delivered by the IV. Army from the Hout-
houlst Forest, vanished when it became known on April
16 that the enemy was eluding the carefully built-up attack
from the Ypres salient by slipping away behind the Stecnbeek.
The IV. Army higher command considered that on account of
the difficult ground the attack across the Steenbeek had no
chance of success unless it were newly organized, and postponed
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
999
the execution from day to day. As since April 17 the French had
been established at Wytschaete the arrival of further French
reinforcements had to be reckoned with.
On April 20, therefore, General Ludendorff ordered the be-
ginning of the offensive. With a view merely to improving the
tactical situation of the inner wings of the VI. and IV. Armies
the attack on Mt. Kemmel was carried out on April 25. The
piecemeal capture of Festubert and Givenchy did not succeed.
On May i Ludendorff came to the decision to place Rupprecht's
army group and also the XVIII. Army on the defensive for the
time being. The Georgette operation had, apart from destroying
the Portuguese, undoubtedly inflicted another heavy blow on the
British army. Its losses in the defeats of March and April might
be estimated at not less than half-a-million men. The fact that
Foch was forced to send about 18 French divisions and 6 cavalry
divisions to Flanders suggested that the British alone were not in
a position to resist the pressure put upon them. It was also an
important point for the German Supreme Command that it had
for many weeks had the lead in the western theatre of war and
had forced the opponent to stand on the defensive. Yet it could
not record any operative success in this new place. Then, too,
the Michael and Georgette offensives had used up a large number
of forces 113 divisions and this fact weighed heavily. Taken
in conjunction with the difficulties about drafts there was no
doubt that the balance of forces was gradually becoming un-
favourable to the Germans.
It is indeed questionable whether the German command had
it in its power to raise this strategically unsatisfactory result to
the level of a striking success. With the forces actually available,
and those that were put in, it would hardly have been possible,
even if certain errors in the subordinate command had been
avoided. The greater part of the divisions used did not belong to
the mobile divisions, which had been trained and equipped
for the attack, and others were worn out by fighting. There was,
therefore, a certain lack of the necessary freshness and tenacity
in attack. If the German Supreme Command had decided at the
end of March to stop the Michael offensive and desist for the time
being from the attack on the Archangel front, there would have
been fourteen more unused divisions available at the beginning
of the Georgette attack. With this additional strength con-
siderably more pressure could have been exercised, particularly
by the IV. Army, to the N. of Armentieres and N.E. of Ypres.
With the situation as it stood at present the difficulties in the
way of forcing the decision of the war before the Americans made
themselves felt were growing. In spite of this Ludendorff re-
mained unshaken in his aim, clearly recognizing that the Germans
could now only achieve a success through their own initiative
and by working against time. All the clever advice that subse-
quent criticism felt obliged to offer Ludendorff is met by the
objection that by none of it could the victory of the Germans
have been achieved. If the Allies were now allowed time, and
were able at a self-chosen moment to use their fighting force,
with its ever-growing superiority in personnel and material, for
their own final blow, the war might be given up as lost at once.
The necessary forces were lacking for an immediate fresh
German offensive. During the next few weeks it was imperative
that the mobile divisions, some of which had been overtaxed,
should be allowed to rest and freshen up again. By May 27 the
German reserves had been brought up to 81 divisions again,
exclusive of the transport movement from the east. Of these
58 had been resting.
The direction which the operations were to take had now to be
decided. The French and British now formed a united front, and
the former plan of beating each separately was no longer in
question. At the end of April there were from 10 to 12 French
infantry divisions and 6 cavalry divisions estabh'shed in Flanders.
In front of the German XVII. Army at Doullens was the French
X. Army with from 5 to 6 divisions. At Amiens and S. of it stood
a group of from 1 2 to 14 fresh French divisions. As Foch had
also released about 20 divisions by putting in territorials and
Americans and economizing on numerous sectors, he now had at
his disposal a reserve of over 60 French divisions. About half of
these he kept to defend the coast and at Amiens, the other half
being apparently distributed in readiness before the fronts of the
remaining army groups. An offensive to force a decision against
those sectors of the front held almost exclusively by the French
from the Somme to the Swiss frontier promised the Germans a
far-reaching operative success, at whatever point it might be
attempted. The one sharply-defined objective in this connexion
was Paris. But on the way there an encounter with the French
army, prepared to defend it to the uttermost, was certain; and a
defensive battle for them would have various advantages. On the
other hand if a German, attack should sooner or later find itself
stuck fast on the way to Paris or in Champagne as might almost
certainly be predicted the Germans would be in an unfavourable
position for operating, with their line bent more or less far
forward toward the S.W. or S. There seemed more prospect of
success in resuming the offensive on the Michael or Flanders
front, where the objectives were not fixed so far away. After all,
the Germans had covered half the distance from St. Quentin to
Abbeville in March well within a week. If they could succeed
in doing this again with the same bulk and expansion, they would
throw the enemy forces opposing them into the sea. But even
with less success at first they might hope so to cramp their
opponent's freedom of movement that his power of prolonged
resistance would weaken, and he would be completely crushed by
renewed hammer-like blows. The German Supreme Command
therefore sought to gain their strategical aim as before in an
attack on the northern part of the enemy's front. Clear on this
point, it was again confronted, as in the spring offensive, with
the choice between carrying out the operations in Flanders or
farther S. against the Arras-Amiens front.
Acting on the suggestion of the Higher Command of Prince
Rupprecht's army group, General Ludendorff in the beginning of
May decided on the Flanders attack. The determining factor
was the knowledge that an attack from the Michael front in the
direction of Doullens would tactically be extremely difficult,
depending for its success on a simultaneous side-attack from the
region of Bethune, for which the forces were not adequate. But
as there were still strong French reserves in Flanders at the time,
Ludendorff decided not to lead the attack against Poperinghe-
Hazebrouck until a diversion in another place had drawn off
considerable portions of this reserve from the Flanders front,
leaving it weakened in consequence. At the suggestion of the
Higher Command of the German Crown Prince's army group,
a diversion offensive within a limited area from the VII. Army
front on the Chemin des Dames across the Aisne as far as the
Vesle code name " Bliicher," was given preference over an
attack by the I. Army in Champagne, E. of Reims, because its
clearly defined aim offered the promise of a line suited both to a
prolonged defence and a continuation of the attack. The VII.
Army's task was limited to carrying the offensive over the Aisne
sector on both sides of Soissons and over the Vesle as far as the
heights to the S.W. and S.E. of Soissons and S. of Fismes, while
the right wing of the I. Army was to accompany the attack
westwards past Reims and nearly up to the Ardre. There was
also an idea of letting the XVIII. Army push forward its left
wing across the Oise to split up the counter-offensive.
By choosing the Bliicher attack Ludendorff was again faithful
to his principles in selecting a markedly weak spot in the enemy's
front. There were at this time in the front line only 6 French
divisions of which 2 were worn out and i weakened by illness
and 2 British divisions which had been defeated in March and
April. As regards reserves, there were supposed to be 2 fresh
French divisions and 2 that had previously -been beaten in the
region between Compiegne and Reims. As against these the VII.
Army had 29 divisions, the I. Army 4 divisions at its disposal.
The Supreme Command reserved the right of taking back strong
artillery forces from Rupprecht's army group and the powerful
fighting divisions drawn back behind their front. This time, too,
the attack was to break out as a complete surprise, and be re-
lieved by opportune feints on different parts of the other armies'
fronts. Owing to the comprehensive preparations the Bliicher
attack could not be launched until nearly the end of May.
1000
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
It began on May 27 and succeeded beyond all hopes. By the
evening the VII. Army's centre had reached the Vesle on both
sides of Fismes, the wings holding back somewhat. The morning
of the 28th brought an emphatic reminder from Ludendorfi that
the object was to get possession as quickly as possible of the high
ground W. of Braisne, S. of Fismes and Bazoches and N.W. of
Reims. The right wing was to advance by means of a sharp
attack to a line on the high ground between the Oise and Aisne
canal and the Aisne in a W. direction. The successes of the 28th
enabled fresh orders to be given for advancing the objectives of
the centre and left wing to Fere en Tardcnois-the heights S. of
Coulanges-the S. front of Reims. If the opponent evacuated the
territory between the Aisne and the Oise, the XVIII. Army was
to draw up forces on the S. bank of the Oise about Noyon and
to gain ground in the direction of Compiegne. On May 29 the
successes on the VII. Army's front were spreading rapidly, and
orders were given at noon for the attack by the left wing of the
XVIII. Army and the VII. and I. Armies to be continued in the
direction of Compiegne-Dormans-Epernay and the block of
hills between the Vesle and the Marne, S. of Reims, taken as a
protection against Chalons. The progress of the VII. Army cor-
responded to these instructions. The I. Army, which had had
difficulties to contend with, received an order on the morning of
May 30 toreenforce its right wing from the centre, and shoot out
its fighting line to the S. and S.W., thereby facilitating the en-
velopment of Reims. The VII. Army meanwhile had reached the
Marne on the 3oth with its centre, and on the following day
gained a good deal of ground in the direction of Villers Cotterets,
but the two wings of the attack did not seem able to make any
further progress. The Supreme Command was for the moment
inclined to send portions of the VII. Army over the Marne to
push forward on Epernay, with the idea of getting the attack of
the I. Army into swing again. But this scheme was dropped in
consideration of the state of the troops and the strength of the
enemy's resistance. The I. Army was to have a rest, and then be
required only to undertake partial actions with limited objec-
tives and to capture Reims. The Supreme Command was now
anxious to get the centre of gravity fixed on the W. front of the
VII. Army in the direction of Villers Cotterets and La Ferte
Milon, in order to attract powerful French forces. Rcenforce-
ments were therefore sent up from the zones of the other army
groups. But the VII. Army attack in a W. direction made no
more progress to speak of in the beginning of June, as the French
had established themselves here in great force by hurrying fresh
troops on to the scene.
The continuation of the offensive now depended on the progress
of the attack launched on June 9 from the S. front of the XVIII.
Army on the Matz brook and the Aisne above Compiegne
(code name, " Gneisenau "). But this attack by the XVIII.
Army did not have the anticipated success, which would have
justified the immediate opening of the Flanders offensive, but
came to a standstill on April n. A blow delivered by the VII.
Army against Villers Cotterets to the S.W. of Soissons on the
following day also failed, and as the immediate continuance of
partial actions by the I. Army did not look like succeeding either,
a lull set in along the whole new front of the German Crown
Prince's army group in the middle of June.
The Bliicher attack was not looked upon as an operation to
force a decision, but rather as a diversion. The fact that the
original limited objectives were exceeded in consequence of the
unexpectedly favourable course taken by the attack is not in-
compatible with the leading idea, which aimed at holding and
destroying the greatest possible number of the enemy's forces.
This aim was fulfilled. The total number of the French engaged
in the defence against the Bliicher offensive was estimated in the
beginning of June at over 40 infantry and 3 cavalry divisions.
On the Marne the wavering French lines were only saved by
fresh American divisions. This time the Germans spared their
troops by avoiding costly independent battles of only local
importance. At the same time the development of the tactical
success should not have brought about an unfavourable operative
situation at the close of the offensive. But this was exactly what
happened. As the wings had not succeeded in getting the region
of Compiegne and Reims, with its hilly country, under their
control, a new sack-like bulge had been formed in the German
position, with the flanks bent far back, to maintain which strong
new forces would have to be put in. The rearward communica-
tions of the VII. Army were particularly unsatisfactory owing to
the lack of railways. This unfavourable operative situation could
perhaps have been avoided if from the beginning strong pressure
had been used to push forward the right wing along the Oise to
the Marne, and the I. Army to Reims, at the cost of some of the
excessive amount of ground gained in the centre. Later attempts
to work up the operation from the centre were impaired by the
gradually failing fighting strength of the troops. According to
Ludendorff a subordinate command also failed to carry out a
swift and powerful advance through Soissons. The advance of
the VII. Army's right wing along the Oise, which began later, was
inadequately provided with the means of attack, and the
Gneisenau attack by the XVIII. Army W. of the Oise, which
followed, was apparently even less well prepared; neither could
retrieve the results which could presumably have been obtained
without much effort at the very beginning of the offensive, had
the forces on the VII. Army's right wing been differently grouped.
The disadvantageous strategic situation at the close of the attack
corresponded with the tactically difficult fighting position in
which the tired-out German divisions were confronted with the
active defence offered henceforth by the French and Americans.
The German Offensive in July. The effect of the Bliicher
attack very soon made itself felt on the front of Rupprecht's
army group, where no little relief was felt. The enemy's fighting
activity diminished, and a portion of French reserves intended
for the support of the British vanished from the scene. All the
same, this degree of slackness on the enemy's part did not seem
to the German Supreme Command to warrant the carrying out
of the planned and prepared attack on the Flanders front (code
name " Hagen ") for the present. They hoped first, by carrying
out another of the diversions on the front of the German Crown
Prince's army group, to rob the British of the last of their French
support, and even in certain circumstances to force them to
send direct help themselves to their hard-pressed ally.
On June 14 Ludendorff arranged for the German Crown
Prince's army group to attack with the VII. Army across the
Marne, E. of Chateau-Thierry and between the Marne and Reims
(code name " Marneschutz "), and with the I. and III. Armies
between Reims and the Argonne (code name " Reims "). July 10
was the date aimed at for the beginning of the offensive. About 10
days later, after a rapid regrouping of the necessary artillery and
so on, the Hagen attack was to be executed by Rupprecht's army
group in Flanders. Ludendorff in his Memoirs gives the reasons
for selecting new points of attack on the French front as fol-
lows: " The greater part of the enemy's reserves were to be found
within the curve formed by the XVIII. and VII. Armies in the
direction of Paris, only weak forces being left between Chateau-
Thierry and Verdun. The Supreme Command intended this
time also to attack the enemy where he was weakest."
The underlying idea of the VII. Army's far from simple
operation on both sides of the Marne toward Epernay was
inspired by the desire to escape from the tactically constrained
position brought about by the pocket on the Marne. By flatten-
ing out the left flank of the pocket by eastward pressure, not
only would the army's rearward communications be widened,
but the danger which perpetually threatened the right flank
would be diminished. While the necessity of supporting this
flank on the sector from Villers Cotterets to the Marne during
the attack was pointed out to the VII. Army, the forces needed
for such support were not placed at its disposal. It is not by any
means clear on what grounds the decision was taken to extend
the diversion very considerably toward the east by calling in the
III. Army. It was probably in the hope mainly of splitting up
the enemy defences along as wide a front as possible. General
Buat points out that the offensive, if successful, would have
opened up brilliant strategic possibilities, such as extending the
successful advance in the direction of Bar le Due and rolling up
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
1001
the whole defensive position in the Argonne and toward Verdun.
A shortening of the German position from Chateau-Thierry
through Chalons to St. Mihiel would have been infinitely valuable.
On the other hand the 44-m. front required such large forces
to occupy it that, contrary to the original intention, it was
necessary to fall back on some of the divisions set aside for the
Hagen attack in rear of the Rupprecht group's front. The in-
evitable consequence was the postponement of the date pro-
visionally fixed for the Flanders attack to the beginning of August.
Also the preparations for the combined Marneschutz-Reims
attack proved so extensive and took up so much time that the
date had to be put forward to July 15 at the cost of preserving
secrecy. Once more the execution depended upon surprise.
Through carelessness and treachery the German plans became
known to Foch to a great extent during the first half of July.
He had found time for adequate preparation of his defence,
which was skilfully adapted to meet the German conduct of the
attack. In this way the offensive in the case of the I. and III.
Armies came to a standstill everywhere in front of the French
main position. The VII. Army succeeded, after a successful
crossing of the Marne, in shattering the main line of defence in
several places. But here, too, far-reaching results were unob-
tainable. On July 15 the German Supreme Command ordered
the cessation of the attack for the III. Army, and on the i6th
refused to allow the I. Army to continue after an attempt had
proved vain. The VII. Army continued to advance with great
difficulty until July 17 in some places. The offensive blow had
in fact completely failed, because it fell upon an enemy who was
not taken by surprise but was prepared to offer a resistance as
obstinate as it was skilled.
Ludendorff lost no time in drawing his conclusions from the
unexpected turn in the general situation, and immediately
ordered the withdrawal of the right attacking wing of the VII.
Army behind the Marne. He was determined to regroup his
forces with all possible speed for the Hagen attack in Flanders.
Hardly had the necessary steps been taken, however, when, on
the morning of July 18, Foch's flank attack fell on the insuffi-
ciently supported W. front of the VII. and IX. Armies. Owing
to the disproportionate initial success of this attack, the execu-
tion of the Hagen attack had to give place to the pressing neces-
sity of putting fresh forces into the VII. Army and bringing it
back behind the Vesle. This was the turning point in the conduct
of the war in 1918, and at the same time in the whole of the
World War. The German offensive had met first with a sudden
interruption, then with its final close, owing to the initiative of
the opponent. From this time onward the German Supreme
Army Command was subject to the strategical law of the enemy.
If we pass in review the many plans of attack entertained by
the German Supreme Command the Flanders attack, for in-
stance, was, if circumstances permitted, to be followed by an of-
fensive on Paris or Amiens the impression is easily formed that
the leader of the German operations was no longer pursuing a
definite operative aim, as at the beginning of the spring offensive
and for some time afterward, but had as his sole object the shat-
tering of the enemy by independent hammer-blows delivered
one after another at tactically advantageous points. But all
these hammer-blows represented not the end but the means by
which the final decisive operation should be prepared, facilitated
and brought to a successful issue with the highest degree of
certainty and the least effort. One misgiving undeniably arises
in considering this method. The limitation of the available
attacking forces and fighting material made it impossible to
make the individual blows follow each other so quickly that the
enemy would have no time to recover between each, to a certain
extent, to make good the losses he had suffered, to prepare his
defence against fresh blows, or even recover so far as to proceed
to counter blows himself. The question is therefore whether a
different procedure, after the close of the May-June offensive at
latest, might have had more chance.
Possibly the necessary forces for the Hagen attack in Flanders,
which was to have been the decisive operation, might have been
mobilized by 'the middle of July if it had been decided to sacrifice
the whole of the territorial gains, which were exhausting and
difficult to maintain permanently, made up till then in the
Michael and Bliicher offensives, by a retreat movement on a large
scale by which the fronts of the XVII., II., XVIII. and VII.
Armies would return to their starting positions. With these forces
a new and overwhelming surprise attack in a totally different form
might have been sprung on the enemy, which would prevent his
throwing his released forces straight on to the Flanders front
and there avoiding a crash. What Hindenburg and Ludendorff
had achieved with unexampled skill in Nov. 1914, immediately
after the great retiring movement through S. Poland, by ad-
vancing from a newly selected position to a flank attack on the
right wing of the Russian main army, could have been repeated
in the summer of 1918 on French-Belgian soil when the general
situation was strategically favourable.
In view of the complete failure from the outset of the attempt
to realize their daring and far-reaching projects, there has been
too much of a tendency to accuse the German Supreme Command
of misjudging the situation, overestimating the working value
of their own instrument of war and underestimating the enemy.
Yet it was under no illusions as to the difficulties that it was
essential to overcome. It was clearly recognized that time was
now, more than ever before, a factor on the side of their enemies.
The British had regained their strength, the French were not yet
sufficiently shaken, and the Americans were bringing unex-
pectedly large masses of troops to France with amazing rapidity.
To set against these factors the German commander-in-chief
could count on no more reenforcements of any kind. No addi-
tional force for attacking purposes could be extracted from the
divisions left in Russia and Rumania, which had already given
up all their men under the age of 32. The drafting reserve from
home was becoming more and more meagre, bringing in only
28,000 -men for the infantry in June as against 44,000 in May.
It was composed mainly of returned lightly wounded men, and
those who had recovered from sickness. The average strength
of the German battalion in the field had sunk by the middle of
July from the original 850 men to 660. The actual front strength
was even considerably lower than this number. The process of
disintegration within the army caused by the prevalence of
revolutionarily minded elements, did not escape the notice of
the Supreme Command. Taking all in all, there was no doubt
that the fighting value of the troops was no longer on the same
level as at the beginning of the spring battle.
In spite of this there was no compelling reason to doubt the
adequate striking power of the jagged though not blunted weapon
of the German army, so long as its intentions and plans were kept
absolutely secret, as before, and the blow was once again aimed
at one of the enemy's weak spots.
Unfortunately for the Germans, their method of attack had
now lost its magic effect on the enemy, who had found times and
means to organize his resistance accordingly. The July offensive
had been made with the greatest circumspection and thorough-
ness of preparation, just as before; and the attacking forces were
certainly not deficient in courage or endurance. But an essential
factor in the success of the undertaking was lacking no
commander-in-chief can do without luck. Hitherto the luck had
been generally with Ludendorff. Now, at the decisive moment
of the World War, it deserted him, and went over to his oppo-
nent his equal in determination and will-power, and now his
superior too in strength. If Ludendorff had had the luck at
Reims in July 1918 which attended him at Tannenberg, history
might have acclaimed him the greatest commander of all time,
because he had remained true in spite of everything to himself
and his belief in his star. But this was not to be. (W. F.)
IV. THE ALLIED OFFENSIVES OF 1918
The fourth and last phase of the war was ushered in by the
failure of the German Champagne-Marne attack of July 1 5 and
the success of the Allied counter-attack at Soissons on July 18,
the results and far-reaching consequences of which came as a
surprise to German and Allied commanders alike. Von Hertling,
the German Chancellor, has written: " We expected grave events
1002
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
in Paris for the end of July. That was on the 1 5th. On the 1 8th
even the most optimistic among us understood that all was
lost." To make clear the significance of that statement it is
necessary to review briefly the condition of the opposing armies
previous to the Soissons attack.
It was indeed well known to both sides that the German army
was nearing the end of its offensive strength, but just how
nearly German moral had been drained neither side fully appreci-
ated until later for, superficially, it was good. The French army,
on the other hand, was well known to be at its lowest ebb of
moral. The French soldier, since April 1917, had ceased to be a
war machine unit who could be depended on blindly to follow
his leader and had assumed a certain independent thinking role.
Discipline had slackened and orders to attack or defend stub-
bornly had lost their force unless the soldier wished to attack
or defend stubbornly. Petain considered, early in July, that,
although he had a number of rested divisions in reserve, he had
not a single division which could be relied upon to push home
and exploit an attack successfully. Of such as he had the
Moroccan Div. was rated the best. The superiority of the
British moral had been offset by the numerical weakness of
their battalions, and, although they were holding their own
doggedly, their confidence in their allies had suffered a severe
strain and grew still further impaired as the lower units became
intermingled. The American army was, of course, as yet an
undetermined factor.
It was therefore with a certain amount of reasoned justifica-
tion that Ludendorff, aware of these conditions, to which more-
over he added an amazing underestimate of the strength of the
American effectives in France, conceived that one more push
directed against the French army would put it into headlong
flight and thus pave the way for a similar stroke against the
British. The adverse factors in the Champagne-Marne. project
were, first, that the method of attack, the so-called " Riga
model," now lacked the element of surprise, since the methods
of concentration for it were now too well known to make conceal-
ment jpossible, and its success was further discounted because
Petain had discovered the tactical means of effectively stopping
such an attack; second, that Ludendorff had overcentralized his
command. No army group commander or army commander was
called on or permitted to exercise judgment or decision; he could
only carry out the plans devised by Ludendorff and his staff by
methods similarly devised and prescribed. In the lower ranks of
officers this benumbing influence was, if anything, still more
strongly felt. Meanwhile, synchronously with his success in
thus centring the power of decision in his own hands, Ludendorff
had become preoccupied with a multiplicity of problems which
had no immediate relation to the conduct of the army on the
western front. Germany's allies, her own internal questions, the
Russian and Near East situations, were all constantly taking
his time and distracting his attention from the western front,
although nothing on that front could be done without his
dictation. A further cause of weakness was that propaganda,
among soldiers and civilians alike, had been overdone. Although
the soldier indeed still responded to propaganda, it was only to
the most extreme statements. Therefore in order to stiffen in the
men the will to fight more resolutely in the attack planned for
July 15 they were told that the French were already beaten and
exhausted; that the British were ready to go out of the war; that
the American army could not get to France, and that, even if
it could, it could not fight; that the Champagne-Marne attack
was to be the " peace-assault " which would end the war if
successful, although as a matter of fact the utmost which
Ludendorff really expected of it was that it would pave the way
for a similar attack on the Lys. When therefore this attack of
July 15 failed, and the French army showed itself anything but
a beaten force, and when, three days later, the supposedly non-
existent Americans established alike their presence and their
fighting ability by marching through the German lines S. of
Soissons in a fashion which compelled the evacuation of the
whole Marne salient, the scales dropped from the eyes of the
German soldier. To him the war was now lost; it was time to go
home. Thereafter, curiously enough, while no longer Crediting
his own official propaganda, the German soldier became most
receptive to Allied propaganda, and looked to it for the truth.
On the Allied side conditions and conceptions were in general
more correctly adjusted. The French leaders knew the weak-
nesses of their opponents, but were also cognizant of their own,
and they were more successful psychologists in dealing with
their own men. The British army, having again been recruited
up to fighting strength, felt that it had nothing further to fear
from the worn-down German army so long as the French line
held. The American army, supremely confident in every rank,
longed only for the opportunity to disprove the belittling judg-
ments of its opponents and to remove the doubts of its allies
as to its fighting capacity. Further, the Allied High Command
had the supreme merit of being not only in capable hands but,
to a rare degree, decentralized. The attention of its leaders was
not distracted from its own field by the necessity of solving
distant problems in politics or diplomacy, and was backed in all
the principal Allied countries by statesmen who in every way
supported and aided the military chieftains, without, on the
whole, unduly interfering with the conduct of the armies.
Although the Supreme Command was nominally in the hands of
Marshal Foch, he was a coordinator of efforts rather than a
dominant military commander; and in fact he lacked the staff
which would have been necessary for such a control as that
exercised by Ludendorff over the German armies.
The plan for the Soissons counter-attack of July 18 was not
a new one. As early as the German offensive on the Aisne
(May 27), it had been proposed by a member of Gen. Petain's
staff, had been approved by his chief, and its details had been
worked out. Marshal Foch had likewise favoured it, although
hesitatingly, because of the attitude of the authorities in Paris.
The difficulties of execution at that time lay in finding divisions
of " attack-class " for the spear head at the crucial point.
By the middle of July, with the increasing number of American
divisions, which had gained and were gaining battle experience,
that difficulty disappeared. On July n Petain, on Pershing's
insistence, again urged this plan upon Marshal Foch, purposing
now to make it immediately after the long-awaited German
Marne attack. Foch gave it his approval, not indeed with any
hope of gaining thereby any decisive advantage, but rather
regarding it as a desirable counter-stroke to the German assault.
The striking success of this counter-attack, which in two days
gained and held control of the German communications in the
Marne salient, and thereby compelled its evacuation, brought
to the Allied leaders, as it did to many in Germany, the discovery
that the tide of victory had already turned. On July 24 Foch
arranged a meeting of the commanders-in-chief at Bombon, to
discuss the means of following up this success and of preserving
to the Allies the initiative thus unexpectedly gained.
The chief misgiving of the French , Government at this time,
now that Paris had been rendered secure through the driving
of the Germans back from the Marne, was the lingering appre-
hension that the enemy might still drive a wedge between the
French and the British armies at Amiens. It was therefore
particularly welcome that Field-Marshal Haig should propose
an attack on the Amiens salient to be made by the newly formed
Australian corps, now in. that sector and desirous of making
the attack, together with the Canadian corps, which had not yet
been engaged in the year's battles. At this meeting also it was
decided to assign to the American army the reduction of the
St. Mihiel salient as its first distinctive operation, but meanwhile
to employ this new army in completing the reduction of the
Marne salient. All the commanders-in-chief at this meeting
expressed themselves as favouring a continuation of offensive
action, yet still with the idea of keeping the German army busy,
of wearing it down, of seizing favourable occasions and localities
for attacks to gain prisoners and material and reconquer useful
bits of territory, rather than with any thought of a systematic
plan for ending the war by victory before winter.
During the two weeks following this conference the German
army was forced back slowly from the Marne salient, now become
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
1003
a mere pocket, which was, however, held stubbornly because
in this area there had been captured from the French, in May,
vast quantities of munitions and military supplies of all kinds
and of materials which were urgently needed in Germany, but
which there had not been time or facilities for removing. In
addition a vast amount of German material had been brought
up for the maintenance of the army on the Marne front, and
for the July 15 attack. Much of this was irreplaceable, and the
German army had to fight to gain time to remove as much of
it as possible.
Ludendorff, who had been present with his army during the
Champagne-Marne drive, was not especially disheartened' at
its result and had gone to Flanders hoping to recoup his
failure in Champagne by hastening the preparations for his
offensive next in contemplation in the Lys salient. It was there
that he received news of the Soissons reverse. He immediately
realized the threatening consequences to his armies of this
Allied counter-thrust, and returned to Avesnes to arrange the
necessary withdrawal from the salient.
Materially this retrograde movement did not seriously com-
promise the German army, since, except during the penetra-
tion by the three assault divisions (two American and one
Moroccan) S. of Soissons on July 18 and 19, the withdrawal was
made slowly and in good order, inflicting as heavy losses on the
attackers as the Germans themselves suffered. But Ludendorff
soon recognized that the Lys offensive would have to be indefi-
nitely postponed and the troops destined for it used in easing
the situation in the Marne salient, where the Allied forces
French, British, American and Italian troops were now pressing
vigorously from all points. What Ludendorff apparently failed
to gauge correctly at this time was the resultant damage to the
moral of the German army; neither did he yet, seemingly, share
the conviction, which had now been brought home to the
German people and to Germany's allies, that all hope of ending
the war by a German victory was gone, and that the only
question left impending was whether it would end by a com-
promise or by the utter defeat of the Central Powers. Had the
German High Command faced at this time the logic of the
situation and made a decision to do, after the " Second Marne,"
what most German officers have since agreed should have been
done after the first battle of the Marne, namely, to retire to the
line of the Meuse and re-form, subsequent history might have
differed materially from the actual events.
As proposed by Haig on July 24, the Australian and Canadian
corps on Aug. 8 attacked side by side the German salient fac-
ing Amiens, supported by a French corps on their right and a
British corps on the left. This attack was one of the most
brilliant and tactically interesting episodes of the war, and
showed Ludendorff again that the much disparaged tanks
were, on ground suitable for their employment, a potent factor
in a surprise attack. Although the sector against which the
assault was launched was held by first-class troops, the German
divisions were overrun and virtually annihilated as organized
units. This attack dealt a stunning blow to the pride of the
German High Command, a deadly one to the weak moral of the
troops, and produced a corresponding exhilaration in the British
army, all ranks of which could now clearly see that a complete
and final inversion of roles had taken place.
The shock was felt throughout Germany and reacted strongly
upon the Government. The unsuccessful Marne attack, with
the subsequent withdrawal from the Marne salient, although
manifestly a lost battle, had, nevertheless, been one initiated
by the German High Command on a battle-field of its own
choice. The battle of Amiens could not be so interpreted. The
Allies had here initiated the attack and it had been completely
successful. Ludendorff correctly names Aug. 8 as the " Black
Day " of the German army in the war. So grave was the crisis
felt to be that a conference of army leaders and members of the
German Cabinet was called to meet at Spa on Aug. 13. It was
there agreed that further prosecution of Germany's war aims
was hopeless, and that a peace would have to be negotiated at
the first favourable opportunity, that is, at the first turn in the
military situation even temporarily favourable to Germany.
That looked-for turn never came. Under the persistent Allied
attacks the German army reserves steadily dwindled, munitions
and supplies lessened, and moral evaporated.
The day following the Amiens success Foch decided not to
put the American army which now had some 1,250,000 men
in France in on the Vesle, where the situation was virtually
stabilized, but to assign it at once the task of reducing the
St. Mihiel salient (see WOEVRE, BATTLES IN).
The battle of Amiens was followed up by a French attack
between the Oise and the Aisne on Aug. 20, which forced the
German line back on Chauny. Still more serious for the enemy
was the attack by the British III. Army, on Aug. 21, N. of the
Somme, on the line Bapaume-Peronne, which brought another
crisis. By the end of Aug. the military situation had become
sufficiently defined to enable the Allied leaders to look beyond
a mere driving of the German army back to its strongly fortified
lines of the previous winter, popularly known as the Hindenburg
line, and to make plans for its rupture in a way to reap the
largest strategical as well as tactical fruits of victory.
For this the British army, now fully restored in man-power
and in high moral, and the American army, untouched by war
weariness or reverses, inspired by an almost religious fervour
of belief in the righteousness of the cause in which it was fighting,
were of necessity regarded as the chief Allied weapons. The
French army was tactically a trained and skilled army, but
could no longer count on any large reserves of man-power
to replace losses, and the general feeling among the French
that their country had already been " bled white " in the war
led to the not unreasonable contention by Government and
people that, while France must still do her share to the end, her
army must from now on be spared as much as possible, since in
any event French losses in man-power would far exceed that of
any other nation in the war.
Foch, therefore, determined on two main offensives: the
British, supported on their right by the French, were to break
the Hindenburg line in the direction of Cambrai-St. Quentin;
the Americans, after completing the reduction of the St. Mihiel
salient, which had been assigned as their first task, were to
break through the German lines of defence N. of Verdun, sup-
ported on their left by French armies, and to advance in the
direction of Mezieres. In other words, the German line in
northern France, constituting as it did a huge salient, was to be
attacked in the simple orthodox manner by pinching in the two
flanks. Of these two the Americans had possibly the harder
task, for the Verdun front was well adapted to and thoroughly
organized for stubborn defence, and, inasmuch as the railway
communications through Sedan-Mezieres were essential to the
German army so long as its front lay W. of the Meuse river,
the Verdun front, only 50 m. in front of this railway line, was
bound to be defended with all the vigour and skill still remaining
in the German army. Connecting these two attacks, the French
army was to continue its operations to throw back the Germans
beyond the Aisne and the Ailette. Such was the Allied plan
formulated in Foch's directives of Sept. 3.
By the end of Aug. the German High Command ordered the
evacuation of the Lys salient, and it was completed Sept. 6.
On Sept. 2 the attack of the British III. Army N. of the Somme
was extended northward, E. of Arras, to include the I. Army
reinforced by the Canadian corps; and as a result the whole
German army fell back to the so-called Hindenburg line, which
the Germans themselves designated the Siegfried Stellung.
There they hoped to gain time to reorganize the depleted units.
This withdrawal, and the accumulating evidences of increasing
demoralization in the German army, made it evident to Allied
military leaders that offensive operations on a still larger scale
could be safely initiated; and Marshal Foch, in a conference with
the British and Belgian commanders-in-chief at Cassel Sept. 9,
arranged for a fourth offensive, on the extreme northern part of
the western front, to force the Germans back towards Ghent.
On Sept. 12 the American I. Army, as previously agreed upon,
attacked and captured the St. Mihiel salient.
1004
WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS
During the latter part of Sept. German H.Q., harassed and
preoccupied by the crucial events which were taking place in
other theatres, either gave insufficient heed to the precariousness
and difficulties of the German military situation on the western
front or were too stunned by their sudden and general reversal
of fortune everywhere to be able to grasp and cope with them.
Ludendorff, it is true, had two lines in rear reconnoitred: one
from the Dutch frontier-Bruges-Valenciennes; the other Ant-
werp-Brussels-Namur-the line of the Meuse; but neither 'line
solved the problem, nor could it be held in the face of a vic-
torious pursuing enemy. The desideratum was to find a secure
position for the army's winter respite from active operations,
and time for the resting, reorganization and recruitment of the
armies. It was possible to accomplish this only by a timely
withdrawal, to the line of the Meuse at least, if not to the
frontier. But Ludendorff still clung to the idea of holding
every foot of French territory until the last possible moment.
On Sept. 26 the final Allied offensive, prepared by the directives
of Foch, began. The American army under Pershing and the
French IV. Army under Gouraud attacked on the Verdun and
Champagne fronts (see MEDSE-ARGONNE, BATTLE OF). On
Sept. 28 the Belgians, supported by a French army under
Degoutte and the British II. Army under Plumer, attacked the
line from the coast southward beyond Ypres (see YPRES AND
THE YSER, BATTLES OF, Part iv.). On Sept. 27 the British III.
and I. Armies, including the Canadian corps, had attacked on a
front of 13 m. in the direction of Cambrai, and on the 29th
the British IV. Army under Gen. Rawlinson, after a heavy bom-
bardment lasting two days, attacked the St. Qucntin sector.
( The American and Belgian attacks had the advantage of
coming as a complete strategic surprise; but, in the case of the
Meuse-Argonne front, the depth of the fortified zone behind the
front lines enabled the German reserves to be brought up and
increasingly strong resistance to be made. Both British attacks
were made against strongly organized positions held by the
best troops the Germans still had; but on the front of the
British I., III. and IV. Armies the enemy was already virtually
on his rearmost prepared line, the attack was not unexpected, and
both opposing armies appreciated thoroughly the consequences
of victory and defeat. If driven from the Hindcnburg line the
weakened German army must thereafter fight in the open. The
contest was therefore bitter to the point of desperation, but,
even with the aid of the elaborate system for defence afforded
by the long-prepared Hindenburg line, the struggle proved
unequal, and the German army was forced back with heavy
losses, to begin its retreat through the open country.'
The German High Command had not appreciated the risk
of accepting battle on the Hindenburg line, or else had over-
estimated either the strength of the position or the remaining
fighting capacity of the troops. Once the line was broken,
however, they awoke to the situation. On Sept. 28 Ludendorff
and Hindenburg agreed that the end had come; on the 29th the
Foreign Minister was informed of the army's desperate plight;
on Oct. i Hindenburg and the Kaiser went together to Berlin,
and on Oct. 4 the first peace offer was sent to President Wilson.
On the battle-front the Allies were not permitting events to
lag, and this same day renewed efforts were made on all fronts.
The French V. Army under Berthelot had advanced from the
Aisne and on Oct. 6 reached the Suippe. On Oct. 7 Foch ordered
the attack on the right flank, extended to include the heights
E. of the Meuse. On Oct. 8 the British I. and III. Armies re-
newed their attacks, and in three days drove the Germans back
beyond the line of the Selle river-Le Cateau.
Between the two sectors of the Allied main right and left
flank offensives -lay the strong defensive German positions W.
and S. of Laon. On Oct. 9 these positions were abandoned by
the enemy, and the whole German line between the Scheldt
and the Aisne began its retreat. By Oct. 10 the American I.
Army had penetrated to the last line of German defences on its
front, the Kriemhilde Stellung, and cleared the Argonne forest,
while on its left the French IV. Army reached the Aisne.
On Oct. 10 a new directive of Foch gave more distant objec-
tives to the armies; the Northern Flanders Group was to ad-
vance toward Belgium; the British armies, debouching from the
front Solesne-Vassigny, were to push both in the direction of
Mons and toward Avesnes; on their right the French I. Army
was to push up the Oise; while the French and American armies
between the Aisne and the Meuse were to continue their north-
ward movement. The Marshal defined the purposes of these
converging attacks to be to force the Germans back on the
rough Ardenne forest, where communications were lacking and
a modern army would have difficulty in maintaining itself.
On Oct. 12 the French X. Army of Mangin, on the left of the
V.,- reinforced by an Italian corps, passed the Aisne and occupied
the Chemin des Dames. On Oct. 14 the army group under King
Albert renewed its attack on the front from the Lys to Dixmude.
The Germans were unable to hold; Lille had to be abandoned,
and, under the combined pressure of this and the British attack,
the whole German line N. of Cambrai rolled backward in disor-
der, toward the Scheldt, closely pursued. The Americans also
attacked on the I4th, with important gains W. of the Meuse.
On Oct. 17 the British IV. Army and the French I. Army
attacked the hastily improvised German line between Le Cateau
and the Oise. On the 2oth the III. Army attacked the line of
the Selle, supported by the I. Army astride the Scheldt. Both
attacks succeeded.
The conditions of the fighting are best understood by referring
to the German reserves. From 69 divisions in reserve when the
attack of Sept. 26 was begun the German army had been reduced
by Oct. 15 to 26 divisions in reserve, of which only 9 were
rested. Of the divisions in line many were unfit for combat, but
could not be replaced.
Toward the end of Oct. the dissatisfaction in Berlin and
elsewhere with the Government had become intense. The people
felt that the war had been mismanaged and that they had been
deceived. In an attempt to appease them Ludendorff was
dismissed on Oct. 25, and his place as quartermaster-general
was taken by Gen. Groener. But it was too late to save either
the Cabinet or the Monarchy, for with the disaster to the army
from the vigorous Allied attacks of Nov. i and following days
the Kaiser was forced to abdicate on Nov. 9.
On Nov. i the Allied armies began their final drive. On the
right the American I. Army on the Mcuse-Argonne front effected
a clean break through the German lines, and began an active
pursuit which was only stopped by the Armistice on Nov. n.
On the left of the American armies the French IV. Army was
equally successful. Farther N. the British I. Army attacked the
line of the Rh6nelle river and completed the evacuation of
Valenciennes. This attack was followed on Nov. 4 by a general
attack by the British I., III. and IV. Armies, on a 3O-m. front,
from Valenciennes to the Sambre, N. of Oisy. In spite of serious
natural obstacles, having to force the crossings of the Sambre
on the right and to penetrate the forest of Mormal in the centre,
the line was advanced 5 m. on Nov. 4. This battle finally broke
the German power of resistance, and the German army began
a retreat along the entire northern front, though it still offered
stiff resistance to the British I. Army on Nov. 5 and 6.
On Nov. 9 the important railway centre and fortress of
Maubeuge was taken and the II. Army crossed the Scheldt on
its entire front. On Nov. n the Canadian 3rd Div. captured
Mons. Farther N. the Belgian army stood before Ghent.
On Nov. 9 Foch had telegraphed all commanders-in-chicf:
" The enemy, disorganized by our repeated attacks, yields on
the entire front. I appeal to the energy and initiative of the
commanders-in-chief and of their armies to render decisive the
results gained." On the same day the German delegates pre-
sented themselves at Rethondes to ask terms for an armistice,
which were accepted on Nov. n.
During the last week's fighting the outbreak of the revolution
in Germany, interrupting as it did the service of communication
and the forwarding of supplies, had combined, with the pressure
on the front, the depleted and disorganized condition of the
troops, and the absence of any available reserves to replace
broken and worn combat units, to render further resistance on
WESTER WMYSS WEST INDIES, BRITISH
the part of the Germans an impossibility. Had the Armistice
not been concluded a great debdcle would have been the result.
Preparations had been made to extend the attack on Nov. 14
to include the Lorraine front E. of Metz, an attack which the
German army was as little prepared to meet as it was to resist
the advance of the whole Allied line to the north. But this proved
unnecessary to secure the Allied war aims. (A. L. C.)
WESTER WEMYSS, ROSSLYN ERSKINE WEMYSS, IST BARON
(1864- ), British admiral, was born in London April 12
1864, the 3rd and posthumous son of James Hay Erskine Wem-
yss of Wemyss Castle, Fife. He entered the navy in 1877, was
promoted lieutenant 1887, commander 1898, captain 1901,
rear-admiral of 2nd Battle Squadron 1912-3, and of the 3rd
fleet 1914, vice-admiral 1916 and admiral of the fleet 1919.
He commanded a squadron during the landing of the British
troops in Gallipoli (1913), was commander-in-chief in the East
Indies and Egypt (1916-7), Second, and shortly afterward First
Sea Lord of the Admiralty (1917-9), and member of the War
Cabinet (1918). He was created K.C.B. (1916), G.C.B. (1918),
and raised to the peerage (1919).
WEST INDIES, BRITISH (see 4.607* and separate articles on the
various islands). For administrative purposes, British Guiana
and British Honduras are usually regarded as an integral part
of the British West Indies, with which they have much in com-
mon. These two colonies are, therefore, included here. The
area of the group remained unchanged in 1921, no new posses-
sions having been acquired by Great Britain in the Caribbean
and no territory alienated. The total pop., according to the
latest estimates available in 1921, was: Bahamas, 59,049;
Barbados, 200,368; Jamaica, 891,040; Turks and Caicos Is.,
5,615; Cayman Is., 5,564; Antigua, 32,865; St. Kitts, 22,415;
Nevis, 11,596; Anguilla, 4,230; Dominica, 40,315; Montserrat,
10,182; Virgin Is., 5,557; Trinidad and Tobago, 386,707; Gre-
nada, 74,490; St. Vincent, 53,210; St. Lucia, 51,505; British
Guiana, 305,991; British Honduras, 43,586.
The Supply of Labour .Though Barbados has a redundant
population, the labour supply in the rest of the West Indies
was insufficient for agricultural requirements, and the position
had been aggravated by the emigration of British West Indians
to Cuba, to which island they were tempted by the promise of
higher wages, which did not, however, always materialize.
Toward the end of 1919 this form of emigration began to as-
sume serious proportions, no fewer than 21,573 labourers leav-
ing Jamaica for Cuba, whilst only 6,457 returned. Recruiting
for Cuba was also actively carried on in Barbados. With the
slump in prices in 1921, however, the tide set in to some extent
in the opposite direction, many labourers returning to their
homes. In the British West Indies it was beginning to be real-
ized that it is only by the payment of suitable wages, improved
housing conditions and the offer of other amenities, that labour-
ers can be induced to remain in their island homes. In British
Guiana the shortage of labour was particularly acute, and with
a population averaging only 3-3 to the square mile, no develop-
ment of the hinterland on a large scale was possible.
In 1913, Mr. James McNeil and Mr. Chimman Lall visited
the British West Indies to report on the system of indentured
immigration prevailing in British Guiana, Jamaica and Trinidad,
and though their report was favourable, Lord Hardinge, the
then Viceroy of India, announced in the Indian Legislative
Council in April 1916 the determination of the Government to
abolish the indenture system. It was at first proposed to termi-
nate the system gradually in order that the colonies might have
time to adjust themselves to the change; but in practice emi-
gration from India was completely suspended in the same year.
In 1919, the need for labour having become acute in British
Guiana, a deputation comprising representatives of all classes
of the agricultural and commercial communities visited England
to urge upon the India Office and leaders of Indian public
orjjnion, who were then in London, the desirability of the re-
sumption of Indian immigration on a free colonization basis.
Representatives of the deputation and of the West India Com-
mittee subsequently visited India, where they interviewed prom-
1005
inent leaders and the members of the Government, who agreed
to send a commission to British Guiana to report on the suita-
bility of that country for receiving immigrants. The appoint-
ment of this commission was, however, delayed, it being felt
desirable to await the views of the public in India regarding the
proposals for dealing with the Indian question in Kenya Colony
before proceeding further with the matter. In July 1921 an
offer of the Indian Government to send a deputation to British
Guiana was under consideration.
Government and Administration. The question of political
federation of these scattered colonies, which was discussed
periodically, had failed up to 1921 to awaken any marked degree
of enthusiasm in the several communities. Indications were
not wanting, however, to 'show that a better understanding was
being gradually brought about, in spite of the continued difficul-
ties of communication. This was no doubt attributable to the
work of a series of intercolonial conferences from 1899 to 1921,
the main object of which had been to bring about a greater
degree of uniformity in all matters of common interest concern-
ing the British West Indies. All proved eminently successful,
the Customs Conference in 1919, for example, having resulted
in the adoption of uniformity of definition and arrangement of
the West Indian tariffs, whilst the conference on law in 1916
was followed by the establishment of a West Indian court of
appeal for the colonies lying to windward of the Caribbean.
A further step in the direction of closer union has been the
formation of an Associated West Indian Chamber of Commerce,
which held conferences in Trinidad in 1917 and Barbados in
1920. In 1920-1 Grenada, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent individ-
ually petitioned the King for the substitution of representa-
tive government for the crown colony system. In the case of
Grenada, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, to whom the
matter was referred, consented to advise the King to approve
of the introduction of the elective system into the constitution,
the council to consist of the governor, as president, six official,
three nominated unofficial and four elected unofficial members,
the electives to be chosen by the people on the basis of the sys-
tem of elected representation, already operative throughout
the island in municipal affairs in the case of the district boards.
The petitions of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, on the other hand,
were rejected on the grounds that the signatories were not
sufficiently representative in character.
In 1920 the Prince of Wales made Barbados his first port of
call in his empire tour in H.M.S. " Renown," and visited in
succession Trinidad, British Guiana, Grenada, St. Lucia, Do-
minica, Montserrat, Antigua and Bermuda on his homeward
voyage. His Royal Highness, who was received with manifest-
ations of the greatest loyalty wherever he went, took the oppor-
tunity of refuting the suggestion that Great Britain might be
willing to dispose of her West Indian possessions to a foreign
country in part settlement of her debt.
The World War. The British West Indies contributed gen-
erously in men, money and produce toward the prosecution of
the World War. Many hundreds of West Indians came over
to England independently to enlist, and a contingent compris-
ing 15,601 officers and men was recruited voluntarily for active
service. The numbers of men recruited in the various islands,
British Guiana and British Honduras, were:
Officers
Men
Barbados .
Bahamas .
British Guiana
British Honduras
Jamaica .
Trinidad and Tobago
Grenada .
St. Lucia .
St. Vincent
20
2
H
5
303
40
4
5
4
811
439
686
528
9,977
1,438
441
354
305
225
307
15,204
The men were embodied in the British West Indies Regt.,
which served with distinction in France and Flanders, and also
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
ioo6
WEST INDIES, BRITISH
in Egypt and Palestine, where they participated in the victo-
rious advance to 'Amman. The total casualties were: Killed
or died of wounds, 185; died of sickness, 1,071; wounded, 697.
Private contingents were also sent over for enlistment by the
Trinidad Merchants' and Planters' Contingent Committee and
the Barbados Citizens' Contingent Committee for recruitment
in the United Kingdom. In order to provide for the welfare of
the West India and Bermuda military contingents, and of men
coming over independently to serve in His Majesty's forces
during the war, the West Indian Contingent Committee was
formed in London at the instance of Mr. Bonar Law, the then
Secretary of State for the Colonies, in 1915. The total contribu-
tions made by the British West Indies toward the cost of the
war, relief funds, etc., amounted to over 3,250,000, the most
notable amount included in that figure being the annual contri-
bution of 60,000 for 40 years voted by the Jamaica Legislature.
Trade. The war brought about a remarkable revival of prosperity
to the British West Indies, the total trade of those colonies rising
from 25,809,884 in 1913 to 43,637,324 in 1919. The chief staples,
sugar, rum, molasses, cacao, cotton and arrowroot, all commanded
greatly enhanced prices, the only industry, indeed, that reaped no
benefit being that of the production of lime and lime products in
Dominica, which was adversely affected by the lack of shipping
facilities and by import restrictions in the United States. Some
anxiety was caused in 1912 by the decision of the Imperial Govern-
ment to withdraw from the international convention for the sup-
pression of sugar bounties and cartels, but the remaining high con-
tracting Powers, having decided to adhere to that agreement, no ill
effects resulted. Though Great Britain withdrew from the conven-
tion she decided to adhere to the principles of it and not to give a
preference to sugar produced within the Empire or to cane over beet.
In Aug. 1918 she gave to the signatories of the convention six months'
notice of her intention to resume complete liberty of action in re-
spect of her policy with regard to sugar, and the Finance Act of 1918
provided for the granting of a preference of one-sixth off the duties
on sugar, molasses, tobacco, coffee, cacao and other products im-
ported from within the Empire into the United Kingdom, and a
preference of 2s. 6d. per gal. on rum.
Following an inquiry by a royal commission, of which the late
Lord Balfour of Burleigh was chairman, in 1909, a conference was
held at Ottawa in 1912 between representatives of the Dominion and
the British West Indian colonies, the Bahamas, British Honduras
and Jamaica excepted, to consider the question of closer trade be-
tween Canada and the West Indies, and on April 9 in that year an
agreement was signed providing for a reciprocal trade agreement,
the basis of which was a mutual preference of 20% on the chief
products of the countries concerned, with a minimum preference on
flour in favour of Canada, of 12 cents per 100 Ib. and 15 cents on
96 test sugar not over No. 16 Dutch Standard in colour in favour
of the British West Indies. Certain concessions which the Canadian
refiners had enjoyed of importing foreign sugar at the British pref-
erential rates were withdrawn. The agreement came into force on
June 2 1913, and Grenada gave her adhesion to it in the same year.
In 1920 a further conference was held at Ottawa at which all the
West Indian colonies, and also the Imperial Government, were
represented. A new agreement was signed on June 18 1920 and
brought into force in May 1921, under which Canada agreed to give
to British West Indian products a tariff preference of 50%, whilst
the British West Indies similarly agreed to extend to Canadian
products tariff preferences of 50 % in the case of Barbados, British
Guiana and Trinidad, 333% in that of British Honduras, the
Leeward Is. and the Windward Is., 25% in Jamaica, and 10% in
Bahamas, the Legislature of which colony afterwards voluntarily
increased the preference to one of 25 %. Certain products were again
specifically dealt with, the preference on Canadian flour entering the
West Indies being not less than is. per 196 Ib. and that on West
Indian sugar being not less than 83.712 cents per 100 Ib. on 96
test. The Government of Canada further agreed to endeavour to
arrange for a weekly freight, mail and passenger service, with
steamers of 5,000 to 6,000 tons burthen, capable of steaming 12 knots
per hour, between St. John (New Brunswick) or Halifax (Nova
Scotia), down the islands lying to windward, British Guiana and
back, the colonies contributing 27,000 per annum ; also a service of
freight, mail and passenger steamers of 3,500 tons burthen, capable
of steaming 10 knots, from Canada to Nassau (Bahamas), Jamaica,
Belize (British Honduras), and back, fortnightly, the colonies con-
cerned contributing at the rate of 13,000 per annum toward any loss
involved in the event of the service proving unremunerative. The
Canada-British Honduras service was inaugurated in Jan. 1921.
A declaration appended to the agreement recommended for favour-
able consideration the laying of British-owned and British-controlled
cables as soon as possible, to connect Bermuda with Barbados,
Trinidad, British Guiana, the Windward Is., the Leeward Is., and
Turks Is. or Jamaica.
Communications. In the matter of steamship communication the
British West Indies were decidedly worse off after the war than be-
fore it. In 1915 the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co. terminated the
transatlantic contract steamer service on the ground that they had
been precluded from using their terminal port at Southampton. In
the same year the fortnightly intercolonial contract service was
also terminated by mutual agreement between the company and
the colonies concerned. For some time thereafter the company
continued to berth small passenger steamers for the West Indies at
irregular intervals; but this service was also brought to an end in
1920, and passengers between the West Indies and the mother coun-
try were afterwards compelled to travel by foreign steamers, cargo
boats, or via Canada or the United States. An intercolonial service
was performed in 1921 by direct steamers running between St. John
(New Brunswick) and Halifax (Nova Scotia), down the islands, and
back. Under the Canada- West Indies trade agreement referred to
above this service was to become a weekly one. The British Govern-
ment, toward the close of the year 1920, agreed to contribute two-
thirds of the cost of a temporary transatlantic steamer service for
three months if the West Indian colonies would provide one-third,
but this proposal was not acceptable to all the colonies concerned,
mainly because it was felt that the steamers which it was proposed
to use were unsuitable. In 1921 the British Government further
offered to contribute 90,000 per annum toward a subsidy for a
transatlantic steamer service, and proposals were made for the in-
vitation of tenders. This proposal was, however, rejected by
Trinidad, which in 1921 enjoyed a fortnightly mail and passenger
service provided by the Royal Netherlands West India Mail, free of
expense to the colony. The Dutch line agreed in June 1921 to allow
their steamers to call at Barbados as well as Trinidad.
Agriculture. In 1919 Visct. Milner appointed a committee to
consider the desirability of establishing a tropical agricultural
college in the West Indies, and in the event of their decision being
favourable to report on the subject generally. The committee issued
their report in 1920, favouring the establishment of a West Indian
agricultural college in Trinidad. The proposals having commended
themselves to the majority of the West Indian colonies, the agricul-
tural college committee was called together again in the autumn of
1920 with a view to making the necessary arrangements for the incor-
poration of the college and for carrying out the plans generally.
The objects for which the college was established are to afford to
young men opportunities for instruction in the principles of agricul-
ture and in the cultivation and preparation for market of tropical
produce of every kind, including especially sugar and its by-
products, rum and molasses, cacao, coffee, cotton, coco-nuts, rice,
citrus and other fruits (notably bananas), and dyewoods, many of
which commodities constitute the raw materials employed in the
manufactures of the mother country; for the training of scientific
investigators in matters pertaining to tropical agriculture amid
suitable surroundings; for creating a body of British expert agri-
culturists well versed in the knowledge of the cultivation of land in
the tropics, and of scientific advisers possessing an intimate knowl-
edge of the means of combating pests and diseases, the control of
which is fundamentally essential to the successful development of
agriculture in the tropics. Attached to the college will be a model
sugar factory, the various units of which have been contributed by
the principal British sugar machinery manufacturing and allied firms.
Industries. Sugar remained the principal staple. This industry
was developed by the extension of the central factory system,
whereby the canes from the surrounding estates, as well as those
grown by peasant farmers, are dealt with at a central base, the con-
centration thus effected permitting of the instalment of machinery
by which the maximum amount of sugar can be extracted from the
cane. Thanks to the devoted care given to cultivation, and to the
assistance of the local agricultural scientists who make it their
constant aim to combat insect pests, the cacao industry, which is
mainly centred in Trinidad and Grenada, continued to prosper.
The Jamaica banana industry suffered from a succession of hurri-
canes in 1915, 1916 and 1917, but afterwards showed rapid recovery.
The cultivation of citrus fruit on the other hand made little progress
except in Dominica, where the lime industry continued steadily to
increase after the war owing to the prohibitive import duties in
the United States and the inadequacy of shipping facilities for fruit
between the West Indies and Canada and the United Kingdom. The
Sea Island cotton industry, which owed its development in the
West Indies to the ravages of the boll-weevil in the United States,
received a check in 1920, through the appearance of the still more
dreaded boll-worm in St. Kitts and Montserrat, to which it was
brought by a Brazilian vessel. A comparatively new industry,
which made rapid progress, was that of rice. Formerly rice was im-
ported into British Guiana in large quantities for the consumption
of East Indian immigrants. Now that colony not only produces
enough rice for its own requirements but also a substantial surplus
which is available for export to the neighbouring colonies. The
exports of rice from British Guiana rose from 45,223 Ib. in 1905 to
18,110,400 Ib., besides 4,390,051 Ib. of paddy, in 1920.
Almost as rapid has been the development of the petroleum in-
dustry in Trinidad. The existence of petroleum deposits in Trinidd
has long been recognized. As far back as 1864 the Trinidad Petro-
leum Co., promoted by Mr. H. B. Sheridan and the nth Earl of
Dundonald, started drilling for oil at La Brea. Oil was struck, but
competition with the new oilfields in the United States proved too
WESTINGHOUSE WEST VIRGINIA
1007
formidable, and this and other causes forced the company into
liquidation. Two years later, a civil engineer, named Derwent,
started boring at Aripero. He, too, struck oil, but failed to make a
financial success of the venture. No further steps were taken
toward winning oil until about 1900, when Mr. Randolph Rust, a
local resident (Mayor of Port of Spain in 1921), imported modern
oil-boring machinery and successfully struck oil at Aripero in 1901.
Other prospectors came on the scene, and in 1910 followed the suc-
cessful flotation of the Trinidad oilfields, and Trinidad enjoyed such
a boom as no West Indian colony had experienced, at any rate
for many a long day. On April 27 in the following year Sir George
Le Hunte, the then governor, opened the valve at the end of the pipe
line on Brighton pier, thus inaugurating the new industry, which has
since been developed at a rapid rate. With many new wells being
drilled it was certain that the production of oil, which in 1920
amounted to 72,905,947 gal., would undergo material expansion.
(A. E. A.)
WESTINGHOUSE, GEORGE (1846-1914), American inventor
and manufacturer, was born at Central Bridge, N.Y., Oct. 6
1846. In 1856 his father moved to Schenectady, N.Y., and
began to manufacture farm implements. The boy early dis-
played inventive talent and when 15 designed and constructed
a rotary engine. He entered the Union army in the Civil War
in 1863 but in 1864 was appointed third assistant engineer in the
navy. At the close of the war he resigned and entered Union
College, but in his sophomore year, on the advice of the presi-
dent, he withdrew to devote his time to mechanical invention.
In 1865 he had invented a device for replacing derailed cars and
also a reversible steel railway frog, but from lack of capital was
unable to develop a business in Schenectady. In 1868 he went
to Pittsburgh and arranged for the manufacture of his devices,
which he himself sold to the railways. In 1869 he patented his
air-brake and organized the Westinghouse Air Brake Co. In
1872 he invented the automatic air-brake (see 4.414). This
brake was quickly adopted by railways in America and gradually
in Europe. He also developed a system of railway signals,
operated by compressed air with the assistance of electrical
contrivances. In 1885 he acquired certain patents for alternat-
ing current machinery. In June 1912 he received the Edison
gold medal for " meritorious achievement in connexion with
the development of the alternating current system for light and
power." In 1893 this system was installed at the Chicago
Exposition. Later his Pittsburgh establishment built dynamos
for the power plants at Niagara Falls, for the rapid transit
systems of New York City, and for the London Metropolitan
railway. Westinghouse also devised a method for conveying
gas through long-distance pipes thus making it a practicable fuel.
In 1910 he was elected president of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers. He died in New York March 12 1914.
He was president of some 30 corporations with a capital of
about $200,000,000, employing more than 50,000 persons.
WESTLAKE, JOHN (1828-1913), English jurist, was born at
Lostwithiel, Cornwall, Feb. 4 1828. He was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1850. He was called
to the bar in 1854, and attained a great reputation as an author-
ity on international law. In 1874 he became a Q.C. and bencher
of Lincoln's Inn, and in 1885 successfully contested the Rom-
ford division of Essex in the Liberal interest. In 1888 he became
professor of international law at the university of Cambridge,
a position which he held until 1908. He was also an hon. pres-
ident of the Institute of International Law, and from 1900 to
1906 a member of the Hague arbitration court. He died at
Chelsea April 14 1913.
His works include A Treatise on Private International Law, or the
Conflict of Laws (1858; 5th ed. 1912); Chapters on the Principles of
International Law (1894); International Law, Part I., Peace (1904;
2nd ed. 1910); Part II., War (1907).
WESTON, AGNES (1840-1918), English philanthropic worker,
was born in London March 26 1840. In 1868 she took up_ hos-
pital visiting and parish work in Bath, and through beginning a
correspondence with a seaman who asked her to write to him,
developed into the devoted friend of sailors, superintendent
of the Royal Naval Temperance Society and founder of the
Royal Naval Sailors' Rests, or clubs for sailors, at Devonport
and Portsmouth. She published Life Among the Bluejackets in
1909. She died at Devonport Oct. 23 1918. Shortly before
her death her work for the navy had been recognized by the
bestowal of the G.B.E.
See S. G. Wintz, Our Bluejackets, Miss Weston's Work (1894).
WEST POINT (see 28.558). The following important build-
ings were completed at West Point after 1910: the Administra-
tion Building, East Academic Building, Riding Hall, two new
cadet barracks, cadet chapel and chaplain's quarters, artillery
barracks and artillery stable, cavalry barracks and cavalry
stable, eight sets of officers' quarters, two apartment buildings
each containing eight sets of officers' quarters, and a cadet
laundry. By Act of May 4 1916, the number of cadetships
authorized at the academy was increased to 1,332. By author-
ity of the War Department, April 1915, candidates were per-
mitted, in lieu of passing the regular entrance examination, to
qualify for admission upon the presentation of satisfactory
certificate of previous academic work in accredited institutions.
By Acts of 1919 and 1920, the pay of cadets was fixed at $780
per annum and one ration per day or commutation thereof at
the rate of $1.08 per day. The World War and the demand for
trained officers led the War Department to direct the graduation
of the First or Upper Class April 20 1917, and of the Second Class
Aug. 30 1917. The next year the need for officers resulted in
the graduation of three classes, the first, June 12 1918, and the
second and third together, Nov. i 1918. A class of new cadets
was admitted at an irregular time, Nov. 2 1918, and provision
was made for a temporary one-year course. After the Armistice
the War Department directed, May 12 1919, that the course of
instruction be fixed for three years, but the following year
Congress specified that the course should be four years. The
academic authorities thereupon reorganized the curriculum in
the light of the most recent military and educational experience.
The new schedule contained the following salient features: (i)
The upper classes on duty undergo military training June 15 to
Aug. 30 at a regular army cantonment away from West Point ; (2)
The new Fourth Class enter the academy July I and receive at West
Point preliminary military training until Aug. 30; (3) During the
academic year, extending from Sept. I to June 15, tactical drills
and supervised athletics alternate daily (except Wednesdays and
Saturdays) after 4 P.M. for all cadets; (4) Academic instruction be
given during periods between 8 A.M. and 4 P.M. in the following
subjects to the respective classes Fourth Class, mathematics,
English, French and surveying; Third Class, mathematics, English,
French, political history, drawing and theoretical tactics; Second
Class, natural and experimental philosophy, chemistry and elec-
tricity, Spanish, military hygiene ; First Class, military engineering,
law, military art and history, ordnance and gunnery, economics and
government. Ten Saturdays throughout the year were set apart for
lectures to the whole corps by eminent men.
The number of graduates of the academy 1910 to 1920 inclusive
was 1,959. The superintendents since 1910 have been: T.H.Barry
(b. 1855) 1910-2; C. P. Townsley (b. 1855) 1912-5; John Biddle
(b. 1859) 1916-7 ; S. E. Tillman(b. 1847) 1917-9; Douglas McArthur
(b. 1880) 1919-22. (L. H. H.*)
WEST VIRGINIA (see 28.560). In 1920 the pop. was 1,463,-
701, as against 1,221,119 i n I 9 IO an increase of 242,582 or 19-9%.
The urban pop. (for places of 2,500 or more) increased from
18-7% in 1910 to 25-2% in 1920. The density of pop. was 60-9
in 1920; 50-8 in 1910. The following table shows the growth of
the ten largest cities for the decade 1910-20:
1920
1910
Percentage
increase
Wheeling
56,208
41,641
34-9
Huntington .
50.177
31,161
61-0
Charleston
39,608
22,996
72-2
Clarksburg
27,869
9,201
202-9
Parkersburg .
20,050
17,842
12-4
Fairmont
17,851
9,7"
83-8
Bluefield ...
15-282
11,188
36-6
Martinsburg .
12,515
10,698
17-0
Morgantown .
12,127
9,150
35-5
Agriculture. Of the land area of the state 62-2 % in 1920 was in
farms and 57'7 % was improved. The number-of farms, which was
96,685 in 1910, decreased to 87,289 in 1920 (9-7%). The total farm
acreage decreased from 10,026,442 to 9,569,790 (4-6%), but the
total value of all farm property increased from $314,738,540 in 1910
to $496,439,617 in 1920 (57-7%). The value of farm lands and
buildings increased from $264,390,954 to $410,783,406; implements
ioo8
WEST VIRGINIA
and machinery from $7,011,513 to $18,395,058; and live stock from
$43,336,073 to $67,261,153. The number of farms reported as being
mortgaged grew from 9,525 in 1910 to 10,274 in 1920. Of these 7,878
in 1910 and 9,031 in 1920 reported the amounts represented by the
mortgages $5,592,533 and $11,205,953 respectively. The average
debt per mortgaged farm was $1,241 in 1920 and the average rate
of interest 5-9%. Native-born white farmers predominate in the
state. Of the 87,289 farms in the state in 1920 86,785 were operated
by white farmers, of whom only 752 were foreign-born, and there
were only 504 coloured farmers, compared with 708 in 1910. Of the
native white farmers 71,181 were owners, 1,071 managers and 13,781
tenants. The number of horses on farms in 1920 was 169,148,
compared with 176,530 in 1910. Mules increased from 11,577 to
14,981 ; cattle from 560,770 to 587,462 ; and chickens from 3,106,907
to 4,027,510; while sheep decreased from 566,952 to 509,831; and
hives of bees from 1 1 1,673 to 89,873.
The value of all crops for West Virginia in 1919 was $96,537,459,
compared with $36,167,014 in 1909. The 1919 value of the corn
crop was $29,768,131 ; oats $3,054,668; wheat $8,395,097; hay and
forage $23,746,574; potatoes $6,461,619; tobacco $2,731,338; apples
$7,540,491; peaches $1,518,784. The variations in production of
the chief crops in 1909 and 1919 is shown in the following table:
1919
1909
Ac.
Bus.
Ac.
Bus.
Corn ....
Oats ....
Wheat
Buckwheat
Potatoes
568,219
169,915
298,036
31.095
34.526
17.010,357
3,054,668
3.747,812
537,883
2,809,398
676,311
103,758
209,315
33.323
42,621
17,119,097
1,728,806
2,575-996
533.670
4,077,066
The extension of agricultural teaching, which was established
at the West Virginia University in 1913, has been an important fac-
tor in the development of scientific agricultural methods.
Mining. In mineral productions West Virginia ranks second
among the states of the Union. The total value was $125,111,280
in 1913 and $133,633,229 in 1914. Oil production, which in 1900
was 16,195,675 bar., declined to 9,095,296 in 1907. It increased
again to 12,128,962 bar. in 1912, but steadily declined thereafter.
The production in 1916 was 8,731,184^ bar., valued at $21,914,080.
In 1918 it was only 7,866,628 bar. (the lowest since 1893), but in 1920
it reached 8,173,000 barrels. In the production of natural gas West
Virginia since 1906 has ranked first among all the states. The pro-
duction, which had reached 119,100,392 thousand cub. ft. in 1906,
steadily increased '(except in 1908 and 1914) to 308,617,101 thousand
cub. ft., (valued at $57,389,161) in 1917; but in 1918 declined to
265,160,917 thousand (valued at $41,324,365), and in 1919 to ap-
proximately 201,500,000 thousand (valued at $40,304,500).
In 1909 West Virginia, overtaking Illinois, became the second
coal-producing state of the Union, but in 1920 dropped to third.
Coal production in West Virginia, which had reached 22,647,207
short (net) tons in i^oo, and 61,671,019 in 1910, continued to in-
crease steadily, reaching in 1914 71,707,626 short tons, valued at
$71,391,408, and furnishing employment to 78,363 persons. The
industry became especially active when the United States entered
the World War. In 1916 the production increased to 86,460,127
short tons, valued at $102,366,092, and in 1918 to 89,935,839 short
tons, valued at $230,508,846. In 1919 it was 75,500,000 short tons,
and, together with coke production 1,454,000 short tons, gave
employment to 91,566 persons. In 1920 it was 87,500,000 tons.
The production of coke, which steadily increased until 1910, when
it reached 14,217,380 short tons, valued at $7,525,922, thereafter
steadily diminished to 1,3^1,446 short tons in 1915, again increased
to 3,349,761 in 1917, and in 1919 decreased to 1,454,000 short tons.
The increase of coal production after 1910 was partly due to strikes
in Ohio and other middle-western states. The determination of the
United Mine Workers to unionize the mines of West Virginia led to a
bitter and prolonged labour war, which began in 1912 in the Cabin
Creek and Paint Creek collieries of the Kanawha valley, and re-
sulted in losses aggregating nearly $6,000,000. This secured for the
union a foothold in West Virginia. In Sept. and Nov. 1919 organized
miners from the Kanawha region threatened an armed invasion of
Logan County to force the unionization of that field. In order to
prevent possible disturbance Gov. Cornwell asked for and obtained a
regiment of Federal troops. In 1920 an attempt to unionize the
miners along the Norfolk & Western railway finally precipitated
an armed conflict between detectives and union miners at Matewan,
in Mingo county, resulting in the death of seven detectives and the
mayor and the terrorization of the community, and necessitating
a call for Federal troops and the establishment of military control.
Manufactures. In 1914 West Virginia was in importance of
manufactures the 28th state. The number of establishments was
2,749, with an invested capital of $175,995,011, and a production
valued at $193,51 1 ,782. The number of persons employed was 79,353
(ll % more than 1909), earning $51,377,760. The leading industries
were lumber and timber, steelworks, rolling-mills, tinplate and
terneplate, glass, leather, railway cars and shop construction, flour
milling and the manufacturing of clay products. The state ranked
second in the production of glass, and also in the production of
tinplate and terneplate, and eighth in the value of clay products.
The Federal Government constructed on the Kanawha in 1918 two
large plants, a projectile plant at Charleston and a high-explosive
plant at Nitro, at an expenditure of over $60,000,000.
Transportation. Transportation facilities continued to improve
after 1909. The railway mileage, which in 1912 reached 3,557 m. by
the completion of the Virginia railway (139-6 m.), by the con-
struction of the coal and coke railway from Elkins to Charleston
(196-75 m., recently acquired by the Baltimore & Ohio Railway
Co.), and by the completion of the Hampshire-Southern branch
of the Baltimore & Ohio to Mporefield and Petersburg, was further
increased in 1913 by the extension of the Monongahela River raihvay
southward to Fairmont (1913) and by several shorter branches.
The railway mileage in 1919 was 3,892.
Banks and Banking. The condition of the banks in West Vir-
ginia in 1920-1 was as follows:
National Banks,
1920
State Banks,
1920-1
Number .
Capital
Surplus
Loans
Deposits .
122
$11,573,000
$7,739,000
$100,545,000
$134,436,000
227
$17.597,932
$11,047,2.31
$150,617,886
$170,370,924
Education. In 1920 the total school pop. was 448,670, the total
school enrolment 341,977, the average daily attendance 253,395.
The per capita cost of education was $25.18 based on enumeration,
$44.57 based on average daily attendance. The total number of
teachers was 11,406. The average annual salary paid teachers in all
grades was $58 1 . The total number of school-houses was 6, 956. The
expenditure for all common schools was $11,291,563 and for state
educational institutions $1,850,906, making a total of $13,141,469
for the educational system of the state. The value of all public
school property was estimated at $25,639,697, and the value of si ate
educational institutions at $2,775,000. In 1920 a compulsory school
law was enacted. The development of the high schools has been a
prominent feature of recent educational growth. This was partly
due to the appointment of a state high school supervisor in 1909
to direct the establishment and standardization of the high schools.
In 1921 the state had 172 classified high schools with 1,129 teachers,
and an enrolment of 20,000 (about 3,000 graduating each year),
and high school property valued at $10,000,000. In 1920 the high
schools received state aid amounting to $118,000. The enrolment
of candidates for degrees in West Virginia University increased
from 800 in 1909-10 to 1,596 in 1919-20, and the total enrolment for
the same period increased from 1,200 to 2,800, or 1,992 exclusive
of short-course students. The members of the faculty increased
from 62 to 141, of whom 56 were full professors, 17 were associate
professors and 27 were assistant professors. The total number of
women students increased from 619 to 975 in the same period.
Under the Act of 1919 the control of all educational affairs of the
state, from the lowest school to the university, was vested in a state
board of education composed of the state superintendent (as exec-
utive officer) and six members appointed by the governor. The
board has an advisory council of tnrec coloured citizens.
Finance. The receipts of the state for the fiscal year Tune 30
1920 was $19,901,931, the disbursements $19,570,122. The total
bonded indebtedness Jan. I 1921 was $11,663,700. In 1919 the
total assessed value of real estate ($769,648,033), personal property
($371,602,428) and public utility property ($349,522,672) was
$1,490,773,133. In 1909 the Legislature enacted a business licence
tax which by July 1920 produced $226,204. ^ n '9'5 '' placed on
corporations and companies a special excise tax, which was increased
by an additional excise tax in 1919. The two Acts produced for
1919-20 approximately $600,000.
Constitutional Amendments. An amendment providing for prohi-
bition was ratified in 1912 by a majority of 92,342. Another amend-
ment proposed in 1917 and ratified in Nov. 1918 provides that an
itemized and classified budget shall be prepared by the board of
public works, and presented to the Legislature for its guidance in
determining appropriations. A third amendment ratified in Nov.
1920 provided for two periods of every regular session of the Legis-
lature one of 15 days in Jan., primarily for presentation of bills, and
another of 45 days in March-April, primarily for consideration and
action on bills. The same amendment increased the salaries of
members of the Legislature to $500 a year. A fourth amendment,
ratified in Nov. 1920, authorized the Legislature to provide for a
system of state roads under control and supervision of state officers,
and to bond the state to a maximum of $50,000,000, if necessary.
Administrative Changes. By Act of 1911 a state Department of
Agriculture was created in 1913 and placed under the Direction of
the commissioner of agriculture, an elective officer who is also a
member of the board of public works. The office of highway inspec-
tor, created in 1907, was abolished in 1911; and a state bureau of
roads (four members) was created in 1913. By Act of 1913 a public
service commission of four members (reduced to three by Act of
1915) was created. At first it had jurisdiction over the newly
established workmen's compensation fund, which later was admin-
istered by a state commissioner. Under the Yost law of 1913 the
state tax commissioner is ex officio state commissioner of prohibition.
WHARTON WHITLOCK
1009
By Act of 1919 a department of public safety (state police) was estab-
lished to relieve the military arm of the state and to aid in establish-
ing the system of private peace officers. By Act of 1915 the member-
ship of the House of Delegates (previously 86) was increased to 94.
Welfare Legislation. A state tuberculosis sanatorium established
by Act of 1911 was opened for patients in 1913 at Terra Alta. A
similar institution for coloured people was opened in 1919. Re-
vision of laws relating to medicine and health in 1913 marked the
beginning of a new era in sanitary legislation. In 1914 a hygiene
laboratory was established. In 1915 a state department of health
was created, with a commissioner as executive officer, two new divi-
sions, vital statistics and child welfare, were added by Act of 1919.
History. Apart from the economic and educational move-
ments above described, the outstanding event of the decade
ending 1920 was the adjustment of the long-standing " Vir-
ginia debt question." It arose from the formation of West
Virginia as a separate state in 1863 and at various times had
been a prominent issue in state politics. .A U.S. Supreme Court
decision of 1911 tentatively fixed West Virginia's share of the
old debt at $7,182,507.48 (leaving the question of interest for
later adjustment), and by a later judgment of 1915 against
West Virginia fixed the total obligations at $12,393,929.50
($4,215,622.28 and accrued interest from Jan. i 1861), with a
decree that this total amount should draw interest at 5% until
paid. In Feb. 1917 Virginia filed application for a writ of
mandamus against the Legislature of West Virginia to compel
the levy of a tax to pay the judgment; but the court deferred
action in order to give West Virginia a reasonable opportunity
to act without compulsion. The total amount of principal and
interest on Jan. i 1919 was $14,562,867.16. Of this amount
West Virginia, by Act of March 31 1919, arranged to pay
$1,062,867.16 in cash and the balance by an issue of " listable "
35% bonds in favour of Virginia, payable in 1939 (or earlier).
Bonds amounting to $12,366,500 were delivered to the Virginia
debt commission at Richmond, Va., on July 3 1919. The
remaining bonds ($1,133,500) were held in escrow pending the
filing of remaining outstanding Virginia debt certificates.
The state continued Republican in politics, but party divi-
sion resulted in the election of a Democrat to the governor's
office in 1916. The governors since 1909 have been: William
E. Glasscock, 1909-13; Henry D. Hatfield, 1913-7; John J.
Cornwell, 1917-21; Ephraim F. Morgan, 1921- .
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. M. Callahan, Semi-Centennial History of
West Virginia (1913); Thos. C. Miller and Hu. Maxwell, History
of West Virginia and its People (1913) ; John T. Harris, West Vir-
ginia Legislative Handbook (1920). (J. M. C.*)
WHARTON, EDITH [NEWBOLD JONES] (1862- ), American
writer, was born in New York City in 1862. She lived much
in Italy and France. She married Edward Wharton, a Boston
banker, in 1885. She began her literary career as a writer of
short stories, her first story, " Mrs. Manstey's View," appear-
ing in Scribner's Magazine in 1891. Her first long novel, The
Valley of Decision, appeared in 1902, the scene being Italy
toward the close of the seventeenth century. Her novel, The
House of Mirth, appeared in 1905 and was highly successful.
In 1908 it was translated into French by Paul Bourget, who
called it the greatest American novel. It was dramatized with
the help of Clyde Fitch, but had slight success. After the out-
break of the World War she edited in 1915 The Book of the
Homeless, sold for the benefit of Belgian refugees; and later for
services she was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour of
France. Her works include The Greater Inclination (1899);
The Touchstone (1900); Crucial Instances (1901); Madame de
Treymes (1907); The Fruit of the Tree (1907); The Hermit
and the Wild Woman (1908); Tales of Men and Ghosts (1910);
Ethan Frame (1911); The Custom of the Country (1913); The
Age of Innocence (1920).
WHITBREAD, SAMUEL (1830-1915), English politician, was
born at Cardington, Beds., May 5 1830, the son of Samuel
Charles Whitbread, M.P. for Middlesex and grandson of Samuel
Whitbread, M.P. for Beds, (see 28.597). He carried on the
family tradition both in brewing and in politics, controlling the
brewery founded by his great-grandfather from 1867 to 1889,
and then becoming chairman of the company to which it was
transferred. Like his father and grandfather he sat in the House
of Commons as a Liberal, representing Bedford from 1852 to
1895. He died at Biggleswade Dec. 25 1915.
WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832-1918), American educa-
tionalist (see 28.599), died at Ithaca, N.Y., Nov. 4 1918. His
later works included Seven Great Statesmen in the Warfare of
Humanity With Unreason (1910) and The Work of Benjamin
Hale (1911). In 1913 he published a new edition of The War-
fare of Science and Theology in Christendom.
WHITE, EDWARD DOUGLASS (1845-1921), American jurist,
was born on a plantation in the parish of Lafourche, La., Nov. 3
1845. His father was seventh governor of Louisiana. He was
educated at Mount St. Mary's, Md., Georgetown (D.C.) College,
and, after the outbreak of the Civil War, at the Jesuit College
in New Orleans. During the latter part of the war he served
as a private in the Confederate army. He studied law in the
office of Edward Bermudez, later chief justice of Louisiana,
was admitted to the bar in 1868, and practised law in New Or-
leans. In 1874 he was elected to the state Senate, and four years
later was appointed associate justice of the Louisiana Supreme
Court. In 1891 he was elected to the U.S. Senate, and before
completing his term was appointed, in 1894, associate justice of
the U.S. Supreme Court by President Cleveland. In 1910 he
was appointed chief justice by President Taft. Many of his
notable opinions were delivered in connexion with the Sherman
anti-trust law. Of special importance were his opinions re-
quiring the dissolution of the Standard Oil Co. and the American
Tobacco Co. in 1911. As chief justice he administered the oath
of office to President Wilson in 1913 and 1917, and to President
Harding in 1921. He died at Washington, D.C., May 19 1921.
WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835-1912), British field-
marshal (see 28.599), died in London June 24 1912.
WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845-1913), English naval
architect (see 28.602), died in London Feb. 27 1913.
WHITEAVES, JOSEPH FREDERICK (1835-1909), British
palaeontologist (see 28.602), died at Ottawa Aug. 9 1909.
WHITLOCK, BRAND. (1860- ), American diplomat and
writer, was born at Urbana, O., Mar. 4 1869. He -was educated
in the public schools, became a newspaper reporter in Toledo,
0., in 1887, and was appointed political correspondent on the
Chicago Herald in 1890. Three years later he accepted a
clerkship in the office of the Secretary of State of Illinois, where
he remained until 1897. Meanwhile he read law and was ad-
mitted to the bar (1894). In 1897 he returned to Toledo and
practised law until 1905, when he was elected mayor. He was
reelected for three succeeding terms, but in 1911 declined the
nomination for a fifth term. In 1913 he was appointed by
President Wilson minister to Belgium and in 1919 his post was
raised to ambassador. This office he continued to hold under Pres-
ident Harding until the close of 1921. Before he had been in Bel-
gium a year the World War broke out and the German invasion
took place. Although the other diplomatic bodies followed the
Belgian court to Havre, Whitlock insisted on remaining in Brus-
sels in order to render any possible aid to the oppressed people. It
was largely due to his urgent advice that Brussels did not resist
and thus escaped even more ruthless devastation. In the early
days of the war he gave protection to many German residents
who had been unable to leave the country. By his firm attitude
toward the German military officials he saved many innocent
Belgians from death; but his activities in behalf of Edith Cavell
were unavailing as he was misled' at the last moment by false
promises by the Germans. After the formation of the Commis-
sion for Relief in Belgium, its operations were placed wholly
under his direction. Food and clothing were provided for desti-
tute civilians whose means of sustenance had been destroyed.
His ceaseless work in their behalf won the gratitude of all the
Belgians; and although worn out by the physical strain he
refused to quit his post until the signing of the Armistice in
Nov. 1918, when he returned to America for a short rest. He
was decorated with the Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold
by King Albert (1917), and was made burgher of Brussels (1918)
and of Liege (1919) and Honorary Citizen of Antwerp (1919).
1010
WHYMPER WILLIAM II. OF HOHENZOLLERN
The Belgian Government awarded him the Civic Cross of the
First Class (1919). He was elected a member of the American
Academy of Arts and Letters.
An. excellent account of the German occupation is given in his
Belgium; a Personal Narrative (1919). His other writings include
The iith District: a Story of a Candidate (1902) ; Her Infinite Variety
(1904) ; The Happy Average (1904) ; The Turn of the Balance (1907) ;
Abraham Lincoln (1909, in the Beacon Biographies) ; The Gold Brick
(1910); On the Enforcement of Law in Cities (1910; enlarged form,
I9J3) ; The Fall Guy (1912) ; Forty Years of It | (1914, a description of
" democracy's progress in a mid-western city ") and Walt Whit-
man: How to Know Him (1920).
WHYMPER, EDWARD (1840-1911), British explorer and
mountaineer (see 28.617), died at Chamonix Sept. 16 1911.
WHYTE, ALEXANDER (1837-1921), British divine (see
28.617), retired from the ministry of Free St. George's in 1916,
and from his position as principal of New College, Edinburgh,
in 1918. He published The Apostle Paul (1903) and Thirteen
Appreciations (1915). He died at Hampstead Jan. 6 1921.
WILBERFORCE, ALBERT BASIL ORME (1841-1916), English
divine (see 28.630), died May 13 1916.
WILBRANDT, ADOLF (183 7-1911), German novelist and drama-
tist (see 28.631), died at Rostock June 10 1911.
See E. Scharrer-Santen, Adolf Wilbrandt als Dramatiker (1912),
and Jahrbuch und Deutscher Nekrolog, XVI., Totenliste 1911, p. 84.
WILEY, HARVEY WASHINGTON (1844- ), American
chemist, was born in Kent, Ind., Oct. 18 1844. He was educated
at Hanover (Ind.) College (A.B.i867; A.M.i87o), Indiana Med-
ical College (M.D.i87i), and Harvard (8.8.1873). He was
professor of Greek and Latin at Butler College, Indianapolis,
(1868-70); state chemist of Indiana and professor of Chemistry
at Purdue University (1874-83); and chief chemist of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (1883-1912). He was elected pres-
ident of the American Chemical Society in 1893, and from 1899
was professor of Agricultural Chemistry at the George Washing-
ton University. He frequently represented the United States in
scientific meetings abroad. He was specially interested in pre-
venting food adulteration, and antagonized many food packers
by opposing the use of benzoate of soda as a preservative. In
1911 his enemies urged his dismissal from the Department of
Agriculture on the technical charge that an expert in his depart-
ment had received recompense exceeding the legal rate. Later
in the year President Taft wrote a letter wholly exonerating Dr.
Wiley, but failed to take the obviously proper steps to remove
from the Department a hostile member, with whom Dr. Wiley
had to come into constant contact. Accordingly, Dr. Wiley
resigned in 1912. Henceforth, he devoted himself largely to the
cause of pure food by lecturing and writing.
His numerous publications include The Sugar Industry of the
United States (1885) ; Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis
(1894-7; revised edition, 1906-14); Foods and Their Adulterations
(1907; third edition, 1917); Influence of Food Preservatives and
Artificial Colors on Digestion and Health (1904-7, with several
collaborators) ; 1001 Tests of Foods, Beverages, and Toilet Accessories,
Good and Otherwise (1914); The Lure of the Land (1915), and Beverages
and Their Adulteration (1919). He also edited a series of Health
Readers for Schools in 1919.
WILLARD, DANIEL (1861- ), American railway official,
was born at North Hartland, Vt., Jan. 28 1861. He graduated
from the Windsor (Vt.) high school in 1878, studied for a year
at the Mass. Agricultural College, Amherst, and in 1879 began
his railway career as track labourer in Vermont. He rose to
fireman, then to engineer, and for twenty years held various
positions on several roads, including the Minneapolis, St. Paul
and Sault Ste. Marie in its early days. In 1899 he was made
assistant manager of the Baltimore and Ohio R.R., and two
years later assistant to the president of the Erie R.R., of which
he soon became first vice-president and general manager. From
1904 to 1910 he was second vice-president of the Chicago,
Burlington and Quincy R.R., and after 1909 was also president
of the Colorado Midland and vice-president of the Colorado
and Southern. In 1910 he was elected president of the Baltimore
and Ohio. In Oct. 1916 he was appointed a member of the
Advisory Commission of the Council of National Defense, and
the following March chairman of the commission. After
America's entrance into the World War, he was appointed in
July 1917 a member of the special committee of the Council of
National Defense to secure mediation in case of strikes on war
contracts. In Nov. 1917 he was appointed by President Wilson
chairman of the War Industries Board, charged with devising
and expediting means of producing the Government's industrial
requirements for effective warfare. In Jan. 1918 he resigned in
order to devote personal attention to the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad. After the Government had taken over the railways
as a war measure a Federal manager displaced him as operating
head of his road, but he remained president in charge of its
corporate affairs, in which position he continued when the
U.S. Government gave up control of the railways.
WILLARD, EDWARD SMITH (1853-1915), British actor, was
born at Brighton Jan. 9 1853 and first appeared in The Lady of
Lyons at Weymouth at the age of sixteen. He toured first with
E. H. Sothern and then joined various stock companies,
coming to London in 1875 and playing Antonio in The Merchant
of Venice with Charles Rice in 1876. After a varied experience
in Shakespearean and other plays he was engaged by Wilson
Barrett in 1881 for the Princess's theatre, London, and until
1886 played leading parts in many melodramas, the most notable
amongst them being "The Spider" in Henry Arthur Jones's
The Silver King. In 1889 he produced Jones's The Middleman
at the Shaftesbury theatre, London, afterward taking it to Amer-
ica. He played Professor Goodwillie in Barrie's The Professor's
Love Story in 1894 at the Comedy theatre, London. After 1903
he acted only in America, repeating these and other roles; but
in 1911 he played Brutus at the Gala performance of scenes
from Julius Caesar at His Majesty's theatre, London. He died
in London Nov. 9 1915.
WILLCOCKS, SIR WILLIAM (1852- ), British engineer,
was born in India in 1852 and educated at Roorkee College,
India. From 1872 to 1807 he was engaged successively in the
Indian and Egyptian Public Works Departments. He designed
and carried through the Assuan Dam in 1898, and for this work
the C.M.G. was conferred upon him, followed by the K.C.M.G.
in 1902. His most important undertaking, however, was the
irrigation of Mesopotamia, begun in 1911 at an estimated cost of
26,195,000. The scheme provided for the irrigation of 3,500,-
ooo acres. His published works include Egyptian Irrigation
(1889); The Irrigation of Mesopotamia (1905) and From the
Garden of Eden to the Crossing of the Jordan (1918). In Jan.
1921 he was put on trial before the Supreme Consular Court of
Egypt on a charge of sedition and criminal libel, on account of
statements made by him impugning the trustworthiness of the
data concerning the Nile irrigation published by Sir Murdoch
Macdonald, adviser of the Egyptian Ministry of Public Works.
He was found guilty March n, and on April 16 he was bound
over to be of good behaviour for one year.
WILLETT, WILLIAM (1856-1915), English builder, was born at
Farnham, Surrey, in Sept. 1856. He made a name for himself
in London as a designer of beautiful houses; but his chief claim
to fame was his conception and promotion of the system of
" daylight saving." Though scoffed at in his lifetime, his idea
was taken up and put into practice in 1916, and honour has been
paid to Willett's memory, which was denied to him in life. He
died at Chislehurst March 4 1915.
WILLIAM II. OF HOHENZOLLERN (1850- ), German
ex-Emperor and ex-King of Prussia (see 28.667). When the
hour of the downfall of the German Empire and the Prussian
dynasty, following upon the military collapse of Germany, ar-
rived in Nov. 1918, the ex-Emperor's flight to Holland bore in
the eyes of his countrymen the aspect of a pitiable incident,
rather than of a tragic climax. For a considerable portion of the
rest of the world, which had frequently overestimated his per-
sonal, as distinguished from his official, significance, his conduct
and bearing on the eve of the war, throughout its course, and at
the moment of his country's disaster, may indeed have come as
something of a revelation. There followed a series of disclosures
as to his exploits in previous years, above all that piece of
personal diplomacy, the Treaty into which he tricked the still
WILLIAM II. OF HOHENZOLLERN
101 I
more inadequate Emperor of Russia at their meeting at Bjorko
on the Russian Imperial yacht (July 23, 24, 1005), and the
equally characteristic " Willy-Nicky " correspondence (mainly
in 1904-5), so-called on account of the signatures which the two
Imperial correspondents appended to their letters. Only the
Kaiser's share in that correspondence has (1920) been published.
The Bjorko Treaty, which was signed by the Tsar without
consultation with the minister responsible for the foreign policy
of Russia, represented an attempt by William II. to imitate
Bismarck's Treaty of Reinsurance with Russia (1887-1890),
which the great Chancellor had concluded behind the back of
j his ally Austria-Hungary, and which was allowed by his succes-
sor, Caprivi, to lapse in 1890 as being " too complicated " i.e.
too full of duplicity.
In William II. !s Treaty of Bjorko, Russia and Germany engaged
"to make foreign disturbers of the peace quiet, and in case of neces-
I sity to stand by one another with their armed strength." Count
Lamsdorff, then Russian Minister for Foreign Affairs, was
i " profoundly excited and upset " when he read the document,
since, as it stood, it imposed upon Russia the obligation of
fighting on Germany's side if Germany were involved in war
with Russia's ally, France. It is true that Russia also pledged
herself to make every effort to gain France over to this new
alliance, the object of William II. being to organize a continental
coalition against Great Britain. When Count Witte, on his
return from signing peace with Japan at Portsmouth (U.S.A.),
[ was informed by Count Lamsdorff of the terms of the Treaty, he
asked: " Does not his Majesty (Nicholas II.) know that we
have a treaty with France?" "Of course his Majesty knows
that," Count Lamsdorff replied, " but the fact must have
slipped from his mind, or, what is more probable, he was be-
fogged by William's verbiage, and he failed to grasp the sub-
stance of the matter " (Count Witte's Memoirs, English ed.
1921). Count Witte and Count Lamsdorff were afterward able
to obtain the abandonment of the Treaty, while Prince BUlow
land the German Foreign Office, conscious of the absurdity of
their master's achievement, were content to let the Imperial
lagreement be treated as non menu. In the Willy-Nicky cor-
i responclence, which he conducted in bad English, William had
endeavoured to hold Nicholas to the bargain by adjuring him,
" God is our testator " (sic). The correspondence represents an
mttempt on the part of William to exercise a kind of tutorship
lover Nicholas -even in Russian home affairs and to instill into
jhis mind suspicions both of France and of Great Britain.
During the years immediately preceding the World War
llWilliam II. was only gradually recovering from the contre-
memps which overtook him in 1908, when Prince Billow, then
[Chancellor, repudiated the utterances published on William's
| behalf in the Daily Telegraph (Oct. 28 1908) and exacted from
him by the threat of resignation a public promise that he would
in future abstain from such personal incursions into the realm
of foreign policy. The Emperor nevertheless continued when he
visited foreign courts to impress upon those with whom he
:ame into contact his conviction that he was an autocrat in the
i conduct of Germany's foreign relations.
At the end of Oct. 1910 he visited the Belgian court, accom-
panied by the Empress, and addressing the King of the Belgians
said: " May our relations of confidence and friendly neighbour-
.iness be drawn ever closer! May welfare and blessing be shed
[toy Your Majesty's reign upon your Royal house and upon your
i tpeople! That is my desire, which springs from the depths of my
aeart." At the Hotel de Ville he addressed the Mayor, M.
j Max, who four years later was to be sent to a German prison by
[the invaders of his country, and spoke of the " sober and indus-
ISrious" Belgian people, expressing at the same time "our pro-
[ [round gratitude and our warmest wishes for the prosperity of
{Brussels and for a happy future." When the Emperor dehv-
Ifered these speeches he knew that Count von Schlieffen's plan for
violating Belgian neutrality in the event of war with France
I .ay cut and dried in the pigeon-holes of the German General
taff, and it was a plan which he himself had endorsed. In
lay 1911 he paid his last visit to England, and was present
as the guest of King George V. at the unveiling of the monument
to Queen Victoria in front of Buckingham Palace, when the
King, whose advisers remained ignorant of certain of the Emper-
or's wilder intrigues and schemes, referred to " the strong and
living ties of friendship between the thrones and persons of the
two sovereigns."
In Feb. 1912 Lord Haldane visited Berlin in order to discuss
proposals for a concurrent limitation in the increase of British
and German naval armaments. As Lord Haldane slates in his
book Before the War, the visit was the sequel of a personal
initiative of William II. through the medium of Sir Ernest
Cassel. The Emperor had been concerned at the state of
tension, dangerous to peace, which had attended the Morocco
negotiations with France in the previous year. That critical
episode had arisen out of the despatch of the German gunboat
Panther on July n 1911 to Agadir, not long after William II. 's
return from his visit to England. In the meetings of German
ministers with Lord Haldane, at one of which (between Lord
Haldane and Adml. von Tirpitz) the Emperor was present in the
self-imposed capacity of audience or chorus, he manifestly
endeavoured for Lord Haldane's benefit to play for the time
being the part of a constitutional monarch, exhibiting the bal-
ance of the ministerial advice from one side (Tirpitz) and from
the other (Bethmann Hollweg) by which he had to guide his
course. Lord Haldane's conclusion was that William II., and
with him Germany, suffered from the lack of a constitutional
system with a responsible government, the ministers being
chosen more or less arbitrarily by the Emperor " and chosen in
varying moods as to policy. . . . Thus the Kaiser was constantly
being pulled at from different sides, and whichever minister
had the most powerful combination at his back generally got
the best of the argument. He had constantly to fix one eye
on public opinion in Germany, and another on public opinion
abroad. It is therefore not surprising that Germany seemed to
foreigners a strange and unintelligible country." Lord Hal-
dane's opinion gives one aspect of the situation, but hardly
takes sufficient account of the wayward personal initiative' of
William II., springing either from his own conceptions (as at
Bjorko) or from casual outside influences which his ministers
were unable to control. Incidentally it may be mentioned that
except, perhaps, for the Eulenburg episode in 1005-7 there was
no so-called Court party, although military influences were
frequently at work. As Prince Billow said, the mischief which
was done by sudden personal interventions of the Emperor was
manifest, but nothing was known of the mischief which had
been prevented.
In home affairs there was a fresh Imperial outburst about
Alsace-Lorraine in May 1912, when the Emperor threatened the
Burgomaster of Strassburg with the withdrawal of the new con-
stitution of the Reichsland, which had been granted in the
previous year. The threat was ill-considered, but Bethmann
Hollweg defended it in the Reichstag.
In March 1912 William II. paid a visit to the Emperor Francis
Joseph at Schonbrunn, and in April he met King Victor Emanuel
at Venice by way of preparing for the renewal of the Triple
Alliance, which took place on the following Dec. 5. There was a
visit of King Ferdinand of Bulgaria to Berlin in June, and in
July the Emperor met the Tsar at Baltic Port. An incident
which excited considerable attention was the presence of Wil-
liam II. for the first time at manoeuvres of the Swiss army, and
the favourable popular reception of the Imperial visitor at
Berne, Basle and Zurich (Sept. 3-7 1912). A good number of
German-Swiss officers had studied military affairs in Germany,
and William II., for obvious reasons, seized every opportunity of
encouraging the professional sympathies between the two
armies, which bore fruit during the World War in the partiality
of the Swiss General Staff.
It is noteworthy that during the critical years of the Balkan
wars and negotiations, particularly in 1913, William II. kept
more than usually in the background. His government was
cooperating at the London Ambassedors' Conference for the
localization of the conflict and the restoration of peace. He
IOI2
WILLIAM II. OF HOHENZOLLERN
was, nevertheless, cultivating close personal relations, after-
ward to bear fruit during the World War, with his brother-in-
law, Constantine, who had succeeded his assassinated father
on the throne of Greece in March 1913. He sent Constantine
flattering telegrams on his military prowess, and was conse-
quently able in Aug. 1913 to induce the King of Greece to
remove the last obstacle to the Peace of Bucharest (Aug. 10)
by withdrawing the Greek claims, as against the Bulgarian, to
the Thracian Hinterland of Kavala. King Carol of Rumania,
at whose request the intervention had taken place, telegraphed
to his kinsman, " thanks to you, the peace will be final."
King George V., with Queen Mary, and likewise the Tsar
Nicholas II., were present in Berlin at the marriage on May 24
1913 of William II. 's only daughter, Princess Victoria Louise,
with Prince Ernest Augustus of Cumberland, at last acknowl-
edged as Duke of Brunswick, a marriage which was described
as marking the reconciliation between the Guelphs of Hanover
and the Hohenzollerns after the feud which had lasted since the
conquest of Hanover by Prussia and the expulsion of the dynasty
in 1866. These festivities were followed on June 16 and 17 by
brilliant celebrations of the 25th anniversary of the accession
of William II., with copious references by German sovereigns
and official personages to the military strength of the German
Empire under his sway as the guarantee of European peace.
A curious incident occurred in the same month. The Emperor
disclosed the fact that one of his predecessors on the Prussian
throne, Frederick William IV., had in a political testament rec-
ommended his successor, if opportunity arose, to annul the
Prussian Constitution which he had granted, or rather imposed,
in 1848. William II. announced that he had magnanimously
burned this document.
A visit which excited considerable speculation at a later date,
when, during the World War, the future of the Russian border-
lands became a question of practical politics, was that which
William II. paid on June 12 1914 to the ill-fated heir to the
Austro-Hungarian monarchy, Francis Ferdinand, and his wife,
the Duchess of Hohenberg, at Konopisht Castle in Bohemia.
The Emperor was accompanied by Adml. von Tirpitz. It is
most probable that, apart from the sustained and ultimately
successful efforts of William II. to win the reluctant personal
sympathies of Francis Ferdinand (partly by encouraging his
ambition to make his wife who was not of royal birth
Empress when he should succeed to the throne), the object of
the visit was to enlist his host's support for the extension of
Austrian and inferentially of German naval power and influence
in the Mediterranean. The story that the Emperor broached
vast schemes for providing, after a contemplated European war,
kingdoms for Francis Ferdinand's two sons by resuscitating the
Greater Poland of the Jagiellos and by creating a great South-
Slav State stretching to Salonika, seems entirely fanciful. A
main feature of these alleged schemes was that the hereditary
Austrian dominions should politically come into the confed-
erated German Empire. Such an idea was never entertained by
any sovereign or government during the Hohenzollern epoch.
It had been, indeed, the so-called " Great German " policy'of the
German Liberals in 1848, but it was rejected by Bismarck and
by the ruling classes of Prussia. Its realization, apart from other
considerations, would have entailed a diminution of the influence
of the Prussian Throne and Government, and an immense
strengthening of German Catholicism. It again became, of
course, the cherished aspiration of republican Germany and
republican Austria after the World War. But it never was an
old-Prussian or a Hohenzollern policy.
The news of the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferd-
inand and his wife at Serajevo on June 28 1914 reached Wil-
liam II. on his yacht at Kiel during the regatta. His first ex-
clamation, " Now I must begin all over again, my work of years
is undone," showed that he had reckoned upon the Archduke as
an instrument of German policy when he should ascend the
thrones of the dual monarchy. William II. returned from Kiel to
Potsdam for a week, and the laying of the mines which caused
the world-explosion began. On July 5 Count Hoyos arrived at
Potsdam with a letter from the Emperor Francis Joseph contain-
ing a memorandum, written before the Serajevo assassination,
describing the situation in the Balkans, the menace of the Pan-
Slavist agitation, particularly in Serbia, and the changed attitude
of Rumania. It was only by cultivating friendship with Bul-
garia and by isolating and diminishing Serbia as a factor in the
Balkans that these dangers could be averted. The crime of
Serajevo, it was added, had only confirmed this estimate of the
situation. William II. gave Count Hoyos a reply in which he
said that any contemplated action against Serbia ought to be
taken without delay, that Russia would certainly be hostile, but
that he had long reckoned upon this eventuality. If it came to
war between Austria and Russia, Germany would loyally take
her stand by her ally. A conference (not, as erroneously re-
ported, a Crown Council, which would have meant the presence '
of the whole Prussian Ministry) afterwards toot place, and was
attended by the Chancellor (Bethmann Hollweg), the War
Minister (Gen. von Falkenhayn), the Under-Secretary for
Foreign Affairs (Zimmermann) and the Chief of the Emperor's
personal Military Cabinet (von Lyncker) . And on the following
day, July 6, there was a conference with Adml. von Kapclle,
Tirpitz's right hand man at the Admiralty (Tirpitz was on
leave), and with representatives of the War Ministry and the
General Staff. It was resolved to take measures of preparation
for the event of war, and orders in this sense were issued. At
the same time it was arranged that all appearance of unusual
excitement or activity should be avoided, and that the Emperor j
should, according to programme, proceed upon his annual i
cruise in northern waters. He left for Kiel on the same day, I
and joined the fleet during its summer manoeuvres off Norway.
He was constantly kept informed by telegraph of the progress of
events. And now began the famous series of his marginal notes, I
afterward published under the German Republican Govern-
ment, upon the despatches he received. He was at first enthu- '
siastic for the most energetic measures against Serbia. He
suggested that Austria should reoccupy the Sandjak, so as to
sever the union of Serbia and Montenegro and prevent Serbian ,
access to the sea. Then " there will be a row at once," he wrote. ;
He deprecated war councils and conferences at Vienna, " be-
cause, " as Frederick the Great had said, " the timid party
always gets the upper hand." On July 19 he ordered the German (
battle-fleet not to disperse, so that it could at a moment's I
notice be recalled to Kiel. His chief anxiety at this stage was !
for the safety of the Baltic, and he wrote an angry marginal
note because " the civilian Chancellor (Bethmann Hollweg)
had not yet grasped his meaning." He (William II.) must
" concentrate his forces on land and sea."
The text of the Austrian note to Serbia was communicated
officially to the German Foreign Office on July 22, but the Ger- 1
man ambassador in Vienna, Tschirschky, had had it on the
previous day, and had probably telegraphed it direct to the
German Emperor. It was presented at Belgrade on July 23.
The Kaiser at first exulted over a firmness of which he had
thought Austria incapable, and expressed the belief that all
Slav states were hollow. " Just tread firmly on the feet of this
rabble!" he added. On hearing that Count Berchtold, the
Austrian Foreign Minister, did not desire to take any territory
from Serbia he wrote, " Donkey! Austria must retake the
Sandjak. . . . Austria must become preponderant over the
smaller states at the expense of Russia, else there will be no
peace." On the report of Serbian mobilization he recalled the
German fleet from the North Sea to Kiel. " If Russia mobilizes,
our fleet must be ready in the Baltic, and so it is going home." >
The chancellor had suggested on July 26 that the Emperor
should calm European anxiety by remaining in Norwegian
waters, but he was now thoroughly aroused, and on the follow-
ing day he returned to Potsdam. There he received the text of
the Serbian reply, and at first thought it " a great moral success."
No doubt the Serbians were liars and orientals, and Austria, he
said in a letter to his chancellor, might do well to claim a " satis-
faction d'honneur " and to exercise " une douce violence " by a
temporary occupation of Serbian territory as a guarantee.
WILLIAM II. OF HOHENZOLLERN
1013
Anxiety about the attitude of Great Britain was now beginning
to influence the Kaiser's mind, and his rage was sudden and
great when his ambassador in London reported that Sir Edward
Grey regarded the situation as serious and had suggested medi-
ation. He described this as a piece of English pharisaism, and
Sir Edward Grey as a " base deceiver, arch-base and Mephis-
tophelian. Great Britain ought to put pressure upon. Russia,"
etc. On July 29 began the rapid interchange of telegrams be-
tween the Kaiser and the Tsar, which was to be continued up
to and even immediately after the German declaration of war,
and in which the object of the Kaiser's frequently rhetorical
appeals was to induce Russia to reverse her measures of mobiliza-
tion against Austria and to refrain from mobilization toward the
German frontier. He hoped to score over Russia, by a policy of
menace, a diplomatic victory in the Serbian question similar to,
but far greater than, that which he had obtained in 1909, when,
as he boasted, he had appeared beside his Austrian ally " in
shining armour." On July 29 a " Kronrat " with the whole
dy of the Kaiser's military and political advisers was held at
Potsdam, and from Bethmann Hollweg's interview the same
vening with the British ambassador (Sir Edward Goschen)
and his bid for British neutrality it seems clear that the decision
had fallen in favour of war.
After the proclamation of the state of " danger of war " (dro-
hende Kriegsgcfahr) on July 31, and the delivery of an ultimatum
on the same day at St. Petersburg, and after a public mobiliza-
on order on the afternoon of August i , a previously prepared
laration of war against Russia was delivered by the Ger-
an ambassador at St. Petersburg on the evening of August i.
Throughout the final episode of the German attempts to
ure British neutrality the Kaiser was in a state of violent
ge and disappointment, and he gave vent to his feelings in a
emorandum to his chancellor on July 30 which may well be the
vildest outburst of political passion that a monarch ever com-
| mitted to paper. He declared that Great Britain had caught Ger-
! many in the trap of her loyalty to her Austrian alliance, that this
| was the crowning success of the policy of King Edward VII., who
" though he is dead, is still stronger than I am "; and, finally, he
exhorted the chancellor to inflame the Mahommedan world, for
" if we are to bleed to death, England shall at least lose India,"
j William II. 's brief exchange of telegrams with King George V.,
sed, as the Emperor's assumptions were, on a false report by
brother, Prince Henry, and on a mistaken account by the
erman ambassador in London of a telephonic conversation
nth Sir Edward Grey, may be mentioned in passing. If King
orge's Government would assure the neutrality of France, the
r was prepared to " employ elsewhere " his troops then mov-
; against her. After Sir Edward Goschen had asked for his
sports, a Berlin mob broke the windows of the British em-
sy. The Kaiser sent an aide-de-camp to the ambassador with
i unkingly message, truculently delivered, expressing his regret,
it telling Sir E. Goschen that he would " gather from these
currences an idea of the feelings of the German people respect-,
[ing the action of Great Britain in joining with other nations
against her old allies of Waterloo."
On August 4, William II. opened the session of the last Reichs-
' tag of his reign by a war speech, to which he added a personal
appeal to the deputies (the Social Democrats alone were absent)
! to support him " through thick and thin," and individually to
' shake hands with him in token of their promise to do this. To
one of the deputies he said. " Now we will give them (his ene-
mies) a good thrashing."
If during the World War William II. ever attempted to inter-
\\ fere in military dispositions, it is clear that the leaders of the
army were successful in preventing his effective intervention.
If He paid the inevitable visits to the fighting lines at critical
| moments, especially when a German success was believed to be
impending, but there is no reason to believe that he was ever,
\ in accordance with the traditions of his house, under fire. He
: once or twice narrowly escaped aeroplane attacks, but this was
accidental. He lived in his comfortable Imperial train or in a
portable asbestos hut, or at Supreme Headquarters at Pless
Castle in Silesia, and afterward at Spa. He took no practical
military part in the war. His crude rhetoric was from time to
time employed in firing the ardour of his troops, as when he
exhorted them in Oct. 1914 to destroy French's " contemptible
little army," or when in the last year of the war he celebrated
the 3oth anniversary (June 15 1918) of his accession by describ-
ing the struggle as a mortal combat between Anglo-Saxon and
Prusso-German ideals. In the eyes of his people his personal
prestige did not increase; it distinctly diminished, even before
the last phase of open aversion from him. He formally retained
the final decision in military as in political affairs. There was
a long and bitter struggle between three successive chancellors
(Michaelis may be left out of account) and the higher military
command on a variety of questions hypothetical terms of peace,
the Brest Litovsk negotiations, the armistice question, and,
throughout the war, the best method of maintaining the war-
spirit of the population. More than once Hindenburg and Lud-
endorff threatened to resign, and it was between them and Beth-
mann Hollweg that William II. had to choose when he parted
(July 14 1917) with his first war chancellor. "The Govern-
ment," as Ludendorff says, " had itself to blame, as it frequently
appealed to its agreement with the chief military command,
and dismissed proposals and demands on the ground that the
military leaders objected."
In naval matters the Kaiser had greater success in resisting
the authoritative methods of Grand Adml. von Tirpitz, and
carrying out his own policy and Bethmann Hollweg's of holding
the High Seas Fleet in reserve, or (as he called it in his order of
Aug. 6 1914) " on the defensive." For a long time Bethmann,
and perhaps also William II., seem to have hoped that Great
Britain might be detached from the Allies, if the struggle for
naval ascendency were not too keenly pressed. This hope was
chimerical, but Bethmann was not a far-seeing statesman, and
the views of the Kaiser, who reckoned upon an intact fleet as a
valuable political asset for peace negotiations, were seldom
based on sound calculations. Tirpitz found himself compelled to
resign on March 16 1916.
William II. 's reputation in peace-time had been largely based
upon the spectacular setting which he gave to his policy and
upon his rhetorical speeches. All effects of that kind gradually
failed him during the World War, and some of them lent them-
selves to ridicule. In Jan. 1916 he had a meeting with his Balkan
ally, King Ferdinand of Bulgaria, at Nisch, when Ferdinand at
a banquet addressed him in obsequious terms and exclaimed in
unconsciously ambiguous Latin, " Tu es Caesar et gloriosus! " The
Emperor's part in the attempts to secure a " German Peace "
in 1916 and 1917 was singularly unfortunate. The declaration
issued on Dec. 12 1916 by Germany and the powers associated
with her was manifestly a manoeuvre to anticipate President
Wilson's peace action, to represent the Allies as blood-thirsty
and unconciliatory, and to hearten the German working-classes
for the fight. It gave no information as to terms, and it con-
tained no reference to the crucial question of the future of
Belgium. What the Kaiser's ideas of peace terms at that date
may have been is a matter of inference from what has since
become known regarding his attitude some six months later.
After the Reichstag's so-called " Peace Resolution" of July 1917,
efforts were made to induce the Vatican to interest itself in the
question of peace, and ultimately a papal note on the subject
was issued. In a document addressed on behalf of William II.
to Mgr. Pacelli, the Papal Nuncio at Munich, the Kaiser's
peace terms were described as including an indemnity of 30
milliard dollars from the United States and 40 milliard dollars
from France. Longwy and Briey, rich mineral districts on the
French frontier, were to go to Germany, and Great Britain was
to give up Malta. The disclosure of these items in the Imperial
document was made in the Reichstag on April 27 1921, by the
Independent Socialist, Dr. Breitscheid, Chairman of the Reichs-
tag Committee for investigating responsibility for the origin
and prolongation of the World War. In 1917 as in 1916, the
only peace which William II. and his military and political
backers contemplated was a peace with victory (Siegfrieden).
WILLIAM II. OF HOHENZOLLERN
The events which led up to the collapse of Germany and flight
of William II. in Nov. 1918 were political as well as military.
Even so stout a Catholic conservative as the Chancellor, Count
Hertling, had described the Prussian franchise question, for
example, as " a matter of life and death for the dynasty."
Internal reforms were long overdue, and this one had been prom-
ised in the Kaiser's edicts of April and July 1017, though only
as a result of the apprehensions excited by the revolution in
Russia. The obstinacy of the Prussian reactionary Chamber of
Deputies and the Upper House delayed the reform until the
monarchy fell. In the Reichstag the Imperial prerogatives
especially the right in certain circumstances to make war and
peace were being dealt with by a committee on the Constitu-
tion. Prince Max of Baden's Coalition Government, which
included several Social Democrats, was avowedly installed for
the purpose of introducing Parliamentary Government as well as
for making peace. Here again reform came too late.
On Aug. 14 1918, the alarm which Ludendorff had communi-
cated to the Kaiser regarding events in the field and the moral
of the German troops had induced William II. and his political
advisers to contemplate applying to Queen Wilhelmina of
Holland for mediation, but nothing was done for some weeks.
In the middle of Sept. the Kaiser addressed to the workmen at
Krupp's an appealing speech which showed that he recognized
the military situation and the internal conditions of Germany to
be almost desperate. He returned at the beginning of Oct.
from headquarters at Spa to Berlin.
Meanwhile an urgent appeal by Hindenburg and Ludendorff
to the German Government to open negotiations at once for an
armistice had reveabd the desperate state of affairs at the front
to the members of the Government, including the Social Dem-
ocrats. Shortly after the Emperor's return, the constitutional
changes limiting his prerogatives had been adopted by the
Reichstag, and the bill was awaiting his signature. On Oct. 28
he accepted the constitutional law in a letter to Prince Max, in
which he avowed sentiments with regard to the rights and duties
of the representatives of the people which might have saved his
dynasty if he had expressed them years or perhaps even some
months earlier. The question of his abdication had now defi-
nitely arisen and was being ventilated toward the end of Oct.
in the Socialist and the Democratic press. President Wilson's
frank declaration that he could not trust the word of the exist-
ing rulers of Germany gave a great impetus to the discussion.
William II. on the throne, whatever might be his revised sen-
timents, was regarded in Germany as an obstacle to peace.
The Independent Socialists had gone further than the other
parties of the Left and, through the mouth of their leader,
Haase, had declared in the Reichstag that it was no longer a
question of the Kaiser alone, but of the Prussian and other
German dynasties. The Majority Socialists, who at that stage
would have been satisfied with the abdication of William II.
and the renunciation of the Crown Prince's rights to the succes-
sion, were forced by the attitude of the Socialist left wing to
make at least the Kaiser question most urgent. Scheidemann,
in his book Dcr Ztisammenbruch (1920), gives an account of the
reception of the members of the Imperial Government by the
Emperor on Oct. 20 1918 at Bellevue Castle in Berlin. It was
the first time (with the exception of a parliamentary soiree at
the residence of Dr. Helfferich in July 191 7, at the time of the
so-called Peace Resolution) that William II. had met the new
Social Democratic Secretaries of State, men whom he had for-
merly described in public speeches as " fellows without a coun-
try." Scheidemann gays that the Emperor, in uniform, advanced
holding in his hand a piece of cardboard, on both sides of which
on typewritten sheets the words he was to address to his new
ministers were pasted. William II. wore a forced smile and
moved the cardboard sheet to and fro as if he meant to say
" You know how these things are made up." He read the ad-
dress with a loud voice, and " it would have made an excellent
impression," Scheidemann says, " if it had been delivered some
years earlier." It expressed the intention that nowhere in the
world should there be freer institutions than in Germany. It
concluded, however, with a reference to " the last breath and the
last blow " a phrase which was singularly out of place in view
of the desperate efforts to obtain an armistice. The Kaiser
afterward affably conversed with the Socialists who were pre-
sented to him. After he had departed, it was decided by the
Ministry that the speech should not be published, as the situ-
ation was so far advanced that it would have made a ridicu-
lous impression.
William II. knew what was in the air, and on Oct. 30 he
quietly left Berlin for the western front. The revolution now
broke out in the navy at Kiel and on Nov. 7 at Munich. Every-
thing had been prepared by the Independent Socialists for the
Berlin outbreak which came on the gth, although another date
had originally been contemplated. The Governmental Socialists,
unable to control the movement, felt themselves constrained to
address an ultimatum on the abdication question to the Chan-
cellor, Prince Max. Emissaries from the Government had been
at Spa from Nov. 3 urging the Emperor to abdicate, but he was
stubborn and considered that it was his duty to remain and
save Germany from Bolshevism. " Moreover," he said, " I
should willingly work with the new order and the new Govern-
ment; various gentlemen in it whom I have met are very sympa-
thetic to me." On the morning of Nov. 9 Hindenburg was
early at the Villa Fraineuse, the Emperor's quarters at Spa.
The field-marshal had had a thorough discussion of the sit-
uation with representatives of the different army commanders,
and at one o'clock he sent a final report to the Villa Fraineuse
stating that, in the fairly unanimous opinion of the generals, the
troops could still be relied upon to fight against the enemy, but
would never fight against tjieir own comrades, i.e. in defence
of the Kaiser and the Prussian dynasty. Meanwhile, abdica-
tion was constantly being urged by telephone from Berlin.
About two o'clock a precise answer was sent to Berlin that the
Kaiser abdicated as German Emperor but not as King of Prussia.
The reply came by telephone: " Too late: we have already pub-
lished his abdication." To the Crown Prince, who had arrived
for luncheon, the Emperor said as he departed about three:
" Tell the soldiers that it is not true that I have abdicated as
King of Prussia." Later, Hindenburg arrived at the Villa with
Gen. Greener and Adml. Scheer. It was then " put in the
Kaiser's mouth " to abdicate as King of Prussia also. When
he left the conference he said to Count Dohna-Schlodien, his
aide-de-camp, "You have no longer any Supreme War Lord."
All the afternoon and evening his suite urged him, in view of
the feeling among the troops, to escape to Holland. He at first
refused, but consented to go and dine in the Imperial train.
On the way he said: " I am so awfully ashamed. I cannot find
it in my heart to do this. I cannot go away. If there be but one
faithful battalion here, I shall remain at Spa." He thus was
contemplating a fratricidal war in defence of his crown. In the
train one alarming message after another arrived regarding
disorder on the lines of communication and concerning the
approach of retreating troops to Spa. To those around him the
Kaiser said: " At other times I have always known what to do,
now I am at a loss." At 10 P.M. Adml. von Hintze urged him to
start, for " in an hour it might be too late." The Kaiser finally
said: " To facilitate peace for the nation I shall go to Holland.
If I went to Germany, it would be supposed that I wanted to
rally a new party to help me to make a coup d'etat." He now con-
sidered himself relieved from any duties toward the army, as it
had left him in the lurch; nor did he recognize any duty to-
ward the Government which, on its own responsibility, had an-
nounced his abdication.
At 5 o'clock next morning, 1 Nov. 10, the Emperor left his
train and, with a small suite, fled in motor-cars across the Dutch
frontier to Eysden, where he arrived about 8 A.M. According
to one account (Lady Norah Bentinck's The ex-Kaiser in
Exile), he had walked up to a Dutch soldier at the frontier,
saying, " I am the German Emperor," and had offered his
sword; but no one knew what to do. At 10 A.M. his rail-
way train arrived at Eysden, and he took refuge in it and there
'According to some accounts he departed during the night.
WILLIAM, GERMAN CROWN PRINCE
ent that day and the following night. Arrangements had
eanwhile been made, apparently through the Dutch authorities,
with Count Godard Bentinck, who with some reluctance con-
sented to receive him as a guest " for a few days " in his castle
at Amerongen. The Imperial train left Eysden at 9 A.M. and at
r 3 P.M. reached Maarn where Count Bentinck and Count Lynden,
overnor of the province of Utrecht, were awaiting the ex-
aiser on the platform. There was a considerable suite in the
ain, who remained to unpack large quantities of food and wine
arhich they had brought with them. Count Bentinck arrived at
Amerongen in his motor-car with the Emperor as evening was
falling, and, as the guest entered the house, his first words were
" now give me a cup of real good English tea." On Nov. 28
William II. signed his formal abdication at Amerongen, re-
; nouncing his rights to the Crown of Prussia and his conse-
I quential rights to the German Imperial Crown. On the same
| day the Empress Augusta Victoria arrived from Wilhelmshohe
Castle to join her husband. His personal suite, which had been
I a burden to his host, was soon reduced to two officials, a master
ceremonies and an aide-de-camp, but he retained a number
[ of his servants. He seldom ventured, save for motor-car drives,
beyond the precincts of the castle, which is surrounded by a moat.
He spent most of his time in sawing logs of wood, an occupation
I in which he was so diligent that he provided the castle with fire-
wood for the whole winter. As souvenirs, instead of autographs,
he used to give away small blocks of wood on which he had
inscribed his monogram. In June 1920 the ex-Kaiser and the
ex-Kaiserin left Amerongen for Doom, a property which the
ex- Kaiser had just purchased, and which is situated near the main
road between Utrecht and Arnheim. The house and grounds
were henceforth watched by Dutch soldiers. Up to March 1920
j the Allies' demand for his extradition was an open question,
and notes were exchanged on the subject with the Dutch Gov-
ernment, which officially regarded him as a German refugee but
undertook to prevent any political activities on his part. He
I was believed to have ample means, although it was reported
toward the close of 1921 that he had been compelled further
to reduce his establishment. In the autumn he managed to
send a rhetorical message to a royalist demonstration in Berlin
! at which Ludendorff was present.
The prevailing German verdict upon William II. after the
' war was that he had been entirely unequal, by temperament,
i by capacity and by education, to the task of guiding the desti-
nies of the German nation. His training before his accession had
| been almost entirely in the school of Prussian militarism, and,
notwithstanding his subsequent travels and his intercourse with
statesmen and men of affairs in his own and other countries,
he retained in many matters the narrow outlook and the modes
of expression of the average Prussian officer. In his cosmogony
sovereigns and dynasties occupied a place entirely apart, and
he regarded himself and a certain number of other sovereigns as
occupying their positions by the grace of God, and as endowed
with something like infallibility in home affairs. In his public
speeches he affected the rhetoric of the Prussian officers' mess-
room banquets and seemed quite unable to measure the effect
of his words upon international relations. He aspired to guide
the art, the intellect, the industry and commerce and even the
1 theology of his country. He never realized that the age had
moved beyond him in spheres in which he was essentially a
dilettante. He had a lax conception of truth and honour in his
personal diplomacy, and was accustomed to shift his standpoint
in foreign affairs according to the nationality of the person with
whom he was conversing. Dr. Hammann, 1 however, testifies
that there were almost inexplicable lacunae in the Kaiser's
I memory. One of the German verdicts upon him, which docs
i not appear to be far from the truth, was that his intellect and
i character had never matured.
The Empress AUGUSTA VICTORIA (see 28.669), who was at the
castle of Wilhelmshohe (the place of Napoleon III.'s intern-
[ment in 1870-71) at the time of the Emperor's flight, joined him
at Amerongen on Nov. 28 1918. She was already suffering from
1 Um den Kaiser (1921).
1015
a heart complaint, and anxiety with regard to her husband and
the possibility of his extradition weighed upon her more than
upon him. She died at Doom Castle on April u 1921. Her
remains were conveyed to Potsdam and placed in a temporary
mausoleum in the park of the New Palace. The funeral fur-
nished an occasion for some royalist demonstrations in Berlin.
The Empress, although she accompanied William II. on many
of his political journeys, confined her interests mainly to her
family duties and to works of charity. She had been active in
promoting Christian enterprises, particularly the building of
churches in Berlin. She was regarded as the model of a German
housewife and of a Landesmutler, as the Germans used to call the
consorts of their sovereigns.
Interesting sidelights on the ex-Kaiser's character, reign and edu-
cation may be found in such books as Bismarck's Reflections and
Reminiscences (English ed. 2 vols., 1898). The third vol. of these
Gedanken and Erinnerungen appeared in Germany in 1921, though it
is dated 1919, having long been held up by an interdict given in
favour of the ex-Kaiser on the ground that the volume contained the
text of confidential letters written by him. In 1921 he withdrew the
interdict, as most of the obnoxious material had found its way into
the newspapers. See also Prince Hohenlohe's Memoirs (1906).
Recently published books bearing on the subject are Dr. Otto Ham-
mann's Der Neue Kurs (1918), Um den Kaiser (1919), which con-
tains perhaps the best character sketch of William II., and Der
Missverstandene Bismarck (1921), also Baron von Eckhardstein's
Lebenserinnerungen, 3 vols. (1919-21). For the last phase Scheide-
mann's Der Zusammenbruch (1921) and Die Deutsche Revolution
by Ferdinand Runkel (1919) are useful, and there is a remarkable,
if rather highly coloured, short character sketch by Walter Rathenau,
Der Kaiser (1919). Lady Nprah Bentinck wrote a book of some
interest, The ex-Kaiser in Exile (1921). (G. S.)
WILLIAM, German Crown Prince up to 1918 (1882- ),
eldest child of William II. of Germany, was born at the Marble
Palace, Potsdam, on May 6 1882. He was educated at the
Military Cadets School at Ploen in Holstein and at the university
of Bonn. After visits to the courts of Vienna and St. Peters-
burg and an unofficial visit to Scotland he went on a tour with
his brother Prince Eitel Friedrich to Constantinople and to the
Nile. On his return to Germany he began his military career by
serving in the ist Foot Guards, and accompanied the Kaiser to
England (Jan. lo-Feb. 5 1901) on the occasion of the funeral of
Queen Victoria. On June 6 1903 he married the Duchess Cecilia,
sister of the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. There
were five children, four sons and one daughter, of the marriage.
His political and personal interventions in public affairs gave
some trouble in the years preceding the war. He was credited
with pan-German sympathies, and on one occasion (Nov. 9 1911)
he appeared in the royal box in the Reichstag during the debate
on the Morocco settlement and demonstratively applauded
speakers who were attacking Great Britain and the Imperial
Chancellor, Bethmann Hollweg. He was afterward compelled
by the Emperor to make amends to the Chancellor. Other ill-
advised interventions were in connexion with the Brunswick
settlement, in regard to which he questioned (1914) the ade-
quacy of his brother-in-law Prince Ernest Augustus of Cumber-
land's renunciation of all claim to the throne of Hanover, and
again, on the occasion of the conflict in Dec. 1913 at Zabern in
Alsace between officers of the garrison and the civilian population,
when he despatched telegrams encouraging the officers in their
truculent attitude. He had, nevertheless, done a public service
in 1907 by calling the attention of the Emperor to the disrepu-
table morals of the court camerilla, headed by Prince Philip
Eulenburg, which was being denounced in the Zukunfl by
Maximilian Harden. In 1910-1 he paid a visit to Ceylon, India
and Egypt, and he published some account of his experiences
in his Jagdlagebuch. On the outbreak of the World War he was
promoted to the rank of Lt. -General and appointed to the com-
mand of the V. Army in the west, where his troops were success-
ful in the battles of Longwy and Longuyon on Aug. 22 and 24
1914. In Sept. 1915 he received the command of an army
group, and he was nominally in charge of the German operations
against Verdun. After the Armistice he represented himself in
newspaper interviews as having been sceptical, since the battle
of the Marne, regarding the possibility of the ultimate success of
ioi6
WILLY WILSON, WOODROW
the German arms. His flight to Holland speedily followed that
of the Emperor in Nov. 1918, and he went to Wieringen, an
island in the Zuider Zee. He formally renounced on Dec. i
1918 his rights of succession to the crowns of Prussia and the
German Empire. The ex-Crown Princess and her children con-
tinued to reside at Potsdam, where she enjoyed considerable
popularity among all classes of the population.
WILLY, the pen-name adopted by the French novelist HENRI
GAUTHIER-VILLARS (1859- ), born at Villiers-sur-Orge Aug.
ro 1859. He was educated at the Lycee Condorcet and the
College Stanislas, and afterward adopted a literary career. His
early works include a Recueil des Sonnets (1878), and various
volumes of essays and criticism, including Essais sur Mark
Twain et les Parnassiens (1882), but he is best known for his
novels, many of which were written in collaboration with the
actress and authoress Colette Willy. The most famous of these
is Claudine a I'jfLcole (1900), with its sequels Claudinc d, Paris
(1901), Claudine en Menage (1902) and Claudine s'en va (1903).
Willy contributed largely to leading reviews, and also pub-
lished various plays, including a theatrical version of Claudine
A Paris, produced in 1902.
WILSON, SIR ARTHUR KNYVET, 3 RD BART. (1842-1921),
English admiral, was born at Swaffham, Norfolk, March 4 1842,
the son of Rear-Adml. George Knyvet Wilson. He entered the
navy in 1855, and served in the naval operations of the Crimean
War and the Chinese campaign of 1857-8. In 1876 he was
appointed to the " Vernon," the torpedo school-ship at Ports-
mouth. Having reached the rank of captain in 1880, he took part
in 1881 in the operations against Alexandria and in 1884 won
the Victoria Cross for bravery at El Teb. He became rear-
admiral in 1895, was appointed Third Sea Lord and Controller
of the Navy in 1897, and in 1901 became Vice-Admiral, receiv-
ing the K.C.B. in 1902. From 1901 to 1903 he commanded the
Channel Squadron, and from 1903 to 1907 was Commander-in-
chief of the Home and Channel Fleets. Ln 1907 he was promoted
by Order in Council to the rank of Admiral of the Fleet, and in
1909 was appointed First Sea Lord in succession to Lord Fisher.
He retired in 1912, and received the Order of Merit. He died at
Swaffham May 25 1921.
Wilson was from the early 'nineties till practically the end of
his life the most universally respected figure in the British navy.
Himself the most unassuming man, careless of honours (he
refused a peerage) and indeed of his personal appearance, he was
a scientific sailor of the highest type, and a recognized master of
strategy and tactics, whose advice, in and out of office, carried
. the greatest weight. He had no party, no favourites, and did
not advertise. He was a silent man, whom everyone trusted;
and during the World War he was still a power behind the
Admiralty, and the ungrudging servant of his country.
WILSON, SIR CHARLES RIVERS (1831-1916), English public
official, son of Melvil Wilson, was born in 1831, and educated at
Eton and Balliol College, Oxford. He entered the Treasury in
1856, was private secretary to the Chancellor of the Exchequer
(Robert Lowe) 1868-73, and was Royal Commissioner for the
Paris Exhibition of 1878, having been already appointed Comp-
troller General of Office for Reduction of National Debt in
1874. Whilst holding this position, he visited Egypt in 1876
and early in 1878 was selected as vice-president of the Commis-
sion to enquire into the Egyptian financial situation. Some
months later he was nominated Financial Minister in Egypt
and, in 1879, he and the Prime Minister, Nubar Pasha, were the
victims of a serious outrage by the mob in the streets of Cairo
an incident which was the direct precursor of the Arabi revolt
and the British occupation of Egypt in 1882. In April 1880, on
the fall of the Khedive Ismail and the inauguration of his son
Tewfik as Khedive, Rivers Wilson was appointed president of
the Commission for the Liquidation of the Egyptian Debt, with
full powers to regulate the financial position of Egypt. On the
conclusion of this duty he returned to his post in London, and
in March 1885 he became joint British Representative on the
Suez Canal Board. On retiring from his post as Comptroller
General of the National Debt Office in 1894, he became in 1895
president of the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada. He was
created a K.C.M.G. in 1880 and was promoted G.C.M.G. in
1895. He died on Feb. 9 1916.
WILSON, SIR HENRY HUGHES, BART. (1864- ), British
Field-Marshal, was born in Ireland May 5 1864, and joined the
army in 1884. He served in the field in Burma between 1886
and 1888, and was wounded. After some years on the staff
at home he went out with the expeditionary force to S. Africa \
in -1899, and he served there, first with the Natal army, and I
afterward at headquarters till the end of 1900. The period from
1901 to 1906 he spent at the War Office, and after 1904, in which
year he was promoted colonel, he had much to do with working
out the organization of the newly created general staff. He
then became commandant of the Staff College, a position which
he occupied until 1910, when he was appointed Director of
Military Operations. In this latter capacity he got into close j
touch with high French military authorities, and gave special i
attention to the study of strategical possibilities in the event of
war with Germany. He was promoted Major-General in 1913. !
On mobilization in Aug. 1914 he was appointed deputy-chief
of the general staff to the expeditionary force, and he served in |
that position for the first five months of the struggle, after which |
he became principal liaison officer between British and French
headquarters in the field. He was given the K.C.B., and at :
the end of 1915 he took up command of the IV. Army Corps; i.
this he held until the opening of 1917 when he went out as head I
of a military mission to Russia, returning just before the revolu- I
tion. He was promoted Lt.-General on his return and was theft I
in charge of the eastern command until Nov., when he was sent
to Versailles to act as British Military Representative on the I
newly established Supreme War Council. In the following Feb. I
he succeeded Sir W. Robertson as Chief of the Imperial General
Staff. The great German offensive of March took place almost I
immediately after his taking up this high appointment, and he |
played a prominent part in the steps taken to strengthen Sir D. I
Haig's forces. The friendly terms on which he stood with the , ,
French supreme authorities, no less than with the Home Gov-
ernment, contributed materially to ensure that cooperation be- !
tween the Allies which so greatly assisted in giving victory to
their cause. He had been promoted General soon after taking :
up the appointment, and on the final distribution of honours for |
the war he was promoted Field-Marshal, was given a baronetcy, [i
and received a grant of 10,000. In December 1921, however, j
he resigned his position at the War Office (being succeeded by I
Lord Cavan); and soon afterwards he ranged himself with the \
supporters of the Northern Irish Parliament in Ulster of which
he was elected a member.
WILSON, JOHN COOK (1849-1915), English philosopher,
was born at Nottingham June 6 1849. He was educated at 1
Derby and at Balliol College, Oxford, and in 1874 was elected to
a fellowship at Oriel College. After graduating, he studied
logic under Hermann Lotze at Gottingen. Returning to Oxford,
he became well-known as a lecturer and in 1889 was appointed I >
Wykeham professor of Logic. He died at Oxford Aug. n 1915.
Among his publications were Aristotelian Studies (1879, repub-
lished 1912) ; lectures on Axioms, on Plato's Timaeus (1889) and
on the Traversing of Geometrical Figures (1905).
WILSON, WOODROW (1856- ), twenty-eighth president
of the United States, was born in Staunton, Va., Dec. 28 1856.
He was baptized with the name of Thomas Woodrow Wilson. I
The Scotch strain predominated in his ancestry, for his paternal
grandfather came from county Down, in Ulster, and his maternal
grandfather, Thomas Woodrow, a graduate of Glasgow Univer- 1
sity, from Scotland. The stern Presbyterianism of his father, a
minister of small means but marked capacity as a theologian,
early influenced him and left an indelible mark upon his charac-
ter. His early years were spent in Georgia and South Carolina,
where he was deeply affected by the sufferings of the South during
the reconstruction period. In 1875 he entered Princeton, grad-
uating four years later. His record for scholarship in college
was not remarkable, but he was prominent in debating and
literary circles, and became student director of athletic sport.
WILSON, WOODROW
1017
His most notable achievement was an article written in his
senior year, and published in the International Review, which
analyzed unfavourably the procedure of Congress and formed
the basis of his more mature political principles. After study-
ing law in the University of Virginia and following a brief
attempt to practice in Atlanta, he decided to pursue his studies
in government and history at Johns Hopkins University, where
he received the degree of Ph.D. in 1886. His thesis, entitled
Congressional Government and published in 1885, was a develop-
ment of the attack upon Congressional methods, and because of
its clear and felicitous expression has been reprinted many times.
[n that year * he began his teaching career at Bryn Mawr College,
where he was associate professor of History and Political Econ-
omy until 1888; after two years as professor of the same at
Wesleyan, he entered the Princeton Faculty in 1890 as pro-
fessor of Jurisprudence and Political Economy. With slight
:hanges in title he served in this capacity until 1902, when he
aecame president of Princeton. As professor he rapidly achieved
distinction. His lectures were remarkable for clarity of presenta-
tion and brilliancy of phrasing, and the same qualities character-
.zed both his addresses and his published writings. His gift
s for generalization rather than plodding scholarship, and
ifter the publication of his thesis his happiest literary efforts
vere in essay form. They display keen critical capacity, but
ire not remarkable either for erudition or for striking creative
X)wer. As president of Princeton, Mr. Wilson devoted himself
:o serious reforms of the educational and social habits of the
mdergraduates. In the hope of elevating the standards of
cholarship and of increasing the efficiency of instruction, he
naugurated in 1905 the "preceptorial system," designed through
mall classes to bring teachers and students into the most inti-
nate relationship. In his endeavours to democratize the social
ife of the university he met determined opposition. Further
lifficulties developed from a disagreement with the dean of the
graduate College. Mr. Wilson's policies aroused warm con-
roversy among alumni, faculty, and undergraduates.
t While at Princeton, both as professor and as president, Mr.
[Vilson displayed great interest in political questions of the day,
Lnd through his addresses and articles speedily won a national
[eputation. In Sept. 1910 he was tendered the Democratic
jiomination for governor of New Jersey. The offer coming at
[he moment when the prospects for success of his policy at
Princeton seemed most discouraging, secured his ready accept-
l.nce. Resigning his academic position he entered upon an active
jlectoral campaign which won him the support of progressive
lements throughout the state, despite the fact that his candi-
Lacy had been inaugurated largely under the auspices of the con-
jervative Col. George Harvey (afterwards U.S. ambassador to
kreat Britain) and the Democratic state boss, Senator James
Imith. In Nov. he was elected by a plurality of 49,000, votes,
le at once made it plain that he intended, regardless of the
rotes ts of machine leaders, to fulfil his liberal pledges and would
.ssume the leadership of the party for this purpose. As governor he
uccessf ully carried through a series of reform measures. Of these
She most significant were: a Direct Primaries Law, which, supple-
aented by an effective Corrupt Practices Act, did much to
[mrify the political atmosphere of New Jersey; an Employers'
Liability Act; the creation of a Public Utilities Commission;
eform in municipal administration, making possible the adop-
jion of the commission form of government. Elections to the
Uate Senate and Assembly in 1911 gave the Republicans a ma-
[ arity in both Houses and the legislative output was curtailed.
Nevertheless his final activities as governor were characterized
ly the impetus which he gave to the passage of a series of bills,
.nown as the Seven Sisters, directed to the protection of the
'Ublic from exploitation by trusts.
When in June 1912 the Democratic National Convention met
j t Baltimore to choose a candidate for President, Mr. Wilson's
! eputation as an effective reformer had brought his name prom-
1 In 1885 he married Ellen Louise Axson of Savannah, Ga., who
ied in 1914, leaving three daughters. On Dec. 18 1915, he married
.ililh Boiling Gait of Washington, D.C.
inently before the delegates. The convention was apparently
controlled by conservative elements and there seemed little
chance of the nomination of an anti-machine progressive. But as
the struggle to secure the necessary two-thirds vote proceeded,
with the conservative forces divided between Champ Clark,
Harmon, and Underwood, Mr. W. J. Bryan, leader of the pro-
gressive elements threw his dominating influence in favour of Mr.
Wilson. It proved decisive, and on the 46th ballot he was nom-
inated, July 2 1912. In the campaign that followed he voiced
popular discontent with the conservatism of the Republican
administration, which he believed to have been too closely allied
with the interests of " privileged big business." His campaign
speeches, characterized by a striking phraseology, won much
applause, but were remarkable for their high moral tone rather
than for originality of thought or policy. Like Roosevelt he
demanded a national renaissance of ideals. In matters of im-
mediate concern, such as the tariff, trust regulation, currency,
the interests of labour, he insisted that the " rule of justice and
right " must be set up. As regarded the future, in matters of
conservation and trade, he asserted that great opportunities had
been lost through the interlacing of privilege and private advan-
tage with the framework of existing laws: " we must effect a great
readjustment and get the forces of the whole people once more
into play." His radicalism was of a mild sort and he insisted
that " we need no revolution, we need no excited change; we
need only a new point of view and a new method and spirit of
counsel." The popular temper was responsive to such a tone,
but success in large measure could hardly have come to him
except for the division of Republican forces through the cam-
paign of Theodore Roosevelt as Progressive candidate. In the
Nov. election Mr. Wilson received 435 electoral votes as against
88 for Roosevelt and 8 for Taft; but his popular vote was a
million less than that of his two chief opponents, and in only
14 states (all in the South) did he receive a clear majority.
Despite the fact that he was the choice of a minority of the
whole people, Mr. Wilson's political position when he assumed
office on March 4 1913 was one of remarkable strength. He was
supported by a Democratic majority in both Houses of Congress,
the Republicans were at loggerheads, and he might expect sup-
port from the Progressives for much of his reforming legislative
programme. His Cabinet was not distinguished, but it con-
tained certain elements of political and administrative strength,
which proved advantageous for the moment, although later it
was to become the mark for bitter criticism. The President soon
made it plain that he was determined, as in his governorship
of New Jersey, to exercise his personal influence and his position
as head of the party to initiate and carry through the legislation
he had advocated in his campaign. His ascendancy in Congress
was soon established. After convoking both Houses in special
session on April 7 1913, he delivered his first message in person,
reviving the custom that had lapsed since the administration
(1797) of the elder Adams. He intervened constantly during
this and later sessions, to further the legislation in which he
was especially interested.
The first important piece of legislation that resulted from
the special session was the Underwood Tariff Act, which was
passed in Sept. and signed by the President Oct. 3 1913. It
provided for a notable downward revision and naturally met
strong opposition from varied industrial interests. Such opposi-
tion was overcome largely through the personal efforts of Mr.
Wilson, who appealed constantly to public sentiment, notably
in an attack upon the activities of hostile lobbyists. The
Tariff Act, in addition to lower duties and important adminis-
trative changes, introduced an income tax long advocated by
Democrats which was destined in later developments to
counterbalance the loss of revenue resulting from the lowering
of the tariff; it weighed heavily upon the industrial interests of
the North and increased the growing unpopularity of the Presi-
dent in that region. The Tariff Act was followed by a broad
measure of currency reform, the Federal Reserve Act, signed
Dec. 23 1913; it is generally regarded as the administration's
second great "legislative triumph. Mr. Wilson's purpose was to
ioi8
WILSON, WOODROW
supplant the dictatorship of private banking institutions by a
reorganization that should provide funds available to meet
extraordinary demands and a currency that would expand and
contract automatically. Early in 1914 the President called
upon Congress to continue its labours of reform by the regula-
tion of the trusts. After long debate and warm opposition, his
appeal was answered by the passing of the Federal Trade Com-
mission Act and the Clayton Anti-trust Act. The latter, be-
sides perfecting anti-trust legislation in several ways, met the
demands of labour by declaring that labour was not a commod-
ity, by prohibiting injunctions in labour disputes unless neces-
sary to prevent irreparable injury, and by proclaiming that
strikes and boycotts were not violations of Federal law. It
further exempted labour associations from the anti-trust laws.
Mr. Wilson's policy of domestic social reform had thus been
developed with surprising legislative success during the first
year of his administration. His foreign policy was not so clear-
cut and aroused little enthusiasm. It was characterized by an
evident desire to concede the rights of other nations to the
limit and to avoid any stressing of the power of the United States
for the material advantage of its citizens. Definite steps were
taken to prepare the Filipinos for self-government. Pressure
was brought to bear upon the California state Government to
mitigate the severity of its anti-Japanese legislation. The
" dollar diplomacy " of the preceding administration was
repudiated and American bankers effectively discouraged from
participating in the international Chinese loans. As a result
of the President's personal demand, Congress repealed the law
exempting American coastwise shipping from Panama Canal
tolls. Mr. Wilson, however, failed to secure the Senate's rati-
fication of a treaty with Colombia, which contained a virtual
apology on the part of the United States and an offer to pay
$25,000,000 as reparation for the alleged grievances of Colombia
in connexion with the establishment of Panama as an independ-
ent country. In the Caribbean, Mr. Wilson's policy differed in
principle rather than practice from that of his predecessors;
in Nicaragua and Haiti the customs were taken over by U.S.
officials. By a treaty signed Sept. 16 1915, a virtual protecto-
rate of Haiti was assumed ; in Santo Domingo the precautionary
visits of American cruisers were followed in the summer of 1916
by the landing of marines, and in Nov. of that year by the proc-
lamation of a military government under American auspices.
Mr. Wilson's Mexican policy aroused heated criticism. Fol-
lowing the accession of Gen. Huerta to power and the Presi-
dent's failure to arrange a settlement providing for his elimina-
tion as dictator, Mr. Wilson resigned himself to what he called
a policy of " watchful waiting." Conditions in Mexico were
anarchical, and intervention was strongly urged by both Ameri-
can and European commercial interests. To formal interven-
tion the President was definitely opposed, but in April 1914 he
was compelled to authorize the occupation of Vera Cruz in
retaliation for affronts to American blue-jackets. The proffered
mediation of Argentina, Brazil and Chile he gladly accepted,
but the resulting protocol of Niagara Falls (June 24 1914) did
not provide a basis for peace. Although Huerta fled from
Mexico in July, the country continued to be torn by rival
factions. American troops were withdrawn from Vera Cruz
in Nov. 1914, but it was not until Oct. 1915 that the Govern-
ment of Carranza was recognized by Mr. Wilson, in company
with eight South and Central American Governments. Further
complications ensued. The raid into American territory of
Gen. Villa, March 9 1916, led Mr. Wilson to authorize a puni-
tive expedition, which soon aroused the protests of Carranza.
In May and June the President mobilized the National Guard
and sent a force of about 100,000 to patrol the Mexican border.
The crisis was tided over by a joint Mexican-American com-
mission sitting at New London, Conn., which brought no definite
settlement, but at least postponed hasty action on either side.
In Jan. 1917, the last American troops were withdrawn from
Mexican soil. The President's policy had not led to stable
conditions in Mexico, and the sole advantage secured seemed
to be the emphasis laid by the U.S. Government on the principle
that it would not take advantage of the misfortunes of a weak
neighbour for its own selfish profit.
Foreign affairs after July 1914 were naturally dominated by
the World War. President Wilson insisted upon a policy of
strict neutrality. This he emphasized not merely by formal
proclamation on Aug. 4, but by an address to the American
people of Aug. 18, in which he adjured them, in view of the
mixture of nationalities in the United States, to be impartial
in thought as well as action. His offer of mediation, made on
Aug. 5, remained without response, and further attempts at
mediation in early autumn proved fruitless. His determina-
tion to remain absolutely aloof from European quarrels was
underlined in several addresses, in which he insisted that the
United States was in no way concerned, and was further empha-
sized by his opposition to any change in its military policy.
America's vital interest in the struggle, however, soon became |
plain and resulted in diplomatic controversies with the belli-
gerents. Great Britain's attempt to control indirect importa- I
tion of goods into Germany, by an enlargement of contraband i
schedules and an extension of the doctrine of " continuous i
voyage " to conditional contraband, was vigorously opposed
by President Wilson, who authorized Mr. Bryan, his Secretary
of State, to protest in strong terms. A lengthy interchange
of notes folio wed, which led to no settlement (see INTERNATIONAL
LAW). The diplomatic controversy with Germany proved more
serious. The proclamation of a " war zone " about the British
Isles, in which German submarines threatened to destroy
enemy merchant vessels with consequent danger to the lives
and property of neutrals, was met by a note of Feb. 10 1915,
which warned Germany that she would be held to " strict
accountability " for the lawless acts of submarine commanders.
Mr. Wilson further attempted to find a compromise, based upon
a relaxation of the British food blockade and an abandonment
of the German submarine campaign. The effort failed and
was followed by a series of submarine attacks, which culminated
in the sinking of the " Lusitania," May 7 1915, with the loss of
over 100 American lives. The President, while he disappointed
opinion in the eastern states by a speech in which he reaffirmed
his pacific determination, stating that a man might be " too
proud to fight," at once set out to win from Germany a dis-
avowal and a promise that merchant ships should not be tor-
pedoed without warning and the saving of the lives of passen-
gers. A lengthy exchange of notes ensued; the pacific Mr.
Bryan, Secretary of State, regarding the President's language as
too strong, resigned; on the other hand Mr. Wilson's patience
with the evasions of the German Government and the continued
sinkings by submarines led to bitter attacks upon the Presi-
dent's policy of conciliation, which was stigmatized as anaemic
or even cowardly. Mr. Wilson succeeded, however, in securing
from Germany a promise not to sink liners without warning
(Sept. i rgi5), and continued his efforts to induce Germany to
abandon the submarine campaign completely. He was hampered
by an attempted revolt of Congressional leaders, who blurred
the issue with Germany by introducing resolutions designed to
prevent Americans from travelling upon belligerent ships. The
President, through his personal influence, secured the defeat of
these resolutions in Feb. 1916, insisting that he would not con-
sent " to any abridgment of the rights of American citizens in j
any respect." Shortly afterwards the issue with Germany was
brought to a head by the sinking of the " Sussex," March 24
1916. Mr. Wilson waited three weeks before sending a formal.
note of protest to Germany (April 19 1916) but couched it in !
the form of an ultimatum, stating that unless Germany should
immediately declare and effect an abandonment of its present j
methods of submarine warfare, the United States would be com-
pelled to sever diplomatic relations. The German answer, |
while attempting to make acceptance conditional upon Great
Britain's relaxation of the blockade, was in effect a promise not
to sink merchant ships without warning and without saving;
human lives. The submarine issue now seemed less critical.
The diplomatic victory thus apparently secured by Mr.
Wilson was utilized in his behalf during the electoral campaign
WILSON, WOODROW
1019
of 1916, in which he was inevitably the Democratic candidate.
It enabled his supporters to declare that he had vindicated the
rights of the United States successfully, and at the same time
had " kept us out of war." The slogan made a strong appeal,
especially in the districts of the Middle West. The Republicans,
on the other hand, who had nominated Charles E. Hughes,
criticized the whole foreign policy of the President. They in-
sisted that he had failed to take prompt action for the protection
of American lives and honour, alike in his dealings with Germany
and in his handling of the Mexican crisis. They characterized
his domestic policy as demagogic, instancing the Clayton Act
and the Adamson Act; the latter had been urged on Congress
by Mr. Wilson to avert a railroad strike in Sept. 1916, and
many citizens regarded it as an untimely surrender to labour
threats. They also criticized his attitude on " preparedness,"
to which the President had been opposed until the close of 1915,
and ridiculed the cautious expansion of military and naval
j forces provided for in the National Defense Act of 1916. In the
east and in most industrial centres of the middle west, Mr.
Wilson was unpopular, but the election showed his strength in
the farming districts west of the Mississippi and on the Pacific
coast; in spite of Mr. Roosevelt's return to the Republican fold
the President drew largely from the Progressives, and on election
| day received a slight electoral majority over Mr. Hughes (277
j to 254) and a popular plurality of 9,129,606 to 8,538,221.
His re-election enabled Mr. Wilson to proceed with plans for
I peace proposals to the European belligerents. These he had
I been preparing since the early summer of 1916, and, regardless
of the German peace balloon of Dec. 12 1916, he sent on Dec. 18
i identical notes to the belligerents, asking them to state the
' terms upon which they would consider peace. Informed of the
[ undercurrents of German military circles, he evidently feared
that if the war continued, the United States would necessarily
[become involved; he also hoped that a clear definition of war
aims would strengthen pacific elements in both belligerent
[camps. The German reply was evasive; that of the Allies
refused to consider peace until Germany should offer " complete
, restitution, full reparation, and effectual guarantees." The
replies gave the President opportunity to expound what he had
come to believe was the only sure basis of an enduring peace.
|This he did in a speech of Jan. 22 1917, in which he insisted that
he peace must be organized by the major force of mankind,
i thus emphasizing the need of a League of Nations; that no
[nation should extend its policy over another nation; that no
ne Power should dominate the land or the sea. There must be a
nitation of armaments. As a guarantee of future peace and
slice, the ending of the existing war must not be the violation
E the rights of one side or the other: it must be " a peace without
ictory." Further efforts to secure a peaceful arrangement
ere frustrated by the determination of the German militarist
Jique to renew the submarine warfare, regardless of the effect
i the United States. On Jan. 31, the German ambassador, von
Sernstorff, delivered a note to this effect, and four days later
he President handed him his papers. He still, however, avoided
formal war with Germany, and on Feb. 26 asked for a resolution
armed neutrality, which would permit the arming of Amer-
an merchant ships for entrance into the barred sea zone. The
olution was blocked by a filibuster. Finally, in view of con-
nued sinking of American ships, the President came to Con-
> on April 2 1917, and asked for a declaration that a state of
warfare existed with Germany. The resolution was passed by
he Senate on April 4, by the House on April 6.
President Wilson had always abhorred the exercise of force
i international relations, and the war which he at last regarded
i necessary was, in his mind, a war to ensure peace. Neverthe-
ss he was determined that it should be waged efficiently and
at the mistakes of previous wars should not be repeated,
hose mistakes, he believed, had resulted chiefly from the inter-
xture of politics in military affairs, and from the decentraliza-
on of the American military machine. He opposed a coalition
ar cabinet, as leading to divided responsibility. Military
olicy was handed over to the military experts. He approved
the immediate development of the general staff as the centraliz-
ing military organ, and it was upon the recommendation of that
body that he urged, against the wish of Congressional leaders,
the Selective Service Act. On the advice of the general staff he
appointed Gen. John J. Pershing commander of the expedi-
tionary force to France, and, also following that advice, he
refused to authorize a volunteer force under Mr. Roosevelt.
Similarly the plans for the development of a large army in France
were inaugurated and translated into fact by the military experts.
As regards conduct of operations the President gave to Gen.
Pershing complete authority, and permitted no interference by
politicians. In the building of the new army, the President
took no direct part, but he used his authority consistently to
favour centralization under the general staff. He followed a
similar policy in the mobilization of the industrial resources of
the nation. He encouraged the centralizing efforts of the
Council of National Defense and its committees, and sought
always to secure for them executive rather than the merely
advisory powers which they at first possessed. He urged the
Lever Act, which in Aug. 1917 created a Food and a Fuel Admin-
istration, and advocated the taking over of the railroads by the
Government in Dec. His policy of economic centralization
was ultimately assisted by the many protests against his war
policies which were made in the winter, and which centred
round the demand for a non-partizan war cabinet or ministry of
munitions; for his supporters were able to insist that the more
effective handling of war problems demanded not new machin-
ery but greater efficiency of the existing mechanism. The
President asked for powers to cut through red tape and rearrange
bureaus without reference to Congress. His demands were
embodied in the Overman Act, which was passed in May 1918,
and which enabled him to grant executive powers to the various
boards that had been created. The War Industries Board,
released from its dependence upon the Council of National
Defense, at once became the centralizing organ of the economic
activities of the country. In his war appointments Mr. Wilson
disregarded party lines, a notable fact since in political appoint-
ments he always showed himself strictly a party man. Repub-
licans such as Hoover, Stettinius, Goethals, Schwab, Vanderlip,
were chosen because of their administrative qualities and regard-
less of political'affiliations.
During the war President Wilson consistently developed his
ideals of a new international system which should perpetuate
peace and assure justice and security to every nation regardless
of its material strength. He hoped thus not merely to construct
a basis for just peace when the war should end, but to hasten the
end of the war by appealing to the peoples of the enemy states
against their Governments. The most notable of his speeches
was that of Jan. 8 1918, in which he stated 14 points necessary
to a just and lasting peace. This, with his later addresses, was
ultimately accepted as the basis of the final settlement. Their
effect in Germany and Austria-Hungary was not apparent until
the military defeat of those empires, but his words acted con-
tinually as a corroding factor, weakening the enemy's deter-
mination to fight. When in the autumn of 1918 they faced mili-
tary defeat, they turned to Mr. Wilson offering to accept his
Fourteen Points as the basis of peace. The President's insist-
ence upon justice as an essential to a lasting settlement had
brought him great prestige in Allied countries, but the chiefs of
the Allied Governments hesitated to accept the Fourteen Points
in the fear that the material advantages of the victory might be
thrown away. They yielded, however, to the persuasive diplo-
macy of Col. House, who represented the President at Paris, and
it was on the understanding that the Fourteen Points (reserva-
tion made of " Freedom of the Seas " and inclusion of Germany's
promise to make full reparation) should be the basis of the
peace that the Armistice was granted to Germany. 1 The Presi-
dent realized, however, that it would be difficult to translate his
principles into the actual treaty. Aside from the opposition he
might expect from selfish nationalistic interests among the
1 The Fourteen Points are set forth in full in the article WORLD
WAR, under the subhead Political History.
IO2O
WILSON, WOODROW
Allies, he lacked unified support at home, where his political
opponents called for a " strong peace " that would annihilate
Germany; there was little enthusiasm for a League of Nations,
which the President regarded as essential to a just and lasting
settlement. Furthermore he had weakened his political position
at home by a series of tactical mistakes. Of these, the most
important was an appeal issued immediately before the Con-
gressional election of Nov., in which Mr. Wilson asked the
voters to cast their ballots for Democratic candidates, on the
ground that a Republican Congress would divide the leader-
ship at the moment of international crisis. Such an appeal
would have been comprehensible if it had been made by a prime
minister in a parliamentary country, but Wilson had proclaimed
himself the leader of the nation and could not logically also play
the r61e of party leader. The Republicans seemed to have some
ground for complaining that although they had submerged
partizan quarrels during the war, President Wilson was now
attempting to capitalize the war and foreign affairs in order to
win a partizan advantage. Many voters were antagonized by
the appeal, and the elections went in favour of the Republicans.
The President thus lost command of the Senate in the next Con-
gress and its Foreign Relations Committee was to be controlled
by his political and other opponents. Believing that his pres-
ence at the Peace Conference was necessary, if it was not to be
dominated by old-style diplomatic practices, Mr. Wilson de-
cided himself to go to Paris, and on Dec. 4 1918 sailed with the
other members of the American Commission on the " George
Washington." He arrived at Brest on Dec. 13, and was received
at Paris, in England, and at Rome with tremendous enthusiasm.
For the moment he was the popular hero, both in Allied and
enemy countries. But his prestige rested on a precarious
footing, and must inevitably diminish when he came to oppose
the national aspirations of any people. He was anxious, there-
fore, to strike off a quick general peace, leaving details for later
settlement;' but this proved impossible, and formal con-
versations at Paris began only in Jan. 1919. The President
succeeded in winning an early victory when he persuaded the
conference to accept the principle of the League of Nations as the
basis of the peace, and when, on Feb. 14, he won unanimous
approval of the preliminary draft of the covenant. On return-
ing to the United States, however, he found Republican opposi-
tion to the league strongly manifested in the Senate, although
he had the support of Mr. Taft's influence in that party and in
the country. Public opinion seemed to be uninstructed and
apathetic as to the President's policies. Going back to Paris
in March, he was able to secure the insertion in the covenant of
certain amendments required by American sentiment, and the
approval by the conference of the final draft of the covenant.
But he was confronted by the demands of the French, Italians
and Japanese for territorial and economic concessions from
the enemy, which he regarded as excessive. Long discussions
followed, culminating in Mr. Wilson's acceptance of a portion of
the Allied demands, notably the granting of Shantung to the
Japanese, of much of the frontier line promised by the Treaty of
London to Italy, and the exaction from Germany of what
amounted to a blank cheque in the matter of reparations. Such
concessions aroused the opposition of liberals in England and
America, who insisted that the President had surrendered his
principles. Mr. Wilson, on the other hand, acknowledging
that certain aspects of the settlement were not ideal, believed
that he had won his main contention in securing the League of
Nations, which provided the mechanism for eradicating the
vices contained in the treaties. In this belief he was supported
by another liberal protagonist, Gen. Smuts. On June 29 1919,
the day following the signing of the Versailles Treaty, the
President sailed for America. His international prestige had
suffered from his opposition to national claims, especially that of
the Italians to Fiume and of the French to the left bank of the
Rhine. Nevertheless, as the bitterness of the moment passed,
the magnitude of his accomplishments at Paris became more
generally recognized. When the veil of secrecy surrounding the
negotiations was gradually lifted, it was seen that the belief that
he had been outmanoeuvred by Lloyd George and Clemenceau
was hardly justified by the facts. Lacking the negotiating
ability of Lloyd George and the political experience of Clemen-
ceau, he refused to enter the diplomatic lists with them, but
by his manifest candour and sincerity early disarmed his oppo-
nents in argument. He said exactly what was in his mind, and
was careful that his statements should be fortified by the docu-
ments and statistics furnished by his expert advisers.
The strain of the conference had told upon Mr. Wilson's physical
and nervous strength. He was thus not well equipped to wage
the struggle with his Republican opponents in the Senate which
developed upon his presentation of the treaty. Had the Presi-
dent been willing to compromise and accept reservations to the
covenant of the league, it is possible that the two-thirds neces-
sary to ratification might have been secured. This course he
refused to follow, and it soon became clear that the Foreign
Relations Committee would not recommend ratification without
serious reservations or amendments. In the hope of winning
popular support, the President set forth upon a tour of the
country and along the Pacific coast aroused enthusiasm in marked
contrast to the coldness of the east. The effort, however, over-
taxed his strength, and on Sept. 26 at Wichita, Kan., the Pres-
ident was compelled to give over his tour and return to Washing-
ton, where he suffered a complete nervous collapse. The exact
nature of his illness was not made public and few realized how
serious it would prove to be. Many, however, felt that in view
of his inevitable abstention from active work, it would have
been wiser for him to retire at least temporarily. As it was,
his system had provided for no understudy and the administra-
tion was left without a leader. Entirely apart from the confu-
sion thus caused in the conduct of the public business, Mr.
Wilson's illness led directly to the defeat of the treaty. There
was no one else capable either of leading the fight for ratification
without reservations, or with sufficient authority to arrange a
compromise. On Nov. 14 the Senate adopted reservations
which Mr. Wilson declared would " nullify " (etc., etc.) the
treaty; for this reason he urged the Democrats to refuse to vote j
for the ratifying resolution, which was accordingly defeated on ,
Nov. 19 1919. During the succeeding weeks efforts were made
to arrange a compromise. The Republican leaders agreed to j
soften the language of certain reservations, and the President
intimated that he would accept a mild reservation on Article
X. of the covenant, which had aroused the chief opposition.
Neither side would yield enough, and when on March 19 1920, |
the final vote was taken on the ratifying resolution, which con- 1
tained a strong reservation on Article X., Mr. Wilson again
urged Democratic senators not to accept. The resolution thus ;
failed of the necessary two-thirds by a margin of seven votes, ;
57-37. The President appealed to the autumn presidential
election in 1920 as the decisive plebiscite. Although he had
lost his former control of the party, and the Democratic prcsi- ,
dcntial nominee at San Francisco was not his choice, the!
Wilsonian policies, including approval of the League of Nations, :
were inevitably the issue of the elections. In the electioneering!
campaign, however, the President himself could take no active!
part, for his physical collapse proved so serious as to confine 1
him to the White House. For the overwhelming victory won:
by the Republicans, see UNITED STATES (History). After his
defeat Mr. Wilson kept close silence on public matters, and his
annual message of Dec. 1920, while it sounded the note of
national duty, made no reference to that which lay nearest his^
heart the League of Nations. This silence, indeed, he pre-j
served until the close of his administration, March 4 1921.
In Dec. 1920 he had been awarded the Nobel Peace prize.
The failure of President Wilson to win the approval of the!
United States for his peace policies presents one of the most
interesting problems of American history. He had led the
country through the difficult period of a war unsurpassed in
magnitude and culminating in complete victory; in the face of
serious obstacles he had forced European statesmen to accept
the major item in his programme; he returned home only to bei
repudiated by his own people. Personal and partizan factors
WIMBORNE WINCHESTER
1021
unquestionably contributed to his defeat. In private inter-
course Mr. Wilson displayed a personal magnetism, a breadth
culture, and a genial cordiality that are amply attested
by his intimates. But in public life he proved unable to capital-
ize such advantages, possibly because of natural shyness, possi-
bly because physical delicacy restricted his social activities.
Roosevelt's capacity for " mixing " with all political and human
; types he totally lacked. In the formation of his policies he
isolated himself and was unable to establish close relations with
Congressional leaders. This gave rise to the impression that the
President disliked advice, was an ego-centric autocrat, and
immediately dispensed with anyone who disagreed with him.
| Such criticism, by no means a novelty in the case of strong-
willed presidents, was utilized by his political opponents and
intensified his unpopularity in the industrial centres, especially
'of the east, an unpopularity which, except for a few months
during the opening months of the war, was an outstanding
factor in the political situation. Broadly speaking, the criticism
does not seem to be fully justified. In matters of what he
regarded as principle he was adamant, and he distrusted the
judgment of those whose basic point of view was different from
his own; but the evidence of those who worked with him, includ-
ing that of Republican advisers at Paris, is almost unanimous
to the effect that he was anxious to secure advice, was tolerant
of opinions, and glad to delegate responsibility. The contrary
belief was doubtless fostered by Mr. Wilson's inability to build
up an efficient secretarial organization, and his incapacity,
rather than unwillingness, to apportion effectively the details
of administrative labour. His handling of war problems shows
clearly his desire to delegate responsibility; once an appoint-
toent was made he refused to interfere and consistently pro-
tected his appointee from the importunities of politicians.
Political responsibility in general, he believed, should rest
iwith the President. From conviction, rather than from egotism,
ihe sought to emancipate the presidential office from the con-
tool of Congressional committees, a control which he earnestly
'deplored in his earliest writings. The President, he felt, should
be the real leader of the nation, and not a mere executive super-
intendent. The Cabinet he looked on as an executive and not
as a political council, and it was always strictly subordinated to
his policies. So long as the Democrats held the majority in
Congress he was able to translate such ideas into fact, and
<ffectively disposed of all attempted Congressional revolts.
This attitude naturally did not allay the political resentments
which were inevitably aroused and which were intensified by
Mr. Wilson's tendency to regard political opposition as tanta-
mount to personal hostility; when the Democratic majority dis-
appeared he faced uncompromising hostility. He was intensely
impatient of partizan obstruction of his idealistic plans, and
(there is much of the Calvinist in his refusal to temporize or
deviate from the path which he believed himself appointed to
tread. While in matters of detail he showed at times some
capacity for compromise, in matters of principle he displayed
the unswerving determination characteristic of the prophet, a
trait that is not always conducive to success in the exigencies of
modern party warfare. Indeed it is as a prophet, rather than
las a statesman that Mr. Wilson should be regarded. No one
; has preached more effectively the necessity of introducing a
moral standard into international politics.
The following are the most important writings of President Wilson :
{Congressional Government, a Study in American Politics (1885);
\The State Elements of Historical and Practical Politics (1889);
JKoision and Reunion, 1829-1889 (1893); An Old Master and Other
\Political Essays (1893); Mere Literature and Other Essays (1893);
\George Washington (1896); A History of thi American People (1902);
\Constitutional Government in the United States (1908) ; The New
\Freedom (1913); On Being Human (1916); International Ideals
(1919). Personal and political biographies of President Wilson have
been written by H. J. Ford, Woodrow Wilson: The Man and His
[Work (1916); by H. W. Harris, President Wilson: His Problems
\ind His Policy (1917); by W. E. Dodd, Woodrow Wilson and His
*Work (1920); and by his private secretary, Joseph P. iumulty,
'oodrow Wilson as I Know Him (1921). All four are eulogistic,
lecially the last two named. General surveys of Wilson s foreign
olicy are to be found in E. E. Robinson and V. J. West s The Foreign
Policy of President Wilson, 1913-191? (1917); and in Charles Sey-
mour's Woodrow Wilson and the World War (1921). Editions of
President Wilson's State papers have been made by Albert Shaw,
President Wilson's State Papers and Addresses (1917); by J. B.
Scott, President Wilson's Foreign Policy; and Messages, Addresses,
Papers. (C. SEY.)
WIMBORNE, IVOR BERTIE GUEST, IST BARON (1835-1914),
British politician, was born at Dowlais Aug. 29 1835, the eldest
son of Sir Josiah John Guest, ist bart., of the firm of Guest,
Keen & Nettlefold (the Dowlais Iron Works). He was educated
at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, and afterwards
devoted himself to the management of his large property. He
succeeded his father as 2nd bart. in 1852. He stood for Parlia-
ment as a Conservative several times between 1874 and 1880,
and in the latter year was raised to the peerage. During the
Tariff Reform controversy he seceded from the Conservative
party, and afterwards sat in the House of Lords as a Liberal.
He died at Canford Manor, Dorset, Feb. 22 1914. Lord Wim-
borne married in 1868 Lady Cornelia Spencer Churchill, eldest
daughter of the yth Duke of Marlborough.
Lord Wimborne's eldest son, IVOR CHURCHILL GUEST, was
born Jan. 16 1873, and was educated at Eton and Trinity
College, Cambridge. He unsuccessfully contested Plymouth
in the Liberal interest in 1898 and served in S. Africa with
the Dorsetshire yeomanry in 1900. In 1900 he was elected for
Plymouth, holding the seat until 1906, and from 1906 to 1010
sat for Cardiff. In 1910 he was raised to the peerage as Baron
Ashby St. Ledgers and sworn of the privy council, while from
1910 to 1912 he was paymaster-general. He became Lord-in-
waiting to King George V. in 1913, and in 1914 succeeded his
father as 2nd Baron Wimborne. In 1915 he became lord lieu-
tenant of Ireland, but resigned in May 1916, after the Irish
rebellion. He was, however, reappointed in Aug. 1916, and
remained in Ireland till May 1918, when he was on his retire-
ment created a viscount. He was well known as an enthusiastic
sportsman and polo player, and to him was due the organiza-
tion of the polo team which defeated the U.S.A. in the inter-
national match at Meadowbrook, Long Island, in June 1914.
WINCHESTER, England (see 28.704). The pop. increased
from 23,378 in 1911 to 23,791 in 1912. In 1912 the necessary
work for preserving the cathedral by underpinning the walls
and laying new foundations (undertaken in 1905) was com-
pleted, and on July 15 of that year the King and Queen attended
a great Thanksgiving Service at the cathedral. The total cost
of restoration was 113,000, raised by voluntary subscriptions.
As much of the work had to be carried out under water varying
in depth from 6 to 20 ft., a diver was employed continuously
f r 5i years to lay down cement concrete at the base of the
new foundations. The work was carried out by Sir Thomas
Jackson and Sir Francis Fox. During 1919-21 a large part of
the ancient stained glass in the cathedral was also restored.
In 1918 a find of iron currency bars of the early iron age was made
on Worthy Down, near Winchester, and, in excavations near the
same spot in 1920, some " pit dwellings " were located, the area
appearing to be the site of a settlement of that age. The objects
found were placed in the city museum. A number ofother objects of
archaeological interest have been unearthed, including a portion of a
stone column with its capital and dedication stone to Carinus (A.D.
283-4), the only inscription to that Emperor as yet found in Great
Britain. In 1919 the valuable Dale collection of prehistoric and Ro-
man antiquities was purchased and placed in the museum, and the
Rosehill collection of prehistoric remains was transferred to the
Tudor House museum at Southampton. A map of ancient Winches-
ter, indicating all existing ancient and historic buildings and the
sites of those no longer in existence, was issued by the Ordnance
Survey in 1920.
A site of 100 ac. in the St. Cross district of the city has been
planned on self-contained garden city lines, on which 560
houses were in course of erection in 1921. New county council
offices for the county of Hampshire, on Castle Hill, were opened
in 191 1. The guildhall was extended in 1914, and the old
Tudor Guildhall restored in 1915. A chamber of commerce was
established in 1919. During the World War Winchester was a
prominent military centre, and some 50,000 troops, including
Canadians and Americans, were continually in training there.
IO22
WINGATE WIRELESS
WINGATE, SIR FRANCIS REGINALD (1861- ), British
general and administrator in the Sudan (see 28.729). In Dec.
1916 he was appointed High Commissioner for Egypt and
relinquished the governorship of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,
after a successful administration during 16 years. At the
beginning of 1919 Sir Reginald Wingate was summoned to
London to report on the situation which had arisen in Egypt, and
he remained there many months at the disposal of the Govern-
ment until his resignation in Oct. 1919. He had received the
G.B.E. in Jan. 1918, and was created a baronet in June 1920.
WINNIPEG (see 28.731), the capital of the Canadian province
of Manitoba, had a pop. at the close of 1920 estimated at 198,000
(271,958 including suburbs). The Dominion census of 1911
gave a pop. of 136,035. Winnipeg is the great commercial
metropolis of western Canada, its importance having been
enhanced since 1911 by the completion of the Grand Trunk
Pacific Railway (which later became a part of the Canadian
National Railways system). The Hudson Bay railway, in*
tended to link Winnipeg with Port Nelson on Hudson Bay and
thus to provide an outlet by sea through the summer months
for the produce of the west, was still under construction in 1921.
Begun as a private enterprise, it had been taken over by the
Canadian National Railways system: its completion was ex-
pected to improve further Winnipeg's position as the trade
outlet of the west. As the wholesale centre for the prairie
provinces Winnipeg housed in 1920 5,000 commercial travellers
representing an annual wholesale turnover that exceeded
$300,000,000. The assessed value of property in'the city that
year was $259,419, 520. After 191 1 Winnipeg grew in importance
as a manufacturing centre, and in 1920 had 513 factories and in-
dustrial plants, including flour mills, packing houses, structural
steel works, rolling mills, tanneries, sugar refineries, clothing,
harness, soap, jewellery and dye factories, etc. The output of
its industries in 1917 amounted to $98,101,632. The almost
unlimited power resources of the Winnipeg river, 100 m. away,
led to a scheme for an extensive hydro-electric system, to develop
175,000 H.P., which was in course of construction in 1921. The
Civic Power Electric Co. had developed 60,000 H.P., and the
Winnipeg Electric Railways had developed 30,000 and had
50,000 under construction in 1921. The building of the Grand
Trunk Pacific Railway, Canada's third trans-continental rail-
way, in the years following 1911, opened an important phase
in Winnipeg's history. The company's extensive railway shops
were located at Winnipeg, and the Fort Garry Hotel was erected
by the railway in the heart of the city.
WINTER, JOHN STRANGE (MRS. ARTHUR STANNARD) (1856-
1911), English writer (see 28.734), died in London Dec. 13 1911.
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY (see 26.529).
Wireless telegraphy and telephony (also called radiotelegraphy
and radiotelephony) made enormous progress between 1910 and
1921. This was due chiefly to the improvements and advances,
effected in three great inventions, viz.: the three-electrode
thermionic tube developed out of the Fleming oscillation rectify-
ing valve, the high frequency alternator, and the Poulsen arc
generator of continuous waves. The first of these has given a
means of detecting electric waves of immense sensitivity, and
also a most effective and easily managed generator of continuous
electric waves. The second has provided machines for creating
high frequency electric currents, and therefore electric waves,
of great power, enabling large long-distance radio stations to be
equipped which can signal to any part of the world by day or
night. The third has also given an alternative method of generat-
ing high-power continuous waves. These generating and receiv-
ing appliances quite revolutionized wireless telegraphy and made
wireless telephony possible not merely as an experimental feat,
but as a practically useful art. In addition to these inventions
there have been others such as directive radiotelegraphy, and
wire-guided high frequency telegraphy and telephony of immense
utility. The application of the thermionic valve in ordinary
wire telephony as a repeater is also bringing about improvements
of very great importance. Contemporaneously with these
achievements investigations have been made of a more scientific
character arising out of the study of the nature of electric wave
propagation round our globe and of the causes of atmospheric
disturbances, called " strays," which have always been the
great obstacle to practical radiotelegraphy.
We shall consider briefly the nature of these improvements
in turn.
High Frequency Alternators. It had become clear by 1904 or
1905 that the use of continuous waves in radiotelegraphy would
have marked advantages over the then employed damped wave
trains produced by condenser discharges, and would be essential
for the accomplishment of radiotelephony. The most obvious
method of producing such continuous waves (C.W.) was by
some form of high frequency alternator. At that time, when wave
lengths of 300 to 3,000 metres or 1,000 to 10,000 ft. were mostly
in use, this meant the design of machines giving alternating
currents having a frequency of 1,000,000 to 100,000,000, and
such frequencies seemed unattainable by any ordinary alternator
construction as long as the revolving part of the alternator had
to carry coils of wire. In low frequency alternating current
dynamos, generating currents, reversed 50 to 200 times a second,
there is an electromagnet which provides a constant magnetic
field through which field coils of wire arc moved so as to generate
in the latter an alternating current. Either the field coils or the
armature coils may be the rotating portion. In the case of
alternators required to produce high frequency currents (20,000
to 100,000) it is impossible to rotate coil-wound armatures or
fields at the necessary speed, and the most usual solution of the
problem is to construct inductor alternators in which the moving
part consists merely of a disk or drum of steel with teeth or ridges
on its edge or surface, which serve to change the magnetic flux
through stationary armature coils, the field coil also being fixed.
We can then balance such a drum or disk and so fashion its edge
that it can be rotated at a high speed safely. With the increase
in capacity and wave length of the aerial wires or antennae
requisite for long distance power stations, frequencies between
20,000 and 100,000 came into use, and attention was again
directed to the design of alternators giving such frequencies.
M. Latour has classified these machines into: (i) alternators
in cascade, (2) internal cascade alternators, (3) homopolar or
inductor alternators, (4) variable reluctance alternators, and
(5) alternators with partial utilization of periphery. Although
Bethenod in France constructed in 1912 a small machine of type
(i), the first alternators of type (2) of 100 kilowatt output, or
so, were constructed by R. Goldschmidt about 1912.
In machines of types (i) and (2) we start with the production
of a single-phase alternating current of some moderate frequency,
say 10,000, and multiply it up to much higher frequencies by taking
advantage of a well-known principle called Fresnel's theorem. If
there be two equal vectors represented by lines of equal length,
which are pivoted to one point and revolve with equal angular
velocities in opposite directions, their resultant is a line of constant
direction but periodically varying magnitude with amplitude twice
the size of that of the revolving vectors. Hence an alternating
magnetic field of constant direction may be resolved into two fields
of constant magnitude but rotating in opposite directions, each of
half the maximum amplitude of the alternating field. If then we pass
a direct electric current through the field coils of an alternator
and induce in the revolving armature an alternating current say
of 10,000 frequency the field due to this armature current may be
resolved into two oppositely rotating fields, one of which is sta-
tionary as regards the field magnets and the other cuts them with
twice the angular velocity of the rotor. This gives rise to a cur-
rent of twice the frequency in the field coils. The field due to this
latter current can again be resolved into two oppositely rotating
fields and these induce currents of still higher frequency in the
rotor coils. We can so build up currents of frequencies in the ratio
of I, 2, 4, etc. The currents of intermediate frequency can be
taken up in circuits comprising capacity and inductance tuned to
these frequencies respectively. The current of the highest fre-
quency can be put into an aerial wire and employed to radiate
long electric waves of corresponding wave length.
High frequency alternators of the above description were
built for the radio station established at Tuckerton, N.J., in
correspondence with a similarly equipped one at Eilvese, near
Hanover in Germany, and used for trans-Atlantic transmission
from about 1912 up to the time of the entrance of the United
States into the World War. <
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY
1023
The third type of high frequency (H.F.) alternator, called the
homopolar inductor alternator, is represented by the machines
of E.F.W. Alexanderson with disk rotor, and Bethenod-Latour
and the Societe Francaise Radio-Elcctrique with drum rotor.
The principle of these alternators is as follows: a fixed ring-
shaped frame or stator has inwardly projecting teeth of laminated
iron, and a ringshaped magnetizing coil traversed by a direct excit-
1 ing current causes magnetic flux to spring across from the teeth on
one side (N. poles) to the teeth on the other side (S. poles). This
flux traverses the air gap. Over these teeth is a zig-zag armature
winding. Between the teeth in the Alexanderson machine revolves
a steel disk with teeth cut in the periphery (see fig. I and fig. la).
parallel, thus giving to the aerial 500 or 600 kilowatts of electric
power. Also similar machines are employed in the large French
radio station at Croix-d'Hins near Bordeaux, and are installed in
the very large French radio station at St. Assise, near Melun, which
began to be erected in 1921. Alexanderson alternators of 200 kilo-
watt power are installed at the American naval radio station at
New Brunswick, N.J. This station communicates with Stavanger
radio station in Norway (3,554 m.) with Lyons (3,845 m.) and
Nauen, near Berlin (3,958 m.) (see fig. l).
The Arc Generator. We must next mention the improvements
made in connexion with the Duddell-Poulsen arc generator. In
this appliance an electric arc is formed with a direct current
FIGS. I (left hand) and la (right hand). FIG. I, 200 kilowatt Alexanderson high frequency alternator, driven by an electric motor.
FIG. la. Half section of the Alexanderson high frequency alternator ; showing the inductor disk which revolves between the stator poles.
(By permission of The Wireless Press.)
(The number of teeth in the rotor is half the number of teeth on
teach side of the stator. These rotor teeth as they pass between the
stator teeth decrease the reluctivity of the air gap and increase the
magnetic flux passing. Hence as the rotor revolves the magnetic
flux linked with the armature circuit is alternately increased and
I decreased. This creates an electromotive force and a high fre-
[quency current in the armature circuit. The only revolving part
jof the machine is thus a well-balanced rigid steel disk. The field
'exciting coil and the armature coil are both stationary. Such
i machines are called in English inductor alternators and in French
I homopolar alternators.
In the Bethenod-Latour machines the inductor is in the form of
a steel drum with exterior of laminated iron in which longitudinal
grooves are ploughed out. The stator ring has inward radially
pointing laminated iron teeth on both edges, and the magnetic
iflux, leaving one set of teeth (N. poles), passes down through the
drum teeth and up again into the other set of stator teeth (S. poles).
The ridges on the drum serve to increase and decrease the flux
through the armature wire which is wound zig-zag on both sets
of stator teeth.
The peculiarity of the French machine is that the rotor or drum
has many more ridges or teeth on it than the stator ring. By this
hre can obtain the necessary high frequency without dangerous
peripheral speed in the rotor, and yet leave plenty of space for the
armature winding placed on the stator teeth.
On account of the few turns in the armature such machines
Igive a small electromotive force, but this can be raised by suit-
able static transformers, one secondary terminal of which is con-
nected to the radiating antennae and the other to the earth plates.
The aerial wire is then tuned to the frequency of the alternator and
'the necessary wave length. A point of importance is the exact
regulation of the speed of the machines which must be kept con-
stant to within o-l % of the normal. This is achieved by the use
tof very sensitive governors which control the speed of the direct
coupled electric motor which drives the alternator. The signals
are made in the case of the Alexanderson machines by varying
the inductance of a tertiary coil on the transformer which trans-
fers the energy from the aerial to a non-radiative circuit. By
| placing condensers in-series with the H.F. alternators it has been
; found possible to run them in parallel, that is two or more together
Must as in the case of low frequency alternators in electric lighting
ind power stations.
High frequency homopolar alternators of the Bethenod-Latour
type have been built by the Societe Francaise Radio-Electrique
up to 220 kilowatts size for the French military radio station_at
La Doua, near Lyons. To avoid loss of power by air churning
these machines are enclosed in an air-tight case in which a partial
vacuum is maintained. The speed of the machines is controlled
by a Thury governor, and signals are made by short circuiting the
armature coils in sections. Two or more machines can be run in
between a water-cooled copper electrode (the positive terminal)
and a carbon negative electrode. The arc is inclosed in a chamber
filled with coal-gas or kerosene or alcohol vapour, and a powerful
transverse magnetic field is made across it (see fig. 2). If the
FIG. 2. 25 kilowatt Poulsen arc generator of electric oscillations;
showing the electromagnet and arrangement for dropping alcohol
into the arc box. (By permission of Marconi's Wireless Tele-
graph Co., Ltd.)
arc terminals are shunted by a circuit containing a condenser
and an inductance coil, high frequency oscillatory currents will
be set up in this latter circuit under certain conditions. Their
1024
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY
energy can be inductively transferred to an aerial wire so as to
radiate continuous electric waves from it. The arc must be in a
certain active condition determined by its length and the strength
of the magnetic field in order to produce oscillations. Many
investigations have been made to elucidate the working of this
oscillation-producing arc.
A fairly complete list of these papers is given by P. O. Peder-
sen in the Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers (United
States), vol. v, p. 255, Aug. 1917.
In order that the arc may be active, i.e. produce oscillations in
the condenser circuit, it must be drawn out to a certain length, and
the transverse magnetic field must have a certain optimum value,
which depends upon the density of the gas in which it is immersed
and on the frequency of the oscillations and the strength of the
direct current feeding the arc.
Under best conditions the effective or root mean square value
of the oscillatory current is iV2=o-7 of the strength of the direct
feeding current. Thus, if the arc is fed with 100 amperes (D.C.),
it should give 70 amperes (A.C.) in the oscillation circuit under
best conditions: the possibility of this transformation is the result
of the negative slope of the characteristic cucve of the direct cur-
rent arc, viz. that an increase in arc current is accompanied by a
decrease in electric potential difference and vice versa. Also the
necessity for maintaining round the arc a non-oxygenic atmosphere,
or one consisting of hydrogen or carbon hydrides or oxides, is due
to the fact that in these gases the arc characteristic has a steeper
downward slope than in air (see W. L. Upson, Phil. Mag. July 1907).
The transverse magnetic field is requisite suddenly to extinguish
the arc at each oscillation, and so produce an electromotive force
in the inductance coil which recharges the condenser in the reverse
direction. Broadly speaking then, the operation which takes place
is as follows: if the arc is burning steadily and the condenser is
shunted across the electrodes, the result is to rob the arc of some
current. Hence the potential difference (P.D.) of the arc electrodes
increases. This, however, continues the charging of the condenser
in the same direction. Then the latter discharges back through the
arc and this lowers the P.D. of the electrodes.
The study of the oscillatory arc by means of the oscillograph by
H. Th. Simon, H. Barkhausen, A. Blondel, and P. O. Pedersen
has shown clearly the nature of the operations taking place. If no
magnetic field, or a weak one is employed, and if the arc is in air only,
feeble oscillations are set up in the condenser circuit, and the cur-
rent through the arc is a pulsatory unidirectional current. This is
the case of the Duddell or musical arc which has no use in wire-
less telegraphy. If a stronger magnetic field is used and if the
arc is in a hydrogen or coal gas atmosphere, then much more power-
ful oscillations are produced, and when the R. M. S. value of the
condenser current is equal to, or greater than 70% of the direct
current the arc current just falls to zero, or is extinguished at
each oscillation. The function of the transverse magnetic field is
then to blow out the arc by forcing the stream of electrons out-
ward, and the effect of this sudden rupture is to create a strong
adjuvant or assisting induced electromotive force in the inductance
coil in the condenser circuit. This continues the arc current in the
same direction, and the condenser thus becomes charged in the
opposite direction. The process then repeats itself and we have
powerful oscillations produced in the condenser circuit.
Although the condenser current is a sinusoidal current, and the
arc current has the same form, yet owing to the shape of the dynamic
characteristic curve the potential difference of the arc electrodes
is an irregular curve with sharp peaks corresponding to the instants
of cessation and recommencement of the arc current.
The practical construction of a Poulsen arc generator involves
therefore a large electromagnet having poles which project into a
box which can be kept full of alcohol, or kerosene vapour or else
coal-gas. Into this box project also two electrodes, one of copper,
through which water circulates to keep it cool, and one of hard
carbon which is kept in slow rotation by a motor. The poles of
the magnet are shaped bluntly conical so as to concentrate a pow-
erful magnetic field transversely to the electric arc which springs
from the copper (+) to the carbon (-) electrode. The arc is
created by a direct current dynamo giving a voltage of 500 or
more (see fig. 2). A separate shunt-wound dynamo is often employed
to excite the electromagnet. In the circuit of the arc supply dynamo
choking coils are inserted, and a circuit comprising a condenser of
capacity C and an inductance (L) is connected as a shunt to the
arc. If the capacity C isjneasured in farads and the inductance in
henrys then the ratio VL/VC~is a function of the dimensions of a
resistance reckoned in ohms, and should have some value of about
500 ohms or so.
Means must be provided for adjusting the magnetic field to its
optimum value (Ho) which depends on the frequency (n) of the
oscillations produced, where n is nearly equal to i/2irVLC, or
upon the radiated wave length X (in metres) where nX = 3OO mil-
lion metres.
P. O. Pedersen states that Ho=o/X-6 where a and b are cer-
tain constants (see " The Poulsen Arc and its theory " Proc. Insti-
tute Radio Engineers, United States, vol. v, p. 255, Aug; 1917).
~
where P is the power fur-
L. F. Fuller states that Ho =
nished to the arc and K is a constant depending on the surrounding
gas or vapour. For kerosene K=4-23; for ethylic alcohol K = 8-5.
For a power of 50 kilowatts and a wave length of 7,000 metres
the arc in alcohol requires a field of 8,300 C.G.S. units and for a
wave length of 20,000 metres and a power of 1,000 kilowatts the
field must be 13,500 C.G.S. units. Hence as the air gap is large
(generally several centimetres) extremely large magnets are required.
For the 1,000 kilowatts arc plant the magnets weigh 80 tons and
for the 500 kilowatts plant 65 tons. For smaller sizes of plant the
magnet is of the open circuit type and for the larger of the closed
circuit type. The arc chambec and magnets have to be cooled by
water or oil circulation. From 100 kilowatts size and upwards
this arc generator is very widely used in long distance radio sta-
tions. It labours, however, under the disadvantage that the signalling
cannot be conducted by starting and stopping the arc but only by
throwing the aerial out of tune or by deflecting the energy into a
non-radioactive circuit. Hence power is equally consumed whether
message signals are being sent out or only spacing waves.
FIG. 3. Modern thermionic generating valve ; showing the cylin-
drical anode and metal gauze grid, as made by the Marconi-Osram
Valve Company. (By permission of Marconi s Wireless Telegraph
Co., Ltd.)
The Thermionic Valve. The third type of high frequency
electric oscillation generator which has become of great impor-
tance in the last five years is the thermionic valve, which is i
development of the Fleming valve (see 26.537).
The Fleming valve comprises a glass bulb, highly exhausted
of its air, and contains a carbon or metal filament which can be
rendered incandescent by an electric current. Around the fila-
ment is placed a metal cylinder carried on a wire sealed through
the bulb. The peculiar property of it is that, when the filament
is incandescent, the space between the filament and cylinder
will conduct negative electricity from the filament to the
cylinder but not in the opposite direction. Hence the name
"valve" given to it. It can, therefore, be used to separate out
the two constituents of a high frequency alternating current
and " rectify " them into a direct current: This valve was ex-
tensively used as a detector of electric waves in wireless telegraphy
from 1904 onward as described later. In 1907, Lee de Forest in
the United States, after he had become acquainted with Fleming's
invention of the valve and its use in wireless telegraphy, added to
it an additional element in the form of a grid or zig-zag of wire
placed between the cylinder and the filament but carried on
a separate terminal. He thus made a so-called three-electrode
thermionic valve, a name sometimes shortened into triode.
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY
1025
In its modern form a thermionic valve of the latter type com-
prises a highly exhausted glass bulb having in it a filament of tung-
sten, or thoriated tungsten or of platinum wire coated with oxides
of barium and strontium (see fig. 3). This is rendered incandescent
by electric current from a storage battery. Around the filament
js a spiral of nickel wire or else a cylinder of nickel wire gauze. This
is technically called the grid. Around that again is a cylinder of
sheet nickel called the plate. The plate and the grid are carried on
separate wire stems sealed through the wall of the bulb. Although
the three-electrode valve was originally devised as a detector of
electric oscillations as described below yet about 1913, or before, it
was found that both the two-electrode valve and also the three-
electrode valve can produce electric oscillations as well as rectify
or detect them. When the filament is rendered incandescent tor-
rents of electrons or particles of negative electricity are emitted
from it. If the plate is given a positive potential relatively to the
filament by means of a battery called a plate battery, these elec-
trons are attracted to it, and this creates a movement of negative
electricity called a thermionic current. If the bulb is highly ex-
hausted and has a grid in it between the filament and plate, the
electrons can only reach the latter by passing through the holes in
the grid. If the grid is given a negative potential it reduces or stops
the thermionic current. If it is given a positive potential it increases
the current. The relation between thermionic current and grid
potential can therefore be represented by a characteristic curve as
shown in fig. 4.
Q. -10 -5 +5 K>
Potential of Grid with respect to Filament
FIG. 4. Characteristic curve of a three electrode thermionic
i valve.
The three variables, viz. plate and grid potential (v p and v a )
and the thermionic current (i p ), may be regarded as three rectangu-
lar coordinates which define a characteristic surface, and sections
of this, parallel to the i p v a axes or i p v p axes, delineate the principal
characteristic curves. The central portion of this surface, corres-
ponding to zero grid potential, is nearly a plane and has therefore
the equation i p = av a -\-bv p where a and b are certain constants or
coefficients.
If we pass a current by means of a high voltage battery from the
filament to the plate and send this current also through the primary
coil of an oscillation transformer, the secondary circuit of which is
connected to the filament and grid, we have an arrangement by
which continuous electric oscillations are produced and maintained.
For, if properly connected, any variation of the grid potential will
increase or decrease the plate current; and this acting through
the transformer will in turn create the changes of grid potential
which act to sustain the variations of plate current. The action is
just like the well-known experiment of the singing telephone. If a
magneto-telephone receiver is in series with a carbon transmitter
and with a battery, then, when the transmitter is held near the
receiver, the latter emits a shrill note. The sound given out by
the receiver acts on the transmitter and this in turn, actuates the
receiver. The energy is drawn in both cases from the battery.
The three-electrode valve so used is called a transmitting valve,
and the sustained electric oscillations it can produce, as above
described, can be transferred to an aerial wire and cause it to radiate
continuous electric waves.
Very large thermionic valves are now made with glass or silica
bulbs, a foot or more in diameter, for use as transmitting valves, and
numbers of these can be associated together to form a thermionic
generator of large power. In this case the high voltage required to
pass the plate current through the valve is obtained by the use of
a battery of Fleming two-electrode valves which rectify a high ten-
sion alternating current of low frequency. A complete valve panel,
as it is called, comprises the battery of rectifying valves, and three-
electrode valves and also the necessary transformers, induction coils
ami condensers (see fig. 5). Large valve panels are now constructed
to transform electric power from I kilowatt to 50 kilowatts or
more into high frequency electric oscillations of great energy.
Such valve generators are extensively used by Marconi's Wire-
less Telegraph Co. and others for the production of continuous
waves, and are employed at Clifden Station in Ireland for the trans-
mission of wireless messages across the Atlantic Ocean.
XXXII. 33.
Detectors. We must in the next place notice the improvements
which have taken place in means for detecting continuous waves
(C.W.) as used in wireless telegraphy. The reader may refer to
the earlier article on Wireless Telegraphy (see 26.535) for an
account of the principal appliances used in connexion with spark
or damped wave telegraphy for the detection of electric oscilla-
tions, and especially to the section on the oscillation valve or
two-electrode thermionic detector, from which other types of im-
proved thermionic detector have been developed. Subsequently
to the introduction of the two-electrode, but prior to the advent
of the three-electrode thermionic detector, much use was made
of crystal or rectifying detectors.
It will be remembered that the electric waves sent out from the
transmitting aerial wire, which are identical in nature with light
waves except for their much greater wave length, fall upon an
aerial wire at the receiving station, and create in this latter extremely
feeble, high frequency electric currents or oscillations which are a
copy on a very reduced scale of the electric oscillations established
in the transmitting aerial. The strength of these feebly received
currents reckoned in amperes (l r ) can be approximately computed
from the strength of the currents in the sending aerial (I.) reckoned
in amperes by means of an empirical formula valid up to about
2,000 m. due to L. W. Austin and L. Cohen which is as follows:
where h, and hr are the heights of the sending and receiving aerial
wires in kilometres, d is the distance apart of the stations in kilo-
metres, X is the wave length in metres, the base of the Napierian
logarithms, and R the total resistance of the receiving circuits
in ohms. 1
The received currents may be something of the order of 5-10
microamperes more or less in the case of long distance working.
To detect these feeble oscillations special appliances called detec-
tors are in use. The so-called rectifying detectors do this by con-
verting the received oscillations into feeble unidirectional currents,
which in the case of damped waves are equivalent to short gushes
of electricity in one direction corresponding in frequency to the
condenser discharges in the transmitter. These can then be detected
by a telephone, as they create in the latter a musical sound agreeing
in pitch with the wave group frequency, and this, by the action of
the key in the transmitter is cut up into dot and dash audible Morse
signals. One of the first rectifying crystal detectors was carbo-
rundum discovered in 1906 by H. H. C. Dunwoody in the United
States. This material is a crystalline carbide of silicon produced in
electric furnaces, and, in certain specimens, as shown by G. W. Pierce,
has an electric conductivity 40 or 50 times greater in arc direction
than in the opposite along one crystalline axis.
n
n
FIG. 5. Valve panel for generating high frequency oscillations
in the transmitters for wireless telegraphy, as made by Marconi's
Wireless Telegraph Co., Ltd. (By permission.)
The same properties are exhibited by hessite and anatase as well
as by molybdenite and other native sulphides. Furthermore, it
was found by L. W. Austin and G. W. Pickard that contacts between
certain pairs of substances such as tellurium and aluminium, or
zincite and chalcopyrite, also plumbago and galena, have the same
kind of unilateral conductivity and can be employed for " rectify-
1 The problem of predetermining the electric and magnetic force
at any point on a conducting sphere due to a Hertzian oscillator
at some point on it is a very difficult one. The reader will find
references to the work of Macdonald, Nicholson, Love, Rybczyn-
ski, and others in The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy,
Fleming. 4th ed. chap, ix., and also in a paper by Balth van der
Pol in Phil. Mag., vol. xxxviii. (Sept. 1919). The final result is that
diffraction alone will not account for long distance radiotelegraphy.
1026
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY
Ing " high frequency oscillations. These crystal and rectifying
detectors came at one time into great use in wireless telegraphy. 1
The limitation in the power of these crystal or rectifying
detectors lay in the fact that the energy used in making the signal
is only a portion of that captured by the receiving aerial from
the incident waves. An immense improvement was therefore
effected by the introduction of the three-electrode thermionic
valve, which can act in the manner of a telegraphic relay and
employs the received power merely to release a much larger
amount of electric power from a local battery, which latter
creates the signal in the telephone or other instrument: More-
over, this type of detector is capable of being used in series so as
to amplify or magnify enormously the signal-making power.
Pen terminals
FIG. 6. Thermionic amplifying and detecting valve of the type
usually called the " French " valve with cylinder anode and spiral
wire grid surrounding a straight filament.
FIG. 7. Views of various types of three-electrode thermionic
valves; (a) detecting and amplifying valve; (6) transmitting or gen-
erating valve; (c) amplifying valve of a type made by Marconi's
Wireless Telegraph Co.; (d) small transmitting valve with gauze
grid.
The modern hard or high vacuum thermionic valve as used for
reception and amplification is now generally constructed as fol-
lows: a small glass bulb or tube, a few inches in diameter, has
sealed into it a filament which can be rendered brightly incandescent
by current from a 2-to 3-cell storage battery (4-6 volts). This fila-
ment is of drawn tungsten wire, or else platinum coated with oxides
of barium and strontium. The bulb is highly exhausted. Around
the filament and close to it is coiled a spiral of nickel wire called the
grid, and outside that a cylinder of nickel called the plate. The
plate and grid are carried on wires sealed through the bulb, and
connexions to the grid, plate and filament are brought to four ter-
minal pins at the base fixed to a brass collar (see figs. 6 and 7).
These pins fit into a suitable socket. A battery of 30 to 200 volts
E.M.F. has its negative terminal connected to the filament and
positive to the plate, and when the filament is incandescent a stream
1 A fuller description of these rectifying detectors is given in
The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy and Telephony by J. A.
Fleming, 4th ed. chapter vi. (1919).
of electrons (atoms of negative electricity), called the plate cur-
rent, flows from the filament to the plate through the apertures in
the grid wires. This current completes its circuit through a coil
of wire in the external plate filament circuit which may be one coil
of a transformer. If the grid has a small negative charge given to
it the plate current decreases, and, if a positive one, the plate cur-
rent increases. The relation of plate current to grid potential can
be delineated by a characteristic curve (see fig. 4). For a certain
positive grid potential the plate current becomes saturated and
ceases to increase. If the grid and filament are connected to the
terminals of the receiving condenser in a wireless telegraph aerial,
the incidence of electric waves on the aerial will create alternations
of potential in the grid and alternations of plate current, and the
amplitude of the plate potential may be five to ten times greater
than that of the grid. The thermionic tube is then said to have an
amplifying power of five to ten.
If the coil in the plate circuit forms the primary coil of a two-
coil transformer the secondary circuit of the latter may be con-
nected to the grid and filament of a second valve, and a second
amplification of potential may take place. We can thus employ a
series of valves in cascade and the total amplification increases as
the nth power of the number of valves (n) in cascade. Thus if one
valve amplifies potential ten times, three valves will amplify 1,000
times and so on.
This use of thermionic valves in cascade has given us detectors
of enormous sensitivity. In order to detect damped oscillations we
can adopt one of two methods. If we place a small condenser with
a leak across its terminals in the grid circuit then the side of this
condenser next the grid becomes negatively charged, and the plate
circuit of the valve is reduced/ This charge leaks away almost
instantly and the plate current'of the valve rises again. Hence if
the incident waves are in " damped trains " a telephone receiver
inserted in the plate circuit of the valve will give a sound of the
pitch of the train frequency, and this can be cut up into signals.
In this case the valve is used as a rectifier as in the case of the
Fleming valve. The second mode of use depends upon the form of
the characteristic curve. If we employ a small battery of cells to
give the grid a certain positive potential we can operate the valve
at a point on the curve near to the saturation point so that a small
reduction in the potential of the grid lowers the plate current, but a
small increment of potential does not increase it. Hence if the grid
is connected to one terminal of the tuning condenser of a receiving
aerial it will oscillate in potential when a train of electric waves falls
on the aerial. This, however, will cause a drop in the plate current
and hence a sound in a telephone receiver included in that circuit.
If the incident waves are damped or intermittent trains the result
is to make a steady musical sound in the telephone of the pitch of
the train frequency. Accordingly, by interrupting the groups by
the sending key, audible Morse signals can be received.
The above described methods of reception are however only
applicable in the case of damped or intermittent trains of waves.
If the electric waves are continuous as sent out by an alternator,
arc, or valve transmitter, then we can only detect signals made with
them by converting the continuous waves into the equivalent of a |
series of damped trains. This is done by generating in the receiving
aerial electric oscillations by a local valve generator which have a i
frequency differing from that of the incident waves by about 300
to 1,000. The result is to create in the receiving aerial resultant
electrical oscillations which fluctuate periodically in amplitude
just as " beats " in musical sounds are produced when two organ
pipes slightly out of tune are sounded together. The number of '
beats per second is equal to the difference in the frequency of the
two separate oscillations. In the aerial wire these electrical beats
can then be detected by any of the types of detector and receiver
used in spark wireless telegraphy. This method is therefore called
" beat reception." The beats disappear when the signal bringing
waves are interrupted at the sending station in making the spaces
between the Morse code signals.
One great use of the three-electrode valve, or triode, as it is some-
times called, is in amplifying feeble signals. It has been explained
already that when the grid of the valve is electrified positively or
negatively it increases or decreases the plate current and, therefore,
the plate potential. The amplitude of the plate potential varia-
tions may however be five or ten 'times or more that of the grid
potential variations. Hence the valve acts as a relay or magnifier
of potential. Again we can interconnect a number of such triodes
in series by induction coils so that the variations in plate current
of one valve are made to vary the grid potential of the next. Hence
by using a series of valves in cascade we can multiply potential
variations of the grid of the first valve in a geometric progression
and enormously magnify them. The remarkable achievements of
modern long distance wireless telegraphy are chiefly due to the use
of such cascade amplifiers. In fig. 8 is shown a view of such a detec-
tor made by Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Co. in which six valves
are used as amplifiers and a seventh valve as a detector. So sensi-
tive are these cascade receivers that it is not necessary to employ
any long aerial wire to receive wireless signals from distant stations.
It suffices to construct a large rectangle of a few dozen turns of
insulated wire called a frame aerial and connect this in series with
a condenser of suitable variable capacity and tune the arrangement
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY
1027
to the wave length of the wave to be received. This frame is then
placed with its plane vertical and in the direction of the sending
station. As the incident electric waves sweep over it they set up
in the wire very feeble electric oscillations. If a cascade thermionic
amplifier is then connected to the terminals of the receiving con-
denser and appropriate tuning carried out the signals will be heard
in the receiving telephone. It is possible to make one small storage
battery of three cells provide the electric current for incandescing
the filaments, and one battery of 40-50 cells provide the plate cur-
rents for all the valves. Very compact and portable multiple valve
receivers of this type have been constructed for use in aircraft and
for reception of time signals from distant radio stations.
FIG. 8. Marconi Co. 's type 55; thermionic amplifier with six
amplifying valves and one detector as used in wireless telegraphy
and telephony. (By permission of Marconi's Wireless Telegraph
Co., Ltd.)
Directional Wireless. The frame aerial has the important
quality of being directive; that is, it tells us the direction in
which the incident waves are travelling. Hence if two receiving
stations at a known distance apart are provided with directive
aerials, and if they simultaneously observe the direction of the ar-
riving waves from one transmitting station, which may be on an
aircraft or ship, these observations laid down on a chart will enable
them to fix the position of the source of the signals. In this
manner the position of aeroplanes lost in the clouds or ships in
the fog may be found and their exact position communicated to
them. There was a considerable development of this directive
radiotelephony during the World War of IQI4-8. 1 It has been
found that there are peculiar difficulties in practising this direc-
tion finding at or about the times of sunrise and sunset.
In place of employing a movable frame aerial two fixed nearly
closed circuit triangular aerials can be erected with their planes
at right angles, and a resonant receiving circuit can be arranged
to have a coil which is capable of rotation round a vertical axis
but so as to be coupled inductively to both the fixed aerials by
coils in the two aerial circuits. If electric waves fall on the aerials
and if the movable coil of the receiving circuit is rotated into the
azimuth in which it receives signals most loudly the direction of
the plane of that coil will determine the line of direction of the
transmitting station. It is possible by special arrangements to
determine the direction along this line in which the electric waves
travelling. Many coast radio stations are now provided with
direction finding aerials, and ships can call up these stations by
wireless when in proximity, in case of fog, and have their bearings
and exact position given to them. In another method of direction
finding the coast station sends out a revolving beam of radiation
which has a sharply marked point of zero radiation. The time
of revolution of this beam is known, and also the instants when
the zero radiation is in the true north and south direction at the
sending station. Hence by observing the instants at which the
zero radiation is observed at the ship, the ship's bearing with
regard to the station can be determined. The station sends out
time signals by which to correct the ship's chronometer.
1 See " Direction and Position Finding," by H. J. Round, Journal
Inst. Elec. Eng. London 1920, vol. Iviii, p. 224; also J. J. Bennett,
Nature, May 19 1921, vol. cvii, p. 363.
Another ingenious application of radiotelegraphy has been made
by Prof. J. Joly to enable ships to find their position in fogs and
avoid collisions. For details the reader must be referred to his
paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. xcii.,
A, 1915-6, pp. 170, 176, 252, and also to a paper by H. C. Plumer
on P- 377 in the same volume. See also J. Joly, Proc. Roy. Soc.
Lond., vol. xciv. A, 1918, p. 547.
Wireless Telephony. The above described improvements in
the production and detection of continuous electric waves had by
1921, within a few years, placed wireless telephony on a thoroughly
practical basis. It is unnecessary to describe various experimental
feats which had been achieved at intervals in this art of radio-
telephony, in which the Pouhen arc or some modification was
employed to generate the continuous waves (C.W.). All practical
radiotelephony now involves the use of the thermionic valve
both as a generator of C.W. and as detector.
The general principles of this method are as follows: one or
more three-electrode valves are employed in which the plate and
grid circuits are inductively coupled so as to generate continuous
oscillations. The plate circuit is also coupled inductively to a
radiating aerial wire and continous waves sent off. The ampli-
tude of these waves has then to be modulated in accordance with
the wave form of a speech sound. This is done by means of
another three-electrode valve called the control valve. The
latter has the secondary circuit of an induction coil connected
between its grid and filament, and in the primary circuit is a
microphone transmitter and a voltaic cell or two. Hence if
speech is made to the transmitter the potential of the grid is
varied in accordance with the wave form of the speech. The
plate current of this control valve is caused to act upon the plate
current or grid potential of the oscillating valve so as to modulate
the resulting high frequency oscillations also in accordance with
the wave form of the speech made. At the receiving end the
received oscillations are amplified by a series of valves and then
rectified and passed through a Bell magneto-telephone. The
speech sounds are then reproduced by the receiving telephone.
The advantage of this method is that only the ordinary
standard telephone transmitter and receiver as used in telephony
with wires are employed. To obtain the necessary high plate
potentials in the oscillating valves we can either use voltaic
batteries (dry cells) or else a small high tension direct current
dynamo (1,000-2,000 volts), or else we can rectify a low frequen-
cy high tension alternating current by one or more Fleming
valves. For aeroplane wireless telephony the plate voltage is
supplied by a small dynamo driven by a wind screw which is set
in action when the aeroplane flies. A large number of schemes
for valve circuits for wireless telephone have been devised.
During the war a great amount of ingenuity was expended in
devising compact light weight sets of radiotelephone transmitters
and receivers for use in aircraft and in the field (see figs. 9 and
ga). A problem of practical importance is that of two-way
radiotelephony enabling two communicators to speak and hear
simultaneously or to " cut in " or interrupt each other as can be
done in ordinary telephony. If a single aerial wire has to be
switched over from transmitter to receiver there is always risk
of confusion owing to both operators trying to speak or listen at
the same moment.
In the case of ground stations a practical solution is to use two
wave lengths differing say by 5%. At each station there is a
transmitter and a receiver say 100 yd. apart. One transmitter is
tuned to the distant receiver but the wave length of the home
receiver, which is tuned to the distant transmitter, differs by 5%.
Each operator then speaks and listens on a different wave length
and can " cut in " as he likes.
This method is, however, not applicable in the case of aeroplanes
or ships for want of space. One suggested solution is that called
the " quiescent aerial." The plate voltage of the oscillating
valve is not supplied by a high voltage battery but at most by a
few cells, and the remainder of the plate voltage is created by the
rectification by the valve of the speech cuyents induced in the
secondary circuit of the microphone transformer. In this case
continuous waves are not thrown off from the aerial except in
the act of speech to the microphone, and the receiver can then
1028
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY
FIGS. 9 (left hand) and ga (right hand). The wireless equipment of an aeroplane for wireless telegraphy and telephony. The generator
is fixed to the outside of the hull of the aeroplane and driven by a wind screw. Fig. ga shows the general interior arrangement. (By
permission of Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Co., Ltd.)
remain connected with the aerial. The arrangements will be
understood from the diagram in fig. 9. The method is, however,
not very successful and it cannot be said that two-way radio-
telephony with a single aerial wire is a solved problem. On the
other hand radio communication to and from aeroplanes up
to 150 or 200 m. is now a thoroughly practical matter. The
aerial is a wire about 230 ft. in length with a weight at the end
which is unwound from a winch when the pilot wishes to com-
municate. The pilot gene'rally wears a helmet with microphone
transmitter opposite his mouth and two receivers over the ears.
The transmission of speech from the aeroplane is more easy than
reception owing to the great engine and propeller noises; never-
theless it is of immense use in connexion with air traffic as by it
aircraft can be guided through the clouds to their destination, and
the pilot informed of the conditions as regards fog or cloud at
the landing station.
In May 1921 Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Co. carried out
very successful demonstrations of practical radiotelephony on
the two-wave system between Southwold in England and Zand-
voort in Holland a distance of 125 m. over the North Sea.
The wave lengths used were 120 and 125 metres.
A very important use of the three-electrode valve is that of
repeating speech currents from ordinary telephone wire circuits
to wireless circuits and vice versa. Also this is perhaps the place
to point out its extremely valuable qualities as a telephone re-
peater or relay for long wire circuits. Since the characteristic
curve of the triode is nearly flat at the central part it follows that
any irregular variations of grid potential are exactly copied by
the corresponding variations of plate current. Hence if we con-
nect the secondary terminals of a telephone transformer to the
grid and filament of a valve and the primary terminals of another
transformer to the plate and filament with plate battery inserted
we shall have an arrangement called a thermionic repeater, which
repeats and amplifies telephonic speech currents. If one or more
such repeaters are inserted in a telephone line at intervals they
will operate to neutralize the attenuation of the speech currents
due to the resistance of the line and enable telephonic speech to
be transmitted over larger distances without greater expenditure
on the copper line conductor. Thus in the United States the
long transcontinental telephone line from New York to San
Francisco and Los Angeles has 13 such repeater stations in it,
and speech is thus rendered possible over 4,000 m. of line.
In Oct. 1920 a remarkable feat was carried out in telephonic
transmission by the aid of thermionic repeaters. A ship four
hours out in the Atlantic spoke by wireless telephony to the
mainland of the United States. The speech was then repeated
into the transcontinental line from New York to Los Angeles
and again repeated on to a radio circuit and delivered at Santa
Catalina I. about 30 m. out in the Pacific. The speech trans-
mission over this 4,000 m. was as perfect as over any exchange
circuit in a large city. It is possible in this manner to speak to
flying aeroplanes from the ordinary wire telephone of a town.
Long Distance Stations. The above improvements in generation
and detection of electric waves have not only made radiotelegraphy
from ship to ship and ship to shore a certain and indispensable aid
to navigation, but have enabled a multitude of long distance radio
stations to be established which can maintain communication over
distances of several thousand miles. It is now generally agreed
that this possibility is due not to true diffraction of these long
electric waves round the earth but to the fact that the higher
levels of the earth's atmosphere are in a state of permanent ioni-
zation due to sunlight or extra-terrestrial causes. This creates
a high level reflecting layer which guides the wave round the
earth. There are, however, peculiar difficulties and effects at
times of sunrise and sunset. In the United Kingdom the Marconi
Co. have a large station at Carnarvon, Wales, near Snowdon,
which is in correspondence with another at Marion, N.J., United
States, for transatlantic working. The British receiving station
is at Towyn, about 60 m. from Carnarvon, to enable reception and
transmission to be carried out simultaneously. The direct effect
of the Carnarvon radiation on the Towyn receiving aerial is neu-
tralized by a balancing aerial (see British Patent Specification
No. 13020 of 1911 of G. Marconi). The aerial at Carnarvon is a
Marconi directional one, 3,600 ft. in length and 400 ft. vertical
height supported on 10 tubular steel masts. The wave length of
the radiation is 14,000 metres. The system of wave generation is
the so-called timed-spark of Marconi. A direct current high voltage
dynamo keeps two sets of condensers charged, and by means of a
pair of rotating wheels with studs on their peripheries these con-
densers are discharged alternately through the primary coil of a
transformer, the secondary coil of which is inserted between the
aerial and the earth. These two sets of oscillatory discharges are
made to follow each other in step and in close sequence by means
of a trigger disk discharger which times two discharges so as to
constitute in effect a continuous oscillation. The signalling is con-
ducted by switches worked by compressed air which are operated
through a relay by efectric currents from Towyn. The same com-
pany have also a radio station at Clifden in Ireland which corre-
sponds with another at Glace Bay, Nova Scotia. The Clifden
station employs large thermionic valves as generators of contin-
uous waves.
The Imperial Wireless Telegraph Committee which reported to
Parliament in June 1920 recommended the thermionic valve gener-
ator for the imperial stations of the British Empire on the ground that
the capital outlay would be less than for arc or alternator stations.
The high power radio stations in the United States comprise
one at New Brunswick, N.J. which is equipped with Alexander-
son alternators of 200 kilowatts capacity working on a wave length
of 13,500 metres. The signals are made by means of a magnetic
amplifier which is an independence coil, the impedance of which is
varied by means of a small direct current which changes the per-
WIRTH WISCONSIN
1029
meability of the iron core (see Proc. of the Institute of Radio Engi-
neers, United States, vol. iv, April 1916, p. 101 ; a magnetic amplifier
| for radiotelephony).
The Radio Corporation of America began to build in 1921 a
very large wireless station on Long Island which was to have 12
directive aerials, each li m. long, arranged radially around the sta-
tion. The waves were to be generated by high frequency alternators.
The station would cover an area of nearly 10 sq.m. and be the most
powerful in the world (see The Engineering Supplement of The
Times, Aug. 1920). Another large U.S. radio station is that at
Tuckerton, N.J., containing a Goldschmidt 200 kilowatts high
frequency alternator. The radio frequency machine is driven by
an electric motor supplied from two direct current generators in
Ward Leonard connexion. This station was erected to correspond
I with one near Hanover, Germany. In France there are four very
large radio stations; one at Croix d'Hins near Bordeaux, which
was erected by the U. S. army during the war to maintain com-
i munications with Washington, contained originally 400-500 kilo-
watts Poulsen arc generators but is now partly converted to an
[ alternator station. The aerial is carried on 8 lattice towers 800 ft.
high (see fig. 10).
FIG. 10. View of the large French radio station at Bordeaux
erected by the American army during the World War for direct
communication with the United States.
Another large French radio station at La Dpua, near Lyons, with
wave length of 12,000 metres is an arc station; a third exists at
Nantes and a fourth is in Paris and employs the Eiffel tower to
support its aerial wire.
The French Government began to erect in 1921 two large radio
stations at St. Assise, near Paris, for European and world wide radio-
telegraphy. These were to be equipped with Bethenod-Latour high
frequency alternators and would have 1,500 kilowatts output.
In Germany there is a station at Nauen, near Berlin, which has a
range of several thousand miles and wave length of 12,600 metres.
This station like that at the Eiffel tower, Paris, sends out time
signals at certain hours.
Broadly speaking, we may say that there were in 1921 about a
dozen long distance radio stations in the world, which could signal
to any part of the world by day or night, making use of wave
lengths between 12,000 and 20,000 metres.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the full discussion the reader must be
referred to special treatises on radiotelegraphy as mentioned below.
J. A. Fleming, The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy and Tele-
: | phony (4th ed. 1919) ; R. Stanley, Text Book on Wireless Telegraphy
(2nd ed. 2 vols. 1919) ; W. H. Eccles, Continuous Wave Wireless Tele-
graphy (1921); J. A. Fleming, The Thermionic Valve in Radiotele-
graphy and Telephony (1918); W. H. Eccles, Wireless Telegraphy
and Telephony (2nd ed. 1918) ; Bernard Leggett, Wireless Telegraphy,
with special reference to the quenched-spark system (1921); J. A.
Fleming, The Scientific Problems of Electric Wave Telegraphy, Can-
tor Lectures at the Royal Society of Arts (1919) ; also the following
articles in the Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, United
States, are authoritative and useful: vol. ii., 1914, 69, E. E. Mayer,
"The Goldschmidt System of Radiotelegraphy"; vol. iii. 1915, 55.
A. N. Goldsmith, " Radio Frequency Changers "; vol. iii., 1915, 215,
E. H. Armstrong, " The Audion as Detector and Amplifier ; vol.
iii., 1915, 261, I. Langmuir, "The Pure Electron Discharge";
vol. iv., 1916, 101, E. F. W. Alexanderson, " A Magnetic Amplifier
for Radiotelephony "; vol. vii., 1919, 363, E. F. W. Alexanderson,
"Simultaneous Sending and Receiving ; vol. viii., 1920, 3, 87,
T. Johnson, " Naval Aircraft Radio " ; vol. viii.. 1920, 220, M. Latour,
"Radio Frequency Alternators "; vol. viii., 1920, 263, E. F. W.
Alexanderson, "Transoceanic Radio-communication"; vol. ix.,
1921, 83, E. F. W. Alexanderson, " Central Stations for Radio-
communication "; the following are references to useful papers on
the theory of the thermionic valve: The Physical Review',~vo\. xii.,
1918, p. 171, H. J. Van der Bijl, " Theory of the Thermionic Ampli-
fier "; Proc. Inst. Radio Engineers, United States, vol. vii., 1919, 97,
603, H. J. Van der Bijl on the theory and operating characteristics
of the thermionic amplifier; Journal of the -Institution of -Electrical
Engineers, London, vol. Iviii., 1920, p. 65, C. L; Fortescue, " The
Design of Multiple Stage Amplifiers using Three-electrode thermionic
valves " ; ibid., p. 670, B. S. Gossling, " Development of Thermionic
Valves for Naval Use." For the discussion of the special difficulties
introduced by the atmospheric electrical disturbances called "strays,"
which are vagrant electric waves produced by natural causes, the
reader may be referred to a paper by Roy A. Weagant in the Proc.
Inst. Radio Engineers, United States, 1919, vol. vii., 207, " Recep-
tion through Static and Interference." (J. A. F.)
WIRTH, KARL JOSEPH (1870- ), German statesman,
fourth chancellor of the post-war republican Reich, was born at
Freiburg in Baden in 1879. The son of a working engineer, he
was educated at the university of Freiburg. In 1908 he was
appointed to the chair of Economics at the Technical College
of that city; and after his election as a municipal councillor in
1911 he devoted himself to financial questions. In 1913 he
obtained a seat as a member of the Catholic Centre party in the
diet of Baden, and in 1918 was appointed Minister of Finance.
In Jan. 1919 he was elected a member of the Constituent Assem-
bly of the Reich which sat at Weimar. In March 1920, when the
Ministry of the Reich was reconstructed after the Kapp Putsch,
he received the portfolio of Finance, which he continued to hold
in subsequent ministries. His task was to carry out the system
of increased national taxation which one of his predecessors,
Erzberger, had induced the Reichstag to adopt. When in May
1921 the Allied ultimatum on Reparation was presented to
Germany and the " Sanctions " enforced on the Rhine, the
Fehrenbach-Simons Ministry, which had rejected the London
terms, resigned, and Dr. Wirth was called upon to form a new
Cabinet. He succeeded in obtaining the cooperation of a number
of able Democrats, Catholics and Socialists, including the promi-
nent industrialist and economist, Dr. Walther Rathenau, as
Minister of Reconstructions. Wirth himself retained the port-
folio of Finance. The new Ministry then accepted the Allies'
Reparation terms 132 milliard marks (6,600,000,000) payable
in yearly instalments of 100,000,000 plus the proceeds of a 25 %
duty on German exports. By Aug. 31 1921 Germany had paid
the first half-yearly instalment of 50,000,000; and in the follow-
ing Oct. Dr. Rathenau succeeded in concluding a comprehensive
agreement with France for paying reparations in kind for the
reconstruction of the devastated regions.
After the assassination of Erzberger on Aug. 26 1921 the
conflict between the Government of the Reich and the re-
actionary Bavarian Ministry of von Kahr came to a head, von
Kahr showing the same recalcitrancy against carrying out the
special ordinances of the Reich against reactionary plots as he
had previously exhibited in regard to the dissolution of the illegal
volunteer force, the Einwohnerwehr. Dr. Wirth stood his ground,
and ultimately von Kahr was compelled by his own party in
Bavaria to resign and make way for a more conciliatory minister-
president. The strife which arose out of this acute internal crisis
had hardly abated when the announcement in mid-Oct. of the
decision of the League of Nations on the partition of Upper
Silesia between Germany and Poland aroused wild excitement
throughout Germany, and, among other consequences, sent the
exchange value of the mark down (Oct. 17) to 750 to the . Dr.
Wirth had not concealed his conviction that the severance from
Germany of the rich industrial district of Upper Silesia would
fatally affect Germany's capacity to pay further reparation
instalments, and the political tension in Berlin again became
acute. Eventually Dr. Wirth resigned, but nobody was found
able to form a ministry in his place and he resumed office.
WISCONSIN (see 28.740). In 1920 the pop. was 2,632,067, as
compared with 2,333,860, in 1910, an increase of 298,207, or
12-8%, the state holding its rank of thirteenth. The density of
pop. in 1920 was 47-6 per sq. m.; in 1910 it was 42-2. The
proportion of urban pop. increased from 43% in 1910 to 47-3%
in 1920. The following table shows the growth of pop. of those
cities having 25,000 inhabitants:
1030
WISCONSIN
1920
1910
Percentage
increase
Milwaukee .
457,147
373,857
22-3
Racine ....
58,593
38,002
54-2
Kenosha
40,472
21-371
89-4
Superior
39-671
40,384
-1-8
Madison
38,378
25,531
50-3
Oshkosh
33,i62
33,062
o-3
Green Bay. .
31-017
25,236
22-9
Sheboygan .
30-955
26,398
17-3
La Crosse .
30,421
30,417
Agriculture. The cultivated acreage was in 1919 8,979,000;
in 1909 7,980,000. The number of farms in 1920 was 189,295; in
1900 169,795. These increases were due mostly to frontier advance.
In the older part of the state, farms tended to become larger and
fewer. Of the farms 84-3% were in 1920 in the hands of their
owners. These farms produced in 1909 crops worth $138,000,000
and live-stock products worth $260,922,000; in 1919 $445,000,000
and $371 ,791 ,000, respectively. The food product per acre increased
since 1885 37 % as contrasted with 21 % for the United States as a
whole. The statistics of special crops year by year are meaningless
if taken individually, as there is great yearly fluctuation owing
largely to the confidence felt by the farmers in the market fore-
casts furnished in the Bulletins of the University of Wisconsin.
For instance, in 1917 the university had advised increased tobacco
acreage. When war was declared wheat was advised instead, and
an unusual amount planted. This wheat acreage was later returned
to other crops. There were in 1920 more silos than in any other
state, Wisconsin seed had acquired a reputation and a market, and
canning factories, creameries, etc., situated near the point of pro-
duction, fitted raw products for the market. Relatively the lead-
ing feature was dairying, in which Wisconsin stood first among
the states. The increase in dairy cows from 1,474,000 in 1910 to
2,180,000 in 1920 was attended by great improvement in quality.
Manufactures. The total value of manufactured products
($695,172,002 in 1914) was not much below that of farm products,
but the value added by manufacture was only $277,756,928. The
number of establishments rose from 8,558 in 1904 to 9,104 in 1914.
Between the same years the number of workers rose from 173,572
to 230,272. The Lake Michigan region showed the greatest growth,
owing to the greater cheapness of coal, which is all brought into the
state. The great increase in the use of water-power was chiefly
for lighting and transportation. In certain industries closely related
to agriculture there was a tendency toward decentralization. The
manufacture of farm products took first place, although flour
decreased, and beet-sugar remained stationary. This position was
due chiefly to the expansion of the dairy interests, butter, cheese,
condensed and malted milk, etc. In 1880 the lumber cut was
1,542,021,000 ft., mostly white pine; in 1918 1,275,000,000 ft.,
largely hard wood. The value of lumber products in 1914 was
$55,363,000; 473,840 tons of wood pulp for paper, worth $22,049,-
498, was produced. In 1914 Wisconsin ranked fifth among the states
in the value of furniture produced, its value being $22,586,531.
Leather remained in 1914 the fourth industry in the state, with a
product of $55,362,511. Foundry and machine-shop products were
in 1914 $60,698,000, a 12- 1 % increase over 1909.
Mines and Quarries. The output of iron ore grew steadily,
reaching 1,167,640 tons in 1918. The production of pig-iron in-
creased rapidly, being in 1900 184,794 tons, and in 1919 605,619 tons.
Forests. The forests still constituted in 1920 one of the great
resources of the state, but of decreasing importance both absolute
and relative. Measures for fire protection were increasingly effective.
Surveys were in progress to determine what of the cut-over region
should be reforested and what turned to farm land. The earliest
Wisconsin industry, the fur trade, still produced, in 1918, a value
of $669,005.20.
Fisheries. The development of the fisheries was constant. New
hatcheries were established at Spooner for pike, at Sturgeon Bay
for white fish, and at Sheboygan for blue fin. In 1918 247,079,876
eggs were distributed. The commercial fishing was mostly in the
Great Lakes where the catch in 1918 was valued at $792,040.
This was less important than the sport fishing under licence in the
rivers and streams.
Transportation and Commerce. The railway mileage in 1917 was
7,667. It varied from year to year owing to the laying and taking
up of logging lines. The main system had been complete for years,
the state standing fourteenth in the proportion of mileage to area.
About 1900 there began a movement for interurban electric lines,
and a system was developed extending from the southern boundary
to Janesville and to Milwaukee, and up the Fox river valley. In
1919 the mileage of all electric roads, urban and interurban, was
760. There was no recent extension of the interurban system, and
suburban extension was less after 1910 than before, owing to the
increased use of automobiles. In 1920 there were 277,093 automo-
biles, and 16,205 motor-trucks in the state. This development of
automobile traffic occasioned a demand for better roads, and
extensive plans were in process of completion. In the years 1912-8
$23,086,152 was voted for highway construction by local, county
and state authorities. Concrete roads proved successful where
the foundation was placed below the frost line.
Government. A constitutional amendment in 1910 granted the
state power to acquire and develop water powers and forests; one
in 1912 regulated the borrowing capacity of cities and incorporated
villages; another in 1912 gave the state powers for creating a park
system; and one in 1920 for the enforcement of the prohibition
amendment to the U.S. Constitution. In 1911 the salaries of jus-
tices of the Supreme Court were increased to $7,500. A law of 1915
allowed voting by absentee electors under certain circumstances,
and one of 1918 arranged for voting by enlisted soldiers. The fol-
lowing state boards and commissions were created in or after 1905;
Accountancy (1913), Compensation Insurance (1917), Conserva-
tion (1915), Engineering Department (1915), Grain and Ware-
house (1905), Health (reconstituted 1913), Highways (1911),
Industrial (1911), besides boards of examination for licences for
architects, boxers, barbers, plumbers, etc., and ex-officio boards.
Miscellaneous Laws. The cigarette prohibition law was repealed
(1915), and the laws directed against out-of-the-state insurance
companies were modified. A workmen's compensation law was
passed in 1911. A law of 1917 provided for the sterilization of
defectives and laws of 1913, 1915, 1917 provided for an ante-
nuptial physical examination for men.
Finance. In 1918 there was raised for general state purposes
$14,281,216, the largest item of income being $5,370,305 from the
railway companies; of the total, $5,986,661 was returned to the
counties in aid of schools, tuberculosis sanatoriums, highways, etc. !
The tax levy of 1918 produced $12,142,121 for the use of counties,
$22,580,567 for cities, towns and villages, and $16,444,671 were ,
school and school district rates. The state income taxes of 1916, '
paid in 1917, amounted to $9,482,595, of which $603,762 went to
the state and the rest to localities in lieu of the general property tax. i
Education. In 1915 a State Board of Education was provided to
correlate the educational undertakings of the state. The most
important new departure was with reference to vocational edu- !
cation, for which a Board was provided in 1915. A law of 1917
increased the effectiveness of compulsory education for those
between 9 and 14; in 1915 aid in transportation was provided for
those attending school at a distance from home; 32 cities in 1920 !
maintained continuation schools. In 1920 the total educational
expense by the state and localities was $25,901,282; $2,779,072 for
the university, $1,427,959 for normal schools, $10,024,095 for city
schools, and $11,361,692 for town and country schools, toward
which a great effort at improvement was being made.
History. Gov. McGovern, elected in IQII, continued the
progressive policy inaugurated by Gov. La Follette. The activi-
ties of the state Government were increased, their administration
being given to commissions composed in part at least of recognized
experts, and similar commissions were given power of super-
vision and control over private activities. The extension of this
policy led to a reaction in 1914 and Emanuel Phillip was elected
governor on a somewhat reactionary programme. The break,
however, proved to be less violent than many expected, and the
main features of the legislation of the preceding 10 years were
continued. The outbreak of the World War divided sentiment
in the state perhaps more than elsewhere in the country. In the
'fifties some German leaders had hoped to make the state essen-
tially German and a centre in America for the development of
German culture, as New England was for English Puritanism,
but turned to liberalism. This project had failed, but a large
element in the state was German-born or of German parentage,
and many communities retained German habits and language,
and educated their children in Catholic or Lutheran schools
conducted in German. While this element was by no means solid
in sentiment, the majority sympathized with Germany as opposed I j
to Great Britain and her Allies. When the question arose of the j
entrance of the United States into the war, this element was II
opposed to it, and was reenforced by a powerful sentiment in 1 1
favour of peace. The national representation of the state was
divided. Senator La Follette voiced the peace sentiments, and
was one of those characterized by President Wilson as " a little
group of wilful men." Senator Husting, a Democrat, supported
the Wilson administration. The death of Senator Husting
necessitated a senatorial election in the spring of 1918, which
attracted wide attention as a test of public opinion in the state
which was thought least likely to support the war. An active
campaign of education was conducted, by means of pamphlets,
speeches and organization. The result was the choice in the
Republican primaries of Irvine L. Lenroot, who was pledged to
support the Administration in its war policy, and who defeated
WISE WOEVRE, BATTLES IN THE
1031
the Democratic candidate in the election which followed. Later
Senator Lenroot broke with President Wilson on his peace policy,
taking a stand for moderate reservations in the plan for a League
Nations. This stand was endorsed by his reelection for the
regular senatorial term in 1920, when the state gave a large
majority also to Harding. In the gubernatorial election of that
year, the successful candidate, Mr. Elaine, represented in general
the La Follette views, maintaining that the stand taken by that
senator was not disloyal, but legitimate opposition. Although
many regretted the necessity of fighting Germany, the number
who failed to support the United States was negligible.
Gov. Phillip proved an efficient war administrator, working
in harmony with the national officials and organizing extremely
effective state and local machinery to handle the problems that
constantly arose. The state met and exceeded every demand
made upon it, for men and for money; the draft was put into
operation with success; the administrative effectiveness which
had been developed in the preceding 10 years was everywhere in
evidence. Wisconsin troops repeated the record they had made
in the Civil War. A war history commission planned to put the
war record in substantial shape for the future. The Wisconsin
National Guard served on the Mexican frontier, 1916-7, and was
called into national service for the World War in 1917; its aggre-
gate strength, Aug. 4 1917 was 15,266. The losses of troops from
Wisconsin in France were given as 5,735; 71,790 were accepted
at camp under the draft laws. To the five Liberty loans $471,-
194,250 was subscribed. The United War Work Campaign of
1918 produced $4,546,706. Besides this a million had been
raised for the Y.M.C.A., nine millions and a quarter for the Red
Cross; 8,503 French orphans were adopted, and generous con-
tributions made to all causes of war aid and relief.
The governors of Wisconsin after 1911 were: F. C. McGovern,
Republican, 1911-5; Emanuel Phillip, Republican, 1915-21;
John J. Elaine, Republican, 1921- .
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Recent works on Wisconsin are: H. C. Camp-
bell, etc., Wisconsin in Three Centuries (4 vols., 1905); E. B. Usher,
Wisconsin, Its Story and Biography (8 vols., 1914); F. C. Howe,
Wisconsin, an Experiment in Democracy (1912); C. McCarthy, The
Wisconsin Idea (1912); J. B. Winslow, The Story of a Great Court
(1912); F. Merk, Economic History of Wisconsin in the Civil War
Decade (1916). (C. R. F.)
WISE, BERNHARD RINGROSE (1858-1916), Australian law-
yer, was born at Sydney Feb. 10 1858, the second son of Edward
Wise, Judge of the Supreme Court of N.S.W. He was educated
in England at Rugby and Queen's College, Oxford, where he
won the Cobden prize and was proxime for the Lothian Historial
Essay, finally graduating ist-class in law. He was also a promi-
nent athlete, and represented Oxford in the mile race against
Cambridge. He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple
(1883), then returned to Australia, was elected to the N.S.W.
legislature and became Attorney-General of N.S.W. 1887-8,
and Q.C. in 1898, being again Attorney-General from 1899 to
1904 and, in addition, Minister of Justice 1901-4. For part of
1903-4 he was Acting-Premier of N.S.W. He did distinguished
service to the cause of Federation but was defeated in the elec-
tions for the first Commonwealth Parliament, and his abilities
therefore were never called upon for Federal service. From 1915
until his death, Sept. 19 1916, he was acting as Agent-General
for N.S.W. in London.
WISTER, OWEN (1860- ), American writer, was born in
Philadelphia July 14 1860. He was a grandson of Frances
Anne Kemble (see 15.724). On graduating from Harvard in 1882
he intended to devote himself to music. He went abroad for
study; but ill-health forced him to return to America, and he
spent several years in Arizona and New Mexico. He then en-
tered the Hazard law school, graduating in 1888, was admitted
to the bar in 1889 and for two years practised law in Philadelphia.
Thereafter he gave his time to literary work. As an under-
graduate he had contributed a poem, Beethoven, to the Atlantic
Monthly in 1882. His subsequent publications include the
Modern Swiss Family Robinson (1883); The Dragon of Wantley:
His Tail (1892); Lin Mclxan (1898); The Virginian: a Horse-
man of the Plains (1902); Philosophy 4: a Story of Harvard
University (1903); Lady Baltimore (1906); The Seven Ages of
Washington: a Biography (1907); Members of the Family (1911);
The Pentecost of Calamity (1915, a condemnation of Germany for
the World War), and A Straight Deal: or the Ancient Grudge
(1920). His novels, The Virginian and Lady Baltimore in particu-
lar, established his position as one of the foremost of contem-
porary American writers. He became a member of the National
Institute of Arts and Letters and of the Societe des Gens de
Lettres de France, and in 1912 was elected a member of the
Board of Overseers of Harvard.
WITTE, SERGE JULIEVICH, COUNT (1840-1915), Russian
statesman (see 28.762), died in Petrograd March 12 1915. His
diaries were posthumously published by the Soviet in Pravda in
1918, and a study of his career as Minister of Finance during
1892-1903, by D. A. Lutokhin, appeared in 1915. The Memoirs
of Count Witte, translated from the original Russian MS. and
edited by Abraham Garmolinsky, were also published in New
York and in London in 1921.
WOfiVRE, BATTLES IN THE, 1914-8. The military impor-
tance of the great plain which separates the Metz ridges from the
line of heights along the Meuse was evident as soon as the fron-
tier of 1871 was drawn. On its N. side, a strip of bold undulating
country, the axis of which may be taken as Montm6dy-Thionville,
skirts the Belgian and Luxemburg border, while at the S. it
narrows, as the Meuse and Moselle converge toward Toul, to a
blunted end facing the Haye Plateau and Toul. Along the
Meuse (Verdun-Toul) and along the Moselle (Thionville-Metz)
both sides gradually crowned the heights with permanent fortifi-
cations. The plain itself, through which the frontier ran along no
very well defined line, was not fortified, each side treating it as a
sort of foreground or glacis. Generally speaking, this frontier
line left the plain to France, but the French ground immediately
adjacent to the frontier was practically under the fire of the
Metz guns. Hence the war outpost line, which was to protect the
concentration of the French main armies, was drawn well back
almost to the verge of the Meuse heights and no attempt was
made to hold the frontier region itself.
This proved, in the sequel, to be of enormous importance.
For, from about the end of the igth century, vast mineral
resources had been discovered in the Briey basin or Eastern
Woe'vre; this lay on both sides of the frontier, and was at the
outbreak of war being developed by a Franco-German syndicate^
From the military point of view a short, purely military war
being in prospect no great importance was attached by the
French to the evacuation of an untenable stretch of country, but
when the war became a prolonged, and largely an economic,
struggle, the German occupation and exploitation of the Briey
area became a most important asset to the Central Powers.
Nevertheless, after the battle of the Marne and its concomitant
fighting on the Meuse died away in Sept 1914, no major offensive
took place in this area until the American attack of Sept. 1918.
The reasons for this quiescence on the French side were not
allowed to appear during the war, and are still rather obscure.
In the following article are described (i) the bitter trench-
warfare fighting which without ever becoming a major offensive
went on continually in 1914-5, around the salient of St.
Mihiel the base of which was the Woe'vre plain and (2) the
American operations, which, carried out on a large scale and
without reserve, reduced the salient in two days in 1918.
(C.F.A.)
(I.) HAUTS DE MEUSE AND WOE'VRE, 1914-6
On Sept. 19 1914 the right wing of the French III. Army was
carrying out an offensive advance from the Hauls de Meuse in
the direction of Mars-la-Tour when the VIII. Corps encountered
at Woe'l an advanced guard of the German army which was being
led toward the Hauts de Meuse by Gen. von Strautz. Before the
engagement at Woe'l had assumed any great importance it was
suspended by the arrival of an order from Gen. Joffre to the
effect that the VIII. Corps was to proceed immediately to Ste.
Menehould, where it was to remain in general reserve. Conse-
quently the Germans found themselves confronted only by re-
1032
WOEVRE, BATTLES IN THE
serve troops, not yet inured to war, and dispersed over a wide
fjront, when they launched their attacks against the Meuse
heights on the 2oth and following days.
At Vigneulles Gen. Grand d'Esnon of the 7Sth Res. Div. was
killed and the enemy surmounted the Hauts de Meuse. Before
long the German heavy artillery was bombarding the forts of
Lionville and Geronville toward the S. and Camp des Remains
in front. On Sept. 24 St. Mihiel was in the hands of the Ger-
mans, who tried to gain ground W. of the Meuse but could not
get beyond Chauvoncourt. In the N. von Strautz's army was
held by Gen. Pol Durand's group of reserve division's which had
come to the assistance of the VI. Corps. Toward the S. it was
attacked by the XVI. Army Corps at St. Baussant and by the
VII. Cav. Div.
The region of. Leronville-Marbotte was without defenders, but
the Germans did not advance in the direction of Commercy, as
their aim was to encircle Verdun. To this end the German
Crown Prince attacked to the S. of Varennes and in Argonne
simultaneously and the French III. Army thus found itself
threatened both to the N. W. and to the S. of Verdun.
The isth Div. of the VIII. Corps was brought back to Chau-
mont-sur-Aire to the III. Army Reserve, ready to hasten either
to the aid of the V. Corps in the Argonne or toward Chauvon-
court to help the 75th Res. Div.
The i6th Div. was transported by train from St. Menchould
to Leronville-Sampigny and placed under the orders of the I.
Army headquarters, for the purpose of covering Commercy, and
was reinforced on Sept. 28 by the Bclfort Brigade. From this mo-
ment von Strautz's army, which was composed of Bavarians, had
its III. Army Corps bottled up at St. Mihiel and so the " Hernia,"
called also the " Wedge," came into being. From Les Epargcs to
the Meuse S. of St. Mihiel, the III. Army put in line the VI.
Corps and part of Gen. Pol Durand's group. The Bislee penin-
sula and the front Koeur-la-Grande-Brasseitte-St. Agnant were
held by the VIII. Corps with the i6th Inf. Div. and the Belfort
Bde. To the E., in the region of the Bouconville pondsin Woevre,
was the 7th Cav. Div. Still farther eastward the XVI. Corps was
attacking fiercely at St. Baussant, urged on by the determined
commander of the I. Army.
The zone S. of the St. Mihiel wedge and Woevre and N. of
Toul was assigned to the I. Army. The point of liaison between
the I. and III. Armies was on the Meuse below Bisl6e. Before
long the III. Army was put under the command of the I. Army
and it was therefore Gen. Dubail who was matched against Gen.
von Strautz.
At first the Germans tried to debouch from Chauvoncourt,
but without success. Elsewhere, both in the S. and the N., they
made every effort to enlarge the wedge while the French attacks
were directed toward diminishing it. Hence there resulted
partial engagements at Chauvoncourt, in front of Les Parodies,
at Les Eparges near the Hauts de Meuse, in the Bois d'Ailly,
in the Bois Brule, near Aprcmont, and at St. Baussant.
For the beginning of April 1915, Gen. Dubail ordered an
attack on a large scale from the N. and the S. to be delivered by
several army corps. A force designated the army detachment
Q6rard, including the I. and II. Army Corps, the Verdun
Provisional Div., and the I. Cav. Corps, opened the attack on
April 5 and took possession of Fromezey, Gussaniville and
1'Hopital farm (in the region of Etain), but broke down before
the intact German wire for in the marshy ground the artillery
projectiles buried themselves deeply.
In conjunction with the attack by Gerard's force an attack was
launched by the XII. Corps and VIII. Corps which, however, had
no particular results. The fighting lasted from the sth to the
22nd without achieving anything but the exhaustion of both
attackers and defenders.
: From that time forward the struggle resolved itself into a
series of partial combats. The names Les Eparges, the Tranchee
de Calonne, Chauvoncourt, Bois d'Ailly, Bois Brule, Seicheprey,
Bois le Pretre recur day by day in the communiques of 1915.
On May 5 1915 the VIII. Corps lost in one morning all the
ground which it had taken several months to gain in the Ailly
wood. There was even a moment when a gap in the line seemed to
be broken through and the way opened to Commercy; but the
counter-attacks came in time to regain part of the Bois d'Ailly,
and restore the situation. In the course of one of these counter-
attacks in the woods, a company of the 17 2nd, led by Com-
mandant d'Andre, crossed five lines of German trenches in
succession and came within sight of St. Mihiel. But here they
were confronted by German reserves and surrounded. For three
days these heroes resisted all attacks, having nothing but their
rifles and the German grenades picked up in the fifth line of
trenches. They finally succumbed to hunger and thirst. Justly
indeed was this trench named " the thirst trench." When Gen.
von Strautz saw Commandant d'Andre on the day after the
fighting was over, he said, " Vous avez el6 deux fois blessi, vous
ttiez au Bois d'Ailly, vous ties un brave."
At Bois le Pretre, near the Moselle, the fighting was incessant
and for the most part to the advantage of the French.
At Les Eparges it was mine warfare. In this the Germans had
generally the upper hand, but, as at the Bois d'Ailly and the
Bois le Pretre, the upper hand did not imply the gain of ground
desired. In mine warfare the Germans had a very considerable
advantage over their opponents in the matter of equipment and
especially of boring tools. At the outset the galleries they made
in the Crete des Eparges and the colossal dimensions of their
mine chambers astonished even the men of the II. Corps, re-
cruited though many of them were from the mining country of
the Nord. But, though astonished, they were not dismayed, and
feeble as their implements were, they often took their revenge
for the mine attacks to which they were subjected.
The characteristic of the army of 1915 was the poverty of its
material in comparison to that at the disposal of the enemy. In '
it was learned the lesson that a nation poor in coal and iron must
shed much blood to save itself from slavery.
When in Sept. 1915 the Champagne offensive was launched,
quiet set in on the front Les Eparges-Chauvoncourt-Bois d'Ailly-
Bois le Pretre. On both sides, the forces on this front were milked
to obtain quality and quantity on the field of the great battle.
When it died down, the battered formations came back to rest
and recruit and also to fight, for activity began again in Nov.
and Dec. 1915.
In Feb. 1916 the storm burst at Verdun, and in July the other
storm on the Somme. Then the front with which we are con-
cerned became so calm that the commander of the VIII. Corps
called the Wedge of St. Mihiel a convalescent home.
Here and there, now and then there was a coup de main, but
the only result was to show both sides the necessity of not relaxing
vigilance. The year 1917 came and went without changing cither
the positions or the attitude of the two parties. The great Bri tish
offensive of Arras, the great French offensive on the Aisnc, the
Franco-British battles of Ypres absorbed all the offensive power
of the adversaries on the western front. Not till 1918 did the
sector Les Eparges-Chauvoncourt-Bois d'Ailly-Bois le Pretre
become again the scene of victory.
In concluding this survey of operations on the front between
Les Eparges and the Moselle, it is necessary to underline again
the poverty of material and munitions under which the French
army laboured. Not only did it possess little heavy artillery, but
even the 75*5, excellent for barrages, diminished daily and were
replaced by B.L. guns of 90 and 95 mm., obsolete since 1900.
Track for light railways could not be had. Boring tools were so
short that mine warfare in the Forest of Apremont had to be
waged with pick, chisel and crowbar. Ammunition was served
out by spoonfuls, and at one moment the commander of the
eastern group of armies had only 350 rounds per gun for his
75's half an hour's battle allowance.
These conditions were, of course, not peculiar to the front
under consideration, and are introduced here to enable the reader
to see how the Higher Command was obliged to apply the great
Napoleonic principle of economy of force; to show how it was
possible for the Crown Prince to break in the Verdun front or, for
that matter, the whole front from the Meuse to Switzerland, for
the defenders were few, their guns few, and their shell very few.
.
t
WOEVRE, BATTLES IN THE
1033
But it may be seen, too, how a German success was bound always
to remain without a sequel, for it was through this conception
of the economy of forces that Joffre was able always to keep in
hand strong, rested reserves, free guns and unallotted ammuni-
tion. (V.L.E.C.)
(II.) BATTLE OF ST. MIHIEL (SEPT. IZ.'TO 14 1918)
For four years the St. Mihiel salient had projected 28 km.
deep into the French line, constituting alike a menace and an
invitation to attack. Its original purpose, to serve as one of
the jaws of a nutcracker attack on Verdun, having failed, it was
used in 1916 as the anvil against which von Falkenhayn sought
in vain to drive home his hammer-blows against Verdun from
the north. In 1918 Ludendorff again hoped through its posses-
sion to gain Verdun and much more by the wider encircling
attack in Champagne of July 15, but again the attack failed.
During all these years also it had remained not only a threat of
further German aggression but a serious interruption of French
railway communication with Verdun and also with the Lorraine
front. In 1915 the French army had twice attacked to compel
evacuation of the salient but both attacks had failed, the first,
made in April at Les Eparges, with serious losses.
Tactically, the salient afforded a strong defensive position.
The Cote de Meuse, a range of hills rising abruptly 500 metres
above the Meuse valley on the W. and the Woevre plain on the
E., afforded strong supporting points on the western face of the
salient, while Mont Sec and the lower-lying hills S. of the Rupt
de Mad were well adapted to a strong defensive organization.
To the general staff of the American Expeditionary Forces
the reduction of the St. Mihiel salient had appealed strongly as
a favourable initial or try-out operation for the American army
as soon as sufficient forces should have arrived to undertake it.
The reason for this selection was not so much the material gain
to be reaped from it as the consideration that the fresh and
eventually preponderant American force should preferably be
employed against a part of the line where it could strike a vital
"blow to the Germans. Metz, the centre of important railway
communications and surrounded by coal and iron fields, obvious-
ly presented itself as such a region, and, in addition, while the
American forces were being gathered for the later major opera-
tions, the same installations and lines of communication needed
for them could be utilized by the earlier arriving troops to gain
an initial success on a smaller scale, mainly for moral effect
though also as a factor in troop training.
General Pershing had discussed this view with General
Petain in June 1917, and, after further study of the front, port
facilities and railway lines, this had been adopted as the work-
ing plan. However, the slowness of the transportation of troops
to France during the first year of American participation in the
war, and the exigencies caused by the success of the German
offensive operations in the spring of 1918, caused the plan to be
temporarily laid aside, and, during both spring and summer of
that year, American troops in France and arriving were scat-
tered along the western front to meet needs of the moment.
By the end of July the situation had stabilized sufficiently in
favour of the Allies to enable the question of reuniting the
troops of the American army to be taken up. On July 24 Marshal
Foch confirmed the understanding arrived at the previous year,
that the first American operation should be the reduction of the
St. Mihiel salient, and, a few weeks later, he authorized the
transfer to the I. American Army of that sector of the Allied
front facing the salient. This transfer occurred on Aug. 30.
By this time the American army consisted of forces far be-
yond the number requisite for the mere reduction of the salient
and the question of their subsequent employment arose. Gen-
eral Pershing desired to exploit the St. Mihiel attack to the ut-
most; Foch, however, with other plans and considerations in
lind (see MEUSE-ARGONNE, BATTLE or), limited the attack
ictly to the forcing of the salient, although Petain, in a con-
rence on Sept. 2, sided with Pershing in desiring the American
to gain at least the German " Michael " position across
: mouth of the salient.
By Marshal Foch's direction, Petain, on Sept. 2, issued the
directive for the operation which called for a main attack on the
S., to debouch from the plateau Seicheprey-Limey toward the
objective Vigneulles-Thiaucourt, and a secondary attack, to
debouch from the vicinity Eparges-Mouilly toward the S.E.,
and in connexion with the main attack, to effect the cutting off-
of the German forces in the salient. To the main attack there
were assigned eight American divisions; to the secondary, one
American and one French; the French troops occupying the
intermediate sector were to exercise " pressure " against the
enemy forces on their front. The wording and the date of this
directive and the disproportionate number of American divi-
sions assigned to the main attack, which alone could hope speed-
ily to reach the Michel Sttttung, suggest that it was originally
drafted to carry out Petain's conception of at least a partial
exploitation of the attack, to include the seizure of the Michel
position, and that, in a subsequent alteration to conform td
Foch's insistence on a more limited scope, only the names of the
objectives were changed.
General Pershing's order for the attack assigned the main
attack to the I. and IV. Corps with two regular divisions to
each corps; the secondary attack, on the Cote de Meuse, to the
V. Corps, the attacking troops to consist of one American
National Guard Div. and one French division; the French II.
Colonial Corps in the centre was to guard the adjacent flanks
of the main and secondary attacks, to execute deep raids and to
be prepared to follow up a withdrawal. At the disposal of the
American I. Army for the operation were 2,971 guns, mostly
French artillery. The I. Army also had a marked superiority
in aviation, thanks to French cooperation and the assistance of
the British Independent Air Force.
On the German side the salient was held by Army Detach*-
ment C, under Gen. von Fuchs and comprising, on Sept. 12',
the date of the attack, eight divisions on the line, organized ais
three corps groups, and three in reserve.
As early as Sept. i a deserter had given the Germans warning
of the impending attack, and Ludendorff had at the time seri-
ously considered ordering a withdrawal from the salient, but
was deterred by the representations of the army detachment
and army group commanders who were confident of their ability
to hold, and also by reports from Duke Albrecht's army group
in the Vosges region, of American preparations for attack farther
south. These feints which General Pershing had caused to be
made in the vicinity of Belfort had led to German uncertainty
as to the real intentions of the American commander. By Sept.
8, however, the evidences of a coming attack on the salient had
become unmistakable and Army Detachment C was ordered to
withdraw to the Michel Stellung. No need for haste was felt and
the preparations were deliberate and methodical. The night
preceding the attack the dismounted batteries were being with-
drawn and consequently could not be used in the battle.
Preceded by a four-hour bombardment the main attack was
launched at 5 A.M., Sept. 12; the secondary attack at 8:30.
Deprived of artillery support the German infantry though
ordered to hold, made virtually no resistance. The American
I. Corps on the right made its objectives in a few hours, and,
'in spite of German counter-attacks brought by two divisions
against it and against the right of the IV. Corps but beaten off,
begged permission to continue its advance; but, because of the
precise instructions by which the American staff felt itself
bound, this permission was refused. The IV. and V. Corps also
made their objectives and halted, awaiting orders.
Army H.Q. in this battle, as also in the earlier part of the
Meuse-Argohne battle, appears to have had little conception
of the difficulty and time required in the transmission of orders
on the battlefield and in consequence to have left but little
initiative in the hands of subordinates. The result was that the
orders for the troops of the IV. and V. Corps to move forward to
Vigneulles and effect the cutting off of the salient did not reach
the troops concerned until after dark on the I2th so that the
connexion, though unopposed, was not effected until the morning
of the I3th. Meanwhile the German commander, realizing his
1034
WOLFE-BARRYWOMAN SUFFRAGE
hopeless situation, had ordered the evacuation of the tip of the
salient, which had not been attacked, and during the night the
movement was successfully carried out except for the loss of
about i ,000 stragglers.
In the course of Sept. 13 and 14 the troops of the American
IV. and V., and French II. Colonial Corps moved forward with-
out serious opposition to the line designated by Marshal Foch
facing the German Michel position and which the I. Corps had
already reached on the 1 2th.
On the German side the attack showed a complete demoraliza-
tion in the Higher Command and a lack of initiative in the lower
officers. The men showed little will to fight. The advance of the
left division of the IV. Corps with one flank uncovered and of
the American division of the V. Corps- with both flanks uncovered
was nowhere taken advantage of.
In regard to the halting of the American offensive the German
general staff, in a study of the St. Mihiel attack published for
the information of the armies shortly after its occurrence, while
giving high praise to the dash and fearlessness of the American
soldier, added that the army H.Q., which showed itself so unable
to reap the advantages so clearly afforded by its striking initial
success, was not to be feared. It is not impossible that Foch, had
he himself been in immediate command of the I. Army on the
morning of the 1 2th, or had he been present, might, in view of the
manifest military advantages, have felt justified in permitting
the Americans to grasp the opportunity offered to complete the
destruction of Army Detachment C and to seize and hold the
Michel Stellung. Indeed Petain, on the night of the I3th, learning
that the German army behind the sector was in great disorder
and that the American troops on the right had reached and in
some instances gone beyond their objectives, did send an authori-
zation to take the Michel position; but by the time this permission
was received the opportunity of taking the position cheaply and
completing the German rout had passed. Tactically, Foch's
avowed purpose would have been better served had Petain, as
long as he was going to prescribe dispositions in detail for the
American army, originally called for two main attacks from the
two faces of the salient to meet in the centre the first day,
advances which the Soissons attack had already shown could
be easily made by American regular troops.
Of the troops engaged on the Allied side the Americans
aggregated 550,000, the French 110,000. American losses were
7,511, of which considerably more than half were borne by the I.
Corps which received the brunt of the counter-attack; French
losses were 597. The captures included over 15,000 prisoners
and 443 guns. (A. L. C.)
WOLFE-BARRY, SIR JOHN WOLFE (1836-1918), English
engineer, was born in London Dec. 7 1836, the youngest son of
Sir Charles Barry (see 3.443), architect of the Houses of Parlia-
ment. He was educated at Trinity College, Glenalmond, and
King's College, London, and became a pupil of Sir John Hawk-
shaw, whom he assisted in the building of Charing Cross and
Cannon St. stations and railway bridges. In 1867 he set up for
himself, becoming well-known as a railway engineer and traffic
expert. Through his initiative and energy the British Engineer-
ing Standards Committee was established in 1901, a great step
forward in effecting railroad economy. He was made a K.C.B.
in 1897. He died in London Jan. 22 1918.
WOLSELEY, GARNET JOSEPH WOLSELEY, VISCT. (1833-
1913), British field-marshal (see 28.777). The closing years of
Lord Wolseley's life were spent in virtual retirement. His health
gradually failed, and on March 25 1913 he died at Mentone, the
title going by special remainder to his only daughter, Frances.
His eminent service to the State had not been forgotten, for he
was accorded an imposing public funeral and was buried at St.
Paul's; an equestrian statue of him on the Horse Guards Parade
was unveiled in 1920. It had not been Lord Wolseley's good
fortune to hold responsible positions in the conduct of warfare
on a great scale, but he was undoubtedly a brilliant commander
in the field. His campaign in Ashanti and his overthrow of Arabi
Pasha were model operations of their kind, while the failure to
save Gordon and Khartum in 1885 was attributable to delays in
starting the expedition, for which he was not responsible. His
labours in modernizing the organization and developing the
efficiency of the British army often in face of strong opposi-
tion were of incalculable value to the country. He proved him-
self at the War Office to be an energetic, far-seeing and able
administrator. His insistence upon officers fitting themselves
for the duties that they would have to perform in war, and upon
their taking their profession seriously, was to bear rich fruit in
days when he had retired into the background. An excellent
judge of men and of character, he was extraordinarily successful
in his choice of subordinates. Cultured, possessing varied inter-
ests, well read and of wide experience in many lands, he was in
private life a man of unusual charm.
WOLVERHAMPTON, HENRY HARTLEY FOWLER, VISCT.
(1830-1911), English statesman, (see 28.781), died at Wood-
thorne, Wolverhampton, Feb. 25 1911.
WOMAN SUFFRAGE. In the earlier article (under WOMEN,
28.786), the story of the movement for woman suffrage was
brought down to 1910. The narrative may here be continued for
the United Kingdom up to the passing of the Representation of
the People Act in 1918, with some estimate of its results up to
1920, followed by accounts of the growth of woman suffrage in
other countries.
UNITED KINGDOM
In the later years of the agitation in Great Britain the consti-
tutional suffragists concentrated their efforts on the formation of
public opinion: they sought to form a non-party, non-militant
suffrage society in every parliamentary constituency and brought
local influence to bear in contested elections to obtain promises of
support from candidates of all political parties. They were so far
successful as to secure a majority of members pledged to their
support in every House of Commons elected since 1886: and in
that year, and also in 1897, 1908, 1909, 1910 and 1911, woman
suffrage bills passed their second reading, but made no further
progress, each successive Government declining to give facilities
for the passage of the bills into law. At this period the movement
was receiving very valuable support from platform, press and pul-
pit, besides remarkable help from the theatre in plays by leading
dramatists of the day. .
In Parliament for several years important support had been
given to woman suffrage by leaders of the Conservative party.
Among them may be mentioned three successive Conservative
Prime Ministers Lord Beaconsfield, Lord Salisbury and Mr.
Arthur Balfour besides the 7th Duke of Rutland and Lord
Iddesleigh, while the younger generation were ably represented
by the Earl of Lytton, Lord Robert and Lord Hugh Cecil, and
Mr. Alfred Lyttelton. On the Liberal side the leaders, with a few
important exceptions (which included Sir H. Campbell-Banner-
man, Mr. Lloyd George and Sir Edward Grey), were against
it. Among the strongest Liberal opponents during the gen- ;
eration before the World War were to be found Mr. Gladstone, I
Mr. John Bright, Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, Sir W. Harcourt, j
Mr. Labouchere, and Mr. Asquith.
In 1908 the death of the suffragist Sir H. Campbell-Banner- 1
man and the succession of the anti-suffragist Mr. Asquith to the
Liberal premiership were very disadvantageous to suffrage j
prospects in the House of Commons. This misfortune was,
however, partly counteracted by the emergence of the Labour \
party, the leading members of which were convinced suffragists; i
in a short time they induced the party to make woman suffrage I
a plank in their platform.
The question of " militancy " on the part of a section of the,
woman suffragists was mishandled from the first by the Liberal i
Government which came into power in 1906. The Women's
Social and Political Union, led by Mrs. Pankhurst and her'
daughter Christabel, which came into existence about this time, ;
confined its activities to asking inconvenient questions of mem-j
bers of the Government at public meetings. This was in itself a |
perfectly legitimate method of propaganda. Instead of meeting!
it by giving reasonable answers, the questions put were in many
instances met only by shouts of anger and disapproval or, when
written on paper, were contemptuously torn and thrown on the
WOMAN SUFFRAGE
1035
ground. Later, if persisted in, those who asked them were treated
with shameful violence. A man at Bradford in 1911, brutally
thrown out of a meeting by Liberal stewards, had his leg broken.
Women were " frogmarched " out of meetings, and while thus
absolutely helpless were violently struck on the face with fists or
umbrellas by men in the audience. It should always be remem-
bered that between 1905 and 1908 the militants never answered
violence by violence; they suffered violence, but used none. In
1908 they definitely abandoned this policy of non-retaliation;
to the last, however, they set limits for themselves, and never
shed one drop of blood of either man or beast. But they smashed
windows, set fire to churches and country mansions when they
; were empty ; burnt down the refreshment pavilion at Kew Gardens
. when no one was in it, destroyed the contents of letter-boxes and
! in one instance of a ballot-box at an election; slashed and cut the
Rokeby Venus by Velasquez in the National Gallery and the
i portrait of Henry James by Sargent in the Royal Academy, and
i destroyed a case of pottery in the British Museum. On June 4
1 1913 Emily Wilding Davison tried to upset the Derby favourite
during the race at Epsom, and died four days later from her
injuries. Her funeral on June 14 was made the occasion of an
imposing procession through London.
These and similar actions were intensely irritating, and the
punishments meted out were correspondingly severe. But long
before violence had been attempted groups of women had been
sentenced to three months' imprisonment for nothing worse than
making speeches in the lobby of the House of Commons, or
I shouting in the street. The severe sentences passed upon those
who had been guilty of real violence were in the later stages
rarely carried into effect; for the militants adopted the hunger
strike, and after an interval of, in some cases, only a few days
were released because public opinion would not have exonerated
| the Government if these women had died in their hands. Parlia-
||ment then passed a piece of panic legislation called Prisoners
(Temporary Discharge for 111 Health) Act 1912, immediately
nicknamed the " Cat-and-Mouse Act," which enabled the
j Government to rearrest the hunger strikers when they gave signs
of restored vitality. The principal result of this Act was the
ridicule which it created at the expense of the Government.
Public opinion was greatly excited by all these proceedings.
Suffrage was a universal subject of conversation. Anti-suffragists
had believed that " militancy " would kill the suffrage move-
Ik ment, and therefore the utmost publicity had been given to every
I act of violence and to every intemperate speech. But so far from
killing the suffrage movement the all-pervading discussion stimu-
't I lated it as nothing else had ever done. Everyone, high and low,
was talking about woman suffrage, arguing either for or against
it with vehemence and conviction.
It was a difficult time for the law-abiding suffragists. They
objected to " militancy " because they believed the use of physi-
cal force as political propaganda was invariably mischievous.
They were firmly determined to roast their pig, but not to do it
by burning down their house. Over and over again the National
Union of Women's Suffrage Societies issued strongly-worded
I [protests against " militancy," and they excluded militants from
i | membership of their societies. They deprecated the use of
" frightfulness," whether used by the militants or against them,
1 and urged repeatedly that the real cure for violence was the re-
I dress of the grievances which had given rise to it. The fact that
> men under somewhat similar circumstances had been much
i more violent and destructive did not create the desire to imitate
them. Serious differences thus naturally arose between the two
i branches of the suffrage movement. Each held firmly to its own
j view of the case. The militants bitterly resented criticism and
| made organized efforts to prevent its expression by trying to
. | break up the meetings of the law-abiding suffragists. One effect
" this situation was that for the first time since 1886 woman
Irage bills were defeated in the House of Commons, once in
pi2 and once in 1913. But other circumstances had contrib-
ted to these defeats. There were two general elections in 1910
i Jan. and December. Mr. Asquith and his party emerged vic-
ous from each of them, but in the second his majority was
greatly reduced, having fallen from 334 to 124. He had promised
at a public meeting in Dec. 1909, if returned to power, to bring in
a Reform bill and to allow a woman suffrage amendment to the
bill to be an open question for the House to decide. At a later
date, in answer to a question in the House, he said, just before
the second general election of 1910, that, if his Government were
still in power, it " would give facilities for proceeding effectively
with a woman suffrage bill, if so framed as to admit of free amend-
ment." The Times parliamentary correspondent said that this
made woman suffrage an issue before the country at the coming
election, and that a majority for the Government would mean
that Parliament had received a mandate to carry a measure to
that effect. Mr. Asquith was again returned to power, and shortly
after these two general elections, i.e. in July 1910 and in May
1911, the House of Commons carried by immense majorities
second readings of the measure known as the Conciliation bill.
This bill was of a very limited character, proposing to enfran-
chise only about one million women householders, and it was
from the outset opposed by Mr. Lloyd George on the ground
that it was not sufficiently democratic. The second reading in
1910 was, however, carried in spite of his opposition. After the
general election in 1911 suffrage prospects seemed particularly
bright; militancy had been suspended in order to give the Con-
ciliation bill a chance; all the suffrage societies were working
harmoniously together, and were relying on Mr. Asquith's
promise that, if the bill were given a second reading, opportuni-
ties should be afforded in the following session for " proceeding
effectively " with its further stages. A bombshell from Mr.
Asquith shattered these favourable prospects. He announced on
Nov. 7 1911, to a deputation from the People's Suffrage Federa-
tion, his intention of introducing during the session of 1912 the
electoral Reform bill he had foreshadowed in 1908. He said that
this bill would sweep away all existing franchises: that the new
franchise would be based on citizenship, and votes were to be
given to " citizens of full age and competent understanding,"
but no mention was made of women. Mr. Asquith, on being
asked what his bill would do for them, dismissed the inquiry with
the curt remark that his opinions on the subject were well known
and had suffered no change; but he reiterated his promises of
" facilities " for the Conciliation bill in the session of 1912. If
he intended to provoke a return to militancy nothing could have
been better calculated to do so. A violent outbreak at once took
place. Windows were smashed in the principal shopping streets
of London, and personal assaults were made on members of the
Government. The constitutional suffragists were as angry as the
militants, but had a different way of showing it. Many strong
suffragists in the Women's Liberal Federation broke away from
their party and gave all their energies to the suffrage cause.
Some knowledge of this may have reached Mr. Asquith, for
before mid-Nov. he took the unusual course of inviting represen-
tatives of the whole woman suffrage movement, militant and non-
militant, to attend in a deputation to him: this unprecedented
invitation was at once accepted for Nov. 18. The N.U.W.S.S.
prepared a series of four questions to put before him:
1. Was it the intention of the Government that the Reform
bill should be passed through all its stages in the session of 1912?
2. Will the bill be drafted in such a manner as to admit of amend-
ments introducing women on other terms than men?
3. Will the Government undertake not to oppose them?
4. Will the Government regard any amendment enfranchising
women which is carried in the House of Commons as an integral part
of the bill, to be defended by the Government in all its stages?
To each of these questions Mr. Asquith gave the answer,
absolutely unqualified: "Certainly." He further said, referring
to his own position:
"It is perfectly consistent with the self-respect and the best
traditions of our public life that, in relation to a question which divides
parties, not only the head of the Government but the Govern-
ment itself should say that, if the House of Commons on its respon-
sibility is prepared to transform or extend a measure which we are
agreed in thinking necessary a measure for the franchise as re-
gards men and to confer the franchise on women, we shall not only
acquiesce in that proposal, but we shall treat it as the considered
judgment of Parliament and shall make ourselves responsible for
carrying it out."
1036
WOMAN SUFFRAGE
.' Twenty-six days after this Mr. Asquith received a deputation
of anti-suffragists to whom he gave free rein to an expression of
his entire sympathy with their position, and to whom he de-
clared that he regarded " the grant of the parliamentary fran-
chise to women as a political mistake of a very disastrous kind."
It was never disclosed how he could reconcile his promise to the
suffragists to make himself and his Government responsible, if
the House so desired, for carrying woman suffrage, with his
belief that it would prove a political mistake of a disastrous kind.
His words to the second deputation went far to make his promises
to the first worthless; many of his followers interpreted his
meaning to be that he relied on them to deliver him, as one of
them expressed it, from " the humiliation " of having to keep his
word. The first step in his deliverance would be the defeat of the
Conciliation bill, and the usual parliamentary devices were em-
ployed to secure this end. One of these was to detach from the
support of the bill the members of the Irish Nationalist party.
This was done by making them believe that the success of woman
suffrage would break up the Government and thus prevent
the third ratification by the Commons of the Home Rule bill
necessary to secure (under the Parliament Act) its passage into
law notwithstanding its rejection by the House of Lords. These
tactics, aided by a coal strike which caused the absence of 13
Labour members in their constituencies, were successful, and the
Conciliation bill, which had been carried on second reading on
May 5 1911 by 255 to 88, was defeated on March 28 1912 by 222
to 208. It was a heavy blow to the women's cause, and the most
perturbing feature to suffragists in this defeat was the conviction
that the same unscrupulous tactics which had secured it would be
put into operation against the woman suffrage amendments to
the Government Reform bill.
When this was produced it was called a Franchise and Regis-
tration bill. It came on for second reading on July 12 1912. In
his speech Mr. Asquith took full advantage of the recent defeat
o! the Conciliation bill. He said: " This bill does not propose to
confer the franchise on women ; whatever extensions of the fran-
chise it makes are to male persons only." He then referred to
the defeat of woman suffrage in March as the "considered
judgment of the House," and he dismissed as "an altogether
improbable hypothesis the possibility that the House would
stultify itself by reversing this judgment during the same session."
Notwithstanding this ominous warning Mr. Lloyd George and
Sir Edward (afterwards Viscount) Grey continued to be confi-
dent that amendments to the Government bill gave suffragists
the best chance they had ever had of parliamentary victory. The
bill itself, however, made no further progress during 1912; the
protracted session lasted all through that year and overflowed
into 1913; it was officially announced that committee stage
would be taken on Jan. 24. All possible plans were elaborated by
the real friends of woman suffrage both inside and outside Parlia-
ment to ensure the success of one or other of the suffrage amend-
ments. But the parliamentary air was still thick with intrigue,
and many and circumstantial were the rumours that the suc-
cess of any of the woman suffrage amendments would mean
the resignation of anti-suffrage ministers and the break-up of
the Government. No official contradiction was given to these
rumours until the day before the House was expected to go into
committee on the bill.
But the defeat of the bill did not proceed from this source.
Three days from Jan. 24 had been allotted for the discussion of
the woman suffrage amendments. This stage was, however,
never reached. On Jan. 23 Mr. Bonar Law asked the Speaker to
give a ruling on the point whether the Government's own amend-
ments, regarding the occupation franchise for men, did not so far
alter the bill from that which had received a second reading in
July as to make it a new measure and necessitate its withdrawal
and reintroduction in its new form. In his reply the Speaker
intimated that this was his view, and added that there were
" other amendments regarding female suffrage which of course
would make a huge difference to the bill if they were inserted."
The bill was killed by this ruling. Mr. Asquith did not mend
the situation by his treatment of the suffragists, from whom he
refused to receive a deputation, and they were more incensed
against him than ever when, in .lieu of what he himself called " the
best chance they ever had," he only offered parliamentary time
for the discussion of yet another private member's bill. All the
suffrage societies repudiated this offer and did nothing to support
the bill, which was brought forward in May 1913 and defeated by
266 votes to 219.
These events, the defeat of the Conciliation bill in March 1912
and the fiasco of the Government bill in Jan. 1913, convinced the
N.U.W.S.S. that nothing would now be of any use but a Govern-
ment bill with the whole weight of the party behind it. They
accordingly gave a new interpretation to their election policy.
This was, and continued to be, to support the best friend of
woman suffrage; but events had proved that a suffrage candidate
who belonged to a suffrage party was a better friend than a suf-
frage candidate whose party was either hostile or neutral. The
council governing the N.U.W.S.S. therefore resolved " that in
judging which of the two pro-suffrage candidates should be sup-
ported in an election, the official attitude of the party to which
the candidate belongs should be taken into consideration." An
analysis of the division when the Conciliation bill had been de-
feated showed that 42 members who had been supported by the
N.U.W.S.S. as " best friends of woman suffrage " (mostly follow-
ers of Mr. Asquith) had voted against it. When party pulled one
way and voteless women pulled the other, party proved the
stronger. As Labour was the only party which had definitely
made suffrage part of its programme, this change threw the
influence of the N.U.W.S.S. in elections definitely on the side of
Labour; and a special fund, called the election fighting fund, .was
formed for the support of Labour candidates. The N.U.W.S.S.
further resolved under no circumstances to support Government
candidates, and to endeavour by all legitimate means to strengthen
any party which adopted woman suffrage as part of its pro-
gramme. By the adoption of this policy they succeeded in 16
months in defeating six Government candidates in by-elections,
making a difference of 12 in divisions. They had also succeeded
in each of the elections concerned in making the whole place ring
with the suffrage agitation. Public opinion moved rapidly and
strongly in the suffrage direction, the general view being that
suffragists had received less than fair play at the hands of
Mr. Asquith and his Government.
A " pilgrimage " organized by the N.U.W.S.S. in 1913 received
a remarkable degree of support from the towns and villages
traversed on the seven routes by which it approached London.
But the N.U.W.S.S. were convinced that a free vote of the House
of Commons on their question was an impossibility as long as
there was a Prime Minister who was ardently opposed to his own
principles when applied to women. They were therefore deter-
mined to do everything in their power to reduce Mr. Asquith's
majority. They believed that their election-fighting policy gave
them an effective and constitutional method of doing this, and
looked forward to helping to defeat his party in the general
election which, but for the World War, must have taken place :
not later than 1915. They were full of work in preparation for
this, when on Aug. 4 1914 the overwhelming catastrophe of the
World War broke out, not only destroying all opportunity of
suffrage work but jeopardizing the very existence of represent-
ative institutions in Europe.
Suffragists shared to the full in the solemn national con- ;
sciousness that every ounce of strength would be needed in the
gigantic effort which the successful prosecution of the* war de-
manded. Indeed, suffragists realized this more quickly than the
Government, which for many months seemed to believe that the
war could be carried on solely by the efforts of. the male half of
the nation, without disturbance of the domestic calm which they
believed to be the only legitimate role of the female half: for
offers of help from women to provide, and staff hospitals to sup-
ply, women for work in public offices, thus leaving an additional
number of young men free for military service, were plentifully
douched with cold water.
Nevertheless suffragists, whether militant or non-militant,
quickly faced the facts and clearly saw what their duty was. The
WOMAN SUFFRAGE
1037
militants instantly abandoned every sort of violence and organ-
ized themselves for public service. They formed a Women's
Emergency Corps, ready to undertake all kinds of national work
which the exigencies of the time required. Others, both militant
and non-militant, in spite of official discouragement undertook
the organization of hospital units entirely officered by women
(see WOMEN'S WAR WORK). The N.U.W.S.S. committee on
Aug. 3 resolved to suspend immediately all political propaganda
and to use their staff and organizing power in mitigating the dis-
tress caused by the war. Their societies, numbering over 500,
were consulted by post, and all but two approved this course.
No one claims for suffrage women that they were in any degree
singular in the devoted work which they gave to their country
during the war. The suffragists were earliest in the field because
they were already organized and accustomed to team-work.
Women of all classes and all parties threw themselves with zeal
and efficiency into every kind of useful patriotic work. Indus-
trial women were beyond all praise, working as they had never
worked before, early and late, Sundays and weekdays, to supply
the armies with every kind of military equipment. Everyone who
came into contact with them bore testimony to their splendid
efficiency in departments of skilled work from which before the
war they had been rigidly excluded. In March 1915 the Govern-
ment concluded an Agreement with the trade unions, known as
the Treasury agreement, to suspend during the war, in face of the
national emergency, the rules excluding women from most of the
skilled trades. The Treasury on its part gave a promise not to
use the women as a reservoir of cheap labour, and agreed to give
women the same wages as men for the same output. This gave
an important stimulus to the principle of equal pay for equal
work, and went some way also in the direction of establishing
industrial freedom for women. The courage of the women in the
dangerous trades was as marked as their .efficiency. On one oc-
casion 26 women were killed and 30 injured by an explosion;
those who remained uninjured displayed the greatest coolness
and discipline, and were prompt both in helping the wounded and
in continuing the work of the factory. The legend of the innate
timidity of women was thus undermined. The tide in this direc-
tion rose so high that even Mr. Asquith was floated by it, and in
speaking in Oct. 1915 in the House of the heroic death of Edith
Cavell, he said: " She has taught the bravest man among us a
supreme lesson of courage; yes, and there are thousands of such
women, but a year ago we did not know it."
All through 1916 evidence of the conversion of former oppo-
nents of women's enfranchisement poured into the suffrage offices.
Many of these conversions were of M.P.s, eminent leaders of the
press, railway managers, commercial and financial magnates.
Liberals very often pleaded militancy as an excuse for their for-
mer blindness; Conservatives, in the main, said simply: " I
formerly opposed the granting of the vote to women; I thought
men by themselves maintained the state; I was wrong; the
women have served their country so magnificently that hence-
forth I shall support their having the vote."
There is no doubt that by 1915-6 the country was by a great
majority favourable to the enfranchisement of women. Never-
theless it would have been impossible to induce Parliament to
pass a great Reform bill during the war if it had not been that the
electoral position of millions of men, caused by their services to
their country, was so anomalous as to amount to a public scandal.
The parliamentary register, by the direct orders of the Govern-
ment, had not been revised since 1913. By 1916 it was completely
out of date. By-elections, had "proved its unrepresentative char-
acter and it would have been a moral impossibility to take a
general election upon it. There were at this time the names of
about 8,000,000 men on the register. Of these nearly 7,000,000
qualified as occupiers. The occupation franchise necessitated
that the qualifying premises should have been continuously
" occupied " by the voter for 12 months since the last isth July.
This meant that a large proportion of the 5,000,000 young men
who had voluntarily joined the New Armies since Aug. 4 1914
would, in consequence of their patriotic services, have lost their
claim to the parliamentary vote. The men facing death
the very men to whom the country was most indebted, would be
voteless, whilst those who had evaded similar sacrifices retained
their electoral qualification. The position was intolerable, but
it was not at first clear how best to amend it. Proposals were
made by some M.P.s to create a new franchise based on naval
or military service. But this received little general support. The
questions: "Why exclude industrial service?" and "What
about the services of women?" received no satisfactory answer.
Mr. Asquith's Government repeatedly tried to deal with the
situation by Special Register bills. These efforts were unsuc-
cessful. Each successive proposal was rejected by the House of
Commons with growing symptoms of exasperation. The House
wanted a Reform bill,; it demanded a new electorate on demo-
cratic lines. The Government wanted a Reform bill too, but
appeared to believe they could get one to their liking by calling it
a Special Register bill. It was long before they abandoned their
efforts to get one thing by calling it another. On Aug. 14 1916
Mr. Asquith, on introducing yet another Special Register bill,
announced his conversion to woman suffrage; he based it on the
ground that when the war was over it would be necessary to re-
vise industrial conditions and that in his view women had a
special claim to be heard on the many questions which would
directly affect their interests. It was obvious that this was no
new condition. Ever since Parliament existed measures had come
before it vitally affecting the well-being of women, but on which
they had no constitutional means of making their claims heard.
But it was not the business of suffragists to point this out. The
main difficulty at the moment arose from the plausible plea that,
however desirable parliamentary reform might be, it was not the
time during the greatest war in history, with the issue still
hanging in the balance, to recast the representative system of the
country. The reply has just been indicated. The new register
and the new qualifications were needed at once unless millions of
the most desirable male citizens were to be disfranchised. A good
deal of iteration was needed to hammer this into people's heads;
and to the end, " This is not the time," continued to be the only
effective weapon used against women's enfranchisement.
Mr. Walter (later Lord) Long found a way out of the impasse.
He suggested the appointment of a non-party conference, con-
sisting of members of both Houses, selected and presided over
by the Speaker, to consider the whole subject of electoral re-
form including woman suffrage. Mr. Asquith concurred and
the House agreed. The conference began its sitting in Oct. 1916
and handed in its report on Jan. 28 1917. In the interval ME.
Lloyd George had succeeded Mr. Asquith as Prime Minister, a
change very favourable to immediate action in the direction of
woman suffrage. The Speaker's conference unanimously recom-
mended a new franchise for men amounting practically ,.tp
manhood suffrage; for women it recommended, but not unani-
mously, household suffrage, including wives of householders, a
higher, age-limit for women and their admission to the university
franchise. This was the scheme subsequently adopted by Parlia-
ment. The object of the high age-limit (30) for women was to
produce a constituency in which male voters were in a substan-
tial majority. It was believed by suffrage members of the con-
ference that the acceptance of this was essential to success.
The anticipated proportion of women to men in the new elec-
torate was as 2 to 3. This expectation proved practically correct.
The new register published in 1919 gave the exact numbers:
men 12,913,160; women 8,479,156. It may here be mentioned
that the United Kingdom is the only country, out of the 28
where women are 'enfranchised, which created a difference in
the qualifications for men and women.
The parliamentary history of the measure based on the recom,-
mendations of the Speaker's conference may, as regards woman
suffrage, be here sketched. Within a fortnight of his becoming
Prime Minister, Mr. Lloyd George intimated to the leaders of
the N.U.W.S.S. that he was keen to go forward at once in the
direction of women's enfranchisement. This was a month before
the Speaker's conference handed in its report. The object was
to get an agreed measure supported by every party in the House.
This was achieved. On March 28 1917 Mr. Asquith moved a
1038
WOMAN SUFFRAGE
resolution in Parliament calling on the Government to introduce
a Representation of the People bill based on the recommenda-
tions of the Speaker's conference. Woman franchise was the
subject of all the speeches, and the leader of every party sup-
ported the enfranchisement of women; the opposition was of
the feeblest, and the motion was carried by 341 to 62.
When the bill (see WOMEN, LEGAL STATUS or) was debated,
the second reading was carried by 329 to 40, and Clause 4 (en-
franchising women) was passed by 385 to 55, or 7 to i, with a
majority within each party into which the House was divided;
and again in the last trial of strength the anti-suffrage Die-hards
were reduced to a mere handful, the numbers being 214 to 17.
After this the N.U.W.S.S. felt the ground sufficiently solid be-
neath their feet to place a new weight upon it, and, in conjunc-
tion with many other women's societies, they urged that the
local government franchise for women should be amended on
the same principle which the House had already accepted for the
parliamentary franchise namely, to include not only house-
holders but wives of householders. This was at first resisted
by the Government, but suffragists outside the House and even
many anti-suffragists worked vigorously for it and prevailed.
The Government gave way, and the amended clause was accepted
on Nov. 14 without a division.
The anti-suffragists in the Lords were a more formidable group
than in the Commons. Lord Curzon, president of the Anti-
Suffrage Society, was the leader of the House and chief represen-
tative of the Government. The inclusion of women in the bill was
vigorously resisted in the early stages of the bill by Lord Bryce
and Lord Balfour of Burleigh; but there was no real fight upon
it until the committee stage was reached and the women's clauses
came on. After various skirmishes the battle was joined, an
anti-suffrage amendment was moved, and there was a full-dress
debate on Jan. 8, 9 and 10, 1918. Lord Curzon wound up the
discussion. His speech, for the first five-sixths of it, was a tolera-
bly familiar anti-suffrage oration, but the last sixth was cast in a
different mould. He reminded the peers that the House of Com-
mons was the sole constitutional representative of the feelings of
the country; that in the Commons woman suffrage had been sup-
ported by large majorities of every party, " including the one to
which most of your lordships belong." He invited them to con-
template what would happen if they came into collision with the
other House on such a question as the representation of the peo-
ple. He elaborated this point with skill, and ended by saying
that to reject the clause would be to embark upon a conflict in
which the Lords were certain to be worsted. He declined to be
responsible for such a catastrophe, and announced his intention
of not voting either for or against the amendment. This was the
supreme moment for all suffragists present. They felt at once
they were safe without disastrous conflict. The division was:
for the clause, 134; against, 71. Thus ended the so-years' strug-
gle of British women for political liberty. The royal assent was
given on Feb. 6 1918. The women's task had been a long one,
but they were able to look back upon it with satisfaction. They
had accomplished it without one scintilla of direct political power
and without appeals to party passion. Their appeal had been to
common sense and experience. They challenged their opponents
to produce one instance of disastrous consequences following
upon the women's vote. Moreover, they had not split the coun-
try into rival factions, for the bill was carried by the consent and
cooperation of all parties.
Those who had worked for woman suffrage quickly perceived
the difference it had made in the attitude of Parliament on al-
most every proposal which came before it. The parliamentary
atmosphere completely changed. Measures for which women's
societies had been working unsuccessfully for years, such as the
Nurses' Registration bill, and an amended Midwives' bill, were
taken up as Government measures, and passed through all their
stages without difficulty. The grille in front of the ladies' gallery
was removed, and women were admitted to the strangers' gallery.
By the spontaneous action of the Government a bill was passed in
Nov. 1918 to render women eligible to sit in Parliament. It was
not in time to be of much use at the general election which
followed in about a fortnight, but Viscountess Astor was re-
turned for Plymouth in Nov. 1919 and Mrs. George Wintring-
ham (widow of the previous member) for the Louth division of
Lines, in Sept. 1921. The increased number of women local
electors gave a great impulse to the election of women as town
and county councillors and the number of women chosen as
mayors steadily increased.
The report of the Lambeth Conference 1920 showed that the
Anglican communion was breathing the new atmosphere created
by the women's vote. It acknowledged that in the past the
Church had undervalued women and had too thanklessly used
their work. It slated the belief of the Conference that the
Church would be strengthened by making freer use of the spirit-
ual gifts of women, and recommended the opening to them of
the diaconate, definitely affirming that the diaconate is an " or-
der," though a minor one, and that a woman appointed to it is
not merely " set apart " but " ordained."
These changes vary in importance, but they are significant in
that they all point in one direction giving wider scope to the
powers and responsibilities of women and recognizing the use
of women's work in every well-ordered state.
Before the general election of Dec. 1918 Mr. Lloyd George
and Mr. Bonar Law had given a public promise, if returned to
power, " to remove all the existing inequalities in the law between
men and women "; but when the new Parliament opened there
was no indication in the King's speech of proposed legislation in
fulfilment of this pledge. The Labour party, therefore, in the
session of 1919 introduced a measure called the Women's Emanci-
pation bill, completely removing every legal inequality between
men and women and giving women the vote on the same terms as
men. This they carried, notwithstanding Government opposi-
tion, through all its stages in the House of Commons; the Govern-
ment, however, defeated it in the Lords, but not without pro-
viding a substitute the Sex Disqualification Removal Act. This
did not reopen the franchise question, but it gave women the
right to study and practice law in both its branches, to act as
magistrates and to sit on juries. It also made it clear to the
universities of Oxford and Cambridge that they had the power to
admit women to degrees and membership. Oxford availed itself
of these powers without delay, but Cambridge in Dec. 1920 de-
clined to take a similar step by 904 votes to 712, and repeated
the refusal twice in 1921.
BRITISH DOMINIONS OVERSEAS
The granting of woman suffrage in Canada was almost simul-
taneous with its victory in England. It was first adopted in the
provinces (except Quebec) in 1916, and by the Dominion in 1917.
Canada was well in front of the mother country in the matter of
the eligibility of women. Miss MacAdams was elected to the
Legislature of Alberta entirely by the votes of soldiers on duty
in England and France in July 1917. The first Woman Suffrage
Act for the Dominion limited the vote to women who had near
relatives serving overseas. Full woman suffrage followed very
quickly and almost without opposition in March 1918. In Feb.
I92r Mrs. Mary Ellen Smith of Vancouver was chosen as Speaker
of the British Columbian legislature. She, however, declined the
speakership, but took office as a member of the Cabinet.
New Zealand had enfranchised its women in 1893, and enfran-
chisement followed in the Commonwealth of Australia in 1902;
therefore, with the exception of S. Africa, all the great self-
governing overseas dominions of Britain have given political
freedom to women. In March 1921 Mrs. Cowan was elected to
the Parliament of Western Australia, the first woman M.P. to be
elected in Australia.
Jamaica, S. Rhodesia and British East Africa gave votes to
women in 1919 and 1920.
A strong effort was made by Indian women, supported by the
Aga Khan and the Begum of Bhopal, to induce Parliament to
incorporate in the Government of India Act the principle of
woman suffrage. This effort was unsuccessful but not fruitless;
important support was given in the House of Commons, and the
Act, as finally passed, specifically left the question of woman suf-
WOMEN
1039
frage to be decided, province by province, by the elected Legisla-
tures of India herself. The newly created constituencies there-
fore have the power, when they choose to use it, of recognizing
the full citizenship of women.
UNITED STATES
American women had been the earliest to make a definite
organized struggle for political freedom, having started in 1848,
but they were among the last to win. This was in part due to the
U.S. Constitution, which can only be amended by a two-thirds
majority in both chambers of Congress, and even then the amend-
ment does not become operative until it has been ratified by
three-fourths of the 48 states. American suffragists used to say
to friends in Europe, " You have to convert one Parliament:
we have to convert at least 37 Parliaments." The suffragists
worked state by state until there were some 20 suffrage states.
The greatest victory thus gained was that in the state of New
York in 191 7, after America had joined in the war. To win in the
" Empire " state was a turning point in the whole struggle. After
this, ultimate victory was certain, and the suffragists concentrated
on carrying suffrage by constitutional amendment. Theodore
Roosevelt in 1912 was the first important presidential candidate
who supported woman suffrage. In 1916 and 1920 all the presi-
dential candidates were suffragists. President Wilson during his
second term aided the movement by taking the unprecedented
course of himself twice urging the Federal amendment upon the
attention of Congress. The necessary two-thirds majority was
secured in the House of Representatives in Jan. 1918, but there
was not a single vote to spare, and the narrow margin weakened
the position, especially as the Senate had yet to be won ; but in
May 1919 the amendment was again brought up in the House
and was carried by 304 to 48; and victory in the Senate followed
almost immediately. Then came the battle for ratification in 36
states. The first stages were easy and rapid, i r states giving a
unanimous vote in both Houses, and seven more in one or other
of their chambers. After this the victories came more slowly
until, in May 1920, 35 states had ratified and only one more was
needed. The issue was much obscured by the impending presi-
dential election. Both candidates were, as in 1916, suffragists.
Both parties probably believed they would gain an advantage if
they could plausibly claim that their efforts had given the final
victory to women. Tennessee, a Democratic state, voted for the
amendment by the necessary majorities in Aug. 1920; legal ob-
jections to its validity were, however, raised, but not in time to
prevent the proclamation by the Secretary of State in Washington
that the igth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution had been
carried. The legal points, however, awaited decision in the High
Court. This gave an opportunity for a Republican state, Connec-
ticut, to come to the rescue; a special session was called and the
igth Amendment was ratified on Sept. 21 1920. This made the
Tennessee objections negligible for, valid or invalid, the 36th
state had now ratified and the following article was added to the
Constitution: " The right of citizens of the United States shall
not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on
account of sex." Thus after a struggle of 70 years the women's
victory in America was completed.
OTHER COUNTRIES
Before the World War there were only four countries in the
world where women exercised the political franchise; by the end
of 1920 there were 28 namely, the United Kingdom, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, British East Africa, Rhodesia, Jamaica,
Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Holland, Rumania,
Serbia, Luxemburg, Germany, Austria, Hungary, the United
States; and, among the states newly formed by the peace treaties
of 1919, Poland, Esthonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Czechoslovakia,
the Ukraine and Palestine.
The charter of the League of Nations contains a clause render-
ing women eligible for all appointments, including the secretariat.
This clause did not remain a dead letter. Besides a large number
of women in less responsible positions, Dame Rachel Crowdy
was made Director of the Section of National Health, to deal
with the white-slave and opium traffic and with the anti-typhus
campaign. At the first assembly of the League (Geneva Nov.,
Dec. 1920) Sweden appointed Mrs. Wicksell and Norway Dr.
Kristine Bonnevie as alternate representatives of their respective
countries; while Miss Forchhammer of Denmark brought for-
ward in the full assembly the subject of the white-slave traffic and
was successful in carrying her proposal to appoint a commission
of three persons, one of whom must be a woman, to prosecute a
special inquiry on the subject in the Near East. Miss Sophie
Sanger was made head of the Legal Section of the International
Labour Bureau. In Jan. 1921 Mrs. Wicksell was appointed a
member of the Permanent Mandates Commission.
In seeking a cause for so great a development of principles
for which comparatively small groups of women, without
any direct political power, had worked in some countries for
more than half a century, it may probably be found in one cir-
cumstance common to them all. In each country a national
crisis had arisen on the issue of which the whole fate of the nation
depended. National feeling in each had been stirred to its utmost
depths. Under its pressure class feeling was minimized; all sorts
and conditions of men and women had worked and suffered to-
gether for what each felt to be a cause of supreme importance.
Men and women acted as friends and comrades when the issue was
uncertain, and when the end came the men did not forget the
work and the sacrifices of the women. In all countries, whether
victors or vanquished, it was universally acknowledged that all
through the anguish of the war the women had not been backward
either in self-sacrifice, courage or capacity. It was this feeling
which broke down the opposition to women's votes in nearly all
the warring nations. It was felt also that men by themselves, as
a well-known journalist expressed it, had made a mess of the
world and needed helpers; men and women together being gener-
ally more successful than either men or women by themselves.
AUTHORITIES. M. G. Fawcett, Women's Suffrage (1911); M. G.
Fawcett, The Woman's Victory and After (1920); E. Sylvia Pank-
hurst, The Suffragette (1910); the files of the Common Cause, now
Woman's Leader, and of the International Suffrage News; Official
Reports of Parliamentary Debates 191 1-1919. (M. G. F.)
WOMEN (see 28.782). The decade 1910-20 saw not only an
advance in the position of women, unparalleled in any similar
period, throughout the civilized. world ; it saw also an entire rever-
sal of the public attitude towards their claim to equal citizen-
ship. Yet this is true only of the second half of the period. From
1910-4 there was little or no progress; there was indeed retrogres-
sion. By 1910 the " Woman Movement " of the later igth century
had very largely resolved itself into a movement for obtaining
the parliamentary franchise, a concentration upon a single object
deplored by some but defended by others, who contended that
the denial to women of the full rights of citizenship constituted an
effective check upon their advance in any direction. The rise and
progress of " militant " suffragism in England between 1910 and
1914 (see WOMAN SUFFRAGE) did much to alienate public sympa-
thy. It was only the outbreak of the World War which brought
about that great and sweeping reform in the position of women
which had been accomplished by 1920.
(i) UNITED KINGDOM. After 1914 changes in the United
Kingdom were both numerous and rapid. The shortage of man-
power during the war opened up a great diversity of fields of
employment (see WOMEN'S WAR- WORK), and broke down bar-
riers in the Civil Service and the learned professions, which had
hitherto seemed impregnable. Nothing more was heard in the
great war departments of those " structural " and other insuper-
able obstacles to the coemployment of men and women, which
figured so largely in the evidence of practically every male civil
servant before the Royal Commission on the Reform of the Civil
Service, reporting in April 1914. When the institution of the two
new orders of honour, the Companions of Honour and the Order
of the British Empire, was announced in June 1917, it was de-
clared that the bestowal of these decorations for war services
would be irrespective of sex. In Aug. 1917 a resolution to re-
move the grille in front of the ladies' gallery of the House of
Commons was passed by that House without debate. By the
1040
WOMEN
Representation of the People Act (1918) women over 30 gained
the parliamentary vote, and by a special Act passed in Nov. they
were made eligible as members of Parliament, though the only
woman elected at the general election of that year, Countess
Markiewicz, refused, with the other Sinn Feiners, to take her
seat. The Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act (Dec. 1919) gave
women the right to hold practically every other public or pro-
fessional position pertaining to civil life with the exception of
membership of the House of Lords. Even this exception was
subsequently removed: on March 2 1922 the Committee on Privi-
kges of the House of Lords favourably passed upon a petition
by Lady Rhondda holding that she and the 24 other peeresses in
their own right were entitled to seats in the House of Lords.
As an immediate result of the Act women could be admitted to
the degrees of any university, whatever the terms of its previous
charter. The university of Oxford rose to the height of its oppor-
tunity; Cambridge, up to the close of 1921, still lagged behind.
In the general election of Dec. 1918 women, who had qualified by
residence and examination for degrees not yet conferred upon
them, exercised the university franchise by reason of that qualifi-
cation. The absurdity of such a position appealed to the more
logical university: In Feb. 1920 Prof. Geldart introduced a
statute into Congregation at Oxford, proposing to admit women
to full membership of the university. Two amendments were
moved on March 9, one to exclude women from university boards,
the other from examinerships, but both were' rejected by large
majorities. On May n the statute was carried without alteration,
and three subsidiary statutes, admitting women to all university
offices, passed unopposed. Since Oct. 7 1920 the women stu-
dents of Oxford have enjoyed the same advantages, and been
subjected to the same university discipline, as the men. They
even wear in slightly modified form the same academic dress at
lectures and all university ceremonies. Moreover the gift was
retrospective; every woman who had passed the examinations
for the degree course and resided not less than 9 terms (three
years) in Oxford as a member of a recognized Society of Women
Students (such societies being the four women's colleges, or the
Society of Oxford Home Students) became eligible for a degree,
and on Oct. 14 the degree of B.A. was actually conferred upon a
large number of qualified women, the principals of the various
colleges and halls and the principal of the Oxford Home Students
receiving the hon. degree of M.A. On March u 1921 the hon.
degree of D.C.L. was conferred on Queen Mary, on the occasion
of a visit to Oxford in support of the appeal of the Oxford women's
colleges for funds to meet the anticipated increase in the number
of students anxious to matriculate at a university which offered
them full privileges of membership. During the academic year
1920-1 the total number of degrees conferred upon women at
Oxford was: B.A. 621; M.A. 345; B.Litt. 9; B.Sc. 3; B.C.L. i;
B.Mus. 2; D.Mus. i; D.C.L. i.
At Cambridge the position up to the summer of 1921 remained
uncertain and, from the women's point of view, unsatisfactory.
On Dec. 8 1920 a proposal to admit women to degrees was de-
cisively rejected by the Senate, the figures being 712 for and 904
against. An alternative scheme to set up a separate university
for women 'at Cambridge, conducting its own examinations and
conferring its own degrees, met with no favour and was strongly
opposed by the women concerned. When it came before the
Senate (Feb. 12 1921) it was rejected by 146 votes to 50. A
" compromise " scheme, giving membership of the university and
full degrees and making women undergraduates eligible for
professorships, lectureships, university boards and syndicates
but not for the Senate, was again rejected on Oct. 20 when it was
defeated by 908 Votes to 694. An alternative scheme for con-
ferring by diploma " titular" degrees on women, carrying with
them no university membership, was passed by 1,012 votes to
370. This alternative, however, was unacceptable to the women.
Amongst the learned and academic distinctions won by women
during the decade may be noted the presidency of the botanical
section of the British Association held by Ethel Sargent (d. 1918)
in 1913 and by E. R. Saunders in 1920. In Dec. 1920 Eugenie
(Mrs; Arthur) Strong was appointed Rhind lecturer in archae-
ology and the first woman fellow of the Society of Antiquaries.
In 1918 the Founder's Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical
Society was bestowed upon Gertrude Margaret Lowthian Bell.
By Section 2 of the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act
women were permitted to become solicitors. Three years earlier
(Jan. 1917) a proposal to admit women to the bar had been
defeated at its annual general meeting by a large majority,
though in Feb. 1917 a bill to permit them to qualify as solicitors
obtained a second reading in the House of Lords. On Jan. i
1920 Mrs. Gwyneth Marjory Thomson (Bebb), who died at
the 1 early age of 31, was admitted at Lincoln's Inn as the
first woman student for the English bar. She had previously
(1913) tested the legality of a woman practising as a solici-
tor by bringing (with others) a case against the Law Society.
On May 7 1920 Miss Tata, a Parsi, was admitted, also at Lin-
coln's Inn, as a student preparing for the Indian bar. A
few women presented themselves for the law examinations at
the universities and passed with distinction, Mrs. Thomson ob-
taining a ist class at Oxford, and Miss L. F. Nettlefold at Cam-
bridge, and in June 1921 Miss K. Snell of Girton College was
placed above No. i in Class I. of Part II. of the law tripos at
Cambridge. In March 1921 five women passed the intermediate
examination for the bar and on May 26 Olive Catherine Chap-
man passed the final examination.
Seven women (the Marchionesses of Crewe and of London-
derry, Mrs. Humphry Ward, Mrs. Lloyd George, Miss Elizabeth
Haldane, Mrs. Sidney Webb and Miss Gertrude Tuckwell) were
appointed justices of the peace on Jan. i 1920. On Jan. 9 Mrs.
Ada Summers, mayor of Stalybridge, took her seat as first woman
chairman of the bench. In March of that year 24 women were
appointed for the county of Lancaster, and in July a large num-
ber were appointed for the county of London; appointments were
subsequently made throughout the United Kingdom.
On Aug. 6 iQ2o women jurors were for the first time em-
panelled, at Bristol. In Jan. 1921 women jurors were first
summoned to the Central Criminal Court, London, and were
also first called as " special jurors " in the Probate and Divorce
Court. The first case which they had to try involved details of an
unpleasant character, and some controversy subsequently arose
as to the suitability of mixed juries in divorce and other cases. It
was, however, generally held that the discretion left to the
judge to make an order exempting women from service in cases of
a certain kind was sufficient safeguard, and a bill, introduced
into the House of Commons by Mr. G. Terrell on April 15 to
amend the Sex Disqualification Act by providing that no women
should be compelled to serve on a jury, failed to secure support,
only 19 members being present when he introduced it.
Shortage of candidates for the medical profession during the
World War encouraged a very large number of women students
to present themselves. War conditions led to the admission of
women students to several of the London general hospitals;
before the war they were restricted to the Royal Free Hospital
and the School of Medicine attached to it, or to the few hospitals
for women, staffed by women. A notable advance was also made
in placing the Endell Street (London) military hospital, opened
Feb. 1915 by the R.A.M.C., under Dr. Louise Garrett Anderson
and Dr. Flora Murray, and by the employment of other women
surgeons and physicians under the R.A.M.C. in Malta, Salonika
and elsewhere.
Progress in the Civil Service was rapid during the war, when
women, as temporary civil servants, held many responsible
posts, and were paid on a higher scale than had previously ob-
tained. On May 19 1920 the House of Commons passed a resolu-
tion declaring that women employed in the service of the State
should have equal opportunities and equal pay with men engaged
on the same work. But the power to reserve to men certain de-
partments of the service, given to the Treasury by Order in
Council, was widely exercised, and the progress made fell short of
the desires and expectations of the women affected (see WOMEN'S
EMPLOYMENT). On Aug. 5 1921 a debate on the subject took
place in the House of Commons on a resolution moved by a
private member. A Government amendment to it was agreed to,
WOMEN
1041
whereby for a provisional period of three years special conditions
were to obtain both as to method of selection and rates of pay,
but subsequent conditions were to be the same for both sexes.
No barriers now exist excluding women from any profession,
except the army and navy, and ministry of the Church of Eng-
land or the Roman Catholic Church. In Feb. 1920 Convoca-
tion passed a resolution against giving permission, even to
accredited women " to preach and pray in congregations com-
posed of women and children," but in July the Lambeth Con-
ference recommended the admission of women to the diaconate
and a wider use of their ministry in non-liturgical services.
Permission was, however, refused to Miss Maude Royden to
preach in a London church at a special Good Friday service in
March 1921. The General Assembly of the English Presbyte-
rian Church resolved in May 1921, by 156 votes to 124, to
admit women as elders and deacons.
In practically all other directions the field lies open to women.
Their achievements during the war proved that they but needed
opportunity. The remaining struggle was not for permission to
work but for adequate remuneration. " Equal pay for equal
work " became their rallying cry. It was inscribed upon the
banners of an imposing procession, demanding equality in the
Civil Service, which paraded London on April 28 1920; it formed
the basis of the protest of women teachers to the Minister of
Education (May 1920) and of their demonstration in Trafalgar
Square (Nov. 1920) against the proportion (four-fifths) of male
salaries allowed them under the Burnham scale. In the indus-
trial world the women's claim to an equal bonus prompted the
successful strike of tramway and omnibus workers in London
in Aug. 1918. Not inappropriately the National Union of Women
Suffrage Societies renamed itself the National Union of Societies
for Equal Citizenship.
The problem was no longer political, or even social; it was eco-
nomic. The removal of the few remaining disabilities of women, such
as their inferior share in the guardianship and control of their
children, depends in the last resort upon the securing for them,
whether in marriage or out of it, of economic independence. Other-
wise freedom to control those whom she cannot maintain, or the
right to leave a husband when she is incapable of maintaining her-
self, are illusory rights of little value to a woman. When the last
traces of the legal theory that husband and wife are one person, and
that the woman, as such, must be under the tutelage or guardian-
ship of parent or husband, have been obliterated, there will still
remain need for legislation securing to a woman freedom to work
outside her home, or, as an alternative, wages for work within it
going beyond bed and board, as well as a fair share of joint earnings.
j Not till this is accomplished will the theory of equal citizenship
have been translated into fact. (J. E. C.*)
(2) UNITED STATES. The increase in interest in professional
work for women in the United States, during the World War, was
evidenced by the number of bureaux and associations for the
exchange of information in this field. A book published in 1920
by the director of the Intercollegiate Vocational Guidance
Association told the story of over 30 groups of professional
occupations where women were already at work. An examination
of the many branches under the main groups indicated that there
was practically no profession women had not entered. The
Bureau of Vocational Information published intensive studies of
the leading professions, and the National Social Workers' Ex-
change was organized to place trained workers in professional
positions throughout the country. During the World War in-
creased opportunities came to women, both in the accustomed
professions and also in new lines of endeavour. It is probably
true, however, that most of the professional work, which was
considered " new " to women, was " new " only in the sense that
it was unknown to the general public. In the case of employment
managers, personnel and welfare workers, for instance, women
had been employed for some time, but the war increased the
number and brought their work vividly before the public.
Industry. Many of the women taking executive positions in
industry had been forewomen and were promoted in the war emer-
' gency. In one investigation of 250 plants, 146 employed women
executives other than forewomen. The more important positions
included those of designers, office or factory managers, employment
managers, welfare directors, nurses and occasionally doctors,
matrons, lunchroom managers, production supervisors, depart-
ment heads, statisticians and saleswomen on the road. Later there
developed a tendency to employ college women in these positions,
and by 1920 at least three universities and a half-dozen schools had
offered special training courses. One school alone graduated over
200 women whose salaries ranged from $2,000 to $5,000 a year.
Medicine. Perhaps the most important demand among the
already recognized professions was for an increased number of
nurses and doctors. In 1920 there were registered about 40,000
nurses in private practice and about 10,000 in public health work.
It was in the latter field where every effort was being made to in-
crease the number to 50,000. The number of women physicians at
the same time was about 6,000, and practically all of the American
medical schools were open to women, although not always on quite
the same terms as for men. Women were not only practising physi-
cians but they also held important positions in surgery, dentistry,
laboratory research, and on the staffs of hospitals and medical schools.
In addition to the " regular " physician it was estimated that there
were about seven or eight thousand women practising osteopathy.
Law. Since 1869, when the first woman was admitted to the
bar in Illinois, the profession of law has claimed an increasing number
of women. By 1921 every state in the Union except Delaware had
admitted both sexes, and at least 1, 600 women were practising in
various branches of both civil and criminal law. Out of 129 law
schools only 27 then refused admittance to woman students, but
among those refusing were two of the leading schools, Harvard and
Columbia. In many cases women who were graduate lawyers
specialized in one phase of work such as corporation law, patent
law, legal research or court work: Others did not enter the practice
of law but engaged in work where their legal training became
valuable background. Among the important Government positions
held by women lawyers in 1921 were those of the U. S. probatfe
attorney, judge of the juvenile court in the District of Columbia,
city magistrate in New York City, deputy collector of customs, and
county attorneys, treasurers, clerks, probate judges and justices of
the peace in various states. Two states have had women assistant
attorneys-general, and probably the most important position held
by a legally trained woman was that of assistant attorney-general
of the United States.
Education. One of the few professions given over very largely
to women was that of teaching. Women almost completely filled
the ranks in the elementary public schools, and very nearly so in
the higher grades. Men predominated in the colleges and universi-
ties, but women held many important positions as faculty members
and occasionally as presidents of women's colleges. Many of the
higher educational institutions employed women deans to supervise
and advise the women students. Salaries for these positions were
seldom above $3,000 or $4,000, but occasionally the dean of women
held the rank of full professor and received a corresponding salary.
Many smaller cities employed women as superintendents of schools,
but in 1921 only one or two of the larger cities had engaged women
in this position. An increasing number of women were employed in
private schools either as teachers or principals, and often private
schools were owned and managed by women. Since 1900 particular
problems in education have been emphasized and women specialists
developed in such fields as manual training, recreation, kindergarten,
physical education, vocational training, and the education of the
blind, feeble-minded or subnormal.
Immediately following the World War an acute shortage of
teachers occurred, due to the large numbers drawn off into better^
paid positions. This exodus amounted almost to an " invisible
strike " for higher wages and became so serious that schools in
many places either closed entirely or were open for only half-day
sessions. A movement was started to establish a minimum salary
of $1,500 a year in order again to attract women to the profession,
but the wave of economy which spread over the legislative bodies in
1921 greatly impeded the efforts to raise the standard of teaching
and to secure better educational facilities.
Social Work. Since 1900 a remarkable increase occurred in the
numbers of women engaged in various forms of social service.
Women have of course been the traditional bearers of charity and
have long been connected with correctional work. But this was
largely in the form of volunteer service. With the greater develop-
ment of paid service, and the desire to treat causes rather than effects,
there developed a wide field of work and a large number of workers.
Social service was classified by the National Social Workers' Ex-
change as follows : (i) Social case work, dealing with individuals, as
church visiting, family case work, medical social service, probation,
protective and prison work, public health nursing and visiting, school
visiting, and employment exchange work, both public and private
(2) Social group work, including community-centre work, Ameri-
canization boys' and girls' club work, playground and recreation
work. (3) Social reform work dealing with people as a mass as
housing reform legislation, anti-tuberculosis work, and the promo-
tion of child hygiene. (4) Social research, comprising special in-
vestigations, research and statistical work including surveys and
exhibits. No fewer than 14 schools for the training of social workers
had been established by 1921 and the demand for women with proper
training usually exceeded the supply.
Civil Service. -Extensive opportunities for women are to be
found in civil service positions offered by city, state, and Federal
1042
governments. In 1920 about 200 cities, II states and the Federal
Government had adopted the competitive civil service plan. The
number of women employed in the civil service throughout the coun-
try could not be accurately ascertained but a conservative estimate
of those in the Federal service in 1920 placed the number at about
50,000 in the District of Columbia alone. During the first half of
the year 1919, examinations were held for 260 different types of
service with positions varying from that of charwoman at $240 a
year to a Federal Trade Commissioner at $10,000.
The plan of the classified civil service aims, on the whole, to give
equal opportunity to both sexes. But in practice women are often
discriminated against by the custom of excluding them from certain
types of service and also by permitting the heads of departments to
determine the sex qualifications both for examinations and for ap-
pointments. In the Federal Government service, where women were
admitted by statute in 1870 at the discretion of the head of the
department, the custom of giving preference to men had been so
powerful that in the civil service examinations held between Jan. I
and July I 1919 women were excluded from over 64% of the posi-
tions in scientific and professional services, from 86% of the posi-
.tions in the manufacturing and mechanical services and from 75 %
in the medical services. In the work of collecting information from
original sources only 4 out of 16 different kinds of positions were open
to women. Even the Federal Bureau of Efficiency and the Federal
Board for Vocational Education closed its examinations to women.
This policy of discrimination was deeply affected by the shortage
of labour during the World War, and the situation was partly rem-
edied when the Civil Service Commission, after an investigation
by the women's bureau of the Department of Labor, opened all
examinations to both sexes, but with the reservation that heads of
departments may specify which sex was desired. This latter provi-
sion will need to be modified before equal opportunity is completely
secured. There also exists in the Federal service serious discrimina-
tion against women in the matter of salary levels and in the classi-
fication of grades. During the first two months of 1919, for instance,
over 86 % of all women appointed received salaries ranging between
$900 and $1,300 a year, while only 36% of the men received these
salaries. The number of women receiving probational and temporary
appointments, in this same period, was about twice as great as the
number of men in the same classes. But efforts to remedy this situa-
tion are increasingly successful.
Positions most commonly open to women include those of ste-
nographer, secretary, librarian, statistician, editorial and clerical
worker. Many departments, however, require women with expert
technical training such as biologists, bacteriologists, chemists,
dietitians, linguists, draftsmen, doctors, nurses, directors for play-
grounds and recreation centres, and specialists in social welfare
such as child hygienists and factory inspectors. Public institutions
also offer opportunities for women in such positions as matrons,
supervisors, inspectors and in the more technical positions as physi-
cians or psychologists. Tenure of office based upon merit, often
with a pension upon retirement, is probably one of the most alluring
features in civil service work.
General. The entrance of women into many other professions
was given a special impetus during the war, including journalism,
advertising, commercial art and banking, where women were em-
ployed both as clerks and as officers and directors. Architecture,
interior decoration, landscape gardening and motion-picture work
attracted an increasing number of women. I n motion-pictures women
were not only actresses but also title editors, research workers,
readers and occasionally directors or even producers. The ex-
ceptionally large salaries of $25,000 and $50,000 were occasionally
reported, and a rare motion-picture director or a play broker was
said to earn $100,000 a year. It is apparent that women have en-
tered a very large number of professions exclusively held by men in
earlier years, and their success indicates that they are certain to re-
main and to carry important responsibilities. (I. O. A.)
WOMEN, LEGAL STATUS OF (see 28.784*). (i) UNITED
KINGDOM. The position of women in England was almost
revolutionized between 1910 and 1921. Very little actual change
in the law took place between 1882 and 1918, but beneath the
surface inevitable changes were impending, and the World War
brought about the outward change as probably nothing else
could have done. The parliamentary suffrage (see WOMAN
SUFFRAGE) was granted in the early summer of 1918 to all women
over 30 years of age whether single, married or widows; 1 and in
Dec. 1919 they were declared eligible for any office.
1 By the Representation of the People Act (1918) all the old
franchises were swept away. There are now three qualifications
for women as parliamentary electors under the Act: residential,
university, and as the wife of a local government elector. In her
own right a woman may qualify by residence in the electoral area
and may in addition have one or more university votes. As'the
wife of a local government elector she may also have a parliamentary
vote, but she may not vote more than once in the same election
nor for more than one ordinary constituency in a general election.
WOMEN, LEGAL STATUS OF
It may be taken as a general proposition that from the be-
ginning of the year 1920 onwards there has been no difference in
the legal position of men and women on account of their sex
throughout the United Kingdom, and since that time no woman
has been under any civil disqualification by reason of sex or
marriage. As far as property was concerned, even under the old
law, the non-married woman, whether spinster or widow, held
her property on the same terms as a man. She could buy and sell,
go to law and make her will just as a man could. The married
woman's position before the year 1882 was far different. It is
well stated by one who, though born in the United States, became
one of England's greatest lawyers, thus: " A married woman is
absolutely incompetent to enter into contracts, and has in the
contemplation of law no separate existence. She cannot make a
valid purchase on her own account even for necessaries, and
when credit is given to her there is no remedy but an appeal to her
honor " (Benjamin on Sales, 3rd ed., p. 32). All this has com-
pletely disappeared. The Married Woman's Property Act 1882
was a great step in advance, and the last remnant of the medieval
doctrine that for every purpose husband and wife were one per-
son (and that person the husband) disappeared in 1920 when they
were made capable of stealing from one another except when
living together. A married woman is now as capable of dealing
with her own property as a man is.
Married women (and of course all spinsters and widows) can
now make their wills and dispose of their property as they wish.
In England neither the husband nor the children have a right to
any part of it except in the absence of a will. In Scotland the
children have a legal share, on which they can insist on their
parent's death. A married woman is not obliged to ask her hus-
band's leave to make a will, nor need she make him executor or
leave him any part of her property, unless she wishes to do so.
Among wealthy people the married woman's position as to prop-
erty is of ten controlled by her marriage settlement. The provisions
are almost invariably the same, viz. that the capital of the prop-
erty is in the hands of trustees and the income goes to the wife, who
cannot anticipate it. On the death of the wife the husband
sometimes has the income for his life. If there are children the
capital is divided among them, generally in equal shares. If
there are no children or other descendants of the wife the property
goes back to the wife's relations, unless she disposes of it by will
as she can generally do.
It is, however, an irony that even in 1921, in respect of her
motherhood and the custody of her own children, the woman was
still inferior to man (see 14.514), and also as to inheritance she
was still not in such a good position as her husband or brother.
In case she does not make a will all her property except her land
goes to her husband, whereas if he dies intestate she only gets a
third of his property, or half if he has no children (see 14.568 and
In addition she has one university vote at a general election. To
qualify as a local government elector she must have (a) attained the
age of 21, be resident in the area on the last day of the qualifying
period (Jan. 15 or July 15), have occupied some land or premises in
the area for the whole of the qualifying period, or in the alternative
(ft) must have attained the age of 30 and be the wife of a man who
is entitled to be registered as a local government elector in respect
of the premises in which they both reside. To qualify as a parlia-
mentary elector she must have attained the age of 30 and must be
entitled to be registered as a local government elector in respect of ,
the occupation in the electoral area of land or premises of the yearly i
value of not less than 5, or of a dwelling house, however small the :
value, or be the wife of a husband entitled to be so registered. This
means that the husband must own land or premises in the area of the
yearly value of not less than 5. In all the above cases the women
must not be under any legal incapacity. A peeress in her own right
can be an elector and also a peeress by marriage. There are certain
offices, chiefly in Scotland, which if conferred on a woman would
incapacitate her as a voter. She must not be a lunatic, an alien or a
convict. The wife of a person serving in military or naval forces of
the Crown, who would if he were not so serving be entitledjo be
, is not disqualified. The wife of a " con-
registered as an elector,
scientious objector " is not disqualified.
In the case of a university vote the woman elector must be 3
years of age, and fulfil the same local conditions as a man elector,
or have passed the final examination and kept the period of resirlenc
necessary to qualify a man at the time when the university did not
grant degrees to women.
* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.
WOMEN, LEGAL STATUS OF
14.714). A very elaborate bill was in 1921 before Parliament
intended to give her an equal share with her brothers in her par-
ents' landed property.
The Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act, 1919, provides that no
person (whether man or woman) shall be disqualified by sex or
marriage from the exercise of any public function, or from being
appointed to or holding any civil or judicial office or post or from
entering or assuming or carrying on any civil profession or vocation
or for admission to any incorporated society (whether incorporated
by Royal Charter or otherwise), and a person shall not be exempted
by sex or marriage from liability to serve as a juror. The word
" person " in English law includes woman as well as man. The Act
further provides (a) that His Majesty may by order in Council
authorize the admission of women to the Civil Service, and reserve
to men any branch of, or posts in, the Civil Service in H.M. pos-
sessions overseas or in any foreign country; (b) that any judge or
other person before whom a case is heard may in his discretion on
application (in both civil and criminal cases) by either party or at
his own instance make an order that the jury be composed of men
or women only, or may on her application exempt a woman from
service on a jury by reason of the nature of the evidence or issues
to be tried. Rules of Court have been made as to summoning jurors,
exempting women who are for medical reasons unfit to attend and
as to procedure. Section 2 provides for the admission of women as
solicitors. Section 3 enables any university to admit women to
membership or any degree notwithstanding any statute or charter
of such university. The Act overrides all previous statutes, orders
in council, royal charters or other provisions inconsistent with it,
and applies to the whole United Kingdom. 1
It will be observed that the qualification to hold office only applies
to civil life. Military and ecclesiastical offices are not open to women.
On the passing of the Act Viscountess Astor was almost immediately
elected to the House of Commons and took her seat as a member, and
women were appointed justices of the peace and began to serve on
juries. The contrast between the position of women in 1921 and 50
years earlier is certainly very striking. The unmarried woman, both
spinster and widow, was equally disqualified formerly from public
functions and offices, but she was in the same legal position as a man
for the purposes of contract and wrong-doing. In criminal law the
married woman as well as the single one has now the same position
, as a man with some trifling exceptions. The recent Larceny Act,
which codifies the law, finally makes it possible for the wife as well as
the husband to steal from one another when they are living apart,
or deserting, or intending to desert the other. Up to the last-men-
; tioned date the medieval conception that the husband and wife were
one person made it impossible for them to steal from each other,
just as it formerly made it impossible for one of them to give or
convey property to the other. All this is now abolished and, with
. the exceptions presently stated, a woman, even when married, must
. be treated in law as a man. This is not however the case with
military or ecclesiastical law. A woman is not liable to serve in the
forces of the Crown, and she cannot in the Church of England or the
Church of Rome be a priest or hold such ecclesiastical offices as are
1 held by men. She is also subject to her husband in ecclesiastical
' law, and they are regarded for many purposes as one person. She
is also by the law of marriage regarded as under the authority of her
husband. Her duty is obedience in all things not sinful. The
husband has a right to her custody and control. She must live in the
bouse he appoints and sleep with him if he wishes it. She has no
emedy except to leave him, and if she does so for such a reason he
s not bound to support her. He cannot however legally prevent
icr from leaving him (Jackson v. Jackson 1891). She cannot get
lamages from him for imprisonment (Tinkley v. Tinkley 1908).
The wife can obtain a maintenance order from a magistrate
f she separates from her husband on the ground of his assault on
icr, or his desertion. Orders made abroad can now be enforced in
England, and, if made in England, can be enforced against the
.usband abroad. Maintenance for the children can also be obtained
:p to los. per child (Married Woman Maintenance Act 1920).
In England until the Act of 1874 (36 and 37 Viet. c. 12) the father
/as the sole guardian of the children of any marriage and was en-
itled to the sole custody and control of them. The mother had no
:gal rights whatever. By an Act of Charles II. (1660) the father
'as given the sole right to appoint a guardian or guardians of his
hildren to act after the father's death so long as they are under
nty-one. By the Guardianship of Infants Act (1886) the mother,
urviving, is the guardian of each child either alone, when no
clian has been appointed by the father, or jointly with the
dian appointed by him. The mother may also appoint a
dian to act after her own and the father's death. Subject to
: confirmation by the Court she may also appoint a guardian to
: with the guardians appointed by the father. By Section 5 the
Vomen who wish to be solicitors should apply to the Incorporated
' Society, Chancery Lane, W. C. 2, or barristers to the Benches
he Temple, E. C., or Gray's Inn or Lincoln's Inn, W. C. Nurses
1 midwiyes are under the Ministry of Health. There are penalties
using either title without registration.
1043
Court may make such order as it thinks fit regarding the custody of
the child and the right of access thereto by either parent " having
regard (a) to the welfare of the child, (6) the conduct of the parents,
and (c) the wishes as well of the father as of the mother." This statute
however has been interpreted by the judges to mean that where the
father's wishes and the mbther's were opposed the father's wishes
must prevail. By the Guardianship of Infants bill (1921) the above
Act would be wholly repealed. The father and mother in future and
for all purposes would be joint guardians, and have joint custody, and
have " equal authority, rights and responsibility with regard to every
legitimate child, any former rule of law or equity to the contrary
notwithstanding." The father and mother would be jointly and
severally liable for the maintenance and education of the child ac-
cording to his or her means on the application of either the father
or mother or any other person acting as next friend. Their executors
would also be liable. .
There is an old saying that lawyers are divided into two classes:
those who think man is made for the law and those who think the law
was made for man. It is the first class that makes the law unpopular;
but it should be remembered that when husband and wife quarrel
about their children the task of the judge is a very difficult one.
The most difficult case is where they differ in religion. It has been
laid down (Agar-Ellis case 1878) that the child must be brought up
in the religion of the father. In this case he was a Roman Catholic
and had not been guilty of misbehaviour. It was decided that the
children must not be brought up by their mother on the ground
that she might make them Protestants; if the father had been a
Protestant' and the mother a Roman Catholic she would have
been deprived of her children on the same grounds. It was further
laid down that no promise by the father before marriage as to the
education of his children can be enforced after marriage, as he has a
right to alter his mind. The last named decision might well be re-
versed by statute. In the case of property the husband's agreement
before marriage can be enforced, and it seems unjust not to enforce
his agreement as to the children. But in cases where the father and
mother are of different religions and no promise has been given, it
makes the judge's task a difficult one. Hard cases make bad law,
and the difficulty lies, not with the judges, but in the real tragedy of
these disagreements. (R. TH.)
(2) UNITED STATES. Although the legal emancipation of
women was far advanced in the United States at the end of the
igth century, three things were yet incomplete: (i) full recogni-
tion and securing of the individual interests of women in the
domestic relations, which were often left unsecured legally be-
cause of survival of doctrines or institutions coming down from a
state of society in which all women were dependents, and were
normally under a sort of guardianship; (2) full logical develop-
ment of the legal capacity of married women and doing away with
the remnants of their common-law disabilities, already long
abrogated for the most part in the United States, but surviving
here and there in curious local anomalies; (3) legal taking ac-
count of the facts of women's physical constitution in their rela-
tion to wages and hours and conditions of labour in industry, and
securing of the social interest in the individual life of women by
adequately protecting them in these connexions.
With the progressive breaking down of the legal conception of
the household as an entity ruled from within by a head, and as an
agency of social control, it becomes necessary to give legal recog-
nition and protection to individual interests of women in the do-
mestic relations, which at common law were supposed to be se-
cured through the internal economy of the household, or were
left unsecured in view of a paramount social interest in the house-
hold as a social institution. Summarily, these may be put as
parental interests interests of women in the relation of parent
and child, and marital interests interests of women in the rela-
tion of husband and wife.
Parent and Child. At common law the father was entitled to the
custody of his minor child and the mother had a right to custody
only after the father's death. In form this still stands in the books as
law, but in substance there has been a complete change within a
generation. Equity long ago refused to give effect to the father's
common-law right of custody as against the interest of the child, and
by taking the equitable doctrine of regard for the interest of the
child over into the law, the courts have been able to put father and
mother upon an equality for practical purposes in almost all juris-
dictions. Yet the common-law doctrine remains theoretically in
force in the absence of legislation, and legislation halts. One de-
cision as late as 1905 holds that as between father and mother, the
former has a legal right to control the religious training of the
children. (Hernandez v. Thomas, 50 Florida Reports, $22, 536.)
Husband and Wife. Marital interests of women include claims
against the world at large growing out of the relation of husband and
1044
WOMEN POLICE
wife, and claims of wives against husbands because of that relation.
As interests of personality a wife has claims to the society of her
husband, quite apart from any economic advantage; to the affection
of her husband, analogous to the legally recognized claim of the
husband to the society and affection of the wife; and to the chastity
and constancy of the husband as involving her self-respect and
honour. These interests, however, are not yet recognized to their
full extent and are not fully secured even in legal theory. The first
and second are now protected by an action for alienating the hus-
band's affections, which has come' to be allowed by the overwhelming
weight of American authority. (Turner v. Heayrin, 182 Kentucky
Reports, 65, 1918). The third is at most but partially recognized and
indirectly secured ; but it should be said that the obvious inutility of
the husband's means of redress, which should be applied by analogy
to make the law logically complete, has had much to do with the
apparent backwardness of the law on this subject. As an interest
of substance the wife may claim to be secured in the marriage re-
lation as an economically advantageous relation, providing her with
support and shelter. Where the husband is enticed or induced to
abandon his wife or to divert earnings which should be devoted to
her support, the courts are coming to recognize this interest directly.
(The wife's action was allowed in Flandermeyer v. Cooper, 85 Ohio
State Reports, 327, 1912: it was denied in Brown v. Kistteman, 177
Indiana Reports, 692, 1912.) On the other hand in case of physical
injury to, or abduction of, the husband, the wife is still usually
denied an action, although the husband may recover in the converse
case for " loss of service." No doubt there are practical difficulties
here, arising in part from our mode of trial and of assessing damages.
Yet the present state of the law, shaped by obsolete conceptions
of the position of the wife in the household, is so out of accord with
the present-day position of married women that legislative overhaul-
ing in the near future is not unlikely. Regarding the claims of the
wife against the husband, modern law everywhere has agreed to
leave the interest of husband and wife respectively in the society and
affection of the other without effective legal sanction as between
the two. The claim of the wife to support was recognized fully and
secured adequately at common law. Recent legislation setting up
domestic relations courts and providing for criminal prosecution in
case of non-support has only put more effective administrative ma-
chinery behind existing legal duties of the husband. The most
serious inequalities in this connexion were in the procedural difficul-
ties encountered in enforcing the wife's legal rights. Domestic
relations courts, which have had a considerable development in
the U.S. in the last decade, are adapted especially to removing
these obstacles (see Smith, Justice and the Poor, chap. 1 1 .). It should
be noted also that modern legislation, although taking away from
the husband all control over the wife's property and earnings and
committing it solely to the wife, has left untouched the common-law
duty of the husband to support the wife even if she has property and
he has none. Some courts go so far as to allow a wife possessed of
means who has supported herself out of her separate estate to sue the
husband and obtain restitution of the amount thus contributed.
(De Brauwere v. De Brauwere, 203 New York Reports, 460, 1911.)
A few western states, however, now impose upon a wife of means and
ability a duty of supporting an indigent and infirm husband, and
allow an action by the husband to enforce this duty. (Hagert v.
Hagert, 22 North Dakota Reports, 290, 1911.)
Disabilities of Married Women. Unmarried women of sound
mind and lawful age were under no common-law disabilities. On the
Other hand married women were without power to determine their
own national character or legal domicile, following their husbands
in these respects as a matter of law; were subject to serious dis-
abilities with respect to ownership, use and enjoyment of property;
were restricted in their power to sue in the courts; could not convey
property; and had no power to contract. Some of these disabilities
were rested on a fiction of the legal unity of husband and wife, de-
rived from the position of the husband as guardian of the dependent
members of the household in the old Germanic polity and reinforced
by certain texts of Scripture, whose authority was decisive in the
Middle Ages. Legislation began to abrogate these disabilities early
in the igth century. But it was often far from comprehensive in its
scope, and when sweeping provisions were enacted they were often
interpreted narrowly because of the doctrine requiring strict con-
struction of statutes in derogation of the common law. There
has been a gradual but steady progress in the direction of removing
all of these disabilities partly by legislation and partly by judicial
decision, and many anomalies which resulted from halfway legislative
measures or strict judicial interpretation were in the decade 1910-20
shaken, if not overthrown. With respect to separate domicile of
married women and actions by wives against husbands, the social
interest in the security of marriage and the family as social institu-
tions of paramount importance has necessarily given the courts
pause, since the doctrine that the wife's domicile depended on that
of the husband, and that the one might not sue the other, seemed but
corollaries of a legal recognition of the family as an entity. Yet when
that entity is de facto dissolved, these doctrines amount to serious
disabilities imposed upon one member. Accordingly in one way or
another American courts now recognized the separate domicile of
the wife substantially to the full extent of her individual interest
in free self-assertion. (Williamson v. Osenton, 232 U.S. Reports,
619, 1914.) So also with respect to actions by the wife against the
husband. The older Married Women's Acts which in form merely
removed disabilities as to property and contract, were long con-
strued as not allowing such actions since they did not do so expressly,
and a policy against aggravation of domestic troubles by dragging
them into court was taken to be in the way. This sacrifice of the
individual interests of the wife to the supposed exigencies of a social
interest has now definitely given way, and conservative courts are
allowing such actions even under statutes in terms dealing with
property rights only. (Brown v. Brown, 88 Connecticut Reports, 42,
1914.) The more recent type of statute, providing that a married
woman shall have the same legal existence and personality after
marriage as before marriage, necessarily permits such litigation.
(Fiedler v. Fiedler, 42 Oklahoma Reports, 124, 1914.) As to capacity
to own, acquire, use and enjoy property, little remains of the old
law, and there are but few jurisdictions where legislation might still
accomplish anything. In one respect, however, improvement by
judicial decision is still going forward. A number of states, by
derivation directly or indirectly from Spanish law, have the institu-
tion of " community property," in which with respect to certain
property, and especially property acquired after marriage, husband
and wife are treated legally as a sort of properly-owning entity.
The older view was that the husband was the administering agent
of this collectivity during their joint lives, and hence could dispose
of it, alter its form and charge it with his personal debts; and that it
could even be taken in execution for his wrongful acts. Recent
decisions in some of these jurisdictions, recognizing the individual
interest of the wife, hold that the community property is not liable
for acts done by the husband outside of the reasonable scope of his
authority as agent of the community. (Schramm v. Steelc, 97
Washington Reports, 309, 1917.) Yet even there a claim for an injury
to the wife being an acquisition after marriage and community
property, she is not allowed to sue therefore if her husband refuses
to join. (Hynes v. Colman Dock Co., 108 Washington Reports, 642,
1919.) As to contractual capacity, little remains to be done any-
where in order to give married women full beneficial powers of
contracting in their own interest. Yet in more than one jurisdiction
privileges which compensated for the older disabilities still remain
in force in whole or in part and enable married women to escape from ,
contracts for which as persons of full capacity they ought to be held. ;
This is especially true of contracts of suretyship, by which married
women are very generally incapable of binding their separate property. (
Protection of Women in Industry. While American courts have
been reluctant to give over, or to construe legislation as abrogating,
common-law privileges or disabilities which protected married women
when in a condition of legal dependence, they have also been reluc-
tant to uphold legislation restricting freedom of contract on the part |
of women in industry with respect to hours and conditions of labour I
and minimum wage. When such statutes were first enacted, they >
were held unconstitutional as being arbitrary and unreasonable
interferences with liberty of contract by a court which had had no
hesitation in keeping alive common-law disabilities, that had long
ceased to secure any individual or social interest. That decision i
has been overruled (Ritchie v. Wayman, 244 Illinois Reports, 509
1910), and it seems to be settled that legislation may take account of
the facts of women's physical make-up and secure the social interest
in a healthy womanhood by regulating the hours of labour of adult
females. (Midler v. Oregon, 208 U.S. Reports, 412, 1908; Bunting v.
Oregon, 243 U.S. Reports 416, 1917.) But it is still a matter of con- ,
trpversy whether this may be carried to the extent of fixing a [
minimum wage for women employees. (Slettler v. O'llara, 243 U.S. I
Reports, 629, 1917.) Curiously enough, the political and legal eman-
cipation of women is urged as a reason against such legislation,
as if the removal of political and legal disabilities had any relation
to, or effect upon, the physical handicaps upon women in industry
which are the occasion of these statutes.
Women on Juries. In 1917 California provided for the drawing
of women upon juries. (Laws of 1917, p. 1283.) Since the adoption
of the Nineteenth Amendment of the Federal Constitution provid-
ing for women suffrage, 1920, it has been assumed that women
are to sit upon juries everywhere. But in some jurisdictions, out of
caution, it is felt that the courts should await express legislation,
and in others courts have felt compelled to wait until court-houses
and jury-rooms could be adjusted to the novel situation presented:
by juries of men and women. The conditions under which juries
are kept while deliberating upon verdicts and the accommodations
for jurors in large cities, where many juries are sitting simultaneously
for a great part of the year, are not adapted to the woman juror;
and in many country court-houses things are even worse. If no
other good results from service of women upon juries, the inevitable
improvement of the physical conditions surrounding jury service
will be a gain. On the other hand, the expense involved in this
improvement and in provision for the custody of juries made up
of men and women in important cases, where juries must be guarded
closely from outside contact, leads many jurisdictions to hesitate.
(R. Po.*)
WOMEN POLICE. In Sept. 1914 two distinct bodies of women
police were formed in England, with the object of maintain-
ing order amongst girls and young women in the new and exciting
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT
1045
conditions brought about by the formation of military camps and
the movement of troops in training (see WOMEN'S WAR WORK).
The Women Patrols were organized by a special committee of the
N.U.W.W., with Mrs. Garden as hon. sec. and chief organizer;
and the Women's Police Volunteers were formed by Miss Nina
Boyle and other members of the " militant " Women's Freedom
League, and within a few weeks were reorganized by Margaret
Darner Dawson (d. May 18 1920) as the Women Police Service.
The latter was a paid force, dressed in a uniform closely resem-
bling that of the regular male force; the former was mainly volun-
tary and wore no distinguishing mark except an armlet. The
Women Patrols were, however, from the first recognized by the
Chief Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police (Sir Edward
Henry), who signed the passes authorizing them to patrol streets
and public places, and by the Home Secretary (Mr. McKenna),
who circularized the chief constables of borough and county
police throughout the United Kingdom, inviting them to do the
like in their own districts. The Women Police Service received
no direct official recognition; but in 1916 they were requested by
Sir Edward Henry to supply policewomen for the munition fac-
tories throughout the country. In Jan. 1917 the Women Police
Service received a grant from the Ministry of Munitions for the
expenses involved, and in the same year the Women Patrols
received a subsidy of 400 from the Home Office, reduced the
next year to 300. With these exceptions, both forces, which
originated in private effort, were for long supported entirely by
funds privately collected. They conducted their own training,
the Women Police Service entirely at their London centre and the
Women Patrols not only in London but also at the three schools
which they established in Bristol, Liverpool and Glasgow. These
combined in the autumn of 1918 to form the Federated Schools
for Policewomen and Patrols and received a grant of 1,000 from
the Carnegie U.K. Trust, followed by 250 in 1910-20.
In Oct. 1918 Gen. Sir Nevil Macready, who had become Chief
Commissioner of Metropolitan Police when Sir Edward Henry
resigned in consequence of the police strike in Aug. of that year,
decided to form a force of 100 women police for London, to be
drawn from the ranks of the Women Patrols. The force, after-
wards known as the Women's Patrol of the Metropolitan Police
Force, was organized and placed under Mrs. F. Stanley as
superintendent, with one assistant superintendent and 10 ser-
geants, and its status and duties were defined by the Police
Order of Dec. 23 1918. The women were not sworn in as con-
stables and were not given the power of arrest. Similar limita-
tions attached to most of the individual policewomen employed
by the' chief constables of boroughs or counties throughout the
United Kingdom. These, in Sept. 1920, numbered 126 for Eng-
land and Wales, of whom only 33 were appointed with the same
status as men, and 14 for Scotland, none of whom were sworn in
as constables. They were for the most part women trained by
one or other of the two voluntary organizations. In Dec. 1920
certain members of the Women Police Service were engaged by
the military authorities in Ireland to assist in searching women
suspected of complicity in conspiracy.
The Committee on -the Police Service appointed in March 1919
under the chairmanship of Lord Desborough did not deal with
policewomen, and on the request of a deputation, which attended
at the Home Office Aug. 8 1919, a Home Office departmental
committee was appointed in Feb. 1920 to inquire into " the nature
and limits of the assistance which can be given by women in the
carrying out of police duties and as to what ought to be the status,
pay and conditions of service of women employed on such duties."
The committee, which included two women, Viscountess Astor
and Dame Helen Gwynne-Vaughan, reported July 24 that " there
is not only scope but urgent need for the employment of police-
women." They enumerate as " appropriate " duties : "investiga-
tions in cases of assault on women and children ; investigations under
the Children Act 1908, the Immoral Traffic Acts 1902-1912, and
similar statutes; attendance at court when cases of female or ju-
venile offenders are being dealt with; inspection of common lodging-
houses (where this falls on the police) ; supervision of parks and open
spaces; visiting of licensed premises, cinemas, registry offices, etc.;
prevention of offences by prostitutes ; a_nd, generally speaking, any
work in connection with offences committed by and against women
and children." They recommended : (l) that all policewomen should
be sworn in, given full powers of arrest and ranked with the male
police, forming an integral part of the police force and being trained
and appointed by the chief constables ; (2) that their pay should be
standardized and approximated to that of the men (6os. minimum as
compared with the men's 70s.), and that their allowances should be
the same; (3) that their hours should be seven daily; (4) that mar-
riage should be no bar to service ; (5) that pensions should be granted
on a scale slightly lower than for men, but that gratuities for de-
pendent children should be the same for both sexes.
Up to Feb. 1921 this report had not been translated into action
except as regards the pay and allowances to Metropolitan police-
women, which were standardized from Jan. I 1921. But on Feb. 28
a deputation from the Federated Schools was assured by the Home
Secretary that he would advise chief constables throughout the
country that, where policewomen were employed, their employment
should be regulated by the terms of the departmental committee's
report. He added that it was undesirable that the work should any
longer be carried on under voluntary organizations. Under Section
10 of the Police Act 1919 the wearing of police uniform by members
of unofficial bodies is an actionable offence, and in March 1921
thirteen summonses were taken out against five executive members
of the Women Police Service, which resulted on May 4 in fines of
IDs. each and 10 los. costs against the commandant. The name
of the service was subsequently changed to the Women's Auxiliary
Service, and changes were made in the uniform differentiating it
from that of the official policewomen. Its future function was de-
fined as mainly that of training, in London and in Edinburgh.
See Report of the Committee on the Employment of Women on Police
Duties (1920, Cmd. 887) and its Minutes of Evidence (1921, Cmd.
I,I33)- See also the annual reports of the Bristol, Liverpool and
Scottish Training Schools for Policewomen and Patrols, and the
annual reports of H. M. Inspector of Constabulary for England and
Wales (1917 et reg.). (J. E. C.*)
UNITED STATES. About 300 cities in the United States
employed policewomen in 1921, either as single officers of the law
or in connexion with special women's bureaus. In many cases
positions were secured through civil-service examinations, and
promotions were made on the same basis as for men. Probably
the largest number of policewomen was found in the cities of
Chicago and New York, where the women's bureaus each em-
ployed about 30 women, usually in the capacity of police and pa-
trol officers. Their duties were varied but related largely to the
welfare of women and children. In Chicago one woman was
assigned to the Morals Court, where she assisted the woman
bailiff and the probation officers. In New York the women's
bureau had attached to its staff a number of men welfare workers.
These were usually former policemen who for some reason be-
came incapacitated for regular work and who were assigned to
assist in caring for needy cases, particularly among widows and
children of former policemen. One city in 1921 announced the
appointment of a coloured woman as police officer.
In some cases this wide field for social service attracted high-class
women; their duties included probation work, institutional com-
mitments, supervision of dance-halls and places of amusement,
juvenile court work and at times physical and psychopathic exam-
inations. This work frequently merged into expert detective work
and required a woman to be on duty almost any time of the day or
night. The minimum salary seldom fell below $ 1,000, while the
highest was not often above $2,000 a year, except by special legisla-
tion. Policewomen were eligible for the retirement pension, which
was usually about 50% of their salary. (I. O. A.)
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT. UNITED KINGDOM. Women have
been employed outside their homes in the industries of Great
Britain from at least the days of Edward II., when they appear to
have washed ore in the Derbyshire lead mines for id. a day.
During the following six centuries they found their way into one
trade after another, until in 1914, at the outbreak of the World
War, in spite of their having been in the igth century almost
driven out from their once considerable occupations of agricul-
ture and coal-mining, the total number of women in commerce
and industry in the United Kingdom was 3! million, while
another i.\ million were earning wages as hospital nurses, do-
mestic servants, dress-makers in small workshops and outworkers
of similar kinds.
The increase that took place during the war was only a million,
and yet it probably attracted more discussion than the whole of
the steady industrial development which had made the sudden
extension possible. This was due partly to deliberate publicity
designed to attract women into the factories, partly to the inter-
esting nature of a small part of the work which they undertook;
1046
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT
but it also arose from public ignorance of the share that women
were already taking in industry before the war. There was no
great industrial group which did not at that time already employ
thousands of women; in the building trades there were 7,000, and
in mines and quarries nearly the same number. The metal trades
held 170,000 women; there were even some hundreds in the
Admiralty dockyards. The great exceptions were the shipyards,
underground work in the mines, iron and steel foundries and
rolling-mills, various branches of engineering and whisky distill-
ing. Other important services, like the railways, used them
only for clerical work and cleaning, except of course in posts
which could only admit of women, such as those of attendants in
women's cloakrooms. Others reserved certain processes for men
and gave the rest to women: others were women's trades: others
again used men and women interchangeably.
The demarcation that existed between men's and women's
work was as a rule definite and well recognized in the trades
concerned. The very heaviest types of work were done by men,
and so in most cases was work that required any high degree of
skill. Such work, moreover, was almost certain to be the subject
of trade-union restrictions which effectively prevented employers
from using women on it. But these criteria, except at the ends
of the scale, were not absolute. Women in many occupations
for instance making chains or gramophone records were accus-
tomed to handle very heavy tools or lift very heavy weights.
Many would not trouble to acquire skill, or were denied the
opportunity; but the bad organization of women and their low
rates of pay tended to conceal the fact that they were often
employed on jobs which a man would have considered at least as
semi-skilled, while a few women up and down the country were
turning out work which required a considerable technical endow-
ment. The Ministry of Munitions, to take an extreme instance,
found optical lenses being ground by women in London which
they considered equal to the finest German lenses, and this had
been going on for a dozen years. Very few women had such an
opening, but all along the middle line, where the work was neither
too heavy nor took too long to learn, there were trades and sec-
tions of trades where the spheres of the two sexes overlapped, so
that on certain parts of the work they were either used inter-
changeably or one or the other according to district custom.
The best known examples of this are probably the cotton,
woollen and worsted weavers, and the machinists in the Birming-
ham brassware trade, clerks and shop-assistants. But in all such
border-lands, as has been said, the tendency before the war was
for the low-paid and restricted woman to replace the more
mobile and unrestricted man. In most of these cases one type
of labour or the other by no means always that actually used
was probably more suited to the work and economically pref-
erable; but even where employers were sensible of this, they
found local customs and prejudices too strong to alter, and the
problem was little thought about and never squarely faced.
During the World War. British industry, therefore, when the
war came, was not compelled to start afresh with totally un-
trained women workers. Less than a tenth of the 4,750,000
employed in Nov. 1918 in agricultural, commercial and industrial
occupations, had been altogether ignorant when they entered
on war work of at least the routine and discipline of an industrial
life, and the majority had really useful experience. It is after all
more difficult to learn to handle a power loom or a power-driven
sewing machine than it is to change from one of these to a semi-
automatic lathe. Employers stated that of the 3,000,000 women
employed in industry alone 700,500 a number nearly equal to
that of the new entrants into the same occupations were directly
replacing men. This did not mean however that they were
necessarily engaged on work that before 1914 had always been
done by men. In many instances the work itself was new. Gas-
masks, depth-charges and anti-aircraft devices, for example, had
not been made in the same way, if at all, before 1914. Some-
times the change made was only nominal, as when a shop full of
girls who had been machining bicycle parts, was turned over to
the manufacture of rifles, and the processes to be performed on
the new object remained unaltered. Again the employment of
women on a particular job, though new to the factory in ques-
tion or even to the district, might be customary in other parts of
England or Scotland. The Midlands could show thousands of
women pressing, stamping, drilling, milling, dressing castings,
core-making, assembling, even working on capstan lathes, and
some of these were turning out articles for use in war such as
fuzes, adaptors and cartridge cases. Any of these processes, if
performed in an engineering shop, was entirely forbidden to a
woman or a girl. Finally, there were very great numbers of women
who merely replaced men on duties which had formerly been
undertaken by either men or women. Familiar examples of
trades in which this occurred have already been given. It is not
too much to say that the majority of the women war workers
were employed on work familiar to their sex, and often not
widely dissimilar except in the conditions under which it was
done from their ordinary occupations.
There were, however, exceptions to this, so interesting that they
obscured the true state of affairs. Women on buses, policewomen
and landgirls, women teaching in boys' public schools, and
perched on ladders washing windows, women in gas-works and
steel foundries and marine-engineering shops produced a com-
prehensive effect which was increased by the uniforms and work-
ing-dresses they wore, and by the fact that many of the war-
workers were drawn from social classes unused to connecting
their women-folk with factory life. There were reasons, too,
which led to the position being misrepresented. It was in the
interest of each employer, anxious to retain the skeleton of his
male staff, to emphasize the length to which he had already
carried direct substitution, and the returns made by them were
found to reflect this anxiety. Moreover, it was in some districts
easier to attract women to work which they believed served the
purpose of releasing a man for the Forces than to obtain them for
uninspiring women's tasks, where the drudgery and hardship to
be faced were not even tinted with glamour.
Numerically, the changes in the employment of women and
girls took the following course. The outbreak of war produced
immediate unemployment. By Sept. 1914 about 250,000 females
(8-4% of those employed in Aug.) had already left their jobs.
This was the lowest point. By Feb. 1915 only 1^5% of these were
still without work; by April the figures showed a surplus of 2%,
and by Oct. igrs the increase already amounted to 150,000. So
far, however, it was still almost entirely in trades recognized as
women's, or in work performed by both men and women. Of
the 429,000 women and girls who entered the metal trades during
the war, only 29,000 had entered by July 1915, though the effect
of the Government's efforts to achieve dilution, which was made
possible by the conferences held that summer, was shown by the
fact that another 20,000 joined during the next three months.
By Oct. 1.917 the percentage of women and girls to the total
number of workpeople employed in industry, commerce, agri-
culture, transport and Government establishments had risen
from 24% to 36% and nearly 1,500,000 women had been drawn
into these occupations. By Nov. 1918 there was a 50% increase
in the number of females employed in the same callings, repre-
senting 1,750,000, though, as has been stated, the addition to the
total number of employed women was only 1,000,000. This is
accounted for by the fact that over half of the 750,000 which
makes the difference were persons who had previously been
employed as dressmakers or domestic servants, while the rest
had been outworkers of other types who were drawn into muni-
tions work either by patriotism or by the superior interest and
rates of pay. At the same time very large transferences of labour
were taking place within the framework of industry, for by no
means all of the great trade groups shared in the general war
expansion. Thus, while industry proper, on a balance of pros-
perous and declining sections, showed an increase of just under
800,000, the figures for the textile trades fell by over 50,000,
for paper and printing by 7,000, and for clothing by 56,000.
After the War. From Nov. 1918 the fall in numbers naturally
begins, but up to July 1920 which is in some ways a better date
for the purpose of comparison than Nov. 1920, though figures for
that month will be found in the tables accompanying this
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT
1047
article there were still 28,000 more women and girls in industry
than there were in 1914, and 824,000 more women and girls in
industry, commerce, the Civil Service, transport, hotels, theatres,
<etc., taken together. These figures amount to a loss of women
for industry of 512,000, between the Armistice and July 1920, as
compared with the 800,000 who entered during the war, and for
the larger group of occupations already referred to a corre-
sponding loss of 824,000 as against their gain of 1,648,000. On
the other hand the 80,000 women in the women's services had all
been demobilized, and so had most of the 60,000 women V.A.D.'s,
who, however, being voluntary workers, have not been taken
account of in these figures. In July 1918 1,458,000 women were
stated to be directly replacing men and 1,874,000 were on
Government work, including the Civil Service, the women's
services and the land army, but not workers in hospitals. The
last figure, however, must be accepted with caution, as many
of the contracting firms were not in a position to make accurate
returns, and others varied in their views of the basis on which
their figures should be compiled. Firms accepting contracts to
be filled from stock already in their warehouses could not tell,
while the goods were in process of manufacture, which part would
be bought by the Government and which by private firms, nor
which of their private customers were purchasing the articles
against Government orders. In addition to this, many work-
people were engaged for part of a day or week on Government
contracts, and for the rest of their time on the firm's normal
work. Some firms returned all their munitions work a far
wider and vaguer term, and one made continually more wide and
vague by various decisions of the Courts as Government work,
and generally there was a tendency, in view of the privileges it
conferred, to bring as much under this head as possible, even
when the figures were supplied for statistical use.
These incfeases in the numbers of women employed in 1920
as compared with 1914 are interesting because they seemed to
show that the war might result in a permanent growth in the
industrial use of women. The natural growth of the population
explains a certain part of them, but it should be noted that
whereas the number of males employed had grown during the
same period by only 177,000 on a 1914 figure of nearly 10,000,000,
women had increased by between four and five times that num-
ber on a pre-war figure of 3,250,000. This discrepancy cannot
nearly be explained by the casualties. Moreover in commerce
and finance, where the rise for women is 344,000, there is an
actual decrease for men of 155,000. These figures may alter
again to the detriment of women; but, except in so far as bad
trade causes general unemployment, there is no obvious reason
why they should alter much. The replacement of the temporary
women workers has not been left to economic factors which
might be thought not yet to have operated to their full extent.
On the contrary, non-economic pressure has in many cases pre-
vented employers from keeping women they would have wished
to keep. Under the Munitions of War Acts certain trades have
been compelled to discharge all women and girls brought in to do
work formerly done by men or boys. Trade agreements have
had the same wholesale effects in other cases, though in both
groups of occupations the natural tendency may be deduced
from the fact that new firms, not within the scope of the pledges,
are making a large use of women. And in addition to this practi-
cally every employer of women has been confronted by a cam-
paign, both sentimental and practical and in some cases bitter,
against their continued employment. It has been carried on
partly by, or on behalf of, the returning troops, and partly by
the men in the industries in which women had been working, and
has certainly resulted in the dismissal of large numbers of them
who were performing their work to their employer's satisfaction.
These causes, though effective, are for the most part temporary
in their effect, but those that tend to the increased employment
of women are more lasting in character. The war advertised the
fact that women are suited for a wider range of occupations than
most employers who as a class tend to be ignorant of what is
going on in industry outside their own affairs and those of their
immediate friends had realized. They are also on much work
very much cheaper than men. Before the war their average
wages were about half those received by men for the same work.
In many trades during the war this proportion rose to two- thirds.
But even in 1921 in the work which women do well, this dis-
crepancy was a good deal greater than the difference which would
be warranted by the difference in their value to their employer;
and wherever this is so the employment of men on that work, if
women are available, must be regarded as a luxury. It is one of
which many employers, for good and bad reasons, are most un-
willing to deprive themselves, but falling prices and restricted
demand will operate to increase the desirability of the women.
Further, they themselves had learned to prefer a life outside the
home, to employment within it, while the losses of the war and
the diminished prosperity of the nation turned for many of them
a matter of choice into one of necessity. It might therefore be
thought probable that though the bulk of the work to which
women were introduced during the war had by 1921 disappeared
or been taken from them, their share of paid work outside private
houses would remain considerably larger than it was before the
war and also more varied, and it was likely that these new oppor-
tunities of employment would be large enough not only to absorb
the new workers but also to draw upon the supply of those who
would formerly have undertaken domestic service or employ-
ment in small workshops.
Number Employed. The table on next page gives the figures of
British women's employment for July 1914, Nov. 1918, and Nov.
1920; the numbers employed on Government work; and the num-
bers stated to be directly replacing men. It should be noticed that
they do not include outworkers, or persons employed on their own
account, or employers.
Workers Classified. The first winter of the war did little more than
absorb the workers who had been thrown out of employment during
its opening months. They moved from one part of the clothing trades
to another, from cottons on to woollens, and from cotton, too, on
to metals, from little brass rings and tips and handles and discs
and plates on to fuzes, from lace on to leather, and from the food
trades into the filling factories. The conditions were more or less
familiar, and as far as they could they chose work that was similar to
their own, for at this stage no arrangements had been made for train-
ing any abnormal proportion of new workers. The supply lasted
until the beginning of the next year, as is shown by the fact that of
the 79,000 women who enrolled in March 1915 for the Women's
War Register under 2,000 had been placed by June, as all vacancies
were first offered to suitable applicants on the ordinary register of
unemployed persons. When these came to an end industry could
still be fed from the immense reserve of fit and experienced workers
created by marriage. Former employees in the printing and paper
trades, textile trades and boot and shoe trades, returned to the work-
shops in very large numbers, a few going straight on to munitions
in the narrower sense, but most preferring to take up their former
employment in order to replace men who had entered the army, or
the younger women who were beginning to drift away to more en-
ticing work. It was for the sake of the Lancastrian cotton weavers
that the policy was adopted of scattering the new National Factories
through the chief provincial towns of the north instead of erecting
them in the old armament centres under the eyes of the great arma-
ment firms, and it was on their skill and experience that the Ministry
of Munitions was able to base its new programme.
These married women perceptibly altered the type of woman
munition worker. They increased the average age, and, being tied
to their homes and so restricted in their field of possible employment,
they reduced the amount of wastage. On the other hand they were
in certain respects undisciplined it was never found possible to
apply to them, for instance, the provisions of the Munitions of War
Act with regard to Leaving Certificates and their bad time-keep-
ing, due to the pressure of domestic duties, detracted from the value
of their work.
Their movement into industry continued roughly all through the
autumn and winter of 1915. They came partly as a result of the
feelings that were aroused by their husbands attesting or entering
the army, and partly as a result of the appeals that the Government
were now making to them. By the spring of 1916, however, thesupply
was falling short. Congestion was increasing in the munitions
areas, and many married women, instead of themselves earning wages
in the factories, were taking toll of the wages of others, by letting
rooms for sums which were sometimes increased concurrently with
every increase in wage rates. Demand for women's labour was
rapidly growing, and in March 1916 the Central Committee on
Women's War Employment (Industrial) was set up by the Home
Office and the Ministry of Labour, and established local committees
to superintend on the one hand the recruitment of suitable women
and on the other their housing, reception and general well-being
outside the factory.
1048
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT
British Women's Employment, 1914, ipi8, 1920.
Nature of Work
Women and Girls Employed
No. on Govern
ment work in
July 1918
No. stated to be
replacing males
in July 1918
July 1914
November 1918
July 1920
November 1920
Building
Mines and Quarries ....
Metal Trades
Chemical Trades ....
Textile Trades
Clothing Trades
Food, Drink and Tobacco Trades .
Paper and Printing Trades
Wood Trades ...
Other Trades (including Gas, Water,
and Electricity under local Author-
ities) .......
Government Establishments (Arse-
nals, National Factories, Dock-
yards, etc.)
Total in Industries, including Mu-
nicipal and Government Establish-
7,000
7,000
170,000
40,000
863,000
612,000
196,000
148,000
44,000
90,000
2,200
31,000
13,000
597,000
103,000
818,000
556,000
231,000
141,000
83,000
156,000
247,000
9,900
9,600
305,000
71,000
883,000
57.1,000
241 ,000
165,000
65,000
138,000
6,300
9,900
9.500
287,000
68,000
840,000
530,000
226,000
162,000
61,000
132,000
5,100
18,000
6,000
534,000
66,000
335,000
142,000
37,000
40,000
40,000
73,000
(private firms
only)
225,000
1 1 ,900
6,900
194,200
33,700
65,500
45,900
62,600
21,200
25,600
46,000
187,000
2,179,000
2,976,000
2,464,000
2,330,000
1,516,000
(not including
municipal)
700,500
(not including
municipal)
Municipal Tramways.
Tramways and Omnibus Services
(other than municipal) .
Railways
Docks and Wharves ....
Other Transport
Total in Transport Work . . .
1,200
400
12,000
Num
4,600
19,000
9,300
66,000
>er of females en
21,000
3,100
2,700
29,000
iployed insignifii
1 1 ,500
2,900
2,500
28,000
:ant.
11,300
18,000
115,000
46,000
45,000
79,500
(excluding mu-
nicipal tram-
ways)
Banking and Finance. . .
9.5o
496,000
75,000
880,000
56,000
794,000
55,000
792,000
59,500
352,000
Total, Finance and Commerce .
506,000
955-000
850,000
847,000
411,500
Hotels, Public Houses, Cinema Thea-
tres, etc
181,000
142,000
33,000
18,000
54,000
222,000
154,000
80,000
40,000
75,000
242,000
140,000
37-000
38,000
74,000
235,000
152,000
37,000
38,000
75,000
44,500
22,500
Teachers (under local Authorities) .
Hospitals (Civil and Military) .
Other Professions (persons employed
by Accountants, Architects, Solici-
tors, etc.)
Municipal Services, not covered above
Civil Service
66,000
228,000
120,000
112,000
230,000
153,000
Women's Services (Naval and Mili-
tary)
Land Army
80,000
30,000
80,000
80,000
30,000
Grand Total
3,307,000
4,845,000
4,051,000
3,871,000
1,826,000
1,521,500
The new efforts tapped new sources of supply. Along with women
from the normal industries of Great Britain totally unskilled workers
had now to be engaged. They included dress-making hands, do-
mestic servants, girls from school and married women unused to
factory life. Of these the domestic servants, with their more adapt-
able intelligence, comparative readiness to take responsibility, and
good physique, were perhaps the most valuable. They are stated
by employers to have been much sought in marriage, and to have
affected considerably the habits and outlook of the ordinary in-
dustrial workers with whom they were brought into contact. They
certainly showed no eager desire to return to domestic service.
The married women were said to be less quick to learn, and less
disciplined in the sense of observing regulations. On the other
hand they were considered very hard workers, and in some cases
as was natural on the part of women, most of whom were soldiers'
wives formed a definitely anti-strike body during serious industrial
disputes. The last class of married women to be touched were per-
haps the village women, large numbers of whom were recruited by
the land army, and taught afresh the agricultural work which had
been familiar to their great-grandmothers. They were difficult to
persuade, being shy and unwilling to defy village gossip, and further
as is so often the case with poor men's wives they were chained
to their houses by a lack of proper clothing, neither their coats, their
skirts, nor their shoes being suitable or adequate for an outdoor life.
It was only when outfits were provided, and the idea of women on
the land had become commonplace, that it was possible to induce
them to come forward.
The girls from school perhaps suffered more than any other class
of women engaging in war work. They were particularly sought after
by bad employers, for though quicker than any older woman to train,
and often able to produce as much as an adult woman, their rates
of pay were very much lower and they could be dismissed as soon
as they demanded an adult wage. Even so, however, their pay was
enormously more than the half-crown or five shillings they would
have received as learners in pre-war days, and this, and the in-
dependence of spirit and habit which flowed from it, were supposed
to exercise a widespread demoralizing effect. .By the end of the war
the output of the younger workers was said to have fallen, and
great anxiety for their moral condition was felt by parents, officials
and certain employers. It is, however, difficult to isolate this alleged
fall in output from the general fall in output that was taking place
in many industries, or to separate out the factors which caused ex-
ceptional demoralization, if any existed, in this particular class. It
is certain that the end of the war found them in a more helpless
position even than other women. Their training on munitions work
was of little use to them when they sought to enter regular industry.
It had been restricted as a rule to a few standardized operations
on a particular garment or article, and employers refused to accept
it as entitling the women to ordinary rates of pay on ordinary work.
The learners' rates which they were prepared to give were in many
cases little more than pocket money, and always quite inadequate to
the support of adult women whose parents were as a rule no longer
able or willing to maintain them. By lack of knowledge and of suit-
able clothing here again a serious factor by taste, associations
and personal habits, they were disinclined to enter domestic serv-
ice and unfitted for the life it offered, and at the time of thl
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT
1049
Armistice they were acknowledged to constitute a serious prob-
lem and a grave responsibility for the Government which had
recruited them. Efforts were made to deal with those still juve-
niles, but the large numbers who had reached the age of 18 during
the course of the war were left outside them. At that date they
were themselves very generally alarmed as to their industrial pros-
pects, and it was agreed by all those watching the situation, includ-
ing the trade-union officials, that if immediate training were offered
under suitable conditions it would be possible to attract large
numbers of them into domestic service, which was not only the
one opening available but the direction in which their labours would
be socially most beneficial. Schemes agreed to by the trade unions
were put forward by the Ministries of Labour and Munitions, but
the Treasury, though obliged to permit the payment of unemploy-
ment donation to women in idleness, were unwilling to allow the
relatively small additional payment which would have coupled it
with productive training. A restricted scheme was finally set up
which provided training in occupations which had been recognized
as women's work prior to the war, and within the limits imposed
it was very successful. It was not, however, able to reach the bulk
of the women who most needed it or to provide a satisfactory flow
of recruits for domestic service.
The other great class which entered wage-earning occupations as
a result of the war were the women from secondary schools and
universities, who had looked forward to leading idle lives, or to
entering the teaching profession. They flowed rather into com-
merce, finance, the Civil Service and the war services than into
industry, but the comparatively small numbers who did enter the
munitions factories exercised a disproportionate influence. It was
they as a rule who made it possible to set up women foremen, super-
visors, and charge hands, and it was generally those better educated
women who were first placed on really skilled or technical work.
The managing director of the one great marine-engineering shop
which trained women to perform the whole of a skilled man's work
done in that shop, i.e., to perform any operation of which their
machines were capable, accepted only girls from the secondary
schools. He stated that in his opinion this degree of intellectual
training was essential if they were to learn the work in the time
allowed about six months and said,too, that his men made far less
objection to training them than women of the industrial type whom
they regarded as potential black-legs. The Ministry of Munitions
Training Department also laid great stress on the importance of
general education, going so far as to select only girls with a secondary
school education for training in fitting and turning. The educated
women had also a good effect upon conditions. Bad employers were
restrained by their intelligence and independence from taking
advantage of their more helpless companions, and good employers
and welfare officers found them a useful channel of communication
with the staffs when introducing health services, canteens etc.
It is also probably partly due to them that the number of women
trade unionists doubled during the war. The figures are said to be
350,000 for 1914 and 660,000 for 1918, but they only pretend to being
estimates, and it is probable, owing to the tendency of women to
enter their names after a meeting and then to lose all interest and
pay no further subscriptions, that they are a good deal too high.
Women of a superior general training were found especially useful
in instructing, commanding and supervising other women who had
often in the past resented the elevation to authority of one of
themselves. In the women's services and the land army this aspect
of their work was of the first importance. On ,the land, particularly,
their comparative acquaintance with the country, and their relative
indifference to dark and loneliness, persuaded the town recruits to
endure the terrors and discomforts of winter, while vestiges of
feudal feeling gave them authority with the country women. In
fact, wherever the work ceased to be purely physical, and more and
more as it took on an intellectual quality the extent of a woman's
education was found to determine her aptitude for learning and
performing new work. The university women especially, in spite of
the fact that those available for war-work were still largely of a
uniform type that which had been preparing itself for the teaching
profession found that their training immensely increased their
comparative value in almost every direction, even where their
instruction had not led up to, or especially fitted them for, their
war duties. It is hardly surprising, however, that the best work of all
from a technical point of view was done by those who had been
specifically trained for the jobs they undertook, like the women physi-
cians and surgeons and the women employed on scientific research
in the National Physical and Chemical Laboratories. It is more to be
wondered at that so much could be done by women and girls divorced
from familiar surroundings, and set to adapt themselves to entirely
novel systems of ideas, and to compress the training time of years
allotted to men into a few months or weeks. Not even the at-
mosphere of the army can have been so foreign to the new soldiers-
who as a rule had some notion of its main structure and had often
experienced some form of communal existence as were industrial
and even commercial life to the girls who entered them from their
day schools and their middle-class homes. And yet they adapted
themselves to these new values, not only from duty, but with an
enthusiasm and a quickness which seemed to ^how that the labour,
and the variety and the tension, were congenial to their natures.
Quality of Work. It is not possible here to attempt a final esti-
mate of the qualities their work revealed, but testimony seems
to agree on certain points. Above all they were conscientious;
they were devoted. As long as they retained interest in their work
they endured degrading conditions through monotonous periods of
overstrain without apparently accumulating the resentment which
from time to time flared out among their male colleagues; instead
their health suffered. This tenacity was perhaps due to their
stronger imaginative hold on the purpose to which they were giving
themselves up. In relation to their environment, on the other
hand, they were docile and lacked imagination; as a body they
acquiesced in the conditions they found and made no concerted
effort to change them. When they felt that the life was intolerable
they left it, and the active combative temper of the men roused no
response in them. As individuals they were less disciplined than men,
less calculable, less impressed by traditions and institutions, giving
an effect, for all their high spirits and quickness of tongue, of greater
detachment. In the mass they were difficult to organize, elusive,
fatalistic, sceptical and inarticulate. If they did combine they were
faithful to their leaders, whom they preferred of a sensible and
reasoning rather than of an idealistic type. Policy too, to obtain
their approval, must be direct, concrete, and likely to produce an
immediate effect. They were fortunate in their representatives,
and the knowledge, ability and public spirit of the women trade-
union officials secured for them an influence to which the numerical
proportion of organized women would not have entitled them.
Women might well have been proud to support societies to which
they owed so much. But they seem as a rule to have left them when
they left munitions work. They went back each to her private anx-
ieties and hardships, showing no desire to continue banded together
either to protect their interests or to continue their relationship, and
seeking no outlet for the sense of injustice which some of them felt.
A few of the ex-service women formed clubs and groups under the
leadership of their old officers, but not the hundreds of thousands of
munition workers, clerks and civil servants whose service took a
more democratic form.
Effect on Industry. It was not without difficulty that trade and
industry were adjusted to fit these feminine millions. From the
winter of 1914 the Government had been anxious to extend the
use of women for the production of munitions, and in the summer of
1915 agreements were signed with the engineering unions which re-
moved in theory the main barrier to their employment on men's
work in the metal trades; but it was not until the spring of 1916 that
substitution made any real headway. The employers had first to be
convinced that they would not cause more trouble than they were
worth, the factories had to be prepared for them, the work adjusted
to suit their strength and skill, and, hardest of all, the men in each
shop persuaded not only to submit to their presence but to cooperate
actively in helping them to learn and to carry on their work. The
women themselves meanwhile had to be trained. From July 1915
onward the Ministry of Munitions, in conjunction with the Board
of Education, was teaching women with great success in technical
schools and instructional workshops for the first year, simple
repetition work on shells and fuzes; later, work on aeroplanes and
for positions as tool-setters, inspectors or charge hands; and, finally,
the really skilled work of fitting and turning.
In all the Government schools trained 45,000 women, and very
large numbers were trained by those private firms who preferred to
give their own instruction. Under both methods it was found that
they were good material, and that the period required before they
could be fitted into their niches in the new schemes of mass produc-
tion was shorter than anyone had thought possible. But the teach-
ing of the women was the least of the trouble. To the last a certain
number of employers were hostile to their introduction, and by more
or less overt collusion with their staffs could make it impracticable
or unsuccessful. Where this was the case the only weapon of the
Government was to create a shortage of labour in their works by
removing their War Munitions Volunteers and adopting similar
coercive measures. This could not always be done in the face of the
representations which the firm were nearly always able to secure
from the Supply Department with whom their contract was made,
that upon its instant fulfilment depended the issue of the war.
Employers anxious to support the Government as a rule found the
carrying on of their work under war conditions sufficiently harassing
with a competent male staff: they could not be expected to welcome
a change which meant providing special new accommodation a
much more troublesome matter than might be supposed in town fac-
tories where every inch of space was already needed ; reconsidering
each one of the methods to which they were accustomed, and
antagonizing their staffs, in order to bring in labour certain to be
relatively inefficient for the time, and of unknown potential efficiency.
Their grounds of objection were substantial and their position
strong, and it is to the credit of industry that some of the larger
firms forestalled the Government in their introduction of women's
labour. To effect this it had been necessary to bring the bulk of the
work all of which in some firms had hitherto been carried on entirely
by skilled men within the average capacity of untried and almost
unskilled persons. Of the three grades into which it could be roughly
divided skilled, semi-skilled (which included the repetition work),
and unskilled and labouring work the last required the most ad-
1050
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT
justment and was the least easy to adjust. Every device that was
possible was provided, regardless of expense, to minimize the strength
required in lifting, hauling, loading, stoking, scraping boilers, and
the specially hot and heavy work done in foundries and retort-
houses, chemical works and tanneries. At the end of it all, the em-
ployment of women on this work was costly and ineffectual. Three
women were needed on an average to do the job of two men, and at
special points one man's work would occupy two or even *hree
women, while the hardest jobs had now to be performed continuously,
instead of as part only of their task, by the remaining men.
On repetition work the sweeping changes that were made were
due not so much to the sex of the new operators as to war conditions.
The subdivision practised was the natural result of mass production,
and has remained where mass production has remained, though men
have replaced women at the machines. The fool-proof devices were
a protection against the lack of experience of the dilutees, whether
men or women, and they too have survived as a means of decreasing
worry and improving output.
On neither of these grades, where they already existed as such, did
the men make serious opposition to the coming of women. The
general unions to which most of them belonged were not before the
war the centralized and powerful bodies they are now ; they had been
able to establish few privileges, and their men were at the mercy of
the recruiting officers. They therefore treated the matter as one of
individual feeling rather than of labour policy, and were entitled
to more gratitude than they received from their country for the un-
selfish way in which most of them helped the women who were to
fill their places and make it possible for them to be spared for the
army. It was the splitting up of the skilled work, and the consequent
reduction of many of its parts to a semi-skilled rank, which produced
the bitter opposition which increased rather than diminished as the
war went on. This was due in some degree to mass production but
more to the shortness of the training which was all the urgency of the
times allowed. The strength of the women was insufficient for labour-
ing work, but by the end of the war it became clear that they did not
lack the intelligence and character necessary for the acquirement of
an exacting technique. What follows is the official verdict of the
Ministry of Munitions:
" Many women might become skilled mechanics, given the
necessary training and experience. But these were precluded by the
conditions under which munitions were manufactured. Intensive
training sufficed to meet the emergency of the moment, but it was
no substitute for a thorough apprenticeship; and the (male) ap-
prentices who were up-graded under schemes of dilution suffered
like others from premature specialization. Subject to this limita-
tion, there were few branches of skilled work which some women did
not execute with success. They made tools and gauges to the finest
limits, they set up complex automatics, they machined and fitted
the most delicate mechanisms, they inspected the rifling of guns and
mastered the use of the micrometer and vernier, they conducted
scientific tests in the laboratory, they acted as charge hands and
forewomen."
Had the war continued they would have been used upon this work
jn increasing numbers'. As things were, however, it was more econom-
ical, given the large output, to train them and the male dilutees with
them, to do one particular part of the complex job which a skilled
man had been accustomed to carry out, and whose more difficult
portions only were now left for him. Most of the work of a skilled
category given to women was actually work which had been treated
in this manner. For such subdivided tasks they were found perfectly
suitable, and the checks to their more extensive use were, in the
first place, the uneconomical rates of wages which the men's unions
had imposed as the price of dilution; and secondly, the almost des-
perate opposition with which their employment was met by the
skilled men. It was not only the employers who objected to giving
a woman the full rate of a skilled man when all she could do was one
among his many different jobs : the men actually working with them,
however much they agreed in principle with the system of the rate
for the job, could not bear with equanimity the sight of raw, un-
qualified women receiving wages almost equal to their own.
The obstructive policy pursued by the skilled unions was directed
as much against mass production in general as against women in
particular. They knew that the women must go after the war; but
they feared, not unnaturally, lest the new methods and processes
should stay, which meant working toward a state when the skilled
man who could not find employment in the tool-room, or as a super-
visor, or on experimental work, would find himself degraded to the
position of a machine-minder, with his privileges gone, the interest of
his life as a craftsman gone, his standard of living in danger, and
the prospect before him of becoming gradually merged in the masses
of the semi-skilled. Much of this had happened in America, and the
utterances of certain employers gave ground for thinking that in
England it was at least desired. In small sections of the metal trades
they could almost see it coming to pass. On sheet-metal work, for
instance, machines and processes were brought in by which women
and boys could perform rapidly and cheaply work which had been
slowly done by hand by skilled sheet-metal workers. The men were
released for the army and left knowing that their work would be
gone if ever they came back. It was no wonder that opposition was
felt at such a time to this acceleration of the process by which in-
dustry develops for the benefit perhaps of future generations but to
the hurt of those whose whole equipment for life is their suitability
to one of its changing industrial phases.
If this was the origin of the continued disputes that attended the
incoming of the women, they were embittered by the fact that
nothing was more vague, or varied more from district to district,
than workshop practice with regard to demarcation of work. Some
shops were entirely staffed by skilled men and apprentices ; others did
the same work with a few skilled men and a residuum of semi-skilled
machinists, unskilled men and boys. Claims were put forward by
the unions that work should be treated as skilled and carry the
skilled man's rate which would have covered half the work habit-
ually done by boys; and the employers on their side seemed to con-
sider that the slightest change in a job handed over to women
dropped it at once to the minimum labouring rate. These quarrels,
at first more or less local, so far from being settled were growing in
intensity when the Armistice removed their cause. They did not
begin until the autumn of 1915, when the introduction of women on
to certain machines in Glasgow opened the troubles on the Clyde.
As will have been gathered, permission to employ women on
men's work in the engineering trades had been gained at the price
of a wages settlement, intended not so much to benefit the women as
to protect the skilled man's rate. It maintained piece-prices and
stated that the skilled man's time-rate must be paid to women
undertaking a skilled man's work. These compacts, known as the
Shells and Fuzes Agreement and the Treasury Agreement, were
arrived at in March 1915 between the Government and the engineer-
ing unions, and it was hoped that dilution would immediately follow
upon them. Unfortunately they did not produce the results ex-
pected, and in July it was found necessary to supplement them by
statutory powers under the Munitions of War Act. In Sept. the
new Ministry, impelled by a pledge given by Mr. Lloyd George in
July that there should be no sweated labour in the munitions trades,
appointed a committee to settle the wages of the women, who were
by this time fast entering the metal trades. The committee, repre-
senting the Ministry, the trade and the women, recommended
the time-rate of i a week for women on men's work other than skilled
men's work. This rate, though finally nearly doubled by the awards
issued from time to time by the special Arbitration Tribunals to
which claims for increases were referred by the Ministry of Muni-
tions, remained the basis of their payment throughout the war, and
the standard by which wages were unavoidably fixed for other
classes of women. Thus women on munitions work other than
men's work came finally to a basis rate of 5jd. per hour. The i
rate was imposed on the National Factories already among the
largest employers of women and handed on as a recommendation
to private munitions firms, a method which was found inadequate to
ensure payment. It was therefore embodied in a Statutory Order,
binding upon all controlled establishments under Sec. 5 of the
Munitions of War Act. From that moment State regulation of the
wages of women on munitions work, under pressure from trade
unions representing both the women entering and the men displaced,
became more comprehensive every few months, until at the time of
the Armistice the Ministry of Munitions' orders covered about 2,000,-
000 women employed in 27 trades, and a similar number were cov-
ered by arrangements made with the Admiralty and the War Office.
The work of dealing with women's wages was then taken over by
the Ministry of Labour in accordance with the provisions of the
Wages (Temporary) Regulation Act, which lapsed only in the
autumn of 1920, leaving the general level of women's rates in the
trades affected at about three times the very inadequate amounts
1 is. to I2s. on an average that had been usual before the war.
This regulation was the price of dilution, and it was only natural
therefore that men anxious to oppose dilution should pick endless
quarrels with the interpretation placed upon the wording of the
agreements and pledges by the Government departments concerned,
and also with their carrying put of their own orders. Into the
details of these controversies it is not possible to enter here the
whole subject is covered by the report of the War Cabinet Commit-
tee on Industry which sat to consider the question, as well as to
deliberate on the theoretical problems of women's wages. On the
whole it may be said that the real basis of the men's charges was
their objection to dilution and not any important dereliction on the
part of the Government. Until the end of 1920 the women in the
industries which had been engaged on war work were adequately
protected, and they themselves realized this, and showed that they
did so by the steadiness and docility with which they continued to
work in the face of incitements to unrest. From first to last the
time lost by strikes among women on munitions work was negligible,
and only one case was brought to light where they were really re-
stricting output.
While this was going on in the munitions trades proper which
included among others shipbuilding, engineering, electrical en-
gineering, ordnance and aircraft work, wire-rope, cables, hemp-rope,
tubes, iron and steel manufacture, scientific and optical instrument
making, and the manufacture of explosives, chemicals, rubber,
asbestos, packing-cases, and tin boxes the recruiting crisis which
took place in the winter of 1915 forced other trades to take steps to
denude themselves of men and carry on with women's labour. This
was done as a rule under national agreements between the unions in
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT
1051
a trade and the employers, and it was generally made clear that the
work handed over to women would be relinquished by them at the
end of the war. They also dealt as a rule with wages, laying down
rates which equalled in some cases though not as a rule in industries
where women were expected to be admitted to truly skilled work
the whole man's rate. For instance, women on men's work on the
railways or on process work in the seed-crushing mills, started at the
man's minimum rate, but most of the agreements provided roughly
for equivalent pay for equivalent work. Allusions were also made
to the conditions under which the work was to be done and to
measures designed to protect the women from injury to their health.
These agreements were concluded without much friction and were
carried out as a rule in a generous spirit.
Agricultural Work.-''The other great industry where the in-
troduction of women caused trouble was agriculture. In spite of
the efforts and the efficient organization of the Women's Land Army,
and in spite of the satisfactory work acknowledged to be done by the
women, the increase in their numbers during the whole war was only
33,000 less than 50% on the 1914 figures of 80,000. To these must
be added some of the women entered under the head of casual labour,
but it is not a good turnover for a trade employing so large a number
of men. The cause was partly the obstinate refusal of the farmers
to employ women which in itself rose in part from their dislike of
parting with labour often consisting of their relatives and always
more closely tied to them than the town workman can be to his
employer and partly to the fact that work on the land did not
prove attractive to women. The country women were not of the
temperament which embraces novelties, and the town women dis-
liked being billeted among the hostile farmers, and also the discom-
forts of a country winter. In the few districts where the custom
survives of women working on the land, such as Eversham, a district
of small-holdings, there was further discouragement from the
country women, who disliked the introduction of " dressed-up "
strangers into the fields where they were accustomed to work in their
ordinary long clumsy skirts. It was finally found necessary for the
land army to cover the country with an organization which would
keep in touch with practically all its members, to provide boots and
outfits for recruits, to arrange for camps where women could live
together, and in short to abandon the view that women could be
expected to go on the land as self-sufficing units. As an army an
alien force imported into the countryside it was found possible
to introduce them to all the lighter and much of the more skilled
work of agriculture with excellent results, but it is probable that
only after two generations of such employment would the industry
be prepared to admit that the experiment had been made and had
proved successful.
The Civil Service. In the army, navy and the air force the pro-
longed resistance with which the idea of employing women was met
for so long came entirely from the employing or official side. By
their male colleagues they were received not only with acquiescence
but with pleasure, and as they had obviously to live in segregated
units they were not grudged their inevitable proportion of re-
sponsible and well-paid posts. Into the Civil Service, on the other
hand, they were early welcomed ; but, once there, only a very few
individuals from among the 162,000 recruits, who included numbers
of women with university degrees, were given any opportunity
of earning any salary that any man might have envied, or of rising
to any work superior to that of secretaries and clerks. Where they
were found in such positions it was almost invariably either as super-
visors of the women staffs or because the work of their branch re-
lated to women and the appointment had been made as a concession
to public opinion, as in the case of the women in the Ministry of
National Service, and the Women's Wages Section, and the Welfare
Section, and the Dilution Section of the Ministry of Munitions.
The most liberal department in employing women on well-paid
work which might have gone to men was the Ministry of Food.
It may be said that, even in the establishment divisions, their
appointment represented a victory, for so late as the autumn of
1915 one Service department, employing thousands of women and
girls, was refusing to pay any of its women university graduates
more than 403. a week, or to provide the staffs with a single woman in
authority to whom they could go if in difficulties. Hardly at all, and
only by the new type of minister, was the policy pursued of bringing
in distinguished women to deal with special women's problems,
although men with special experience were brought in by the dozen.
Such an experiment would have been of very great value. The
demobilization of these enormous bodies of women took longer than
had been expected ; in fact, it had hardly begun when the passing
of the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act made it necessary for the
Civil Service commissioners to consider the terms on which they
should be admitted to the higher grades of the permanent service.
The task of framing the general principles under which they might
enter was entrusted by them to the newly formed National Whitley
Council for the clerical and legal departments of the Civil Service,
which, as it happened, was preparing to bring forward a scheme of
reorganization for the entire service. This scheme, since agreed to
by Parliament, provided that, with certain exceptions, women were
to be admitted to the general work of the Civil Service with the
same status as men. They were not, however, for an experimental
period not exceeding three years, to receive the same pay for their
work ; and they were not to compete for posts with men but were to
be appointed to a special proportion of posts which each department
was to reserve for them; nor were they to enter by competitive
examination but were to be chosen by a selection board. These
conditions, especially that dealing with pay, were accepted by the
women's representatives under protest, as they considered that the
Civil Service together with the teaching profession were fields in
which equal pay was not only eminently just but peculiarly desirable,
and its opposite calculated not merely to injure the prospects of the
women directly affected but to diminish their opportunities of doing
valuable work. It was necessary, however, to accept such terms as
part of the temporary bargain, and the Treasury proceeded to
appoint a Director of Women's Establishments and to persuade, or
endeavour to persuade, those branches of the service such as
the National Physical and Chemical Laboratories where women
scientists selected solely for their ability had been receiving the same
salaries as men, to reduce the scales of the women on their staffs in
accordance with the new arrangements for the clerical class. They
took no steps, however, to admit women to the higher grades of the
service, preferring to suggest that the Government should remove
from the purview of the Whitley Council the question of the em-
ployment of ex-service men in the Civil Service one of the matters
definitely referred to it under its constitution and hand it over to a
committee largely composed of members of Parliament. Under
shelter of the recommendations of this committee, which were at
once adopted by the Treasury, even though they conflicted with the
agreement signed by the same officials, the principle of admitting
women to the general work of the service was abandoned, and ex-
service men were appointed to all posts of which it could not definite-
ly be said that it was impossible to employ anybody but a woman,
including a number which had always been filled by women because
they were concerned with the health, welfare, wages, or conditions of
women. The appointments were made possible by a process of
combing-out which took no account of qualifications, knowledge, or
experience, and concerned itself solely with financial considerations.
On Aug. 5 1921 a debate took place in the House of Commons on
the regulations framed by the Civil Service commissioners for carry-
ing out the Whitley scheme. It was pointed out on behalf of the
women that the regulations ran counter to two separate votes of the
House in favour of equality of treatment, and a motion was brought
forward designed to secure for women the same pay and the same
conditions of service as are enjoyed by men doing the same work.
Under pressure from the Chancellor of the Exchequer a compromise
was finally accepted under which the regulations were confirmed for
three years; a promise was given that after that time women should
be admitted in the same way as men except that the Civil Service
commissioners should have power not to appoint a woman to any
post for which they considered a woman unsuitable and work
under the same conditions as men, except that they might not marry;
and that the question of equal pay was for further consideration.
It was also promised that women establishment officers should be
appointed in departments employing considerable numbers of
women, but a motion to the effect that some women should be ad-
mitted to every grade was not accepted.
Industries Chiefly Affected. The most striking transfers of work
from men to women naturally took place in the aircraft and metal
munitions trades, because it was they which expanded most during
the war, and they also were the objects of special pressure from the
dilution authorities. What that pressure amounted to may be shown
by the fact that in Jan. 1918 firms working for the Admiralty, which
controlled its own dilution, employed 458,000 males and 52,000
females, while firms working for the War Office, Ministry of Muni-
tions and Air Force employed 476,000 males and 235,000 females. In
Nov. of the same year the Royal Naval Torpedo Factory, Greenock,
employed 2,706 males and 372 females 13.7 %; while Woolwich Ar-
senal employed 40,000 males and 24,000 females, or 60 % of females.
Next perhaps comes Jransport, with its uniformed women driving
cars, collecting tickets and acting as conductors, guards, goods
porters and signal-women. After these and the land, the change was
most easily seen in the brewing industry, and in hotels and public-
houses, both of which successfully employed large numbers of
women on men's work during the war. Possibly 25,000 women came
on to aircraft wood-work during the war.
Inaircraft work, women in one Government factory by the end of
the war were making the entire fuselage, including the really skilled
work of propeller-shaping, and all over the country they were mak-
ing, covering, and doping the wings, and doing all but the heaviest
erecting. This is essentially mass-production work, as every smallest
stick is cut to its size before the women touch it, and,- as such, it is
women's and not men's work, and peculiarly suited to them.
Women's Work Characterized. It may be said that now for the
first time the industrial capacity of women has been minutely con-
sidered by critics both hostile, impartial, and biased in their
favour. The results of this scrutiny, from whatever source, are
favourable, and fairly uniform. The women were more adaptable
than the mass of observers had supposed them, they possessed more
latent intelligence and greater physical strength, and they withstood
far better the effects of monotony. On the other hand, as compared
with men, they possess certain general defects which may be
summed up as follows: insufficient strength; lack of initiative; lack
1052
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT
of interest in the technical side of their work or desire to im-
prove their position by training or qualifying for work requiring
more skill or responsibility; comparatively bad health; lack of
care in dealing with machines, materials and tools supplied by
the employer; lack of steadiness shown in the frequency with
which they left their situations; their bad time-keeping and ir-
regular attendance. It was also frequently given by employers as a
reason against their employment that, where they were working
with men, the men's output tended to decrease until it was no more
than the women's. Excluding labouring work, they were said as a
rule, when on men's work, to be worth two-thirds of a man, but
where details were given the discrepancy appeared to be less. On
some work light repetition work or work where skilful fingers were
required they were universally acknowledged to be better than
men, turning put more work and more contented. On more skilled
work demanding more individual variation they were said to pro-
duce from 40 % to 60 % of a man's output. These complaints were
put forward as characteristic of women, but it seems possible that
some at any rate were characteristic rather of the conditions under
which women work in industry. The first contention that they
lack the strength of men is of course true, though women are
stronger than the pre-war employer with his underfed girls was apt
to imagine. The progressive improvement that took place in the
health and output of those employed under anything approaching
reasonable conditions with regard to hours and lodgings showed
the effect that good wages, good food and a certain amount of care
will produce in even a few months. Moreover, a great deal of the
work that men are now expected to do is not only too heavy for
women but too heavy for men as well, and ought not to be imposed
on any human being. The result of this is that men employed in-
dustrially are more and not less adversely affected by the conditions
of their work than women, though their health again is greatly
superior to that of married women working in their homes the
most suffering class in the community. But, obviously, women are
not so suitable as men for heavy work and cannot be made so by
any methods which can be foreseen. The most carefully planned
schemes all ended by being prohibitive in cost. Another group of
defects, their lack of discipline, their bad time-keeping and bad
attendance, were really alleged against the married women hampered
by household duties. Single women were as good time-keepers as
men. If they changed their situations more often it was often due
to preoccupations arising out of the war. They wanted to be near
the hospital to which their brother or lover had been sent, or they
wished to change from shells to aircraft work because their man had
entered the air force. All this population of women was preoccupied :
often too they had taken up work for the first time without much
considering the wages paid and, as the pinch of the war made
itself felt, found themselves obliged to go where they could earn
enough to keep themselves.
Their lack of initiative and ambition was put down by the em-
ployers as due to their knowledge that the work was temporary, and
would be brought to an end either by the end of the war or by mar-
riage. The trade unions frequently added that employers, for the
same reason, would not be willing to give women a lengthy training.
It is probably true that the majority of wage-earning women are so
affected by the expectation of marriage that they are unwilling to
expend mental effort on their work. But it should be remembered,
on the one hand, that the wages of women before the war were
so low as seriously to affect their vitality, and, on the other, that the
experiment of offering them training in skilled work had never been
made. They are perfectly ready to learn weaving, or the skilled
work in the dressmaking and millinery trades. The experience of
the war would seem to show that a minority of women would
welcome it and benefit by it in other occupations. Another thing
shown by the war is that apprenticeship periods for the skilled
trades, though convenient both for masters and men as long as the
school-leaving age remains where it is, are iar longer than is neces-
sary to secure industrial efficiency. A skilled worker cannot be
produced in six months, but that does not mean that his apprentice-
ship must last for five or seven years. If anything were to occur
which modified this period the increased employment of women on
skilled work would become more feasible.
Lack of initiative, lack of care and lack of attention to detail are
more fundamental charges. They are possibly true, though to what
extent they are true can hardly be proved by the experiment made
under war conditions. Most of the women had been Hying in cir-
cumstances which precluded the development of initiative or a
scientific thoroughness. Very few minds show initiative with regard
to a totally unfamiliar technique so fenced about with terrors as
engineering, so immemorially fixed as work on the land or so trivial
as most clerical occupations. Nor, to put it mildly, was women's
initiative encouraged during the war, though without it there would
have been no women doctors and no women in the fighting services.
And as those responsible for the education of naval officers know, this
quality, like others, reacts to stimulation. What is certain is that
in the strength and skill of its women the war showed that Great
Britain possesses a valuable industrial resource, whose wider use
under suitable conditions would benefit both the women themselves
and the industries they entered. Before such conditions can be
established, however, a number of problems must be faced, including
the determination of the proper ratio of a woman's wage to that of a
man performing similar work. (A. B. W.)
UNITED STATES
In 1916 there were probably about 10,000,000 women wage
earners in the United States, comprising about one-quarter
of the total number of persons gainfully employed. In manu-
facturing there were about 1,500,000, three-fourths of whom
were in the food, textiles, tobacco and wearing-apparel industries,
but very few in those industries producing implements of war.
The first demands for women were met, as in England, by
drawing seasoned workers from such industries as the lighter
textiles, millinery, corset-making, domestic service, laundries,
stores and offices. After the supply of seasoned workers was
exhausted, efforts were turned toward securing women outside
the wage-earning class. Married women, many of them former
industrial workers, were urged to return to industry. Part-time
work was offered and occasionally a day nursery was estab-
lished. In one city an organized publicity campaign for new
workers resulted, after the first 'two weeks, in a 50% increase
in employed women and after the first four weeks in a 100%
increase. It was estimated that about 4,000,000 women were
employed in war trades and that 2,500,000 remained in the
newer fields in 1919.
English experience taught the American authorities to keep
the most skilled men at home where they could continue in
their usual fields of work, but in attempting to supply the
increased demand for workers two main problems arose; first,
to secure women to fill routine or semi-skilled positions; second,
to secure in those industries which were greatly swollen by war
demands not only routine workers but also skilled employees.
The demand for additional women in war industries was well
illustrated by conditions in the iron and steel industry, where,
in 1916, less than 4% of the employees were women. During
the war in every branch of this industry the number of women ;
employed increased, between the first and second draft, from
18% to over 200%. In the industry as a whole the increase j
was nearly 70%, while the number of men increased only about
5% and in some branches actually decreased in numbers. In
in plants making explosives only 73 women were reported in j
1914, whereas after the second draft, 25 plants employed nearly
12,000 women. In this industry women constituted about half
the total employees. In the manufacture of hand grenades,
about 19 out of every 20 were women. In one gas-mask plant
with 12,000 employees, 8,500 were women.
Industries showing the largest per cent of increase in the
number of women after the second draft were cars, steam and
electric railways, automobiles, metal and metal products,
lumber and its remanufacture, chemicals and allied products.
Industries showing decrease in per cent of women employed
were textiles, hat and cap making, tobacco and tobacco prod-
ucts. Industries showing the greatest ratio of substitution were
motor-cycles, bicycles and parts, cars, steam and electric railways,
automobiles, airplanes, seaplanes and parts, ship and boat
building, agricultural implements, lumber and its remanufac-
ture and iron and steel; the latter industry substituted by far the
largest number of women. In practically no case did all the
different establishments in any industry employ women and an
even smaller number substituted them for men. The practice
of the employment and substitution of women was largely a
matter determined by the individual establishment. In iron !
and steel, for example, out of 2,140 firms reporting after the ;
second draft, only 1,011 employed women and only 430 sub- 1
stituted women for men.
Before the war women were employed in clerical work in con-
nexion with the railways and as ticket sellers on a few street
railways. One of the most striking war innovations was the
employment of women in such positions as station agents, I
ticket sellers, cleaners, section hands, and elevator operators,
in connexion with the railways, and as conductors on the street '
railways. It is estimated that by Oct. 1918 there were over
100,000 women employed on the railways, and many large
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT
1053
.'cities had installed women as conductors on the street cars. In
N.Y. State alone 2,180 were substituted for men on the steam
roads and 1,346 on the electric roads. In this state a law was
passed limiting hours of women on street cars to nine a day and
prohibiting night work between 10 P.M. and 6 A.M. In Wisconsin
hours were limited to eight a day and night work was prohibited
between 5 P.M. and 8 A.M., which practically prevented the
employment of women on street cars during the rush periods.
Other large cities employing women and limiting their hours were
Chicago and Boston as ticket agents, and Kansas City, Detroit
and Cleveland as conductors. In the latter city a controversy
occurred over their continued employment, involving several
hearings before Federal authorities. The men's union was
strongly opposed to them and finally secured an agreement
with the company to dismiss all the women and reinstate the
men which was carried out early in 1919. A similar situation
arose in Detroit with a similar result, but in Kansas City the
union did not oppose the women and the War Labor Board
ordered equal pay for equal work. In most cases the women
were out of the service by 1921, but on railway work 81,000
were reported as still employed in Jan. 1920. The majority of
these were in clerical positions, but there has been also a perma-
nent increase in the number of women employed as station
agents, ticket sellers, watchmen, and in the business offices.
When the roads were under Federal control, the minimum
monthly salary for clerical positions was fixed at $87.50, while
executive positions often commanded as much as $225 a month.
Efficiency. The new fields of work tested, as never before, the
abilities of women. Although before the war women were employed
in practically every kind of work, they were usually occupied on
routine or standardized processes. But the war opened to them a
new door. " Instead of ' tending ' or ' tripping ' or ' feeding work,'
measured and marked for her, into a machine especially adjusted
or constructed to perform a specialized or standardized process,
the emergency created by the war forced the experiment of teach-
ing the woman worker to read blue prints, to understand the char-
acters of different metals, to grasp the purposes and capabilities of
various machine tools, to adjust their mechanism, to set up, to
measure and to mark her own work and be responsible for its quality
as well as for its quantity." In these new fields there were of course
failures, due sometimes to personal defects but more often to
ill-advised assignment of tasks, lack of proper instruction and super-
vision such as was so successfully carried on in English munitions
work, and also because of lack of proper equipment and accommo-
dations for women. It must also be pointed out that because of
America's shorter war period there was but little time for technical
training. Although a few trade schools were utilized, reports indi-
cate that training was usually done by the " foremen, " " forelady,"
" skilled operators," or " the gang boss." On the whole, however,
testimony of manufacturers from all parts of the country, as reported
by several independent investigations, agreed that the women were
unquestionably successful. The output of women, according to 66
firms out of 99 in the important metal trades, " was equal to or
greater than that of men in the operations in which both were
employed." In another investigation from 50% to 90% of the
managers in a variety of industries reported that the production,
attendance, and promptness of women was equal to or greater than
that of men. Employers stated: "On our 24-in. Fellows gear
shapers the women turn out from 20 to 30 more pieces in a g-hour
day than men." " In our filling and burring machines . . .
they overrun the men about 250 pieces." "On our drill press work
. . . they have increased the production 1,200 pieces in a g-hour
day." The president of a recording and computing machine stated :
" In the machine department women became expert and got out much
greater production in running turret lathes, punch presses, bench
lathes, milling machines, drill presses, grinding machines and
engraving machines, and in addition to the operation of these
machines we taught them to grind their tools, to act as job setters,
and to superintend some of the departments. In the inspection
department practically every inspector was a woman. In the
assembly departments, as well as in the inspection departments,
all were women, and they did better work and got out more produc-
tion than men whom we tried on the job at various times without
success. We found, too, that we could place as much, if not more,
dependence on women in coming to their work and remaining on
the job, which accounts for our having the lowest turnover in help
in any factory ever heard of, which was less than 4% per year.
We taught women to inspect tools and check them over according
to the drawings after they came from the tool shop, in which depart-
ment women became expert." Although much of the work done by
women was repetitive and semi-skilled, requiring mainly dexterity
and lightness of touch, yet testimony shows that they frequently
and successfully competed with the highly skilled men.
Standards of Work. In Oct. 1918 the Women in Industry Serv-
ice (later the Women's Bureau of the Labor Department) formu-
lated certain standards intended to govern the employment of
women. These standards were indorsed by the War Labor Policies
Board and after the Armistice were revised to serve as a basis for a
programme for reconstruction. The recommendations included the
8-hour day, Saturday half-holiday, one day of rest in seven, and the
prohibition of night work between 10 P.M. and 6 A.M. They urged
equal pay for equal work and an occupational, rather than sex,
determination for wage rates, with a minimum which would cover
the cost of living for dependents as well as for the individual.
Proper conditions of work were specified, and included the pro-
hibition of employment where poisons which are more injurious
to women than to men were used. The standards also urged that
joint negotiations between employers and employees be established
for enforcement purposes. The War Labor Policies Board ordered
all contracts of the Federal Government to require full compliance
with the labour laws of the state in which the goods were manu-
factured.
Hours, Wages and Conditions. With but few exceptions pressure
of work did not reach the high pitch which England experienced,
and, on the whole, hours and conditions of employment in the
United States did not greatly change as a result of the war; the
United States' profited also by England's experience in regard to
the futility of excessive hours of labour, and although many attempts
were made to enact state laws which would abolish or lower the
existing standards, public opinion was against this movement and
on the whole these attempts failed. Less than a dozen states had
laws prohibiting the night work of women and the practice of the
Federal Government of referring to the state labour departments
for investigation any request for permission to exceed legal hours,
resulted in a fairly general conformity to existing legislation. In a
few cases where night work was not prohibited by law, women did
take their turn in the night shift.
Rates of wages during the war fluctuated greatly and several
intensive studies were made. One of the larger studies reported
only wage rates and showed that in the majority of cases women's
wages were admittedly lower than men's. Probably the most
exhaustive study was made in N.Y. State by the Women's Bureau
of the Labor Department. This study covered 117 plants and 13,643
women who replaced men. Of these women 56 % received only two-
thirds to three-fourths of the wages paid the men for the same
work. Two-thirds of the women received less than $15 a week,
and only 190 received $20-^25 a week. From this study it appeared
that wages had practically no relation to production or to efficiency.
In II plants reporting that women produced more than men not
one woman received as much as the men and the majority received
about three-fourths of the men's wage. Several states and the
Federal Government established minimum wage rates in certain
occupations for the war period ranging between $13 and $16 per
week. A Federal report indicated that in practice the time-rates of
women seldom equalled those of men. Piece-rates were frequently
the same for both sexes, but the guaranteed wage for the worhen
was usually lower than for men. Another report stated that women's
wages ranked about with those of boys and often with pre-war
standards for boys.(
General Results. An important test of woman's efficiency was
her permanence in these newer occupations. On this point one
investigation reported that " of all plants employing women in
men's places over one-half are going to retain every woman so
employed, second that 82 % are going to retain all or part of the
women so employed." In the leading war agency and implement
industries the proportion of women per 1,000 wage earners in 1914
was 65; in Oct.-Nov. 1918, 139; in Aug. 1919 the proportion was
100. The reasons for retaining women were of course varied. In
addition to questions of efficiency other factors entered. It has
already been pointed out that women's actual wages were almost
universally lower than men's. Many employers frankly gave as
their reasons for retaining women : ' greater production at lower
wages "; " better work at lower wages "; " they produce more and
demand less"; "to fight the union." One report stated that
" women are staying at their new posts primarily because they per-
mit manufacture at less cost per unit of production and with less
friction between management and workers."
On the whole, and particularly in c6mparison with England,
there was very, little special machinery created during the World
War to deal with problems of women in industry. Canteens were
set up here and there, an occasional day-nursery was established,
employment management and personnel work were stimulated,
welfare work and supervision were frequently introduced, but
there was no large movement to direct and supervise " dilution,"
no munitions tribunals with their " leaving certificates " and but
few attempts on the part of the Government, either state or Federal,
to regulate wages. Except in a few cases there were no serious
clashes with men's trade unions, and the post-war problem of
women in men's places adjusted itself without state interference.
The principal sources of information are: (i) The New Position
of Women in American Industry, published in 1920 by the Women's
Bureau of the .U.S. Department >of Labor, Washington, D.C. ;
(2) The Industrial Replacement of Men by Women in the State of
1054
WOMEN'S WAR- WORK
New York, published in 1919 by the Bureau of Women in Industry
of the N. Y. State Industrial Commission, N. Y. City ; (3) the pub-
lications of several manufacturers' organizations, such as the National
Industrial .Conference Board, N.Y. City, and the chambers of com-
merce of various cities. (I. O. A.)
WOMEN'S WAR-WORK. It would be impossible here to at-
tempt to describe the special war- work done by women of all the
belligerent countries in 1914-8; and this article is confined
to an outline of women's war-work as organized in the United
Kingdom and the United States, beginning with the former.
UNITED KINGDOM
The general dislocation which ensued in industry threw num-
bers of women workers in the United Kingdom out of employ-
ment. At the same time women of independent means, moved by
patriotism, came forward in large numbers with offers of volun-
tary service. It soon became apparent, that the well-meant ac-
tion of the non-professional women was likely to press heavily on
the position of the unemployed wage-earners; and accordingly on
Aug. 20 Queen Mary inaugurated the " Queen's Work for Wo-
men Fund," technically a branch of the National Relief Fund, to
provide employment for as many as possible of the women
thrown out of work by the war. The Queen's collecting com-
mittee, with Lady Roxburgh as hon. sec., raised the money, but
the administration of the fund was in the hands of the Central
Committee on Women's Employment, a Government Committee
under the chairmanship of the Marchioness of Crewe, with Mary
Macarthur (d. 1921) as hon. secretary. The problem of the Com-
mittee was to help to adjust the dislocation of industry, so that
unemployed firms and workers in a slack trade might ease the
overpressure in other trades. Firms unused to Government work
were assisted to undertake War Office contracts, and orders were
placed with small establishments employing women, who
would otherwise have had to relinquish their businesses. Over
70 special relief workrooms, through which about 9,000 women
passed before Feb. 1915, were managed by women's employment
sub-committees of the local representative committees set up by
the Government Committee on the Prevention and Relief of
Distress. Articles made in them were not offered for sale, and
were supposed to be educative to the worker. New branches of
the toy-making industry, in which there was a possibility of cap-
turing German trade, were started in various private relief work-
rooms, and became paying business concerns.
The distress among the professional classes caused by the dis-
location of work was very great, and the Professional Classes
War Relief Council, consisting of representatives from the chief
professional institutions and the principal societies organizing
relief work, was formed to cope with the trouble in Oct. 1914.
The Council dealt chiefly with education, maternity assistance,
training, and the organization of concerts for the employment of
musicians, who, as a class, were particularly hard hit. The So-
ciety for Promoting the Employment of Women opened an edu-
cated women's war emergency training fund for a year, which
trained out-of-work governesses and journalists to take posts in
banks; and hostels were opened by various private committees
for ladies in distress owing to the war.
On Aug. 3, before the official declaration of war, the executive
committee of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies
under its president, Mrs. Fawcett, decided to suspend political
action (see WOMAN SUFFRAGE) and devote the organizing capacity
of the Union to meet the changed conditions. Within a week the
London branch, with Miss Philippa Strachey as. secretary, had
started a free bureau under the name of " Women's Service " to
direct the efforts of the thousands of non-professional women
eagerly desirous of finding useful work. Over 1,300 volunteers
were placed before the end of 1914. Many young women began
at once to prepare themselves for nursing, joined Voluntary Aid
Detachments, and worked in auxiliary hospitals. The raising of
funds and making of comforts for the units of the original Expedi-
tionary Force absorbed others, and the arrival of the Belgian
refugees in England before the end of Aug. caused the formation
of 2,500 local Belgian relief committees, of whom the members
were mostly women. Clubs 'to help the wives of soldiers and
sailors were started by the Tipperary League under Mrs. Juson
Kerr, the British Women's Patriotic League, and others. The
Women's United Services League under Lady French and Lady
Jellicoe coordinated and registered the work done by war clubs
throughout the kingdom. A large number of women devoted
themselves at once to the work of the Soldiers' and Sailors'
Families Associations, and to the work of the Officers' Families
Fund founded by the Marchioness of Lansdowne in 1914.
Already in the early months of the war it became evident that
the abnormal conditions arising from the quartering of large num-
bers of soldiers in barracks and camps, and of convalescents in
hospitals, would give rise to social dangers, and that steps should
be taken to deal with the situation. A militant suffrage society,
the Women's Freedom League, formed the Women's Police
Volunteers, under Miss Nina Boyle, in Sept. 1914. This Corps
was reorganized shortly after as the Women Police Service
under Miss Damer Dawson (d. 1920), and Miss Allen. To cope
with the same evil the National Union of Women Workers
called an emergency meeting of their rescue and preventive sub-
committee in Sept. 1914. As a result a corps of " Women Patrols"
was formed to work under the official sanction of the Commis-
sioner of Police in the metropolitan district, and of the Chief
Constables in the provinces (see WOMEN POLICE).
I. Voluntary Organizations and Corps. The first of the new
corps of women called into existence to meet war conditions was
the Women's Emergency Corps, originated by Miss Decima
Moore, and launched Aug. 6 1914 in cooperation with Miss Lena
Ashwell, the Hon. Evelina Haverficld, Miss Eva Moore and Mrs.
Kingsley Tarpey. In addition to relief workrooms, and the regis-
tration of the innumerable voluntary offers of service character-
istic of the first months of the war, schemes were started under
its auspices which developed independently, after the parent
corps had met the " emergency " conditions of dislocation of la-
bour and refugee reUef . The collection of surplus food from the I
London markets for the unemployed and for Belgian refugees de- 1
veloped into the National Food Fund, which raised 163,615 in
gifts of food and money before the end of the war. The Women's
Volunteer Reserve, founded in 1914 as a branch of the Women's!
Emergency Corps by the Hon. Evelina Haverfield, with the;
Marchioness of Londonderry as hon. colonel-in-chief, " to pro-!
vide a trained and disciplined body of women ready to assist the
State in any capacity," did military drill, wore khaki uniform and,
saluted their officers. The founders' idea that, as signalers, des-i
patch riders, telegraphists and motorists, they might set men free
for the firing line, was premature in 1914, but anticipated the need!
actually met later by the women of the Army Service Corps and
Q.M.A.A.C. In practice the Reserve consisted of working girls
who gave their leisure time to organized voluntary work in can-
teens, hospitals, workrooms and clubs. After Mrs. Haverfield
had left the W.V.R. to work in Serbia with the Scottish Women's,
Hospitals, Mrs. Beatty and Mrs. Kilroy Kenyon formed the:
Women's Reserve Ambulance (Green Cross Corps) in June 1015,
a fresh organization on somewhat similar lines to the W.V.R.,
but confining its activities mainly to London, whereas the most
successful branches of the W.V.R. worked in the provinces till
the end of the war. Other somewhat similar corps for the organi-
zation of part-time workers were the Women's Auxiliary Force,|j
founded in 1915 by Miss Walthall and Miss Sparshatt, and the
Liverpool Home Service Corps. The latter was started in May
1915 by Miss Phyllis Lovell and had branches throughout
Lancashire. In Aug. 1915 it formed a Police Aid Detachment
which worked in conjunction with the Lancashire police.
Public opinion with regard to the " khaki " women was reflected
in a " Punch " cartoon for Dec. 15 1915, showing a gallant High-
lander curtseying to take a lady officer's salute. They outlived thisi
ridicule, and in 1918 the salute was officially adopted by the women
of the Auxiliary Army Services. Nevertheless by the sprint; of
1915, when the country began to feel the drain of its man-power, the
Marchionegs of Londonderry realized that a less military corps of
women would attract many of those anxious to come forward to
carry on the work of the country. In July she founded the Women's
Legion, which from the first was intended to be a corps of paid women
replacing paid men. A khaki uniform was worn and the women were!
subject to regulations and discipline. Ultimately over 40,000 were
WOMEN'S WAR- WORK
1055
enrolled. This corps was the link between the independent voluntary
associations of women, such as the Emergency Corps, formed on the
outbreak of war, and the official women's services, two of which
(described below) were sections of the Women's Legion.
Throughout 1915 and 1916 efforts were made by voluntary
organizations such as the Women's Legion and the Women's Defence
Relief Corps, under Mrs. Dawson Scott, as well as by the Govern-
ment, through the War Agricultural Committees of the Board of
Trade, of which 63 had been set up before July 1916, to induce
women to offer their services on the land and to persuade farmers to
accept them. The Women's Farm and Garden Union was the most
important of the bodies which had dealt with women's work on the
land before the war, and, realizing that each individual woman was
an object lesson for good or ill to the farmers whose favour had to be
won, the Union started a system of training farms in the autumn of
1915. Early in 1916 the Government provided a grant, and the
Women's National Land Service Corps under Mrs. iRoland Wilkins
was launched as a war off-shoot of the Farm and Garden Union, to
deal with emergencywar-work on the land. By the end of the year
the demand for women had become greater than could be met by a
small voluntary association, and, as the result of a deputation from
the Corps to the Minister of Agriculture, the Women's Land Army
was instituted early in 1917 as a Women's Branch of the Board of
Agriculture. The Corps continued to act as the agent of the Land
Army for organizing the supply of educated women as seasonal
workers. In all 9,022 workers were sent out, and in 1918 the flax
harvest was saved by 3,835 holiday workers from the Corps.
By the spring of 1915 shell-work for women was beginning; in
March women tram conductors started work at Glasgow, and girls
were employed as telegraph operators in Liverpool. But women were
impatient at the slowness of the progress of industrial substitution
and at the uselessness of the Women's War Service Register com-
piled by the Board of Trade in March 1915. The suffrage societies
urged the Government to face the need for the recognition of the
claim of women to be employed on war production, and in July 1915
a procession and deputation to Mr. Lloyd George was organized by
Mrs. Pankhurst to assert this claim. In connexion with the demand
for skilled workers, the London Society for Women's Suffrage, which
promoted the introduction of women into occupations hitherto
reserved for men, started a Munitions and Aircraft Department in
July 1915, and arranged the first training classes in oxy-acetylene
welding. The pupils were the first women welders to enter the
engineering trade, and after two years the Ministry of Munitions
assumed financial responsibility for the school.
Messrs. Bcardmore in Glasgow and Messrs. Vickers at Barrow-in-
Furness and at Erith employed women on shell-making in the
spring of 1915. In order to ease the strain due to Sunday work, a
band of Women Relief Munition Workers, educated women of the
leisured class, were organized by Lady Cowan and Lady Moir and
trained in the rough turning and boring of 4-5 shells and l8-lb. shrap-
nel at Erith; they bound themselves after training to undertake
week-end shifts for six months.
In 1915 and 1916 work in canteens, hostels and clubs, formed by
voluntary agency in connexion with the welfare of munition workers,
absorbed a large number of voluntary women workers. Lady
Lawrence obtained permission to enter the almost sacred precincts
of Woolwich Arsenal in May 1915 and organized the Munition
Workers Canteen Committee, which provided light refreshments at
many munition factories and had 1,250 workers. The movement
for establishing munition and dock workers canteens, essential for
the health of the worker and the consequent output of munitions,
dates from this initial effort. About 500 canteens for munition and
dock workers were started by 12 voluntary societies: the Muni-
tions Auxiliary Committee of the Y.M.C.A.; the Y.W.C.A. ;
the Church Army; the Salvation Army; the Church of England
Temperance Society; the National Peoples' Palaces Association;
the Y.M.C.A., Scotland; the British Women's Temperance Asso-
ciation, Scotland; the Glasgow Union of Women Workers; the
Women's Volunteer Reserve; and the Women's Legion. The
latter employed 2,000 paid whole-time canteen workers, but it is
estimated that over 10,000 voluntary part-time workers were in
attendance at less than 130 out of the 500 canteens.
The Munitions Auxiliary Committee of the Y.M.C.A. under
the presidency of Princess Helena Victoria opened 183 of these 500
canteensand had over 10,000 women workers. In all, between 35,000
and 40,000 women gave their services to the Y.M.C.A. in England
during the war. The canteen work was undertaken to meet an emer-
gency and to set the canteens going more quickly than would have
been possible under any other system. But it was wasteful of volun-
tary labour, and in 1916 the Central Control Board became the
responsible authority for the organization of industrial canteens in
munition works throughout the country, and encouraged the em-
ployment of paid workers.
The steady withdrawal of men from civilian to military life led
in 1916 and 1917 to a remarkable expansion in the scope and volume
of women's work (see WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT). The growth of the
Women's Services, and the demand for women as substitutes for
men in industrial occupations and in the Civil Service, caused a
consequent diminution in the number of voluntary workers and in
the relative importance of the voluntary corps.
II. The Women's Services. The Women's Services were of two
types. First came those composed of "enrolled" women in the
legal sense, who were in the direct employment of the War De-
partments, and whose contracts brought them within the regula-
tions of the Defence of the Realm Act. The women could be
enrolled as " mobile " workers for home service only, or for ser-
vice at home and abroad; or as " immobile " workers, recruited
for local employment, who could not be required to move away
from the district. Secondly came those composed of " non-
enrolled " women in the legal sense, who did not render them-
selves liable to penalties under the Defence of the Realm Act and
might be engaged on an annual or weekly contract. Some ser-
vices enrolled their women for a year only and others for the
duration of the war.
(A.) ENROLLED WOMEN
The Army Nursing Services. Before the war the only women's
auxiliary army services in existence were Queen Alexandra's Im-
perial Military Nursing Service and Reserve, and the Territorial
Force Nursing Service. The V.A.D.s, founded in 1909 under the
British Red Cross Society and Order of St. John of Jerusalem, de-
veloped a section of 12,000 V.A.D. nursing members, enrolled under
the War Office in 1915 for service in military hospitals, and a section
of 6,000 General Service members, enrolled for general service in
connexion with military hospitals in 1917.
The Q.A.I. M.N.S. expanded from a corps of 800 trained nurses
to 10,304; and theT.F.N.S. from 2,738 nurses ready to serve when
war broke out to 8,140 (see NURSING).
The Military Massage Service. The Military Massage Service
started its career in Aug. 1914 under the name of the Almeric Paget
Massage Corps. It was maintained by Mr. Almeric Paget (after-
ward Lord Queenborough) and Mrs. Almeric Paget (d. 1916), and
consisted of 50 fully-trained masseuses who, early in Sept. 1914, were
distributed among the principal military hospitals in the United
Kingdom, this number being shortly increased to loo. Lady Essex
French was hon. secretary.
The next development of the work of the Corps was in Nov. 1914,
when a massage and electrical out-patient clinic was opened in Lon-
don for the treatment of wounded officers and men, financed till
Dec. 1920 by Mr. and Mrs. Paget. During the war over 200 patients
were treated in the clinic daily. It was inspected by the Director-
General Army Medical Service in March 1915 and subsequently
became the model for the massage and electrical departments in the
convalescent hospitals and command depots throughout the United
Kingdom. Early in 1915 the War Office officially recognized the
Corps by making it the body to which all masseuses and masseurs
engaged for service in military hospitals must belong. An advisory
committee was instituted by the War Office, which laid down the
standard of training and qualifications required and formed sub-
committees to select the candidates. Thus the admission of untrained
or partially trained personnel was prevented, and the interests of
the patients and of the massage profession were safeguarded.
In Dec. 1916 the word " Military " was added to the title of the
Corps, and in Jan. 1919 it became known as the Military Massage
Service by Army Council Instruction.
It was not until Jan. 1917 that military masseuses were required
for service overseas, but from that date up to six months after the
signing of the Armistice 56 masseuses served in France and Italy;
3,388 masseuses and masseurs had been enrolled in the service and
there were over 2,000 actually at work on the day the Armistice
was signed. (The Regulations for the Corps are set out in A.C.I.
779, 1,262 and 1,146 of 1917, and 65,308 and 489 of 1919.)
The Women's Legion, Cooks and Motor-drivers. In July 1915, a
scheme was originated by the Marchioness of Londonderry, founder
and president of the Women's Legion, which was approved by the
Q.M.G., and put into operation at Dartford Camp convalescent
hospital, for taking over the whole of the kitchens and installing
women cooks. The objects were to release men for the work which
women could do; to improve the cooking and cleaning of the camps
and to introduce economies and variety in the feeding of the troops.
The experiment proved a success; other camps were taken over, and
an A.C.I. of Feb. 1916 defined the position of the cooks. The first
Commandant was Miss Lilian Barker who, when she became welfare
superintendent at Woolwich Arsenal, was succeeded by Dame Flor-
ence Leach. Mrs. Long, who lost her life in the torpedoing of the
" Warilda," was hon. secretary. Ultimately 4,000 women cooks
and waitresses replaced men in camps and convalescent hospitals
in Great Britain; they signed a contract for a year, but were not
enrolled until the organization became part of the Women's Army
Auxiliary Corps in Sept. 1917. Those who transferred retained the
right to wear the Women's Legion badge.
Women motor drivers, mechanics and storekeepers were first
employed as substitutes for men of the R.A.S.C. in April 1916, and
of the R.F.C. in the following September. The women were re-
cruited and put into uniform by the Women's Legion under Miss
Christobel Ellis, and were paid by the army. There was no enrol-
ment until the Section was taken over by the W.A.A.C. in 1917.
IQ56
WOMEN'S WAR- WORK
This arrangement lasted only a few months, and in Nov., at the
instigation of Lady Londonderry, the army abandoned the scheme
for centralizing the administration of women working in the army
in one corps, and it was decided that overseas drivers should enrol
in the W.A.A.C., but that drivers for home service should again
belong to the Motor Transport Section of the Women's Legion.
They were enrolled for a year only, instead of for the duration of the
war, as in the W.A.A.C., and came under the Q.M.G.'s Depart-
ment; 647 Flying Corps drivers were transferred to the W.R.A.F. in
1918. Ultimately about 2,000 women were attached to areas and
battalions throughout Great Britain, and after the Armistice several
hundred drivers were sent to France to replace the demobilized
mechanical transport men.
Women's Forage Corps, R.A.S.C. In July 1915, women super-
visors were enrolled under the War Office for the duration of the war
to arrange for the transit of hay from the farm to the station and to
forward it to its ultimate destination. The urgent need for in-
creased substitution caused a special women's branch of the Forage
Department, known as the Women's Forage Corps, to be inaugu-
rated in March 1917 under Brig.-Gen. Morgan. Mrs. Athole
Stewart was appointed superintendent and 4,200 women were en-
rolled as 1st. and snd.-grade officers and industrial members, for a
year or the duration of the war. They were distributed throughout
Great Britain and Ireland and wore khaki uniform. The industrial
members took the place of privates in the R.A.S.C. and worked as
hay balers, sack makers and menders, sheet repairers, thatchers,
chaffing hands, transport drivers and clerks. The substitution of
women did not depreciate the quality of the work.
Queen Mary's Army Auxiliary Corps. In Dec. 1916 the War
Office ordered Gen. Lawson to enquire into the number and physical
categories of men employed out of the fighting area in France. On
Jan. 1 6 he reported that in his opinion 12,100 men might be re-
placed by women to begin with. He added: " In the last year or
more in England the employment of women has developed to an
immense extent through lack of men, and has been attended with
remarkable success. Women have taken up various forms of male
employment, which, by many, had been deemed impossible for the
sex. They have found their way into work in all branches of life
and have proved their capacity for it. In the army at home the
success has been conspicuous and women are to be found working
in numerous offices and cooking in many of the home military estab-
lishments. Results have shown that the sex difficulty has not been
anything like what some have predicted. The women have been
hard at work and felt they were out for the job and the men have
respected them, and their experience at home has been, I under-
stand, almost unanimous in this respect."
On Jan. 24 1917 the suggestion was put forward by Sir Nevil
Macready, adjutant-general, that women employed in the army
should be part of the army, entirely distinct from any outside or-
ganization and established in the War Office under his Department.
This scheme materialized under the name of the Women's Army
Auxiliary Corps, known popularly as " W.A.A.C.'s." Mrs. Chalm-
ers Watson took up her duties as Chief Controller at Headquarters
on Feb. 18 and Dame Helen Gwynne Vaughan as Chief Controller
in France. Below the Chief Controllers were a staff of controllers
and administrators, all women. A special branch of the War Office,
known as A.G. II, was formed to assist in getting the Corps into
working order so that it could fit into the army machinery. A Wom-
en's Auxiliary Corps of the R.A.M.C. organized the medical boards
in England and France, of which Dr. Jane Turnbull was president
at home, and Dr. Laura Sandeman in France. At the end of a year
Mrs. Chalmers Watson resigned for urgent family reasons, having
accomplished the pioneer work of the Corps and won a recognized
position in the army for her women in the face of many difficulties.
She was succeeded by Dame Florence Leach, then known as " Con-
troller in Chief." When Dame Helen Gwynne Vaughan was made
Commandant of the W.R.A.F. in Sept. 1918, Miss L. Davy became
Chief Controller in France. The full charter for the organization
of the Corps was finally completed at the end of June 1917.
The women were enrolled as mobiles for home service only, or
for home or foreign service, and for the duration of the war; they
received a special rate of pay, not civilian or military, and were not
enlisted under the Army Act. At first substitution overseas only
had been contemplated:, but by March the number of women
recruited by the Department of National Service was so great that
Home Commands were included in the scheme. Recruiting was after-
wards carried on through the Employment Department of the
Ministry of Labour. In Dec. 1917, owing to the shrinkage of avail-
able woman-power, an immobile branch was formed. Women em-
ployed in the Ordnance Army Pay Department and Record offices
at home were not made to join the Corps. A khaki uniform with
distinguishing badges was worn. In all there were 1,200 officials
and 56,000 women, of whom 9,500 were the outside number employed
in France at any one time. This figure was made up of women work-
ing in the Calais, Boulogne, Etaples, St. Omer, Abbeville, Dieppe,
Rouen and Havre areas and on the lines of communication, chiefly
at army schools, and in certain offices at G.H.Q. A number were em-
ployed with the Expeditionary Force canteens, mostly at officers'
clubs. They were drafted to every type of office and domestic
employment, and to bakeries, ordnance and motor transport
depots. In the spring of 1918, when the R.A.F. was formed, 7,000
women, including nearly the whole of the immobile branch of I 800
transferred to the W.R.A.F.
When the American Expeditionary Force arrived in France and
was prevented by shortage of transport from bringing over American
women clerks, 500 members of the Corps under a Chief Controller,
Miss Horniblow, who was succeeded by Miss Gordon and finally by
Mrs. Vernon Lloyd as Deputy Controller, were transferred to the
American camps at Bourges and Tours. Mrs. Vernon Lloyd was
subsequently made Deputy Controller in Cologne, where over 100
Q.M.A.A.C. officials were employed with the army of the Rhine in
the Censor's Department, under the provost marshal, and in ord-
nance. A small contingent was attached to the British military mis-
sion in Berlin for over a year. Queen Mary assumed the title of
Commandant-in-Chief of the Corps in the spring of 1918.
A Q.M.A.A.C. unit attached to the Director-General of Graves
Registration at St. Pol was in being in 1921.
Women's Royal Naval Service. The W.R.N.S. was instituted as
part of the navy at the end of Nov. 1917 when Sir Eric Geddes, the
First Lord of the Admiralty, outlined what was required. The
Director, Dame Katharine Furse, was asked to put up a scheme for
the organization of the service, which was accepted with small
amendments giving her more powers than she had set out. She had
the opportunity of starting with a staff of women of considerable
experience in organization and asked for Miss Edith Crowdy to be
appointed as her deputy. The Director was the executive head,
responsible only to the Second Sea Lord. No naval officer was
available to assist her, and from the first the navy encouraged the
greatest possible independence in the organization of the service.
The formation of another service of women under the Air Board was
already in contemplation, so that the W.R.N.S. (or Wrens) was from
the first organized with a view to handing over all the members
working in Royal Naval Air stations; 2,033 ratings were transferred
to the administration of the W.R.A.F.
For the purpose of calculating allowances the following relative
ranks were agreed to :
W.R.N.S.
R.N.
Director
Deputy Director ....
Assistant Director
Medical Assistant Director /
Deputy Assistant Director \
Divisional Director J
Deputy Divisional Director \
Principal /
Deputy Principal ....
Assistant Principal
Quarters Supervisor
Superintending Section Leader \
Chief Section Leader /
Section Leader
Leader
Woman
Rear Admiral
Commodore (2nd class)
Captain
Commander
Lt. -Commander
Lieutenant
Sub-Lieutenant
Chief Petty Officer
Petty Officer
Leading Hand
Seaman
There were 12 Divisions: Devonport, Portsmouth, The Nore,
Harwich, London, Humber, Tyneside, Scotland, Ireland, Liverpool,
Cardiff and the Mediterranean. After the Armistice, stations were
set up at Ostend and Zeebrugge under the Nore Division.
The ratings were enrolled for the duration of the war and paid
on a civilian basis. Cooperation with the Employment Department
of the Ministry of Labour on similar lines to that already set up in
connexion with the Q.M.A.A.C. was arranged for the purpose of
recruitment. As it is estimated that at the time when the W.R.N.S.
was being formed over a million and a half additional women
had already been drawn into industrial and commercial occupations,
as munition workers and substitutes for men in the Forces, the
recruiting up to the high standard required was made more difficult;
but in spite of this excellent results were obtained. The service
consisted of women living in hostels (mobiles) and of women living
in their own homes (immobiles) in almost equal proportions. The
women were largely recruited from naval families, and this con-
tributed to the keen service spirit shown.
A total of 608 officers were appointed; 6,880 women were enrolled
and 785 absorbed from women already employed in naval establish-
ments, before the formation of the Wrens. On Nov. 21 1918, the
date of maximum strength, there were 6,392 ranks and ratings.
The officers, other than those engaged in the organization, welfare
and discipline of the women, replaced naval officers for the following
work: coding and decoding, intelligence work, confidential books,
secretaries, telephone exchange, paymasters, accountants, gas mask
work, and observation station. The ratings were employed as ledger
clerks, clerks, shorthand typists, victualling store assistants, tele-
phone operators, postal sorters, stewards, cooks, general domestic
workers, orderlies and messengers, porters and storewomen, bakers,
tailoresses, gas . mask workers, gardeners, fitters, turners, boiler
cleaners, boot cleaners and painters, wiring hands, net mine workers,
WOMEN'S WAR- WORK
1057
depth charge workers, armourers, sailmakers, tracers and draughts-
women, photographic workers, technical storekeepers, valve testers
and wireless telegraph operators.
Blue uniform with distinguishing badges was worn by all ranks
and ratings. The service was demobilized in Dec. 1919.
The Women's Royal Air Force. On April I 1918 the R.A.F. was
formed by the amalgamation of the R.F.C. and the R.N.A.S. Seven
thousand women in Q.M.A.A.C. and 2,033 ln the W.R.N.S. had
been attached to R.F.C. units and to R.M.A.S. stations before the
amalgamation. These were transferred to the W.R.A.F. and formed
the nucleus of the service. The chief superintendent was Lady
Gertrude Crawford, who was succeeded in May 1918 by Miss Violet
Douglas Pennant as Commandant. Dame Helen Gwynne Vaughan,
hitherto Chief Controller Q.M.A.A.C., France, was appointed
Commandant in Sept. 1918. Mrs. Pratt Barlow was Deputy Com-
mandant, and Miss K. Curlett Assistant Commandant over-seas.
Five hundred and sixty-six officers and 51,764 other ranks passed
through the Service, the strength at the time of the Armistice being
rather over 25,000. (The constitution and regulations were similar
in outline to those of the Q.M.A.A.C. and the W.R.N.S.) The Ser-
vice consisted of mobiles and immobiles in approximately equal
proportions. In addition to the administrative, clerical and domestic
work common to all the Services, the women were employed on
meteorological work and as despatch riders, dopers, painters,
acetylene welders, carpenters, magneto repairers, photographers
and drivers. Fabric workers did duties of all kinds from the covering
of aeroplane wings to the mending of the finest balloon silk. The
uniform was first khaki, then blue, with the badges of the R.A.F.
The corresponding rank of officers and other ranks is shown below :
W.R.A.F.
R.A.F.
Commandant .....
Deputy Commandant ....
Assistant Commandant Class I
"2
Administrator . . . .
Deputy Administrator ....
Assistant Administrator
Senior Leader .....
Chief Section Leader ....
Section Leader . . .
' Member . .....
. Air Commodore
. Group Captain
. Wing Commander
. Squadron Leader
. Flight Lieutenant
. Flying Officer
[Pilot Officer
' \Observer Officer
. Warrant Officer 2
. Sergeant
. Corporal
. Aircraft man
The medical arrangements for the W.R.A.F. were in the hands of
Director of Medical Services R.A.F. under whom Dr. Laetitia Fair-
field served as Woman Medical Director. A woman medical officer
was on the medical staff of each of the R.A.F. Areas, and a medical
woman was detailed for duty at each of the W.R.A.F. depots and
larger camps. They had hon. rank corresponding to that of the
R.A.F. medical officers and by means of regular inspections and
efficient care, preserved a high standard of health.
In March 1919 the first overseas draft embarked for service in
France and 500 officers and other ranks formed part of the Air
Force of Occupation on the Rhine. Demobilization took place
I March 31 1920.
In relation to the W.R.A.F. the experiment was tried of running
I a women's service as nearly as possible (having regard to the fact
that the women were enrolled and not enlisted) as a part of the force
to which it was attached. Thus correspondence was carried out
through the usual Air Force channels; officers and other ranks of the
W.R.A.F. were under the orders of senior R.A.F. officers; women
officers were attached to the staff of the Air Officers commanding
areas and were allowed to sign for them letters dealing with the
W.R.A.F. ; the officer in charge of W.R.A.F. inspection was a member
of the staff of the Inspector General R.A.F. and the Commandant
was stated in Air Ministry weekly orders to be on the staff of the
Master General of Personnel and instructed to sign letters dealing
with W.R.A.F. in the same way as directors and heads of independ-
ent branches; so that her correspondence, like theirs, carried the
authority of the Air Council. The same principles were followed in
the medical arrangements. By these means the need of a special
section of R.A.F. officers dealing with the W.R.A.F. was obviated;
economy was effected, and the administration of the W.R.A.F. was
carried out on Air Force lines. The result was indicated by the terms
of Air Ministry Weekly Order No. 1110 (promulgated Oct. 7 1920) :
" In issuing orders for the final disbandment of the W.R.A.F. the
Air Council desire at the same time to express their appreciation of
the good work done by the Force both during and after the period of
, hostilities. In spite of much difficulty and in the face of hostile
and unjust criticism, the W.R.A.F. has left a record of which it can
well feel proud. During hostilities the good work it accomplished
went far towards enabling the R.A.F. to reach that dominating
position in the air which had such a direct influence in the achievement
of the final Victory. Subsequent to the Armistice, when it was nec-
essary to disperse a large number of airmen to civil life, it was the
W.R.A.F. which made it possible for the R.A.F. to meet the de-
mands made upon it, and maintained the services at the Aerodromes
until new male personnel could be enrolled. The necessity for the
demobilization of the W.R.A.F. is now imperative, but in returning
xxxii. 34
to civil life, Commandant Dame Helen Gwynne Vaughan, D.B.E.,
Officers and Members may feel assured that they carry with them a
debt of gratitude from the Nation."
(B.) NON-ENROLLED WOMEN
Anti-Gas Department. On April 22 1915, at the battle of Ypres,
the Germans first made use of poison-gas, and within 36 hours
some sort of improvised mouth pad had been issued to every man in
the line. Anti-gas work was begun at once, and men worked night
and day to devise a really sound method of protection. Early in
June 1915 Miss Beaver was appointed superintendent of the Camden
Laundry Smoke Helmet Impregnating Station, where the work of
drying and packing gas helmets had been largely carried on by
members of the Women's Emergency Corps. When it was decided
that gas helmets could be repaired for re-issue after use at the
front, Miss Beaver and Miss Carey Morgan were sent out by the
War Office to organize depots for repair work with French labour at
Abbeville and Calais. They were at once given the status of officers
of the Army Ordnance Department, but were not actually gazetted
till June 1916. They wore a nigger brown uniform with the badges
and buttons of officers of the Army Ordnance Department. Six
V.A.D.s were attached to the Abbeville depot and four to Calais;
they afterwards transferred to the W. A.A.C. as Administrators. The
French depots closed down when the " box respirators " had super-
seded the helmet types and the repair as well as the manufacture was
carried out in England.
Practically the whole of the work on gas-mask manufacture was
performed by women. There were 34 factories employing 12,000
under the immediate control of the Anti-Gas Department and 160
contractors employed a further 90,000 on work for the Department.
In Aug. 1917 a number of educated women were trained for in-
spection work on the mask of the respirator and drafted out to the
factories. They wore an indoor uniform of scarlet and were called
" red-coats." Ultimately 800 to 1,000 of these were appointed, and
100 were promoted to the duties of check inspecting, formerly per-
formed by sergeants of the Anti-Gas Department. They were known
as sergeants also, and were interchangeable with the men. A few
lady superintendents were appointed over " sergeants " and " red-
coats," and Miss Carey Morgan was made officer in charge of the
principal repair factory. In all about 50,000 respirators were issued.
Army Pay Corps. The Army Pay Department was one of the
earliest in the army to substitute female clerks. In July 1915, 479
were working and by Jan. I 1916 there were 4,556 female clerks and
13 lady superintendents. The engagement was a weekly one and
there was no form of contract till Aug. 1917- By that time the de-
mands made for women by the W.A.A.C. and other organizations
were so insistent that a form of agreement to serve for the duration
of the war and three months afterwards was signed by the super-
intendents and a portion of thenvomen doing skilled and semi-skilled
work. These wore a badge but no uniform, and by March 1918 there
were 5,171 of them out of a total of 17,500. Miss Constance Holmes,
lady inspector, was responsible for the welfare of the women under
Sir J. T. Carter, " Accounts 2 " War Office, who was " at a loss to
find words to adequately express his appreciation of the valuable
work performed by the Women Clerks for the Army Pay Depart-
ment during the war."
Army Remount Department. Owing to the withdrawal of male
personnel from Remount Depots, women accustomed to hunting
and to the superintendence of considerable stables of horses, were
employed on remount work early in 1915. The first women's estab-
lishments were organized near Pangbourne by Mr. Cecil Alden,
who worked on a contract basis for the War Office, employing what
labour he chose. In 1915 he had 10 depots for the stabling of 520
convalescent horses from veterinary hospitals in the vicinity of
Aldershot, and half the depots were staffed by women. They did
the entire work from beginning to end, and horses were issued fit
to units direct from their stables.
The next women's depot was organized near Chester by Mrs.
Rigby, and from these beginnings the employment of women
spread until nearly 200 were working as grooms in 15 depots directly
under the Remount Department. The Charger dep6t at Russley
Park under Lady Birkbeck was the largest staffed entirely by
women, and at Dr. Rimington's depot near Chester women schooled
horses rejected by their units as incurably vicious.
Navy and Army Canteen Board. When the Navy and Army
Canteen Board (then called the " Army Canteen Committee ")
started operations in April 1916, only 20 women clerks were em-
ployed. During 1917 the Board's activities, were enormously ex-
panded to include catering for the Imperial Overseas Forces and for
the American and Allied Troops. It was decided in March 1917 to
institute a N.A.C.B. Women's Corps in mobile and immobile sec-
tions, and by the date of the Armistice the women employed in
connexion with canteen organization in the mobile corps numbered
10,000 and the clerical staff in the immobile corps 2,000. After
the Armistice 500 members of the Q.M.A.A.C. and 8 officers were
transferred to the N.A.C.B. Women s Corps to carry on the work
in France during the dispersal of British troops, and 120 went with
the army of occupation to Cologne. Although the women wore uni-
form and were under the orders of the chief superintendent working
under the Department of the Controller of the N.A.C.B., they were
1058
WOMEN'S WAR- WORK
not enrolled. The written agreement signed had no binding force
and they could leave when they liked.
In addition to these groups of non-enrolled women in the direct
employ of the War Departments, there were at the time of the
Armistice 5,000 civil service clerks working on Army Records, 10,000
clerks employed by the War Office, and 17,500 miscellaneous in-
dustrial workers belonging to the Hospital Labour Staff, and the
A.S.C.
Women's Land Army. In Jan. 1917, a Women's Branch of the
Food Production Department of the Board of Agriculture was set
up under Dame Meriel Talbot as Director and Mrs. Alfred (Dame
Edith) Lyttelton as Deputy Director. Two appeals were issued for
the Branch by the Women's Section of the Department of National
Service in March 1917; the first appeal to women to join a mobile
Land Army on a year's enrolment ultimately secured 45,000 recruits,
of whom half had to be rejected on medical and other grounds;
the second appeal to village women for their part-time services,
under the organization of group leaders and forewomen in the Land
Army, gradually trebled the number of part-time workers already
on the land.
Arrangements for recruitment were subsequently revised, and
a scheme of cooperation between tne three Departments concerned
(viz. Board of Agriculture, Women's Branch, Ministry of National
Service and the Employment Department, Ministry of Labour)
was adopted earlyin 1918. Under this scheme women were given
a choice of enrolling for a year or for six months, and arrangements
were made with the Women's Forage Corps, R.A.S.C. and the
Forestry Corps, Timber Supply Department, Board of Trade, for
their recruits to be dealt with by the same machinery. With regard
to Scotland a Scottish Women's Land Army was formed on somewhat
parallel lines in which 1,816 women were enrolled. In addition 6,860
unenrolled women were placed in agricultural work. The employ-
ment of women as part-time workers was also stimulated and
organized, and it is estimated that there were in Sept. 1918 300,000
women part-time workers and 16,000 whole-time workers actually
engaged in agricultural work in England and Wales. This triumph, in
the face of innumerable difficulties and at the cost of an elaborate
and expensive organization, was due to the combined efforts of the
Women's Branch at Headquarters, and the Women's War Agricul-
tural Committees. These Committees set up in each county by the
Board of Trade in 1915 and 1916 acted as its agents and conducted
the local administration of the Land Army by means of the n.ooo
women who served on them in a voluntary capacity. Between March
1917 and May 1919, 23,000 women passed through the training
centres. Returns relating to 12,657 women made in Aug. 1918 show
the distribution of the types of work done: 5,734 milkers, 293 trac-
tor drivers, 3,971 field workers, 635 carters, 260 ploughmen, 84
thatchers, 21 shepherds.
The workmanlike and becoming uniform of overall, breeches and
leggings contributed largely to the success of the Corps.
Special steps were taken to supply workers for seasonal work in
connexion with the fruit crops, flax weeding and pulling and potato
picking; cooperation was established by the Employment Depart-
ment of the Ministry of Labour with the National Land Service
Corps, who by arrangement with the Board of Agriculture undertook
the supply of educated women for holiday work.
The work being done for food economy in the villages by the
Women's Institutes (which had been founded in England in 1915
by the Agricultural Organization Society on the model of those in
Canada) was so important that a special section of the Women's
Branch of the Food Production Department was formed in 1917
to undertake their propaganda. These Institutes bid fair to become
a permanent feature of country life, and owe much to the increased
interest in rural matters due to the widespread employment of
women on the land during the war.
Women's Forestry Service. The Women's Forestry Service under
Miss Rosamond Crowdy was instituted under the Timber Supply
Department of the Board of Trade in 1917. In 1916 a considerable
number of women had been employed by contractors in the cutting
and measuring of timber, but it was not till early in 1917 that the
first two Government camps for training women in the felling and
preparation of timber for sleepers and pitprops were opened by the
Women's Section of the Department of National Service, acting as
agents for the Timber Supply Department of the Board of Trade.
The first Government training camp for timber measurers was
started in Aug. 1917 at Wendover under Mrs. Donald, through which
370 educated women passed. They learned to measure and mark
off where a tree should be sawn and find the cubic contents of the
logs, and were afterwards put in charge of timber gangs consisting
of 20 to 30 cutters. In some cases women had the entire charge of a
saw-mill with men working under them. The two camps for cutters
were given up, as it was found that training was unnecessary when
the women were put out to work in gangs under skilled forewomen.
Private employers were supplied with 144 such gangs for felling,
cross cutting, marking and measuring of timber between 1917 and
1919. About 3,000 women were engaged on the work, and wore an
appropriate uniform with distinctive badges.
The King's Thanks. On June 29 1918, an address of homage was
presented to the King and Queen on the occasion of their silver wed-
ding by the Chief Woman Inspector, Employment Department,
Ministry of Labour acting on behalf of the organizations of full-time
women workers engaged on work of national importance under the
control of state departments, and of whole-time women workers
engaged in public utility services under local authorities. A pro-
cession of 2,540 women in uniform led by the V.A.D.s as the senior
service, formed into six companies, eight abreast, facing the dais in
the quadrangle of Buckingham Palace. Princess Mary stood by
the King and Queen wearing her y.A.D. uniform. The King's
reply to the address of homage contained the following words:
" When the history of our Country's share in the war is written
no chapter will be more remarkable than that relating to the range
and extent of women's participation. This service has been rendered
only at the cost of much self-sacrifice and endurance. Women have
readily worked for long hours and under trying conditions in our
factories and elsewhere, to produce the supplies of munitions which
were urgently needed at the front and to maintain the essential
services of the country. As nurses and V.A.D. workers they have
laboured in hospital for the care of the sick and wounded with even
more than the accustomed devotion which has characterized our
Red Cross Service since the days of the Crimean War. They have
often faced cheerfully and courageously great risks both at home and
overseas in carrying on their work, and the Women's Army has its
own Roll of Honour of those who have lost their lives in the service
of their country. Some even have fallen under the fire of the enemy.
Of all these we think to-day with reverent pride."
Only the women actually belonging to the Army, Navy and Air
Force took part in the Peace Procession. The W.R.N.S. marched
with the Navy and Q.M.A.A.C. with the Army. The Army Nursing
Services, the V.A.D.s, the F.A.N.Y., and the Military Massage
Service formed part of the R.A.M.C. contingent; the Women's
Legion and the Forage Corps marched with the R.A.S.C. ; and the
W.K.A.F., incorporated with the R.A.F., brought up the rear.
III. Voluntary Organizations. When war broke out there was
an eager desire on the part of professional and non-professional
women to work in France and Belgium. The passport restrictions
were less stringent at first than they afterwards became, but it
was never easy for women to obtain permission to work in France
in connexion with the British armies. The French and Belgians,
who had fewer trained women workers of their own, and were in
greater need of help at the beginning of the war, accepted offers
from organizations which the British authorities had rejected.
Thus the privilege of undertaking the considerable amount of
work actually performed by women in connexion with the Brit-
ish armies, even before the formation of the Q.M.A.A.C., had
been won with difficulty and was highly valued.
In 1914 Rachel, Countess of Dudley (d. 1920), Lady Sarah Wilson,
the Duchess of Westminster, Lady Norman and Lady Hadficld i
established hospitals for the British at the bases in ranee in which
every bed was of value in the early days of stress. After a few months I
the army took over Lady Dudley's hospital as No. 32 Stationary; j
the Duchess of Westminster's became No. I Red Cross and Lady I
Hadfield's No. 5 Red Cross. In 1916, the units of Milliccnt Duchess j
of Sutherland and of Lady Murray, which had previously been open i
for the French, were accepted for the British as No. 9 Red Cross
and No. IO Red Cross. These voluntary units were staffed with !
Red Cross and St. John's nurses, who were encouraged to enrol in
the Army Nursing Services when they had obtained a knowledge of
active service conditions. Nursing V.A.D.s were employed from :
the beginning in addition to hospital orderlies. Princess Louise's !
convalescent home for nursing sisters was opened at Hardelot in I
1914 by Sophie Lady Gifford under the British Red Cross Society, j
and transferred to Cannes in 1917 as a winter home for the sisters. *
On Aug. 12 1914 Dr. Garrett Anderson and Dr. Flora Murray
offered the services of a hospital unit staffed by women doctors and i
nurses to the French wounded. Within a week the offer was accepted,
and within a month the unit, which was the first formation to be
entirely officered by medical women, had collected sufficient funds |
and started for Paris, under the name of the Women's Hospital
Corps. Owing to the pressure of work in the north at the end of [
Oct. Dr. Garrett Anderson and Dr. Flora Murray decided to divide
their staff and establish a branch of the unit at Wimereux. This '
new hospital was accepted by the British Army Medical Service. I
In Feb. 1915 Sir Alfred Keogn offered the Women's Hospital Corps
the charge of a military hospital in London which opened at Endell
Street in May.
In 1916 85 women doctors were attached as civil military prac-
titioners to the R.A.M.C. at Malta to help care for the 27,000 .
wounded in the hospitals. As this experiment proved a great suc-
cess, 39 others were sent with R.A.M.C. units to Salonika, and in
Jan. 1918, the first medical women, of whom there were ultimately
36, went to Egypt. Four women doctors were attached to British
military hospitals in France. They did not wear a distinctive uni-
form, and none of the 331 medical women who served under the War
Office at home and abroad held military rank.
Women belonging to the Red Cross organization worked at the
British Red Cross Society headquarters in France, recruiting Red '
WOMEN'S WAR- WORK
1059
Cross nurses and tracing the wounded and missing. On Oct. 21
1914 the first V.A.D. unit, composed of 16 members and 2 trained
nurses, under Dame Katharine Furse as officer in charge, arrived at
Boulogne. On Oct. 26 they founded No. I V.A.D. rest station, Gare
Centrale, Boulogne, in three French wagons and two passenger
carriages and within 24 hours had given hot drinks to a thousand
wounded from the first battle of Ypres. Under the Principal Com r
mandant, Dame Rachel Crowdy, who succeeded Dame Katharine
Furse in France, this work expanded in all directions until there were
five rest stations for the feeding of patients on ambulance trains;
two detention stations for the care of the personnel of veterinary
hospitals and remount camps; six convalescent homes for nurses and
W.A.A.C.s, and six motor convoys all run and staffed by V.A.D. s.
In Holland and Switzerland they were able to work for prisoners of
war. In Salonika, Malta, Egypt and Italy they started kitchens
attached to hospitals for the supply of invalid diets, and organized
and staffed canteens for ambulance trains and convalescent homes for
army nurses. In Italy they staffed motor convoys. At the beginning
of the Gallipoli campaign two military hospitals went to Egypt
without female personnel, on the assumption that they were destined
for the peninsula, and had to depend on voluntary women helpers
of all nationalities till trained nurses and V.A.D.s. could arrive.
Early in 1918 the British Section of the First Aid Nursing Yeo-
manry affiliated to the British Red Cross Society. This earliest
women's military corps had been founded in 1909, and reorganized
by Mrs. McDougall, in 1910, to assist the R.A.M.C. in time of war
by providing mounted detachments with horse ambulance wagons,
to take over wounded at clearing stations and convey them to base
hospitals. When war broke out the services of the corps were
offered to the British authorities without success, but were accepted
by the Belgian army in Oct. 1914. With the ideal of working for the
' British always before her, Mrs. McDougall asked the War Office
j in July 1915 to reconsider the employment of women drivers of the
I F. A. N.Y. for driving motor ambulances at any British base. Although
| this was at first refused, renewed applications resulted in a
I F.A.N.Y. motor convoy starting work at Calais under Miss Franklin
I on Jan. I 1916, for the transport of all British sick and wounded in
! the district. The F.A.N.Y. drivers were voluntary workers and sup-
plied their own uniforms and traveling expenses; the Army gave
. rations; the British Red Cross Society kept up the ambulances,
I and in Aug. undertook complete financial responsibility in connexion
' with the cars. As a result of the success of this experiment, V.A.D.
motor convoys were instituted in six other bases, and on Jan. I 1918
the St. Omer convoy started work with 22 F.A.N.Y. drivers and
12 V.A.D. drivers under F.A.N.Y. officers. On May 18 1918 they
worked through a particularly severe air raid and won 16 Military
Medals in one night.
The great need for clubs where the army nurses and women
workers could obtain rest and relaxation from hospital work was
recognized by Princess Victoria early in 1.915, when she formed a
committee in London to finance such clubs at all hospital centres.
The first was opened at Wimereux in Feb. 1915, and 10 others fol-
lowed at Etaples, Camiers, Rouen, Le Treport, Trouville, Calais,
St. Omer, Abbeville and Paris. These clubs were a recognized unit
under the administration of the Director-General Medical Services.
In 1919 a club was also opened at Cologne. Lady Algernon Gordon-
Lennox acted as Director in France and Germany.
The British army in France employed French labour for necessary
industrial work such as the making of camouflage, repair of gas-
masks and the salvage of clothing and war material. But in Jan.
1917 Messrs. Tarrants, who had a contract for building army huts,
were allowed to send 100 trained women carpenters to Calais, where
in collaboration with French female labour they made 37,000 huts.
The women lived in a camp for two years under quasi-military dis-
cipline and were to a certain extent the prototype of the W.A.A.C.
On Nov. 4 1914 Lady Angela Forbes, who had a house at Etaples,
started a free buffet for the wounded in the waiting-room of the
Gare Maritime, Boulogne; this was the earliest of all the voluntary
canteens provided for the British troops in France. In the following
month Lady Mabelle Egerton opened her " Coffee Shop" at Rouen
Station. From these individual efforts huts and canteens, maintained
by authorized organizations, spread to every British camp in France.
As time went on the authorities compelled the few privately con-
ducted enterprises to affiliate to larger organizations. Lady Angela
Forbes' original buffet became an Expeditionary Force canteen and
her hut at Etaples was taken over by the Salvation Army; the
Rouen Coffee Shop was affiliated to the Church Army in 1917;
and in March 1918, by order of the Adjutant-General, only 10
voluntary organizations were authorized to work in the zone of the
armies. These were the British Red Cross Society, the Y.M.C.A.
and Y.W.C.A., the Salvation Army, the Church Army, the Scottish
Churches Huts, the United Army and Navy Board, the Soldiers'
Christian Association, the British Soldiers' Institute and the Wes-
leyan Soldiers' Institute. All these organizations had huts for men
at the bases very largely staffed by women ; but these were few in
number compared to the huts and tents close behind the firing-line
to which women could not go.
In Dec. 1914 Princess Helena Victoria formed the Ladies Auxil-
iary Committee of the Y.M.C.A., to assist in providing recreation
huts and reading-rooms for the troops in France and to send out
concert parties. The Committee, under the chairmanship of Princess
Helena Victoria, with the Countess of Bessborough (d. 1919) as
hon. sec., selected the ladies to take charge of these huts, voluntary
workers living at their own expense and signing on for four months'
service. The work grew rapidly, until there were Y.M.C.A. huts,
largely staffed by women, in all the bases in France, providing for the
spiritual, material and educational needs of the men. Women
workers were sent to Italy and Malta, and huts in Egypt and in
. Palestine as far north as Aleppo were also partly staffed by women.
In 1918 the War Office gave permission for Y.M.C.A. huts to be
opened in Holland for interned officers and men, and these were
entirely staffed by the female relatives of the prisoners of war, a
special fund being raised by the Association to pay the expenses of
those who could not afford to travel and live at their own cost.
Sixteen hostels for relatives of wounded in France were also staffed
by women workers, of whom more than 1,860 passed through the
Committee's hands for service abroad as canteen helpers, secretaries,
librarians, motor-drivers, storekeepers, lecturers and teachers. In
19189 a certain number had their expenses paid, and the secretaries
and motor-drivers received salaries.
The provision of entertainments was under the direction of Miss
Lena Ashwell, the first concert being given at Harfleur on Feb. 8
1915; at one time there were 25 parties in France, giving concerts
at the rate of 14,000 a year. In addition permanent concert parties
worked continuously at 12 bases, and 6 theatrical parties were
stationed at Paris, Havre, Abbeville, Dieppe and Etaples. Two
concert parties went to Malta and a third to Egypt. 108,000 was
raised for the work.
Although the hardships of camp conditions were ameliorated
as much as possible for the W.A.A.C., the unaccustomed military
discipline in a foreign country was trying in many ways, and the
women badly needed the friendly help of an outside organization.
In May 1917 Miss Ethel Knight of the Y.W.C.A. went to France
under the auspices of the Y.M.C.A. to establish huts for them on the
same lines as those which had proved so great a boon to the men.
By the middle of 1918 there were 23 Blue Triangle huts in all the
chief Q.M.A.A.C. camps, where the women could behave as though
they were at home, and forget the discipline of army and camp life.
Adjoining each there was a chapel or quiet room, but in the hut itself
everything possible was done for the entertainment and recreation
of the girls. Central clubs were also established in seven towns, and
there was a rest-house at Le Treport, a tea-garden at Havre and the
Lady Carisbrooke marquee in the Q.M.A.A.C. rest camp.
Within 24 hours of the declaration of war Lady Bagot propounded
her scheme that a hospital should be sent to the front manned and
equipped by the Church Army. It was established at Caen under
the French Red Cross. In Feb. 1915 the first of the Church Army
recreation huts in France was opened at Rouen; these were staffed
by voluntary workers, mostly women, who also paid their own
expenses. About 500 altogether worked in Church Army huts in
France and Germany.
A recreation hut for convalescent soldiers at the Colomn Camp,
Boulogne, was opened by the Catholic Women's League under Mrs.
Baynes in March 1915 and remained open until after the Armistice.
Other huts in France followed. This was the only society which
undertook concerted Catholic work on an organized plan during
the war, though the Catholic Club, which had no organization or
society behind it, maintained eight huts in the war zone staffed by
100 women and 18 men.
The Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland
acted jointly, under the name of the Scottish Churches Huts, to
carry on work similar to that of the Y.M.C.A. at the bases in France,
up the line, in Malta and Egypt and in the Army of Occupation.
The Salvation Army had a large organization to work among the
troops, and women Salvationists laboured among Australian and
American troops in huts in France, besides carrying on extensive
hospital visitation and work amongst the homes of the bereaved in
the United Kingdom.
The Women's Emergency Canteens, formed early in 1915 under
Mrs. Wilkie with the idea of working for the French only, catered
for the British also in the canteen opened at the Gare du Nord,
Paris, in April 1915, which was a rendezvous for all Allied nationali-
ties on leave. Early in 1917, when the Australians and Canadians
visited Paris on leave in very large numbers, Miss Lily Butler opened
a " Corner of Blighty," the pioneer leave club in Paris, to help them
to spend their time as pleasantly and profitably as possible. Every-
thing was given free of charge, and a staff of 45 voluntary women
workers entertained 44,000 men in the first 10 months of the 2%
years for which the club was open.
Six months later the British Army and Navy Leave Club was
opened and was the pioneer residential club in Paris for soldiers and
sailors on leave. Baron D'Erlanger lent the house, and Miss Decima
Moore and the Rev. A. S. V. Blunt were hon. secretaries. In the two
years that it was open 59,102 men were registered and 701,546
meals were served. A body of uniformed Women Guides looked after
the comfort of the men, and free entertainments on a large scale
were organized.
As a result of the success of this club, the British Empire Leave
Club at Cologne was originated and organized on the same lines by
Miss Decima Moore, Hon. Director-General, who raised the funds
io6o
WOMEN'S WAR- WORK
with a London Committee under Baron D'Erlanger as chairman.
Each department was conducted by a voluntary woman worker
drawn'from one of the proved women's war organizations, who wore
the uniform of her society, and did her last piece of war-work for the
British in an officially recognized institution opened at the invitation
of the army.
IV. Voluntary Work For Allies. Scottish Women's Hospitals.
On Aug. 12 1914 Dr. Elsie Inglis, president of the Scottish
Federation of Women's Suffrage Societies, proposed that the
Federation should equip a hospital " staffed entirely by women,
if not required at home to be sent abroad." Within a week the
War Office had declined the offer of a unit, and on Aug. 20 over-
tures were made to the embassies of Belgium, France and Russia.
Mrs. Fawcett agreed that the N.U.W.S.S. should join in the appeal
for funds, and by the end of the war 449,000 had been collected.
In all, 14 different hospitals staffed entirely by women were mo-
bilized and worked for the Belgian, French, Serbian and Russian
armies. The first opportunity of service came when typhoid
broke out in the Belgian army; on Dec. 5 1914 Dr. Alice Hutch-
ison and Dr. Phillips, with 10 trained nurses, were put in charge
of the typhoid annexe of Dr. de Page's hospital at Calais, where
they worked for three months, until the epidemic had been over-
come. On the same day the first complete unit under Dr. Ivens,
consisting of 3 surgeons, 2 physicians, a radiologist, 10 trained
nurses and as many dressers and orderlies, arrived in Paris on
their way to the Abbaye de Royaumont, which had been allotted
them by the French Red Cross. In this ancient edifice, founded
by St. Louis, French wounded were tended by the Scottish women
till Feb. 1919. An offshoot of the hospital, established at Villers-
Cottere'ts in huts in the spring of 1917, was evacuated before the
German push on May 30 1918, being the last hospital in the district
to remain at work. In both hospitals 10,861 patients were treated.
The Girton and Newnham unit worked uninterruptedly under
the French War Office for four years. It went to Troyes in May
1915 with Dr. Louise Mcllroy as C.M.O. and with Mrs. Harley
(d. 1917) as administrator. As the hospital was entirely under
canvas, it was ordered to accompany the French Expeditionary
Force to Salonika in Oct. 1915, and went for a short time to Ghev-
geli. The unit then settled down in Salonika for three years and
opened an orthopaedic department for disabled Serbian soldiers.
The remaining S.W.H. units worked for the Serbian army. The
first went to Kragujevatz under Dr. Eleanor Soltau in Dec. 1914,
and was the second British unit to arrive in Serbia in time for the
typhus epidemic. With an equipment of 100 beds, Dr. Soltau had
to take 250 patients immediately on arrival, and in March took
charge of two fever hospitals as well. Three of the staff died of
typhus. The next unit went out in May under Dr. Alice Hutchison
to Valjevo, and was detained at Malta for a fortnight to look after
British wounded from the Dardanelles, the one occasion on which a
S.W.H. unit worked officially for the British army. By this time the
typhus epidemic was over and a long peaceful summer intervened
before the autumn invasion. The starts of the two fever hospitals
formed a camp hospital at Mladanovatz under Dr. McGregor, and
Dr. Hollway with some sisters took over a Serbian hospital of 200
beds at Lazorovatz. Both these were evacuated at once when the
storm of invasion broke out in Nov.; Dr. McGregor's party joined
the great retreat through Albania; and Dr. Hutchison's party, with
Dr. Inglis, who had come out to Serbia in May, remained working
for the Serbs at Krushevatz, as prisoners of the enemy, from Nov. to
Feb. 1916. The Austrians then sent them home.
In Aug. 1915 a party of Scottish women under Dr. Mary Blair
had been sent to Serbia to reinforce Dr. Alice Hutchison's unit at
Valjevo. As the invasion was pending they went to Salonika in-
stead, to wait for work, and when it was decided that the Serbian
civilian refugees were to accept the hospitality of the French Govern-
ment at Corsica, this unit was invited to be in charge of the medical
affairs of the colony. The hospital remained open at Ajaccio till
April 1919 and treated 1,704 in-patients and 15,515 out-patients.
Among these were many of the Serbian soldiers who had accom-
plished the retreat through Albania, and after two months' rest
were re-equipped to form a second Serbian army. A new S.W.H.
unit, called the " America " unit, under Dr. Agnes Bennett, with a
transport column under Mrs. Harley, was formed to accompany this
army to Salonika. In Sept. 1916 they went to Ostrovo, to act as a
casualty clearing station for the push to Monastir, and after the fall
of the town a dressing station was opened at Dobreveni. The unit
worked at Ostrovo till Nov. 1918, and then went to Vranja in
Serbia, under Dr. Elmslie, till Oct. 1919, and coped with another
typhus epidemic. Mrs. Harley, Gen. French's sister, left to do relief
work in Jan. 1917, and was killed by a stray shell.
On her return from Serbia in Feb. 1916 Dr. Inglis spent six months
in England trying in vain to obtain authority to take a unit to Meso-
potamia for the British. Then the Serbian Government asked her to
equip and maintain a field hospital, with a motor transport column
attached, for service with the newly formed Serbian division,
consisting of ex-Austrian subjects, who had allowed themselves to be
made prisoners by the Russians and were attached to their army.
The unit started in Aug. 1916 in charge of Dr. Inglis herself, with
Mrs. Haverfield commanding the transport column, and went to the
Dobrudja. They only had 19 days of work for the Serbs before
becoming involved in the retreat of the Russian army, and while
the Serb division was resting the unit worked for the Russian Red
Cross. Once again they had to retire to Galatz, and then were helped
by the British Armoured-Car Corps to get to Reni, where they were
able to settle down for eight months and work for the Russians. An
offshoot of the hospital under Dr. Chesney went to the Rumanian
front. The Russian Revolution had meanwhile broken out, and the
demoralization of the Russian army was so complete that Dr.
Inglis was determined to prevent the Serb division from being sacri-
ficed on that front in order to stiffen up the Russian moral. She sent
two members of the unit to England to deliver a memorized message
of 2,500 words to the Foreign Office, and, after pressure from the
British Government, the Russians permitted the Serb division to go
to Archangel, and the Admiralty sent transports to bring them to
England. Although by that time Dr. Inglis was very ill, she insisted
on waiting to return home with the Serb division, and as the first
Admiralty transport was filled by the Russians with refugees, she
had to wait for the second. They landed at Newcastle-on-Tyne
on Sunday, and on Monday Nov. 27 1917 she died. The " Elsie
Inglis " unit, equipped immediately after her death, left for Serbia
in Feb. 1918, under Dr. Annette Benson, and worked at the first
dressing station behind the lines during the Serbian offensive that
E receded the Armistice. The transport column followed on the
eels of the victorious army into Serbia.
Work for French and Belgian Armies. At the beginning of the war
the regulations affecting the entry of British subjects into France
and Belgium were not strict, and as the British authorities dis-
couraged voluntary offers, British organizations, individuals and
groups of friends gave lavishly of funds, stores and the service of
trained nurses to the French, Belgian and Serbian allies. Milliccnt
Duchess of Sutherland had installed an ambulance of 8 trained nurses
and a surgeon at Namur by Aug. 17, and by Aug. 24 they were all
prisoners of the Germans. The British Red Cross Society sent out
12 parties of nurses to Belgium before the end of Sept., and 25
parties to different voluntary units in France before the end of the
year, besides two parties to Serbia and one to Montenegro.
The second hospital unit to be officered by medical women only
was organized by Mrs. St. Clair Stobart as administrator, under the
name of the Women's Imperial Service Hospital, and left for Ant-
werp to work under the Belgian Red Cross Sept. 20 1914. It con-
sisted of 6 doctors, 10 nurses and 10 orderlies under Miss Sally
McNaughtan (d. 1916), who described the 14-days' work in An
Englishwoman's Diary of the War. The wounded were evacuated just
before the entry of the Germans. Within three weeks of their return
the unit was re-formed and worked at Cherbourg until March 1915
under the French Red Cross.
Miss Sally McNaughtan had stayed behind at Ostend and joined
the Hector Munro Ambulance Corps, a mixed body to which Miss
May Sinclair, Lady Dorothie Feilding (the first woman to win the
Military Medal), Mrs. Knocker and Miss Chisholm belonged. Dur-
ing this time of greatest hardship for the Belgian army the corps
established a hospital at Furnes, to which ambulance drivers brought
in wounded under fire. Early in 1915 Mrs. Knocker and Miss
Chisholm left the corps and started a dressing station of their own
at Pervyse, close to the Belgian lines, where they served the soldiers
till both were badly gassed in their dug-out in April 1918. Miss
Sally McNaughtan ran a portable soup kitchen for the Belgians in
Furnes during the winter of 1914-5 and laid the seeds of the illness
to which she succumbed in 1916. During this first winter of the war
the Belgian army was in deplorable need of help, and Lady Bagot,
who worked at Dunkirk in Nov. and Dec. 1914, dressing wounded
at the station, raised funds to establish a transportable " Hospital
of Friendship " at Adinkerke, which became the surgical section of
the H&pital d'Evacuation for the Belgian army. It was too close
to the front for nurses to be allowed to work there, but Lady Bagot
herself remained there for two years, before handing it over to the
Belgian authorities. To meet the dearth of hospital requisites and
clothing, Mrs. Bernard Allen started fhe Belgian Hospital Fund in
Jan. 1915, which collected 25,000 in money and 25,000 in kind and
aided 137 Belgian military hospitals and convalescent dep6ts in
France and Belgium, and 30 colonies for refugee children, besides
providing a club for soldiers, a recreation hut for the front, a hospice
for refugees and 450 surgical outfits for regimental doctors.
During the battle of the Yser in Oct. 1914 the Belgian wounded
poured into Calais, and Mrs. McDougall, of the First Aid Nursing
Yeomanry, who had offered the services of the corps to the Belgian
army, was asked to take over two old schools full of wounded as a :
hospital. There was no equipment, and the unit worked incredibly
hard to produce a good military hospital out of nothing. The
workers, with the exception of the trained nurses, paid all their
expenses and subscribed to the hospital as well. From Nov. to Jan.
1915 they established a regimental aid post for the Belgians at
Oostkerk, and during the height of the typhoid epidemic ran a con-
valescent home as an offshoot of the Lamarck hospital. The con-
valescent soldiers were drafted off in large numbers to the Camp de
Ruchard near Tours, and the're the F.A.N.Y. maintained a hut for
them, with a canteen and cinema, and paid a trained nurse to look
after the consumptives.
The motor-drivers originally belonging to the Lamarck hospital,
who also conveyed the Belgian wounded from the clearing hospital
WOMEN'S WAR- WORK
1 06 1
to all the other hospitals in Calais, were officially attached to the
Belgian Corps de Transport when the Lamarck hospital closed in
Oct. 1916. This unit continued to drive for the Belgian army till
after the Armistice and went with it to Bruges and Brussels. Belgian
civilians who remained in the little strip of land not occupied by the
enemy were in desperate plight too. King Albert's Civilian Hospital
Fund was founded, by Mrs. Oliphant Murray and the Duchess of
Buckingham and Chandos, to help Belgian state civilian hospitals
abroad; the Belgian Canal Boat Fund, with Mrs. Agar Adamson
as founder and Mrs. Innes Taylor as organizer in Belgium, fed and
clothed 300 families in and about Furnes till June 1919; and the
Belgian Front Relief Fund, under Miss Georgie Fyfe, evacuated
1,341 Belgian children from the war area into France and Switzer-
land, and repatriated them all at the end of the war, besides main-
taining a maternity hospital at Vinckem for four years.
The work for the French was more extensive still. There were
three Red Cross societies in France; the Societe de Secours aux
Blesses Militaires, the Association des Dames Francaises, and the
Union des Femmes de France. As only the last named had a com-
mittee in London, a British Committee of the French Red Cross
was called into being by the French ambassador towards the end of
1914, in order to allocate the services offered by British volunteers
to the best advantage of all three societies. At the end of 1917 the
Anglo-French Committee of the Joint War Committee, which had
been formed in Jan. 1915 tc sift the credentials of British applicants
for Red Cross work with the French, united with the British Com-
mittee. By this date 8,537 certificates had been granted to British
volunteers for work in France. As the French army bore the brunt
of the fighting for the first two years of the war their hospital
problem was acute, especially as the nuns had left France before a
sufficient number of nurses had been trained to replace them. To
help fill the need, Miss Grace Ellison founded the French Flag
Nursing Corps, which organized the supply of 250 British trained
nurses, paid by the French Government, to help in the improvisation
of the enormous number of French hospitals needed to cope with the
rush of wounded. The Urgency Cases Hospital, a unit of first-class
surgeons and 20 fully trained nurses, raised on the initiative of Miss
Eden, hon. sec. of the National Union of Trained Nurses, went to
Revigny in March 1915 to receive the worst cases on that section of
the front. In July 1917 it was taken over by the British Committee
of the French Red Cross. About 30 other units for the French were
equipped by voluntary effort and staffed by British nurses and
V.A.D.s, including Miss Bromley Martin's hospital at Arc-en-Barrois,
the Johnston-Reckett unit at Ris-Orangis, Lady Sykes' hospital at
Malo-les-Bains, the Michelham Foundation in Paris, the Ulster unit
supported for two years by the Ulster Women's Unionist Council, the
Martouret hospital and Ceret convalescent home of Mrs. Allhusen,
the Sanatorium Beausoleil of Miss Lind-af-Hageby, Lady Eva
Wemyss' hospital at Compiegne, Lady Guernsey's at Fecamp, Mrs.
Symons' at Rimberlieu, Lady Tangye's at Pans Plage and others.
In addition a large number of V.A.D.s worked in French hospitals
and held positions of considerable responsibility.
The French Wounded Emergency Fund, which had branches
throughout Great Britain for the making of comforts, was founded
in Nov. 1914, with Miss Evelyn Wild as hon. sec., in order to give
assistance to the French military and benevole hospitals, as distin-
guished from the auxiliary hospitals run under the three French Red
Cross societies. In May 1916, 2,755 French hospitals were classed as
military, 1,552 as benevole and 1,225 as auxiliary. By March 1918
the Fund had helped military hospitals in 1,200 different French
towns, and 163,000 had been raised in money, and 75,000 in kind.
Canteens were also established in many of the military hospitals.
The French authorities placed a devastated sector on the Somme
under the care of the Fund, and after the Armistice much work was
done in the devastated areas.
On the closing of the Lamarck hospital at Calais the F.A.N.Y.
transferred their personnel to staff a hospital for the French at
Port a Binson, Marne, which opened in Jan. 1917. In the summer
of 1917 the Corps began supplying ambulance units for the French
army. There were finally three: S.S.Y.2, S.S.Y.4, and S.S.Y.5.
The F.A.N.Y. officer commanding each unit held official rank in the
French army as an officer. After the Armistice the S.S.Y.2 drivers
were the first women to go into Germany with their ambulances to
bring back prisoners of war. The Hackett-Lowther ambulance unit
of women drivers under Miss Toupie-Lowther was attached to the
second Army Corps of the 3rd French army in 1918 as S.S.Y.3.
This was the only women!s unit allowed to do front-line work ; the
cars were sent to the advanced " postes de secours," and the entire
section was mentioned in despatches, which carried with it the right
to have the Croix de Guerre painted on their ambulances. During 19 19
the women's convoys did civilian relief work in the devastated areas.
The Women's Emergency Canteens, an independent Society
under Mrs. Wilkie, and an offshoot of the Women's Emergency
Corps, started a canteen at Compiegne in Feb. 1915 with a recreation
room, which was the first of its kind. Another canteen was opened
for four years at the Gare du Nord, Paris, with 60 beds attached,
which was used by British and Allied soldiers, and all Belgians were
fed free there for two years. Other smaller canteens were run for
a time as offshoots of the one at Compiegne.
Canteen work under the " Oeuvre de la Goutte de Cafe " started
by M. Duquesnoy early in the war, absorbed a very large number of
British women workers, who were selected and sent out to France
by the British Committee of the French Red Cross. The canteens
were of four types, those at railway stations; those at foyers de
cantonnement or recreation rooms attached to rest camps; those for
the provision of invalid diets at depots d'ecloppes. and those at depots
d'isoles for men rejoining their regiments. The earliest railway
canteen was opened at Hazebrouck in Feb. 1915, and moved to
Doullens, where the work was very heavy during the Somme
offensive; thousands of wounded from Gommecourt came through'
in a few days, and the helpers were sometimes working for 19 hours
at a stretch. Many of the canteen workers had narrow escapes during
the German push of 1918, when they had to evacuate suddenly with
the Germans on their heels. A large number of the helpers were
elderly women who worked extraordinarily hard, paid all their own
expenses and faced all the hazards of war.
Work for the Serbian Army. The first British women who worked
for Serbia during the war left London with Madame Grouitch, the
American wife of the Serbian minister at Nish, on Aug. 12 1914, and
went to the Serbian 1st reserve hospital at Kragujevatz; the hospital
material was exhausted in a few months, and it was as a result of
the pitiful stories that reached home from this band of women that
the Serbian Relief Fund was formed. Miss Flora Sandes and Miss
Emily Simmonds, who belonged to the original party, raised a
private fund, took out 108 tons of hospital material to Valievp in
Jan. 1915, and nursed typhus in a Serbian hospital, doing operations
and dressings for 12 hours a day, till both caught the disease.
The plight of Serbia during the first winter of the war, harried
first by the Austrian invasion and then by the typhus epidemic, was
so terrible that hospital after hospital was sent out from Great
Britain by the Serbian Relief Fund, the British Red Cross Society,
the Wounded Allies Relief Committee and the Scottish Women's
Hospitals. All these took out trained nurses and many had women
doctors, but, with the exception of the Scottish Women's Hospitals,
the only two units under women administrators were financed by
the Serbian Relief Fund. The first Serbian Relief Fund surgical
unit under Lady Paget, the wife of Sir Ralph Paget, who became the
British Commissioner for Serbia in 1915, reached the country in
Nov. 1914 before any of the others, and did heroic service at Skoplje
under appalling conditions. From Nov. to Jan. there was an unend-
ing stream of Austrian and Serbian wounded and in the second half
of the month the typhus epidemic assumed serious proportions.
Lady Paget, who had previously worked in Serbian hospitals in
Belgrade during the Balkan wars of 1911 and 1912-3, organized a
typhus colony in collaboration with the British Red Cross Society
unit, for the isolation of. the cases, which opened on March I. Very
few nurses could be spared from the surgical hospital, as over 90%
of the staff were off duty for sickness between Nov. and February.
Lady Paget herself, two sisters, two doctors, some Serbian voluntary
assistants and Austrian prisoner orderlies coped with beds at the
colony for 300 typhus patients. Between March 6 and 24 sixteen
workers went down with the disease, including Lady Paget, and
for a week one sister remained in charge of 300 patients. Then she
was relieved by four nurses from the second Serbian Relief Fund unit
(Lady Wimborne's). By May the epidemic was overcome and not a
case left in the town.
Plenty of hospitals had arrived in the country by this time and,
as there had been no fighting since Dec., the surgical units found
themselves with little to do. Mrs. St. Clair Stobart, who com-
manded thegrd Serbian Relief Fund unit, which was entirely staffed
by women, landed in Serbia in April 1915, and at once began to
utilize her medical personnel for the far greater needs of the civil
population. She put up a wayside dispensary by the hospital camp,
where 12,000 people were treated in a few weeks, and established six,
others in country districts during the summer. At the end of Sept.'
the Austrians, Germans and Bulgarians began massing on the
frontiers and Mrs. Stobart was invited to accompany the Serbian'
army to the front with a part of her unit as a flying field hospital.,
They moved forward for a few days, but on Oct. 17 the great retreat
of the Serbian nation began, and thousands of people trekked for 1
three months over the Albanian mountains down to the sea at
Scutari. Mrs. Stobart rode at the head of her column all the way<
for 800 m., and brought it through intact.
Lady Paget with all her staff decided to remain with the hospital
at Skoplje and allow themselves to be taken prisoners by the Bul-
garians, in order to continue to care for the Serbian wounded of their
own hospital and of the other hospitals abandoned by their staffs.
She was allowed by the Bulgarians to distribute the hospital stores
of food and clothing to all destitute refugees irrespective of na-
tionality. Early in Dec. the Germans arrived, and in Feb. permission
was given for the unit to leave the country. Lady Paget had accom- :
plished the purpose for which she had stayed, having been able to
superintend the distribution of all the stores and money.
Miss Flora Sandes, who was in England when the Bulgarians de-
clared war, went back at once, and was officially attached to the
ambulance of the 2nd Infantry Regiment. When the retreat began,
the Commandant of the Division told her that her presence would
encourage the soldiers; so, as the ambulance could not travel, she
enlisted in the 2nd Infantry Regiment as a private and retreated
through Albania with the Serbian army. When the army was
1062
WOMEN'S WAR- WORK
re-formed she was promoted corporal, sergeant, and lieutenant, and
went through every engagement with her regiment till she was
wounded ; she returned again to the front and was not demobilized
till 1919. Whilst on active service, in cooperation with Mrs.
Haverfield, she organized a Comforts Fund for the Serbian soldiers
in the trenches, and raised money for the Sandes- Haverfield can-
teens, which worked directly under the Serbian army.
Work for the Russian Army. In Sept. 1915 a British Committee,
with Lady Muriel Paget as hon. sec., raised funds to equip an Anglo-
' Russian hospital for work under the Russian Red Cross Society.
The hospital of 200 beds was formally opened in the palace of the
Grand Duke Dmitri at Petrograd in Feb. 1916 in the presence of the
Empress and a brilliant company. At the beginning of May, during
the offensive^of Gen. Brussilov a field hospital of 100 beds was
attached to the Russian Guards, with a motor ambulance column of
22 ambulances: the Anglo-Russian hospital also took charge of 120
beds in a Russian hospital at Lutsk, providing the nurses and
doctors. Over 100,000 was raised. Mrs. Wynne, an original mem-
ber of the Hector Munro Ambulance Corps in Belgium, took a unit
of motor ambulances to Russia in 1915, and was attached to the
First Caucasian ambulance unit on the Persian front. The conditions
proving too rough for her 50 H. P. cars, she transferred them to the
column of the Anglo-Russian hospital. The Revolution put an
end to the work, and Lady Muriel Paget and her staff had to travel
home via Siberia and Japan, taking a month to cross Siberia in a
third-class carriage.
The N.U.W.S.S. raised the Millicent Garrett Fawcett Maternity
unit for work among the Russian refugees at a cost of over 12,000,
and the Great Britain to Poland Fund, and the Polish War Victims
Relief Committee worked as long as political circumstances per-
mitted for the Polish refugees.
Work for the Italian Army. Soon after Italy joined the Allies in
May 1915, the British Committee in aid of the Italian wounded
raised funds to finance the first unit of the British Red Cross Society
in Italy, which arrived on the Isonzo front in Sept. 1915. A field
hospital at Villa Trento, staffed by British sisters and V.A.D.s under
the Joint War Committee, broke down the Italian rule against em-
ploying women nurses at the front.
In Dec. 1915 Lady Helena Gleichen and Mrs. Hollings, who had
been trained as X-ray operators and had raised private funds to
purchase motor-cars fitted with X-ray apparatus, were attached as a
radiographic unit to the 6th Army Corps of the 3rd Army. The
British Red Cross Society provided additional staff and cars. After
six months they were attached to the headquarters staff of the
2nd Army and were present at both battles of Gorizia. Between
Dec. 1915 and Oct. 1917, 12,600 X-ray examinations were made.
Mrs. Watkins, who raised her own funds for two years, and was
helped by the British Red Cross Society, went to Italy in Sept.
1915 with a staff to set up station canteens for the hospital trains at
Cervignano and San Giovanni Manzano, the railroads on the Isonzo
front. In July 1917 she undertook the feeding of the wounded in the
clearing station of Dolegna, and during Aug. an average of 1,600
wounded were dealt with in 24 hours. It was due to her initiative
that the first recreation hut for soldiers of the 2nd and 3rd armies
was opened by the Italian army in the spring of 1916. Mrs. Watkins
and her helpers undertook the organization of 14 others, which proved
so successful that the Supreme Command took up the idea and
were building 100 huts just before the retreat of Oct. 1917. Mrs.
Wynne, on her return from Russia, worked with her motor am-
bulances for the Italian Red Cross.
V. Voluntary E/ort in Supplies, Etc. The outbreak of war
found voluntary effort for the fighting forces entirely unorganized,
apart from the Regimental Associations in connexion with the
regular battalions of the regiments comprising the pre-war army.
The British Red Cross Society and Order of St. John were the
only organizations that supplied hospital requisites for the sick
and wounded. These could obviously not expand sufficiently
fast to meet the new needs, and Queen Mary's Needlework
Guild, with Lady Lawley as hon. sec., came into being on Aug.
10 1914, with the more general object of "organizing a collection
of garments for those who will suffer on account of the war." The
King and Queen and Princess Mary gave the lead in promoting
funds to send a present for Christmas 1914 to every person wearing
the King's uniform and to every nurse at the front, and Queen
Alexandra presented each nurse in the regular army nursing
services in France with a fur-lined cape, hood and muff.
It is estimated that the value of goods in kind presented to soldiers
and sailors by voluntary effort in the first year of the war was 5,000,-
boo, and funds were formed to collect in bulk such articles as air
pillows, Christmas puddings, gloves, handkerchiefs, hot-water
bottles, Bovril, letter cases, razors, respirators, " tubs for Tommies,"
periscopes, field glasses, wire cutters, sandbags, matches, cigarettes,
tobacco, mouth organs, hospital bags, walking sticks and eggs.
Sxime of these funds continued till the end of the war. The National
Egg Society provided over 44,000,000 eggs for hospitals in four years.
Lady Smith-Dorrien's Hospital Bag Fund distributed over 2,500,000
bags before Jan. I 1918; Lady Roberts' Field Glass Fund produced
on an average 300 field glasses a month; Miss Gladys Storey's
Bovril Fund sent Bovril to all the fronts throughout the war; the
Glove Waistcoat Society made 55,000 windproof waistcoats out of
old gloves, and John Penoyre collected over 100,000 sweaters. By
the sale of worn-out silver thimbles and oddments of silver and gold,
the Silver Thimble Fund under Miss Hope Clarke raised over 60,-
ooo and provided 15 motor ambulances, 5 motor hospital launches
2 motor dental surgery cars, besides large donations to the Red
Cross and other funds for soldiers and sailors. The Vegetable
Products Committee for naval supply under E. Jerome Dyer
despatched 50,000,000 Ib. of vegetables to the fleet, estimated in
cash value at 1,250,000. Every town had its own fund to send par-
cels to prisoners of war, and the packing was done by voluntary
women workers.
Outstanding private comforts funds were those started by Lady
French and Lady Jellicoe, which closed down at the end of the first
winter campaign, when the needs of the army and navy were for the
moment satisfied. The one comforts fund inherited from the Boer
war was Queen Alexandra's Field Force Fund, which opened in Oct.
1914, with Mrs. William Sclater, who had organized it in S. Africa, as
hon. secretary. Gifts were sent out in response to definite requests
from commanding officers, and by the Armistice over 80,000 had
been raised.
The universal desire to make something for the man on active
service caused a multitude of uncorrelated work parties to spring up
all over the country, and it was clear that before the second winter
campaign some general scheme of coordination was essential if the
best use was to be made of the energy and enthusiasm of a vast band
of voluntary needle workers. In Sept. igijj the department of the
Director-General of Voluntary Organizations, with Sir Edward
Ward as Director General, was formed as a branch of the War
Office, without funds, to establish county, city, borough, and district
associations throughout Great Britain under which it was proposed
to affiliate existing voluntary bodies. The organization dealt with
supplies to combatants and to men in military hospitals. Regimental
organizations were recommended to continue and extend their work,
and the Joint War Committee and Queen Mary's Needlework Guild
were recognized as separate and independent organizations.
From Aug. 10 1914 till Feb. 1919 St. James' Palace was the col-
lecting centre for the 15,500,000 articles that were sent in by the
members of Queen Mary's Needlework Guild all over the world.
Six hundred and thirty branches with a membership of 1,078,839
persons were formed in Great Britain alone. The need for hospital
dressings had been realized early and the first Surgical Branch Depdt
was started by Miss McCaul in 1914, with Mrs. Gibson as general
manager; this became the Central Surgical Depdt of the Guild,
which sent 11,000,000 articles direct to Allied hospitals and hospital
ships. The first orthopaedic branch was the Surgical Requisites
Association started at Mulberry Walk, Chelsea, which became the
central orthopaedic branch of Q.M.N.G. with 1,000 members and
44 branches. This depot was a centre of instruction for all the in-
stitutions engaged in orthopaedic work, ovying to the inventions
made by the workers. Elinor Halle first utilized papier-mache as a
material for arm cradles, and then devised a light boot, with a papier-
mache back, for drop foot, which was in. such great demand that
centres were opened for making them throughout France and Italy
as well as in Great Britain and India. A Papier-Mache Surgical
Appliances Department at Simla had 1 1 branches.
A process of making the papier-mache waterproof for baths by
using a cuprammonium solution of cotton wool instead of paste
for the final layers of the papier-mache, was invented by Miss
Acheson. This medium was adapted for splints, and permission was
obtained for voluntary workers to visit the military hospitals and
take plaster casts from the limbs of the patients, on to which the
splints were moulded, so that the utmost amount of pressure could
be brought to bear without causing pain. This method of making
splints for special cases became generally adopted by other depdts.
Many elaborations of the splints were invented by Mrs. Sanyer
Adkin; in the words of Sir Robert Jones, the department was an
" inspiration."
The Red Cross and St. John's working parties were recognized
as a distinct body under the Joint War Committee. They continued
as before primarily to supply the auxiliary and voluntary hospitals,
and sent their surplus to the military hospitals when asked to do so by
the D.G.V.O. During the war 2,823 workparties were registered at
the Central Workrooms at Burlington House, which were established
in Oct. 1915 to coordinate the work. Over 30,000,000 articles were
produced by the branches; 540,000 gifts were contributed by the
1,617 registered home workers, and 800,000 things were made by the
1,202 members of the Central Workrooms. The independent bodies
of workers not belonging to Queen Mary's Needlework Guild or to
the Joint War Committee were dealt with by the D.G.V.O., who
invited the workparties to assemble their workers into groups
covering certain areas under the Army Council's scheme. The
comforts were issued to combatants through a " Comforts Pool "
in each theatre of war, and to military hospitals according to the
demands of the officers commanding hospital units. A total of
88,000,000 articles of clothing and surgical comforts estimated at a
WOMEN'S WAR-WORK
1063
value of 5,000,000 were supplied to combatants, patients in military
hospitals, allies and prisoners of war, by the 267 recognized head
associations, composed of approximately 400,000 workers, grouped
into 2,983 branches, all financially independent. These ranged from
bodies of village women and shop girls to factories like the Bel-
gravia War Hospital Supply Depot and the Kensington War Hos-
pital Supply Depot ; the latter with an average daily attendance of
1,200 workers turned out 6,000,000 articles, making a speciality of
elaborate orthopaedic appliances. A number of men did valuable
work in the woodwork annexes of the depots.
In addition to comforts made by hand the D.G.V.O. sent out
232,599,191 cigarettes, 256,487 Ib. of tobacco and 62,193 games. The
supply of books to the troops was in the hands of Dame Eva
Anstruther, who had established the Camps Library in Oct. 1914
(afterwards affiliated to the D.G.V.O.) and despatched 16,000,000
books and magazines to fighting men. The War Library, run by
Mrs. Gaskell and Dr. Hagbert Wright under the British Red Cross
Society, furnished 6,000,000 books to the hospitals.
The provision of artificial teeth and dental treatment for soldiers
and sailors was undertaken by the Soldiers and Sailors Dental Aid
fund under Miss Banister Fletcher. When it was founded in Dec.
1914 there was no arrangement for the supply of dentures to soldiers ;
but from March 1915 onwards the War Office gave a grant to meet
the cost of treatment for their own men, and in Nov. took over the
work. The Fund was reconstituted later under the name of the
Ivory Cross, to provide treatment for discharged service men, for
Home Army men and for the mercantile marine.
Ten thousand people, mostly women, worked in 1918 for the
welfare of soldiers on leave in the London area alone, under the
control of the General Officer Commanding the London District.
In that year 3,068,135 men, 232,495 officers and 28,450 cadets were
accommodated in rest houses in London. The Maple Leaf Club, the
Victoria League Club and Peel House (started by Mrs. Moncrieffe
and Mrs. Graham Murray) had been opened as residential clubs
for the Overseas forces in the autumn of 1915, on the same lines as
.the Union Jack Club, founded as a memorial to the men who had
lost their lives in the Boer War. Motor volunteer corps, such as the
Motor Transport Volunteers, the Y.M.C.A. Baltic Night Transport,
and the Women's Reserve Ambulance (Green Cross Corps) drove
nearly a million men from station to station in 1918, and 8,000,000
men were fed at the free buffets at Victoria, Paddington, London
Bridge, Liverpool Street, Euston, Waterloo and Charing Cross the
same year. These buffets were maintained and staffed in night and
'day shifts entirely by women voluntary workers, and 12,000,000
men were fed during the war at Victoria station at a cost of 60,000.
.Similar buffets were organized at the big junctions in the provinces,
such as Preston. It is impossible to estimate the additional number
of women who worked throughout the country in canteens for
soldiers in training and on home service.
Parallel with the supply of tangible comforts such as food and
clothing went the provision of entertainment for men in camp and
patients in hospital. The " Music in War Time " committees, sub-
sidized in part as relief work for musicians by the Professional
Classes War Relief Council, gave 15,000 concerts in hospitals and
camps at home, 2,000,000 wounded soldiers being entertained in the
Manchester area alone. Individuals and organizations such as the
Y.M.C.A. at home, the Lena Ashwell concert parties at the front,
'the Three Arts Club and the Soldiers Entertainment Fund, did the
same work.
The labour of the nursing staff in hospitals was lessened by the
organizations which provided drives for the wounded, free bus rides
and river trips, and arranged for the visitation of patients and the
teaching of handicrafts. The friendships formed in hospital led to
voluntary after-care work for the disabled. (For a list of funds,
associations and societies for the assistance of service and ex-service
officers, men, women, and their dependents, see H4/Gen. No. 6198,
compiled by the secretary C-3 department, War Office.)
The Auctioneers and Estate Agents Institute of the United King-
dom bought the Star and Garter Hotel, Richmond Hill, as a home
for the totally disabled in 1915 and presented it to Queen Mary;
a sum of 224,000 for the building was raised by the British Women's
Hospitaltommittee under the chairmanship of Dame May Whitty
as a tribute from the women of the Empire.
VI. Work for Belgian Refugees in Great Britain. In Aug. 1914
the gaze of the Allies was focussed upon Belgium, where one of
the greatest tragedies of history was being enacted. After the first
accounts of the German atrocities perpetrated at Vise and Liege,
but before the extent of the German invasion of Belgium was fore-
seen, it occurred to Lady Lugard that a large number of Belgian
women and children might be brought to the protection of English
hospitality, by means of the organization recently improvised in
Ulster for the removal of Irish women and children from the area
which in July 1914 threatened to become a theatre of war. Prepara-
tions on these lines proceeded, with the cooperation of Ulster, the
Catholic Church, the Foreign Office, the Local Government Board
and the Belgian Government. Meanwhile the situation in Belgium
was becoming more acute, and on Aug. 22 an official of the Exhibi-
tions Branch of the Board of Trade, who was in Belgium on business,
announced to Lady Lugard that he hoped to arrive from Ostend on
the 24th with a transport carrying from 100 to 1,000 Belgians.
Within two days the War Refugees Committee was formed to pro-
vide for them, mainly by the exertions of Lady Lugard and Mrs.
Alfred Lyttelton. Lord Hugh Cecil became chairman and Viscount
Gladstone treasurer. The response of the first appeal in the press
brought offers of private hospitality for 100,000 persons, and hot one
of the refugees who poured into the country in an increasing stream
was left without food, lodging and a warm welcome from the 500
volunteers who at first did the work. But the Committee was not
rich in funds. A large proportion of the money, subscribed in
England for the Belgians, went to the Belgian minister's fund for
Belgian relief, which was earmarked to be spent upon the Con-;
tinent. 106,500 was subscribed to the War Refugees Committee,
and this had to be conserved for the expenses of organization, and for
emergency relief. It. was soon obvious that a national exodus could
not be dealt with by private effort alone. In the House of Commons,
on Sept. 9, Mr. (afterwards Sir) Herbert Samuel, then President of
the Local XSovernment Board, offered the hospitality of the British
nation to Belgium, and from that day a department of the Local
Government Board, under Sir Frederick Willis, worked in close
relation with the War Refugees Committee. At f\rst the Belgians
had been received in refuges improvised by the War Refugees Com-
mittee; but it was then arranged that the Local Government Board
should provide accommodation for the refugees in London and should
superintend their reception at the ports and bear the cost of their
transport. The War Refugees Committee was to allocate the refu-
gees to private hospitality and organize the transport.
The Women's Emergency Corps had provided a body of inter-
preters to meet trains early in Aug. and did valuable work for the
Belgians of the middle and upper classes who were able to pay their
way temporarily. The greatest rush occurred during the week after
the fall of Antwerp, when 26,000 refugees arrived at Folkestone and
were welcomed by the local committee; 2,000 a day were dealt
with in London by the allocation department of the War Refugees
Committee under Dame Victoria Samuel (Mrs. Gilbert Samuel),
and 6,opo a day by the transport department under Mr. H. Camp-
bell. The occupation of Ostend by the Germans on Oct. 17 closed the
Belgian coast, and all refugees arriving in England after that date
came by way of Holland, and in far smaller numbers.
The early refugees had borne the first onslaught of German fury,
and families arrived separated from each other and with no material
possessions whatsoever. British women, protected from the same
fate by the sea, and with few opportunities at that time of helping
actively with other war work, poured out money and sympathy
lavishly on the Belgians. By Jan. 1915, it was estimated that private
hosts had spent 2,000,000 on hospitality. The central register of
refugees compiled under the Registrar General's Department
showed that 265,000 refugees arrived in England; they cost the
Government approximately 3,500,000; but the total spent on them
by private hosts and local committees was estimated in 1917 as at
least 6,000,000. Over 6,000 Jews were cared for at the cost of the
Jewish community in London. 2,500 local Belgian relief committees,
of which about 1,500 were really effective, were formed in Great
Britain, to which the refugees, after spending a few days at the
Government refuges, were allocated by the loo voluntary allocators
of the War Refugees Committee; by the allocators at the office of
the Belgian consulate, working in the same building; as well as by
the Catholic Women's League and the Women's Emergency Corps.
Four large refuges holding 8,oop persons, at Alexandra Palace,
Earl's Court, Edmonton and Millfietd House, were managed for
the Local Government Board by the Metropolitan Asylums Board,
and during the period of the greatest rush several boards of guardians
lent other buildings. Edmonton and Earl's Court through which
100,000 refugees passed, remained open till the end of the war.
When the local relief committees, originally organized by the
Earl of Lytton, had received their refugees from headquarters, they
worked in complete independence. The Glasgow Corporation Bel-
gian Refugee Committee under Mr. Alexander Walker acted as a
central authority for receiving and distributing refugees all over
Scotland. The Scotch committees raised 360,000. Liverpool,
Manchester, Birmingham and Exeter, to mention only a few, looked
after many thousands of refugees each. The university of Cambridge
invited professors and students from the four Belgian universities
to come into residence and organized lectures for them and hos-
pitality for their families. The Chelsea Committee, with Mrs.
Erskine Childcrs as hon. sec., started industries for the refugees on
a large scale, and spent 72,000 of English and American money.
The National Food Fund and the Belgian Refugee Food Fund, with
the substantial assistance of the Smithfield Markets Belgian Relief
Fund (which divided gifts of meat between the two funds), supplied
an allowance of free food to hostels and Belgian households in
London ; this made it possible for a large number to do without other
financial assistance.
In Jan. 1915, owing to the natural drying up of the sources of
private hospitality, the Government undertook to make grants in
aid! to refugees when private offers were not available, and in this
way wholly or partially maintained an average of 6,500 persons till
May 1919. In Nov. 1915 it took over the cost of the staff of the
War Refugees Committee. When this organization took definite
shape, it consisted of a staff of 400 paid workers, who by degrees
assumed the places of the original volunteers, though some of these
1064
WOMEN'S WAR- WORK
continued to give their services till the end of the war. Lord Glad-
stone was chairman of the managing committee and Mr. Algernon
Maudsley, who had assisted the committee from the earliest days of
the war, hon. secretary. The health department, which made pro-
vision for chronic, maternity, convalescent and dental cases all
over the country, was organized by the Countess of Sandwich in
Oct. 1914 and afterwards by Dame Victoria Samuel. Viscountess
Gladstone was at first in charge of the education department, and
Mrs. Alfred Lyttelton of hostels and flats for the use of refugees
passing through London. Mrs. Henn Collins and Mrs. A. S. Webbe
looked after undesirables and organized rescue work.
In the first months of the war, owing to unemployment at home
and to the feeling that the Belgians might soon be able to return
to their own country, the refugees were discouraged from seeking
paid work. But when this policy was reversed, it became the chief
duty of the relief committees to help their guests to find employment.
During 1915 factories for the manufacture of war material, estab-
lished by the initiative of the Belgians themselves, were staffed with
Belgian labour, and 65,000 refugees obtained work through the
labour exchanges. Ultimately, nearly all the refugees, except those
of the professional classes, were absorbed into the economic life
of the country. This did not mean that they were all entirely self-
supporting, owing to the high rent of furnished rooms and to the
difficulties besetting exiles in a foreign country. Lady Lugard's hos-
pitality committee and the Duchess of Somerset's housing committee
established hostels for the propertied and professional classes, where
the Government allowance was supplemented by a private fund. A
scheme for assistance with the rent of furnished flats in London on a
large scale, devised by Mrs. Alfred Lyttelton, proved an immense
boon to all classes of refugees.
In the first week of Oct. 1914, the Wounded Allies Relief Com-
mittee organized the transportation of the first wounded soldiers
from Belgian hospitals to England. Auxiliary V.A.D. hospitals,
mobilized, but not at the time needed for the British, opened with
enthusiasm to receive the Belgians. 40,000 wounded soldiers came
to England, many to return shortly to the front. The first of the
five King Albert military hospitals, established in England by the
Belgian Government, opened at Highgate in Dec. 1914. By degrees
the seriously wounded were concentrated in this hospital, which
remained open till 1919, and the discharged drafted to a Belgian
reeducation camp in France.
Owing to the large number of refugees in England, the Belgian
soldier at the front had to be helped to spend his leave with his
relatives. The Local Government Board, from Jan. 1916 onwards,
bore the expenses of his journey; a special channel service transport-
ing 300 men a day was organized ; the transport department of the
War Refugees Committee under Mr. H. Campbell arranged the
distribution of 185,000 men to their families, and the British Club for
Belgian Soldiers was opened from voluntary sources as a residential
club for men without friends or relatives.
Gradually much help was organized for their compatriots by the
refugees themselves. A " Union de Comites " under M. Emile
Vandervelde, Ministre de 1'Intendance de 1'Armee Beige, which
had its headquarters in London, coordinated the work of approxi-
mately 20 Belgian funds chiefly for Belgian soldiers. Mme. Edmond
Carton de Wiart, Mme. Maton, wife of the Belgian military attache^
in London, and Mme. Pollet, wife of the consul-general for Belgium,
took a prominent part in the charitable activities of the Belgian
community.
During four and a half years of exile the Belgians grew to feel at
home in a strange land, and when the time for repatriation came,
many were loth to go. The expenses of repatriation were borne by
the British Government at a cost of 243,000 and in Oct. 1920 a
monument was erected on the Thames Embankment from a fund
raised by the ex-refugees themselves, in memory of their exile in
Great Britain during the war. (A. E. C.)
UNITED STATES
When the United States entered the World War in April 1917,
but one organization depending mainly on the efforts of women
was officially recognized by the Government: the Red Cross. On
May 6 1917 the Red Cross had 562 chapters with a membership
of 486,194. At the signing of the Armistice, it had more than
3,500 chapters and upwards of 8,000,000 regular volunteer women
workers. These women produced in 20 months over 371,000,-
ooo relief articles, including surgical dressings, garments for the
wounded and the refugees, and a variety of comforts and con-
veniences for soldiers and sailors. The value of their output was
about $94,000,000. The Red Cross enrolled during the war
23,822 women as nurses. They served in the military and naval
hospitals in the United States, Europe, and the Near East, as
well as in convalescent homes for soldiers and sailors and in
relief work for adults and children both in the United States and
overseas. They worked in 700 Red Cross canteens in the United
States and 130 in France, serving refreshments to moving troops,
giving them medical care, transferring them when sick, and in
other ways aiding and cheering them.
When war was declared many targe national organizations of
women applied to the Government for instructions. The Coun-
cil of National Defense appointed at the end of April 1917 a com-
mittee of nine women (afterwards increased to eleven) with Dr.
Anna Howard Shaw as chairman, to form a plan by which the
women of the country could be utilized. This committee selected
a woman in each state as a temporary chairman, requesting her
to call together the heads of all national organizations of women
in her territory to elect permanent officers for a state division.
This state division was in turn to organize county committees
and each county was to form a division in each city and town.
This work of organization was carried on so rapidly that by Dec.
1917 the county organization was complete in 23 states, and a
year later there were county chairmen in more than 80% of all the
counties in the country. Seventy-three different national organi-
zations of women cooperated. Through these divisions it was
possible to convey at once to practically all of the women of the
nation the requests of the Government.
The plan of work which the women's committee laid out in-
cluded the following departments: (i) registration for service, (2)
food production and home economics, (3) food administration,
(4) women in industry, (5) child welfare, (6) maintenance of exist-
ing social service agencies, (7) health and recreation, (8) educa-
tional propaganda, (9) Liberty Loan work, (10) home and
foreign relief. The specific tasks for these departments originated
either in requests or suggestions of the Government or in plans
made by the committee itself and approved by the Government.
Two months after the women's committee was created it was
requested by the Government to enrol the women of the country
in a league to support such plans for food conservation as the food
administration might present. In a few weeks 5,223,850 pledge
cards were signed. The signers were the nucleus of a women's
food army which, throughout the war, responded to every re-
quest for the conservation, substitution or production of foods
made by the food administration. Throughout the war, the
women's committee continued to serve the Government in simi-
lar drives. For some months the committee gave active assistance
to the national women's Liberty Loan Committee created by the
Secretary of the Treasury, and in 1918, at the request of the
agencies responsible for furnishing nurses to the army, including
the Red Cross, and the surgeon-general's office undertook a
campaign to enrol students for the U.S. student nurses' reserve.
While 5,000 student nurses had been asked for, 13,880 were
enrolled, and by the end of Dec. of that year 7,730 of these had
been placed for training.
The National League for Women's Service, an organization
formed after a study of the activities of Englishwomen, some weeks
before the United States went into the war, developed an exten-
sive motor corps, carried on a variety of services to soldiers and
sailors, and effectively supported all drives. The Y.W.C.A.
organized in June 1917 a war council, under which it developed a
variety of service clubs, both in the United States and overseas,
particularly France. The hostess houses of the association at the
home camps of both white and coloured soldiers looked after
women visitors, a service which proved of such value that the
War Department at the close of the war took the work under its
educational and recreational branch. Some 50 buildings were
turned over to the Government by the war works council of the
Y.W.C.A. Overseas the association conducted service clubs
which served Red Cross nurses and other women workers.
Both in France and in the United States this organization carried
on industrial service clubs near large manufacturing centres.
The employment of women in war industries began in the United
States in the winter of 1914-5 with the manufacture of supplies for
the Allies. The percentage of women to men in the 19 leading war
industries increased from 6-5 % in 1914 to 7-7 % in the latter part of
1916. In the next two years, to the close of 1918, the proportion
rose in these industries to 13-9 per cent. A conservative estimate
places the number of women employed in factories (food, textile and
war supplies) by the end of 1918 at 2,139,100 an increase of be-
tween five and six hundred thousand over the number employed in
WOOD
1065
these industries in 1914, the date of the last official census. These
women were trained to perform a variety of skilled and semi-skilled
tasks in the metal trades, in electrical and chemical occupations, in
the making of fine instruments, in wood, rubber and leather work, all
trades which had been considered beyond their capacity. The
substitution of women for men on street railways and subways, in
railway yards, banks, offices, shops and hotels and in agricultural
pursuits, increased steadily until the signing of the Armistice.
This invasion of industry and commerce by women was accom-
panied by an effort to preserve existing legal safeguards and to
ensure suitable living and working conditions. In 1918 Congress
established a women's bureau in the Department of Labor, the aim
of which was to develop the most effective use of women's service in
production for the war, and at the same time to prevent their
employment under injurious conditions. The bureau adopted a set
of standards governing women's employment. Although created
for the war emergency, the woman's bureau in June 1920 was made
a permanent section of the Department of Labor.
No official nation-wide registration of women for war service was
ever made; plans for such registration were completed by the
women's committee of the Council of National Defense and ap-
proved by the Government, and it was left to each state to decide
whether or not there was a need for registration in its territory.
But it is a fact that practically all the women of the United States
were doing volunteer war service at the time of the Armistice. They
served in the food army, in the farm army, in- the chapters of the
Red Cross, in the many drives for funds, and in many other less
conspicuous but essential activities backed by the Government.
(I. M. T.)
WOOD, SIR HENRY EVELYN (1838-1919), British field-
marshal (see 28.789). The field-marshal, who retained his
mental and bodily vigour almost to the end, died at his Essex
home Dec. 2 1919 and was buried at Aldershot. His record in
Zululand indicated unmistakable capacity for command in
presence of the enemy, and he was perhaps unfortunate in that
his presence during the hostilities with the Boers in 1881 and at
Alexandria in 1882 afforded him no further opportunities of a
similar kind. From the period when he was chief at Aldershot
dates the introduction of military training on practical lines into
the British army, and during a prolonged and distinguished
career as a soldier he proved himself a keen reformer and an
untiring worker, wrapped up in the profession which he adorned.
WOOD, SIR HENRY JOSEPH (1860- ), English conductor
and musician, was born in London March 3 1869. His musical
education was largely received at the Royal Academy of Music
and when only ten years old he became deputy organist at St.
Mary's, Aldermanbury. As a conductor, he first appeared in
1889, when he joined the Rousbey opera company, and for some
years he toured with various companies, including the Carl Rosa
(1891). In 1895 the Queen's Hall concerts were started under a
system of guarantees, with Henry Wood as conductor and
Robert Newman as manager. Under his conductorship the
standard of English orchestral playing was notably raised, and
his work for music in London was deservedly honoured by a
knighthood in 1911. He married, first, in 1898, a Russian lady,
Princess Olga Ourousoff (d. 1909); second, in 1911, Muriel,
daughter of Major Greatrex.
WOOD, MRS. JOHN [Matilda Charlotte] (1833-1915), Eng-
lish actress, was born at Liverpool Nov. 6 1833, the daughter
of Henry Vining, and first appeared on the stage at Brighton at
the age of eight. As a young girl she played leading parts in
comedy at the Theatre Royal, Manchester, and in 1852 appeared
there as Ophelia. After her marriage she acted for some years
in America, beginning in 1854 with The Loan of a Lover, followed
by many other parts. She opened a theatre of her own in New
York in 1863 but returned to England in 1866. From that time
until her retirement from the stage in 1905, she was in the first
rank of robust comedy actresses. Her management of the Court
theatre between 1883 and 1891 saw the production of many of
Pinero's best comedies. Later she appeared in elderly r61es in
most of the Drury Lane melodramas, her last appearance
being in Hall Caine's The Prodigal Son in 1905. She died at
Birchington-on-Sea Jan. n 1915.
WOOD, LEONARD (1860- ), American soldier, was born
at Winchester, N.H., Oct. 9 1860. He graduated from the
Harvard Medical School in 1884, was appointed assistant
surgeon with the rank of first-lieu tenant in the U.S. army in
1886, and at once joined Capt. Lawton's expedition against the
Apaches in the southwest, resulting in the capture of Geronimo.
For distinguished services he was awarded the Congressional
Medal of Honor. In 1891 he was promoted captain and full
surgeon, and later, while stationed in Washington, D.C., was
President McKinley's personal physician. Here he became the
close friend of Theodore Roosevelt, then Assistant-Secretary of
the Navy. On the outbreak of the Spanish American War in
1898 Wood was commissioned colonel of volunteers, and to^
gether with Roosevelt, as lieutenant-colonel, raised the famous
regiment of " Rough Riders," composed of western ranchmen
and cowboys as well as members of prominent eastern families
eager to serve under these two strenuous leaders. For conduct
at Las Guasimas and San Juan Hill, Wood was promoted
brigadier-general July 1898 and in Dec. major-general of vol-
unteers. He was military governor of Cuba from 1899 to 1902
when the Cuban Republic was established. Under his guidance
great improvements were made in schools and sanitation.
Meanwhile he had been honourably discharged from voluntary
service and appointed brigadier-general in the regular army
Feb. 1901. In March 1903 he was sent to the Philippines and in
Aug. promoted major-general. For three years he was governor
of the Moro Province and during 1906-8 was commander of the
Philippines Division. In 1908 he returned to America as com-
mander of the Eastern Department for a year. In 1910 he was
special American ambassador to the centenary celebration of
Argentine independence. On his return he was appointed
chief of staff, serving until 1914, when he was again given com-
mand of the Eastern Department. General Wood often had
disapproved the policies of the War Department, and as early
as 1908 had urged preparedness. To him was largely due the
establishment of a summer camp at Plattsburg for training
civilian officers, which, was taken as a model for other camps of
the kind after America's entrance into the World War. In 1915,
when he gave unofficial indorsement to the proposed formation
of the American Legion whose purpose was to establish a body
of some 300,000 men ready for immediate service, he was re-
buked by the Secretary of War. Just before America's entrance
into the World War in 1917 it was announced that the Eastern
Division, then under Gen. Wood's command, had been divided
into three divisions, and Gen. Wood was assigned to the South-
eastern Division, with the alternative of choosing either Hawaii
or the Philippines. As a soldier desiring active service he natur-
ally chose the American post; but the apparent motive of the
War Department to humiliate him aroused criticism. He was
later transferred to Camp Funstpn, where he trained the 8gth
Div., N.A. In Jan. 1918, while in France, presumably prepar-
atory to bringing his troops there, he was painfully wounded by
the explosion of a French mortar. After his return to America
he was on the point of embarking with the 8gth Div., when he
,was suddenly assigned to the Western Department, no reason
being given. It was generally understood that his name was
not on the list of officers submitted by Gen. Pershing as accept-
able for duty overseas. By change of orders he was returned to
Camp Funston, where he trained the loth Div. of the regular
army and other troops. In 1919 he was put in command of the
Central Department, with headquarters at Chicago. In 1920
he was a prominent candidate for the presidential nomination
at the Republican National Convention. He led on the first
four ballots and never fell below second place. When the sup-
porters of Governor Lowden, his chief competitor, were released
after the eighth ballot, they swung to Senator Harding, a " dark
horse," who was nominated on the tenth ballot, with 692^ votes
to 156 for Gen. Wood. In 1921 Gen. Wood was sent on a
special Federal mission to the Philippine Is. to report on con-
ditions there. During his absence he was appointed head of the
university of Pennsylvania. In Oct. 1921 he retired from active
service in the army and was appointed governor-general of the
Philippines. He was granted a year's leave of absence from the
university of Pennsylvania, but it was thought that he might be
able to assume his academic duties in Oct. 1922. He was the author
of The Military Obligation of Citizenship (1915, lectures at Prince-
jo66
WOODGATE WOOL
ton and elsewhere) ; Our Military History, Its Facts and Fallacies
(1916); and Universal Military Training (1917).
See I. F. Marcosson, Leonard Wood, Prophet of Preparedness
( I 9 I 7): Joseph H. Sears, The Career of Leonard Wood (1919); and
Leonard Wood on National Issues (1920), compiled by Evan J. David.
WOODGATE, WALTER BRADFORD (1841-1920), British
oarsman and barrister, was born at Belbroughton, Wore., Sept.
20 1841. He was the eldest son of Canon Henry Arthur Woodgate,
who was a fellow of St. John's College, Oxford, and Hampton
lecturer in 1838. He was educated at Radley College, and
Brasenose College, Oxford, and during his undergraduate course
he founded Vincents' Club. In 1872 he was called to the bar; but
it is as a first-class oarsman and journalistic critic of rowing that
he is remembered. He rowed for his own college, and in 1862 and
1863 in the winning eight for Oxford. In 1864 he won the Dia-
mond sculls after a dead heat two years previously (see 23.784),
and in 1865 he was in the winning eight for the Grand Challenge
Cup at Henley. He contributed the volume on Boating to
the Badminton Library, and also wrote Oars and Sculls, and
how to use them (1889) and the Reminiscences of an Old Sports-
man (1909). He was also the author of A Modern' Layman's
Faith (1893) and of one or two novels. He died at Southampton
Nov. i 1920.
WOODS, HENRY GEORGE (1842-1915), English divine, was
born at Woodend, Northants., June 16 1842. He was educated
at Lancing and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he had
a distinguished career. In 1865 he became a fellow of Trinity,
and in 1866 was ordained. He was a tutor at Trinity from 1866 to
1880, and bursar from 1867 to 1887, in which year he was elected
president of Trinity. He resigned the presidency of Trinity in
1897, and from 1900 to 1004 was rector of Little Gaddesden,
Herts, and chaplain and librarian to Lord Brownlow at Ashridge
Park. In 1905 he succeeded Ainger as Master of the Temple.
He died at the Master's House, Temple, July 19 1915.
His wife, MARGARET LOUISA WOODS (b. Nov. 20 1856), poet
and novelist, was married to him in 1879. Her first novel, A
Village Tragedy, appeared in 1887, and her first volume of verse,
Lyrics and Ballads, in 1889. Later novels included Esther Van-
homrigh (1891); The Vagabonds (1894); Sons of the Sword (1901),
arid The Invader (1907). In The Princess of Hanover (1902)
she essayed historical drama. In 1913 her Collected Poems were
published.
WOODWARD, HENRY (1832-1921), English geologist (see
28.804), died at Bushey, Herts, Sept. 6 1921.
WOODWARD, HORACE BOLINGBROKE (1848-1914), English
geologist (see 28.804), died Feb. 5 1914.
WOOL (see 28.805). The functions of " supply " and "de-
mand," of " free-trade " and " controlled trade " in the wool
industry, during the decade 1910-20, form a very interesting
study for the economist. The situations before, during, and
after the war are best shown separately:
I. BEFORE THE WAR (1911 to 1914)
' (a) Wool Production. The best available statement of the
world's sheep and wool production is given in Table i ; it includes
figures of the pre-war and post-war periods.
TABLE i. The World's Sheep and Wool. 1
From these statistics the following interesting deductions are
to be drawn. It is somewhat surprising to find Europe heading
the list of wool-growing continents. This is largely due to the
flocks of European Russia: 320,000,000 Ib. of wool (pre-war)
are credited under this head, and this probably explains the
source of German wool clothing during the latter days of the
war. What had become of this huge quantity latterly was not
on record in 1921. Incidentally it would certainly appear that
the continent of Europe as a wool-growing continent had not
claimed the attention merited. In most respects Europe com-
pared more than favourably with other continents, and it was
only owing to the diversity of interests, languages, etc., that this
was not more in evidence. If the nations of Europe would all
pull together, that continent would probably have more to
give to the world than to receive.
Europe and North America, being by far the greatest manu-
facturing centres in the world, have practically consumed the
whole of the very large surplus stocks from the other wool-
growing countries, apparently in the proportions of 80% for
Europe and 20% for North America. The marked difference in
the weights of the'fleeces produced as indirectly shown by this
table is obviously worthy of careful consideration.
(b) Wool Distribution. The detailed figures respecting
local supplies, importations and reexportations are very con-
fusing. The figures in Table 2 may be taken with exceptions to
be presently noted as an indication of the wool each impor-
tant manufacturing country received. One or two questions
TABLE 2. Wool-manufacturing Countries.
Country
Imported for
Manufac-
turing
Local
Supplies
Total
I. France (1909)
2. United King-
dom (1911)
3. United States
4. Germany
5. Russia .
6. Belgium.
623,000,000
490,307,000
251,000,000
517,000,000
94,000,000
355,000,000
75,000,000
90,000,000
304,000,000
25,600,000
320,000,000'
i ,000,000
698,000,000
580,307,000
555.ooo,ooo
542,600,000
414,000,000'
356,000,000
Austria, Hungary, Italy and the Netherlands follow in the
order named.
1 These figures require careful consideration. Probably a large
proportion of this wool is usually manufactured in other countriel
notably Germany and Britain.
here arise. The United Kingdom is credited with manufactur-
ing 90,000,000 Ib. approximately of a 120,000,000 Ib. clip. It
must not be forgotten, however, that a very considerable amount
of the world's wool supply passes through the London or Liver-
pool wool sales, as is shown by Table 3:
TABLE 3. United Kingdom Imports and Exports (1911).
Imports
Exports
Retained
Colonial
Foreign
Totals
659,511,000
135,004,000
794,515,000
304,208,000
490,307,000
The colonial (and foreign) wool not accounted for by Table 3
Js no doubt sold direct to the manufacturing countries. This
is indicated by the sales of South African wools for the year
1913 (Table 4).
.Sheep
Wool in Ib.
l ABLE 4. vistnoution 0} South. African Wools.
Pre-war
Post-war
Pre-war
Post-war
1913
1919
Europe
Australasia.
. S. America .
N. America
Asia .
Africa
Central
America
and W.
Indies
; Total
177,981,207
96,189,727
118,638,046
54,053,409
92,3i8, 4 r9
63,432,755
710,380
171,026,261
107,467,005
72,342,762
49-549,458
96,735,546
69,114,685
803,400,043
645,132,880
482,640,707
303,473,000
273,146,000
219,919,000
750,000
751,104,667
852,122,484
487,180,000
327,829,531
326,505,000
219,919,000
750,000
United Kingdom
Germany . . .
Belgium
France .
Italy
United States
Japan
96,028,737
61,123,713
20,695,225
4,898,212
924,852
221,522
96,462,203
12,662,059
9,588,452
43,002
71,502,522 .
?Q,8oO.6d8
An analysis of S. American exports would, no doubt, show by
far the larger porportion of S. American wools passing directly
to Belgium, France, Germany and the United States, a large
quantity, of course, passing through the Antwerp sale-rooms.
(c) Tendencies in Production and Distribution. In wool
production from 1910 to 1914 there is little to note. S. Africa
603,323,943
566,235,717
2,728,461,630
2,965,410,682
1 Chiefly from the Wool Review of the National Association of
Wool Manufacturers, United States.
WOOL
1067
made a valiant attempt to improve both the quality and quan-
tity of her wool, and succeeded in both objects to a certain
extent. In Australia certain developments of sheep-growing
districts are to be noted, but these, with the increase in the
weights of the individual fleeces, probably only just served to
balance losses through drought and in other directions. Falk-
land Island wool (fine crossbred) made a name for itself as a
good hosiery wool, but unfortunately the increase up to 1914
was not great. S. America generally proved disappointing, in
view of the demand for its wools, not only from the European con-
tinent but also from Great Britain, following the decline in the
prejudice against them.
Undoubtedly the greatest wool problem prior to the war was
the provision of a sufficient quantity of fine merino wool. This
TABLE 5. New Zealand Wool.
Total Sheep
Merinos
1910
1917
1920
23,480,707
25,270,386
23,914,506
1,868,805
1,063,491
803,589
is illustrated in Table 5. S. Africa partly met this deficiency,
but Australia pinned her faith on mutton rather than on wool,
so that the tendency to eliminate the pure-bred merino is still
in evidence.
So far as the distribution of the wool manufacturing industry
was concerned there was an undoubted tendency in Britain to
relinquish wool manufacture owing to severe competition. The
continental European competition took the form of efficiency
in manipulation and excellence in the goods produced. How
Yorkshire was going to face the importation of certain conti-
nental goods was a problem and one that had still to be faced
after the war. The competition with the United States was
apparently controlled by the tariff charges, but it is more than
probable that the excellence of American manufactured goods
was already beginning to tell against European importations;
although America still had to start her export trade. York-
shire, however, appeared to be falling between two stools she
was not producing goods of the excellence of the continental
styles and thereby forcing a way into neutral markets; nor was
she organized on such a scale that she could face the United
States' markets indeed the American manufacturers were
surpassing her in scale of organization. It would not be over-
stating the case to say that the year 1914 opened with many
misgivings so far as the British wool manufacturing industry was
concerned. The war came, and temporarily dominated every-
thing. But the conditions of 1914 were likely to reappear
afterwards, and would have to be faced sooner or later.
II. THE WAR PERIOD (1914 to 1918)
The Slump in Trade. Fear of the unknown naturally created
the trade slump observable during the early months of the
World War. Britain, a country whose very life depended upon
the importation of the raw material and exportation of the semi-
manufactured or fully manufactured article, naturally had most
to fear. This fear was further aggravated by the fact that
British manufacturers had huge financial interests involved with
Germany; and, conversely, Germany had financial interests with
Britain. With trade universally in a state of suspended anima-
tion, and the sequence of delivery of goods and payment of
accounts seriously interfered with, many British firms and
especially those in the wool, top and yarn trade were at once
in serious financial difficulties. The Government, however,
tided over the difficulty by the " moratorium," which, by the
" time easement " given, enabled the greater proportion of
firms eventually to meet their liabilities.
A period of suspense followed, during which the exact trend
of many matters was being worked out. By the middle of 1915,
however, the idea that, when the British and French armies
got going, they would sweep the Germans back into the Father-
land, had practically gone. In the meantime Germany had
been swept from the seas. It was now evident that Germany,
from the wool point of view, would have to be self-contained,.
neither importing raw wool * nor exporting manufactured goods;
that France was seriously incapacitated_ as .a manufacturing
country owing to the invasion of much of her manufacturing
territory; that Russia would seriously have to draw upon
British stocks of manufactured goods; in fact, that Britain
must be the mainstay of the Allies and of the world, with the
exception of the United States and Japan so far as wool
manufactured goods were concerned. The extent to which
Germany deliberately crippled France both during the war
period and subsequently will be realized from the following
quotation from the Yorkshire Observer in March 1921:
" The Fourraies District remained practically the whole time
away from actual fighting range and did not suffer from gunfire,
but, this notwithstanding, the destruction by hammer, pick, dyna-
mite and fire was complete, the Fourmies woollen plants having
always proved most serious competitors of those of Germany.
The enemy reached the district on Aug. 26 1914, and left it on
Nov. 9 1918. When they arrived there were 75 textile works in
full activity ; they destroyed all except five worsted spinning plants,
one woollen spinning plant and one combing plant. The steam
engines were broken or otherwise damaged ; the boilers removed and
rendered unserviceable, the safes were broken into and all records
of manufacture, samples, reference data, representing 30 years of
activity, removed to Germany. . . . Immediately the Germans
occupied the northern departments of France, not a single wool-
combing machine was left throughout the country ; there remained
in activity throughout the land only 160,000 worsted spindles out
of 2,400,000; only half the total of 700,000 woollen spindles; only
about 11,000 weaving looms out of 56,000."
By 1916, two other factors had come into play. The drain'
on the man-power of Great Britain was becoming serious. But
it was now fully revealed that in the wool industry there was a
vast surplus of labour ready to maintain output, at least at a
very high rate. By April, scarcity of shipping was threatened.
Thus early in 1916, if the serious limitation of the supply of
raw materials was not actually felt, it was in sight.
The Difficulties Leading to Wool Control. The British War
Office, having in the very early days of the war experienced the
difficulty of clothing in khaki the large army in course of forma-
tion, organized itself to overcome this difficulty, and by the in-
evitable restrictions indirectly placed on the manufacture of
civilian clothing had so far succeeded fairly well in its direct
object. But by the early days of 1916 the War Office was seri-
ously alarmed at the future prospects of supplies of raw mate-
rials and sought outside advice. As illustrating the method of
working the following may be taken as typical. On Feb. i
1916 a War Office official (who, incidentally, knew nothing of
wool) visited the university of Leeds and asked for certain
estimates respecting British combs and spindles, to be' supplied
to him four days later when the Army Council would meet to
discuss supplies. In Table 6 the figures then supplied are given^
and alongside the estimates are given also the actual figures,
kindly supplied some years later by the same official. The
estimate for 1916 was 337,500,000 lb., as against an actual
production of 309,443,185 lb., based on the first half of 1917.
The following figures were also supplied on the same date:
Wool available for use in the United Kingdom . 800,000,000 lb.
Less clothing wools used in the woollen trade . . 200,000,000 lb.
Available for combing .
Less shrinkage and tearage in scouring and comb-
. 600,000,000 lb.
ing (40%)
. 240,000,000 lb.
Wool available for " tops " 360,000,000 lb.
The estimated shrinkage and tearage of 40 % would have been,
much too low as average Australian merino .gives a shrinkage
of about 50% and a tearage of from 5 to i to 8 to i but for
the endeavour made to save shipping space by shipping in the
scoured state only, and by reason of the large quantities of
washed home-grown wools and low-yielding colonial crossbreds
included. The effect of this is clearly shown (Table 7) in Mr.
Norman Rae's figures published in the Yorkshire Observer of
Friday, Aug. 10 1917. From these figures it is evident -
(a) that the Government by 1917 had fears of being unable to
1 With the exception noted with reference to Russian wools.
io68
WOOL
TABLE 6. Estimates (Feb. 1916) and Figures.
(Output of combs per annum.)
Combs
1,500 combs long wool and crossbred
each combing 600 Ib. per 10 hours
1,500 combs Botany each combing 300
Ib. per 10 hours
Actual 1914
Estd. 1916
Actual 1915
Estimated 1916
Actual (1917)'
Estimated 1916
Actual (1917)'
2,823
3,000
2,956
225,000,000
206,655,428
112,500,000
92,869,516
(Output of worsted spinning spindles per annum.)
Spindles
2 Ib. per week per spindle estimated
Actual 1904
Estd. 1916
Actual 1916
1916 | Actual (1916) l
3,000,000
3,000,000
3.24L7H
300,000,000 Ib. 300,241,712 Ib.
(The 1915 actual was 253,879,664 Ib.)
1 Large quantities of scoured colonial wools were being imported,
out being combed, thus eliminating " less tearage."
Certain worsted wools were also being drawn and spun with-
TABLE 7. Stock Dec. 31.
Schwartze % Type
o/
/o
Greasy Ib.
Clean Ib.
72 N.Z. greasy crossbred.
45 Aust. greasy merino .
85 scoured crossbred
mtg. gsy. cross-
bred
mtg. gsy.
merino .
73 low wools .
60 mohair, etc.
Private British
Government British .
Total ....
70
45
85
72
43
75
80
50,656,000
49,438,000
33,704,000
17,901,000
4,638,000
40,223,000
17,807,000
35-459,000
21,258,000
28,648,000
12,888,000
1,994,000
30,167,000
14,245,000
68-69%
78
78
237,213,000
21,701,000
51,053,000
162,935,000
16,926,000
39,821,000
70-87%
309,967,000
219,682,000
Yield as above .
Leaving out skins, yield at 50 % (instead
of 70-87%)
Increase (wool under-estimated)
Skins, 7,238,000 Ib., not included.
. 219,682,000 Ib. (clean)
154,983,000 Ib. (clean)
64,698,500 Ib. (clean)
keep the Allies' wool industries supplied with wool, and much
under-estimated the yields although they had the Leeds
University suggestion of 40% for yield and tearage before them;
(&) that the industry was feeling the shortage of wool and
was regarding the future with misgivings; (c) that leading
wool men thought it actually expedient to question the Govern-
ment figures, and, if possible, to obtain at once a greater wool
distribution; (d) that as subsequent figures seem to show, the
university figures of 40% average loss between raw wool and
finished top and the other figures supplied were most nearly
correct, and would have served well as a basis to work upon.
All these figures, however, are chiefly useful as illustrating the
difficulties involved not only in estimating the workable supplies
of wool during the war period but in estimating the yields and
in averaging up the quantities of dean wool which the actual
deliveries might be expected to give.
How serious was the problem of supplying wool to the home
trade, and to such of the Allies as could manufacture it, is
shown in Tables 8 and 9. To the quantities shown in these tables
should be added something over 300,000,000 Ib. of remanufac-
tured materials, probably derived as follows (in 1914 figures):
Of the wool manufactured in Great Britain, 500,000,000 Ib.,
about | (166,000,000 Ib.) is retained at home, and about half
this (or 84,000,000 Ib.) is torn up each year; rags imported
amount to 100,000,000 Ib.; so that the total remanufactured
materials (excluding noil) amount to 184,000,000 Ib. But this
is probably an under-statement, as the figures collected by the
Board of Trade during the war period show an average approx-
imating to 200,000,000 Ib. Thus it would appear that the
woollen industry of Great Britain roughly consumes per annum:
200,000,000 Ib. greasy wool l , 200,000,000 Ib. remanufactured
materials, and 60,000,000 Ib. of noil, or a total of 460,000,000 Ib.
These figures reveal (i) the continuous reduction in the
quantity of British wool grown and, excepting during the war
period, manufactured in Britain; (2) an increase in supplies
1 This figure is questionable as large quantities of so-called
clothing wools may be employed for combing purposes.
of colonial and foreign wools, if we take into account the fact
that there is possibly still some of the 1919 period wool to be
accounted for; (3) the increase in the quantity of colonial and
foreign wool manufactured in Britain; (4) the large increase in
the foreign and colonial importation in 1915; (5) the effects of
the German submarine campaign on the 1918 importation, and
the making up of lost ground in 1919; (6) the fact that the aver-
age importation of colonial and foreign wool for the five years
ending 1919 is much below the five years ending 1914. Had
wool gone elsewhere, or had it not been grown? It may be noted
(7) that Turkey mohair (sent to Britain by parcel post during the
first year of the war) would disappear until 1919, the large in-
crease shown on 1919 being no doubt partly Turkey mohair and
partly Cape mohair; and (8) that alpaca, being free, was largely
employed to take the place of merino wool during 1917 and 1918,
the clipping of immature fibre led to the marked increase in
1918 and the consequent reduction in 1919.
TABLE 8. Pre-war Supplies of Raw Materials.
(In millions of Ib.)
Average for five years
finishing
1899
1904
1909
1914
1919
British wool : Grown
Manufac. Britain
Colonial and foreign wool
Imported .
Manufac. Britain
Skin wool
Pulled wool .
Mohair, Alpaca, etc.
137
114
715
376
34
132
28
136
104
607
342
30
145
37
133
94
707
388
35
193
4i
131
95
782
463
35
206
42
1 20
105
724'
647
30
163
21
* This figure is explained in Table 9.
TABLE 9. War Period and Post-war Period Supplies of Raw Materials.
(In millions of Ib.)
For years
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
Imported
Foreign wool
Colonial wool .
Totals ....
Imported
Mohair ....
Alpaca ....
Camels' hair
87
838
54
564
44
578
17
396
926*
6i8
623'
3-5
5-5
2-7
413'
5-6
7-0
2-3
1 ,042'
29-4
3-8
4-8
' Average for five years = 724 (see Table 8).
These facts and figures, although somewhat prematurely
placed here, may be usefully borne in mind in studying all
phases of the subject.
In April 1916 the Army Contracts Department of the War
Office began to commandeer hosiery yarns on the financial
basis of a fixed margin to cover the processes of manufacture.
A little later restrictions were imposed upon the export of raw
wool possibly owing to rumours of it reaching enemy countries
and certainly because wool supplies for home purposes were
becoming very restricted. By June 1916 the War Office knew
that further control was almost certainly inevitable, and circu-
lated compulsory requests for particulars of stocks of wool, tops
and yarn, which requests, of course, were very disquieting to the
trade. Later in the same month, so serious was the position
judged to be that the War Office prohibited the opening of the
British wool fair of Kettering, and, eventually, after some debate,
WOOL
1069
purchased the whole of the British clip at 33% above July 1914
prices. The British clips of 1917 and 1918 were also bought.
Anxiety with reference to the possibility of supplying the army
with the wool goods it really needed continually increased. In
April 1917 the open market for wool was closed and the sales by
auction abolished. In May, in anticipation of the lack of wool
to keep the factories going and of labour disturbances, an army
council order was issued which resulted in the reduction of work-
ing hours in the factories from 55^ per week to 45 per week,
unless permission was obtained from the director of army con-
tracts to work full time. This order was not withdrawn until
May 18 1918, following the enormous demand for flannel goods.
Following the revolt, already referred to, of Yorkshire manu-
facturers in Aug. 1917, due to War Office restrictions of supplies
and of estimates of future supplies, and following the failure of
the trade itself to supply reliable data, came the formation of a
" Board of Control."
Wool Control. The Board of Control was organized with Sir
Arthur Goldfinch as director of raw material supplies, Col.
F. V. Willey as controller of wool supplies, and Sir Charles
Sykes as director of wool textile production. The department
was housed in the Great Northern Hotel, Bradford, and was
given complete control of both supplies of raw material and
output of finished clothing. The activities of the department
followed briefly the following lines: (i) A reasonably exact
basis of " yields " was ascertained and all wools dealt with on the
" clean wool " basis. (2) Reliable statistics were obtained and
made the basis of the distribution of supplies of raw materials.
(3) A method of " rationing " the margin of wool supplies
(about 20% of the available supplies) available for the civilian
trade was worked out. (4) Difficulties of a minor nature, such
as the supply of oils for oiling wool, soaps for scouring, etc.,
were faced and usually satisfactorily surmounted. (5) A stand-
ard clothing scheme was introduced, the intention of which was,
no doubt, good, and its failure only to be attributed to the fail-
ure to employ the technical skill actually available in the in-
dustry in the designing and displaying of the goods manufac-
tured. Exhibitions were held up and down the country and
attracted much attention, but little demand for the fabrics was
exhibited. Last, but perhaps not least, the department had to
face the problem of relinquishing control on the termination of
the war. Those who know the anxiety caused, years before
the war was over, by the clearly foreseen difficulties of disband-
ing an enormous army, will know something of the anxieties of
the Wool Control Board to close down with credit to itself and
no less to either the wool grower or the wool manufacturer.
Provision for After the War. The Armistice brought with
it the determination of those whose trade had been taken from
them by the Wool Control Board to oust the Board and regain
their own back again. The Board's function, on realizing the
inevitable, was to dissolve (i) with credit to itself, and (2) with
due regard to the interests of the wool growers and wool mer-
chants, of the wool manufacturers, and of the consuming public.
With the huge demand for goods following the Armistice prices
soared up and up, and it was only human that the Board should
tend to retain command to its own financial advantage, and
also to attempt to prevent undue inflation of values to the
detriment of the consuming public. So far as British wools were
concerned the removal of control was so simple that no pre-
liminary action was considered necessary, and the restrictions
were actually removed in time for the wool fairs in 1919.
To meet the difficulty with reference to Australian wools the
Imperial Government had decided to purchase the Australian
dip for one year after the war. To further facilitate matters, a
Wool Council, which included imperial representatives, was
formed by the War Office.
With reference to the interests of the manufacturers and
consumers the Government again asked for advice from the
university of Leeds through one of its representatives. In a
personal interview with the official in question the probable
trend of trade after the war was outlined and the suggestion
given that, in view of the almost certain shortage of immediately
available supplies and the huge demand for fine merino wools,
certain manufacturing restrictions such as spinning only to
fine counts of yarn should be imposed. Unfortunately this
suggestion was not sufficiently acted upon, with the result that
the army's revolt from rough khaki to fine blue serge sent merino
wools soaring up to unthought of heights, all other qualities
following suit. The intention of the Wool Council was un-
doubtedly good, but again the direction of the matter was pri-
marily in the hands of those who knew little or nothing about
the wool industry, who could not even judge who were giving
them sound advice and who were giving them questionable
advice. It may be conceded that to control speculation under
the conditions prevailing from 1918 to 1921 was apparently
impossible. Apparently the only thing to be done was to unload
stocks as rapidly as possible although one authority did sug-
gest that the way to reduce prices was to keep large stocks of
wool and not to sell.
During this period there was much unrest in the labour
world and a great deal of talk about " profiteering." As an
indirect result of this the Whitley Act was passed by Parliament,
and note should here be made of the endeavours made by the
British woollen and worsted industries to take advantage of
this Act and form " Industrial Councils " composed of employers
and employees, also of the formation of the " National Wool
Textile Industrial Council," the final draft-constitution of
which prepared by Mr. Ernest Marsh (chairman) and Mr.
G. H. Wood (secretary) as adopted on Dec. 10 1918, was as
follows (Yorkshire Observer, Nov. 27 1918):
" The title selected is the National Wool (and Allied) Textile
Industrial Council, and its objects are defined as follows:
To promote the development of the industry and to secure that
wages, methods of production, and conditions of employment shall
be systematically reviewed and decisions agreed upon which shall
have as their object the improvement of the relations between em-
ployers and employees.
In furtherance of these objects the Council shall:
(a) Consider wages, hours, and working conditions in the indus-
try as a whole, and the fixing of standard rates of wages for similar
occupations in the industry. It shall also consider the employment
of scientific and agreed methods of fixing wages, and of adjusting
wages to new conditions, and the securing to the employees of a
share in any increased prosperity of the industry;
(i) Consider the best means of securing the highest efficiency
of the industry, including any improvement in machinery, inven-
tion, or method by which the prosperity of the industry is to be
increased; secure that such invention or improvement in method
shall give to each party a fair distribution of the benefits derived
from the increased efficiency; utilize to the fullest extent the prac-
tical knowledge and experience of the workpeople, and secure that
such knowledge may receive consideration ;
(c) Consider the existing machinery for the settlement of differ-
ences between different parts and sections in the industry, and the
establishment of regular methods of negotiation on anticipated
issues between employers and employees, and upon differences
which may be reported with a view to the prevention of differ-
ences and their equitable adjustment;
(d) Consider the supervision of the entry into and training of
employees for the industry, and cooperation with the educational
authorities in arranging educational facilities for the industry in
all its branches;
(e) Make comparative studies of the workings and methods
of the industry in this and other countries, and when desirable pub-
lish reports;
(/) Secure to the workman a greater share in and responsibil-
ity for the determination and observance of the conditions under
which he works, in so far as it relates to his material comfort and
well-being; make efforts for the decasualisation and permanent
security of employment, having regard to the conditions surround-
ing changes of occupation between one employer and another;
consider means toward the improvement of conditions with a view
to removing the danger to health in the industry, and toward pro-
viding special treatment where necessary for employees in the
industry;
(g) Make reports to Government departments and local author-
ities of the needs and opinions of the industry; consider any ques-
tions bearing on such matters which may be referred to the Indus-
trial Council by the Government or by a Government depart-
ment; consider jointly all proposed legislation affecting the indus-
try and take joint action where "such legislation is likely to inter-
fere with its prosperity;
(h) Consider the best means of insuring the observance of the
decisions of the Council and of agreements made between organiza-
tions of employers and employees;
1070
WOOL
(*') Consider means whereby the employers and employees
shall be brought within their respective associations."
This Council steadily extended its activities, and may ulti-
mately be the deciding factor in helping Great Britain to main-
tain and possibly to extend her manufacturing position.
Another [indirect result of the war was the development of
industrial and scientific research. The university of Leeds (so
far as the wool industry was concerned) here took the lead, and,
in conjunction with the West Riding County Council and with
the help of many prominent manufacturers in the various manu-
facturing districts, raised approximately 5,000 per annum for a
period of five years. With the development of the Government
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, however,
came the question of overlapping, and the university, while
naturally retaining its own research status, not only gave way
to the new department but strenuously helped in the develop-
ment of " The Research Association for the Woollen and Worsted
Industries " now housed in Leeds. This Research Department is
designed to cover the requirements of Great Britain and Ireland.
III. AFTER THE WAR (1918 to 1921)
Withdrawal of Control from British Wools. Under political
pressure the Government freed the wool fairs of 1919 from State
control. But a curious tendency now made itself felt. Owing
to the limitation of supplies of colonial crossbreds and other
1915 1916 1917
1918
1919
1920
1921 PRICE
1 PER LB
I IN PENCE
CHART t
Values of British Wools and Tops (1911 to 1921)-
crossbred wools, woollen manufacturers had been constrained
to use British Down wools and Down crosses. These were dis-
covered to possess just the characteristics sought for in certain
woollen goods. They were also the wools sought for by the
hosiery manufacturer; and as hosiery now took a wonderful
development the Down wools went soaring away in price, at
last almost rivalling colonial merinos. When the slump came,
Down wools stood out against it even longer than merinos, and
it seemed probable that when trade should revive Down wools
would again come into their own. In view of the great future
before Down wools it was regrettable that more British farmers
did not follow the suggestion to grow Down crosses, as stren-
uously advocated by qualified representatives of the universi-
ties of Edinburgh and Leeds.
The changes in values of British wools and tops are shown for
the decade in Chart i.
Of course the high values shown in this chart are fictitious in
more senses than one, but it would seem that if the 1921
prices of these wools had been brought to the 1914 basis they
must be so cheap that demand for goods manufactured from
them would have been immediate. Probably the large stocks
of manufactured goods still held in 1921 by the middleman
kept the prices of these goods at an artificial height and thus
lamentably interfered with trade.
Withdrawal of Control from Colonial Wools. The Wool
Council of the War Office on the cessation of hostilities found
itself in great difficulties with reference to colonial wools. Just
as on the outbreak of war no one knew what would happen, so
in this case it was impossible to foresee whether the enhanced
values of the war period would be maintained or prices rapidly
fall. If prices had rapidly fallen it is possible that the wool
grower would have held the Wool Council to its bargain, and
1916 1917 1918 1919 1920
1921 PRICE
PER LB.
IN PENCE
168
CHART 2
Values of Colonial Wools and Tops.
no one could well have found fault with their attitude. But pric
rapidly rose, and so it came about that the colonial wool growe
felt aggrieved that he was not going to profit by the enhance
wool values like the home wool grower. Thus it came abou
that the Imperial War Council agreed to share the very sub
stantial prospective profits with the colonial wool grower. Un
fortunately much of the 1919 wool had not been brought und
the hammer before the slump started (May 1920), but it
stated that, after the British Treasury had been reimbursed :
the expenditure it had incurred, there was at the end of 1920
clear profit of 14,000,000, half of which belonged to the growe
bringing their total receipts up to 180,896,059. In additio
to this there remained unsold (Dec. 1920) 1,800,000 bales, hal.
of which belonged to the growers.
WOOL
1071
The change in the values of colonial wools and tops during the
decade are shown in Chart 2.
Up to May 1920 the endeavour of the Wool Council was
rather to maintain than to inflate values, and much fault was
found with the Council for not making greater progress with
the disposal of the wool to hand the manufacturers were
crying out for it. To meet this demand the Antwerp sales were
reopened on Oct. 25 1919 and extensive sales in the United
States of America were also promoted, one of the first being
held in Philadelphia in Sept. 1919. Apparently the fall in the
prices of wool was almost coincident with the release of ships
for transport. Unfortunately few realized the large stocks of
wool on hand or rather they estimated their consumption at
the 1919 rate and consequently minimized their stocks. Thus
it came about that, following a period when every conceivable
bale of wool was called for and (from the sellers' point of view)
ought to have been placed on the market, came a period when
with bated breath one heard the word " unloading," and all
too soon new wool and old wool were on the market together.
1919
1920
1921
20
70 MERINO
TOP
568 CROSS BRED
10 TOP
40 PREPARED
TOP
CHART 3
Wool Values Adjusted to 1914 Values.
Adjustment of Sale of Old and New Wool In the early days
: of 1920 those starting new works in the colonies, India and else-
where, were asking can we obtain sufficient wool to run our
factories? And there was every inducement to wool growers -
particularly growers of the finer sorts to extend operations.
Toward the end of 1920 almost all factory building the world over
was suspended or carried on very leisurely; and with the fall in
wool values many sheep breeders were already looking on wool
as an almost valueless by-product. .Probably both extremes
were wrong. Table 10 gives a fair idea of the world's wool
stocks about the end of 1920 or early in 1921.
TABLE 10. World's Wool Stocks (Approximate) 1
Wool in England (held by the B.A.W.R.A.) . . 1,600,000 bales
" Australia " " " . . 800,000 bales
Cape wool (held by B.A.W.R.A.) .... 100,000 bales
U.S.A. surplus stock (Oct. i 1920) 2 .... 1,000,000 bales
S. American wool 5,ooo bales
Total 3,505,000 bales
1 No doubt small stocks were held elsewhere.
2 Two years' stocks said to be accumulated.
Prior to the war the world's yield of wool was about 2,728,-
461,630 lb., and it might be taken that about this amount was
yearly absorbed. It would thus appear that the surplus wool
on hand was equivalent to about 14 or 15 months' normal world's
consumption. 1 Now if there were serious depletion of stocks of
manufactured goods, and if there were likely to be a greater
demand from the better paid workers of the world, and from
countries likely to demand wool goods which previously had not
consumed such goods in great quantities (India for example),
then the stock of wool would appear hardly sufficient to meet the
probable demand. Possibly these brighter conditions might have
been realized, but for over speculation in the wool industry
and the general slump in prices. Actually, however, what did
happen was that the countries which could purchase were
inundated with the goods which, under normal conditions,
would have been spread over a broader field and the slump fol-
lowed storage of goods and lack of sales. The reaction probably
went much too far for the home market in Britain was good
in the middle of 1921. But the Wool Council had not only to
face this surplus of wool but the new wool (1920 clip and in
prospect the 1921 dip) coming on to the market at the reopened
.sales in Australia. The adjustment of this prospective difficulty
was exemplified as shown in table 1 1 in the quantities of old and
new wools offered, sold and withdrawn in both London and
Australia in June 1921, Of these quantities, about 79,500 bales;
TABLE n. London Colonial Wool Sales (Feb. 22 to March 5 1921)1
Sydney .
Queensland .
Port Philip .
Adelaide
Tasmania .
Western Australia
New Zealand
Cape
Punta Arenas
Falkland Islands
River Plate .
Sundries
Total .
On Government
Account
Bales
24-567
4.991
12,862
5,286
2,648
3,599
20,264
74,217
On Importers'
Account
Bales
9,889
6,435
3-274-
1-542
279
10,507
10,213
3,134
3,487
577
165
,724
50,226'
of which approximately 76,000 bales were colonial, were sold
44,000 bales were taken for export, including 2,000 bales -Punt.
Arenas and Falkland Islands; 8,oco bales went to America.
At the April 1921 London sales the reserve prices of the old
wool were so high that no bids were forthcoming and all of this
wool was withdrawn. Owing to the formation of the British
Australian Wool Realization Association not being completed, or
rather its policy not being decided upon, all the Australian
old wool sales for April 1921 were also cancelled.
The difficulties of adjustment, actually realized later, were
foreseen and deemed so great that when Mr. Hughes (Prime
Minister of the Commonwealth and a stalwart fighter for the
1 The U.S.A. normally holds 400,000,000 lb. of wool in stock.
1072
WOOL
development of Australian wool industries) proposed to form
an association of Australian wool growers and British Govern-
ment representatives, with the object of realizing at reasonable
values the large stocks of wool held in Australia and England,
the Wool Council accepted the proposed control. Indirectly the
Wool Council was apparently sacrificing the possibility of cheap
wool for the manufacturers of this country: but it regarded the
pocket of the whole country as coming first and the manufac-
turers' demand for cheap wool as coming second. The Austra-
lian Board was thinking chiefly of the interest of the Australian
grower. The association was registered in April 192 1 , as follows :
" British Australian Wool Realization Association, Ltd., Caxton
House, West Tothill Street, Westminster, London, S.W.I. Incor-
porated in the State of Victoria, Australia. Registered April 14,
to acquire and take over (a) one-half share of, or interest in, all
Australian wool bought by the British Government through the
Government of the Commonwealth of Australia and still undisposed
of, and in all real and personal property acquired in connexion
therewith and still undisposed of; (b) one-half share of, or interest
in, any surplus profit on resale of Australian wool so bought still
undistributed. Also to take over and assume one-half of all or any
liabilities and obligations connected with and chargeable to such
wool, property and surplus profits not yet liquidated. Nominal
capital 25,000,000 in 25,000,000 shares of l each. Names of
persons authorized to accept service; Sir Arthur Home Goldfinch,
K.B.E., 8 Rosecrpft Avenue, Hampstead, London, N.W. (Govern-
ing Director British Australian Wool Realization Association, Ltd.,
Delegate General Chilean Nitrate Producers Association) ; James
Alexander Cooper, C.B.E., F.S.A.A., Mentmore House, Uxbridge
Road, Kingston on Thames, Surrey (Assistant Governing Director,
British Australian Wool Realization Association)."
With the lack of demand for goods and consequent lack of
consumption of wool the world over, even the best merino
continued to fall in value up to May 1921, and the poorer sorts
in some cases were below 1914 values (see Chart 3). Whether
the enhanced values realized in May by both merinos and cross-
breds would be maintained was questionable. Table n, from
the Yorkshire Observer of May 16, showed a turn of the tide
if there were no set-backs. Demand from the United States in
anticipation of the new tariff might be, at least in part, the
explanation. Germany had already commenced to buy wool.
TABLE 12
1914
Description
1921
1921
July
May 7
May 12
d. per Ib.
Combing
d. perlb.
d. per Ib.
32
7o's super fleeces
40/42
40/44
3<>i
64/67*3 good medium fleeces
35
36
30
6o/64's good medium fleeces
27
30
28
64*8 good pieces .
30
33/36
27
6o's good pieces .
30
33/36
27
6o's good pieces .
23
26/28
29
58/6o's good medium fleeces
30
3
26
56's fine crossbred fleeces
24
2 4
23*
50/56*3 fine crossbred fleeces
17
18
18
46/5o's crossbred fleeces .
H
15
17
46's crossbred fleeces.
12
1 3
16
44 ? s crossbred fleeces .
10
ii
I5l
36/4O's crossbred fleeces .
9
9
Capes
27
io/12 months' combing Capes.
28/30
None
24
'6/7 months' good clothing
Capes
None
None
Carbonizing
26
60/64*8 good carbonizing pieces
, 2 3
26
25
6o/64's carbonizing pieces and
bellies
20
24
20
64*3 average locks
16
18
64's average lambs
20
20
IV. PROSPECTS IN 1921
Wool Manufacturing. Australian combed tops were on the
Bradford market, on the American market, and were also being
worked up in Japan in 1921. Did this presage a re-distribution
of the world's wool manufacturing industry, and if so what was
the line of distribution likely to be followed?
The astounding prosperity of the British wool-manufacturing
industry following the Armistice attracted world-wide attention,
and it was but natural that every one with any connexion with
the industry the world over should wish to share in the prosperity.
There were two types of country in which the development of
manufacturing would undoubtedly be attempted, and in which
the attempt is undoubtedly justified, (i) the wool-producing
continents or countries, Australasia, S. Africa, and S. America,
and (2) new wool-consuming countries such as India, Japan,
Brazil. In Australia some few mills were developing before the
war, and after the war, under private enterprise, stimulated by
the energy of Mr. Hughes and others, and, in some cases, further
encouraged by the mother-country financiers. Australia made
strenuous endeavours to develop a huge wool-manufacturing
industry. Her ideal was to manufacture one-tenth of her wool
production per annum say, 50 to 60,000,000 Ib., and in 1921
nearly 40 wool manufacturing mills were already in existence.
Similarly South Africa, stimulated by Gen. Enslin, was also
making a bid for wool manufacturing.
In the case of Australia no forethought or skill was being
spared. The mills were being equipped with the finest machinery
French-made combs, for example, had so far been given pre-
ference over the speedier but less exact British (Noble) combs
and the best skilled workers were engaged in many of the mills.
Excellently combed Australian tops were already on the Brad-
ford market.
So long as profits remained high and high rates of wages were
maintained, the appeal to the financial instincts of the worker,
even in the case of Australia, might be expected to hold him in
the mill. But if the conditions of 1914 came round again and the
skill and temperament of the newly developed Australian
industry were pitted against the skill and temperament of the
older industrial countries, which would win out? Broadly
speaking, in anything beyond combing it would be the older
countries' fault if they did not dominate. Again, with the need
for harder conditions in the factories which must almost inevit-
ably follow severe competition, it was a question which opera-
tives would best stand the strain. Australia, and possibly S.
Africa and S. America, might develop quite considerable wool
manufacturing industries, but it would seem inevitable that the
old manufacturing countries would almost entirely retain their
hold on the bulk of the world trade in manufactured wool goods.
In the case of India, Brazil and more particularly Japan, it
was probable that the growing demand for wool goods would be
only partly met by local production, and for some years to
come the outside demand of these countries for manufactured
goods seemed more likely to develop than to contract.
So far as the British wool manufacturing industry is con-
cerned everything depended upon (i) the introduction of scien-
tific method into the works; (2) efficiency in manipulative skill,
and (3) efficiency in organization. With reference to the first
and second points the introduction of automatic machinery
was day by day placing an enhanced value on careful, thought-
ful workmanship. The Englishman likes to get a job done, he
prefers " driving force " to thoughtfulness. The continental
controllers and workers are too often years ahead of the British
managers and workers; in thoughtful outlook the American
managers and workers are up to the British in bulk production
and threaten to pass them even in excellency of output.
With reference to the third point, organization depends upon
both directors and workers. An unsympathetic attitude on the
part of either will lead to trouble and disaster. The scale of
organization had probably been set by the United States.
There the Arlington mills each day treat the fleeces of about
35,000 sheep say, 200,000 Ib. of wool: and this is said by no
means to be the largest wool manufacturing company in the
United States. Along with this enormous organization goes
an efficiency in organization and cleanliness in installation
which puts most European mills to shame. The American
manufacturer has no time to develop that " secrecy " which is
far too much in evidence in European concerns; he relies upon
progressive efficiency.
To sum up, it would seem that while wool-growing countries
may develop quite considerable wool-manufacturing industries,
these will not be to the exclusion of the older manufacturing
countries. On the other hand, American enterprise (and possi-
WOOLDRIDGE, H. E.
1073
bly Japanese enterprise) will severely test the resources of the
older industrial countries, and success will rest in the future
with the country developing the most thoughtful captains and
rank and file of industry.
(b) Wool Production. During the high prices period of 1918
to 1921 the demand for wool was so great, and future prospects
for the wool-grower seemed so rosy, that likely and unlikely
fields for the development of sheep-breeding were considered.
With the slump in prices the future prospects of the wool-
grower suffered an apparent eclipse. No doubt in 1920 prospects
were considered too rosy, but equally in 1921 prospects were
regarded in altogether too sombre a light. A few broad glances
at the situation will clear the way.
If we take the United States as practically a self-contained
country, and allow the approximately ten million negro population
(wearing little or no wool) to balance the extra wool required
for garments in the northern states, where cold winters have to be
faced, we get this interesting result: Wool consumed, 600,000,-
ooo lb.; population, 100,000,000; or 6 Ib. of wool per head per
annum. Even if we allow for a considerable quantity of re-man-
ufactured material and also for the negro population, this can
only be regarded as a " miserable statement," for the 6 lb. is
greasy wool yielding about 3 lb. of clean wool, or hah" a suit or
half a dress length per annum for each male and female in the
United States. In this allowance are included the imports of
wool materials (other than raw wool) amounting to an average
of over 30,000,000 lb. per annum. Neither Great Britain,
France nor Germany shows any advance on this.
The world's wool statistics and population only serve to em-
phasize the lack of supplies; for taking the pre-war figure (given
in Table i) of 2,728,461,630 lb., and allowing an average yield of
60% clean wool, this leaves about 1,400,000,000 lb. of clean
wool to serve for a world's population of 1,606,542,000 or -9 lb.
of wool per male or female. To make this discrepancy even
clearer, however, take only the population of Britain, Canada,
Australia, the United States, France, Germany, Austria, Euro-
pean Russia and the Netherlands these total up to approxi-
mately 282,000,000 souls, consuming hardly 6 lb. per head per
annum. The problem of the future would seem to be: How
to develop such conditions of livelihood the world over that
the greatest possible number become substantial purchasing (or
exchanging) units?
What possibilities of increased supplies are there? These
may be grouped under two heads: (i) an increased yield from
the present flocks, and (2) the opening up of new tracts of
sheep-rearing land. The first point is admirably illustrated by
particulars taken from Table i, the weights of fleeces for the
several continents working out as follows:
Europe |9M | 5 lb. per fleece.
Oceania 645 I .....
^6/ 7
S. America 4826 "1 4 " " "
n86/
N. and Central America 3042 1 . 6 " " "
547 J'
Asia 2731 1 . . . 3 '
923 /
Africa 2199 \ 3 " " "
634 >
In some cases the sheep-lands are too poor to be expected to
do better, but it will probably be found that this is very rarely
the case. It is stated, for example, that Herdwick sheep, living
on Cumberland hills which will hardly support rabbits, will
produce fleeces from 5 lb. to 10 lb. weight. But what may be
effected through careful selection is best illustrated by the fol-
lowing record of New South Wales flocks:
Period
Sheep
Average
Weight of
Fleece
Total
Weight
1890-3 ....
1900-3 ....
1916-9 ...
60,000,000
36,000,000
T;,OOO,OOO
3 lb. 9 oz.
6 lb. 3 oz.
8 lb. 7 oz.
213,700,000
222,750,000
295,310.000
Thus with 25 million fewer sheep in 1916 as against 1890 some
80,000,000 lb. more wool was produced. Great Britain has
seriously taken these figures to heart, and under the auspices of
the Research Association for the Woollen and Worsted Industries
strenuous endeavours are being made, (a) to increase the quality
and yield of the well-established breeds of sheep, and (b) to
improve the quality of the wool in certain mountain types by
crossing with better quality sheep, especially Down sheep.
With reference to the second point, although nothing like the
development of a second Australia is to be expected, it is already
obvious that marked developments of sheep-growing tracts of
land may be expected. In the spring of 1921, for example, Col.
Robert Stordy, on behalf of the Peruvian Government, sailed
from Britain with cargoes of Southdown, Suffolk Down, Shrop-
shire, Rambouillet (merino) and Soay rams, with the object of
developing wool growing in Peru. Wool analysis of the Peru-
vian wools grown in 1921 on the degenerate sheep of the country,
as analyzed by the university of Leeds, revealed remarkable
qualities specially acceptable to the hosiery manufacturer.
The development of Peru as a wool-growing country is one of the
most fascinating possibilities.
The Duke of Devonshire, Governor-General of Canada until
1921, was specially interested and concerned in the development
of the prairie lands of the Dominion on the four years' rotation
basis, and one of the years will mean sheep. Thus it is quite pos-
sible that in the near future Canada will produce more wool of
the Down type and possibly of the merino type: for if Russia can
raise merinos amid the snows of winter, why not Canada? The
Indians and Japanese are both making inquiries with the idea
not only of improving the breed of such sheep as they have but
also of developing large tracts of land which probably could
well carry sheep.
(c) Wool Distribution. The question as to where the wool
of the world will be distributed for manufacture and re-dis-
tributed for wear, is largely a matter of surmise, and, after the
extraordinary change from the conditions prevailing in the
early months of 1920 to the conditions prevailing in the early
months of 1921, even the most reliable authorities hesitated to
commit themselves. If the world becomes more stabilized, and
the suppressive effects of vested interests on the one hand and
of " ca'canny " on the other are brought within reasonable limits,
then it may be that conditions as rosy as 1918 to 1921 will return
with accompanying similar conditions in other industries. To
meet such conditions, should they arise, will necessitate the
employment of every possible type of automatic machine, and
a developed skill depending on the quality of " thoughtfulness "
on the part of the individual worker in using such automatic
machinery. It will thus be evident that forethought, efficiency
and skill will play a greater part than ever in deciding the
peoples to whom the bulk of the world's wool shall pass to be
manufactured. Australia will undoubtedly manufacture an
increasing quantity of wool but she may possibly grow an even
greater quantity than that demanded to balance for the manu-
facturing in her own mills. S. Africa, S. America, India and
Japan will no doubt all claim their quota for manufacturing
purposes. But the great bulk of the wool will be manufactured
elsewhere: and it is safe to say that will be where scientific
method and scientific management and a broad, humane out-
look dominate. And the manufactured material of course will
go to those peoples who have something to offer in exchange.
It is true that the immediate outlook in 1921 was dark. But
the reason why was becoming apparent. And when this was
fully realized the world would be well on the way to adjust its
economic condition to facilitate production and exchange to the
advantage of all its peoples. (A. F. B.)
WOOLDRIDGE, HARRY ELLIS (1845-1917), English musical
antiquary, was born in 1845. He studied art, and became a
student of the Royal Academy in 1865, about the same time
commencing his researches into early music. He received various
commissions for artistic works, the most important being a
reredos for St. Martin's church, Brighton, and the frescoes in St.
John's church, Hampstead. At the same time his reputation as
1074
WOOLWORTH WORLD WAR, THE
in authority on music was steadily rising, and in 1895 he was
elected Slade professor of Fine Arts at Oxford, a post which he
held until 1904. His chief works on music are a new edition of
ChappelTs Popular Music of the Olden Time, which appeared
under the title Old English Popular Music (1893) and The
Polyphonic Period, parts I. and II. (vols. i. and ii. of the Oxford
History of Music, 1901-5). He died in London on Feb. 13 1917.
WOOLWORTH, FRANK WINFIELD (1852-1919), American
merchant, was born near Rodman, N.Y., April r3 1852. He
was reared on a farm, studied in the public schools, and graduated
from a business college at Watertown, N.Y., in 1872. He began
his career as a clerk in Watertown, and it is said that a bargain
counter in his employer's store first suggested to him the idea
that resulted in the establishment of the long chain of " five and
ten cent " stores that bear his name. Early in 1879 he opened
at Utica, N.Y., his first " five cent " store which, however,
was a failure. Later in the same year he established a similar
store at Lancaster, Pa., followed by another at Harrisburg.
The chain in 1920 was composed of about 987 " five and ten
cent " stores in the United States, 94 in Canada, and 81 in
England. When the F. W. Woolworth Co. was incorporated
in New York in Dec. 1911 he became president. In 1912 the
Woolworth building in New York City, costing $13,000,000,
was completed from the designs of Cass Gilbert. It is 760 ft.
high, has 57 storeys, and, excepting the Eiffel Tower in Paris,
is the tallest building in the world. The gross sales of the com-
pany in 1920 amounted to $140,918,981 and the net profits
$9,775,251, as compared with $r 19,496, 107 and $10,361,557
respectively in 1919. Woolworth died at Glen Cove, L.I., April
8 1919, leaving an estate appraised at $27,000,000.
WORDSWORTH, ELIZABETH (1840- ), English education-
alist, was born at Harrow June 22 1840, the eldest daughter of
Christopher Wordsworth, afterwards Bishop of Lincoln, and
hence a great-niece of the poet. She was educated at home and
lived a home life until in 1879 Lady Margaret Hall was founded
at Oxford, largely owing to Miss Wordsworth's energy and
organizing capacity, and she became its first principal. Her
social gifts and powers of clever conversation made her a
prominent figure in Oxford life. She retired from her post at
Lady Margaret Hall in r9O9, but continued to live in Oxford
and to be an active member of its council. In Oct. 1921 the
university of Oxford conferred upon her an hon. M.A. degree.
Miss Wordsworth contributed many charming tales to Aunt
Judy's Magazine, edited by Mrs. Gatty (see 11.530), and also
published various devotional books and volumes of verse and
essays. In collaboration with J. Overton, she published in 1888
the Life of Christopher Wordsworth.
WORDSWORTH, JOHN (1843-191 1), English divine and scholar,
was born at Harrow Sept. 21 1843, the son of Christopher
Wordsworth, afterwards Bishop of Lincoln, and grand-nephew of
the poet. He was educated at Winchester and New College,
Oxford, where he had a distinguished career, and after a short
period as a master at Wellington College was elected a fellow of
Brasenose and took orders (1867). He became widely known
both as a Latin scholar and as a theologian, being elected
Bampton lecturer in 1881 and Ireland professor of exegesis in
1883. In 1883 he became a canon of Rochester and in 1885
Bishop of Salisbury. His works include Fragments and Specimens
of Early < Latin (1874); Old Latin Biblical Texts (1883 and 1886),
vol. ii.,in conjunction with Dr. Sanday and Rev. H. J. White;
The Episcopate of Charles Wordsworth (1898); Teaching of the
Church of England for Information of Eastern Christians (1900);
The Invocation of Saints and the 22nd Article (2nd ed. 1910).
He died at Salisbury Aug. 16 1911.
WORLD WAR, THE The military history of the World War
is told in these New Volumes in separate articles dealing with
campaigns and battles; and a general account of the war at sea is
given in the article NAVAL OPERATIONS (supplemented by sepa-
rate articles on the tattles of JUTLAND, DOGGER BANK, CORONEL,
HELIGOLAND BIGHT, FALKLAND ISLANDS, ZEEBRUGGE, and on
the GOEBEN AND BRESLAU affair, together with those under the
headings of SUBMARINE CAMPAIGNS, BLOCKADE, MINESWEEPING
AND MINELAYING and CONVOY) . As regards the land operations,
reference to the separate headings under which the military
history is narrated may best be made here by a brief resume of
the course of the war.
The war opened simultaneously on three fronts in Aug. 1914.
These fronts were the western, the eastern and the Serbian, and
the continuous story of the major operations on these fronts will
be found under the respective headings: WESTERN EUROPEAN
FRONT CAMPAIGNS, EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS and
SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS, together with SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS. In
the west the German invasion of Belgium and France was marked
by the five-fold battle of the FRONTIERS (q.v.) in Alsace,
Lorraine, Ardennes, at Charleroi and at Mons by the sieges of
LIEGE, NAMUR and MAUBEUGE (q.q.v.), and by the battle of
GUISE (q.v.). Its culmination in the battles of Sept. 4-20 is
told in detail under the heading MARNE; and the development of
the northern flanks of the opposed armies towards the sea, at
the same time as ANTWERP (q.v.) fell to the Germans, is dealt
with under the headings ARTOIS (part I.), and YPRES AND THE
YSER (part I.).
On the eastern front the Russian invasion of East Prussia,
with its battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes, is dealt
with in detail under the heading MASURIA, BATTLES IN (parts
I., II.), while the main conflict between the Russian and Austrian
offensive efforts in Galicia and Poland during August and early
September is described under LEMBERG (part I.). The subse-
quent united efforts of the Austrian and German armies in Poland
and Galicia to stem the onset of the " steam-roller " may be
divided into periods characterized by the battle names VISTULA-
SAN (q.v.), and LODZ-CRACOW (q.v.). The first siege of PRZEMYSL
will be found under that heading. The three Austrian invasions
of Serbia are described in the general article for that front, men-
tioned above.
The year 1915, a year of stabilization on the western front,
was one of open warfare on the eastern. Beginning with the
battle of the CARPATHIANS (q.v.) and the second siege of PRZEMYSL
(q.v.) on the one flank, and the "Winter Battle" of Masuria
(see MASURIA, BATTLES IN, part III.) on the other, the operations,
after a pause, took shape as a general Austro-German offensive
from May i. The right half of this offensive preceded the left by
two months, and its successive episodes are marked by the battles
of Gorlice-Tarnov and the San (see DUNAJEC-SAN and PRZEMYSL),
the battles of Grodek, Lemberg and Stryi (see LEMBERG, part II.),
and by the later episode of ROVNO (q.v.). At a certain stage in
the development of these operations, their left wing becomes one
branch of a double-envelopment aimed at the rear of the Russian
centre in West Poland; this branch is the campaign from the
Tanev river against BREST LITOVSK (q.v.), while the other is the
offensive of the " Gallwitz army " from Przasnysz, across the
Narew into the interior of the corridor followed by the Russians
in their retreat (see NAREW, BATTLES OF THE). The final efforts
of the Germans to isolate the retreating Russians, which ended
in ill-success and in the formation of a stable trench-line, as in
the W., are dealt with in the general military narrative of opera-
tions on the eastern front, named above.
In the E. the entry of Turkey into the war led to the expedition
against the DARDANELLES (q.v.), and to the renewal of the
offensive of the Central Powers against Serbia in the autumn
of 1915 (see SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS), which closed with the conquest
of Serbia on the one side, and the creation of a new minor front
at Salonika on the other (see SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS). The cam-
paigns in Asia Minor are dealt with under the general heading
TURKISH CAMPAIGNS, of which the several sections describe the
operations which took place in the Caucasus, in Mesopotamia
and in Sinai and Syria.
In the W. the years 1915, 1916, 1917 are essentially the
" trench- warfare "period. The battles of Ypresin 1915 (see YPRES
AND THE YSER, part II.), of Neuve Chapelle, Carency, Souchez
and Loos (see ARTOIS, BATTLES IN, part II.) respectively, the
minor offensive of Crouy, the winter battle in Champagne (see
CHAMPAGNE, parts I., II.), and the trench-warfare fighting in
ARGONNE (q.v.) and WOEVRE (q.v.) , culminated in the great French
WORLD WAR, THE
1075
offensive of Sept. 25 1915 in Champagne (see CHAMPAGNE, part
III.), but without materially affecting the stability of the trench-
warfare conditions. The year 1916 opened with the great
German blow at VERDUN (q.v.), which forestalled the Allied offen-
sive of the SOMME (q.v. part I.): these two great names fill the
history of the 1916 campaign in the west. In 1917 a first essay in
operating under a united command was made by the Allies in the
spring campaign, and produced the Arras battles described under
ARTOIS (part III.), and the Aisne offensive of April (see CHAM-
PAGNE, part IV.) ; the results were disappointing, and the parts
of the inter-allied machine fell asunder, the British taking up
the weight of the task in the battles around Messines, Ypres,
Passchendael, etc. (see YPRES AND THE YSER, part III.), and in
the " tank-battle " of CAMBRAI (see ARTOIS, section I.), while the
French carried through two battles of limited objective, de-
scribed under CHAMPAGNE (part IV.) and VERDUN.
Meantime, the entry of Italy into the war in 1915 had created
new military relations in the Mediterranean basin. Austria had
established a new defensive front on the Isonzo, and, shortly
after the Verdun offensive of her ally, had struck a similar blow
on the Tirol front at Asiago. The unity of operations in the
Italian theatre of war makes it possible to refer the reader to a
single heading, ITALIAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS, with the subordinate
articles therein referred to, for the story of the war in this region
from first to last.
On the Russian front, the year 1916 saw a final effort of Russia,
in spite of losses, to regain lost ground and to help her Allies.
The battles, after an isolated winter battle known as the " New
Year's fight," described under the heading STRYPA-CZERNOWITZ,
fall into two main groups, those of the spring and those of the
summer and autumn, in which the battles of NAROCH LAKE
(q.v.) and LUCK (q.v.) are the central episodes.
The spring of the final year, 1918, finds the focus of military
events in Europe placed on that section of the front in France
which lies north of the Oise. Here, on March 21, the great Ger-
man offensive broke through the lines of the British V. Army
(see SOMME, part III.) ; here also, on April 9, a second effort was
made at the LYS (q.v.). In summer, the German attacks of May
27 on the Chemin dcs Dames (see CHAMPAGNE, part V.), of June
9 on NOYON (q.v.), and .of July 15 on both sides of Reims (see
CHAMPAGNE, part VI.) , culminate, and the period of Allied counter-
attacks under united command begins with July 18 (see CHAM-
PAGNE, part VII.), Aug. 8 (see SOMME, part IV.), Aug. 21 (see
SOMME, part V.) and St. Mihiel (see WOEVRE), to assume at last a
coherent and decisive form in the three simultaneous offensives
of the Americans in the MEUSE-ARGONNE((/.!).)battle, of the Brit-
ish in the battle of CAMBRAI-ST. QUENTIN (q.v.) and the Belgians,
British and French in the last battle of YPRES (q.v.).
As regards the origin of the World War, its history is told in
the article EUROPE, in the final section of which its results on
the national reshaping of Europe after the war are analyzed.
Reference on both these aspects may also be made to the histori-
cal and geographical sections of the articles dealing with each
country involved in the war. But during the war itself the politi-
cal aspects ceased to be merely European: it became a World
War. The general international politics throughout its course
are therefore dealt with under the present heading, in the article
below, as distinctively world-history, by way of continuation of
the historical article under EUROPE which deals with the inter-
national politics of Europe up to August 1914. (H. CH.)
POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE WAR 1
From the moment hostilities began in 1914, it became the
absorbing aim of all the combatant countries to win the war;
' l For side-lights on conflicting national viewpoints in connexion
with particular episodes, and for greater detail in regard to them
the accounts being still sometimes irreconcilable as between repre-
sentatives of the different countries concerned, see the separate
historical articles under country headings: especially h-NGLisH
HISTORY, UNITED STATES (History), AUSTRIAN EMPIRE (Foreign
Policy), GERMANY (History), FRANCE (History), ITALY (History),
JAPAN (Foreign Relations), SERBIA (History), YUGOSLAVIA (History),
CZECHOSLOVAKIA (History), GREECE (History).
but each of them placed a different interpretation upon the
meaning of victory, and that meaning also varied with their
fortunes, the eclipse of this or that belligerent, and the entrance
of fresh forces into the arena. The war aims of Great Britain
were tersely stated in general terms by Mr. Asquith at the Guild-
hall on Nov. 9 1914, when he declared: " We shall never sheathe
the sword, which we have not lightly drawn, until Belgium re-
covers in full measure all and more than all that she has sacrificed,
until France is adequately secured against the menace of aggres-
sion, until the rights of the smaller nationalities of Europe are
placed upon an unassailable foundation, and until the military
domination of Prussia is wholly and finally destroyed." France
and Russia, while agreeing with these objects, mentally put a
more concrete interpretation on victory: to France the symbol
of victory was the restoration of Alsace-Lorraine with further
guarantees against a repetition of 1870-1; while Russia desired
to exorcise Prussian apparitions " in shining armour " at Petro-
grad and to secure control of Constantinople and the. Straits.
The Original Combatants. Germany was less single-minded'
in her ideas. The mass of her people had been persuaded that
the war was one of defence against a Pan-Slav peril and hostile
encirclement by other Powers; but the bourgeois classes looked
for Weltmacht in the shape of commercial and colonial expan-
sion, while Bernhardi expressed the mind of Prussian militarists
when he demanded three years before the war that " France
must be so completely crushed that she can never cross our
path again." Behind such ebullitions was a growing conviction
in the Prussian mind that the Prussian system of government
could not long maintain itself against social democracy without
fresh tributes to the efficacy of the sword. " This danger,"
wrote Prince von Billow, " must be faced and met with a great
and comprehensive national policy under the strong guidance
of clear-sighted and courageous governments, which whether
amicably or by fighting can make the parties bow to the might
of the national idea." " Nor," concluded Bernhardi, " must we
think merely of external foes who compel us to fight. A war may
seem to be forced upon a statesman by the condition of home
affairs." To Austria the compulsion came from the attitude
of Yugoslavs within her borders; and her original war aims
probably did not extend beyond the reduction of Serbia to
dependence and the consequent eclipse of Russian prestige
in the Balkans. For Belgium and for Serbia the object of the
war was primarily self-defence, although in Serbia's case suc-
cessful self-defence would inevitably bring with it the prospect
of increased influence in the domestic affairs of the Habsburg
Empire. Japan was bound to intervene by her alliance with
Great Britain, but a positive inducement to fulfil its terms was
held out by the opportunity of conquering Kiaochow and ex-
cluding Germany from Far Eastern waters.
Not much choke had in fact been left to these original com-
batants by the circumstance of past policy which had driven them
into the war. Other Powers had freer hands and a market in
which they could sell their alliance to buyers who would bid
high. They could intervene or hold aloof, and the nature and
extent of the price they set on their services would modify the
war aims of those whose cause they espoused. The course, the
objects, and the end of the war were profoundly affected by
the gradual expansion of the hostile groups.
The leading part played by Germany in the movements
which precipitated the outbreak is emphasized by the fact that
Austria, having declared war on Serbia on July 28, remained
at peace with all other States for several days after Germany
had drawn the sword. It was not until Aug. 6 that Austria de-
clared war on Russia, nor until the loth and i2th that France
and Great Britain declared war upon her, nor until the 27th that
she declared war on Belgium, the German invasion of which
hail dragged in Great Britain three weeks before. So far as
Austria was concerned, the Triple Alliance had been purely
defensive, and it had not even bound her to defend Germany
against France, unless Russia also intervened. Italy, on the
other hand, had been bound to assist Germany against a French
attack; and the legends about French aggression, which Germany
1076
WORLD WAR, THE
propagated in the early days of Aug., were meant for Italian as
much as for British consumption. Italy had, however, under
wise guidance, refused to believe in French aggressiveness,
and had declared her neutrality on Aug. i on the ground that
her intervention was not required by the terms of the Triple
Alliance. Her abstention on this occasion was probably the
greatest service she rendered to the Entente during the war,
for it released from the Franco-Italian frontier some hundreds
of thousands of troops without whose assistance the battle of
the Marne could hardly have been won. Her example may also
have been the last straw in the balance which determined Ruma-
nia, despite its Hohenzollern King and its Austrian alliance, to
stand aloof from the struggle.
The Neutral States. Neutrality was expected from the other
European States, whatever their sympathies might be. Holland's
traditions were more friendly to Germany than to Belgium, but
they were obliterated by the wanton invasion of Belgium's
neutrality, and Bethmann Hollweg's argument that a German
annexation of Belgium would be useless without the acquisition
of Dutch territory was not calculated to assuage alarm. But
more immediate perils dictated Dutch neutrality. There was no
reason to suppose that Entente forces, which protected only a
tiny corner of Belgium, could have saved a single acre of Dutch
territory. Holland, with its wealth of capital and agricultural
produce and its harbours, would have fallen an easy prey to
Germany, while the remnants of its colonial empire might have
gone the way the Cape of Good Hope and Ceylon had gone during
the last occupation of Holland by an enemy of Great Britain.
Holland was wise in its neutrality, and even the Entente probably
benefited more by it than it would have done by Dutch inter-
vention. It was certainly well for Great Britain that in 1917-8
German submarines had no Dutch ports for bases which could
not be blocked as the exits from Bruges were in April 1918.
Denmark was in the like case, albeit with an ancient grievance
against Germany in the wrongful detention of Danish Slesvig.
But again, Denmark could not have been defended against
German invasion, and Danish coasts and ports would have been
invaluable to German submarines. Denmark, too, was wise to
eschew belligerency and seek to develop its influence in con-
junction with its Scandinavian colleagues. Of these, Norway
sympathized with the Entente, and might, but for the fear of
Sweden, have been driven by German piracy into war. Sweden's
affections were more divided. The Labour party, led by Brant-
ing, was, if not pro-Entente, at least averse from intervention
on Germany's side. But the upper and bourgeois classes were
strongly German in sympathy and inclined to activism in that
direction. This affection was partly due to cultural development,
but more to a greater fear of Russia which had been aggravated
by the fate of Finland and Russian designs in the Aland Islands.
The Baltic was, like the Adriatic, the scene of a triangular duel;
but the Russian menace in the Baltic was greater than the Teu-
tonic menace in the Adriatic. Sweden's fears of Russia counter-
balanced Danish and Norwegian grievances against Germany,
and the Scandinavian States found a basis for neutrality in an
equilibrium of antipathies.
Spanish neutrality was the resultant of similarly antagonistic
domestic feelings. The King, with his English wife, was pro-
Entente, but the Catholic and conservative upper classes were
pro-German, while the democratic factions, hankering after
revolution, took the opposite side. Portugal was, as it had been
since its war of liberation and the marriage of Catherine of
Braganza, an ally if not a pawn of England; and the prospective
agreements which England and Germany had just made for
the division of its colonies had not sufficed to transfer its alle-
giance from the one to the other beneficiary. No one expected
Switzerland to abandon its neutrality; and the Balkans were
left as the principal sphere of diplomatic competition. .Greece
had a Prussian Queen and a King who was a Prussian field-
marshal, but a prime minister whose sympathies and confidence
were whole-heartedly on the Entente side. Bulgaria, as a result
of the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913, had no sympathies at all,
but a comprehensive grievance against all her neighbours who
had robbed her of the fruits of victory over Turkey, and against
the Great Powers which had acquiesced in that spoliation. Her
object was simply to discover the probable winner, and back
it with all her resources in the hope of getting back all she could
from the losers. For the moment she would wait and see.
Turkey was nearer to a decision. She had long been wooed by
the Kaiser. In 1898 he had declared himself the friend of all
Mahommedans, whose-soever subjects they might be; and the
circumstance that, outside Turkey, they were mostly the sub-
jects of Great Britain, Russia, or France gave point to his
policy. The Turkish revolution of 1908 and the machinations
of a so-called party of progress, led by Enver and Tal'at,
made no difference to the growth of Turco-Teutonic affection.
England had afforded but a half-hearted support against the
Russian advance toward Constantinople; she had assisted in
the liberation of Greece and the Balkans, and had helped her-
self to Cyprus and Egypt and other fragments of the dismem-
bered Turkish Empire; and her friendship seemed but the nether
millstone to the upper millstone of Russian aggression. More-
over, by August 1914 the antagonism between England and Rus-
sia, on which 'Abdul Hamid relied, had disappeared in an alli-
ance in which, so far as the Near East was concerned, Rus-
sia would be the predominant partner; and the interpretation
which Russia put on that entente was illustrated by a crown
council held in St. Petersburg on Feb. 6 1914 to discuss the
means for securing the Straits and Constantinople. The appoint-
ment of the German Gen. Liman von Sanders to reorganize
Turkish forces was the retort which naturally commended itself
both to the Turk and the Teuton.
The Turkish mind was, however, slow to move; it was no light
matter to reverse the traditional policy of centuries and embark
on war with a Power which had long regarded the maintenance
of the Turkish Empire as one of the first of British interests.
The Kaiser believed that he had Turkey in his pocket, but no
one knew what her attitude would be. When the German admiral
made for the Dardanelles with the " Goeben " and the " Breslau "
on Aug. 8-9 his course was dictated by necessity and not by plan,
and he was even prepared to force his way up the Straits if
peaceful admission were refused. As late as the 5th the German
embassy at Constantinople had reported that it was undesirable
for him to arrive there yet. He was, however, received with open
arms. Turkish opinion had been profoundly irritated by the
commandeering of two Turkish dreadnoughts which had been
built in British dockyards out of the proceeds of a patriotic
Turkish loan; officers of the British Naval Mission in Turkey
were superseded, and, in spite of the Grand Vizier's opposition,
Enver, the Minister of War, was mobilizing Turkish forces for an
attack on the Suez Canal. Plans for Anglo-French naval co-
operation in the Mediterranean had to be abandoned and British
ships detached to blockade the Dardanelles and safeguard the
Red Sea, while troops were hurried from India to Egypt. Twice
before the end of Aug. Sir Louis Mallet, H.M.'s ambassador at
Constantinople, mooted the possibility of forcing the Dardanelles,
but expressed the opinion that success was doubtful without
military cooperation and that failure would be disastrous. He
succeeded, however, in prolonging the resistance of the Grand
Vizier to Enver's designs and in delaying the breach until
toward the end of Oct.
Turkey's Entry. By that time the German Government had
determined to cut the Gordian knot of Turkish indecision. The
western campaign was coming to a deadlock before Ypres, the
first German attack on Warsaw had failed, and a great Austrian
effort was being planned to punish Serbia for her success in
resisting attacks in the Balkans. On Oct. 28 Souchon sallied
out of the Bosporus into the Black Sea with the combined Ger-
man and Turkish squadrons, and on the 29-301!! he mined
Sevastopol harbour, sank a transport, and bombarded Odessa,
Theodosia, and Novorossisk. Souchon alleged that the transport
was a minelayer laying mines in Turkish territorial waters; and
while the rival parties were still discussing the rival versions,
Russia, having in Sept. secured a neutrality engagement from
Rumania which was not communicated to her allies, declared
WORLD WAR, THE
1077
war on the 3ist without their connivance. The British and
French ambassadors had already been instructed to follow their
Russian colleague; on Nov. i they left Constantinople, and on
the 3rd Adml. Garden bombarded the forts of the Dardanelles.
Russian precipitation had, however, only hastened the end.
Enver's troops had long been on the march toward the Suez
Canal, and on Oct. 27 British outposts at El 'Arish and Nekhl
had been withdrawn.
The entrance of Turkey into the war as Germany's ally was
the first great diplomatic success achieved by either of the
belligerent groups, and it did more than anything else to extend
the sphere of the war and to increase in particular Great Britain's
anxieties and obligations. Britain had little contact with Austria,
and not much more with Bulgaria. Even Germany, apart from
her naval ambitions, presented few points of direct conflict;
they arose indirectly, either through the menace to Britain's
allies in France and Belgium, or through the doors which Turkey
now opened to German penetration. These led so far and in so
many directions threatening British interests that, as they were
gradually revealed in 1914-5, it seemed to many that they
represented the original motive of Germany's aggression.
Through Turkish dominions lay the overland route not merely
to India but to Egypt and E. Africa; and both paths were strewn
with inflammable material. Britain ruled over something like
half the Mahommedans of the world, and for many of them the
Sultan of Turkey as Caliph was their head. Even more dan-
gerous might Germany's propaganda, backed by German military
success, become in the midst of other discontented elements in
India and in Egypt. With these under German and Turkish
influence, the ferment might spread throughout the greater part
of Asia and of Africa. Even the sea routes, on which the life of
the Empire depended, would become unsafe when threatened on
their flanks; for the problem has not yet been solved of how to
command the sea in distant waters against an enemy holding the
neighbouring lands and using the submarine. More immediately
the entrance of Turkey into the war imposed upon Great Britain
the task of defending the naval position in the eastern Mediter-
ranean, the route through the Suez Canal, Egyptian territory,
the Persian Gulf and the overland route to India against Turkish
and Arab attacks. Incidentally it cut off Russia from her least
indirect and irregular communication with her allies. Fortunate-
ly, the action of Japan limited these anxieties and relieved the
Entente of the greater part of the burden of eradicating German
power in the Far East. A Japanese ultimatum, which had been
expected a little earlier, was delivered to Germany on Aug. 15
demanding the unconditional surrender of Kiaochow; it expired
on the 22nd, and next day Japan entered the war.
Turkey's intervention had an immediate effect upon the
status of her former provinces held by Great Britain. Cyprus
was annexed at once; a British protectorate was proclaimed over
Egypt on Dec. 17 with the connivance of France, whose pro-
tectorate over Morocco was recognized by Great Britain on the
24th, and on the i8th the Khedive 'Abbas II., who had thrown
in his lot with his Turkish suzerain, was deposed in favour of
his uncle Husein, who further received the title of Sultan. Egyp-
tian opinion accepted the change, and Turkey's efforts to
reconquer her lost dominions were frustrated by the necessities
of self-defence in the Dardanelles and on all her Asiatic frontiers.
Before the Russians could move across the Caucasus, divisions
of the Indian army had sailed up the Shatt al 'Arab and begun
that chequered advance which led them from Basra to Mosul.
Not the least of the political effects of Turkey's action was to
bring India into the war to a far greater extent than would have
been possible had British participation been restricted to Euro-
pean fronts. Over a million native Indian troops were eventually
engaged, and they assisted materially in the conquest of Meso-
potamia, Palestine, and Syria. Before long Arabia, too, turned
against the Turks, and found in Turkey's participation in the
war the opportunity to emancipate itself from Turkish rule.
Russia's Claims. For the moment, however, these were un-
foreseen developments, and the more immediate effect of Tur-
key's intervention was to bring within the sphere of apparently
practical politics ambitions which belonged to an older world.
The breach which Russia had helped to precipitate opened up
the prospect of giving effect to the deliberations of the Russian
crown council of Feb. 6 1914. The subject was not apparently
broached by Russia to her allies until they, for reasons of their
own, had committed themselves to an enterprise which would
render it possible for Russia to reap its fruits unless, indeed,
it was really with an eye to securing Constantinople and the
Straits by means of allied efforts that Russia despatched on Jan.
2 1915 an urgent request for some diversion to relieve Turkish
pressure in the Caucasus. This is not the place to trace the
growth of the Dardanelles expedition, which after the premature
bombardment of Nov. 3, was keenly taken up by Mr. Churchill.
The political and strategical motives for it seemed adequate.
There remained no flank to turn on the western front; an un-
broken line of trenches stretched from the North Sea to the Alps;
and neither side could break the deadlock. On the other hand,
the flank might be turned by sea power operating in the Dar-
danelles, an enemy knocked out by the capture of Constantinople,
communications restored with Russia, the Teutonic path
barred to the East and to Egypt, and two if not three new allies
found in Greece, Rumania, and Bulgaria, who uniting with
Serbia and linking up Russia with a fourth potential recruit in
Italy, might sweep upon Austria-Hungary and threaten an at-
tack on Germany's southern frontiers which would destroy the
bastions she had made on her eastern and western fronts.
Such was the prospect which Allied vision discerned and Russia
proposed to convert into territorial substance. On March 4,
when England and France had been committed to the enter-
prise, Russia handed in a memorandum to the British and
French ambassadors at Petrograd, in which she explained her
ideas. Most of what was left of Turkey in Europe, including
Constantinople, the western shores of the Bosporus, of the
Sea of Marmora, and of the Dardanelles, and Thrace as far as
the Enos-Midia line, was to become Russian territory. So, too,
were the islands in the Sea of Marmora, Imbros and Tenedos
outside the Dardanelles, and the coast of Asia Minor from the
Bosporus to the mouth of the Sakaria and across to the gulf of
Ismid. On the other hand, the middle zone of Persia, declared
neutral by the agreement of 1907, was to be assigned to the
British sphere of influence, while Arabia was to become inde-
pendent. By March 20 both the British and French governments
had signified their assent to these proposals. Russia was still
the predominant partner in the military alliance, her armies
were overrunning the Carpathians and the Bukovina, and the
anticipated collapse of Austria discounted the need to respect
Balkan susceptibilities.
The agreement was secret, but Russian secrets had a habit
of leaking out to her enemies during the war. Nor, indeed, did
British or French politicians conceal their conversion to the
justice of Russia's demands, while they ignored in their com-
ments the impression it would produce upon wavering minds
in the Balkans. The effect was to give Turkey the unaccustomed
part of champion of Balkan independence; for with Russian am-
bitions fulfilled, no other Balkan power could have been more
than a client State. Greece saw her aspirations more legitimate
at least than those of Russia thwarted for ever by Allied com-
plaisance; Bulgaria seemed to have struggled in vain under
Stambolov to free herself from Russian tutelage, and to be
doomed to perpetual servitude; Rumania lost hope of righting the
wrong of 1878 and redeeming the Rumanians of Bessarabia;
and only Serbia, which looked to the Adriatic, was content with
this prospective Russian monopoly of the Black Sea and the
Straits and dominance of the Aegean. The intervention of
Turkey had given a predatory turn to the thoughts of the
Entente; and, so far, the diplomacy of the war had tended to
show an increasing disrespect for the liberties of little nations.
The war was not, however, making much progress on those
lines. In the Near East Russia's difficulty lay not in securing
her Allies' assent to her aspirations but in providing for their
realization. This she was totally unable to do, and her contri-
bution to the Dardanelles campaign, which was to have taken
WORLD WAR, THE
the form of a hundred thousand men landed on the N. coast of
Thrace and a naval attack on the Bosporus, came to nothing.
Great Britain and France were not merely to assent to Russia's
schemes but to give them effect; and they were not such as would
enlist support in the Balkans. Venizelos was apparently pre-
pared to land two Greek divisions, but they would almost
certainly have been inadequate, and it was more than Hohen-
zollern interests that prevented the embarkation. Bulgaria
would have bowed to the accomplished fact, but no sane politi-
cian could have expected her to help Russia into Constantinople.
The western Allies themselves were deeply committed to an
offensive with their maximum force on the western front, and
reluctantly doled out belated troops for the Dardanelles. So the
ill-starred enterprise dragged on to its inevitable end. Success
may sometimes redeem the worst of policies and plans, but the
failure of the Dardanelles expedition precipitated the evils it
had sought to prevent, drove Bulgaria into the enemies' camp,
and handed the Balkans over to the Teutonic alliance.
Italy's Entry. The next diplomatic move was more successful.
The better mind of Italy had been shown by her refusal to
acquiesce in an Austrian attack on Serbia in 1913 and to back
up her Allies in Aug. 1914; and the tradition of Garibaldi and
Mazzini had already inspired Italians to enlist under Ricci
Garibaldi for service in France. The gibe of the French diplo-
matist that Italy would rush to the rescue of the conqueror was
disproved by her quiescence when the Germans were at the gates
of Paris; and popular Italian sympathies were undoubtedly
stirred by the wrongs of Belgium and of Serbia. But in Italy,
as in other countries, there was at first a hiatus between the soul
of the people and the diplomacy of her government. It was
Baron Sidney Sonnino who was mainly instrumental in negotiat-
ing the secret Treaty of London on April 26 1915. He had
been convinced that Italy's interests required her intervention
on the side of the Entente. He believed in a balance of power
which Italy might turn to her own advantage. The seizure of
Tunis by France in 1881, and fear lest the Mediterranean might
become a French lake, had driven Italy into the Triple Alliance
and the bosom of her hereditary Austrian enemy; and fear
lest the Adriatic should fall under Teutonic domination if the
Entente were defeated, and under Yugoslav influence if it won,
drove Sonnino in 1915 out of the refuge of neutrality. In either
event it was only by Italian belligerency that the situation could
be redressed in Italy's favour; and Sonnino's calculations were
that, if the war did not end in a decisive victory, Italy would
probably get more out of a semi-victorious Entente than out of
a semi-victorious Germany. Germany might, indeed, throw the
Habsburg dominions into the melting pot as part of a general
liquidation, and recognize Yugoslav independence; but she
would keep Trieste for herself and Fiume for Hungary, which
would be worse for Italy than the status quo.
Better terms could be obtained from the Entente, and Sonnino
sought a fulcrum for his bargain in the concessions he demanded
from Austria. Both Austria and Italy were pledged to the
principle of reciprocal compensation in case either was forced to
disturb the status quo in the Balkans. Austria argued that the
invasion of Serbia involved no permanent territorial change;
but Sonnino retorted that during the Turkish-Italian War
Austria had declared that an Italian bombardment of the Dar-
danelles or even the use of searchlights against the Turkish
coasts would constitute a claim for Austrian compensation.
In March 1915 Burian admitted the principle of the Italian
claim, and under pressure from Germany conceded the Trentino
to avoid a breach. But there was no guarantee that the conces-
sion would be regarded as binding in the hour of victory, nor
would Burian budge an inch with regard to Gorizia, Trieste,
the Dalmatian islands, or Valona. Sonnino had naturally
less compunction in demanding from the Entente Powers their
recognition of acquisitions to be made at the expense of their
enemy than he had in requiring the surrender of territory from
his ally; and in the Treaty of London, signed on April 26 1915,
he made full use of this opportunity. To the Entente it seemed
that victory was all that mattered, and victory appeared to be
doubtful without Italian assistance. It was useless to talk about
placing the rights of the smaller nationalities upon an unas-
sailable foundation if insistence upon all those rights prevented
any foundation at all. Nor apparently did any of the Entente
governments appreciate at that time the view which the smaller
nationalities involved in the bargain took of their rights.
The complete dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy
was not then, declared Salandra four years later, considered as
a possible war-aim; and it was under the impression that peace
would still leave the Habsburg Empire a formidable foe to Italy
that the Entente agreed to the terms which ultimately threatened
to break up the Peace Conference in 1919 and provoke a fresh
war between Italians and Yugoslavs. Thus Italy was to receive!
the Trentino up to the Brenner Pass; this would give her all the
advantages of a strategic offensive against Austria which Italy
complained that Austria had possessed against her, and would
subject to Italian rule a quarter of a million Germans. She was
to acquire Istria, including Gorizia, Trieste, and Pola, but not
Fiume, and western Dalmatia including the harbours of Zara and
Sebenico, a protectorate over central Albania and the sover-
eignty of Valona. The Adriatic would thus become an Italian
lake. In the E. Mediterranean she was to have entire sov-
ereignty over the Dodecanese which she had occupied since the
Turco-Italian War, and in the event of a complete or partial
partition of Turkey was to receive the province of Adalia and
its adjacent littoral. She was to be compensated for any British
and French colonial expansion in Africa by similar extension of
territory in Eritrea, Somaliland, and Libya, and to be paid a
share in the war indemnity corresponding to her sacrifices.-
The signatories were pledged to secrecy and to support Italy
in opposing papal participation in the negotiations and settle-
ment of peace. Italy in return undertook to wage war with all
her resources against all the enemies of the Entente, to com-
mence hostilities within a month, and to sign the declaration of
Sept. 5 1914 by which the Allies engaged to make no separate
peace. But while she denounced the Triple Alliance on May j
1915 and declared war on Austria on the 23rd, she did not an-
nounce her adhesion to the pact of Sept. until Nov. 30 and :
remained at peace with Germany until Aug. 27 1916. Salandra
subsequently claimed this delay as an important service rendered
to his country, and Tittoni justified it on the ground that no
date had been specified in the treaty, although her Allies in giving
their consent to it noted her declaration that she would " actively-
intervene at the earliest possible date, and at any rate not
later than one month after their signature."
The secrecy of the treaty exonerates the Italian people from
the charge of being actuated by its materialistic motives when-
they enthusiastically supported intervention in May 1915 and
defeated Giolotti's attempt to drive Salandra from power. 1
But the treaty was soon revealed to the Yugoslavs with results
which materially helped the Austrian cause. Great indignation-
was expressed during the Peace Conference of 1919 at the'
admission of Yugoslavs to plead their cause, and the Italian'
premier Orlando exclaimed that it would be as proper to call
in the Germans, since Slovenes and Croats had fought through-
out the war on Austria's side. But some at least of their per-
sistence was due to the Treaty of London, which proposed to
transfer hundreds of thousands of them merely from a familiar
to an unfamiliar alien domination. The upshot was largely to
reinforce the small pro-Austrian party among the Yugoslavs,
and to place obstacles in the way of Italy's march to Trieste.
Similarly deterrent was the effect of the Italian claim to the
purely Greek Dodecanese and her Albanian pretensions upon
the popular mind in Greece. Italy was not, however, alone to
blame. On the eve of her decision a Pan-Slav society in Petro-i
grad adopted and published abroad a resolution to the effect
that in view of Russia's victorious progress across the Carpa-
thians the projected Italian intervention was belated and undesir-
able; and the first use which Serbia made of the promised
accession of strength was, as soon as Italy was at war, to dash
across to the Albanian coast where Serb and Italian ambitions
conflicted. It was not the imperialism of Italy which delayed
WORLD WAR, THE
1079
"the intervention of Rumania," to whom an Entente loan had been
'guaranteed three months before; nor was it the ineffectiveness
of Italy's attacks across the Isonzo. It was the military defeat of
Russia in Galicia and Poland, and Great Britain's failure in
the Dardanelles, that provoked the next accession of strength
to the enemies' cause.
Bulgaria's Entry. Bulgarian neutrality had always been
precarious, and the Government itself had difficulty in restraining
'its irregulars and komitajis from raiding the Serbian frontier.
A serious affray of this sort occurred on April i at Valandova
while King Ferdinand was still waiting upon events, but by
July the Russian debacle in Galicia and the British failure to
.make much advance in the Dardanelles convinced him that
'Germany would win, and on the i;th a treaty was concluded
which offered Bulgaria, in return for her intervention, the whole
'of Serbian Macedonia and Albanian Epirus; she was also allowed
to extort from Turkey a strip of territory along the Maritsa
'controlling that river and Adrianople. Belated efforts had been
made to buy off this new enemy, but it was not until Aug. 23
.that the Serbian Skuptshina was brought to recognize " the
-sacrifices indispensable for the preservation of the vital interests
x>f her people." They would have preferred more heroic measures,
'and in vain begged the Entente to authorize a Serbian attack
on Bulgaria before the latter got her blow in first. The normal
correctitude of the Entente was reinforced by the fact that
Serbian aggression would release Greece from her treaty obli-
gations to assist Serbia if attacked by Bulgaria. It did not
ioresee the autocratic dismissal of Venizelos by Constantine on
: 0ct. 6, the acquiesence of the Greek parliamentary majority,
and Constantino's repudiation of his treaty obligations when
Bulgaria took the offensive. It was carefully synchronized
with Mackensen's invasion from the N. ; and, taken on two fronts,
Serbia was in a desperate position. The British and French
f troops hastily transferred from Gallipoli to Salonika were too
late even to assure the Serbs a retreat down the Vardar; and they
had to make their perilous way across the trackless and snow-
clad mountains of Albania to the inhospitable shores of the
Adriatic. The outposts followed the centre of the Entente posi-
tion in the Balkans; Montenegro was overrun by Austria; and
the British evacuated Gallipoli, keeping Salonika as a thorn
in the enemy's side and a bridle on Greek vagaries.
Christmas, 1915, marked the climax of German success in
the war. She had easily held her western front with inferior
forces against wasteful and premature Allied attacks, while she
conquered Galicia and Poland, and with Bulgarian help overran
Serbia and made a corridor to Turkey and the East. Von der
Goltz was already in Mesopotamia organizing the Turkish
: forces which saved Bagdad from Townshend in Nov. 1915 and
then captured his army in Kut in the following April; while
Egypt had to withstand Arab attacks on the W. and Turkish
attempts in the Suez Canal. But it needed a longer and stronger
arm than even Germany possessed to strike with much effect
across the torpid body of the Turkish Empire and the sands of
Syrian and Arab deserts. Russia more than atoned for the
British failure before Bagdad by the rapid and brilliant seizure
'of Erzerum in Feb. 19-16, and then pushed on S. to Mush, Bitlis,
and Van, and W. to Trebizond. On June 7 the Grand Sherif
of Mecca threw off his allegiance to Turkey, occupied Jidda
'and Yambo', laid siege to Medina, cut the Hejaz railway and
"was joined by tribes farther S. who captured Aunfuda; on Dec.
16 he was recognized as King of the Hejaz by Great Britain.
'Between March and Sept. Smuts conquered nine-tenths of
German E. Africa, while Portugal threw in her lot with Great
Britain to assist in the campaign; and, although the week after
the fall of Kut did not seem a happy moment for the conclusion
of the Sykes-Picot Agreement of May 9 1916, its arrangements
ior British, French, and neutral zones in Mesopotamia, Syria,
and Palestine were intelligent anticipations of the future. Ger-
many's oriental visions were unsubstantial, and her Balkan
allies would not be much help toward a decision on the western
'front. She had merely secured immunity for her eastern fron-
' tiers and relief from^fear lest Austria should collapse, while she
turned her forces once more to the W. for a blow at the heart
of France before the first serious Allied offensive matured.
The Marne had taught her the risks of the far-flung line, and she
now selected the shortest route to a vital spot at Verdun.
Rumania's Entry. France saved herself in the titanic con-
flict which followed; but Germany, too, was hardly less success-
ful in her resistance to the Franco-British attack on the Somme,
while with her left hand, so to speak, she bolstered up Austria's
stand against the unexpected and vigorous assaults which
Brusilov launched in July, and then crushed Rumania when
on Aug. 27 the fifth Balkan state ventured into the turmoil of
war. Rumania, long shivering on the brink, chose an unfortu-
nate moment to plunge. Her case was a replica of Italy's; there
was a Romania iridenta (as the Rumanians spell it) across the
Carpathians, subject to worse treatment from Magyars than
unredeemed Italy suffered at Austria's hands. There were also
strategic frontiers to be rectified, and a semi-circular state to be
rounded off. By the secret treaty with Rumania which was
signed by Italy, France, Great Britain, and Russia, Rumania
was to receive the Banat, the whole of Transylvania, a large
slice of Hungary up to a line from Szeged on the Theiss through
Debreczen to half-way between Csap and Szatmar-Negeti, as
well as the Bukovina up to the Pruth, " the most ethnically unjust
of all the secret agreements made during the war," 1 which only
the subsequent and separate peace of Bucharest in May 1918
released the Allies from their obligations to enforce. Nothing
was naturally said about the Rumanes under Russian rule in
Bessarabia or Bulgarians under Rumanian sway in the Dobruja.
The treaty had been drafted on Aug. 8, but Stuermer objected
that the Great Powers must not be bound to continue the war
until all Rumania's territorial aims had been achieved, and
Briand agreed to waive the point. Bratiano, however, threat-
ened to resign, and on Aug. 12 the Tsar apparently yielded.
The Allies were to advance from Salonika on the 2oth and Ruma-
nia to declare war on the 27th.
Sarrail's plans had, however, been betrayed by two of his
officers, and }t was not until Sept. 7 that he could move. Rumania
kept to her bond, and attacked Transylvania on Aug. 28. Her
subsequent disasters were attributed to her neglect of Entente
counsels and wishes in attacking Transylvania instead of Bul-
garia; but the criticism was unjust. There was apparently no
stipulation about the direction of Rumania's action, and she had
hopes that Bulgaria might not intervene. Justification for ag-
gressive war must always be found in a political and not a strate-
gical motive. Rumania had a legitimate grievance against
Austria-Hungary in the treatment of Romania iridenta; she had
none against Bulgaria whom she had robbed in 1913. Even on
strategical grounds her conduct might be defended; her ruin
was wrought, not by Bulgaria, but by Falkenhayn's Austro-
German attack through the passes, and their progress would
have been even more rapid had Rumania launched her armies
against Bulgaria. She might have withstood Falkenhayn, had
Russia done her duty and sent adequate forces into the Dobruja
to oppose Mackensen and carry out the threats she had uttered
against Bulgaria in 1915, while Rumanian neutrality barred
their execution. The Entente Powers had, in fact, simply looked
to Rumania to pull their chestnuts out of the Balkan fire; they
had no idea that the battle of the Somme had left Germany in a
condition to make an effort elsewhere like Falkenhayn's; while
the creeping paralysis which had overcome Russia suggested the
tale of a secret understanding between her ambiguous Premier
Stuermer and the Habsburgs to partition Rumania, Wallachia
to go to the Habsburgs and Moldavia to Russia. Before the end
of the year Bucharest had been captured and the Rumanian
armies driven behind the Sereth, while Sarrail's offensive in the
S.W. barely reached Monastir. From the Aegean to the Carpa-
thians, and from the Adriatic to the Black Sea, the Balkans had
become a solid Teutonic block.
Peace Moves, igi6-f. The moment appeared favourable for
Germany to make overtures of peace. The Kaiser had discussed
the idea in a letter to his Chancellor, Bethmann Hollweg, at the
1 History of the Peace Conference, i. 184.
io8o
WORLD WAR, THE
end of Oct.; on Dec. 12 a note was addressed to President Wilson
and the Pope, and the matter was made public in the Reichstag.
The note was based on Germany's success; she and her allies, it
declared, " have given proof of their indestructible strength. . .
Their unshakeable lines resist ceaseless attacks. . . . The latest
events have demonstrated that a continuation of the war cannot
break their resisting power. The general situation much rather
justifies their hope of fresh successes." These they would forego
for the sake of peace. " They do not seek to crush or annihilate
their adversaries " and " they feel sure that the propositions
which they would bring forward . . . would be such as to serve as
a basis for the restoration of a lasting peace." These they did not
specify; nor, indeed, had they made up their minds on the point.
Eighteen months earlier the " Six Associations " representing
German industry and commerce had demanded as conditions of
peace " a colonial empire adequate to satisfy Germany's mani-
fold economic interests," the military and economic control of
Belgium, the annexation of the French coast and its hinterland
from the Belgian frontier to the Somme, of Briey, Longwy,
Verdun and Belfort, of " at least parts of the Baltic provinces,"
and had declared that the surrender of any occupied territory
" in which so much German blood has been spilt and so many of
our best and noblest have found a grave, would do violence to
the sentiments of our people and to their conception of an
honourable peace." Bethmann Hollweg would not have coun-
tenanced such preposterous demands; but Ludendorff was more
influential, and in vaguely describing the terms which alone
reached the enemy with his approval, he uses phrases which
might be made to cover them all except the annexation of the
Channel ports and their hinterland.
Whatever their official conceptions of peace, the Teutonic
allies dared not avow them in public, and the absence of sub-
stantial proposals convinced their opponents that the note about
peace was a mere manoeuvre of war, a continuation of the
German offensive designed to complete the disintegrating work
of German arms and to break up the Entente by playing off one
Power against another. Consciousness of the real perils of such
a conference gave an angry tone to the note in which the Entente
replied on Dec. 29, and it consisted of a comprehensive indict-
ment of Germany's conduct during the war, with particular
reference to Belgium, and of a categorical refusal " to entertain
a proposal which was devoid alike of sincerity and of substance."
Almost simultaneously but quite independently President
Wilson addressed an inquiry to both belligerent groups on Dec.
18. He admitted that he was embarrassed by the coincidence
because his note " may now seem to have been prompted by the
recent overtures of the Central Powers," and the popular voice
in Entente countries was convinced that he was " playing Ger-
many's game." Clearer sighted observers discerned in it the
President's first step toward intervention on the Entente side.
It was, in effect, a request for information about the intentions
of the belligerents, and resembled the inquiry which Great Brit-
ain addressed to France and to Germany with respect to Bel-
gium's neutrality. The answers then determined British inter-
vention, and the answers to Wilson's note helped him to make
up his mind, or rather that of his people. "What," he asked,
" did the two sides mean by the general terms they used of the
war ? The concrete objects for which it is being waged have never
been definitely stated. The leaders of the several belligerents
have . . . stated those objects in general terms. But, stated in
general terms, they seem the same on both sides. Never yet
have the authoritative spokesmen of either side avowed the
precise objects which would, if attained, satisfy them and their
people that the war had been fought out. The world has been
left to conjecture what definitive results, what actual exchange
of guarantees, what political or territorial changes or readjust-
ments, what stage of military success even would bring the war
to an end." Germany brushed aside the request on Dec. 26
by reaffirming her contention that a direct exchange of views
between the belligerents was " the most suitable way of arriving
at the desired result," and proposing " the speedy assembly, on
neutral ground, of delegates of the warring States."
The Entente reply was more considered and was not completed
until Jan. 10 1917. Demurring to the President's " assimilation "
of the two belligerent groups, the Allies expressed their disbelief
in the possibility at the moment of attaining " a peace which will
assure them reparation, restitution, and the guarantees to which
they are entitled by the aggression for which the responsibility
rests with the Central Powers." They proceeded to indicate as
their objects the restoration of Belgium, Serbia, and Montenegro
with indemnities; the evacuation of the invaded territories of
France, of Russia, and of Rumania with just reparation; the
"reorganization of Europe"; the "restitution of provinces and
territories wrested in the past from the Allies by force or against
the will of their populations; the liberation of Italians, of Slavs,
of Rumanians, and of Czechoslavs from foreign domination; the
enfranchisement of populations subject to the bloody tyranny
of the Turks; the expulsion from Europe of the Ottoman Empire."
In a covering despatch dated Jan. 13, which was one of the most
important and effective State papers of the war, Mr. Balfour
demonstrated that " a durable peace can hardly be expected
unless three conditions are fulfilled. The first is that existing
causes of international unrest should be, as far as possible, re-
moved or weakened. The second is that the aggressive aims and
the unscrupulous methods of the Central Powers should fall into
disrepute among their own peoples. The third is that behind
international law and behind all treaty arrangements for pre-
venting or limiting hostilities some form of international sanction
should be devised which would give pause to the hardiest
aggressor." It would, perhaps, be hyperbole to call Mr. Bal-
four the author of Mr. Wilson's policy, but its future outlines
could hardly have been more accurately indicated.
Germany's first " peace offensive " had failed, to the deep
disappointment of her people and her Government. Her situation
was, indeed, imposing rather than substantial. Apart from a
corner of German E. Africa, her colonies had all been lost; the
battle of Jutland had terrified her high seas fleet into ignominious
inaction; and on the western front Hindenburg had prepared a
comprehensive retreat. In Oct. the Vorwiirts had been suppressed
as a minority Socialist organ and subjected to official inspiration.
Ominous creaking began to be heard in the joints of her Austrian
ally. Francis Joseph had died on Nov. 21, giving place to the
more pacific Charles, and the murder of Count Sturgkh on Oct.
27 was followed by a rapid succession of three prime ministers
in Dec. and by the substitution of Czernin for Tisza's henchman
Burian as Foreign Minister. Peace had become a popular aspira-
tion, and when the Allies rejected the offer, astonishment mingled
with consternation. "Jelzl ist alles verloren," exclaimed a German
officer interned in the Engadine. Nor did the opening months of
1917 belie this gloomy German forecast. The German retreat
to the Hindenburg lines, sound enough in itself, depressed a
public accustomed to judge by the map. Sir Stanley Maude's
spectacular conquest of Bagdad gave a sinister turn to the
Berlin-Bagdad vision. Sir Archibald Murray was at the gates of
Gaza, and, if Maude's campaign were a precedent, would soon
be in Damascus. Above all there loomed the threatened breach
with the United States, which would make the ultimate defeat
of Germany inevitable save by a miracle. -Corresponding elation
appeared on the Entente side; even sober critics thought that
the war would soon be won with the substitution of Mr. Lloyd
George for Mr. Asquithin Dec., and in Jan. 1917 a highly suc-
cessful "Victory" loan was launched in England on the basis
of triumph within eight months.
Allied War Aims. Prospective victors made haste to divide
the contingent spoil. France demanded, and Russia agreed, on
Feb. 14 1917 to the Rhine as " a permanent strategical frontier
against a Germanic invasion." Besides the restoration of Alsace-
Lorraine, the new boundaries were " to be drawn up at the
discretion of the French Government so as to provide for ...
the inclusion in French territory of the entire iron district of
Lorraine and of the entire coal district of the Saar valley." The
rest of the territories on the left bank of the Rhine were to be
separated from Germany, constituted an autonomous and neu-
tral state, and garrisoned by French troops until all the condi-
WORLD WAR, THE
1081
tions of peace had been completely satisfied. Mr. Balfour on
Dec. 19 1917 affirmed that the British Government had never
desired, encouraged, or approved of this idea; but it was publicly
advocated by one of his colleagues in the Cabinet. In return
Russia insisted upon, and France recognized, Russia's " complete
liberty in establishing her western frontiers." The meaning of
this had been specifically explained by Sazonov a year earlier, on
March 9 1916: " It is particularly necessary to insist on the
exclusion of the Polish question from the subjects of international
discussion and on the elimination of all attempts to place the
future of Poland under the guarantee and the control of the
Powers." Since that date, the Central Powers had, on Nov. 5
1916, proclaimed the independence of Russian Poland, and on the
1 5th the Tsar issued an ambiguous statement to which Mr.
Asquith and M. Briand endeavoured to give a precise interpreta-
tion. In his general order for Christmas Day, the Tsar did,
indeed, refer to a " free Poland," and the Allied note of Jan. 10
1917 averred that his intentions had thereby " been clearly
indicated." But an imperial commission, appointed to deter-
mine what was meant by the phrase, narrowed it down in Feb.
1917, as Gourko relates, on the ground that " a free Poland
would fall under Germany's influence." Others of Russia's
imperialistic aims had been recognized in the spring of 1916, at
the time of the Sykes-Picot Agreement about Syria and Mesopo-
tamia, and she had secured Erzerum, Trebizond, and Turkish
territory as far as a line running through Mush, Sert, Ibn 'Omar,
and Amajia to the Persian frontier. On July 3 1916 by a treaty
which was to be " kept in complete secrecy from everybody
except the two high contracting parties," Russia and Japan had
bound themselves to safeguard China " against the political
domination of any third Power entertaining hostile designs
toward Russia or Japan"; and in Jan.-Feb. 1917 the Entente
Powers, by another secret treaty, recognized the concessions
which Japan had extorted from China on May 7 1915 by means
of an ultimatum. Japan thus became the territorial if not the
spiritual heir of Germany in the Shantung peninsula and ac-
quired a lien on China's economic development.
The opening of the campaign of 1917 proved, however, de-
lusive, and its later stages postponed to an indefinite future the
realization of these secret agreements. The Hindenburg lines
justified the hopes the Germans had placed upon them; and
while the British won a considerable success at Vimy, the French
effort in Champagne and along the Chemin des Dames was a
costly and disastrous failure. The German submarine campaign
was hardly less disastrous to the shipping upon which Great
Britain and her Allies relied for their ability to continue the war;
the British offensive in Flanders was a depressing disappoint-
ment, and Murray failed to force the gates of Palestine. The
doubtful success of Entente arms corresponded to the dubious
methods and aims of its diplomacy; and a candid survey of the
secret agreements, to which the Entente Powers had committed
themselves, suggests a serious doubt whether, if victory had been
won early in 1917, it would have been worth the winning or would
have resulted in a happier world than that which had existed
before the war broke out. Not all of the Powers were, indeed,
committed to all of the agreements; but each of them had staked
out claims for new conquests and fresh subject-peoples, and not
one had proposed to sacrifice a single acre on the altar of self-
determination. Nor, in the hour of imperialistic victory, would it
have been British or American statesmanship which would have
interpreted the " freedom " of Poland, the " autonomy " of
Germans on the Rhine, the rights to self-government claimed
by Czechoslovaks, Dalmatians, or Ai.nenians, or the liberties of
little nations in the Balkans or the Baltic. There would, in the
event of victory early in 1917, have been no League of Nations,
no " minorities clauses," no mandates, no guarantees for better
domestic rule by states or better regulation of their external
affairs. Russia might even have remained an autocracy fortified
by success, and the Tsar have supported the cause of autocracy
in Germany and in Austria. Cruel as were the sacrifices exacted
from the western Powers by the deferment of hope and by
Russia's collapse, criminal as were the means by which the
Bolsheviks imposed their new tyranny upon the Russian people,
the destruction of Tsardom may seem to have been in the long
run the greatest service Russia rendered in the war. No one
would claim perfection for the work of the Peace Conference of
1919, but what sanity it showed was mainly due to the fact that
the one autocracy in the Entente had disappeared and its place
in council had been more than filled by the great republic of the
West. The diplomatic atmosphere was purified by the change,
and power shifted towards an idealistic left. Great Britain,
instead of representing as hitherto the extreme of moderation,
presently found herself holding the balance between France,
which, with the elimination of Russia, came to represent the
right of annexation, and the United States, which ultimately put
two million men in the field and did not ask for an acre in return.
Gradually a programme was evolved which did not require the
veil of secret diplomacy; a reformed band of Allied and Associated
Powers gathered behind its banner of freedom most of the democ-
racies of the world; and the war entered on a course which made
a fight to a finish a rational policy.
The Russian Revolution. The Russian revolution and Ameri-
can intervention together form the turning point of the war even
more from the diplomatic than from the military point of view.
But the one was needed to complete the other: without the
revolution American intervention would still have left the En-
tente with a dubious face and a divided mind; without American
intervention the Russian revolution would have robbed the En-
tente of its victory. Nevertheless, the coincidence of the two
events appears to have been accidental. The revolution came first
by some three weeks, and the Ides of March were fatal to, the Rus-
sian Caesar. Its effects upon the war developed step by step with
the progress of internal change, but from March 1917 fighting al-
most ceased upon the Russian fronts. The Cadet party, which
was led by Miliukovand controlled the Provisional Government,
would have continued the war for the sake of the Straits and
Constantinople; it was straightforward on Poland, and on
March 30 frankly recognized its independence. But power passed
more and more into the hands of the Soviets, who wanted a
general peace which would give each nation what it possessed
before the war and each proletariat a good deal more. There
were to be " no annexations and no indemnities," save such as each
proletariat was entitled to levy upon its own capitalists and
bourgeoisie. For this purpose the Soviets on May 12 proposed
an International Labour Congress at Stockholm and on the
3oth invited the Allies to restate their war aims. But even the
Soviets did not yet demand a separate peace, and while on
April 10 Russia renounced her imperialistic aims, on the isth
Czernin's offer to that effect was declined.
On May 13, however, the Russian Provisional Government
fell, and Kerensky became the leading spirit in a new and more
socialistic administration. He believed that only the success of
Russian arms could guarantee the orderly progress of the revolu-
tion, and did his best to withstand the propaganda of the Bolshe-
viks, who were destroying discipline, urging peasant soldiers to
go home and garner the fruits of the revolution in the shape of
the land, and denouncing the wickedness of Russians killing
their brother German socialists. Lenin's Bolshevik insurrection
on July 16 was suppressed, but the miasma of his doctrine
proved fatal to Kornilov's spirited offensive in Galicia; and as
soon as the Germans counter-attacked, Russian troops threw
down their arms and fled, massacring the officers who sought to
stop them. By the end of July Russia had lost all her gains in
Galicia; in Aug. a similar riot in the Russian contingent in
Rumania nearly ruined the latter's gallant resistance which
defeated the Germans at Marasheshti; in Sept. the Germans
forced the Dvina and captured Riga, and in Oct. occupied Oesel,
getting into touch with Finland. Kerensky now became a con-
vert to the necessity of a dictatorship, but repudiated Kornilov
when on Sept. 7 he moved troops on Petrograd to effect it; and
on Nov. 7 another Bolshevik insurrection transferred the dicta-
torship to Lenin and Trotsky, who began pourparlers for peace.
Russia had gone effectively out of the war faster than the
United States came in; but she left a blazing trail behind her, and
1082
WORLD WAR, THE
sparks from the conflagration started a smouldering fire on
German soil which was never extinguished. Bolshevik pacifism
seemed a ridiculous gesture in face of Prussian arms, but its
moral effect was by no means contemptible. " Looking back,"
writes the archmilitarist Ludendorff, " I can see that our decline
obviously began with the outbreak of the Revolution in Russia."
After all, the original ground or pretence upon which the war
had enlisted democratic support in Germany was its appearance
as a war of defence against autocratic Pan-Slavism. When
Russia had destroyed the Tsardom, repudiated its aims, and
laid down its arms, Germans who were not militarists or capi-
talists might well ask for what they were fighting; and on June
27 Hindenburg pointed out to the Kaiser the decline in German
moral. So, while the elimination of Tsarism gave greater reality
to the moral claims of the Entente, it deprived those of the
Central Powers of their substance; and the war became more
nakedly a struggle between militarist imperialism and democratic
idealism. A practical illustration was afforded by the formation
of a Polish army in Russia and a Polish legion in France at the
moment when the Polish legion in Austria had to be disbanded.
Czernin seems to have been the first among Teutonic states-
men to realize the change in the position and to seek to capitalize
a situation in which the Habsburg Empire had nothing more to
gain and everything to lose. Her soil was now rid of the Russian
invader; Italy had made no serious impression, and Trieste was
in no danger; Serbia only existed in exile, and Rumania trembled
on its brink. On the other hand, the prolongation of war and
Russian contagion might stir a series of domestic revolutions.
Hence his conference with Bethmann Hollweg on March 27,
his offer of peace to Russia in April, and his suggestion that
Germany should cede Alsace-Lorraine to France while Austria
handed over Galicia to Poland with a view to the subjection of
both to German control; hence, too, the meeting of the Austrian
Reichsrat on May 30 for the first time since the war began.
Ludendorff placed his heel on these proposals, and Czernin
then turned his attention to the German Reichstag, where a
complicated struggle was waged between Ludendorff 's militarists
and Bethmann Hollweg's politicians, who were beginning to
react to popular discontent and the effect of Russian develop-
ments. " Bethmann Hollweg and Czernin," writes Ludendorff,
" were both completely obsessed by the Russian Revolution.
Both feared similar events in their own countries." On July 6
Erzberger, who was perhaps in Czernin's confidence, opened the
attack with revelations about the non-fulfilment of official hopes
from the submarine campaign and demanded a " peace of under-
standing." On the nth the Kaiser was constrained to sign a
rescript promising universal, direct, and secret suffrage for Prus-
sia after the war; as a set-off to this Bethmann Hollweg was
forced to resign on the I3th, being succeeded by Michaelis, a
mere official who said what he was told and contradicted himself
when occasion or his superiors required it. Then on the igth
the Reichstag passed by 214 to 116 votes a resolution in favour
of peace " without indemnities or annexations," which Michaelis
accepted only " as he understood it." It was timed and tuned
for the Stockholm conference, which German and Russian Social-
ists were allowed to attend, while British and French were not,
and probably also for the Peace Note which the Pope launched
on Aug. i, and which France and England, being estopped by
their secret agreement with Italy, left President Wilson to answer.
President Wilson's Policy. From that time onward for two
years President Wilson became the principal spokesman of the
Allied and Associated Powers; but it appears that the Russian
revolution had exercised so far a more potent influence on the
Central Empires than the intervention of the United States.
Russia was their immediate neighbour on a frontier of a thousand
miles. America was four thousand miles away, and it was long
a German delusion that American troops would be kept out of
Europe by the same submarines on which Germany relied to
bring Great Britain to terms; and to arguments not backed by
mailed fists Germany was indifferent. She had made up her
mind to take what risk there was when in Feb. 1917 she resumed
her .unrestricted submarine campaign; and that approaching
resolve had helped to determine her simultaneous refusal to
state her war-aims in response to the President's invitation.
The coincidence seems to have been largely a matter of accn
dent. Originally elected President in 1912 by a minority vote
owing to the split in the Republican party between Roosevelt
and Taft, Mr. Wilson was reelected in 1916 after a close contest
in which neither of the opposing American parties had made war
with Germany a plank in its platform; and without the prospect.
of an unprecedented third presidential term, Mr. Wilson enjoyed
in his second a freer hand than any other democratic statesman.
But he was obviously tied by the traditions and public opinion
of a community diverse in origin, in interests, and in outlook,
spread over vast areas, separated by thousands of miles from the
European conflict, and inured to the idea of splendid isolation.
" We are," said President Wilson on March 5 1917, " a composite.
and cosmopolitan people. We are of the blood of all the nations
that are at war." Action was impossible until there was some
common measure of agreement in a heterogeneous people, and:
it was not easy to unite on a basis of intervention a Federal
democracy whose one common principle in foreign policy was
abstention from European quarrels. The Monroe Doctrine, as
understood by modern interpreters, implied that the United
States would resent and resist European intervention in a S..
American war, however gross might have been the aggression, and
however much it might have shocked the European conscience.''
So far as the Western Hemisphere was concerned, the United
States claimed to be the keeper of the conscience of the world,:
and it thought that claim was only tenable so long as it washed its
hands of conscience so far as Europe was concerned. Intervene
tion on behalf of Belgian neutrality or even protest against its
violation might open the door to retorts in kind and break down;
the quarantine which the democratic republic had sought to
impose upon Old World infection.
But the war put the finishing touch to the obsolescence of the
schismatic doctrine of two worlds and two human consciences;
It was only a practicable dogma provided either that the United'
States kept not merely its conscience but its people, its capital;
its commerce, and its shipping on its side of the Atlantic; or that
the Old World observed those rules of international law and
conscience which had commended themselves to the American
people. In other words, so far from there being two worlds, the
Old must accommodate itself to the New; and the most hardened
believers in the Monroe Doctrine rebelled against the idea that
Germany could indefinitely sink American ships and kill Ameri-
can citizens without provoking a war, which America could j
not wage without giving its conscience a passport to Europe.
" As far as the United States is concerned," writes Dr. J. B.
Scott, " the cause of its war with the Imperial German Govern-r
ment is the submarine . . . for the law could not be changed to j
suit the submarine." Nor was the Monroe Doctrine compatible i
with the enforcement of the American conception of the freedom i
of the seas or with the maintenance of neutral rights; and a long I
series of incidents convinced the American public that its cause
could not be isolated. " The challenge," said President Wils6n,
" is to all mankind "; and when he intervened, it was not merely
in defence of American rights but of a common humanity.
The outstanding episode in the slow and painful process by
which the American people were brought to realize the dilemma
between war arid the surrender of their principles must be
briefly indicated. A series of events, which, in the despatch of
Secretary Bryan, the Government of the United States had
observed " with growing concern, distress, and amazement,"
culminated on May 7 1915 when the " Lusitania " was torpedoed
without warning, and 114 American and nearly a thousand
other lives were lost; and on the I3th he intimated that his
Government would not " omit any word or act necessary to the I
performance of its sacred duty of maintaining the rights of the !
United States and its citizens and of safeguarding their free
exercise and enjoyment." But he resigned when acts seemed
likely to follow words, and the President's second " Lusitania 1
note was signed on June 9 by Mr. Lansing. Bryan's resignation
was not, however, without its effects; and the words continued
WORLD WAR, THE
1083
while more American lives were lost in each succeeding month. 1
The most definite action was taken in Sept. against Germany's
less powerful and less pernicious ally, when Dr. Dumba, the
Austrian ambassador, was required to leave on account of his
complicity in the intrigues of J. F. Archibald and other Teutonic
agents. A graver crisis was reached with the torpedoing of the
Channel steamer "Sussex" on March 24 1916. " The Govern-
ment of the United States," wrote Mr. Lansing on April 18, "has
.been very patient. . . . Unless the Imperial Government should
now immediately declare and effect an abandonment of its present
-methods of submarine warfare against passenger and freight
carrying vessels, the Government of the United States can have
no choice but to sever diplomatic relations with the German
.Empire altogether." On May 4 the German Government made
5ome concessions, and as President Wilson expressed it on April
2 1917, " somewhat restrained the commanders of its undersea
craft." The reason for its complaisance, given later on by Beth-
mann Hollweg, was that it had not yet sufficient submarines to
carry out unrestricted submarine warfare effectively.
That time came with the beginning of 1917. The decision was
taken on Jan. 9, and it was Germany's real answer to the Presi-
dent's note of Dec. 18. But it was based on a serious miscalcula-
tion. The German naval authorities thought it would compel
Great Britain to sue for peace within six months, and Bethmann
Hollweg has cast the responsibility for its effects upon them.
Hindenburg's plea that the Chancellor failed to inform him of
the impression it would produce in America is less convincing,
for Ludendorff says that " we reckoned that the adoption of the
submarine campaign would effect a favourable decision for us, at
latest before America's new troops could participate in the war."
So American intervention was anticipated and discounted. But
eighteen months were yet to pass before American intervention
took a form which was materially to disconcert Ludendorff's
military calculations. For more than a year diplomatic relations
had practically been severed between the United States and
Austria-Hungary, and it did not at once appear that the re-
sumption of unrestricted submarine warfare would be followed
by more drastic American action with regard to Germany.
On Jan. 22, ignorant of Germany's decision, Mr. Wilson ad-
dressed Congress on the results of his note of Dec. 18, and
sketched the conditions which would justify the United States in
guaranteeing peace with a view to making it permanent.
I " In every discussion of the peace that must end this war it is
taken for granted that that peace must be followed by some definite
concert of power which will make it virtually impossible that any
such catastrophe should ever overwhelm us again. . . . Such a
settlement cannot now be long postponed. . It is right that before it
comes this Government should frankly formulate the conditions
upon which it would be justified in asking our people to approve
its formal and solemn adherence to a League of Peace. . . .No
covenant of cooperative peace that does not include the peoples of
this New World can suffice to keep the future safe against war. . . .
It will be absolutely necessary that a force be created as a guarantee
of the permanency of the settlement. . . . There must be, not a
balance of power, but a community of power. . . . But the implica-
tions of these assurances . . . imply, first of all, that it must be a
peace without victory. . . . Only a peace between equals can last.
. . . And there is a deeper thing involved than even equality of
right among organized nations. No peace can last, or ought to last,
which does not recognize and accept the principle that governments
derive all their just powers from the consent of the governed, and
that no right anywhere exists to hand peoples about from sovereignty
to sovereignty as if they were property. . . . Statesmen everywhere
are agreed that there should be a united, independent, and auton-
omous Poland. . . . And the paths of the sea must alike in law and
in fact be free. The freedom of the seas is the sine qua non of peace,
equality, and cooperation. . . . The question of armaments,
whether on land or sea, is the most immediately and intensely
practical question connected with the future fortunes of nations
and of mankind. ... I am proposing, as it were, that all nations
should with one accord adopt the doctrine of President Monroe as
the doctrine of the world ; that no nation should seek to extend its
polity over any other nation or people . . . that all nations should
avoid entangling alliances. . . . There is no entangling alliance
in a concert of power. . . . These are American principles, American
policies. We could stand for no others."
1 See a provisional list of these and other crimes in J. B. Scott,
Diplomatic Correspondence, pp. ix.-xv.
But while it was " inconceivable that the people of the United
States should play no part in that great enterprise " of laying
" afresh and upon a new plan the foundations of peace among the
nations," the present war must first be ended, and the United
States would " have no voice in determining . . . the treaties and
agreements which would bring it to an end," only " in determin-
ing whether they shall be made lasting or not by the guarantees of
a universal covenant."
American Intervention. Such was the President's frame of
mind. when, nine days later, on Jan. 31, Bernstorff communicated
Germany's revocation of its pledge of May 4 1916 and its decision
to recommence unrestricted submarine warfare on Feb. i. On
Feb. 3 he simply and literally fulfilled his threat of April 18 and
" severed diplomatic relations with the German Empire alto-
gether." " I take it for granted," he said to Congress, "that all
neutral governments will take the same course," but " we do
not desire any hostile conflict with the Imperial German Govern-
ment." On the 26th he pointed out that the caution of ship-
owners and consequent congestion of commerce " might pres-
ently accomplish, in effect, what the new German submarine
orders were meant to accomplish, so far as we are concerned,"
and proceeded to arm American merchant ships; but he was "not
now contemplating war or any steps that need lead to it. . . .
War can come only by the wilful acts and aggressions of others."
It came with speedy steps. Germany denied the right of
neutrals to use arms at all, and intimated that the armed guards
placed on American merchant ships would be treated as pirates.
" Armed neutrality," confessed the President, " it now appears,
is impracticable." There had, too, been intercepted a note dated
Jan. 19 from Berlin to Mexico, proposing in the event of war an
offensive and defensive alliance between Germany, Mexico, and
Japan, and the reconquest of Mexico's " lost territory in New
Mexico, Texas, and Arizona"; and on April 2 Mr. Wilson
advised a special session of Congress " to declare the recent
course of the Imperial Government to be in fact nothing less
than war against the Government and people of the United
States." " We are," he had declared in his second inaugural
address on March 5, " provincials no longer. The tragical events
of the thirty months of vital turmoil through which we have just
passed have made us citizens of the world. There can be no
turning back." And now " the world must be made safe for
democracy." " The great, generous Russian people have been
added in all their native majesty and might to the forces that are
fighting for freedom in the world, for justice, and for peace.
Here is a fit partner for a League of Honour. . . . We have no selfish
ends to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion. We seek no
indemnities for ourselves, no material compensation for the
sacrifices we shall freely make. We are but one of the champions
of the rights of mankind." The resolution was passed in the
Senate on April 4 by 82 votes to 6, and in the House of Repre-
sentatives on the 5th by 373 to 50, and on the 6th the President
declared war. Austria was not included, but Tarnowski, Dum-
ba's successor, had been refused recognition, and relations were
suspended; on April 13 they were severed with Turkey.
The President's somewhat naive assumption that all neutral
governments would follow his lead into armed neutrality had
been promptly belied; and all European neutrals excused them-
selves. They were even less likely to follow him into war; but
New World States, which were more immune from the conse-
quences, were more amenable to his example. Cuba declared war
on April 7, and on the 8th Panama associated itself with the
United States. Brazil broke off diplomatic relations on April n,
Bolivia on the I3th, and Guatemala on the 27th, Honduras on
May 17 and Nicaragua on the igth, Haiti on June 15, Costa Rica
on Sept. 23, Peru on Oct. 6 and Uruguay on the 7th, and Ecuador
on Dec. 9. Brazil declared war on Oct. 26, while the Argentine
declared her benevolent neutrality on April n: but Chile and
Venezuela remained neutral without benevolence. The con-
tagion, however, spread into the Eastern Hemisphere: Liberia
severed diplomatic relations on May 8 and declared war on Aug.
7: Siam declared war on July 22, and China on Aug. 14. Secufus
judicat orbis terrarum: but the world of little States needed
1084
WORLD WAR, THE
some security before it would pronounce judgment. Nevertheless,
more than half the States of the world had now declared war on,
or broken off diplomatic relations with, Germany and her three
allies; the Entente had become a War League of Nations; and
the peace that would be made in case of victory would represent
the judgment of the world and be very different from that con-
templated in the secret agreements.
But there was a yawning gulf between judgment and execution,
and a painful interval between the President's declaration and
the time when, in Ludendorff's words, " America became the
decisive power in the War." Financial cooperation began to
relieve the strain at once, and naval cooperation to ease the sub-
marine situation in May; and at the end of June the so-called
" sentimental Division " arrived as an earnest of what was to
follow on the field of battle. But as late as March 1918 there
were only five American divisions in France, of which two were
untrained; and meanwhile the endurance of the European Allies
was sorely tried. The French army was seriously demoralized
by the failure of Nivelle's offensive, and Caillaux began to under-
mine its political fortitude. The sinking of 25% of British
merchantmen at sea in April was an almost more fearful menace;
Russia had become a broken reed; the British campaign in
Flanders proved a disappointment; Stockholm was holding out
the lure of a "peace by negotiation" to Labour: Mr. Henderson
resigned from the British Cabinet on Aug. n; the Pope had
appealed on the ist for a peace on the basis of the status quo,
disarmament, and arbitration; and tentative discussions were
proceeding by more or less authorized agents in Switzerland.
Michaelis secured-an equivocal answer to the Pope's note in his
effort to please both his militarist and his parliamentary masters.
But the situation in Germany was as equivocal as its Chancellor:
for while at the end of Oct. he was replaced by Hertling, a per-
sona grata to the Pope as the first Roman Catholic Chancellor
of Protestant Germany, for receding from the July resolutions,
Germany was receding quite as fast with the apparent improve-
ment in her military situation. " The future will show," declared
Czernin after the Armistice, " what superhuman efforts we made
to induce Germany to give way. That all proved fruitless was
not the fault of the German people . . . but that of the leaders of
the German military party, which had attained such enormous
power in the country."
Greece in the War. The only set-back had been the con-
strained entry of Greece into the Entente fold. Since the dis-
missal of Venizelos in Oct. 1915, Constantino had governed by
means of phantom ministers; and in May 1916, acting under his
orders, the Greek commanders admitted Bulgarian forces into
Forts Rupel and Dragotin, the keys of the Struma valley, while
in Aug. Greek garrisons surrendered Seres, Kavalla, and Demir-
hisar to the same racial enemies. This was too much for the
better part of Greece. A revolution broke out at Salonika, which
swept over Crete, Mytilene, Samos, Chios, and the other Greek
islands in Sept. ; and a provisional government of insurgent Greece
was formed under Venizelos, Condouriotes, and Danglis, which
was tardily owing to Russian and Italian influence recognized
by the Entente and declared war on Bulgaria. But Constantine
controlled the mainland of Old Greece, and constantly intrigued
against the Entente. At length, in June 1917, Tsarist protection
having been removed by the Russian revolution, the Entente
intervened by force of arms, and Constantine was deposed on the
nth and removed to Switzerland. Venizelos returned to Athens
on the 2 ist, and on the 3oth diplomatic relations were severed
with Germany and Austria. The high-handed proceedings of the
Entente were, no doubt, necessary measures of war; but Venizelos
had to pay the penalty later for the violent patronage he had
enjoyed, and the Entente needed the moral support which
President Wilson gave it in' the drastic reply he returned to the
Pope's peace note on Aug. 27. To deal with Germany by way of
peace upon the plans proposed by His Holiness would, the
President declared, " involve a recuperation of its strength and a
renewal of its policy."
Brest Litovsk. The recuperation of its strength was exem-
plified in Oct. by the further advance into Russia and the
Italian disaster at Caporetto: and the renewal of its policy was
seen at Brest Litovsk. On Nov. 20, a fortnight after the successful
Bolshevik revolution, Lenin proposed to all the belligerents a
general armistice and discussion of peace, and on the zqth
Germany accepted the invitation. The armistice was concluded
at Brest Litovsk on Dec. 15. The Bolsheviks inserted a clause
to the effect that German troops were not to be transferred from
the eastern to the western front; but the Germans simply ignored
it. It was mainly for that purpose that they signed the armistice;
the idea of a great offensive on the W. had already occurred to
them, and in Nov. and Dec. 24 divisions were transferred. Aus-
tria's main idea was much the same: " peace at the earliest
moment," said Czernin, " is necessary for our own salvation, and
we cannot obtain peace unless the Germans get to Paris, and
they cannot get to Paris unless the eastern front is free." Czernin,
and possibly even Kiihlmann, the German Foreign Secretary,
were prepared for such terms as might have secured this freedom
and given Ludendorff a reasonable prospect of getting to Paris;
but the grasping nature of the militarists stood in their own way.
A preliminary conference at German Headquarters on Dec. 18
agreed to demand the acquisition of a protective belt of territory
along the Russian-Polish frontier, and a personal union of Cour-
land and Lithuania with Germany or Prussia, and to suggest the
evacuation of Esthonia and Livonia by the Russians in the
interests of self-determination.
At the Conference of Brest Litovsk, which opened on the 22nd,
Kiihlmann and Gen. Hoffmann represented Germany, Trotsky
and Joffe -the Bolsheviks, and Czernin Austria-Hungary. The
Bolsheviks insisted on open diplomacy, and the arguments of
the diplomatists were published throughout Europe from day
to day by wireless telegraphy. This was essential for their
schemes, for they relied upon propaganda to rouse the pro-
letariats in all the belligerent countries to demand a cessation
of the national wars which divided their forces, in order to
combine them in a universal revolutionary movement. Their
proposals were the evacuation of all conquests, restoration of
independence to all nations subjected during the war, self-
determination for those which had not previously secured
independence, and no indemnities. Czernin replied for the
Central Powers on the 25th, accepting the principles of no
forcible annexations and no indemnities, but making the whole
bargain conditional upon the acceptance of a general peace by
the Allied and Associated Powers, who were given until Jan. 4
to signify their assent. No formal reply was made by them to
the invitation; but one of the most important results of the
Brest Litovsk negotiations was to clinch the case for a restate-:
ment of the Entente aims in the war.
Peace Moves, 1917-8. Russia had asked for that restatement
as far back as May 30, and in a communication addressed to
the Provisional Government on June 9 President Wilson had
replied that " no people must be forced under sovereignty
under which it does not wish to live. No territory must change
hands except for the purpose of securing those who inhabit it
a fair chance of life and liberty. No indemnities must be insisted
on except those that constitute payment for manifest wrongs
done. No readjustments of power must be made except such
as will tend to secure the future peace of the world and the
future happiness of its peoples. And then the free peoples of
the world must draw together in some common covenant . . .
that will in effect combine their force to secure peace and justice
in the dealings of nations with one another." On Nov. 18
M. Clemenceau, the new French premier, spoke slightingly of a
League of Nations, remarking that he was only out to win the
war; and the Bolshevik publication of the Secret Agreements
which began on the 22nd revealed the gulf which separated the
Old World ambitions of the Entente Powers from the objects
for which Mr. Wilson had told revolutionary Russia " we can
afford to pour out blood and treasure." On the 2gth Lord
Lansdowne published a letter in the Daily Telegraph (The
Times having declined to give it publicity) coupling a demand for
a restatement of war aims with a more dubious proposal for
peace negotiations. To the latter suggestion Wilson made an
WORLD WAR, THE
1085
effective reply by declaring war on Austria on Dec. 4, and ful-
minating against German power as " a thing without conscience
or honour or capacity for covenanted peace " and refusing to
negotiate until the " German people have spokesmen whose
word we can believe " and " those spokesmen are ready in the
name of their people to accept the common judgment of the
nations as to what shall henceforth be the bases of law and
of covenant for the life of the world. . . . Our immediate
task is to win the war." But even he had not grasped all the
implications: " We do not wish in any way to impair or to
rearrange the Austro-Hungarian Empire," and it was left to
France to recognize on Dec. 19 the Czechoslovak forces as " an
autonomous army."
The Fourteen Points. The initiative in a comprehensive and
radical restatement of war aims was taken in a British Labour
Memorandum, which was adopted without amendment by a
special Labour conference on Dec. 28 and was then, with changes
due to President Wilson's address of Jan. 8 1918, accepted by
the Inter-Allied Labour and Socialist Conference in London
on Feb. 22. Basing itself on Wilson's principle that " the world
must be made safe for democracy," it emphasized the necessity,
and sketched a plan, for a League of Nations, declared that the
problem of Alsace-Lorraine was one of right and not of territorial
readjustment, demanded restoration and reparation for Belgium
and the Balkan States (with a Customs and Postal Union for
the latter), the independence of Poland with access to the sea,
the liberation of subject peoples from Turkish rule with the
neutralization of the Dardanelles, condemned German annexa-
tion in Livonia, Courland, or Lithuania, and " the aims of con-
quest of Italian imperialism," and while " not proposing as a
war aim the dismemberment of Austria-Hungary " protested
against regarding "the claims to independence made. by the
Czechoslovaks and the Yugoslavs merely as questions for in-
ternal decision." Most of these aims were accepted in principle
by Mr. Lloyd George on Jan. 5 after consultation with Dominion
statesmen, Labour leaders, and Lord Grey and Mr. Asquith;
but he made some notable concessions to what seemed to be the
realities of the situation, and disclaimed any idea of fighting to
" alter or destroy the imperial constitution of Germany," " to
destroy Austria-Hungary," or even " to deprive Turkey of its
capital or of the rich and renowned lands of Thrace, which are
predominantly Turkish in race "; and he seemed lukewarm
about the League of Nations. Then on Jan. 8, in an address to
Congress, President Wilson laid down his famous " Fourteen
Points," demanding:
I. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which
there shall be no private international understanding of any kind,
but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.
II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside terri-
torial waters, alike in. peace and in war, except as the seas may be
closed in whole or in. part by international action for the enforce-
ment of international covenants.
III. The removal, as far as possible, of all economic barriers and
the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the
nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its
maintenance.
IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national arma-
ments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic
safety.
V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment
of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle
that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests
of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equi-
table claims of the Governments whose title is determined.
VI. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settle-
ment of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and
freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for
her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the in-
dependent determination of her own political development and
national policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society
of free nations under institutions of her'own choosing ; and, more than
a welcome assistance also of every kind that she may need and may
herself desire. The treatment accorded to Russia by her sister
nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good-
will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their
own interests and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy.
VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and
restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she
enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act
will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations
in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the
government of their relations with one another. Without this heal-
ing act the whole structure and validity of international law is forever
impaired.
VIII. All French territory should be freed and the invaded
portions restored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871
in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which had unsettled the peace of
the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in order that
peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all.
IX. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected
along clearly recognized lines of nationality.
X. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the
nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded
the freest opportunity of autonomous development.
XI. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated;
occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure
access to the sea ; and the relations of the several Balkan States to
one another determined by friendly counsel along historically estab-
lished lines of allegiance and nationality; and international guar-
antees of the political and economic independence and territorial
integrity of the several Balkan States should be entered into.
XII. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire
should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities
which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted
security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of auton-
omous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently
opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations
under international guarantees.
XIII. An independent Polish state should be erected which
should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish
populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the
sea, and whose political and economic independence and territorial
integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant.
XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under
specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of
political independence and territorial integrity to great and small
states alike.
The Humiliation of Russia. In introducing these points
President Wilson referred to the Brest Litovsk negotiations
as having been broken off, and described " the whole incident '*
as " full of significance." There had, indeed, during the interval
allowed for the Entente to reply, been a violent disagreement
between Ludendorff arid Kiihlmann, who was supported by
Czernin and Hertling. On Dec. 28 the militarists secured a
German declaration to the effect that the representative bodies
existing in the occupied territories under German protection
expressed their " self-determination " and that plebiscites were
superfluous. On Jan. 2 Trotsky denounced these claims as
hypocritical, and proposed to change the seat of the conference
from Brest to Stockholm. He reappeared at Brest, however, on
Jan. 7, asseverating that the Bolsheviks would make no peace
that was not " just and democratic ": and there followed weeks
of discussion on the meaning of " self-determination " and its
methods of expression. Trotsky's flank was turned by the appear-
ance of delegates from the Ukraine asserting their independence
of Russia. They represented only the middle-class Rada, while
Ukraine revolutionaries sided with the Bolsheviks, seized Kiev,
and overran most of the Ukraine. The Rada thereupon signed
a peace with the Central Powers on Feb. 9, which gave
Polish Kholm to the Ukraine and sowed the seeds of discord
between the two nationalities, and invited the Germans and
Austrians to drive the Bolsheviks out of the Ukraine. They were
willing enough ; food was their real quest, and alarming strikes
had already broken out in Vienna, Berlin, and elsewhere.
These seemed to give Trotsky the leverage he had been seeking,
and on the day the Ukraine treaty was signed he issued a wireless
call to the German army to refuse obedience to the Kaiser.
Next day he declared war to be at an end, but refused to sign
a German peace. On Feb. 13 Germany denounced the armistice,
and on the iSth recommenced the march toward Petrograd and
the occupation of the Ukraine. There was no organized resist-
ance; the peace of Brest Litovsk was signed on March 3 and
ratified by a congress of Soviets at Moscow, after a three days'
debate, on the i6th. The Baltic nationalities were surrendered
by Russia for their fate to be determined between themselves
and Germany; the Ukraine treaty of Feb. 9 was accepted by
the Bolsheviks; Russia was also required to cede the districts
1086
WORLD WAR, THE
of Kars, Ardahan, and Batum to Turkey; commercially she was
made a preserve for the Central Powers; and the two million
German colonists in Russia were exempted from the legislation of,
and allegiance to, the Bolshevik Government. Trotsky had
given up foreign affairs on March 8 and devoted himself to the
more promising task of organizing a Red army; it was left for
Lenin to persuade the Soviets of the necessity of temporarily
bowing to the inevitable. Consequential and similar treaties
were signed between the Central Powers and Finland on March 7
and with Rumania, provisionally, on March 5 and finally on
May 7. German control over their commerce, industry, and
finance was established'in both, and Rumania further ceded the
Carpathian crests and the Dobruja.
Germany and the Fourteen Points. These deeds were a more
convincing reply to President Wilson's "Fourteen Points" than
the disingenuous speeches made in concert by Kuhlmann and
Czernin at Berlin and Vienna on Jan. 24. The Central Powers
had been given the opportunity of demonstrating the inter-
pretation which they put on victory; and there could not remain
the slightest doubt that they would impose similar, if not severer,
conditions upon the rest of the world if they got the chance.
Nothing could have been more sinister or more impressive than
the complete contradiction between their words to Powers which
they did not yet control and their deeds to those which they did;
and whatever criticisms might be made of the ultimate settle-
ment, they would have to be based not on the ground that
the Central Powers suffered more than they deserved, but that
the penalties were impolitic and fell on the wrong shoulders.
The treaties were approved of by all parties in the Reichstag
except the Minority Socialists and the Poles; and early in
March the Minority Socialists lost a seat at Nieder Barnim.
There was little more for diplomacy to say. It was obvious,
although the fact was not universally recognized, that the
speeches of Teutonic ministers afforded no basis for negotiation,
since from Brest Litovsk onward the German G.H.Q. super-
seded the Government; but it was a blunder on the part of the
supreme war council at Versailles to issue.on Feb. 4 a statement
that it would not accept Hertling's and Czernin's professions
and had decided on a vigorous prosecution of the war, thereby
creating the impression that the same supersession of the civil
by military power was also taking place in the Entente. Never-
theless, President Wilson did, indeed, on Feb. u give a useful
definition of Four Principles on which the settlement, must be
based; and he used what his Secretary of State, Lansing,
subsequently denounced as an explosive expression when he
declared that " ' Self-determination ' is not a mere phrase. It
is an imperative principle of action which statesmen will
henceforth ignore at their peril." But he was in closer touch
with the realities of the situation when on April 6, commenting
on the contrast between Hertling's professed acceptance of those
four principles and the militarist terms dictated at Brest Litovsk,
he declared: "Germany has once more said that force, and force
alone, shall decide whether justice and peace shall reign in the
affairs of men, whether Right as America conceives it or Domin-
ion as she conceives it shall determine the destinies of mankind.
There is, therefore, but one response possible from us: force,
force to the utmost, force without stint or limit, the righteous
and triumphant force which shall make Right the law of the
world, and cast every selfish Dominion down in the dust."
It needed, however, a crisis to elicit an adequate display of
American force on fields where the issue would be decided. In
the previous Nov. the Kaiser had declared that the only means
to secure peace was for Germans to hew their way through those
who would not make it; and the terms of the Treaty of Brest
Litovsk are intelligible only on the assumption that he relied
upon a German offensive on the western front to constrain the
Entente to recognize those terms if not to accept similar ones for
themselves. From the beginning of the German offensive on
March 21 until the first Austrian peace-note on Sept. 15 the pen
gave way to the sword. Czernin resigned on April 1 5 after his
controversy with Clemenceau over the Sixte of Parma pour-
parlers in the summer of 1917, but the fact that he was suc-
ceeded by Burian indicated a stiffening rather than a relaxation
of the Austrian attitude. Nor had the growing discontent and
the declining moral of the German people any effect upon the
diplomatic situation, although in Jan. strikers had demanded
peace on the basis of self-determination without annexations
or indemnities, and crowds in Berlin had vociferated against a
fresh offensive on the western front.
War Weariness. More potent than social ferment in Germany
was imperial disintegration in Austria. The disaster at Capo-
retto had a wholesome effect upon the Italian attitude toward the
Yugoslavs, and the revelation of the secret Treaty of London
by the Bolsheviks gave more progressive opinion in Italy an
opportunity of expressing itself. In Feb. 1918 a committee was
formed to promote an understanding with the Yugoslavs, and
on March 7 Signer Torre on a visit to London arranged with
Dr. Trumbitch the holding of a congress of oppressed national-
ities at Rome. It met early in April, Jtnd on the loth produced the
" Pact of Rome," by which the " unity and independence " of
the Yugoslav nation, " known also as the nation of Serbs, Croats,
and Slovenes," were recognized as a vital interest for Italy, and
the completion of Italian unity as a vital interest for the Yugo-
slavs. It was also mutually agreed to defend the freedom of
the Adriatic against every enemy present or future, and to
decide amicably the territorial questions between them on the
basis of nationality and self-determination. This entente was
of the utmost value in promoting the successful Italian resist-
ance on the Piave in June and victory in Oct. President Wilson
hastened to bless the practical application of his own principles;
on June 28 he asserted that all branches of the Slav race must
be completely freed from German and Austrian rule; on Sept. 3
he formally recognized the Czechoslovak National Council as a
belligerent Government; and on Oct. 18 in reply to the Austrian
peace- note declared that he was no longer at liberty to accept the
" autonomy " of these peoples as indicated in the tenth of
his Fourteen Points as a basis of peace, but " is obliged to
insist that they, and not he, shall be the judges of what action
on the part of the Austro-Hungarian Government will satisfy
their aspirations and their conceptions of their rights and
destiny as members of the family of nations."
For the time, the success of the German offensive made all I
talk about terms of peace irrelevant except on the German j
side, where it generally took the form of repudiating the peace
resolution of July 1917. But before the end of April confidence
began to wane, first at G.H.Q. and then in the public mind in
Germany itself. The difference was that the worse the situation
became, the more determined Ludendorff grew in his persistence,
and the more sceptical the public showed itself of his success;
the reason was that the militarism of the German Government
became more and more involved in the fortunes of the war.
On June 24 Kuhlmann in a long speech let fall the phrase, " an
absolute end can hardly be expected through purely military de-
cisions alone "; and a fortnight's disputation over his meaning
ended in his resignation at Ludcndorff's behest on July 9. It
had become heresy, in the waning prestige of militarist ortho-
doxy, to dispute what the German G.H.Q. could do; and Kiihl-
mann's successor was von Hintze, its nominee without any
pretence of that " parliamentarization " which both the Reichs-
tag and President Wilson had demanded as a preliminary to
peace. On July 4 President Wilson laid down four great ends of < 
